lbeatfb' fIDobern Lanouage Series. ITALIAN GRAMMAR. BY C. H. GRANDGENT, PROFESSOR OF ROMANCE LANGUAGES IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. Revised and Enlarged BOSTON, U.S.A.: D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS. 1908 CogOyright, r887 and r904, By C. H. GRANIJGENT. PREFACE. THIS volume is the result of an attempt to put into convenient form and the smallest possible compass all the grammar that the ordinary student of Italian will need. Short as the book is, it contains some paragraphs which beginners will probably skip: the longer lists of words and endings, and a great part of the chapters on suffixes and irregular verbs will be useful mainly for reference. The vocabularies cover the twenty-one exercises; they are not intended to include words explained in the notes, nor proper names that are exactly the same in Italian and in' English. I have endeavored to make the book represent the Italian language as it is spoken and written at the present day; the exercises are taken chiefly from reading-books lately prepared for Tuscan schools. Still, I have tried to give also as many obsolete forms as students of the Italian classics will require. It has been my aim throughout to make the rules clear for all classes of pupils, even for those ignorant of other foreign languages, provided they understand the technical words commonly used in grammars. With this object in view, I have ascribed to the Italian vowels the pronunciation of the English ones that are most like them: an accurate description of the Italian sounds would, I fear, prove confusing to beginners who have had no training in phonetics. It will be easy for the instructor to explain not only iv PREFACE. the vowels, but some of the consonants, and the division of words into syllables, much better than can be done in a book like this. The authorities I have consulted most are the dictionaries of Fanfani, Rigutirii and Fanfani, Fornari (Nuovo Bazzarini), and Tommaseo and Bellini. I have made but little use of other grammars; I am, however, indebted to Toscani for some ideas and a few of my examples. The chapters on syntax, and the treatment of irregular verbs, pronouns, suffixes, and the plural of words in -co and -go are almost entirely the result of original work. In conclusion, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Nash, of Harvard, to my friend and teacher, Sig. Filippo Orlando, of Florence, and to the gentlemen who assisted me in correcting the proof-sheets; and I wish above all to thank Professor Sheldon, of Harvard, and Professor Bendelari, of Yale, without whose aid and encouragement I should scarcely have ventured to offer this book to the public. CAMBRIDGE, September, 1887. NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION. To facilitate the use of this book with classes I have included in it a full set of Lessons and Exercises, the latter being taken in large part from my Italian Composition. The Italian texts at the end of the chapters, in the body of the Grammar, can be used to advantage at the outset of the course for practice in pronunciation and reading at sight. The English exercises in the body of the book should be reserved for reviews. CAMBRIDGE, May, 1904. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE LESSONS AND EXERCISES........................................ iX-XXXiV PRONUNCIATION.........................................*000**00 1-7 ARTICLES.....................................................0 *0a**07-1 t The Definite Article....................................;.. 7-10 The Indefinite Article.................................... 10 Exercises 1, 2................................................... 11 NOUNS............................................................ 11-17 Gender................................................ 12-13 Number............................................... 13-16 Exercises 3, 4...........................16-17 ADJECTIVES.......................... o.......................... o....I&8-23 Gender and Number............... o...................... 18-20 Comparison......................................... 20--22 Exercises 5, 6 00*....... 0 0......* 6...........aa 0 0.............22-23 AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES; NUMERALS............23-29 Augmentative and Diminutive Endings...................... 23-25 Numerals..............................25-28 Exercises 7, 8...................................00 0 a 028-29 DEMONSTRATIVE,- INTERROGATIVE, RELATIVE, AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.............................30-35 Demonstrative Pronouns................... o.......... 30-31 Interrogative Pronouns................................ o.... 31 Relative Pronouns....................................... 031-33 Possessive Pronouns................... o.................. 33-34 Exercises 9, 10...........................................o....... 35 PERSONAL PRONOUNS.... oo........... o... o....................36-46 Conjunctive Forms....................... o........ o...... 36-40 Vi CONTENTS. PAGE Disjunctive Forms......................................... 40-42 Forms of Address......................................... 43-44 Exercises II, 12........................................... 44-46 JkUXILIARY VERBS............................................. 47-55 Auxiliaries of Voice and Tense...........................47-53 Essere.............................................. 47 A vere.............................................. 48 Modal Auxiliaries......................................... 53-54 Exercises 13, 14...................................... 54-55 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS................................ 55-65 The Regular Verb......................................... 56-59 First Conjugation..................................... 56-57 Second and Third Conjugations.......................... 57-58 Fourth Conjugation................................... 58-59. The Irregular Verb........................................ 60-63 Porre............................................. 6o-61 Exercises i5, 16........................................... 63-65 MOODS AND TENSES.......................................... 65-74 Infinitive and Participle.................................... 65-68 Past, Present, and Future................................. 68-69 Conditional............................................... 69 Subjunctive............................................... 69-72 Exercises 17, 18.................................... 72-74 CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS, AND ADVERBS.......................74-84 Conjunctions............................................ 74-76 Prepositions.............................................. 76-8o Adverbs........................................ 8o-82 Exercises 19, 20............................... 83-84 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS......................................... 84-87 E xercise 21............................................... 87 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO CONJUGATION 88-I0o First Conjugation......................................... 89-90 Second Conjugation........................................ 9o-93 CONTENTS. vifi PAGE Third Conjugation...................................... 93-98 Present Regular.................................... 93-96 Present Irregular................................... 96-98 Fourth Conjugation.................................... 99-100 Present Regular..................................... 99 Present Irregular...................................99a-10 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS....101-105 ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.................................... 107-114 ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY.................................... 115-121 APPENDIX........................................................ 123-127 Additional Notes on Pronunciation........................... 123-125 Inflections of the Voice...................................... 126-127 INEX.....................................129-132 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. NOTE. - The following forty-one lessons furnish, in the form of references to the body of the Grammar, a course of study in the rudiments of Italian. The numbers refer to faragraphs: they include all subdivisions in the same type, all examples, and all faradigms, belonging to them; but they do not comprise subdivisions in finer print unless these are expressly mentioned. The exercise following each lesson is to be used in connection with it; the exercises in the body of the book are reserved for review work. LESSON 1. Pronunciation: 1; 2; 2, a; 3; 4, including the fine print except s, d; 5; 6; 7; 8. Pronounce. all the examples several times. EXERCISE I. Pronounce this text: - Quando e fr6ddo e inverno. N61l' inverno cade la neve, e When it-is cold it-is winter. In-the winter falls the snow, and gli Alberi s6no s6nza f6glie e i giardini non hanno fi6ri. D6po, the trees are without leaves and the gardens have-no flowers. Later, 1' ria comincia a riscaldare, n6lle campagne si v6dono ' erbe the air begins to grow-warm, in-the fields are-seen grass e i fi6ri, n6gli 6rti ndscono i baccelli, i piselli, p6i le ciliege; and flowers, in-the gardens come-forth string-beans, peas, then cherries; gli uccelli cantano, non si patisce pifu fr6ddo, si sta veram6nte the birds sing, we-do-not-suffer any-more cold, we-are really bene, e all6ra e primavera. Finisce la primavera, comincia comfortable, and then it-is sf ring. Ends the sfiring, begins il caldo; il s61e brucia; n6lla campagna si v6dono le spighe del the heat; the sun burns; in-the country we-see the ears of grAno, ci s6no tante belle frutta, m61le, p6re, susine, albicocche, corn, there are many fine fruits, apples, fears, flums, africots, pesche. Qudsto tempo si chiama estate. II caldo va via, e feaches. This time is-called summer. The heat goes away, and rit6rna 1' aria c6me n6lla primavera; le viti s6no cariche becomes-again the air as in-the sf ring; the vines are laden d' uva, i fichi cominciano a darci i 16ro d61ci frftti; ma a with grafes, the fig-trees begin to give-us their sweet fruit; but p6co a poco si rifi un p6' fr6ddo, gli Alberi perdono le f6glie, little by little it-grows-again a little cold, the trees lose their leaves, il vento s6ffia assAi; e qu6sto tempo si chidma autfinno. the wind blows hard; and this time is-called autumn. ix X ITALIAN GRAMMAR. LESSON 2. Review Lesson i. EXERCISE 2. Pronounce this text:i. Vi parlerb di Vittorio Afie~ri, e ne ammirerlte la f6rte I-shall-s/wok-to-you of Victor A fieri, and you-will-admire-his strong e costamte volontit. Egli era nalto nel mille se~ttecento quarantaand firm will. He was born in -1749 nove di n6bile famiglia piemontiese': era c6nte. A116ra si of a-noble family of- Piedmont:I he-was a-count. Then Aeo6le cred~va che bastasse essere n6bili per vaIere qualcbsa; percio believed that zi-sutficed to-be noble in-order-to be-worth something; therefore i piui d6i nbbili non istudiavano,2 o studiavano 2 aila p ggio, perche' most of-the nobles did-not-study, or studied carelessly, because t~nto'la'nobiltat d&va l6ro diritto afIle caxiche e a'gli on6ri, ainche their-mere-rank gave them a-right to offices and to honors, even se erano ignoninti. L' Alfieri, da giovin6tto, fu m6sso a studiarm if they-were ignorant. A leri, as a-lad, was hut to study all' Accadernia di Torino; ma 6gli d6po qualiche a'nno ne usci at-the Academy of Turin; but he after a-few-years cane-out senza saplr3 n'lla di ndlla, non ostante che av6sse un belwithout knowing anything-at-all, notn'ithstanding that he-had a fine, 1' ing6gno, perche n& nche 1' ing6gno pub val~re s~nza lo stuidio. mind, because not even talent can avail without study. Uscito pertanto dali' Accadernia viaggib per ' It~lia, la Having-come-out, then, from-the Acadeny, he-travelled through Ita ly, Francia e 1' Inghilterra. France, and England. 2. Giilnto all' eth di vlntis~tte Anni, apri, c6me si dice, Having-arrived at-the age of 27 years, he-opened, as heofle-say, gli occhi, e s' accbrse d6lla sia ignoranza. Vittorio si vergognb' his-eyes, and became-aware of h is ignorance. Victor was-thoroughlyaltam~nte di se' stesso; sperb che studitndo avrehbe poti'to' ashamed of himself; he-holed that by-studying he-might giovaire all' on6re d' Itllia; e all6ra face ii gener6so' proposito add to-the glory of Italy; and then he-made the lofty resolve di mutar3 vita: determinb di abbandomire gli usi e i costi'mi to change his-lzjfe- he-determined to give-ufp the habits and the customs d~1la n6bile gioventii d~i su6i tcmpi, di lasciai-3 ti'tto per of-the noble youth of his times, to leave everything in-order-te istudiare.2 A far 3 dii bu6ni propbsiti ci vu061 po~co; ii' fbrte study. To make good resolutions takes but-little; the difficulty sta nel mantemirli. E non ý mica un affAr di nuilla, quando Uina lies in keey/ing-them. And it-is-not at-all an easy-matter, when a LESSONS AND EXERCISES. xi pers6na per 16ngo c6rso di dnni ha contrdtto certe abit6idini Person through a-long course of years has formed certain habits e certi costtmi, e si 6 avvezzata a vivere in tal m6do, and certain customs, and has-accustomed-kimself to living in such a-way, non 6 mica, dico, un affdr di n611la un be1 gi6rno mutar vita, it-is-not at-all, I-say, an easy-matter one fine day to-change one's-itfe, e diventar uomo tdtto affttto diverso da qudllo di prima. and become a-man entirely diferent from one's-former-self. 3. Grandi sf6rzi dov6 fdre Vittorio Alfibri per mutdr vita: Great efforts Victor-A lfIeri-had-to-make to change his-life: vi bdsti sapdre che sicc6me non si sentiva tdnta f6rza d' inimo. suffce-it-to-say that as he-did-not-feel so-much strength of mind da proseguire7 a studidre, allorch6 per le sde abitddini avrebbe as-to continue to study, when from-force-of-habit he-wouldsentito ii desiderio5 d' uscir di casa e di andlare a divertirsi, have-felt the desire of going-out and going to amuse-khimself, 1'Alfieri si fac6va dal servit6re legdre alla poltr6na. E v6ro A leri had-himself tied-by-his-servant to-his arm-chair. It-is true che a poco a poco la volontA pr6se9 ii di s6pra: a p6co a that little by little his will got the uffer-hand: little by pbco, s' int~nde, 1' Alfieri non Tbbe pi6 bis6gno di ric6rrere a little, you-understand, Alferi had-no-more need of resorting to qu6sti mzzio; e ci6 appunto prova qudnto 6 v6ro che nulla this means; and this just proves how-true-it-is that nothing 6 difficile a chi vu6le. Cosi8 1' Alfieri che si mise a studidre is hard to him-who wills. Thus A Iferi, who began to study a v6ntis tte anni, pdre pot6 arriv6re ad essere ii pi6 brdvo at 27 years, was-yet-able to-come to be the best scritt6re di trag die deli' Itilia; ed 6 Aina d6lle gl6rie del writer of tragedies in Italy; and ke-is one of-the glories of n6stro padse. 1 Ma se quindo avdva fitto ii proponim6nto di our country. But zi, when he-had made the resolve to mutar vita e di studifre, 1' Alfieri, conoscindo quanti sf6rzi change his-life and to study, Aleri, knowing what efforts gli ci sarebbero voldti5 per mantendre la prom6ssa, inv6ce di it-would-require to kee khis promise, instead of firsi legare Alla poltr6na av6sse d6tto: non mi ribsce, ne having-himself-tied to-khis arm-chair, had said " I-can't," neither 6gli sarebbe diventato quell' ubmo s6mmo che fu, n6 would-khe-have-become that great-man that he-was, nor 1' Itilia potrebbe 6ra vantire un cosi8 gran poeta. could-Italy now boast-of such-a great Poet. 1 See 4, 5, c. 2 The verb is studidre. in Italian a word beginning with s plus another consonant, if it is immediately preceded by a word ending in a Xii ITALIAN GRAMMAR. consonant, prefixes i to the s; Italians are averse to a group of three consonants of which the middle one is s. 3 An infinitive often drops its final e in the interior of a phrase. 4 The reflexive verb vergognarsi (' to shame one's self') means 'to be ashamed.' 5 The compound conditional, in idiomatic Italian, is very often used in place of the simple conditional: avrebbe potuto giovdre ('he might have helped') really means 'he might help'; so ci sarebbero voluti ('there would have been required') means 'there would be needed.' 6 Ci vuole, shortened here to ci vudl, means literally ' there requires' or 'there is needed.' 7 See 4, S, b. 8 See 4, S, a. 9 S as in 'mason' (4, S, d). 10 See 4, Z, a. LESSON 3. The inflection of essere: 53, a. EXERCISE 3. [Based on Exercise i, p. ix.] i. Where1 are the birds? - 2. It was winter. -3. We2 are in the spring. - 4. The vines will be laden with grapes. - 5. Where 1 would you 2 be in the winter? - 6. You2 are without flowers. -7. Without the sun it would be cold. -8. The flowers were in the fields. - 9. Where 1 were you 2 in the spring? - 1. I 2 was in the country. 1 Ddve. 2 These personal pronouns need not be translated. LESSON 4. The inflection of ave're: 53, b. EXERCISE 4. [Based on Exercise I, p. ix.] I. I1 have no flowers. - 2. When will they have leaves? - 3. He 1 had apples and pears. - 4. You 1 would have no leaves. - 5. The spring has no snow. -6. Have you the ears of LESSONS AND EXERCISES. X111 corn? - 7. They had no figs. --8. When will he1 have the birds? - 9. 11 should have plums and peaches. - o1. The trees had no leaves. 1 These personal pronouns need not be translated. LESSON 5. Articles and nouns: 9; 10, a, b; 11; 12; 12, a; 14, a, b; 15; 17; 18; 19 (in general, nouns in o are masculine, nouns in a or u are feminine); 22; 23; 24; 25; 51, 2. EXERCISE 5. [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the Grammar.] i. A corner. - 2. Some corners. - 3. Some rooms. - 4. The corner of a room. - 5. We are in the corner of the room. - 6. A man in a room. -7. The man is in the room. - 8. The men are in the rooms. -9. I have a gun. - 1o. You have the gun. - i. With the guns. - 12. A city.- 13. To the city and for the cities. - 14. Some birds on a branch. - 15. The birds are on the branches of the trees. - 6. The roots of the trees in the wood. - 17. The days of the month. -8. The months of a year. - 19. The weeks of the year. - 20. For the countries of the earth. -21. The prisons in the cities of the kings.--22. With the son of the uncle.1- 23. The uncles 1 are with the fathers of the boys. - 24. The poem 2 is written8 by the boy's "uncle.-25. The words are in the poem 2 written 8 by the two poets.4 1 Zio. 2 Poama, m. 3 Scritto. 4 Pogta. LESSON 6. ssee and e 53, a, b; 4; 76; 80, Essere and avere: 53, a, b; 54; 76; 80, i. xiv ITALIAN GRAMMAR. EXERCISE 6. [Based on the first paragraph of Exercise 2, p. x.] i. He is a count.-2. They are noble.-3. You would be a count. - 4. We shall be noble. - 5. You have been ignorant. - 6. We shall have had the office. - 7. They had had offices and honors. - 8. You are ignorant because you have not studied.2 -9. He had 8 the office 1 because he had been a count. - 1o. People don't think 4 that he has6 a great mind. - 11. He has had the office,1 and therefore he has not studied.2- 12. You would have had the office,1 if you had 6 studied.2- 13. People thought that he was 6 born in 1749.- I4. If we had 6 studied,2 we should not be ignorant. - 15. If you were 6 ignorant, you would be put7 to study. - 16. Even if we are ignorant, we shall have offices and honors, because we have been noble. - 17. Although they are 5 of noble family, they are not ignorant, because they have studied.2 - i8. I was 8 noble, but I was 8 put to study, because, as a lad, I had a great mind. - 19. Although we had 6 not travelled,9 we should not have been ignorant, if we had 6 studied.2 - 20. If you have travelled,9 you will have offices and honors, although you have 5 not studied,2 because you will not be ignorant. 1 La cdrica. 2 Studidto. 8 Preterite. 4 Non si crede (see 86). 5 Pres. subj. 6 Imp. subj. 7 Messi, plural. 8 Imp. ind. 9 Viaggidto. LESSON 7. Regular verbs of the first conjugation: 59; 59, a. EXERCISE 7. [Based on Exercise I, p. ix.] i. The birds sang in the spring. - 2. Let us begin to sing. - 3. In the winter the wind will blow hard. - 4. When will they LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XV begin to give us their sweet fruit? - 5. The sun would burn the vines. - 6. When will you sing? - 7. The wind began to blow. -8. I burn the ears of corn. - 9. I began to sing. - 10. Sing when the wind blows. - i. I begin to speak.- 12. If1 he sang,2 I should not speak. - 13. If 1 they spoke,2 we should begin to sing. - 14. Although8 the wind blows4 hard, we shall sing. - 15. Although8 you sing,4 we begin to speak. 1 Se. 2 Imp. subj. 8 Bencht. 4 Pres. subj. LESSON 8. Regular verbs of the second and third conjugations: 60 (the list of verbs at the top of p. 58 need not be learned). EXERCISE 8. [Based on Exercise i, p. ix.] i. The flowers fall in the winter.-2. The trees lost their leaves. - 3. He sees the sun.- 4. Do you believe that 1 I see 2 the cherries? - 5. He did not believe that 1 the vines lost 8 their sweet fruit. -6. I do not believe that 1 you fall.2- 7. See the trees: they have lost their leaves. -8. We shall lose the flowers. - 9. When I see the birds, it is spring.- I0. Would you believe that he had 8 seen the trees without flowers? - ii. The peas will come forth 4 in the spring. -12. They would not come forth 4 without the sun. - 13. When the snow goes away, we see the peas come forth 4 in the fields. 1 Che. 2 Pres. subj. 8 Imp. subj. 4 The infinitive is ndscere, LESSON 9. Regular verbs of the fourth conjugation: 61. Xvi ITALIAN GRAMMAR. EXERCISE 9. [Based on Exercise I, p. ix.] I. We felt the cold. - 2. Do you feel the wind? -3. The winter and the spring will end. - 4. The birds would not feel the heat.- 5. The flowers suffer 2 when the wind blows.- 6. The birds suffered in the winter. - 7. I do not suffer any more heat. - 8. I do not believe that 1 he suffers.3 - 9. Do you believe that1 he feels 8 the cold? - 0. The summer and the autumn ended. 1 Che. 2 Soffrire is inflected in the pres. like sentire. 3 Pres. subj. LESSON 10. Adjectives and pronouns: 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 33; 43; 43, a; 44; 45. EXERCISE 10. [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the Grammar.] i. The poor are always unfortunate. - 2. The high trees are far from the great cities. - 3. The most beautiful plant has the smallest flower. - 4. The largest villa is mine, the smallest is his, and the lowest is theirs. --5. Many good fathers are now poorer, but their boys and 'their girls are always honest. - 6. Who were the good girls 1 who spoke to the unhappy sailor? -7. Whose are the big clubs of which the little boy spoke? - 8. Which are the hard 2 lessons 8 that our poor boys finished in two days? - 9. What is the beautiful story 4 her little girls 1 believe? - 1o. In what far part of your great city are the rooms of the honest merchant, to whom the largest ships of the world belong 5? 1 Ragdzza. 2 Dfficile. 3 Lezione, f. 4 Sidria, f. 5 Appartingono. LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XVIn LESSON 11. Parldre and credere: 59; 59, a; 60 (the list of verbs at the top of p. 58 need not be learned); 62; 77; 77, a; 54, d. EXERCISE II. [Based on the first two paragraphs of Exercise 2, p. x. Viaggidre is conjugated with av're.] i. I shall not leave Italy.- 2. They determined to become noble. - 3. They would not leave France. - 4. He will be ashamed of himself. - 5. Let them leave 2 England. - 6. It is enough tQ abandon certain habits. -7. He doesn't believe that Alfieri is ashamed 2 of himself. - 8. They did not believe 8 that we were studying.4- 9. We hoped 8 that they would travel through France. - o1. We do not believe that they are studying.2- ii. They speak to you of Victor, and you admiire his strong will. -12. I shall not believe that you have 2 changed your way of living. - 3. If we spoke 4 to you of Victor, you would admire his firm will. - 14. Do not believe that the customs of aristocratic youth increase 2 the glory of Italy. - 15. Study, and you will become an entirely different man from what you are. - 16. We abandoned 1 the habits of aristocratic youth, and travelled1 through France and England. - 17. Let him not believe 2 that we admire 2 the customs of his times. - 18. They think that studying is enough 2 to change one's mode of life. - 19. If I believed 4 that studying was 4 enough, I should abandon the customs of youth. -20. If I had not travelled, I should not believe that most of the aristocrats leave 2 everything in order to study. 1 Preterite. 2 Pres. subj. 3 Imp. ind. 4 Imp. subj. LESSON 12. Regular verbs: 59; 59, a.; 60; 61; 62; 63; 72; 75; read 47. xviii ITALIAN GRAMMAR. EXERCISE 12. [Based on the third paragraph of Exercise 2.] i. We know Alfieri.-2. They amuse themselves.-3. Let them tie1 themselves to the arm-chair. - 4. They will know the best writer in Italy. - 5. Feel a desire to make great efforts. - 6. They tied2 themselves to the arm-chair. - 7. He knew what efforts it would cost him. - 8. Changing one's way of living isn't enough. -9. It wasn't enough ' for you to go on studying. -o10. When he studies, he doesn't feel a desire to amuse himself.4- i. By 6 studying you will come to be one of the glories of our country. -12. If he tied 6 himself to the arm-chair, he would feel a desire to study. - 13. As he no longer needs to resort to this means, let him amuse 1 himself. - 14. As he didn't amuse I himself, he felt 2 a desire to go out of doors. - 15. If you knew6 Alfieri, you would feel a desire to change your mode of life. - 16. If he felt6 strong-minded enough to study, he would become the greatest writer in Italy. - 17. Change your way of living, and you will feel a desire to become a great poet. - 18. It isn't true that he knows 1 what efforts it will cost him. - 19. If we had6 not felt a desire to go out of doors, we should not know such a great poet. - 20. By 5 amusing himself,4 he will come, little by little, to need to make great efforts. 1 Pres. subj. 2 Pret. 3 Imp. ind. 4 Add si to the end of the verb. 5 Omit. 6 Imp. subj. LESSON 13. Review Lesson i. EXERCISE 13. Pronounce Exercise 2. Inflect the future of ammirdre, the conditional of studidre, the present indicative of viaggidre, the preterite of vergogndre the imperfect indicative of serdre, the imperfect subjunctive of giovdre, the imperative of mutdre, the pre LESSONS AND EXERCISES. xix sent subjunctive of determindre (determini, etc.), the future of abbandondre, the conditional of lascidre, the present indicative of legdre, the preterite of proseguire. LESSON 14. Conjunctive personal pronouns: 46; 47; 48 (study this paragraph with the greatest care), with footnotes; 48, a, b, c; 49; 50; 86. EXERCISE 14. [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the Grammar.] i. He will finish it.- 2. I speak to myself. -3. You believe one another. - 4. The boys have the same clubs that belong to us. - 5 Speak of it to them. -6. We speak of them to him. - 7. Your poor father had a beautiful carriage: he sent 2 it to me. - 8. You have a large plant: give it to me. - 9. The Italian had some birds: he sent2 them to you. - o. I speak to him: he believes me. - i1. I begin to 8 speak to them. - 12. You have some parrots: give them to him. - 13. He had a bird: he sent 2 it to them.- 14. I have sent2 it to her.- 15. You have some little birds: give me some. 1 Appartngono. 2 Use mandare. 8 A. LESSON 15. Irregular verbs; anddre: 64; 65; 66; 66, b; 67; 92; 92, a, b, c, d,f (p. 87); 92, I; 78, d. EXERCISE 15. Inflect the present indicative of condzrre (conducndo, condzco), the present subjunctive of dire (dicendo, dica), the imperfect indicative of fdre (facindo), the imperfect subjunctive of mubvere XX ITALIAN GRAMMAR. (movindo), the preterite of piacare (pidcqui), the imperative of scuotere (scotindo), the future offdre, the conditional of trdrre. LESSON 16. Review Lesson 15. EXERCISE 16. [Based on the third paragraph of Exercise 2.] i. Keep on studying. -2. We resorted to this means. -3. You went 2 out of doors. - 4. They were beginning 1 to study.5. Go and have yourself 8 tied to the arm-chair. -6. Let them go and amuse themselves.-7. You no longer resort to this means.-8. Let us go and amuse ourselves.4-9. We knew2 what efforts would be necessary. - o1. We went2 and tied ourselves4 to the arm-chairs. - i. When I go to study, I do not need to resort to these means. - 12. Alfieri went 2 and had himself tied to the arm-chair. - 13. By 5 going to study, we shall come to be great poets. - 14. When I felt a desire to go out of doors, I used to go 1 and study. - 15. If our will got6 the upper hand, we should go and study. - 16. If we went6 and studied, we should not need to change our mode of life. - 17. When your will gets7 the upper hand, you will go and study. - 18. If Alfieri had 8 gone to amuse himself, Italy would not now have so great a poet. - 19. When they go and study, they no longer need to have themselves tied to their arm-chairs. - 20. If they kept6 their promise, they would not need to have themselves tied to the arm-chair. 1 Imp. ind. 2 Pret. 8 Vi. 4 Ci. 5 Omit. 6 Imp. subj. 7 Future. 8 Imp. subj. of essere. LESSON 17. Disjunctive personal pronouns: 51; 51, b; 52; 73; 74; review Lesson 14. LESSONS AND EXERCISES.xx xxi EXERCISE 17. [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the Grammar.] i.. He spoke of it to us, to you, and to them. - 2. They believe us. - 3. They speak of themselves, and we speak of ourselves. - 4. She has finished it. 5-. Who will speak with me? -6. You are very good, Mr. B. 7- 7 I speak to you, little boy, and to him. - 8. He is the boy of whom I spoke. - 9. Madam,' you have been 2 very unfortunate. - 1. Little boys, you will be surprised. - i i. I begin, Mr. B., to believe your words. - 12. They have spoken of it to us and to You. - 13. Do not think of 8 them: think of 3 her. - 114. Will you speak of it to him or to me? -15. Mr. B. and Mr. D., you are unfortunate: the great trees near your villa belong4I to two merchants, and not'to you. I Sigra 2 Fern. 4'A pariioo LESSON 18. The whole chapter on Personal Pronouns (PP. 36-44), except the Exercises at the end. EXERCISE 18. [Based on the second paragraph of Exercise 2. In all sentences in which the second person is used, translate it in three ways.] i. Open your eyes, and you will he thoroughly ashamed of yourselves. - 2. Do not open them; if'I you opened 2 them, you would be ashamed. - 3. They have left us; do not abandon us. - 4. 1 have determined to accustom myself to live in such a way. - 5. By 3accustoming yourself to study, you will become an entirely different man. - 6. I hope so 4; I am ashamed to 1 live in such a way. - 7. They had accustomed themselves to leave everything. - 8. Are you ashamed to give up your habits? -9. He says So 4 to me and to you; he has determined to give xxii ITALIAN GRAMMAR. them up. - io. Does he say so ' to you? - Ti. He will leave it to us. - 12. She might leave them to me. - 13. He wishes to 3 keep them.- 14. It will not be at all an easy matter for 6 you. "- 15. I should be ashamed of it. 1 Se. 2 Imp. subj. 3 Omit. 4 ' It.' 5 Di. 6 Per. LESSON 19. Irregular verbs of the first conjugation: 92, I, 2, 3, 4; read 79, b (including I, 2, 3, PP. 77 and 78). EXERCISE 19. [Based on Exercise 2.] i. Let us give them the offices. -2. We have made good resolutions. - 3. They had not given the office to Alfieri.- 4. I don't go and study: I am 1 talking.- 5. We shall be1 admiring Alfieri's tragedies. -6. If I made 2 good resolutions, I should go and study. - 7. I don't think that the difficulty lies 3 in making good resolutions. - 8. If he were' always4 talking, he would not do anything.'-9. Do everything, but don't go and live in such a way. - io. We do not believe that rank gives 3 them a right to everything. - i1. By6 giving them everything, he would be able to change his mode of life. - 12. You used to go7 and study, and that gave7 you ' a right to the greatest honors. - 13. If you went 2 and amused yourself,8 they would not give you8 the office. - 14. They used to make7 good resolutions, but the difficulty was in keeping them. - 15. If we gave 2 them the office, the difficulty would be in making them study.- 16. By ' resolving to abandon the customs of aristocratic youth, he would do himself honor. - 17. When you make 10 a good n resolution, you will go and study; and then they will give you 8 everything. - 18. Let them resolve to study, and let them go to the Academy of Turin. - 19. Their rank gives them a right to offices, even if they do not resolve to change their way of living. - 20. He LESSONS AND EXERCISES. xxiii did not resolve 12 to study, but went 12 and amused himself; and therefore they did not give 12 him offices nor honors. 1 Use stdre. 2 Imp. subj. 3 Pres. subj. 4 Sempre. 5 Ndilla. 6 Omit. 7 Imp. ind. 8 Vi. 9 Si. 10 Future. 11 Budn (29, c). 12 Pret. LESSON 20. The whole chapter on Articles (pp. 7-o1), except the Exercises at the end. EXERCISE 20. [Based on the third paragraph of Exercise 2.] i. I am a poet. -2. Alfieri, a writer who began to study at twenty-seven, became a great poet. - 3. Habits bind us. - 4. Writers have to resort to this means.-5. The mind makes an effort. -6. Great efforts are hard.- 7. He goes to amuse himself with the poets. - 8. Knowing the habits of writers, I had him tied to his arm-chair. - 9. Mr. Alfieri studies in my arm-chair. - o1. Mr. Alfieri, you will go to Italy. LESSON 21. Irregular verbs of the second conjugation: 92, 5-14; 57 (study the examples with particular care); 54, a. Note that piac/re is intransitive: 'it pleases him '= gli pidce. EXERCISE 21. [Based on Exercise I.] i. He does not know when string beans come forth.- 2. The snow fell in the winter. -3. The fig-trees ought to have given us their sweet fruit. - 4. They are sitting in the gardens. - 5. You will see them in the spring. - 6. The leaves would be lying in the fields. - 7. Do you like apricots 1?- 8. Be silent! I do not like fruit. -9. Birds are wont to sing in the spring. - io. I ought to begin. 1 'Do apricots please you?' xxiv ITALIAN GRAMMAR. LESSON 22. Review Lesson 21. EXERCISE 22. [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the Grammar.] i. We have had 1 to keep still: we do not know his name. - 2. It fell and lay 2 three days on the ground. - 3. He was sitting 3 in the room where his brother lay." - 4. When I see 4 them, I shall have 1 to keep still, because I do not know their names. -5. He saw2 me, but I didn't suit2 him. -6. Do you know where he is sitting?- 7. They are lying under the table: don't you see them? - 8. If I saw 5 him, I should have1 to speak to him. - 9. They will not know where we have seen them. - 10. See her: she doesn't know that we have 6 come back. - ii. Has she seen these plants? Do they suit her? - 12. He doesn't believe that I know 7 his name. - 13. Let us see where they are going. - 14. It lies there, where it has 6 fallen. - 15. When I saw 2 that they had 6 fallen, I was silent.2- 16. You saw 2 my coat: how 8 did it suit 2 you? - 17. If we had 5 seen them fall, we should know where they are. - 18. He didn't believe 3 that they were lying 5 on the table. - 9. They don't believe that you see' them. - 20. If they keep still, we shall not know where they have been. 1 Use dovere. 2 Pret. 3 Imp. ind. 4 Future. 6 Imp. subj. 6 Use essere. 7 Pres. subj. 8 Co'me. LESSON 23. Irregular verbs of the second conjugation: 92, 15-23; 57; 45, c. Dolere takes an indirect object. LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XXV EXERCISE 23. [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the Grammar.] i. My eyes pain me; I don't want to stay.- 2. We shall not be able to persuade him; he doesn't want to keep still.- 3-. If we were not able 1 to stay, it would grieve him very much.2 - 4. They were in the habit 3 of staying 4 five days. - 5" If he were holding1 it, he would let' it fall.- 6. They seem large, but they cannot be good. - 7. He wanted6 to go, but he could 6 not: I held6 him. - 8. You will not persuade me: I shall not be willing to do it. -9. We saw 6 them: they are not worth anything.7 - io. If he doesn't want to stay, I'll hold him. - i i. He remained 6 three days, because his head pained 8 him. - 12. It grieved 6 me, but I had 6 to do it. - 13. I don't believe that it hurts I him very much.2 -4. If you wish it, they.will stay with you. - 15. I have seen them this year; they seemed 6 very little to me: I should have thought that they were not worth 1 anything.7 - 16. You don't believe that he is willing 8 to stay.- 17 -If you wanted 1 to stay, you wouldn't be able to sit down. - 18. If you don't believe that I can 8 keep still, don't remain here.19. He cannot stay: he has to go and study. - 2o. Let them remain there, if they don't want to come back. 1 Imp. subj. 2 Mdlto. 3 Imp. ind. 4 ' Of staying'- ' (to) stay.' 5 Lascidre. 6 Pret. 7 NViente. 8 Pres. subj. LESSON 24. Auxiliary verbs: 53, a, b; 54; 54, a, b, c, d,; 55; 57; read the synopses in 56. Note that anddre is conjugated with &ssere. xxvi ITALIAN GRAMMAR. EXERCISE 24. [The words are to be found in the English itali;ocabulary of the Grammar.! i. I shall have finished the poem.' -2. They had built2 a city. - 3. We should have spoken.8- 4. He will have gone.5. You would have come.4- 6. The poor boys who have come 4 to the city have spoken of it to their mothers. - 7. We have finished our questions, but they have been very short. -8. The villas which the boy's father has built2 are the most beautiful in the world. -9. The great5 duke has gone to speak to the unhappy sailors who have come4 to our city.- io. If I had' come,4 they would have sent me to the city. - i i. I do not believe that he has ' come.4- 12. We should not have believed that you had 6 spoken of it to him. - 13. If I had 6 spoken of it, he would have sent it to me. - 14. If they had 6 sent it to her, she would hdve come 4 to speak of it to me. - 15. We believed that the largest prisons in the city had 6 been built 2 by an unhappy king, whose father was an Italian duke. 1 See Ex. 5, note 2. 2 Use costru're. 8 Two translations. 4 Venire, p. p. venito, aux. ýssere. 6 See 29, c. 6 Imp. subj. 7 Pres. subj. LESSON 25. Regular verbs: 58; 58, a; 59; 59, a; 60; 61; 62; 63; read 77, d,f, g, h. Sentire means "to feel." EXERCISE 25. [The words are to be found in the Englishl-Italian vocabulary of the Grammar.] i. The year ends with December. -2. We speak of these things, but you don't believe us. - 3. I don't believe that the year ends ' with December. - 4. Finish all the things that you have begun. - 5. He didn't believe 2 that we felt 3 the heat.- 6. You related 4 many things, but I didn't believe4 them all. LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XXV11 7. They feel the ' Iat, but they don't observe the smoke. -8. If he hastened,3 the,upud,fiee. - 9. The water boils, but we don't feel the heat, - o1. What, prevents us from 6 observing these objects? - iI. Let us hasten: they will eat 6 everything.- 12. If I repeated 8 these things, you would learn them. - 13. Let them believe everything: they will not prevent me from 6 thinking. - 14. You haven't learned those things: I repeat them to you. - 15. You don't believe that he repeats 1 everything. - 16. Observe them: they are hastening; where are they fleeing? - 17. I didn't finish 4 it: they prevented4 me from 6 hastening. - 18. If he thought3 that you were not observing3 him, he would eat 6 everything. - 19. Learn everything, and repeat it to me in7 two days.- 20. We shall study three years; by 8 studying we shall learn everything. 1 Pres. subj. 2 Imp. ind. 3 Imp. subj. 4 Pret. 5 Di, with infin. S Mangidre. 7 Fra. 8 Omit. LESSON 26. Irregular verbs of the third conjugation: 92, 24-73 (omitting forms enclosed in parentheses and all verbs marked poetical or rare); 69; 70; 91, a. EXERCISE 26. [Based on the first paragraph of Exercise 2. The forms of irregular verbs not yet learned may be found in the List, pp. o10 ff.] If I should speak 1 to you of Victor, you would admire his strong, firm will. He was born 2 in 1749, of a noble family of Piedmont; he is a count. Nowadays 8 we don't believe that being noble is enough 4 to make us worth something; therefore most young men study, and are worth something, because they. know that, if they are ignorant, their rank alone will not give them a right to offices and honors. But Victor, as a lad, studied carelessly; and, although he has4 a fine mind, he is ignorant, and doesn't know anything at all. We sent him to the Academy xxviii ITALIAN GRAMMAR. of Turin. But he didn't know that talent is of no use without study; and a few years later he came out without having studied nor even travelled, and without knowing that study is worth something. He didn't admire the Academy, and he didn't speak of it; he couldn't study, and he didn't know anything at all, because he thought it was enough 5 to have a fine mind. He was noble, but they didn't give2 him offices nor honors, because he was ignorant. 1 Imp. subj. 2 Pret. 3 Oggido. 4 Pres. subj. 5 Imp. subj. LESSON 27. Irregular verbs of the third conjugation: 92, 75-124 (omitting forms enclosed in parentheses and all verbs marked poetical or rare); 87; 88; 89. EXERCISE 27. [Based on the second paragraph of Exercise 2. The forms of irregular verbs not yet learned may be found in the List. Vivere is conjugated with avere.] He arrived at the age of twenty-seven, and then, one fine day, he opened his eyes. Now 1 he is thoroughly ashamed of himself, and hopes that by changing, his mode of life he will be able to become an entirely different man from what he has been. He has perceived his ignorance, and has resolved to give up the habits that he has formed during a long course of years; he has determined to accustom himself to study. He says to himself: " It will not cost much to make good resolutions; the difficulty will be in keeping them. But I shall keep them - I shall accustom myself to living in an entirely different way from formerly - I shall leave everything in order to study. I resolve to change my mode of life. It will be no small matter, because I have lived hitherto in an entirely different way; and when we live in such a way, we form 3 certain customs - but I shall not notice it: by studying and keeping my good resolutions I shall accustom myself to such a life. I will do it. I LESSONS AND EXERCISES. xxix should like to be a credit to Italy. I perceive my ignorance, and I am ashamed of myself." 1 Adtsso. 2 Fin'ra. 3 See p. 97, no. 132. LESSON 28. Irregular verbs of the third conjugation: 92, 126-148 (omitting forms enclosed in parentheses). EXERCISE 28. [Based on the third paragraph of Exercise 2.] Victor knew that he would have to make great efforts, that it wasn't enough to feel a desire to study, and that he would have need of great strength of mind; but he said 1 to himself that little by little his will would get the upper hand, and that by continuing to study he would come to be a good writer. He understood and perceived what efforts it would cost him; but he resolved to change his mode of life, and he kept his promise. It is true that it cost him great efforts. He no longer went 2 out of doors. When he felt a desire to amuse himself instead of studying, he had to have himself tied to his arm-chair. But little by little he became a great poet, and came to have no more need of having himself tied. Then he knew that he had got the upper' hand, and said 4 to himself: " I shall not resort to this means any longer: I have no more need of it. I shall begin to study, I shall resolve to go on, and I shall keep my promise. I can and will do it. I have changed my way of living. It has been hard J-I know what efforts it has cost me; but now5 I shall not tie myself any more. I make promises and keep them: my will has got the upper hand." 1 Dicva. 2 UsMva. 3 A lldra. 5 Dzsse. 50ra. LESSON 29. Personal pronouns: 46; 47; 47, a; 48; 48, a, b, c, d; 49; 50; 51; 51, a, b; 52; 55. XXX ITALIAN GRAMMAR. EXERCISE 29. [Based on Exercise I. Translate the second person in three ways.] i. When will you begin to sing to us? - 2. Have you burned yourself? -3. Seeing you in the garden, I called you. - 4. Finish it in the summer. - 5. Having finished them, you will give them to us. - 6. Do not give it to them. - 7. I should have given them to you. - 8. Give me your cherries. - 9. Have you any of these pears?- o1. Give her some. - 1i. What is your name1? - 12. I could have given it to you. - 13. Is it necessary to give it to me?- 14. I should make him begin it. - 15. Give it to me. - 16. Sing it to them.- 17. Do not burn yourself. - 18. I am calling: is it you? - 19. I gave it to you and to him. - 20. Have you lost your apples? - 21. I ought to have called you. - 22. Let her see it. - 23. You can see me, but I cannot see you. - 24. He sees the birds, but they do not see him.- 25. Let me see some. 1 ' How (come) do you call yourself?' LESSON 30. Irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation: 92, 149-161; 82; 84. MHorire is conjugated with issere. EXERCISE 30. [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the Grammar.] i. See Naples1 and then die. -2. They opened the window. -3. Let them cover themselves and remain covered. -4. We don't open the door; the wind has opened it. -5. If I sew all2 day, I shall die. - 6. They have built a great village. - 7. If they die, we shall bury them in the grove. - 8. I don't believe that you are dying. - 9. What are they filling? They offer me water. - io. The boy has died, and his parents are burying him. - I. He will fill it, and then he will offer it to you. - 12. Our friends, who died last year, are buried in the wood. - 13. Do LESSONS AND EXERCISES. xxxi you believe that he is building a villa? - 14. If I suffered 4 as my parents have suffered, I should die. - 15. While they were building5 the city, many men died. - I6. He suffered5 always, because he didn't digest 5 the food.- 17. Offer him bread: perhaps he will digest it. - 18. We suffer - we are too unfortunate: let us die. - 19. I eat 6 this bread because you have offered it to me; but I don't digest it. - 20. If he dies, he will not be buried, but the birds will cover him with' leaves. 1 Ndpoli. 2 ' All the.' 3 Pres. subj. 4 Imp. subj. 5 Imp. ind. 6 Mangidre. 7 Di. LESSON 31. Irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation: 92, 162-168. EXERCISE 31. [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the Grammar.] i. You tell it to me, but I don't hear you.- 2. I go out every day. -3. Hear me: I shall tell you everything. - 4. We went up, but our friends didn't come. - 5. He tells me that they have 1 come. -6. He opens the door, but he doesn't go out. - 7. I tell you that he will come.- 8. Thus speaking, I open the door and go out. - 9. They told him that you would come. - io. He built himself a villa in the grove, and then he died. - ii. We told them that he had built a villa. - 12. We come, we go up, and we come out, but we don't disappear. - 13. We have told him that you are coming. - 14. I come here to see everything: they are building me a villa. - 15. If I told 2 you everything, you would die. - 16. You have opened the door; but if you8 go out, you 8 die. - 17. They come and disappear. Where do they go? Tell me, do they all die? - 18. I don't believe that they are going up.4 Let them come, and they shall hear me. I shall say to them: " I came, I saw, I conquered.5 " - 19. He says that he will come; he comes; he disappears; Xxxii ITALIAN GRAMMAR. and we do not know where he has1 gone. - 20. He came - I heard him open the door; he went up, and then he disappeared. I came out, but I did not see him: he had1 died. We came here to find him, and we buried him in the wood. 1 Use ýssere. 2 Imp. subj. 3 Second pers. sing. 4 Pres. subj. 5 Vincere, irreg. verb. LESSON 32. The whole chapter on Auxiliary Verbs (pp. 47-54), except Exercise 13 at the end. See also 42. EXERCISE 32. Translate Exercise 14 on p. 55. LESSON 33. Regular verbs, and irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation: 58; 58, a; 59; 59, a, b; 60; 61; 62; 63; 63, a; 92, 149-168. EXERCISE 33. Translate Exercise 16 on pp. 64, 65. LESSON 34. Irregular verbs of the first and second conjugations: 66, a, b, c; 68, a, b; 92, a, b, c, d; 92, 1-23. EXERCISE 34. Inflect: the preterite of fdre, safqre, dovare, ved~re, piackre, dolere, rimanrre, tendre, valre, volere, parbre, potfre, persuadere; the imperfect indicative and subjunctive of fdre, giacre, voltre; the imperative of vedTre, rimandre, tentre. LESSON 35. Irregular verbs of the third conjugation: 92, e,f, g; 92, 24-148. LESSONS AND EXERCISES. xxxiii EXERCISE 35. Translate the first half of Exercise 18 on p. 73. LESSON 36. The whole chapter on Moods and Tenses (pp. 65-72). EXERCISE 36. Translate the second half of Exercise 18 on pp. 73, 74. LESSON 37. The whole chapter on Nouns and the whole chapter on Adjectives (pp. I1-22), except Exercise 6 at the end. EXERCISE 37. Translate Exercises 2 (p. I1) and 4 (p. 17). LESSON 38. The whole chapter on Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, and Possessive Pronouns (pp. 30-34); the whole chapter on Indefinite Pronouns (pp. 84-87), except the long list on p. 86 and the Exercise at the end. EXERCISE 38. Translate Exercises 6 (p. 23) and io (p. 35). LESSON 39. The whole chapter on Personal Pronouns (pp. 36-44), except Exercise 1 at the end. EXERCISE 39. Translate Exercise 12 on pp. 45, 46. xxxiv ITALIAN GRAMMAR. LESSON 40. The whole chapter on Augmentatives, Diminutives, and Numerals (pp. 23-28), except Exercise 7 at the end. EXERCISE 40. Translate Exercise 8 on p. 29. LESSON 41. The whole chapter on Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Adverbs (pp. 74-82), except the two long lists and Exercise 19 at the end. EXERCISE 41. Translate Exercise 20 on p. 84. ITALIAN GRAMMAR. PRONUNCIATION. I. The Italian alphabet has the same letters as the English, except that k, w, x, and y do not occur in modern Italian. 2. The Italians distinguish seven vowels: a, close e, open e, z close o, open o, u; each of which always has the same sound, no matter what may be its position in the word, and never tends, as do the English long vowels, to become a diphthong. Italian vowels are all pronounced very quickly; hence there is but little difference in quantity between accented and unaccented sounds. Englishspeaking students must carefully avoid drawling the accented and slighting the unaccented syllables; they should try to give to every Italian vowel about the length of i in "bitter." A is nearly like a in "father": as fava, canna, cassa, palla. A, close, is nearly like a in "fate": as beve, vere, stelleC messe. A, open, may be formed by trying to pronounce e in "bell" with the mouth very wide open: as bella, amena, fera, pensa. 2 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. I is nearly like ee in "feet": as miri, vini, fissi, spilli. o, close, is nearly like o in "mope": as dopo, dove, bollo, sotto. o, open, is nearly like aw in "saw" pronounced with the mouth wide open: as no, odi, poi, donna. U is nearly like oo in "boot ": as una, cura, nulla, ruppi. a. The letters i and u are sometimes used to represent consonant sounds (see 4); but in formulating rules they are always counted as vowels. 3. As close and open vowels are not distinguished in spelling, some rules are necessary:(I) Unaccented e and o are always close: as mare, "sea "; amo, " I love." (2) E and o are close in all monosyllables* ending in a consonant: as con, "with "; non, "not "; per, "for." (3) In monosyllables * and oxytones - ending in a vowel, final e is close, final o is open: as che, "what"; me, "me"; re, "king"; crede, "he believed "; perch?, "why"; do, "I give"; Po, "Po"; sarb, "I shall be"; andb, "he went.' Exceptions: final e is open in = "is," re = "re," interjections (as aim?, "alas"; ch?, "nonsense"), proper names (as No?, "Noah"), and foreign words, (as caff?, "coffee"); final o is close in lo and o. (4) Accented e and o are always open in the groups ie and uo: as piede, "foot"; fuoco, "fire." E and o standing for ie and uo are open: as ven = viene, "he comes"; cor= cuore, "heart." * Not including shortened forms of words that regularly have more than one syllable. t Words accented on the last syllable. PRONUNCIATION. 3 (5) In words that have always formed a part of the spoken language, accented e is nearly always close when it represents Latin a or z, open when it represents Latin P or c; accented o is nearly always close when it represents Latin 0 or u, open when it represents Latin o or au. In book words accented e and o are usually open. In all cases not covered by the first three rules, the quality of e and o will be marked in this book, an acute accent (') denoting the close, a circumflex (A) the open sound: as avtre, "to have"; meno, "less"; tilne, "he holds"; li'to, "happy"; poeta, "poet"; ora, "hour"; idito, "much"; budno, "good "; pco, "little"; mto, "motion." 4. B, f, m, p, q, v are pronounced as in English. c before e or i sounds like ck in "chin "; elsewhere it is always like English k: as cima, "top"; come, "how"; ddice, "sweet." G before e or i sounds like g in "gem "; elsewhere it is always like g in "go": as gatto, "cat"; gente, "people"; spingi, "push." a. A cc or a gg before e or i has merely the sound of ch in "chin" or g in "gem" prolonged: asfacce, "faces"; lIgge, "law." D, 1, n, t are pronounced further forward in the mouth than in English; the tip of the tongue should touch the back of the upper front teeth: as alto, "high"; dato, "given"; luna, "moon"; nudo, "naked"; tudno, "thunder." H is always silent: as aki, "oh!" ha, "he has." I, unaccented, before a vowel, sounds like English y: as ilri, "yesterday"; paio, "pair"; piz, "more." In the groups cia, cio, ciu, gia, gio, giu, an unaccented i serves only to show that the c or g is soft: as faccia, 4 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. "face"; guancia, "cheek "; cib, "that"; gizi, "down"; mangia, "eat "; raggio, "ray." J is merely another way of writing i. N before a q or a hard c or g has the sound of Eng. lish ng: as banca (bang-ka), "bank"; dunque (dung-kwe), "therefore"; lungo (lung-go), "long." R is always rolled, the point of the tongue vibrating against the teeth: as caro, "dear"; rosso, "red"; per, "for." When r is double or followed by a consonant, the trill is prolonged: as carro, " cart"; burro, "butter "; marrone, "chestnut"; carne, "meat "; prta, "door." s is generally pronounced nearly like English s in "see," but with a somewhat sharper sound: as so, "I know"; spillo, "pin." Initial s before a sonant (b, d, g, 1, m, n, r, v) has a sound intermediate between s and English z: as sdrucciolare, "to slip "; slitta, "sleigh." A single s between vowels has, in most words, the sound of English z: as caso, "case"; cdusa, "cause"; viso, "face." But in the following cases it is pronounced like s in "see," "mason ": a. In annusare, dsino, casa, Chiusi, cMsa, cost, desidErio, naso, parasito, pfso, Pisa, pisillo, pbsa, ripbso, riso, susina, and their derivatives, and in some uncommon words. b. After the prefixes de-, di-,* pre-, pro-, re-, ri-, tra-*: as desistere, disigno, presz'mere, proseguire, reservare, risdivere, trasuddre. c. In the adjective ending -dso and the adjective and substantive ending -ese: as noioso, " troublesome "; inglse, " English "; mese, "month." But in cortise, francise, lucchese, marchese, paese, palkse, the s is like English z. * Not to be confounded with dis-, tras-: disondre, trasandare. PRONUNCIATION. 5 d. In the preterites and past participles of chiedere, chiudere, nascdndere, pdrre, ridere, ridere, rimanere, rispdndere, rddere, and all verbs in -endere; and in their compounds and derivatives: as chilsi, socchiuso, nasedse, rispbsero, rasdio, rimase, corrisposi, rdsero, accesi, reso, scesa. Exceptions to this rule are deridere, verbs in -clu'dere, and derivatives of rodere. U, unaccented, before a vowel, sounds like English w: as buono, "good"; guardare, "to look"; fub, "he can0" z and zz are generally pronounced like a long and vigorous ts: as alzare, " to lift "; azidne, " action "; prezzo, "price"; zio, "uncle." In the following cases, however, z and zz sound like a prolonged dz:a. In azzurro, dozzina, mezzo, pranzo, ribrezzo, romanzo, zeio, and many less common words. b. In verbs in -izzare (as utilizzare, "to utilize"); except attizzare, dirizzare, guizzare, rizzare, stizzare, and their compounds, and a few uncommon words. 5. The following combinations are to be noted:Ch (used only before e and i) is always li.e English k: as fichi (plural of fico, "fig"). Sch is like sk: as schfrzo, "it sport." Gh (used only before e and i) is always like English g in "go ": as aghi (plural of ago, "needle "). Gli (written gl if the following vowel be i) is nearly like English lli in "million ": as figlio, "son"; figli, "sons." But in Anglia, geroglifico, glicerina, negligere and its derivatives, and a few uncommon words borrowed from the Greek or Latin, gl is like English gl. Gn is nearly like ni in "onion": as dgni, "every." Qu is always like kw: as questo, "this." 6 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Sc before e and i is nearly like sh in "ship ": as uscire, "to go out." Before all other letters it is pronounced sk: as scuola, "school "; scheArno, "contempt." 6. Every letter in Italian is distinctly and separately sounded; the only exceptions are h, silent i (see 4), and the combinations mentioned in 5. Ex.: arte, "art"; firma, "signature"; furto, "theft"; gidrno, "day"; verso, "toward"; anddi, "I went "; dura, "breeze"; bugie, "lies "; Eurdpa, "Europe"; midi, "my "; paura, "fear"; sentii, "I felt"; suoi, "his." Where a double consonant is written, both letters must be sounded, the first at the end of the preceding, the second at the beginning of the following syllable: as anno, "year "; babbo, "father"; fatto, "done "; messo, "put"; quello, "that." For rr, zz, and soft cc and gg, see 4. L, m, n, and r, when preceded by an accented vowel and followed by another consonant, are prolonged: as alto (all-to), "high"; sempre (semm-pre), "always"; tanto (tann-to), "so much"; parte (parr-te), "part." 7. The accent is nearly always the same as in Latin. In this book it will always be noted. Of the signs written here, students need use only the grave ("), which is placed on the last syllable of oxytones and on some monosyllables; Italian writers do not agree as to the use of the other marks; some use the acute, and not the grave, on final e. 8. Italian words are divided in such a way that, if possible, every syllable shall begin with a consonant: as ta-voli-no, "table"; frat-tdn-to, "meanwhile "; al-l' u-mo, "to the man"; nar-rd-re, "to relate"; mnz-zo, "half"; cdc-cia, "hunt "; g-gi, "to-day." ARTICLES. 7 In the groups s + consonant, consonant + r, those mentioned in 5, and cl, fl, gl, pl, both consonants belong to the following syllable. I= y and u = w go with the following vowel; di, du, ei, eu, oi are not separated. Ex.: al-l' du-ra, a-vrb, bi-so-gno, ca-sti-ghi, del-' dc-qua, in-chki-stro, mili, mi-glio-re, ri-flt-te-re, te-d-tro, tu6i. ARTICLES. 9. The article is not declined, but it agrees with its substantive in gender and number. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 10. Masculine: - a. Sing. il, pl. i, before a word beginning with any consonant except s impure * and z. b. Sing. lo, pl. gli, before a vowel or s impure or z.t Before a vowel lo becomes 1'; gli becomes gl' before i. Ex.: II pddre, the father; i fddri, the fathers. Lo stesso pddre, the same father. Lo scidme, the swarm; gli scidmi, the swarms. Lo zio, the uncle; gli zii, the uncles. L' udmo, the man; gl' insUtti, the insects. 11. Feminine:Sing. la, pl. le. Before a vowel la becomes 1'; le becomes 1' before e. Ex.: La mddre, the mother; le mddri, the mothers. L' ra, the hour; le ore, the hours; 1' erbe, the herbs. "* That is, s followed by another consonant. t Li is sometimes used for gli. Some writers use il, i before z and before sce- or sci-. In poetry lo is often used for il. 8 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 12. When the definite article is preceded by one of the prepositions di, da, a, in, con, su, per, the article and preposition are generally contracted into one word, -as shown in the following table (con, per are often uncontracted):-- SIL I LO GLI LA LE L' Di, of del dii or de' dullo digli dilla dille dell' Da, by dal ddi or da' ddllo ddgli ddlla ddlle dall' A, to al di or a' dllo dgli dlla dlle all' In, in nel n/i or ne' nllo n/gli nella nelle nell' CQ9 with col cdi or co' cdllo cdgli cdlla cdlle coll' Su, on sul sdi or su' sillo szgli sdlla szlle sull' S for pel pei or pe' per lo per gli per la per le per 1' Ex.: Del ~ddre, of the father; ddi fddri, by the fathers. Allo spfcchio, to the mirror; negli sfcc/zi, in the mirrors. Cdlla mddre, with the mother; cdlle mddri, with the mothers. Sull' udmo, on the man; per gli udmini, for the men. a. The word "some " is frequently rendered in Italian by di with the definite article. This is called the partitive genitive. Ex.: Ddtemi del vino, give me some wine. Dille blle cdse, some fine things. 13. In the following cases the definite article is used in Italian, though not in English:a. Before the possessive pronouns: as il ndstro giardino, "our garden"; i suoi fratilli, "his brothers." When, however, the possessive qualifies an otherwise unmodified noun in the singular expressing relationship, the article is generally omitted: as mia addre, "my mother." For a fuller statement see 45, a. b. Before an abstract noun or one denoting a whole class, unless the sense is partitive. ARItiLES. 9 Ex.: L'udmo propdne, man proposes. Ifidri ndscono dal seme, flowers spring from the seed. La mdrte ý ifieggidre dei mdli, death is the worst of evils. c. Before a noun and adjective used either in a specific or in a general (but not in a partitive) sense. Ex.: L'dnno scdrso, last year (i. e., the last year). IIpdvero Lulgi non vidne, (the) poor Lewis doesn't come. Gli udmini budni, good men (i. e., all good men). d. Before a title followed by a proper name: as la regina Vittbria, " Queen Victoria"; il signor Brzini, " Mr. Brown." It is not used, however, before Don, Messer, and Ser. e. Before family names; often before given names of women; occasionally before given names of well-known men. Ex.: Ii Bidnchi mdrto, White is dead; la Pdtti cdnta, Patti sings. Condsco ' Olivia, I know Olivia; Ddnte or il Ddnte, Dante. f. Before names of countries and continents: as la Svizzera, "Switzerland"; all' lidlia, "to Italy"; per 1' Eurb3pa, "for Europe." But the article is omitted after in in phrases that denote going to or dwelling in a country; and often after di or in when the preposition with the name of a country is equivalent to an adjective of nationality: as vddo in Germdnia, " I go to Germany"; rimango in Frdncia, " I remain in France "; la regina d' Inghiltrra, " the queen of England "; il vino di Spdgna, " the wine of Spain "; il tedtro in ltdlia, " the drama in Italy." In all the above cases (beginning with 13, a) the article, unless it would be employed in English, is omitted when the noun is used as a vocative or is modified by a numeral or a pronominal adjective. It is often omitted in lists. Ex.: Qudsta sua dfera, this work of his. Signora Mdnti, cdme sta, Mrs. Monti, how do you do? ltdlia, ti rivido, Italy, I see thee again. Fede, sperdnza, cariti, faith, hope, and charity. 10 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. ViNni, amico mio, come, my friend. Ha far&cchi vizi, he has several bad habits. Dze bellissimi cdni, two very fine dogs. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 14. Masculine:a. Un before a vowel or any consonant except s impure and z. b. Uno before s impure or z. * Ex.: Un -ddre, a father; un udtmo, a man. Unanllo, a ring; Ano sp&cchio, a mirror. Uno scidme, a swarm; zno zio, an uncle. 15. Feminine: - Una, which becomes un' before a vowel. Ex.: Una mddre, a mother; un' dra, an hour. 16. In the following cases the indefinite article, though expressed in English, is omitted in Italian: - a. Before a predicate noun expressing occupation, rank, or nationality, and not accompanied by ap adjective. Ex.: Egli e folta, he is a poet; sod" rarcMhse, I am a marquis. Sidte italidno, you are an Italian. b. Generally before an antecedent (of a relative clause) used in apposition to a preceding noun modified by a definite article or a demonstrative pronoun. Ex.: L' Arno, fizme che travirsa Firinze, the Arno, a river which traverses Florence. c. After da meaning " as," " like," or " for." See 79, g. Ex.: Da uomo, like a man. * Some writers use un before z and before sce- or sci-. NOUNS. II EXERCISE 1. La pdrte piu Alta del n8stro c6rpo Z ii cApo. Ii cipo e attaccito highest is is attached al callo, e ii c0llo ý attaccAto al tr6nco. La ptrte davinti del front capo si chiama viso. Nel viso ci s6no la fr6nte, gli 6cchi, ii is-called there are eyes naso, la b6cca, ii m6nto. C6gli 6cchi si v6dono le c6se. Col we-see things nAso si sentono gli od6ri. C611a b6cca si mangia, si bdve, si we-smell odors we-eat we-drink werespira. Respirdre e mandare 1' tria gio nel pitto, e p i rimanbreathe dirla fu6ri. N6i respiriamo 1' Aria. Levate un p6sce dall' 'cqua, it We breathe Take muoire: levate 1' 'ria a n6i, e n6i morr6mo. it-dies take from us shall-die. EXERCISE 2. Mr. Rossi is a merchant. Leaving Italy, he-went-away last j Lascidndo farti year to France, a country which he-wished to-visit with his brother fer voliva visitdre and a friend of the family. But he-returned to Italy the same torn, in month, saying: "Travelling' bores-me. Another time I-shall-make dicindo viaggidcre (m.) mi sdcca Un' dltra fari a study of the customs of France. Paris is a big city; we-havecostimi (m. p1.) grdnde vi abbidmi seen some'2 fine things; but I-prefer the land of Garibaldi and vedito bille cdse (f. pl.) ini idce jfih of King Victor Emmanuel." 1 See 13, b. 2 See 12, a. NOUNS. 17. Italian nouns are not declined. Possession is de. noted by the preposition di: as lo sp cchio di miz'o paddre, "1 my father's looking-glass." 12 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. GENDER. 18. There are no neuter nouns in Italian.* Nouns denoting males and females keep their natural gender: except guida, "guide "; gudrdia, "guard "; ersona, "person "; sentindla, "sentinel"; spia, "spy "; vedetta, " scout "; which are feminine. Ex.: I fratlllo, the brother; mia sordlla, my sistet. II posta, the poet; la foetMssa, the poetess. Una spia, a spy; la ndstra guida, our guide. 19. Of nouns denoting objects without sex some are masculine, some feminine. Their gender can often be determined by the final letter. All Italian nouns end in a, e, i, o, or u:-- a. Those ending in a are feminine; except colera, " cholera," qualcdsa, "something," Greek neuters in -ma,4 many geographical names, and a few other words, mostly foreign. Ex.: (Un' dra, an hour; un telegrdmma, a telegram. 11 Canada, Canada; il sofd, the sofa. b. Of those ending in e and i some are masculine, some feminine. All ending in -zione, -gione, or -udine are feminine. Ex.: II fime, the river; la fdce, peace. Un d", a day; una metrdfoli, a metropolis. La ragidne, the reason; la servitidine, service. c. Those ending in a are masculine; except mino, "hand." Ex.: II gindcchio, the knee; la mdno, the hand. * Latin neuters become masculine in Italian; masculines and feminines retain their Latin gender. This rule has very few exceptions. t A few foreign nouns used in Italian end in a consonant: as ldpis, "pencil" (i Idpis, "the pencils"). Nouns in -o or -e often drop that vowe. if the preceding consonant is 1, n, or r: as cdne= can, "dog." $ Mostly scientific terms. NOUNS. 13 d. Those ending in u are feminine; except soprappie, " surplus," and a few foreign words. Ex.: La virtu, virtue; il bambur, bamboo. 20. Any other part of speech (except an adjective*) used as a noun must be masculine. Ex.: 1I viaggidre, travelling. 21. Masculine names of trees in o or e have a feminine form in a or e respectively, denoting their fruit; but il ddttero, "date," il fico, " fig," il limdnde, "lemon," il pdmo, "apple," are always the same, whether denoting the tree or the fruit. Ex.: Un susino, a plum-tree; una susina, a plum. II noce, the walnut-tree; la ndce, the walnut. Questificki, these fig-trees, these figs. NUIMBER. 22. Feminines in unaccented a form their plural by changing a into e. Ex.: La strdda, the street; le strdde, the streets. Una bug/a, a lie; le bugle, lies. a. Feminines in -ca and -ga form their plural in -che and -ghe respectively (the h being inserted merely to indicate that the c and g keep their hard sound). Ex.: Un' oca, a goose; mdlte dche, many geese. La bottega, the shop; parecchie botteghe, several shops. "* Adjectives of course have the gender of the nouns they represent. 14 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. b. Nouns in unaccented -cia and -gia form their plural in -ce and -ge respectively." Ex.: La gudncia, the cheek; le gudnce, the cheeks. Una cilidgia, a cherry; tdnte cilidge, so many cherries. 23. Masculines in unaccented a and all nouns in unaccented o and e (not ie) form their plural in i. t Ex.: Un podta, a poet; dzie fodti, two poets. Lo zio, the uncle; gli zii, the uncles. La mdno, the hand; le mie mdni, my hands. Un mese, a month; ire mesi, three months. La cornice, the frame; qudttro cornici, four frames. a. Masculines in -ca and -ga form their plural in -chi and -ghi respectively. Ex.: II nondrca, the monarch; i mondrchi, the monarchs. II colldga, the colleague; i colldghi, the colleagues. b. Nouns in unaccented -io form their plural by changing -io to -i (often written 1, j, or ii). Ex.: Lo spicchio, the mirror; g!i spfcchi, the mirrors. II ciliegio, the cherry-tree; i cil'gi, the cherry-trees. c. Nouns in -go form their plural in -ghi. Nouns in -co form their plural in -chi if the penult is accented, otherwise in -ci. Ex.: Il castigo, the punishment; i castighi, the punishments. Un catdlogo, a catalogue; dde catdloghi, two catalogues. 1 fico, the fig; cinque fichi, five figs. Antico, ancient; gli antic/i, the ancients. Un mddico, a doctor; sdi midici, six doctors. This rule has a number of exceptions. In the following lists, words whose irregular plural is rare are omitted. * Provincia has provincie. In general borrowed words and words whose plural is necessarily very rare keep the i: auddcia, auddcie. t In old Italian and in poetry words in -ello and -ale often form their plural in -egli or -ei, -agli or -ai: capello, capci. NOUNS. 15 (i) Compound nouns in -logo denoting persons engaged in the sciences, and all compound nouns in -fago form their plural in -gi. Ex.: Ilfisidlogo, the physiologist; i fisidlogi, physiologists. Antro dfago, cannibal; antrofdfagi, cannibals. (2) The following words form their plural in -ci, although the penult is accented: - amico grico inimico nemico porco f Greco has a regular plural in the expression vini grechi. (3) The following words form their plural in -chi, although the penult is unaccented: - 6bbaco fdrmnaco lastrico rammarico str scico acrfstico indaco manico risico tossico carico o intanaco parroco sciatico traffico dim ntico $ intrinseco pizzico st8maco vilico ~ Acr&stico and fdirmaco have also regular plurals. d. Some masculines in o have an irregular plural in a; this plural is feminine. They are: centincio, "hundred"; miglidio, "thousand "; migio, " mile "; pdio, " pair "; zuovo, " egg." Many masculines in o have this irregular feminine plural in a besides the regular masculine plural in i. The most common are: brdcio, " arm "; dito, " finger"; frd/to, " fruit "; ginecchio, " knee "; grido, " shout"; Idbbro, "lip "; ligno, "wood "; mnimbro, " member"; mziro, " wall "; oricckio, " ear "; Osso, "bone." * Likewise the rare or obsolete words: flemmaglgo, idraggo, metallr/A, jdrgo (also reg. plur.), sortilego. "Magicians"= mdghi, "magi"= mdgi. t Likewise the rare words: aprico, lombrico (also reg.), uzvamico, vico. ý Likewise its compounds. ~ Likewise the rare or obsolete words: fildccico, mdntaco (also reg.) PsIdlico, sf/dccico, stdtico (noun), incico. 16 iG ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Ex.: Un id-io, a pair; sitte fidia, seven pairs.Li into brciccio, my arm; le Mae brdccia, thy arms. Li idbbro, the lip; le idbbra or iIidbbri, the lips. Un ý~sso, a bone; ie dssa or gi Jssi, the bones. Brdcio, gin Accklo, lcibbro, and orecckio nearly always have the irregular plural when denoting the two arms, knees, lips, or ears belonging to the same body. 24.,All monosyllables, and all nouns ending in i, ic, u, an accented vowel, or a consonant, are invariable. lEx.: fi re, the king; i re, the kings. Li brIndisi, the toast; i brindisi, the toasts, Una sfidcie, a kind; O5tto sfiecie, eight kinds. La virtu', virtue; le virtu", the virtues. Una citid', a city; didc cithi', ten cities. 2ý5. The following nouns have irregular plurals:Me "ox,")I pl. buoli; dio, "god," pl. d~ii, rndglie, "wife," pl. mdgli; zU6mo, "man," p1. uornini. EXERCISE 3. s6no I td'*tti animaldi. Il g~tto e il cane s6no' animd-i che ha'nno' quittro gatmbe, hatnno3 quaittro pie'di, e per6 si chiatmano4 quadrdpedi. II leo'ne e" ii piu" be~llo e ii piii maest6so d~i quadriipedi. Gli ]Icce~lli hatnno' du'e zaumpe; ed ha'nno3 le ali e con le Ali v6 -lano.5 Anche le farf~lle hitnno2 le Ali, Anche le alpi ha'nno' le ali, e v6lano.5 Le m6sche, le zanzatre, le ve~spe, e po~i m6lti M'tri animalini, simili a qutisti, si chialmano' inse~tti. Gli ucce~lli e gi' insetti nascono' dalle uova. Tu~tti qutisti animali vivono7 in mezzo all' 'aria. I pe'sci vivono7 in me~zzo all' itcqua. I pe'sci non hlinno 2 gambe; hdtnno3 d~lle p~rti qutille alettine; e con que'ste piccole *The article used with 0ii is g/l:. g/li dii NOUNS. I7 al0tte e con la c6da nu6tano e guizzan9 via nell' acqua, 1esti l1sti c6me un lampo. Qu6lle al6tte si chiamano4 pinne. Le lucertole strisciann su' mfri, hanno3 d6lle zampine, ma ras&nti rasenti al c6rpo, e quAndo si muovono 0 anche suilla trra, strisciano.1 Le serpi non hanno2 gambe; e qu6sti animali che non hanno2 gambe e che strisciano" sulla terra, c6me le lucertole e le serpi, si chiaman4 rettili. 1 E= is; sdno= are. 2 Have. 3 They have. 4 Si chidmano= are called. 5 They fly. 6 Are born. 7 Live. 8 They swim. 9 Dart. 10 Si mudvono =-they move. n Crawl, they crawl. J EXERCISE 4.1 Mignonettes are2 born from the seed. The seed, placed under ground, has3 sprouted; from one side it-has3 put-out4 shoots, which have-spread-out' through6 the ground, and from one side it-has3 sent forth the stalk, the little-branches,7 the leaves, and9 the flowers. Like mignonettes,s many other26 plants, herbs, and9 flowers spring'1 from the seed. Flowers, herbs, grain, and trees arecalledn vegetables. Vegetables have3 roots, trunk, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, and9 fruit. Plants first produce12 the flower and then the fruit. The trunk or stalk of plants is2 that13 which rests14 on the roots and 1 comes16 out from the ground;17 it-iscovered 8 with19 branches and with 19 leaves. Of the stalk of plants, --for instance, of the trunk of trees, - we-make-use20 for many purposes; we-make21 furniture, doors, windows, the beams that support2 ceilings, ships, carriages, and9 cars. The branches of trees are-burned,23 and give-us24 fire. Vegetables in-order-to25 live have3 need of earth, of water, and9 of light. 1 See 13, b. 2 Is=; are=sdno. 3 Has, it has=ha; have=hanno. 4 Msso. 5 Si sdno distese. 6 Fra. 7 Ramicilli. 8 Insert " and so." 9 Omit. 10 Ndscono. 11 Si chidmano. 12 Fdnno. 13 Qugllo. 14 Pdsa. 16 Insert "which." 1' Vine. 17 Insert "and." 18 Si ricu6pre. 19 Di. 20 Ci servidmo. 21 Faccidmo. 22 Riggono. 23 Si brzciano. 24 Ci ddnno. 25 Per. 26 Many other = mdlte ditre. 18 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. ADJECTIVES. 26. Adjectives agree with their substantives in gender and number. An adjective modifying two nouns of dif.[erent genders is generally put in the masculine plural. Ex.: II gdtto e fiulito, the cat is neat; stdnze jfulite, neat rooms. Una cdsa e un giardino bellini, a pretty house and garden. 27. Numeral and pronominal adjectives, billo, brdvo, budno, and the commonest adjectives of size and quantity, precede their nouns; adjectives of nationality, shape, and material follow. Adjectives whose use is prompted by emotion, and adjectives used in a figurative sense, generally precede. Otherwise, of the noun and adjective, the one that contains the chief idea comes last. Ex.: Trfifo idne, too much bread.; le grdndi citth, great cities. Questa fdlla rotdnda, this round ball; due cdni, two dogs. La budna mddre, the good mother; fdver' uomo, poor man! La vostra gentilissima l/itera, your kind letter. E un udmo gentilissimo, he is a kind man. GENDER AND NUMBER 28. Adjectives ending in o are masculine, and form their feminine in a. Adjectives in e are invariable in the singular. Ex.: Budno stival/tto, good boot; buona scdrfa, good shoe. IRagdzzo felice, happy boy; ragdzza felice, happy girl. 29. Adjectives form their plural in the same way as nouns (see 22, 23). Ex.: St budni cassettdni, six good bureaus; Otto budne s/ggiole, eight good chairs. Dle uonini felici, two happy men; tre donne felici, three happy women. ADJECTIVES. 19 a. Pareccki, "several," has for its feminine parecchie. b. Qutdlche, "some," is used only in the singular, even when the meaning is plural: as qudlche volta, "sometimes." c. When preceding a noun, bello, "beautiful," has forms similar to those of the definite article; and Sdnto, " Saint," and grdnde, "great," have corresponding forms in the singular.* Buono, "good," when preceding its noun, has a singular similar to the indefinite article. The masculine of these words (which is the only irregular part) is, therefore, as follows: - Before any consonant except s impure or z: bel, San, gran, buon; pl. bNi, Sdnti, grdndi, buzni. Before s impure or z: bNllo, Sdnto, grdnde, buono; pl. bNgli, Sdnti, grdndi, budni. Before a vowel: bell', Sant', grand', buon; pl. bdgli, Sdnti, grdndi, budni. When used after a noun or in the predicate these adjectives have their full forms (billo, belli, Sdnto, Sdnti, grdnde, grdndi, buono, buoni). Ex.: Un bel quddro, a fine picture; dde bli Idti, two fine beds. Un billo scaffdle, a fine bookcase; qudttro bigli stivdli, four fine boots. Un bell' dndito, a fine hall; mdlti bMgli orologi, many fine clocks. Una blla stifa, a fine stove; far/cchie b/lle tUnde, several fine curtains. IIp aldzzo e bllo, the palace is fine; le s/die son b/lle, the chairs are beautiful. San Pitro, Sdnto StIfano e Sant' Antonio, St. Peter, St. Stephen, and St. Anthony. Un granfudco, a big fire; grdndi camini, big fire-places. * Gran is, moreover, often used in the fem. sing. (for grdnde), and sometimes in the plur. (for grdndi); it is regularly used before fem. sing. nouns in -e, and in the expression una gran b/lla (or brutta) cosa. 20 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 11 grdnde scaldino, the big foot-warmer; didci grdndi sfilli, ten big pins. Un grdnde scidme, a great swarm; ilgrdnde zifolo, the large bung. Un grand' armddio, a big wardrobe; venti grdndi dlberi, twenty big trees. Una grdnde cdmera, a large bedroom; cinque grdndi findstre, five big windows. 1 salotto e mdlto grdnde, the parlor is very large. Un buon lime, a good lamp; buonifiammrferi, good matches. II buono sgab/llo, the good stool; nave budni scoldri, nine good pupils. II buon Blio, the good oil; far/cchi budni dghi, several good needles. Una budna cucina, a good kitchen; le budne candle, the good candles. I1 bambino e buono, the child is good. 30. Any adjective of either gender or either number may be used as a noun. Ex.: I budni, the good; la billa, the beautiful woman. COMPARISON. 31. All Italian adjectives form their comparative by prefixing piu "more," and their superlative by prefixing the definite article to the comparative. When the superlative immediately follows the noun, this article is omitted. Ex.: Billo, beautiful; fii billo, more beautiful; il fiu b/llo, the most beautiful. Lgngo, long; fpi lz ngo, longer; il piu idngo, the longest. La via fi~ cdrta, the shortest way. a. The following adjectives have an irregular comparison in addition to the regular one: Alto, high; fii dlto or superidre; il fii dlto or il superidre. Bdsso, low; piu bdsso or inferiore; il fiu bdsso or 1' inferidre, ADJECTIVES. 2 21 Budno, good; jfiiy bzuono or mzii~re; * il fi~ii buo~no or it migdure. Cattivo, bad; jfizi cattivo or fieggicre;* ii fgiziu cattivo or ii fieggiore. Grdnde, big; fiz~' grdnde or rnaggi~re; ii fi~ii grdnde or il maggio're. Piccolo, small; fIiii pizccolo or mincre;- iliil fiz' ccolo or il mirnore. "Higher " and " lower" are commonly rendered by p11/ aiub and pu1 bsso; superio're and inferico'e generally mean "1superior" and "1inferior." hMikfiore and pegvieoire are more used than p11/ buo'no and p11/ ca/tivo, which have the same sense. "Larger" and "1smaller " are generally p11/ grainde and p11/ piccolo; mqaggie're and mineire usually signify "1older " and "1younger." Ex.: z~/oi sidmno mzigi1/ri di l~5ro, we are better than they. Que'sta sdia da iprdnzo e' la p11/ý grdnde, this dining-room is the biggaest. Pietro e' itfratello rnino're, Peter is the youngest brother. 32. The adverb "less " is expressed by mc~o, "least " by ii rn~o. "As...as," "so... as") are tdnto...qudnto, tdnto.. comec, cosi. come, or simply qudnto. Ex.: QuiZa stdnza e' la mbw be//mna, that room is the least pretty. Pdo/o non e' idnto budno cdlue Robdrto, Paul isn't so good as Robert.. Giovdnnie dito qvdnto F~ififijo, John is as tall as Phillip. 33. "Than " is c/ic. Ex.: L' albirgo ce p11/ grdnde cke bei/o, the hotel is bigger than it is beautiful. But before a noun, a pronoun, or a numeral "than " is rendered by the preposition di (see 12). If, however, this "1than " is preceded by a word meaning "1rather," it is translated c/ic. *The adverbs "1better " and "1worse " are miglia and peiggzo. 22 22 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Ex.: Riccdrdo 'eipeggidre di me, Richard is worse than 1. Vdi sit/e Jii ricchi di ndi, you are richer than we. Mbi~o di c/n que, less than five. Piuldttslo la mor/e che ii disornore, rather death than dishonor. Before an inflected verb "1than " is c/ic non or di quel che. If the verb has a negative subject, " than " is c/ic. Ex.: Abbdiati/ii c/ic non mtorde, he harks more than he bites. Fromitlo me'no di quel c/ic do, I promise less than I give. Pii~` 10~o c/ic nessu'nfigiio Zo era sidlo, happier than any son had been. 34. "The more... the more," "the less...the less" are pi/i..pi/, rnlno. neno. "More " and "less " after a nmbr redip1i', di nz e"no. In speaking of time, "longer " after a negative is "1i Ex.: Ri/i stddio, ifiziu imtidro, the more I study, the more I learn Tre'nt/Igi~rni di mino, thirty days less. Nzon lo vedidmo fiz/zi, we see him no longer. EXERCISE 5. 1l s6le eP un glo~bo grandissimo e se~mpre infocalto: 6sso P gra~nde 6ltre un milio'ne di v0^lte pifi de'lla trra; e dire' che a' nostri 6cchi apalse3t'tnto phiu pliccolo! Anche 'la lfina,ch spke~nde4 duritnte la notte, e' rot6nda, ma e" m6lto phiu pliccola della te~rra, e grira5 into'rno a qu6sta0 continovam6nte. La lIdna non ha' hice da s',e ma la ric~ve 7 dal s6le. Ecco 8 perchii la lfi'na 6ra la vedhiamo' e 6ra non la vedialmo9 phi, 6ra ne vedhiamo9 mezza, 6ra uno spicchio, 6ra un po' phiu, 6ra un po' me'no, sec6ndo che di 6ssa ci si preSenta'0 Aina piirte rnaggi6re o min6re illumina'ta dal s6le. Le ste'lle s6no' tuitti que'i" pfinti lumin6si che vedia'mo 9 brillalre di nOtte nel firmaimento. Non credhiate,"3 per6, che le st~lle sianol pliccole c6me n61 le vedialmo9: ci paliono'4 cosi picci'ne per la smisuraita distatuza che c6rre" da l6ro a n6i; ma le st~Ile s6no' grandissime,.e cc n' &* di qullle'6; che s6no 'in AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 23 finitamente pitU grandi del s61e. Gli e1 che il s61e e m6no lontano di 6sse dalla terra che n6i abitiamo.'7 E L= is; s6no, siano (subj.) = are; ha = has. 2 To think. 8 It seems. 4 Shines. 5 Turns. 6 It. 7 La riceve = receives it. 8 That is. 9 Vedidmo=we see; la vedidmo=we see it; le vedidmo=we see them; ne vedidmo=we see of it. 10 Ci si presenta= there presents itself to us. 11 Those. 12 At. 18 Non credidte=do not think. 14 Ci pdiono= they seem to us. 15 Intervenes. 16 Ce n' di quglle = there are some. 17 Inhabit. EXERCISE 6. The moon is' in the middle of2 the sky. The moon is1 round; it-looks3 perfectly round like a melon. And it-looks," too, as big as a melon. The moon seems4.little because it-is' far, far from us who are5 on the earth. The moon renders6 a great service to men: because when everything is1 dark, it7 illumines8 with its beautiful light the earth which we-inhabit.9 The stars are'0 larger than the moon, but to-look-at-them" they-seem 12 smaller, because they-are'0 so-much13 further than the moon. The most beautiful,'4 the most intense14 light comes" from the sun. 1. 2 A. 3Par or pdre. 4 Si v'de. 5 Sidmo. 6 Fa. 7 ssa. 8 Rischidra. 9 Abitidmo. 10 Sdno. 11 A vednrle. 12 Pdiono. 13 Tdnto. 14 Both adjectives follow the noun. 15 ViYne. AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES; NUMERALS. AUGMENTATIVE AND DIMINUTIVE ENDINGS. 35. Instead of a word expressing size or quality the Italians often use a suffix. This suffix may be added to a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. When added to an adjective, and generally when added to a noun, it takes the gender of the word to which it is affixed: occasionally, 24 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. however, a suffix with masculine termination is added to a feminine noun, which thereby becomes masculine. A word loses its final vowel before a suffix; but the preceding consonant, if it be c or g, must keep its former quality: as Cdrlo + ino - Carlino, vdce + dne - vocione, pco + ino pockino, addgio + ino = adagino. a. The commonest ending is -issimo (fem. -issima), "very," which in general is added only to adjectives and adverbs. Adverbs in -minte add the -issima before the -minte (see 85). Any adjective may take it, and it is very often used in cases where it would be entirely superfluous in English. Ex.: Ldrgo, wide; largzissimo, very wide. Bdne, well; benissimo, very well. Grdnde, big; grandissimo, very big. Fa un tempo bellissimo, it's beautiful weather. Bellissimaminte, very beautifully. b. The principal suffix denoting bigness is -one; it is always masculine, but has a rare feminine form, -dna. Ex.: Libro, book; librdne, big book. Cdsa, house; casone, large house. Boccia, decanter; boccidna, big decanter. e. The most important suffixes denoting smallness are -ino, "-cino, -icino, -iccino, -itto, - llo, -cillo, -icillo, -arillo, -erillo, -6 tto, -ccio, -izzo, -udlo, with their fem. -ina, etc. These endings, especially -zccio, are often used to express affection; some of them may be used to express pity or contempt. Otto sometimes means " somewhat large " instead of " small." Ex.: Sordlla, sister; sorellina, little sister. Billo, beautiful; bellino, pretty. Brzitto, ugly; bruttino, rather ugly. Pidzza, square; fiazzUtta, little square. Gidrgio, George; Giorgetto, Georgie. NUMERALS. 25 Camfdna, bell; campnanllo, little bell. Aquila, eagle; aquildtto, eaglet. Cdsa, house; casotta, rather large house. Giovdnni, John; Giovannzccio, dear little Johnny. Pdzzo, mad; pazzarZlla, poor mad woman. Povero, poor; foverini, poor things! d. The ending -dccio denotes worthlessness. Ex.: Roba, stuff, goods; robdccia, trash. TýmpYo, weather; tempdccio, nasty weather. Alfrddo, Alfred; Alfreddccio, naughty Alfred. 36. Of the endings added to nouns -ino is by far the most common; the only ones that are freely used to form new compounds are -ino, " little," -dne, "great," -uiccio, "dear," and -dccio, "bad." In very many cases endings lose their character of independent suffixes, and become inseparable parts of certain words, whose meanings they often change: as scdla, "stairway"; scalino, "stair"; scalItto, "ladder." Some suffixes (as -udlo) are rarely used except in this way. Others (as -cino, -icino, -dllo, -cdllo, -icillo, -argllo, -erillo) cannot be attached to any word at pleasure, their use being determined by precedent or euphony. 37. Sometimes several suffixes are added at once to the same word: as Iddro, "thief"; ladrdne, "terrible thief"; ladroncello, "terrible little thief." NUMERALS. 38. The cardinal numerals are: - I, Z1no. 5, cinque. 9, ncve. 13, tridici. 2, due. 6, s1i. 1o, dieci. 14, quatt6rdici 3, Ire. 7, s9itle. II, undici. 15, quindici. 4, qudttro. 8, tto. 12, dddici, 16, sedici. 26) ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 17, diciasitte. 26, ventisii. 50, cinqudnta. 125, cento venti18, dicidtto. 27, ventisitte. 60, sessdnta. cinque. g19, dicianndve. 28, ventltto or 70, settdnta. 200, duginto or 20, vinti. vent' 6tto. 8o, oltdnta. duecinto. 21, ventlino or 29, ventinove. go90, novdnta. 250, duginto cinvent' zino. 30, trinta. ioo, cAnto. qudnta. 22, ventidde. 31, trentino or 0oI, cent'ino or 300, trecinto. 23, ventitr?. trent' ino. cent' 'no. 400oo, quattroceinto. 24, ventiqudttro. 32, trentadzie. 105, centocinque. 100ooo, nmile. 25, venticinque. 40, quardnta. 115, centoquindici. 2oo000, die mia. Uno has a feminine u'na; when used adjectively it has the same forms as the indefinite article; so also ventzino, etc. The plural of mille is mila. "A million " is un milidne or millidne, of which the plural is milidni or millidni. (I) No conjunction is used between the different parts of a number: as duge'nto quardnta, "two hundred and forty." No indefinite article is used before c/nto and mille: as cinto libri, "a hundred books." (2) Clto, dugnto, etc., when followed by another numeral of more than two syllables may lose the final syllable -to: as seicento cinqudnta or seicencinqudnta, "six hundred and fifty." (3) "Eleven hundred," "twelve hundred," etc., must be rendered milleccnto, mille dugnto, etc.: as milie ottoc/nto ottantasbtte, 1887. (4) " Both," "all three," etc., are tzitti (fem. tuitte) e dzie, tztti (fem. tzitte) e tre, etc. a. If the noun modified by ventino, trentino, etc., follows this numeral, it should be in the singular; if itprecees, in the plural. Ex.: Sessantzina lira or lire sessantina, 61 francs. b. In dates the definite article is prefixed to the number representing the year, if that number follows a preposition, or does not follow the name of a month. NUMERALS. 2 27 Ex.: AVe? mille ottoclno ottantasltte, in 1887. c. "What time is it? "is cke 0'ra? "It is six," etc., is so'no le. se'i, etc., bire being understood. "One o'clock " is ii mccco. Ex.: S~no le dzge e mdzzo, it's half-past two. S~no le tre e didci, it's ten minutes past three. Cimdncano vinti minz'ti duIe qildttro, it's twenty minutes to four. S~no le cinque meno un qzidrto, it's a quarter to five. 39. The ordinal numerals are: - I sty 2d, 3d, 40h, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, ioth, prirno. seccndo. 1e~rzo. qzidrto. quznto. sesto. su'ttimo. ottdvo. nolno. deucimo. undicimo or 12th, duodicimo or dicimio secc~ndo. 13th, tredice'sirno or d4cimo eirzo. 14th, quattordicsimo or dicino qstdrto. 15th, quindice'sirno or de~cimo quinto. i 6th, dekimzo sesto. I17th, ducimio settirno. i Sthy ducimo otidvo. 20th, ventu~sirno. 21 Sty sienteisimo pri'mo or ventune'simo. 22d, vente'simo sec~ndo.or ventidue'simno. 30th, trentelsirno. iooth, centisirno. Mi1st, cenl~simo primo. I 15th, centoquindice'simo. 200th, dugetidesimo. xoooth, m illeis imo. 2o00th, duemilisimo. de~cino pimo. 19th, dicirno nono. All of them form their feminines and plurals like other adjectives in o. Ex.: Le settantdsibne quinte case, the 75th things. a. Ordinal numerals are used after the words "1book," "1chapter," and the names of rulers; but no article intervenes. Ex.: Cdrlo sec~3ndo, Charles the Second; Rio rnono, Pius IX. Libro tdrzo, Book the Third; ca/dltolo qudrto, chapter four. b. For the day of the month, except the first, a cardinal numher is used. Ex.: Ii dzi cinque d' ajirile or ii cinque ajhrile, the fifth of April. Lllfrimo di mdggio, the first of May. 28 28 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. c"A third," "1a fourth," "1a fifth," etc., are un feýrzo,?inf qudir. t~o, un quinto, etc. "Half " is la metci,. the adjective " half " is 40. "A couple" or "1a pair " is un pdio. "A dozen" is zina dozzz'na. The expressions zina deci'nla, runa ventz'na, zuna trenti'na, etc., uiz centindlio, un rnzglid~io, mean "about ten," "cabout twenty," etc. (see 23, d). "Once," "twice," etc., are una volta, dzie volte, etc. Ex.: Un jidio di scdrfie, a pair of shoes. Una cinquantina di jierso'ne, some fifty persons. L' ho visto Parechie vd5ite, I've seen it several times. EXERCISE 7. Con 1' orol~gio si v6de' che 6re so~no. Un gi6rno e" ventiqua'ttr' 6re. Ce~rte 6re del gi6rno e62 lufime, ce~rte fire e"2 buiio. Un gi6rno e`3 ventiqua'ttr' fire, ma sfilla mfistra dell' orolb~gio, d~lle fire ce n'6 sgfte dfidici, perch6 le fire del giflrno si cfintano5 dal1'Una Alle d6dici., cosi': tficco, d-de, tre, qu~tttro, clinque, sei se~tte, 0tt, nove, di ci, findici e dfidici. Arriva'ti a dfidici non si s&guitaq a dire tr6dici, quattfirdici, e vila fino a ventiqua'ttro; ma si ricorninfcial da calpo dal tficco e si arri'va8 fino a d6dici. Ii cfinto tfirnal lo st~sso: inifitti le fire del gifirno son"' ventiqufittro,; e dfidici e dfidici, somma'ti insieme, ffirmano" ventiqu~ttro. Dfidici fire s6no"l la meta*' del gifirno. L' or olgio hall dfidici fire; e le "halsegna'te gilro giro Alla, mfistra. L' fira P~ sessa'nta minfiti; e 1' oro1 gi s~gna' Ainche i minfiti. Qu~lle righettinfe tfirno tfirno 611la mfistra, fra un' fira e un' ditra, sfino " i sessa'nta minfiti che ffirmano"1 1' fira. La lanc~tta gr~nde se'gna 14 i minfiti. La lancktta, picclina se'gna'14 le 6re. La lancltta grainde figni fira fa"h il giro di tfitti e sessa~nta i minlti; gira" tfitta la mfistra. La lanc6tta pi'ccola figni fira s~gna'14 un nufmero, e a girair tfitta la mfistra ci me'tte17 d6dici fire, perche6 dfidici son" le fire segnalte suilla m6 - NUMERALS. 29 stra. Ora s6no2 le d6dici; tutte e dfe le lanc6tte s6non sflle d6dici. Fra un' 6ra la lancetta grande avr s18 girata tuitta la m6 -stra, e sara1' daccapo sul numero 12, e la lanc6tta piccina sarai1 sull' (to. 1 Si vede= we see. 2 It is. 8 Is. 4 Ce n' ~= there are. 5 Si cdntano= are counted. 6 Non si siguita=zwe don't go on. 7 Si ricomincia= we begin over again. 8 Si arriva = we go. 9 Amounts to. 10 Make. 11 Are. 12 Has. 13 Le ha-= it has them. 14 Marks. 15 Makes. 16 It goes around. 17 Ci m/lte = it takes. 18 Will have. 19 Will be. EXERCISE 8. A year is1 365 days. Every seven days is' a week. The days of the week are-called2: Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday. Sunday3 is1 a4 holiday; the other days we-work,5 and therefore they-are-called2 working-days. The year is-divided6 into twelve months. The months are-called 2: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December.17 The month is1 thirty or thirty-one days.18 When the month begins,7 it-is-called8 the first of the month; the second day is-called8 the second of the month, the third, the third, and so-on9 until the thirtieth or thirty-first. January, March, May, July, August, October, and4 December have10 thirty-one days. April, June, September, and4 November have 0 thirty days. February is' the shortest month, because it-hasn twenty-eight days only.12 But every four years February has" twenty-nine days; and that16 year is-called13 leap-year. The year begins' from January; January is,' then,14 the first month of the year. The year ends15 with December; so'4 December is' the last month of the year. 1 E. 2 Si chidmano. 3 Use def. article. 4 Omit. 5 Si lavdra. 6 Si divide. 7 Comincia. 8 Si dice. 9 Cost. 10 Hdnno. 11 Ha. 12 Sdli. 13 Si chidma. 14 Dzinque. 15 Finisce. 16 Quell'. 17 Use no article with the names of months. 18 See 38, Uno, and 38, a. 30 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. DEMONSTRATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, RELATIVE, AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 41. For the indefinite pronouns, see 86-91. 42. (I) The demonstrative pronouns used adjectively are questo, "this," and quello or cotesto, "that." Cotesto (spelled also codesto) is used of objects near the person addressed. Questo and cotesto are inflected like other adjectives; but they generally drop o before a vowel. Que'llo is inflected like bEllo (see 29, c). Ex.: Quest' udmo, this man; queste ragdzze, these girls. Quel bambino, that infant; quHi fancizUli, those children. Quell' amico, that friend; qug4li spisi, that couple. Qudllo zio, that uncle; qudle signdre, those ladies. Qudsto and quello are also used substantively for "this," "that," "this one," "that one": as fdte qudsto, non fdte quello, "do this, don't do that." (2) "This man" is translated by questi, "that man" by quegli, que'i, or cotesti (rare); these words are invariable, refer only to persons, and are used only in the nominative singular. Costui and colbi mean respectively the same as questi and quegli, but are not defective, having a feminine singular costei, coldi, and a plural (both genders alike) costdro, coldro. Costui is often used in a depreciative sense. Ex.: Qudsti e francese e qudgli e tedksco, this man is French and that one is German. Chi e costhi, who is this fellow? Pdrlo di colii, I speak of that man. PRONOUNS. 31 (3) Cib, "this," "that," is invariable, and represents a whole idea, not a single word: as cib e vero, "that's so." a. Quello and questo, qudgli and questi mean also " the former," " the latter." b. "He who" is colzi che, or simply chi. "The one who, whom, which," "that which," "what" is quello che or quel che. Ex.: Chi lavdra or colhi che lavdra, he who works. Quel che dico io, the one I mean. A quel che sbnto, from what I hear. 43. The interrogative "who," "whom," is chi. "What?" used substantively is che, che cdsa, or cosa.* "What?" used adjectively is che or qudle. "Which?" is qudle. Qudle has a plural qudli; chi and che are invariable. "How much?" is qudnto (-a), " how many? " is qudnti (-e). Ex.: Chi vedo, whom do I see? Di chi farldte, of whom do you speak? Che cdsa dice, what does he say? Che or qudli libri avete comprdto, what books did you buy? Qudle di questi volgmi e il frimo, which of these volumes is the first? a. The interrogative " whose " is di chi. Ex.: Di chi? quisto biglietto, whose card is this? b. In exclamations "what a," "what," are rendered by che or qudle without any article. Ex.: Che bel faise, what a beautiful country! 44. The principal relative pronouns are che, cui, il qudle: they are all applied to both persons and things, and mean "who, "whom," "which," or "that." II qudle is inflected * Cdsa (as cdsa dice?) is. generally avoided in written Italian. Note that chi is used in indirect, as well as in direct questions. 32 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. (la qudle, i qudli, le qudli). Che and cui are invariable. in general che is used only as subject and direct object cui only after prepositions or as indirect object. In poetry inde is often used to signify of which or from which. Ex.: La lingua che si pdria, the language which we speak. L' udmo del qudle si trdtta, the man of whom we are speaking. Le persone a cdi or dlle qudli fidrlo, the persons to whom I speak. Lo scritto di cdi fdrlo, the work I am speaking of. (1) As subject or direct object che is preferred to il qudle, unless clearness requires the latter. (2) The relative " whose " is il czi or del qudle. Ex.: Una signora, il cui ndme e Lucia, a lady whose name is Lucy. tU udmo, le c'di figlie condsco, a man whose daughters I know. L' autdre, del cdi libro si fdrla, the author whose book we are speaking of. Le chidse ddlle qudli si vedono le c9jole, the churches whose domes we see. (3) The relative cannot be omitted in Italian. Ex.: Le cdse che ho comprdte, the houses I have bought. a. " Such... as " is tle... qudle; in poetry idle, qudle have a plural tdi, qudi instead of tdli, qudli. " As much as " is tdnlo udnto; " as many as " is tdnti qudnti. Ex.,: Qudle il fddre idle k il figlio, as is the father, so is the son b. "He who " is chi or coldi che (see 42, b). Ex.: Chi ha la sanit e' ricco, he who has health is rich. c. "Whoever" is chiunque; "whatever" as a substantive ir fitto quel che or checche, as an adjective qudle che, qualznque che, qualunque, per qudnto. These words, excepting t/tto quel che, all take the subjunctive. Checche is now but little used. PRONOUNS. 33 Ex.: Chidnque sidle, whoever you may be. Checc/e faccidte, fdtelo bdne, whatever you do, do it well. Tdtto quel che volete, whatever you wish. Qudli cke siano i vostri motivi, whatever your mptives may be Qualdnque siano i sudi taldcnti, whatever his talents may be. In qualznque stdto che io mi trdvi, in whatever condition I may find myself. Per qudnte ricc/dzze igli dbbia, whatever riches he may have. 45. The possessive pronouns are: - My: m., ii mio, f., la mia,. p, i mini, f. pl., le mie. Thy: ii t/o, la tla, i u0i, le tie. His, her, its: ii s'o, la sua, i suti, le s e. Our: i nstro, to 0stra, i nostri, le nostre Your: it vtstro, la vtstra, i vtstri, le vdstre. Their: il Idro, la Idro, i Idro, le Iro. Lo'ro is invariable; the others agree with the object possessed: as ii mnio ndso, " my nose "; la sda bdcca, " his, her mouth "; i vdstri dcc/i, "your eyes "; le idro Idbbra, " their lips." When the possessive stands alone in the predicate, the article is omitted if the possessive is used adjectively. Ex.: Qutsto capplto e ntio, this hat is mine. Quzesto capfillo ' il ino, tkis hat is mine (i.e., the one that belongs to me). a. The article (unless it might be used in English) is omitted before the possessive: (i) When a numeral, an adjective of quan. tity, or a demonstrative or interrogative adjective precedes it: as dtie cdni sudi, " two dogs of his" (but i ddie cdni sudi, " the two dogs of his" or "his two dogs"); midi mili amicd, "many friends of mine" (but i mdti mizi amici, "the many friends of mine" or " my many friends"); quisto dio dzfetIo, "this fault of thine." (2) When the possessive forms part of a title: as Vistra Maesta, 34 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. "Your Majesty"; Stza Alt/zza, "His Highness." (3) When the possessive modifies a noun used in the vocative (in this case the possessive generally follows its noun): as amico mio, "my friend!" (4) The article is generally omitted also when the possessive precedes a noun in the singular expressing relationship: as nostra mddre, "our mother." But if the noun has a diminutive ending, or an adjective precedes the noun, the article is not omitted: as il tNo fratellino, "thy little brother"; la vostra gentilissima sorVlla, "your kind sister." (5) The article is omitted also in certain phrases, such as: da pdrte mia, " for me "; per amor mlo, " for my sake"; in casa nostra, "in our house"; a mddo suo, "in his own way"; e cslpa vdstra, "it's your fault." b. The possessive, when not necessary for clearness, is usually replaced by a definite article. Ex.: COme sta la mdmma, how is your mother? Ha perdito il giudizio, he has lost his senses. Bdttono i iiddi, they stamp their feet. c. When the name of the thing possessed is direct object of a verb, the Italians often use instead of the possessive a conjunctive personal pronoun (see 47) and a definite article. If the thing possessed be a part of the body or clothing, this construction is frequent, even when the name of the thing is not object of a verb. Ex.: Si strdppa i capilli, he tears his hair (lit., he tears to himself the hairs). Mi tdglio il dito, I cut my finger (I cut to myself the finger). II cdne gli agguant' la gdmba, the dog seized his leg (seized to him the leg). Mi duole il cdpo, my head aches (to me aches the head). d. When the possessor is not the subject of the sentence, "his," "her" are, for the sake of clearness, often rendered di Mii, di 1li: as egli non conosce il di Idi cuore, "he does not know her heart." e. "A... of mine, of thine," etc., is un mio, un tzo, etc.: as Una nostra cugina, "a cousin of ours." PRONOUNS. 3 35 EXERCISE 9. Qwindo c~tdde' 1' impe~ro, Sie~na soifri2 m6no d~lle Adtre cittA tosceine datlle invasi6ni d~i batrbari; ma ve'nne' 0~t la signoria d~i Longobatrdi, e p 0i fu I fina d~lle citta' libere di Carlom~igno, nf.'i c6nti e bar6ni del qualle, arricchiti da'lle te~rre e da'i caste~lli che die~de5 16ro6 1' imperat6re, i n Obili sen~si cr6dono7 trov1atre 1' origine di Fire'nze i cittadi'ni di qu~sto comi'ne cerca'ano' di distrifiggere,2 abbandona'ronoO volontariam~nte i l6ro caste~lli nel territi~rio sen~se, ed entd~rono ' nt~lla citta', die da 6ssi e da'i v~scovi veniva 4 abbellita di gr~ndi pakt'zzi e governalta con A'na ma'no di fe~rro, finche"1 icomfini non'1 si levalrono 12 e non" ft~cero"1 prevah~re ii l6ro dirittv a participa'tre n~lla co~sa pi'ibblica. 1 Fell. 2 Suffered. 3 It came. 4 Was. 5 Gave. 6 To them. 7Think, believe, 8' Were trying. 'Abandoned. 10 Entered. 11Fincke* non = until 12 Si levdrono =arose. 13 Made. EXERCISE 10. Charles V made' of Siena a fief for his so-n- Philip HI, who cededit 2 to Cosimo 1, and the latter built-there' the fort which the Spaniards had-tried-to 4 construct. The city remained" under the rule of the good dukes of Lorraine, until Napoleon made-it6 capital of the department of the Ombrone. After the fall of the emperor, it-returned7 under the dominion of the dukes. In' i86o it-was9 the first Tuscan city that voted'0 the union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel 11, the only honest king of whom history speaks." I Fe'ce. 2 La cedgu/e. 3 Vi fabbriccb. 4 Avdvano vohhio. 5 Rest3. 6 La flece. 7 -Riloi-nb.- 8 See 38, b. 9. Fu. -10 Voldsse. 11 Z'drli, which should precede its subject. 36 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 46. Personal pronouns are divided into two classes, conjunctive and disjunctive: the conjunctive forms are those used as direct object of a verb, and as indirect object without a preposition; the disjunctive forms are those used as subject of a verb, and as object of a preposition. Ex.: EGLI ve 1o dda er ME. He to you it gives for me. CONJUNCTIVE FORMS. 47. Conjunctive pronouns are always unaccented, and cannot be separated from the verb, which they sometimes follow but oftener precede, as will be explained in 48. They are used only as direct object of a verb or as indirect object without a preposition. The forms are:*Mi, me, to me. Ti, thee, to thee. Ci, us, to us.* Vi, you, to you. Si (reflexive), himself, to himself; herself, to herself; itself, to itself. Si (reflexive), themselves, to themselves. Lo, him;* gli, to him.f La, her; le, to her. Li, them (masc.); ldro, to them.f Le, them (fem.); ldro, to them. "It" must be rendered by a masculine or feminine form, according to the gender of the noun it represents. "It" representing not a word, but a whole clause, is lo.4 Ex.: Mi con&sce, he knows me; Li do i libri, I give thee the books. Ci vedite, you see us; vi dico litto, I tell you everything. Si viste, he dresses himself; si divdrtono, they amuse them. selves. * In old Italian and in poetry ne is often used for ci, and il for lo. t In conversation li is often used for gli, and gli or li for ldro. I In certain idiomatic phrases la represents an indefinite object: as pa. gdrla cdra, "to pay dearly for it." PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 37 Acco 1' dro: ve lo do, here's the gold: I give it to you. Ecco la jdlla: la vido, here's the ball: I see it. Cdme Potiva sapire se io veniva o no - Lo ha indovindto. - " How could he tell whether I was coming or not?" " He guessed it." (1) It will be seen that the third person (not reflexive) has different forms for the direct and the indirect object. Ex.: Lo trovdi, I found him; gli fici un regdlo, I made him a present; la Idscia, he leaves her; le scrive, he writes to her. Li cercdte, you seek them (masc.); le salutdte, you greet them (fer.)'; mandidmo hlro mille saliti, we send them (masc. or fem.) a thousand greetings. (2) The reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons are mi, ci; ti, vi. All plural reflexive pronouns are used also as reciprocal pronouns. A verb is called reflexive when it has as direct or indirect object a conjunctive pronoun representing the same person as its subject. Ex.: Midefendo, I defend myself; vi lavdte, you wash yourselves. Sifa ondre, she does herself credit; si diano, they hate each other; ci amidmo, we love one another. (3) Another conjunctive pronoun is ne,* "of it," "of them "; it corresponds also to "any," "some" when these words mean "any, some of it," "any, some of them." It is often used pleonastically in Italian. Ex.: Ne fdrla, he speaks of it; ne ho, I have some. Non ne abbidmo, we haven't any; ne volite, do you want any? Tu ne afprofitti di questa liberti, you make good use of this liberty. a. Vi, " you," and ci and ne, "us," are not distinguished by form nor position from the adverbs vi, ci, meaning " there," "here," "to it," "to them,"t and the adverb ne, "thence "'(see 84):* as ci vddo, " I go there"; vi e stdto, "he has been there." * Cf. French en. t Cf. French y. 38 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 48. The conjunctive pronouns, except loro, immediately precede the verb: as mi veddte, "you see me"; non lo capisco, "I don't understand him." But when the verb is an infinitive,* a positive imperative,t a present participle, or a past participle used without an auxiliary, the pronoun follows the verb, and is written as one word with it: as per vederlo, "to see him"; dZ averlo veduito, "to have seen him "; vedeteli, "see them "; vedindoci, "seeing us"; av/ndoci vedzito, "having seen us"; vedutoti, "having seen thee." The addition of the pronoun does not change the place of the accent. Ldro always follows the verb, but is never united to it: as egli dd loro del vino, "he gives them some wine"; parcite Idro, "speak to them." f a. When an infinitive depends immediately (without an intervening preposition) on another verb, a conjunctive pronoun belonging to the infinitive may go with either verb: as posso veddrti or t/ posso vedere, " I can see thee." If both verbs have objects, the main verb regularly takes all conjunctive pronouns: as ve lo sinto dire, "I hear you say it." See 55, first paragraph, end. If, however, the main verb is impersonal, it cannot take the object of the infinitive: as biscgna fdrlo, "it is necessary to do it." If the main verb is fdre, lascidre, sentire, udire, or veddre, it must take the pronoun: as lofa chiamdre, "he has him called." A reflexive pronoun oftenest goes with the main verb. If the main verb is fdre, and the dependent infinitive has a direct object, the object of fdre, if it has one, must be indirect: * Not the infinitive used - with a negative - as imperative (see 72): as non lofadre, "do not do it " (second pers. sing.). t Not the negative imperative, nor the subjunctive used imperatively (see 77, a): as non li guarddte, " do not look at them "; si rgoli, " let him moderate himself" (third pers. sing. pres. subj.). t Students should follow strictly all of these rules; but they will find that the first is, in certain cases, not always observed by good Italian writers. In literature a pronoun often follows a verb that begins a sentence. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 39 as le fa avere la dlttera, "he lets her have the letter"; fdteli veddre a quel signore, "let that gentleman see them"; dovr'i fdrglielo accettdre, "I ought to make him accept it." This construction is generally used also with lascidre, "to let," and often with sentire and udire, " to hear," and vedire, " to see." Note that the main verb takes all conjunctive pronouns. b. When a conjunctive pronoun is joined to an infinitive, that infinitive drops its final e; if it ends in -rre, it drops -re: asfdrlo (fdre), "to do it"; condzrvi (condzrre), " to conduct you." c. The final vowel of mi, ti, si is often, and that of lo, la is nearly always elided before a verb beginning with a vowel: as f dmo, "I love thee "; 1' ho visto, " I've seen him." d. All conjunctive pronouns except gli and glie (see 50) double their initial consonant when added to any form of a verb that ends in an accented vowel: as ddmmi (imper. da' from ddre), "give me "; dillo (imper. di' from dire), "say it"; parlerolle (antique, for le parlerb), " I shall speak to her." e. Pronouns are joined to the interjection ecco, "see here," just as they are joined to the imperative of a verb: as eccomi, "here I am "; eccotelo prdnto, " here it is ready for thee." 49. When two conjunctive pronouns come together, the indirect object precedes the direct: as mi vi pres/nta, "he introduces you to me"; non vuol presentdrvimi, "he will not introduce me to you"; gli si presentb un udmo, "a man presented himself to him." See, however, 55, end. Loro, however, always comes last: as presentdtela Idro, "introduce her to them." Ne follows all forms except Idro: as me ne dd, "he gives me some "; ddtene ldro, "give them some." 50. Mi, ti, ci, vi, si change their i to e before lo, la, li, le, ne (pronoun or adverb); and if the two words follow the verb, they are joined together: as me lo dice, "he tells me 40 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. it"; ve ne domdndo, "I ask you for some "; manddtecelo, "send it to us."* Gli and le ("to her") become glie before lo, la, li, le, ne, and unite with them: as glieli mdndo, "I send them to him, to her"; voglio ddrglielo, "I wish to give it to him, to her." DISJUNCTIVE FORMS. 51. These forms are so called because they do not necessarily stand next to the verb. Disjunctive pronouns have two cases, nominative and objective. The objective case is used only after prepositions (for exceptions, see 51, a, b). The disjunctive forms are these:lo, I; me, me. Tu, thou; te, thee. Ndi, we; ndi, us. Vdi, you; vdi, you. { Agli, li, esso, he; l/i, esso, him. /lla, lis, ssa, she; li, essa, her. 5 Assi, ldro (iglino), they (masc.); ldro, essi, them (masc.)..Asse, Idro (illeno), they (fem.); ldro, isse, them (fem.). "It" must be rendered by a masculine or feminine form, according to the gender of the noun it represents. "It" as subject of an impersonal verb is regularly not expressed (see, however, 51, k). Ex.: La cdsa e grandissimna, e intorno ad issa c' e un giardino, the house is very large, and around it there is a garden. Non e viro, it isn't true; fiz've, it rains. (i) The various pronouns of the third person are used as follows. In speaking of things the different forms of esso are generally employed. In speaking of persons egli * In poetry me lo, me ne, etc., often become mel, men, etc.: as tel dico, "I tell thee so "; sen tdrna, "he returns thence." Non lo often = nol. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 41 (or 'sso), ella (or essa), pl. Issi, e'sse are used for the nominative in written Italian, but in the spoken language they are replaced by bli, Idi, idro; for the objective lIi, eIi, ldro are used both in conversation and in writing. Eglino and dlleno are antique forms. For "he who," etc., see 42, b. Ex.: Qudste cdse slno vire anch' isse, these things are true, too. Ella fdrla con lIro, she speaks with them. Ldi 2 gidvane ma di 2 vicchio, she is young, but he is old. Vdnnero da nWi anch' issi, they came to us, too. (2) As the Italian verb denotes by its endings the person and number of its subject, the personal pronouns of the nominative case are generally omitted. When expressed (for clearness, emphasis, or euphony), they may precede or follow the verb; in dependent clauses they nearly always follow. The subject of an interrogative verb usually comes after it, as in English. Ex.: Parlidmo di li, we speak of him; non vddo, I don't go. S' io fissi ricco cdme e Igli,'if I were rich as he is. (3) The disjunctive reflexive pronoun is s4, which is masculine and feminine, singular and plural. Ex.: Lo ftcero da se, they did it by themselves. a. Use the objective case: (i) When a pronoun of the third person is not subject of an expressed verb: as bedto lii, " happy he! " tAnto i genitori che lIi sdno ricchi, " his parents as well as he are rich." (2) When the pronoun stands in the predicate after the verb essere:. as creddndo ch' io fissi le,. " thinking I was you." But " it is I," etc., are sino io, sdi tzu, e li, e ldi, sidmo noi, sidle voi, sdno liro. (3) In the cases mentioned in 51, b. 42 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. b. (i) Clearness or emphasis occasionally requires the disjunctive pronoun instead of the conjunctive; in this case the conjunctive form is often inserted also. Ex.: Pdrlo a vdi signdre, I speak to you, sir. Mi fidce dnche a.me, it pleases me too. (2) The disjunctive form must always be used when the verb has two direct or two indirect objects. Ex.: Vedo ii e ZIi, I see him and her. Lo do a mio fddre e a te, I give it to my father and to thee. c. In speaking of a company, a class, or a people noi aitri, vdi ditri (which are also written as one word) are used for ndi, vdi. Ex.: Ndi ditri italidni, we Italians. Vdi dltri fittdri, you painters. d. "With me," "with thee," "with himself, herself, themselves " are either con me, etc., or meco, teco, seco. e. "Myself," "thyself," etc., used for emphasis with a pronoun or noun, are rendered by the adjective stesso. Ex.: Ndi stessi la vedemmo, we saw her ourselves. f. " One another," " each other " is 1' un 1' dltro. Ex.: Ci amidmo 1' un l'dltro, we love one another. g. In Florence illa is often shortened into la (plural le), which is used of both persons and things. In poetry ýgli becomes ei. Ex.: La non vidne, she doesn't come. Pdre che la si fdssa tenbr in mdno, it looks as if it might be held in the hand. h. In impersonal phrases like "it is" the subject, "it," is occasionally expressed in Italian; it is then translated egli, which in the spoken language is shortened into gli. Ex.: Gli e che, it is because. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 43 52. (I) The usual form of address in Italy is Ella * (or ella), objective Lei (or /li); in conversation Ella is replaced by Lei (or ldi). This word really means "it," and takes the verb in the third person; but an adjective or past participle modifying it agrees in gender with the person it represents. The plural of Ella is Ldro (or ldro), which takes the verb in the third person plural. Ex.: Lei or Ella e tedlsco, signdre, you are German, sir. Signorina Ndri, Ldi (or Ella) fu lascidta sdla, Miss Neri, you were left alone. Sdno lidto che La stia bdne (see 51, g), I'm glad you are well. E L6ro, d6ve vdnno, and you, where are you going? Ldro drano gid fartiti, you were already gone. Signorine, Idro slno mdlto studidse, young ladies, you are very studious. Like other personal pronouns, Ella and Ldro are very often omitted in the nominative. Lei trfppo gentile or e trdppo gentile, you are too kind. Cdme stdnno, how do you (pl.) do? The conjunctive forms of Ella are La, Le (or la, le), those of Ldro are Li, Le, Ldro (or li, le, ldro); they occupy the same positions and undergo the same modifications as the corresponding pronouns of the third person (see 48, 49, 50). The reflexive pronoun of Ella and Ldro is si. Ex.: Le fromntto di visitdrla, I promise (you) to visit you. Glidlo do, I give it to you. La prigo d' accomoddrsi, I beg you to seat yourself. Vidi Ldi e il bdbbo, I saw you and your father (see 51, b, 2). Dico ldro, I tell you (pl.). * Standing for Vstlra Signoria, "your lordship" or "ladyship," or some other title of the feminine gender. 44 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Le cercdva, I was looking for you (fer. pi.). Si divdrtono, szgnorini, are you enjoying yourselves, young gentlemen? The possessive of Ella is Suo (or szo). See 45. Ex.: La Szia gradita Idttera, your welcome letter. (2) Vdi is the form of address oftenest found in books; it is used sometimes in conversation also, but only toward inferiors or toward equals with whom one is on familiar terms.* It is employed for both plural and singular (like English "you"), although its verb is always plural; an adjective or participle modifying it agrees in gender and number with the person or persons it represents. Ex.: Vdi qui, PiDtro, You here, Peter? Vdi sidte dlti tztti e dzie, you are tall, both of you. (3) In speaking to an intimate friend, a near relative, a child, or an animal the only form of address is tu. Tu is used also, like English "thou," in poetry and poetic prose. The plural of tu is voi. Ex.: Ti chidmo Enrico, I call you Henry. Dove sdi tzi, where art thou? Viglio veddrvi, figliudli midi, my children, I wish to see you. EXERCISE II. Tant' 1! dic6va2 tra se un gi6rno Niccolino; v6glio3 ved6re se quegli uccellini son4 niti. Li guardo5 solam6nte e riscendo6 sdbito. - E Niccolino s' arrampica7 su per quell' albero, tentando8 d' arrivire al nido per levArsi quella curiosita. Ma sul piu bello,9 sente10 la v6ce del babbo il quile era"1 li presso nella viottola; "* Though advocated by some of the best writers and speakers of Italian, the use of voi instead of LIi and Ldro has not become general. In Southern Italy, however, vdi is the form popularly used. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 45 vu6le '2 sc6nder I1sto per non firsi cogliere in fdllo, ma n61a fdria Si smarrisce,' gli mdnca14 ii sost6gno, precipita'1 a terra, e cadendo16 Si fa mdle a" un piede. Ii dol6re lo fa'5 strillare; Oile grida c6rrono"s ii bdbbo e la mamma che lo racc6lgono2" esclamindo2': - Te 1' abbi6mo22 d6tto le cento v6lte che a' nidi non ti dov6vis voltAr nemm6no: ecco quel che succede24 ai curi6si e a' disubbidi nti. -E sorte per lui che lo sentirono,2 perche cosi pot6rono26 pr6nti bagnirgli ii piede coll' acqua fr6dda, e d6po av6rglielo tendto in quell' acqua par6cchio tempo, pot6rons fasci6rglielo str6tto; in qu6sto m6do e d6po quilche gi6rno di rip6so asso16to, Niccolino pote 2 ricominci6re a fire quilche pisso per casa. 1 I don't care. 2 Said. 1 want. 4 Are. 6 I will look at.,6 Will come down again. Climbs. 8 Trying. 9 Sul piii bZllo= at the critical moment. 10 He hears. 11 Was. 12He tries. 13 He gets confused. 14 Fails. 15 He tumbles. 16 Falling. 17Fa mdle a= he injures. 18 Makes. 19 Run. 20 Pick up. 21 Exclaiming. 22 We have. 26 Non dovivi you mustn't. 24Happens. 25 They heard. 26They could. 27Was able. EXERCISE 12. [In this exercise CARLINO and GORO use v6i; ARMANDO uses 5di before GORO enters, Lei afterwards.] Carlino. Sir, we are' alone. Armando. So it seems2 (looking' around). Carlino. I repeat4 to you that we are' alone (louder). Armando. But I tell5 you that I admit-it.6 Carlino. It is' time to-raise8 the mask - Armnindao. (Oh-my'! this-fellow '0 has" recognized me.) Carino. And to15 speak plainly. Armindo. That is7 what I wantedl2 to15 do, but they inter tupted1 me all-the-time." Carino. Do"15 you see'6 that grove over-there? Armda'ndo. I see" it. Carino. There nobody will-interrupt'8 you. Armdndo. Must'9 I go there to speak (surprised)? Carino. We shall-go" together. 46 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Enter" GORO with two guns. Carlino. (Taking21 one of-them) Take" the other. Armdndo. Thanks, I am"23not24 a"2 hunter. Gdro. Take22 it, or-else'6 -(brandishing" a thick club). Armdndo. Willingly - to28 satisfy you - excuse-me,29 is7 it loaded? Carlino. To-be-brief," you hate31 me; you must82 hate me. I hate"3 you. So47 over-there in that grove - at eighty paces from-each-other4- bang!" Either you kill36 me or I kill3 you. Armdndo. But I have"3 n't24 these sinister intentions, whichare15 contrary to my principles. Carlino. In that50 case you will-permit39 this-man-to-amusehimself-by-shaking40 the dust from your41 black coat with that club. Armdndo. No, indeed; what-are-you-thinking-of42? It wouldbe43 too much-trouble44 (Gdoro brandishes" the club) Be-easy.4 with the club. Car/ino. No? Then"4 Carolina must 4 be mine. Armdndo. You're-welcome-to-her.49 Car/ino. In that" case we are friends; but be-off 1 from"5 here, do-you-understand"? Armdndo. (What a4' nice way they have55 in this country!) i Sidio. 2 Pdre. 3 Guarddndo. 4 Rifpto. 5 Dico. 6 Ne conz'nzg. '7. 8 To (di) raise to one's self.... 9 Aki. 10 See 42, 2. 11 Ha. 12 Volivo. 13 Hdnno interrdtto. 14 Always. 15 Omit. 16 VedZte. 17 Vedo. 18 Interromper." 19 Divo. 20 Andr'mo. 21 Prendendo. 22 Prend'te. 23 Sdno. 24 Non, " not," must precede the verb. 25 See 16, a. 26 Altrimenti. 27 Agildndo. 28 Per. 29 ScIsi. 30 Alle cdrte. 81 Odidle. "2 Dovte. 33 Odio. 34 The one from the other. 35 Brun. 36 Amnmazzdle. 37 Ammdzzo. s3 Ho. '9 Permeltterite. 40 That this man amuses (diverta) himself to shake. 41 See 45, c. 42 Seems-it (pdre) to you? 43 Saribbe. 44 Incomodo. 45 Agita. 46 Stia buno. 47 DUnque. 48 Deve. 49 Take (pigli, subj.) her then (puhre) for-yourself. 50 Tal. 51 Via. 2 Di. sa Txndesie. 54 43, b. 5 Hdnno. AUXILIARY VERBS. 47 AUXILIARY VERBS. 53. The irregular verbs essere, "to be," and av4fte, "to have," are the ones most used as auxiliaries in Italian. They are conjugated as follows:a. fnfinitives: essere, to be; e'ssere sidlo, to have been. Participles: essendo, being; essendo stdto, having been; sidlo, been. Indicative. V4RESENT. Sdno, se., sidmo, sidle, s'no. IMPERFECT. Era, sri, era, eravdrno. eravdie. erano. PRETERITE. fdsli, fU9 fzimmo. fdsle, fsArono. FUTURE. Sa ra, sardi, sarai, saremo, sarete, sardnno. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. PRETERITE PERFECT. Sdno stido (sidta), Era stidto (sldla), Fjzi stdlo (sidla), etc. etc. etc. lidmo stdLi (stdte), eravdmo sldli(sld le),. fidmmo stdli(sldle), etc. etc. etc. Imperative. Subjunctive. PRESENT. Sia, Sii or sia, sia, sza, sidmo, sidmo, sidle. sidle, siano or sieno. IMPERFECT. Fdssi, fissi, fisse, fdssiro, /3sle, fdssero. FUTURE PERFECT. Sar3 sldto (sidla), etc. sare'mo sldli(sldle), etc. Conditional.. - Sa ri, saresti, saribbe. saremmo, sarestle, sar~bbero. PERFECT. Sarei sidlo (Sidla)" etc. PERFECT. Sia sidto (sid a), etc. PLUPERFECT. Fdssi sidlo (stdla), etc. 48 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. b. Infinitives: avber, to have; av're avWto, to have had. Participles: avendo, having; av~ndo avuto, having had; avieto, had Indicative. ~ PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PRETERITE. FUTURE. MP6 Aveva, Ebbi, Avro, kdai, avvi, avesli, avrdi, ha, a va, ebbbe, avr, abbidmo, avevdmo, avbrnmo. avremo, avble, avevdle, avbsle, avrbte, hdnno. avevano. Mbbero. avi-dnno. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. PRETERITE PERFECT. FUTURE PERFECT. Ho avzito, Avevcz avzv'o, Ebbi avzto, Avrb oav~o, etc. etc. etc. etc. Imperative. Subjunctive. ConditionaL PRESENT. IMPERFECT. Abbia, A4issi, Avreii, Abbi, dbbi or dbbia, avbssi, avrebsli, dbbia, avbsse, avrebBe, abbidmo, abbidmo, avessirno, avremmo, abbid/e. abbidie. avbsle, avrebste, dbbiano. av'Issero. avrbbbero. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT, PERFECT. Abbia avu'to, Avessi avzlo, Avrii av4to, etc. etc. etc. 54. (i) The auxiliary of the passive is dssere, "to be," Ex.: Szua aimdlo, I am loved. (2) The future (" shall," "will") and the conditional (" should," "would ") are formed in Italian without any auxiliary. Ex,: Jo andr3 ed ggli verr', I shall go, and he will come. Vorrdi vedbrlo, I should like to see him. AUXILIARY VERBS. 49 (3) The auxiliary of the perfect, pluperfect, preterite perfect, and future perfect tenses is avere, "to have," if the verb be active and transitive. If the verb be passive, reflexive, or reciprocal, the auxiliary is always essere. If the verb be intransitive, the auxiliary is generally essere, but sometimes av/re.* See 47, (2), on p. 37. Ex.: Ho parldto, I have spoken. Avivano fdtto qudste cdse, they had done these things. Mi sono fdtto mdle, I have hurt myself. Le ddnne si drano sbaglidte, the women had made a mistake. Sar3 venzto, I shall have come; e nevicdto, it has snowed. a. A past participle used with the auxiliary essere must agree with its subject in gender and number. But when the verb has a reflexive pronoun as indirect object, and some other word as direct object, the past participle may agree with the subject, or with the direct object, or remain invariable. Ex.: La ragdzza? torndta, the girl has returned. Le ddnne si sono disputdte, the women have disputed. La sordlla si e fdtta mdle, our sister has hurt herself. Ci sidmo fdtti ondre, we have done ourselves credit. Ci sidmo ddta (or ddto) fardla d' ondre, we have pledged our word of honor. b. A past participle used with avere may or may not agree with its direct object, according to the choice of the writer. It usually does not agree when the object follows; and it nearly always does agree when the object is a personal pronoun preceding the verb. Ex.: La birra che aviva bevdto (or bevdta), the beer he had drunk. Ho veddto mdlte cdse, I have seen many things. Li ho trovdti, I have found them. c. "To be," expressing a state or condition, is often rendered by stdre (92, 4), instead of essere. Stire per or Issere per (followed by the infinitive) means "to be on the point of." * The use of avire with intransitive verbs must be learned by practice. 50 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Ex.: Sto bene, I'm well; cdme sta, how are you? Stdva per uscire, I was just going out. d. English "am" (or "was ") + the present participle, when expressing duration, is rendered either by the simple present (or imperfect) or by the same tense of-stdre* + the present participle; when denoting futurity, it is translated by the future (or conditional), sometimes by the present (or imperfect). Ex.: Cammindva, he was walking; stdte lavordndo, you are working. Leggivano or stdvano leggindo, they were reading. Midito or sto meditdndo, I am meditating. Dice che verra (or viene), he says he is coming. Disse che verrebbe, he said he was coming. e. A verb with the auxiliary "used to" (or "would " = "used to") is translated either by the simple imperfect, or by the infinitive with soldre, " to be accustomed " (92, 14). Ex.: Vi anddva (or soliva anddre) 6gni sdra, he used to go there every evening. f. Venire, "to come" (92, 166), and rimanere, "to remain" (92, 16), are sometimes used as auxiliaries in the simple tenses of the passive, instead of issere. Anddre, "to go" (92, r), is similarly used, but always implying duty or obligation. Ex.: I lddri vinnero arrestdti, the thieves were arrested. Rimdse sorfresa, she was surprised. Ilfucile non va toccdto, the gun mustn't be touched. g. The English auxiliary " do " is not expressed in Italian. Ex.: Non vidne, he does not come. h. "To have a thing done " is far fire Una cdsa (92, 2). Ex.: Il re lo fece ammazzdre, the king had him killed. * Anddre (92, I) and venire (92, 166) are sometimes used instead of stdre. AUXILIARY VERBS. 51 55. The third person of the passive is very often replaced by the reflexive construction with si: as si raccdnta, " it is related"; qudsto libro si ldgge, "this book is read "; la spdda che mi si diede, "the sword that was given me"; quelle cose si facevano, "those things were done." Many writers always make the verb agree with its subject in number; but in popular speech the verb is nearly always in the singular when its subject follows (as if si were the subject of the verb, and the original subject were the object): as si ve'dono (or vede) moltissime cdse, "many things are seen "; non si pub (or pdssono) ldggere qudsti libri, "these books can't be read." Si belonging to a dependent infinitive always goes with the main verb; see 48, a. The construction with si is generally used also to render the English indefinite "they" followed by a verb: as si dice, "they say." In this sense it is employed with neuter as well as with transitive verbs: as si va spesso, " people often go." See also 63, a. In this construction an object pronoun may precede si: as lo sifa, "it is done." 56. Following are synopses of the compound tenses of transitive, neuter, reflexive, and passive verbs. In the paradigms given henceforth these forms will be omitted. a. Following is a synopsis of the compound tenses of trovdre, " to find," and venire, "to come ":Avere trovdto, to have found. Essere venzito, to have come. Av4ndo trovdto, having found. Essendo venito, having come. Ho trovdto, I have found. Sdno venztuo, I have come. AvAva trovdto, I had found. Ara venzto, I had come. Ebbi trovdto, I had found. Fzi venuto, I had come. Avrb trovdto, I shall have found. Sarb venzto, I shall have come. Avrii trovdto, I should have found. Sarei venuto, I should have come. Abbia trovdto, I have found. Sia venuto, I have come. Avessi trovdto, I had found. Fdssi venito, I had come. 52 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. b. Following is a synopsis of the compound tenses of alzdrsi ("to raise one's self"), "to get up," and anddrsene,* " to go away." Infinitive PERFECT: Essersi alzdto, Participle PERFECT: Essindosi alzdto, Indicative PERFECT: M1i sdno alzdto, PLUPERFECT: Mi era alzdto, PRETERITE PERFECT: Mi fdi alzdto, FUTURE PERFECT: Mli sard aizd/o, Conditional PERFECT: Mi sarei alzd to, Subjunctive PERFECT: Mi sia alzdto, PLUPERFECT: Mi fdssi a/zd/o. c. Following is a synopsis of the entire love ": - Essersene anddlo, Essindosene anddlo, Mle ne sdno anddto, Me ne fra anddto, Me ne fdi anddto, Me ne sard anddto, Me ne sarei anddto, Me ne sia anddto, Me ne fdssi anddto. passive of amdre, "to Infinitive PRESENT: Assere amdto, to be loved. PERFECT: Essere stdito amdto, to have been loved. Participle PRESENT: Ess/ndo amdto, being loved. PERFECT: Essindo stdto amdto, having been loved. Indicative PRESENT: Sdno amdto, I am loved. PERFECT: SdJt stdito amdto, I have been loved. IMPERFECT: Era amdto, I was loved. PLUPERFECT: Lra stdto amdto, I had been loved. PRETERITE: Fsii arndto, I was loved. PRETERITE PERFECT: F2i sdito amdto, I had been loved. FUTURE: Sard amdto, I shall be loved. FUTURE PERFECT: Saro stdito amdto, I shall have been loved. Conditional: SarHi anmdto, I should be loved. PERFECT: Sarei stdto amdto, I should have been loved. Imperative: S/i amdto, be loved. Subjunctive PRESENT: S/a amdto, I am loved. PERFECT: Sia stdto anmdto, I have been loved. IMPERFECT: Fdssi amdto, I were loved. PLUPERFECT: Fdssi stdto amd/o, I had been loved. * Anddrsene is composed of the verb anddre, " to go," the reflexive si, and the adverb ne, " thence" (see 47, a). AUXILIARY VERBS. 53 57. "May," "might," "can," "could" are generally rendered by the proper tense of potdre; "must," "ought," "shall" = "must," "should" = "ought," by dovdre;* "will" and "would" expressing volition, by volere.* Ex.: Pub &ssere viro, it may be true. Non fot~va jarldre, he couldn't speak. DIve Pagdrlo, he must pay him, he shall pay him. Dovrdbbe fdrlo, he ought to do it, he should do it. Vdglio safdre, I will know. Non vorrdi anddre, I wouldn't go. No preposition intervenes between these verbs and the dependent infinitive. Ex.: Hdnno fot/dto dormire, they have been able to sleep. Potrimo fartire, we shall be able to start. Dovymmo venire, we had to come. Dovrite trovdrla, you will have to find her. Vorrd torndre, he will want to return. Vorrei safire, I should like to know. These verbs are not defective, like the English modal auxiliaries; hence in Italian the tense is expressed by the auxiliary itself, and not by the dependent infinitive. To find the proper form of potere, dovere, or volere, replace "may," etc., by the correct tense of "to be able"; "must," etc., by "to be obliged"; "will," etc., by "to want" or "to like ": as "I could have said it " = "I should have (avrei) been able (potzito) to say. it (dirlo)" = avrdi poltto dirlo. Ex.: Avrlbbe dovitto tacere, he ought to have kept still. Avremmo voldto restdre, we would have stayed. * See 92, 21, 8, 19. The auxiliary of these verbs is regularly avere; but some writers use with them the auxiliary that belongs to the dependent infinitive: as hdnno potuto venire or sdno potuti venire, "they have been able to come." 54 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. a. " Must" is also expressed by the impersonal verb bisogndre, "to be necessary," followed by the infinitive or by che, "that," with the subjunctive. "To have to " is avdre da. Ex.: Bisdgna fdrlo, it must be done. Bisdgna che andidmo, we must go. Ho da scrivere 9na Idttera, I have to write a letter. b. "To be able " meaning " to know how" is sapere (see 92, 6). "Not to be able to help " doing a thing is non poler a meno di non (with infinitive) or non poter fdre a meno di (with infinitive). Ex.: Non sdffe fdrlo, he couldn't do it. Sa Idggere e scrivere, he can read and write. Non fote a mino di non ridere, he couldn't help laughing. EXERCISE 13. Giorg6tto e un bambino vispo, vispo. E soll6cito; Alle sette e gia levito, ed e gia andato nel giardino. E maggio, e il giardino e tdtto fiorito; rose, gigli, vile mandano 1 un od6re soave. Giorgetto si strdgge2 di c6gliere i fi6ri; ma la mamma non vuble I: la mamma lo ha lasciato andar nel giardino, a pAtto che non cogli6sse4 i fi6ri. A un trattto Giorg6tto v6de1 fna rosa piu' bella di tutte le altre, non resiste6 pi al desiderio di pigliatrla. La mdmma non lo sapra,7 non lo pub0 sap6re, - dice9 fra s& Giorg6tto; e stende10 la mAno al cespuglio, ed e per coglierla. Ma che & stato? Ritira" lesto la mino, e grida," e piange.13 La rosa ha le spine: il sdo gatmbo nasc6sto tra bellissime f6glie e tdtto pieno di spine; e le spine gli hanno bucato tdtta la mano. La mano & sanguin6sa; e Giorg6tto piange,18 e la,mimma 6ra si avvedra.14 che il suo bambino e disobbediente. 1 Send forth. 2 Is dying. 3 Is willing. 4 He should pick. 5 Sees. 6 Re sists. 7 Will know. 8 Can. 9 Says. 10 Stretches out. 11 He draws back. 12 Screams. 13 Cries. 14 Will see. REGULAR AND IRREGUI-AR VERBS. 55 EXERCISE 14. Silvio Pellico was1 confined in prison; and there, in the silence of his2 dungeon, he found3 a friend, a companion -a spider. Yes, a spider made4 his web in a corner of the prison, and Silvio did' not-destroy-it6; on-the-contrary,7 he used-to-throw8 him' crumbs9 of bread, and little by little he became-so-attached10 to that spider, and the spider to him, that the creature used-to-come-down" from his web and go12 to find Pellico,1 and would-go12 on his 14 hand and take 1 food9 from his 14 fingers. One day the jailer removed16 the unhappy Pellico. The prisoner thought-of"1 his spider, and saidl: "Now that I am-going-away,'9 he will-come-back20 perhaps, and will-find 21 the prison empty; or if there-is22 somebody else here,23 he may4 be an enemy of spiders,9 and tear down that beautiful web and crush the poor beast." 1 Preterite. 2 See 45, b. 8 Trovd. 4 FIce. 5 See 54, g. 6 Not to-him it destroyed (disfice). Anzi. 8Buttdva: see 54, e. 9 Def. art. 10 Tdnto si affezionb. 11 Si moveva: see 54, e. 12 Anddva. 18 See 13, e. 4 See 45, c. 15 Prendiva. 16 Mlutb di stdnza. 17 Penso a. 18 Di)sse. 19 See 54, d: me ne vddo. 20 Ritornerd. 21 Troverd. 22 Vi sara. 23 Omit. 24 Potr bbe. see 57. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 58. Italian verbs are divided into four conjugations, according as the infinitive ending is -dre, accented -dre, unaccented -ere (or -rre), or -ire. Regular verbs of the second and third conjugations are, however, inflected just alike. a. The final e of the infinitive may be dropped before any word except one beginning with s impure.* "* Cf. 10, b; 14, b. Italians find it hard to pronounce three consecutive consonants of which the middle one is s. 56 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. THE REGULAR VERB. 59. Pardlre, "to speak," will serve as a model for the first conjugation. All compound tenses are omitted (see 56):Infinitive and Participles. Parldre, paridndo, parid/o. Indicative. PRESENT. Pdrio, pdr/i, pdria, parlidmo, pardite, pdrlano. Imperative. IMPERFECT. Paridva, paridvi, parldva, pari1avdmo, pariavdte, paridvano. PRETERITE. Par/di, paridsli, parZb, parldmmo, parldsle, par/drono. FUTURE. Pa rler0, Parlerdi, parlera, parlereimo, parlergle, parlerdnno. Conditional Parler.i, par/er/sli, par/erebbe, par/erimnzo, parlereslfe, par/er/bbero, Subjunctive. Pdr/a, par/idmo, par/die. PRESENT. PdEr'/i, Jdr/i, pdr/i, par/idmo, pari/d/e, pdr/ino. IMPERFECT. iPar/dssi, par/dssi, par/dsse, par/dssimo, Par/dste, paridssero. a. Verbs whose infinitives end in -care or -gare insert h after the c or g in all forms where those letters precede e or i: as jAdg/ti (pagdr-e), "let him pay"; cerc/ero" (cerca/re)., "I shall search." Verbs in -ciare and -glare drop the i before e or i: as mangi (mangidre), "thou eatest"; comincerM * (cornclancire), "he will * Some writers retain the i before e: as cominciera'. REGULAR VERBS. 57 begin." But all other verbs in -izre drop the i only before another i: as licc/i (picchitire), "1 let him strike"; pig/i (pzigidre), "1 thou takest"; but picchierd, pigio-fierfi. b. The verbs giocdre, ro/dre, sondre generally change o of the stem into uo in all forms where that vowel is accented: as su*/ni, "6.let him play "; giubcano, "they play." Iiinnovdire and (ondre may make the same change. The u is sometimes used throughout. 60. Verbs of the second and third conjugations * are inflected like crc/dere, "to believe " *Infinitive and Participles. CrIedere, cred/ndo, credziho. Indicative. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PRETERITE. FUTURE. c &dio, Cred/va, Gredei 6Trederd, (credet/i), credi, cred/vi, cred/sti, crederdi, cride, cred/va, cred? credera, (credgtte), credidmo, credevdmo, cred/mmo, creder/mo, credite, credevdte, cred/ste, crederite, eridono. cred/vano. cred/rono crederdnno. (creditero). [mperative. Subjunctive. Conditional PRESENT. IMPERFECT. Creida, Credgssi, Credergi, Cr/ei, cred'a, cred/ssi, crederesti, creda, credisse, crederibbe, credidmo, credidmo, cred/ssimo, creder/mmo, credte. credidte, cred/ste, credereste, cr dedno. cred/ssero. crederebbero. * Most grammars and dictionaries class these two together as the "second conjugation." 58 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Bd/tere, com P'4tere, convirgere, div~'gere, bNcere, minscere, m i~ere, pdscere, prz~dere, ri e9lere, str/dere, Mssere, tdndere, and their compounds do not have in the preterite the forms in parentheses. Verbs in -cere and -gere insert after the c or g an i before the u of the past participle, but not before the o or a of the singular or third person plural of the present indicative or subjunctive: as m,ýscere; m,ýsco, mefsci, mf"sce, mescidamo, mescerte, meýscono; m,'fsca, etc., m,ýscano; mesciz-'to. 61. Most verbs of the fourth conjugation * are inflected like fin/re, "to finish":Infinitive and Participles. X Finire, finendo, finito. Indicative. NPRESENT. IMPERFECT. PRETERITE. FUTURE. Fin'isco, Finiva, Finii, Finirci, finisci, finivi, finislh, finirdi, finisce, finivce, finz, finir(ý, finidmo, finivdmo, finimmo, finirerno, fnite, finivdte, fIise, finire'te, finiscono. finivano. finirono. finirdnino. Imperative. Subjunctive. Conditional. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. Finisca, Finissi, Finireii, Finisci, finisca, finiossi, finire~sti,, finisca, finsse., finir'bbe, finidmo, finidmo, finssirn1o, finirienmo,, finitle. finidte, finse finiriste. finiscano. finissero. finirilibero. Though inflected like fin/'re in all other parts, dorm/'re, fugg/'reJ Jent/'re, sent/'re, serv/re, vest/re are always, abor* Most grammars and dictionaries call this the "1third conjugation." j Fuggire inserts no extra i (see last sentence of 60). REGULAR VERBS. 59 rire, bollire, and verbs in -vertire are generally, and assorbire, inghiottire, mentire, nutrire, tossire are often, in the present indicative, imperative, and subjunctive, conjugated after the model below. Partire and sortire are, when transitive, inflected like finire, when intransitive, like sentire.* Indicative. Imperative. Subjunctive. SAnto, Santa, sinti, Senti, senta, sente, senta, sentidmo, sentidmo, sentidmo, sentite, sentite. sentidte, sintono. sintano. 62. The present participle of all verbs is invariable. Ex.: Stavdmo farldndo, we were speaking. 63. In all conjugations a form of the first person singular of the imperfect indicative ending in o instead of a is nearly always used in conversation, and occurs often in the works of modern authors: as legge'vo, "I was reading." a. In popular speech the first person plural of all tenses is generally replaced by the third person singular preceded by si: noi dltri si crede, "we believe"; noi i era venzýti, "we had come"; ci si decise, " we decided (ourselves)." b. Final o of the third person plural is frequently omitted: as pdrlan di lIi, "they speak of him." Forms in -dnno sometimes drop -no: as dirdn tztto, " they will tell everything." c. The imperfect indicative endings -avdmo, -avdte, -evdmo, -evdte, -ivdmo, -ivdte are often pronounced -dvamo, -dvate, etc. d. Occasionally, especially in poetry, -at- is omitted from the ending of the past participle of the first conjugation: destdto = disto. * Compounds are conjugated like their simple verbs. 60 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. THE IRREGULAR VERB. 64. Certain parts of Italian irregular verbs are always regular: the example given below will show which they are. Essere (see 53, a) is an exception to all rules. 65. Many irregular verbs that belong or once belonged to the third conjugation have the infinitive contracted (fdre for fdcere, dire for dicere, condzrre for condzcere): in this case the future and conditional are formed from this contracted infinitive (farb, diri, condurribbe), while the present participle, the imperfect indicative and subjunctive, and certain persons of the present and preterite are formed from the uncontracted stem (facindo, diceva, conducidmo). 66. Pdrre (for fonere), "to put," a verb of the third conjugation, will serve to show which are the regular and which the irregular parts of irregular verbs: the forms printed in italics are regular in all verbs except ddre, dire, Ossere, fdre, stdre; those in Roman type may be irregular. Infinitive and Participles. P6rre, ponendo, p6sto. Indicative. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PRETERITE. FUTURE. Pongo, Poneva, P6si, Porr6, p6ni, ponevi, fonestli, porrai, p6ne, poniva, p6se, porrd, poniamo, ponevdmo, ponemmo,f porremo, ponete,* ponevdte, poneste,t porrete, p6ngono. ponevano. p6sero. porranno. "* See 66, 4. t See 66, 3. IRREGULAR VERBS. Imperative Subjunctive. Conditional. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. P6nga, Ponessi,* Porr8i, P6ni, p6nga, ponessi, porresti, p6nga, ponesse, porr8bbe, poniamo, poiaimo, pongssimo, porremmo, ponete. poniat poponeste, porreste, p6ngano. ponessero. porrebbero. It will be seen that the present participle, the imperfect indicative and subjunctive, and certain persons of the present and preterite indicative are always regular. (I) Ddre and stdre have in the future and conditional darb, dardi; starb, starei. Otherwise the only irregularity in the future and conditional is that they are contracted in many verbs even when the infinitive is uncontracted: as ved're, "to see," vedrb; venire, "to come," verrei. (2) From the first person singular of the preterite the other irregular persons can be constructed, the third person singular by changing the ending i to e, the third person plural by adding -ro to the third person singular.(3) The regular persons of the preterite and the whole imperfect subjunctive are slightly irregular in ddre and stdre, which substitute e for a in those forms (ddsti, demmo, deste, ddssi; stesti, stdmmo, stdste, stdssi). (4) Dire (for dicere) and fdre (for fdcere) have dite and fdte in the second person plural of the present indicative. a. Verbs whose stem ends in 1, n, or r often drop final e or i in the singular of the present indicative and imperative: as non vuol anddre, "he will not, go"; zvin qui, " come here." See also 63, a, b, c. "* See 66, 3. t This rule applies only to irregular preterites. 62 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. b. The three forms of the imperative are exactly like the corresponding persons of the present indicative, except in avere, sapere, and voklre, where they follow the subjunctive (dbbi, abbidmo, abbzdte; sdppi, sappidmo, sayppidte; v 'gli, voglidmo, voglidte), and in anddire, ddre, dire, fdre, and stdre, which have in the singular va', da', di', fa', sta'. c. The third person plural of the present indicative can always be constructed from the first person singular, from which can be formed also the whole present subjunctive except the first and second persons plural: these come from the first person plural of the present indicative. Exceptions to this rule are anddre, avere, ddre, fire, sapere, and stdre, which have in the third person plural of the present indicative vdnno, hdnno, ddnno, fdnno, sdnno, stanno; while avere, ddre, sapire, and stdre have in the present subjunctive dbbia, dia, sdppia, stia. 67. With the aid of the above notes any verb except issere can be constructed from the infinitive, the participles (the present participle often being necessary to show the uncontracted form of the infinitive), the present indicative, and the first person singular of the preterite and future. A list of irregular verbs begins on page 88. a. In general, compound verbs not differing in conjugation from their simple verbs will be omitted from this list. All compounds of ddre and fire are accented on the same syllable as the simple verbs: as fa, " he does "; disfa, " he undoes." The compounds of stdre demand special mention: ristdre, soprastdre, sottostdre, sovrastdre are inflected like stldre (ristd soprastitti, sottostiano); distdre has no present participle, is regular in the present of all moods (disto, etc.), but otherwise is inflected like s/tire (disiltti, etc.); constdre, contrastdre, ins/tdre. ostd re, f restd re, restdre, sostdre are regular throughout (cdnsta, contrdstano, instdi, ostdrono, presterb, resti, sostdssi). IRREGULAR VERBS. 63 68. In old Italian and in poetry both regular and irregular verbs differ in many ways from the normal types: some of the commonest variations are given below. a. In the first and third persons singular and the third person plural of the imperfect indicative v is often dropped,. but never in the first conjugation: voldva = volea (also volia); fnivano = finiano. Some of these forms are not uncommon in modern prose. b. The conditional endings -Hi, -ebbe, -ebbero are generally replaced in poetry by -ia, -ia, -iano: crederei = crederia. c. The future endings -4, --dnno are sometimes replaced by -dggio or -dbbo, -dggiono or -dbbono: amerb = amerdggio; amerdnno = amerdbbono. d. In the third person plural of the preterite -no or -ono is often dropped: amdrono = amdro or amdr (also amdrno, amonno). In the third person singular we find amdo, creddo, sentio. e. Final -ero is often replaced by -ono: avrebbero = avrebbono. f. In the first person plural final o is often dropped, and then the m sometimes becomes n: andirdmo = andidm or andidn. g. In the first person plural of the present indicative -idmo may be replaced by -dmo, -imo, or -imo, according to the conjugation. h. Final -iano, wherever it occurs (also -dano in the imperfect), may be replaced by -ieno or -ieno: avevano = avieno. i. At the end of a word we often find e for i, sometimes i for e: ptnsi =pense; ascoltdte = ascolldti. j. E is sometimes added to a word ending in an accented vowel: amb = amde. EXERCISE 15. Tanto all' andare quanto al tornare dAlla scu6la, Enrico da1 n6ia a tftti; picchia i bambini piu piccini di 16i, tira i sassi a qualche povero cane che se ne va2 tranquillam6nte pel s6o viaggio, r6mpe le piAnte del giardino che deve3 traversare per andare a scu6la o per tornare a casa; ins6mma e un continuo far malanni. 64 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 11 babbo va2 a lavortre la mattina presto; la mtmma e malata, e quindi non lo p6ssono4 accompagnare. L' Altra mattina perb gli segui brdtta. M6ntre andiva a scu6la, vide5 avtnti a se un bambino piccino, tdtto vestito bane, e che par6va s61o; Enrico, s6nzr far tanti disc6rsi, arriva di dietro, gli piglia ii capp&llo e glidlc bdtta in Ana f6nte che era ii vicina. Ii p6vero bambino si m6ttc a piangere, e Enrico cominci6 a scappare. Ma questa v6lta av6vr fttto6 mdle i su0i c6nti: ii bambino non era s6lo, lo accom. pagniva un bel can barb6ne. I can Iarb6ni hinno tinto inten. dim6nto, che fAnno' Altre cose ben piu meravigli6se che andar( ad accompagnare a scuila un bambino. II barb6ne d6nque, c6m( vide 1 ii suo padroncino assalito, via dietro ad Enrico che fuggiva in un Attimo lo raggi6nse,7 e agguantitagli Ana gamba, lo badavc a m6rdere; Enrico urliva, ma ii cine non lo lasci6 finch& ur sign6re, che av6va visto5 tdtta la scena, non lo minaccio col ba st6ne. Enrico ebbe stracciati i calz6ni, lacerita la carne d61h gimba, e fu p6i punito dal maestro e dti genit6ri; ma da que gi6rno a questa parte non daI piP n8ia a nessuno, av&ndo veddt( che un cane st'sso gli av6va insegnato c6me f6sse mile molestir( gli Altri. 1 From ddre, 92, 3. 2 Anddre, anddrsene, 92, I. 3 Dove're, 92, 8. 4 Po t/re, 92, 21. 5 Vedire, 92, 1o. Fýdre, 92, 2. RaggizUngere, 92, 138 "He kept biting him. EXERCISE 16. Have you ever observed what' happens when a pot of wate boils at the fire? The steam of the water rises like so-mucd smoke, and remains attached to the lid that covers the pot; whei this steam has begun to cool, it becomes2 water once-more," an( falls3 down again1 drop by drop. In-like-manner4 it happen with' the vapors which the sun and the heat lift from the earth The vapors rise, collect themselves on" high in little bubbles, an( thus united they form clouds.7 When these clouds are very-much charged with9 moisture, they resolve themselves into water; an( MOODS AND TENSES. 65 the water, falling3 down again3 in drops where the wind carries it, forms rain.7 So10 rain7 is-only" steam turned-back-into 12 water. The cloud, too,13 is-only" a quantity of steam not-very14 dense and not-very'4 high" in the air. This vapor, by'6 remaining low, prevents us sometimes from-seeing"7 objects7 even at a'6 small distance from us. 1 Quello che. 2 To become once more= ritorndre. 8 To fall again = ricascdre. 4 Medesimaminte. 5 Per. 6 In. 7 See 13, b. 8 MUidlto. 9 Di. 10 Dzinque. 11 Non e dltro che. 12 Torndto. 13 Pji. 14 P6co. 15 Sollevdto. 16 Omit. 17 Di vedere. MOODS AND TENSES. 69. The English present participle used as subject, predicate nominative, or direct object of a verb must be rendered in Italian by the infinitive, nearly always preceded by the definite article. Ex.: Mi pidce il viaggidre, I like travelling. Rifdrsela ccgli animdli e da scidcchi, taking vengeance on animals is folly. La nostra prima cdra fu il cercdre gna fensidne, our first care was hunting up a boarding-house. Odio lo studidre, I hate studying. 70. The English present participle preceded by a preposition is translated as follows: (i) If the preposition is a necessary part of the thought, it is expressed in Italian, and the English present participle is rendered by the infinitive with the definite article. This article is, however, omitted (unless it would be used in English) after the prepositions di, "of"; ddpo di, "after"; invece di, "instead of"; prima di, "before "; senza, "without." 66 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Ex.: Oltre il fdre scarabdcchi scrive mdle, besides making blots he writes badly. Parldi cdntra il trdrre ztile di quella disgrdzia, I spoke against utilizing that misfortune. I1 vizio di fumdre, the habit of smoking. Ho 1' abit~dine di coricdrmi tdrdi, I am in the habit of going to bed late. InvZce di dirmi tMtto, instead of telling me everything. Prima di morire, before dying. Parlidmo senza rfllttere, we speak without thinking. (2) If in English the omission of the preposition, although it made the construction awkward, would not essentially change the meaning, the phrase is rendered in Italian by the present participle without any preposition. Ex.: Studidndo si impdra, (through) studying we learn. Dovrei corrisfpondere dlla sia corlesia ascoltdndola, I ought to acknowledge her courtesy (by) listening to her. Part/ndo incontrb un amico, (on) going away he met a friend. Cofidndo non fa errlri, (in) copying he makes no mistakes. (3) "To amuse one's self by..." and "to weary one's self by..." are divertirsi a... and affanndrsi a... with the infinitive: as si div'rte a tirdr sdssi, " he amuses himself throwing stones." Some other verbs often take this construction. 71. Following are some other rules for the use of the infinitive and participles. a. When any verb is used as an auxiliary, the mood and tense are expressed in that verb, and not in the dependent infinitive (see 57). Ex.: Avrdi pot/to fdrlo, I could have done it. b. After fdre, " to make " or " to have " (= " to cause "), sentire and udire, "to hear," and vedlre "to see," the Italian present MOODS AND TENSES. 67 infinitive is used to render an English past participle. After lascidre, "to let," and often after the preposition da an Italian active infinitive is used to translate a passive one in English. Ex.: Si fa capire, he makes himself understood. Fard fdre un fdio di scdrfe, I shall have a pair of shoes made. L' ho sentito dire, I have heard it said. Lo vide ammazzdre, he saw him killed. Si Idscia inganndre, he lets himself be deceived. Non c' e nidnte da fdre, there is nothing to be done. c. The Italian past participle is inflected like any other adjective. The present participle is invariable. When in English the present participle is used adjectively, without any verbal force whatsoever, it is translated, not by the participle, but by a verbal adjective, which can be formed from almost any Italian verb by changing the infinitive ending into -dnte for the first conjugation, and into -ente for the others. This adjective may be used substantively. Some writers have used it as a participle. Ex.: Qudsti vdsi sdno rdtti, these vases are broken. La ddnna sta cucdndo, the woman is sewing. Stdvano parldndo, they were speaking. Un animdle farldnte, a speaking animal. Acqua bollnte, boiling water; dde amdnti, two lovers. d. A whole protasis is often expressed in Italian by a present participle, or by an infinitive with a. Ex.: Anddndovi lo vedrtbbe, if he went there, he would see it. A bucdrsi dsce il sdngue, if you prick yourself, blood comes. e. Writers sometimes use, instead of a clause in indirect discourse, an infinitive followed by the word that would have been subject of the clause. Ex.: Disse essere quzsto 1' udmo che cercavdmo, he said this was the man we were looking for. 68 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 72. In negative commands the infinitive is always used instead of the second person singular of the imperative. Ex.: Trdvalo, finid it; non lo trovdre, do not find it. 73. When an action is represented as having taken place and still continuing, the English uses. the perfect or pluperfect tense, the Italian the present or imperfect. Ex.: StUdio I' italidno da Otto nzmesi, I have studied Italian for eight months. 74. In subordinate clauses referring to the future and introduced by a conjunction of time, where the present is often used in English, the future tense must be employed in Italian. Ex.: Qudndo vi andrb, glido dirb, when I go there, I'll tell him. a. The future is often used, without any idea of future time, to express probability. Ex.: Sara uscito, he has probably gone out. Avra' molto dendro, he probably has a great deal of money. 75. The difference between the imperfect and the preterite is this: the preterite is used of an event that occurred at a definite date in the past, the imperfect is used in a description or in speaking of an accessory circumstance or an habitual action in past time - the preterite is a narrative, the imperfect a descriptive tense. The preterite perfect is used (instead of the pluperfect) only after conjunctions meaning "as soon as" (appena che, subilo che, tdsto che), and sometimes after ddpo che,,after.'"* * It is used also in phrases like: in cinque rninuti ebbe finita la lellera "in five minutes he had the letter finished." MOODS AND TENSES. Ex.: Entrb mIntre dormivdmo, he came in while we slept. Facdvo cosi 6gni mattina, I did so every morning. Lo fece l' dnno scdrso, he did it last year. Tdsto che ' abbe visto, usca, as s6on as he had seen it, he went a. In conversation the perfect is often used instead of the pret crite, when the event is not remote. Ex.: Vi sdno anddto idri, I went there yesterday. 76. The conditional, like the English "should" and "would," has two uses: in indirect discourse after a prin, cipal verb in a past tense it expresses the tense which in direct discourse would be future;* in the conclusion of a conditional sentence it is used when the protasis is (or, if expressed, would be) in the imperfect subjunctive (see 77). Ex.: Disse che lo farebbe, he said he would do it. Se fdsse viro lo crederzi, if it were true, I should believe it. Questa cdsa mi converrdbbe, this house would suit me. 77. When a condition is contrary to fact, or consists of a more or less unlikely, supposition referring to future time,f the protasis is in the imperfect (or pluperfect) subjunctive, the apodosis in the conditional; t otherwise both protasis and apodosis are in the indicative. Ex.: Se l' avessi te lo darei, if I had it, I should give it thee. Se fdsse torndto 1' avrdi vedzto, if he had returned, I should have seen him. Se venisse noi ce ne andrmmo, if he came, we should go. Se vi anddssi morrei, if I should go there, I should die. * The perfect of the future or the conditional is sometimes used where the simple tense would be expected: disse che non 1' avrebbe fdtto piu, " he said he would do it no more." f Rendered in English by the imperfect, or by the auxiliary "should." $ The imperfect indicative is occasionally used to replace the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive of the protasis and the conditional of the apodosis. 70 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Se non e vero e ben trovdto, if it isn't true, it's a good invention. Se lo f/ce sard funito, if he did it, he will be punished. a. The missing persons of the imperative are supplied from the present subjunctive. The imperfect subjunctive is used to express a wish that is not likely to be realized. Ex.: Si accdmodi, be seated (sing.); stiano zitti, be quiet (plur.). Sia fipre, be it so; vdngano sdbito, let them come at once. "Fosse f5re, would it were so! b. When a relative clause restricts its antecedent to one of all its possible conditions or actions, the verb of that relative clause is in the subjunctive, - the present subjunctive if the verb on which it depends be present or future, the imperfect if it be past or conditional. Ex.: Non c' e animdle izu bellino d' un gdtto gidvane che fdccia il chidsso, there is no animal prettier than a kitten that is at play. Dove troverdte un giovine che sfpsi v6i, where will you find a young man who will marry you? Vorrdi vedire un bel quddro che non fdsse antico, I should like to see a fine picture that is not old. c. The verb of a subordinate clause depending on an impersoial verb, on a superlative, or on one of the words "first," "last," and "only" is in the subjunctive. This rule does not apply to reflexive verbs, nor to affirmative phrases meaning " it is true " or "it is because." Ex.: Bisognd ch' io vi anddssi, I had to go there. Egizsto che siano funiti, it's right they should be punished. II fiu blilo ch' io con/sca, the finest that I know. Si vede che non e cosi, you see it isn't so. E vero che ci sono stdto, it's true that I've been there. d. The subjunctive is used after all conjunctions meaning "although," "as if," "unless," "provided that," "in order that," "in such a way that" (denoting purpose), " before," "until " (referring to future), "whenever," "wherever," "without." MOODS AND TENSES. 71 Ex.: Benche stia nascosto, lo troverb, dovhnque sia, although he be hidden, I shall find him, wherever he is. Partird a meno che egli non vdnga, I shall go unless he comes. Lo fece perche io venissi, he did it that I might come. La divise in modo che le dge pdrti fdssero ugudli, he divided it in such a way that the two parts should be equal. Aspetta finchk io ldrni, wait until I return. e. The subjunctive is used after the indefinite words and phrases qudle che, qualdnque, chiznque, checch?, per qudnto. Ex.: Chinque venga, whoever comes. Qualdnque disgrdzia che succeda, whatever misfortune happens. Per qudnte vdlte ci vdda, however many times I go there. Per qudnto ricco egli sla, however rich he may be. f. The verb of an indirect question is nearly always in the subjunctive when it depends on a main verb either in a past tense or in the conditional. Ex.: Domdndano se il re e morto, they ask whether the king is dead. Domandb se il fddre f6sse uscito, he asked whether his father was out. g. In a clause dependent on a verb of saying the subjunctive is used if the main verb is negative, or interrogative, or in the conditional, or in a past tense. It is generally not used, however, after an affirmative verb in a past tense when the author himself wishes to imply that the indirect statement is true. Ex.: Dice che la cosa e chiarissima, he says the thing is perfectly clear. Non dico che questo sia vero, I don't say this is true. Dissero che lo zio fosse ammaldto, they said their uncle was ill. Gli dissi che mi chiamdva Enrico, I told him my name was Henry. ITALIAN GRAMMAR. A. The subjunctive is used after verbs expressing causation, concession, desire, emotion, prevention, and uncertainty: i.e., after verbs of bringing about; granting, permitting; commanding, hoping, requesting, wishing; fearing, regretting, rejoicing; forbidding, hindering; being ignorant, denying, disbelieving, doubting, expecting, pretending, supposing, suspecting, thinking. But sperdre, " to hope," very often does not take the subjunctive. Ex.: Non so chi siano, I don't know who they are. Vorrdi che non fdsse accadito, I wish it had not happened. Sufpponidmo che sia frovdto, let us suppose that it is proved. Spiro che verrd, I hope he will come. i. Se, "if," is occasionally omitted before an imperfect subjunc. tive; in this case the subject, if expressed, must follow the verb. Ex.: Sarei felice venisse igli, I should be happy, should he come. EXERCISE 17. La matmma di Alfredo av6va lasciato un anello d' Oro sul cas, sett6ne. Alfr6do v611e' metterselo in dito. Che giudizio! preteindere che 1' anello della maimma p6ssa2 stire in un ditino d' un fanciillo! Se lo mise3 nel dito grosso e p6i s' affaccio alla finestra; P anello casco di s6tto, e non se ne seppe4 piu nulla. La mimma cerca 1' anello, ma non c' era piu'; cerca di qui, di la, di s6pra, cerca per tiutto, ne 1' anello si puob trovare. All6ra chiaima Alfredo e gli dice:- Bambino, dimmi6 la verit; hai preso7 tu il mio anllo? 1' hai p&rso tu? - Alfrddo, cattivo, disse5 di no. La mamma si ricordiva b ne d' averlo lasciato nel vassoino sul cassett6ne. Non cred6va Alfredo capace di dir le bugie, quindi sospetto che qualcfuno P av6sse rubato. Ci andava in caisa9 Ana bambina, figliu61a d' un antico sio servit6re, e il sospetto cadde 0 ý6pra questa pbvera creatura. La mamma di Alfredo non la v611e1 pia in casa; ma 1' allontano con bella maniera, e nesslno si avvide"n di nlla, perche quella sign6ra era bu6na. Perb la MOODS AND TEIASES. 73 bugia di Alfr6do f6ce12 si che sfa madre credesse ldra qu6lla povera bambina. Dio perd6ni Alfredo, Dio gl' ispiri di rimediare a si br6tta azi6ne; vada,13 si b6tti. Ai piedi d6lla mamma, le racc6nti tfitto, e non comm6tta mai pii di qu6ste azionacce. 1 From volere, 92, 19. 2 Potere, 92, 21. 3 Mittere, 92, 73. 4 Sapere, 92, 6. 5 Dire, 92, 164. 6 Dire. see 48, d. 7 Prendere, 92, 87. 8 Pirdere, 92, 83. 9 There used to come to the house. 10 Cadere, 92, 7. 11 Avvedirsi, 92, Io. 12 7dre, 92, 2. 13 Anddre, 92, I. EXERCISE 18. We inhabit the earth; but not all the earth has the same name everywhere: the earth is-divided1 into five parts, and every part has its name. The five parts of the earth are-called1: Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Oceanica. Imagine you-cut-open2 the earth in the middle and place3 it on a table, in-such-a-way4 that the inside shall-rest5 on the table, and the outside shall-present5 itself to your eyes. You will have two circles: in the circle that lies6 at your right are7 Europe, Asia, Africa, and a part of Oceanica; in the circle that lies6 on-the8 left are7 America and the other part of Oceanica. But the ancients did9 not10 believe that the earth was round, nor did9 they know that its parts were five. They thought that the earth was flat and surrounded by the sea; they knew, moreover,1 only12 three parts: Europe, Asia, Africa. They never13 would have dreamed that the earth was round, and that on14 the side opposite to the-one'5 which they inhabited there" was inhabited land. America was discovered 395 years ago by an Italian who was-called' Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus was-born7 in a village near Genoa in 1447. His parents were poor; his father earned hardly enough-to14 support the family. However, by-dint's of sacrifices they had'9 him study; and as20 Christopher studied willingly, he grew up a fine21 boy. When it was time22 to-choose23 a profession, he chose tobe-a24 sailor. Ins those times they believed that the world ended 74 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. after Africa; but Columbus, on-the-contrary,25 persuaded himself that the world ought26 not0 to26 end there, and that by continuing to sail, one ought26 to26 turn and come-back to the same point. 1 See 55. 2 Di aprire. 3 Di posdre. 4 In mndo. 5 See 77, d. 6 Use rsresdre. '. 8A. 9 See 54, g. 10 Non, " not," must precede the verb. 11 PFi. 12 See 82. 13 See 83. 14 Da. 15 Quella. 16 Vi. 17 To be born= ndscere, 92, 77. 18 A forza. 19 Use fdre, 92, 2. 20 Perch. 21 Brdvo. 22 Use def. article. 23 Di scbgliere. 24 Di fdre il. 25 Invece. 26 See 57. CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS, AND ADVERBS. CONJUNCTIONS. 78. The principal conjunctions are: After, ddpo che. Also, dnche, pure. Althbugh, benche, sebbene, non ostdnte che. And, e. As, cdme, qudnto (after tdnto). As (= since), siccdme, poichk. As fast as, via via che. As if, cdme se, qudsi. As long as, finch?. As well as, cdme dnco. Because, perch?. Before, prima che, avdnti che. Both.. and, e..e. But, ma. Either... or, o... o. Even if, dnche se, ancorche. Except that, se non che. For, chk. Granting that, ddto che. However (= nevertheless), perb, pure. However (before an adj.), qualznque, per qudnto. If, se (occasionally qudndo, &ve). In case, cdso. In order that, perch?, accioch?, affinch. Much less, non che. Neither... nor, n... n?. Nevertheless, tuttavia, nondimeno,perb. Nor, ne, nemmeno, neppure. Nor... either, nemmeno, neppure. Nor even, nednche, neppure. Not to say... but even, non che... ma Or, o, ovvero, ossia. Or else, ossia. Provided that, purchl. Rather, dnzi. Since (temporal), daccdu. CONJUNCTIONS. 75 Since (causal), poickh, siccdme. So, dinque, adunque. So that (result), di mbdo cke, sicch?. So that (= in order that), perch?. Than, che. That, che. That (= in order that), perche. Then, dznque. Therefore, dznque, perb, percid, adinque (at the beginning of a clause). Too, pfre, dnche. Unless, a m'no che non, eccetto che non, senza che. Until, finchk non. When, qudndo. Whence, ddnde. Where, ddve, 5ve, la ddve. Wherever, dovunque. Whether, se. While, mentre, mentre che. The final vowel of dnche, che, dove, neppzre, and dve is generally elided before e or i. a. Of the above conjunctions acciockh, affinche, a meno che non, ancorche, avdnti che, benche, cdso, come se, ddto che, dovmnque, eccetto che non, non ostdnte che, perche meaning "in order that," per qudnto, prima che, purche, qualnnque, qudsi, sebbine, and senza che are followed by the subjunctive. For the use of che, "that," with the subjunctive, see 77, c, g, h. Cdme is occasionally used for cdme se, and then it takes the subjunctive. Finche when referring to the future sometimes has the sense of finche non, and then it generally takes the subjunctive. Se is followed by the subjunctive when it introduces an indirect question or statement dependent on a verb in a past tense, or a condition contrary to fact. Qudndo and bve, meaning "if," frequently take the subjunctive when se would not. - For examples, see 77, c, d, f, g, h. b. Che cannot be omitted in Italian as "that" is in English:* as disse che flsse vero, "he said it was true." Se can be omitted before an imperfect subjunctive: see 77, i. * It is omitted, however, in the following peculiarly Italian construction: il ragdzzo pareva fdsse felice, "the boy seemed to be happy "; that is, between a verb of seeming apd the subjunctive dependent on it, when in English the construction would be a verb of seeming with a dependent infinitive. It is occasionally omitted also after verbs of wishing, hoping, and fearing: as spero mi scriva presto, " I hope you will write to me soon." 76 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. c. E and o are often written ed and od before a vowel. Ex.: Mio fddre ed io, my father and I. d. Between a verb of motion and an infinitive "and " is rendered by the preposition a. Ex.: Andrb a ceredrlo, I'll go and look for it. e. When dnche, "also " or " too," relates to a personal pronoun, the disjunctive form of that pronoun must follow dnche, even if some form of the same pronoun has already been expressed. Ex.: Andremo dnche ndi, we shall go too. Pdrte anch' egli, he goes away too. Trovdi dnche idi, I found him too. Vinnero anch' e'ssi, they came too. Lo or me lo didde anche a me, he gave it to me too. Ti fidce dnche a te, you like it too. PREPOSITIONS. 79. The principal prepositions are: About (= approximately), circa. About (= around), intdrno a, attdrno a. Above, sdpra. According to, secdndo. After, ddpo, ddpo di. Against, cdntra, cdntro. Along, lingo. Among, fra, Ira. Around, intdrno a, attdrno a. As far as, fino a, sino a. As for, per, qudnto a, in qudnto a. As to, rispetto a. At, a. Because of, per motivo di. Before (time), prima di, inndnzi. Before (place), davdnti a, inndnzi. Behind, diitro. Below, sdtto. Beside (place), accdnto a. Besides, beside (= in addition to) dltre. Between, fra, tra. Beyond, 4ltre, al di l di. By, da, accdnto a (= beside). By means of, per mezzo di. During, durdnle. Except, Irdnne, eccetto, fudri di. For, per. From, da, fin da. In, in. In front of, davdnti a, inndnzi. PREPOSITIONS. 77 Inside of, ddntro di. Instead of, invece di. In the midst of, in mezzo a. Into, in. Near, vicino a. Of, di. On, su (before a vowel, sur), sdpra. On this side of, al di qua di. On to, su (before vowels, sur), sdpra. Opposite, dirimpitto a. Out of, da, di, fudri di. Outside of, fubri di. Over, sdpra. Round and round, tdrno tdrno a. Since, da. To, a. Toward, verso. Through, per. Under, sdtto. Upon, su (before vowels, sur), sopra, Up to, fino a, sino a. With, con. Within, fra, tra. Within (= inside of), dentro di. Without, senza. Without (= outside of), fuori di. When governing a personal pronoun cdntra, dietro, dd'po, senza, s6pra, sotto, and often fra and verso take di after them: as senza di me, "without me "; fra di lro, "among themselves." After con, in, per, a word beginning with s impure generally prefixes i: as la strdda, "the street "; in istrdda, "in the street." a. "To " before the name of a country, after a verb of motion, is in. Ex.: Andidmo in Frndcia, let us go to France. b. "To" before an infinitive is rendered in Italian as follows: (i) After the verbs bastdre, "suffice"; bisogndre, "need "; convenire, "suit"; desiderre, " desire"; dovere, " must," " ought"; fare, " make "; lascidre, " let"; parre, " seem "; potere, " can," "be able"; sapere, "know"; sentire, "hear," "feel"; soldre, "be accustomed"; udire, "hear"; vedere, "see"; and volere, "wish," "to" before a following infinitive is omitted. It is omitted also in exclamations and indirect questions consisting only of an interrogative and an infinitive. "* Cf. 58, a. ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Ex.: Dovrei capire, I ought to understand. Bisagna fensdrci, it is necessary to look out for it. Potremo venire, we shall be able to come. Non sa che fdre ne ddve avvdlgersi, he doesn't know what to do nor where to turn. (2) After verbs of accustoming, attaining, beginning, compelling, continuing, hastening, helping, inviting, learning, preparing, teaching, and after verbs of motion, " to " before a following infinitive is a. Ex.: Andrdnno a vederla, they will go to see her. Si affretti a rispfndere, he hastened to reply. (3) After all other verbs it is di; but "to" denoting purpose or result is per, and " to " indicating duty or necessity is da. Ex.: Gli dissi di scrivere, I told him to write. Mi e grdto di dirlo, I am happy to say so. Legge per divertirsi, he reads to amuse himself. E trdfoo bdsso fer arrivdrci, he's too short to reach it. Ho qualchecosa da fdre, I have something to do. c. " By " denoting the agent is da. Ex.: Fu fdtto da I9i, it was done by him. d. " In " is in; but when expressing future time it is fra. Ex.: Fra tre gidrni sard finito, in three days it will be finished. e. "For" is per: as 1' ha fitto per me, "he has done it for me." But in the sense of "since," in speaking of past time, "for" is da. "For," meaning "during," is omitted or translated durdnte. Sentences like "it is right for him to do it" must be translated by che with the subjunctive: e giusto che lo fdccia. Ex.: Dimdra a moiti dnni a Firense, he has lived for many years at Florence (see 73). Rester3 cinque settimdne, I shall stay for five weeks. Pidvve durdnte un mdse, it rained for a month. Bisdgna ch' io vdda, it is necessary for me to go. PREPOSITIONS. 79 f "From" is da; but before adverbs and sometimes after verbs of departing it is di. In speaking of time it is generally fin da. Ex.: E lontdno di qua, it is far from here. Esco di cdsa, I go out of the house. Fin dal principio, from the beginning. g. Da has, in addition to the meanings "by," "from," "since," another sense hard to render in English: it may be translated "as," "characteristic of," "destined for," "such as to," or "suited to," according to the context. Da means also "at the house of" or "to the house of." Da corresponds to English " on" or " at " before the word "side," pdrte, used in its literal sense. Ex.: Prometto da uomo d' onore, I promise as a man of honor. II Salvini da Otdllo, Salvini as Othello. Sareste tdnto buono da venire, would you be so good as to come? Questo e da scidcchi, this is acting like a fool. II bambino ha un giudizio da grdnde, the child has the judgment of a grown person. La sdia da frdnzo, the dining-room. Una tdzza da caffe, a coffee-cup. L' ho vedzto dal Signdr Ndri, I saw him at Mr. Neri's. Vidne da me, he comes to my house. Da qudsta fdrte, on this side. h. A is often used before a noun -not indicating material (which is expressed by di) nor purpose (expressed by da) - that describes another noun, when in English these two substantives would form a compound word. Ex.: Una mdcchina a vapdre, a steam-engine. Una sddia a ddndolo, a rocking-chair. Uno sgabillo a tre pfidi, a three-legged stool. i. Essere per or stdre per means " to be about to." Ex.: Stdva per parldre, he was on the point of speaking. So ITALIAN GRAMMAR. }. In some idiomatic phrases di is used in Italian when another preposition would be employed in English. Ex.: Di gidrno, di ndtte, by day, by night. Essere contdnto di dna cdsa, to be satisfied with a thing. Vivo di pdne, I live on bread. Chefacdva ddlle fdrbici, what did he do with the scissors? ADVERBS. 80. (i) Adverbs, unless they begin the clause, are generally placed immediately after the verb; non, however, always precedes the verb. When a compound tense is used, the adverb nearly always follows the past participle, but gid, mdi, pizý, and sempre usually precede it. See also 84. Non precedes a conjunctive and follows a disjunctive pronoun. Ex.: Non ci vddo mdi, I never go there. Ho parldto spe'sso, I have often spoken. Non ha s'mpre parldto cos', he hasn't always talked so. lo non lo vedo, I don't see him. (2) Adverbs are compared like adjectives (see 31); but "better," " worse," " more," " less " are respectively m4glio, pggio, f)i, meno. 81. "Yes" is si or gid: sA when it expresses real affirmation, gid when it denotes passive assent. "No " is no. " Not" is non, after which a word beginning with s impure generally prefixes i. "Or not" at the end of a clause is o no: as sia vero o no, "whether it be true or not." Ex.: Lepidce? - S. - " Do you like it? " " Yes." Che temydccio /! - Gia. - What nasty weather! " "Yes." Sta bdne, he is well; non istd bMne, he isn't well. ADVERBS. a. "What? " meaning "what do you say? " is cdme? Che and the interjection o are often used to introduce questions. Ex.: 0 perchkh non risfondte? - Cdme? - Che sidte sdrdo, signore? "-"Why don't you answer? " "What?" "Are you deaf, sir?" b. "Very" is molto (see, however, 35, a). Instead of using a word or suffix for "very," the Italians often repeat the emphasized adjective or adverb. Ex.: "E mdlto bdllo or e bellissimo, it is very beautiful. I sudi genitdri erano pdveri fpveri, his parents were very poor. 82. "Only" may be translated by the adverb sdlo, soltdnto, or solamente; or by the adjective sdlo. When it modifies anything but a verb, it is often rendered by non... che, with the whole verb intervening, and with the word modified by " only " immediately after che. Ex.: Non ne ho comprdto che dze, I have bought only two of them. 83. "Never" is non... mdi, with the inflected part of the verb intervening. "Just," as an adverb of time, is or dra. " Early " is pristo, per tempo, or di buon' ora. " This morning" is stamdne; "last night " is standtte. "The day after to-morrow" and "the day before yesterday" are respectively domdn ' ditro and ier ' ditro. "A week, a fortnight from to-day " are dggi a 6tto, a quindici. "Ago " is translated byfa, which follows the substantive of time; if this substantive is plural, " ago " may be rendered also by sdno (drano or sardnno if the date from which time is counted be past or future). Ex.: Non ti ha mdi veddto, he has never seen thee. Son arrivdti or 6ra, they have just arrived. Tre dnni fa, three years ago; qudttro gi6rni sdno, four days ago. 82 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Ex.: Lunedl drano die settimdne, two weeks ago Monday. Domdni sardnno cinque misi, five months ago to-morrow. 84. " Here" and "there" when they denote a place already mentioned, and no particular stress is laid upon them, are ci and vi, which are often used in Italian when they would be superfluous in English; "there is," "there are," etc., are c' ý or vi ý, ci sdno or vi s6no, etc. (sometimes viha). Ci, vi, and also ne, "thence," occupy the same positions with regard to the verb, and undergo the same changes, as the pronouns ci, vi, ne (48, 50); they precede conjunctive pronouns beginning with I or n, and follow all others: ce lo manda, ti ci mando. When emphasized, " here" is qui or qua, "there" indicating a place near the person addressed is costi or costi, and "there" denoting a point remote from both speaker and hearer is 1i or ld. Ex.: Cdrlo vi L torndto, Charles has gone back there. Alla scudla non ci vddo, I don't go to school. Vdi rimarrdte costa, igli rester& laggiz, ed io non partird di qui, you will remain where you are, he will stay down there, and I shall not move from here. a. " Here I am," "here it is," etc., are eccomi, 'ccolo, etc. 85. Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding -mente to the feminine singular of the corresponding adjective. Adjectives in -le and -re drop their final e in forming the adverb. See 35, a. Ex.: Frdnco, frank; francaminte, frankly. Felice, happy; felicemente, happily. Piacivole, pleasant; fiacevolminte, pleasantly. a. " So " meaning " it " is translated lo: as lo fdccio, " I do so "; lo crede, " he thinks so "; lo dicono, " they say so." CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS, AND ADVERBS. 8 83 EXERCISE 19. Agostino ý un gol6so, di prima riga. C6mel ved~va d~i conf~tti, ifina chicca, d~11e frd~tta, si'ibito se le piglidva e mangiaiva s~nza perm~sso, dnche se non e~rano sde. Infino, ii suoi compi~gni di scuola lo rimproveralvano di qu~sto vizia'cc -io. La mae~stra penso di puni're Agostino. Un gi6rno, quando, fu 1' 6ra d~11a ricreazi6ne, tiro' fuori da'la siuia casst~tta de' conft~tti, e mettendoli nel panie~re d' Agost'ino, gli disse2: - Qu6Sti ii porteraii a ca'sa a'll~a ti~a sorellina. - Agostino a vedt~r que' confetti f~ce6 c rti occhi6ni gross c6me qu6lli d' un bove. Non istalva piiui in e~ da'lla voglia di mangialre que' confetti. Era ta'nto gol6so, che se av~va qualcosa di sfio non dava ni'lla a nessiuino; era Uinto gol6so, che av~va la sfacciataggine di mangia're le cose d~gli dltri; o figur'tevi dfitnque c6me si strugge'va di mangiar que' confetti cli erano nel sdo panierino. Finita la refezi6ne, i bamblini va'nno5 nel giardino. Appdna Agostino v~de che nilla sta'nza dov erano i panierini non c' era nessuino, sparisce dal giardino, e via a pigli6~re i conf6tti. Ma non ha finito di butta'r glii ii pri'mo, die' ISente un amalro, un sap6re cosi cattivo, da non pot~r reggere; spiuita e rispifita, ma 1'ama'ro non se ne andaiva.5 Era curi6so vede'r Agostino disperalto per quel saporaiccio. E i compa'gni clii da un 6scio, clii da un Aditro, e chii da'lla finestra die daiva sul griardino, stavano a ved~rlo, e a ridere di qu~sta Celia che la maestra aviva fiitto 6 a quel gol6so. All6ra la maestra gli disse2 -WVdi, Agostino; ho fiitto6 filre qu~sti confetti pieni d' assenzio apposta 'per te; v~di a die cosa porta 1' ingordigia! Un itltro, bambino non ci sarehbe rima'sto, a 7 qu~sta ce~1ia. - Agostino si accorsel die la sign6ra maesr l av6va fitttal qu~sta Celia per sdso bene, e die se non si corregg~va diventa'wa lo zimbe~11o di ti'itti.9 IWhen. 2 Dire. 8 He was beside himself. 4 He was dying to., A n. ddre, anddrsene. 6 Edre. 7Wouldn't have been taken in by. 3Acccrgersi. 9 See footnote ($) on p. 69. 84 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. EXERCISE 20. It is related that in by-gone1 times a parrot escaped from a villa. This parrot had learned to say all-the-time2: "Who'sthere3? who's-there3?" Having-fled4 into a wood, it was flying from one tree to another without knowing where to go. A peasant, who by chance was hunting5 in that place, eyed the parrot, and having never seen anys8 birds before6 of this sort, he was7 amazed at-it,8 and took9 all-possible10 care to aim straight with his gun, so-as-to shoot-it" and carry it to show off as a rare thing. But while the peasant was aiming, the parrot, seeing4 him, repeated his usual question: "Who's-there3? who's-there3?" The-peasant's-blood-froze-in-his-veins 12 at those words; and lowering4 his gun, and taking-his-hat-from-his-head13 he hastened to reply to him, dreadfully14 mortified: "Excuse-me,15 for-mercy's-sake,"6 I took17 you for a bird!" 1 Anddli. 2 Always. 3 Chi c' 4. 4 Past participle. 5 A cdccia. 6 Per P' inndnzi. 7 Rimdse: see 54, f. 8 Ne. 9 Gave himself. 10 Ogni. 11 Tirdrgli. 12 To the peasant not remained blood in-him (addisso). "13 Levdtosi di cdpo il cappello. 14 T1tto. 15 La scisi. 16 For charity 17 Had taken. 18 Omit. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 86. "One," "people," "we," "you," "they," used in an indefinite sense, are rendered in Italian by the reflexive construction with si (see 55). Ex.: Si cdnta bUne in Itdlia, they sing well in Italy. Sifa cosi, you do this way; se ne pdrla, people speak of it. Sifdnno spisso qudste cdse, one often does these things. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 8s 87. " All" as a substantive is tltto (titti, etc.): as tacevano titti, "all were silent." The adjective "all," "the whole " is tutto followed by the definite article: as tutta la terra, "the whole earth "; tuztto il giorno, "all day"; tutte le romdne son belle, "all Roman ladies are beautiful." 88. "Any," when it really adds nothing to the sense, is omitted: as non ha libri, "he hasn't (any) books"; votle vino, "do you want (any) wine?" When, however, this redundant "any" might be replaced by "any of the," it is translated by the partitive genitive (see 12, a): as voldte del vino, "do you want any (of the) wine?" "Any" used substantively in the sense of "any of it," "any of them " is ne (see 47, 3): as non ne ho, " I haven't any"; non ne ha piu, "he hasn't any more"; ne avete, "have you any?" "Any" used adjectively and meaning "any whatsoever" is qualunque: as lo fa mdglio di qualznque dltra persona, he does it better than any other person." 89. "Some," when it adds nothing to the sense, is omitted or rendered by the partitive genitive: as voldte burro or volite del burro, "will you have some butter?" "Some" meaning "some of it," "some of them" is ne: as ne ha, "he has some." Otherwise "some" is alcuno or qudlche. Qudlche is always singular (even when the meaning is plural), and is never used substantively. Ex.: alcine persdne or qudlche persdna, "some persons"; alczni lo dicono, "some say so." 90. "Some... others," "the one... the other," "one. another" are translated by chi.. chi, dltri.... dltr I' uno.. ' ditro, or alcuni... alcni. 86 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Alcuni used in this way is always plural. A verb whose subject is chi or dltri (used in this sense) is always singu. lar; altri is not used after prepositions. But 1' uno and 1' dltro can be used in any case or number. Ex.: Tatti, chi fi5 tdsto, e chi meno, morivano, all died, some sooner, some later. Altri cdde, dltrifigge, some fall, others flee. Gli 9ni son budni, gli dltri cattivi, some are good, others bad. 91. Following is a list of some other indefinite pronouns and adjectives: Anybody, qualcdno, qualcheduno, chicchessia, pronouns. Any more, piu, ne... pi1, pron." Anything, qualchec6sa, pron. Anything else, dltro, pron. Both, tttli e due, 1' uno e l' dltro, ambedue, pron. or adj. Certain, cerlo, adj. Each, dgni, ciasceuno, ognuno, adj. Either, 1' Ano o 1' dltro, pron. or adj. Every, 6gni, ciascuno, ognuno, ciascheduno, adj. Everybody, titti (pl.), ciaschedino, ciascuno, ognuno, pron. Everything, titto, pron. Few, a few, pfchi (pl.), pron. or adj. However much, (or many), per quanto (-fi), adj. Little, pIco, pron. or adj. Less, meno, pron. or adj.* Many, mditi, pron. or adj.f More, piu, pron. or adj. Much, m6l/o, pron. or adj. Neither, non... 1' "no nW 1' dllro, nW 1' uno ne 1' dltro, pron. or adj. No, non... nessuno, non... alcno, adj. Nobody, non... nessuno, pron. No more, non ne... *pi, pron., non... pih, adj. None, non ne..., pron. Nothing, non... niunte, non... nulla, pron. Nothing else, non... pie ninte, non.... i. niulla, pron. Others, altrui (see 91, d), pron. Several, pareccki (fem. parecchie), pron. or adj. Somebody, qualchedino, qualcino, pron. Something, qualchec6sa, pron. Such, idle, adj. Such a, un idle, adj. (but also pron. in Ital., meaning "so-and-so "). Whatever, qualinque (invariable), adj. * "Less "= " smaller" is pik piccolo. "t "A great many" is moltissimi. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 8 87 a. The verb used with nessz'no, aicz~no, Mnitne, nzu1icz (meaning "geno," ")CCnobody," "1nothing ") must be preceded by non, "not,' unless this pronoun or adjective precedes the verb. Ex.: Non ho vislo nesstino, I have seen nobody. Nesszin fi5fiolo lo fiossie'de, no people possesses it. b. "1Nothing " followed by an adjective is nie'nte di. Ex.: Nron ave'e nit~ne di bzadno, you have nothing good. C. Ciasczuino, ciaschedz~ino, ognzuno, nessz.ino, and alczt'no when used adjectively are inflected like z'no (see 14, 15). d. Aitrgii, "another," "others," "our neighbor," is invariable, and is not used as subject of a verb: as con altril'i, "with other people "; chi dma ai/rz~i dima se" sibsso, "1he who loves his neighbor loves himself." The prepositions di and a are sometimes omitted before it: as la mo'stro a//rzgi, "I point her out to others"; la vd~giia ai/rzgi, "the will of another." EXERCISE 21. Per mutdre! Ricdtrdo dice 2 mile di qualchedi'ino. Che bri'*tto vizio e" mali qu6llo! A sentir Ricc~rdo, tiuitti son Asini, tifitti s6no cattivi; di buo~ni e di br~vi non c' e' che M~i. Ma oramali ogufino ha conoscitfito di che painni ve~ste P3 e nessi-ino, gli cr~de piii. Se f6sse bfftvo e bu Ono, si guardere~bbe dal dir mdle di qu~sto e di qu6llo, 6Anche qua'ndo ne av~sse quallche ragi6ne. Figuraitevi, di'inque, se pub 4 essere buo~no e braivo 16i che dice male di tfitti! Sb~rte, ripe~to, che nessifino gli cr6de pib', e qu~indo Si se'nte dir m~lle di qualcheddno, e Si sa15 che c' e' Riccardo di me~zzo,6 ogniuino si affr~tta a risp6ndere: Se 1' ha d~tto2 quel maldic ente di Ricc~rdo, non ý v~ro nd~lla dice~rto. SThere he is at it again! 2 DIre. 3 What sort of a fellow he is, 4 P0. '5e.~ Saj ire 6At the bottom of it. 88 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS Arranged according to Conjugation.* 92. This list contains no compound verbs except those which differ in conjugation from their simple verbs and those for which no simple verb exists in Italian. With every verb its irregular forms are given: in the same line with the infinitive are the present participle (if it be needed to show the original form of the infinitive), the first person singular of the preterite indicative, the past participle, and the first person singular of the future indicative (if the future be contracted); immediately below are the present indicative, the imperative, and the present subjunctive, if these parts be peculiar. For ddre and stdre the whole preterite and the first person singular of the imperfect subjunctive are given also. Essere is irregular throughout. All tenses not mentioned are regular. For peculiar endings, see 63, 68. Note the following rules: - a. If thepresent particile is given, the following forms, unless expressly mentioned, are to be constructed from its stem: all preterite forms with accented endings, and the whole imperfect indicative and subjunctive. E. g.fdre, pres. part. facndo: hence pret. 2d sing. and ist and 2d pl.,facistifacemmo,facste; imp. ind.,fadva, etc.; imp. subj.,facessi, etc. If the present participle is not given, these forms, unless they be mentioned, are to be constructed from the stem of the infinitive. E. g. venire: pret. venisti, venimmo, veniste; imp. ind. veniva; imp. subj. venissi. b. Preterites in -di, -i, -ii, and -8tti (except detti and stetti) are "* Reference to these tables is facilitated by an Alphabetical List of Irregular and Defective Verbs (see page IoI). Students are advised not to learn forms in parentheses nor any verbs or forms marked rare or poetical. IRREGULAR VERBS. 8 89 -regular throughout. In all other preterites the third person singular can be formed from the first person by changing final i to e, and the third person plural by adding -ro to the third person singular. E. g. fdre, pret.fteci: 3d sing.ftece, 3d pl.fJecero. c. If the future is not given, it is to be constructed from the infinitive. The conditional always has the same stem as the future. See 65, p. 6o. d. The imperative, when not given, is like the corresponding forms of the present indicative. See 66, b, top of p. 62. FIRST CONJUGATION. I. AndAre, go, andAi, andAto; andr6' (ander6'). PRES. IND. IMPER. PRES. SUBJ. Va'do or vo^, andia'mo, Va', Va'da, andia~mo, vai, andaite, andiamo, vaida, andia'te, va, vAnno. anda'te. vada, va'dano. 2. F~re, do, face'ndo, fMci,* fdtto; faro'. Fdre (formerly also fdcere) was originally a verb of the third conjugation: see 92, a. PRES. IND. IMPER. PRES. SUBJ. Fa"celo or fM, faccia~mo, Fa', Fa~ccia, faccia'mo, ff6i~f fite, facci amo, f~ccia, faccia'te, fa,ft finno. ffite. f~ccia, f~cciano..3. DAre, give, die'di or de~tti, dAto; dar6'. Zmfi. subj. d6ssi. PRES. IND. FRET. IND. IMPER. PRES. SUBJ. Do,, DiMd or d0tti, M1a., dýqdiode or d~tte,$ dipa, dia'mo, demino, dia'mo, d ia mo, da~te, deste, date. dia'te, da n no. diedero or dettero41 di'ano or di'eno. *In poetry we sometimes find a preterite feli, fisfi, fei or fib, Jemmo, fit~se, ferono or feinno; and an imp. ind. fib, etc. t Also fdci, fdce. I Also die", sing.; dier or die'ro or die'rono, pl. go 90 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 4. Stdre (67, a), stand, stti se o starb. Zmfi. subj. st~ssi. PRES. IND. S to", stai, sta, stia~mo, state, sta~nno. PRET. IND. Ste-tti, ste'sti, st~tte., ste~mmog stfiste, st~ttero. IMPER. Sta', stia'mo, sta'te. PRES. SUBJ. Sti'a, stia., sti a, stia'mo, sti 'te, sti'ano, or stfeno. SECOND CONJUGATION. 5. Avere, have, e~bbi, avd'to; avro'. See 53, b.* 6. Sape're, know, sedppi, sapulto; sapr6'. PRES. IND. 53, sappia~mo., sa'i, sapete, sa, sanno. IMPER. Sa*ppi, sappia'mo, sappia'te. *PRES. SUBJ. S appia, sappiamo, sappia, sappiate, sappia, s6.ppiano. 7. Caddre, fall, cAddi, cadd'to; cadr6'. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. Ca~do (caiggio), cadia'mo (caggia'mo), Ca'da (caggia), cadia~mo, (caggia'mo), cadi, cadete, c6aa (caggia), cadiate (caggiate), cade, c a-ono (caggiono). cada (caggia), cadano (caggiano). 8. Dovdre, owe, dov6i (doveftti), dovilto; dovro'. Zmherative lacking. PRES. IND. D~vo (d~bbo or d~ggio), decvi (d~bbi), deave (de~bbe), dobbia~mo (deggia'mo), dove'te, d~vono (d~bbono or d~ggiono).t PRES. SUBJ. De~bba (d~va or de~ggia), de~bba (de~va or d0ggia), d~bba (d~va or de~ggia), dobbia'mo, dobbia'te, de~bbano (d~vano or de'ggiano). *In poetry we find: dggio, dbbo, or dio for ho; dye for ha;~ dggia or dia for dbbia; e'i for e'bbi; a future aro', etc., or avero, etc., and similar forms in the conditional. t Also d4o, cLei, d~e, d'ovemro, dovhle, d~ono or denno. IRREGULAR VERBS. 9 91 9. Sed~re, sit, sede'i or sedeftti, sedifito. PRES. IND. Sie~do or se~ggo, sedliamo (seggi amo), sie~di, sede'e, siede, si~dono or s~ggono. PRES. SUBJ. Sitda or se~gga, sedia"Mo (seggia'mo), si~da or s~gga, 'sedia~te, si~da or se~gga, sie~dano or s~ggano. 10. Ved6re, see, vidi, veddto or visto; vedrb. Provved6re has a -future provvedero6; prevede're has prevedero6 or prevedro5. All other compiounds are like vede're. PRES. IND. Ve'do (veggo or ve~ggio), e'di, e'de, vedia'mo (veggia~mo), vede'te, vedono (ve'ggono or ve'ggiono). ii. Giacedre, lie, gi~'cqui, giacifito. PRES. IND. Gia~ccio, giaccia'mo, gia~ce, gia~cciono. PRES. SUBJ. VC'da (ve'gga or veggia), e'da (vegga or ve~ggia), veda (vegga or ve'ggia), vedia'mo (veggia"mo), vedia'te (veggia~te), vedano, (veggano or veggiano). PRES. SUBJ. Gia'ccia, giacciamo, gia~ccia, giacciate, gia~ccia, gia.cciano. 12. 13. '4. SO~glio, suli, suO81e, Piac~re, pilease: like giace'e (iix). Tace're, be silent: like giace're ( I I) - Soid're, be wont, s6lito. No firet., fut., cond., nor impierative. PRES. IND. sogliaimo, so1e~te, sogliono. PRES. SUBJ. SO~glia, soglia'mo, soglia, soglia'te, soglia, sogliano. 15. Doldre, grieve, d0^lsi, doh'ito; dorr6. PRES. IND. DO5lgo (do~glio), dogliamo,* duo5li, dole'te, dOle, do~lgono (dogliono). PRES. SUJBJ. DO~lga (doglia), doglia'mo,* do~lga (doglia), doglia'te, dOlga (doglia), dO~lgano (dogliano). *Also dolohidmno: a popular form. 92 92 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 16. Rimane're, remain, rimdisi, rimdsto or rimdso; rimarr6'. PRES. IND. Rima~ngo, rimania~mo,* riman~li, rimane~te, riro" ne, rima~ngono. PRES. SUBJ. Rimainga, rimaniamo,* rimanga, rimaniate, rima~nga, rimangano. 17. Tendre, hold, t6nni, teniito; terr5. PRES. IND. Tengo., tini, tie~ne, tenia'mo,* tene'teY tengono. T~nga, t~nga, te~nga, PRES. SUBJ. tenia'mo,* tenia.te, tengano. 18. Vaid're, be worth, vAlsi, valilto or vAiiso; varr6'. PRES. IND. Vailgo (va~glio), vaglia'mo,* V6.le, v~klgono (v a-gliono). PRES. SUB3J. Va*lga (va~glia), vaglia~mo,* valga (vafglia), vaglia~te, valga (va~glia), v6igano (vigliano). i9. Voidre, wish, v6lli,t vol~sto; vorrb'. PRES. IND. Wi~gliO, vu~le, voglia'mo, vole~te, vogliono. IMPER. VO-gli, vogliaimo, voglia~te. PRES. SUBJ. VO~glia, voglia'mo, voglia, voglia'te, v~glia, vo~gliano. 20. Pardre, seem, pdrvi, pari'to or p-Arso; parrib. PRES. IND. P 1o, paiamo or pariarmo, pari, par ete, pare, paiono. PRES. SUBJ. Pajia, paia, Piala, p )aia'mo or pariamo, )aia'te, alano. 21. Pote're, be able, potedi, Potidto; potrob.~ Nro imfierative. PRES. IND. Possog possia~mo, puO~i, pote'te, pu6,I possono.I11 PRES. SUBJ. Possa, possia'mo, pOssa, possiate, possa, possano. * Also rimanghidmo; lenglidrO; vaighidmo: popular forms. 1Also vWlsi. Also vuigli or vu6 ii. ~ n poetry we find aconditional poria. As wt;pno IRREGULAR VERBS. 93 22. Persuad6re, fersuade, persuisi, persuAso. Pres. persuAdo, etc. 23. Cal6re, matter, cAlse, cal6to. Imfersonal. No fut., cond., nor imperative. Not modern. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. Cile. C6glia. THIRD CONJUGATION. e. All irregular verbs of the third conjugation are accented, in the singular and third person plural of the present indicative and subjunctive, on the same syllable as in the infinitive. f. Verbs in -cere and -gere insert no i between the c or g and the o or a of the present indicative and subjunctive endings, except in the first person plural of both moods and the second person plural of the subjunctive. Cf. 60, last paragraph. g. See chapter on Pronunciation, 4, S, d. PRESENT REGULAR. 24. Accendere, light, accsi, acc6so. 25. Affliggere, aflict, afflissi, afflitto. 26. Algere, be cold, d1si. Defective. - Rare. 27. All6dere, allude, allisi (alluddi), alldso. 28. Ardere, burn, Arsi, Arso. 29. Arrogere, add, arrosi, arr6so or arrfto. Defective. Rare. 30. Assidere, besiege, assisi, assiso. Rare. 31. Ass8lvere, absolve, assolvetti or assolv6i or ass6lsi, ass6lto or assolito. So ris6lvere (determine); for s6lvere, diss6lvere, and ris6lvere (dissolve), see 107. 32. Ass6rbere, absorb, ass6rsi (not in use), ass6rto. Rare. 33. Avellere, upfroot, avilse, av6lso. Defective. Rare, 34. Chiidere, shut, chifsi, chiiso. So all verbs in -chiidere or -clddere. See, however, 4, B, d. 35. C6lere, revere, c6lto or c6i1to. Defective. Rare. 36. Connettere, connect, connessi (connett6i), connesso (connet. tito). Rare. 37. Con6scere, know, con6bbi, conoscidto. 38. Conquidere, conquer, conquisi, conquiso. Rare. 94 94 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 39. Cons~mere, consume, consfinsi, consi-tnto. Rare. Presfimere has also presurn6i. 40. Contd'ndere, bruise, contluisi, contfiso. 41.- Correre, run, c6rsi, c6rso. 42. Crdscere, grow, -credbbi, crescifito. 43. Cu6cere, cook, coc endo, c6ssi, co~tto. Pres. Cu0cio or cuOco, etc.* 44. Decidere, decide, decisi, deciso. 45. Dif~ndere, defend, difdsi (difende'i), dif6so. 46. Dirligere, direct, diress, direftto. 47. Discdtere, discuss, discfissi (discutdi), discd'sso. 48. Distfinguere,. distinguish, distinsi, distinto. 49. Dividere, divide, divi'si, divi'so. 50. Elidere, elide, eli'si (elide'i), eli'so.. 5 1. Eld'dere, elude, ehfisi (elude'i or eludeti) elUo 52. Ergere, erect, ersi, erto. Rare. 53. Esigere, exact, esige~i (esigeftti), esdtto. 54. Esistere, exist, esiste~i (esist te) esistifto. 55. Espe11ere, expel, espfilsi, espfilso. Rare. 56. Esplo~dere, expilode, es0~i esps0 57. Esprimere, exp~ress, espresi espreso So all other verbs in -primere. Premere and its comf5ounds are regular. 58. FC~ndere, sfilit, fendd'i (fendett or f~ssi), fendd'to or f6sso. 59. Figgere (figere), fix, fissi, fitto. 6o. Fingere, feign, finsi, finto. 61. F0"ndere, mnelt, f~isi (fondd'i), fidso (fonddto). 62. Frdingere, break, fr;Ansi, frinto. 63. Friggere, fry, frissi, fritto. 64. Genuflettere, kneel, genuf~s,genufl eo Rare. 66. Intrddere, intrude, intrd'si, intrUdso. 67. Invdidere, invade, invdisi, invdiso. 68. Le'dere, offend, le~si (not in use), e~o Rare. 69. Ueggere, read, less, leto 70. Licere or le'cere, be lawful, ldcito or licito. Imfiersonal. Defective. Poetical. 71. Li'dere, pilay, h'isi, lIU SO. Rare. 72. Meirgere, pilunge, me'rsi, me~so. Rare. 73. Me'ttere, piut, me'ssi or milsi, me'sso. * In the i st and 2d persons plural of the pres. ind., subj., and imperative, uo is generally replaced by o: cocidmo, etc. IRREGULAR VERBS. 95 74. M00lcere, soothe, mi'ilse. Defective. Rare. 75. M Ordere, bite, mrsi, mOrso. 76. Mu6vere, move, movndo, m~ssi, mosso. 77. NAscere, be born, rnicqui, nAto. 78. Nasc6ndere, hide, nasc6si, nasc6sto. 79. Negli'gere (see 5, Gli), neglect, neg1essi, neg1 eo 8o. Off~ndere, offend, off6si, off6so. 81. OSt~endere, show. Deftective. Rare. 82. Percipere, perceive, perCetto. Defective. Rare. 83. Perdere, lose, perde'i or perdeftti or persi, perdi'ito or pe~rso. 84. Pi6vere, rain, pi6vve (piový), piovi~to. Zmfiersonal. 85- P6rgere, piresent, po~rsi, p6rto. 86. Predillgere, pirefer, predi1 ei predi1 to 87. Prendere, take, pr~si, pr6so. 88. Proteggere, pirotect, prot ei prote'tto. 89. Rddere, shave, r~si (raddi), r~iso. 90. Redimere, redeem, redc'nsi (redim6i), redento. 91. RWggere, sufifort, resi reto 92. RWndere, render, r6si (rend6i or rendeti) r6so (rendifto). 93. Ridere, laugh, risi, rfso. 94. Riflettere, reflect, riflett6i or riflessi, rifletti'ito or rif so Riflefttere, "10 reflect light," is generally irregular; riflettere, "to meditate," is usually regular. 95. Ritfilgere, shine, riffilsi. Pastftart. lacking. Poetical. 96. Rilficere, shine, rilissi or riluc&i Past tiart. lacking. 97. Risp6ndere, answer, rispo'si, rispo-sto. 98. R6dere, gnaw, r6si, ro'so. 99. R6mapere, break, rdppi, r6tto. i00. Sc6ndere, descend, sce'si, sce'so. 101. Scfndere, sever, scinde'i or sclissi, sclisso. 102. Sci6lvere, breakfast, sci6lsi or SCiolVetti, sciolto. Rare. 103. Sc6rgere, pierceive, sco'rsi, sc6rto. 104. Scrivere, write, scrissi, scritto. 105. Scu~tere, shake, sctndo, sc6ssi, sc6sso.* io6. Soff6lcere, sufifort, soffilse, soff6lto. Defective. Rare. 107. S6lvere, undo, 'solv~i (solveftti), sohuito. Poetical. So diss6l. vere; for ass6lvere and ris6lvere (determine), see 31.i o8. S6rgere, rise, s6rsi, s6rto. *See page 94, footnote. 96 96 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 10.S ede, susend, sosp~si, sosp'so. So app'ndere, Imp~n dere; p6ndere is reg., dipedndere either reg. or irreg. io. Spdindere, spill; spandei or spandeti spAnto. ii i. Spdrgere, scatter, spdrsi, spdrso or spdt-to. 112. Spedndere, spiend, spe'si, spe'so. 113. Sp&-ere, dispierse, spe~rsi, spe'rso. Rare. 114. Sp~rgere, Pirolect, sp~rsi, sp6rto. 115. Strdggere, melt, strdlssi, strdtto..i i6. Suceddere, hapesccsio sced, SUCCesso or succeddto. So concedere, which has also concede~tti;- ce~dere and its other compfounds are generally regular. 11.Sggere, such, sugg6i or su'ssi. Fastfpart. laching. Rare. Y 1. Tedndere (transitive), extend, te'si, te'so. The intrans. verb is reg., but has no piast fiarticifile. 119g. Tedrgere, wzfie, t~rsi or terg6i, te'rso. Rare. 120. TO'rcere, twist, t6rsi, t6rto. 121. Uccidere, hill, uccisi, ucciso. 122. Viincere, conquer, vinsi, vinto. 123. VI'vere, live, vissi, vissfito or vivfito; viver6' or vivr6'. 124. VO~lgere, turn, v6lsi, v0lto. 125. V6lvere, turn, v0lsi, v0lto. Rare. Dev~lvere has a piast piarr. devoldto. PRESENT IRREGULAR. 126. Essere, be, fdi, stdto; saro. See 53, a.* 127. Be're or be'vere, drink, beve'ndo, be'vvi (bev et or bev~i), bevdto (be dto); ber6' or beverb'. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. Be~vo or bi'o, bevia-mo or beia~mo, 'Beva or bea, bevia~mo or beiamo, be~vi or bei, bevedte or beete, bedva or bea, bevia-te or beia~te, be~ve or be~e, be'vono or be'ono. be'va or be'a, be'vano or be'ano. * In the imperfect indicative e'ramo is often used for eravdmo. We find in poetry: se'te for si~te'e; e'nno or en for s~no (third plur.); szte for s'a; erdmo, erdle for eravdmo, eravdfe; u for o in the preterite and imperfect subjunctive; f~ro for f'~rono; fia, fiano or fieno, for sade', sardnno; fclra, fdrano for ~ rei, sare'hhe, sar~Abero; se'ndo for esse'ndo; shto, essu'to, or isszito for stdto. IRREGULAR VERBS. 97 128. Chie~dere, ask, chie~si (chi~si or chied6i), chie~sto. PRES. IND. Chi~do (chie~ggo),* chi~di, chi~de, chiedi~ano, chiede'te, chie~dono (chie~ggono).* PRES. SUBJ. Chie~da (chi~gga),* chi~da (chiegga), chi~da (chifgga), chiedia'mo, chiedia~te, chiedano (chieggano).* 129. Condi~rre, conduct, conduce~ndo, condiissi, condotto; condurr6& PRES. IND. PRES. SUJBJ. Condi~co, conddci, conddce, conducia~mo, conducefe, condticono. Conddca, conddca, condtica, conducia'mo, conduci6&te, condticano. 130. Nu6cere, harm, noce~ndo, no'cqui, nocii'ito. PRES. IND. Nu(^co or n('ccio, nocialmo, nuoci, noce'e, nuoce, nuocono or nocciono. PRES. STU3j. NuOca or ni~ccia, neci'Mo,, nuoca or noccia, nocidite, nuoca or noccia, nuo'cano orn~cciano. 131.- P6rre, 5iut, ponendo, p6si, p6sto; porr6'. FRES. IND. Po-ngo, ponia'mo (ponghia'mo), poni, ponete, pone, po'ngono. PRES. SUBIJ. Po'nga, poni~mo (ponghia'no), ponga, ponia'te, ponga, pongano. 132. Tr~rre (tr~ere), drag, trae~ndo, tr.Assi, trnitto; trarro&. PRES. IND. FEES. SUBJ. Tr a-ggo, traif.mo or traggiamo4f Traigga, trai'mo or traggiaino,t tra~e (trigge), traiggono. trigga, tra~ggano. 133. Ve~1lere (verre), tear ufi, ve'1si, v~t;vellerb vr6o vle'Q V Olere, which is rare, has not all the forms given here; but its compiound, sve'1lere, has them all. * Also chie'ggz*o, chie'ggi'ono, chieggia, chieggiano. t Also tragghidma. 98 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. Ve~l1o or ve~1go, ve11ia~mo (velgia'mo), Ve~11a or v~lga, ve11ia'mo (velgia'mo), AMll (v~lgi), vell1~te, vela or v~1ga, ve11i'te(vgit) v~11e (ve~lge), v~11ono or ve~1gono. veglla or v~lga, ve~1lano or v~1gano. 134. Co'gliere (co'rre), gather, c6lsi, c6lto; coglier6' or corr6'. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. CO~lgo (co~glio), coglia'mo (colghiaimo), CO~lga (co~glia), coglia'mo (colghiaimo,), cAgi, oý ~ e og (coglia), cogliaite, Coglie, cOlgono (co~gliono). cOlga (Oglia), co~lgano (Ogliano). 135. Sce'gliere (sc~rre), choose: like c6gliere (134). 136. Sci6gliere (sci6rre), untie: like co'gliere (134). 137. T6gliere (tOrre), take: like co'gliere (034). 138. Gi~ngere (g~ignere), to arrive, gii'nsi, 'gi~nto;giunger6' (giugoner6'). PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. Gidngo (gidgno), Gitinga (gitigna), gitingi (gitigni), gitinga (gitigna), gitinge (gitigne), gitinga (gitigna), giungia'mo (giugnidimo), giungiamo (giugnia~mo), gitingono (gitignono). gitingano (gitignano). 139. Cingere (clignere), gird: like gi~ngere (138). 140. M~ignere (m~ingere), milk: like g~iungere ( 138).141. Pidngere (piAgnere), weepi: like gi~ngere (138). 142. Plingere (pfgnere), fiaint: like gi6ngere (138). 143. P6ngere (p~ignere), tirick: like giiingere (138). 144. Spe'gnere (spe'ngere), extinguish: like gi~ngere (138), excejil that the forms with gn are as common as those with ng. 145. Splingere (spignere), tiush: like gi~ngere (138). 146. Striingere (strignere), bind: like gi~ngere (138), excepit that the PP~f. is str~tto or striinto. Costrinfgere has only costre'tto. 147. Tingere (tignere), dye: like giu'ngere (138). 148. Iingere (6gnere), anoint: like giu'ngere (138). IRREGULAR VERBS. 99 FOURTH CONJUGATION. PRESENT RE%3ULAR. 149. Apri~re, opien, aprii or ape~rsi, ape~rto. Pres. dipro, etc. 150. Coprire (cuoprire), cover, coprii or cope~rsi, cope~rto. Pres. c6pro (cu6pro), etc. 151. Gifrifre (offerire), offer, offrii (offerii) or offtirsi, off~rto. Pres. 6ffro (offerisco), etc. 152.' Soifrire, suffer: like aifrilre (150). 153. Convertire, convert, convertii or conve~rsi, convertito or converso. Pres. conve~rto or convertisco, etc. All other verbs in -vertire are reg. 154. Costrulre (construifre), construct, co(n)stri'issi or co(n)struili, co(n)struito or co(n)strd'tto. Pres. co(n)struisco, etc. 155. Digerlre, dig-est, digerf'i, digerito (dige~sto). Pres. digerisco, etc. 156. Esaurifre, exhaust, esaurli, esaurito or esdiusto. Pres. esaurisco, etc. 157. Seppellire or sepellire, bury, sep(p)eflli, seppellito or sep6lto. Pres. sep(p)ellisco, etc. PRESENT IRREGULAR. 1 58. Cucifre, sew, cucli, cucifto. Pres. ci'icio or cucisco. This verb inserts i before o and a, but not before e and i. 159. Sdrucire or sdruscilre, rig: like cucilre (158). 16o. Empire or 6mpiere, fill, empie~ndo, empli, emplito. All but the piresent from the stem of empire. So compifre or c6nipiere, which has also a fiast tiart. compifito. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 1tmpio (emplsco), empia'mol 1Empia, empia'mo, empi (empi'sci), emplite, empia, empia'te, empie (empi'sce), e'mpiono (empi'scono). empia, empiano. 161. Morire, die, mori'i, m6rto; morr6' or morir6. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. Mu~joi(mu~ro), mo'ri'mo ormuoiamo, Muoia (muo~ra), mori'mo or muoiamo, mu~rn or muffi, monite, muo~ia (muonra), muoia'te, muore, muoiono (muonrono). muojia (mOra), mOiano (morano).* *In all forms where uo occurs, it may be replaced by o. 100 100 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 162. Seguilre, follow, seguii, seguilto. Pres. s6guo, etc. The verb is generally regular; but the e' may be changed to ie^ in all forms where it is accented. Proseguire has -seguo or -seguisco. 163. Sparifre, disappbear, spari'i or spairvi, spari'to. Pres. (regular) spari'sco, etc. Apparire has appArvi or -si or -fi, appari'to or appArso; comparifre has compArvi or -si or -i1i, compairso; otherwise they are likce sparire, but they have in the piresent the additional forms: -pAio, -pAre, -pAiono; -p~lia, -pa"iano. 164. Dire, say, dice~ndo, di'ssi, d~tto; dir6. Dire (formerly' di'cere) belongs really to the third conjugation: dice'sti, -6va, -6ssi. PRES. IND. IMPER. FRES. SUBJ. Di'co, dicia'mo, DP', Difca, dicia'mo, dici, difte, dickiamo, di'ca, diciaite, difce, di'cono. dite. dica, dicano. 165. Salire, ascend, salf'i or sAlsi, sali~to. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. Sailgo (sali'sco), sali~mo or sagli~mo,* Silga (salifsca), saliamo or sagli~mo,* sale (sallisce), silgono (sal'scono). sa'lga (salisca), sa'lgano (saliscano). 166. Venire, come, ve'nni, venfito; verr6'. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. VWngo (ve~gno), venia'mo,* Ve~nga (vegna), venia'mo,* vieni, venite, venga (ve~gna), venia~te, vie~ne,' v~ngono (ve~gnono). ve~nga (ve~gna), ve~ngano (ve~gnano). 167. Udifre, hear, udii, udi'to; udir6' (udr6'). PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. Odo, udia'mo, Oda, udia~mo, Odi, udifte, Oda, udia~te, ^Ode, Mdono. O~da, O~dano. 168. Uscilre (escilre), go out, useifi, uscito. FRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. Esco, uscia'mo, Esca, uscia'mo, esci, uscifte, esca, usciaite, esce, Nscono. esca, escano. i69. Orilre, be born, 6~rto. Defective. Rare. *Also salghia'mo; venghidmo -popular forms. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. IOI ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 93. Every irregular verb in this list is followed by a number referring to the table of Irregular Verbs arranged according to Conjugation. Obsolete defective verbs that present no irregularity have not been mentioned. a. Compound verbs have, in general, been excluded from this list, unless they differ in conjugation from the simple verbs from which they come (see 67, a). The commonest prefixes are: a(corresponding in meaning to the preposition a); as- (= Latin abs-); co-, com-, con-, cor- (= prep. con); contra- (= prep. contra); de-, di- (= Lat. de-); dis- (= Lat. dis-); e-, es- (= Lat. ex); i-, im-, in-, ir- (= prep. in); o- (= Lat. ob); per- (= prep. per); pre- (= Lat. prae-); pro- (= Lat. pro-); r-, re-, ri(= Lat. re-); s- (= Lat. ex- or dis-); so-, sos-, su- (= Lat. sub); sopra-, sopr-, sor- (= prep. sopra); sott-, sotto- (= prep. s/tto); stra- (= Lat. extra); tra- (= prep. tra). After several of these prefixes the initial consonant of the simple verb is generally found doubled: a + caddre = accadere. S- is sometimes combined with con-, r- with a- or in-: scoscendere, raccdgliere, rincorrere. Accadere, see cadere, 7. Acc8ndere, 24. Acclddere, see chiddere, 34. Acc8rgere, see sc8rgere, 103. Acquisire has only acquisifto. Adddrre, see conddrre, 129. Afflfggere, 25. Algere, 26. Allddere, 27. Ancidere, see uccidere, 121. Andare, I. Annittere, see connfttere, 36. Anteporre, see p6rre, 131. Antivedere, p.p. only antiveddto, otherwise like vedere, 10. Apparfre, see sparfre, 163. Appartenere, see tenere, 17. App8ndere, see sospendere, 109. Aprifre, 149. Ardere, 28. 102 102 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Arro~gere, 29. Asce'ndere, see sce'ndere, ioo. Ascio~lvere, see scio~lvere, 102. Asco~ndere, see nasco~ndere, 78. Aspe~rgere, see spe~rgere, 113. Assalfre, see salire, 165. Assi'ere, 30. Assistere, see esi'stere, 54. Ass~lvere, 31. Ass~rbere, 32. Assdmere, see eonsdmere, 39. Av~l1ere, 33. Ave're, 5. Be're, 127. Be'vere, see be're, 127. Cade're, 7. Cale're, 23. CUdere,.generally reg., somet'imes has prel. c~ssi, p.15. c~sso. Chi~dere, 128. Chiiidere, 34. Ci 0gnere, see ci 0ngere, x139. Cinfgere, 139. Cireoncidere, see deci'dere, 44A. Co~gliere, 134. Coincidere, reg. verb, has no Colere, 35. Coihidere, see hIdere, 71. Comparire, see sparfre, 163. Compe~tere, regý verb, has no CO-mpiere, see empire, 16o. Compire, see empire, 16o. Comprimere, see espri'mere, 57. Conce~dere, see succe~dere, 11i6. Conciddere, see chhiddere, 34. Conciitere, see discdtere, 47. Conddrre, 129. Conne~ttere, 36. Con Oscere, 37. Conqui'dere, 38, Consifstere, see esifstere, 54. Consta~re is reg. Construire, see costruffre, 154, Consdmere, 39. Contgndere, see t~ndere, i 18. Contrasta~xe is reg. Controve~rtere, see Vrtere. Couttindere, 40. Conv~rgere, reg. verb, has no p~p. Convertire, 153. Coprire, 15o. CO~rre, see co~gliere, 134. C 61rrere, 41.Corrispo~ndere, see rispo~ndere, 97 Cospairgere, see spargere, iii. Cosp~rgere, see spe~gere, 113. Costruifre, 154. Cre'cere, 42. Cucire, 158. CuO~cere, 43. Cuoprire, see coprire, 150. D axe, 3. Decidere, 44. Dedilrre, see conddrre, 129. Delinquere, reg. verb, has no 5p, and its pret., delinqueftti, is rare. Depri'mere, see espri'mere, 57. Desifstere, see esistere, 54. Devo~lvere, see vo~lvere, 125. Dife~ndere, 45. Digerire, 155. Dipe~ndere, see sospe~ndere, 109. Dire, 164. Diri'gere, 46. Dirimere, reg. verb, has no. Disce~ndere, see sce~ndere, 100. Discdtere, 47. Disp~rgere, see spe~rgere, 1 13. Disso~lvere, see soOlvere, 107. Dissuade'e, see persuad ere, 22. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 13 103 Dist~re, reg. in fires. of all moods, no pres. p., otherwise like sta~re, 4. Distlinguere, 48. Distriiggere, see strdggere, 115. Divede'e, has nothing but in~fin. Div~rgere, reg. verb, has no pp Divi'dere, 49. Dole're, 15. Dove're, 8. E1e~ggere, see 18ggere, 69. Ellidere, 50. Ehidere, 5 1. Empiere, see empire, i6o. Empire, i6o. Ergere, 5 2. Eri'gere, see diri'gere, 46. Esauri're, 1 56. Escfre, see uscire, 168. Esehidere, see chhiddere, 34. EsIgere., 53. Esi'mere, reg. verb, has no p.pi. Eststere, 54. Esp~11ere, 55. Esplo~dere,, 56. Espri'mere, 5 7. Essere, 126. Estinfguere, see distinfguere, 48. Eva-dere,,see invaidere, 67. Fa~re, 2. F~ndere, 58. F~rvere, reg. verb, has no pp~j., and is rare except in the thirdfpers. of the pres. and impi. ind. Flgere, see figgere, 59. FI'ggere, 59. Finfgere, 6o. F05ndere, 61. Fra~ngere, 62. Fri'ggere, 63. Genufl~ttere, 64, Gifre, defect. fires. gidimo, gifte; imp. giva or gia, etc.; imper. ghiamo, gite; pires. suebj. ghiamo, ghite; no pires. pi.; rest reg. Gidgnere, see ghingere, 138. Gidngere, 138. Ill6dere, see Iddere, 71. Impe11ere, see esp~1ere, 55. Impe~ndere, see sosp~ndere, iou. Impri'mere, see espri'mere, 57. Inclidere, see declidere, 44. Inclddere, see chiddere, 34. Incdtere, see discdtere., 47. Ind-drre, see conddrre, 129. Insi'stere, see eslistere, 54. Insta~re is reg. Instrui're, see construilre, 154. Intendere, see t~ndere, i 18. Interc~dere, see succedere, 1n6. Intri'dere, 65. Introddrre, see condfirre, 129. Intrddere, 66. Inva~dere, 67. Invaleire, pp~f. only invilso, otherwise like vaid're, 18. Ire, defect.. p fres. lite;, impi. i'va, etc.; irefte, iranno; impier. ifte; impi. subj. i'sse, i'ste, i'ssero; pi.p. 'Ito'. Istrui're, see costruifre, 154. Le'ere, see li'cere, 70. Ladere, 68. LUggere, 69. Licere, 70. Ldcere, reg. verb, has no ip L-6dere, 7 1. Mantene're, see tene'e, 17. Me~rgere, 72. Mettere, 73. 104 104 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. M00lcere, 74. MO~rdere, 75. Morire, i6i. Miignere, 140. Mtingere, see mtignere, 140. Mu~vere, 76. Na~scere, 77, Nasco~ndere, 78. Negllfgere, 79. Nuocere, 130. Offndere, 80. Offerire, see offrifre, 151. Offrifre, 151. Oppri'mere, see espri'mere,.57. Orfre, 169. Ostaire is reg,. 0ste~ndere, 8i. Paredre, 20. Perci'pere, 82. Percuftere, see scuotere, io5 -Pe~dere, 83. Permane're, see rimanere, 16. Persistere, see esifstere, 54. Persuade're, 22. Piace~re, 12. Pia~gnere, see piangere, 14!. Pia~ngere, 141. Pignere, see pfingere, 142. Plingere, 142. Pivere, 84. Porgere, 85. P05rre, 131. PPos65rre, see porre, 13 1. Possede~re, see sedere, 9. Pote'e, 21. Preclidere, see decldere, 44. Prechidere, se- chiddere, 34., Predili'gere, 86. Pre~mere is reg. Vre~ndere, 87. Prestaire is reg. Presilmere,, see cons~~mere, 39. Prevede're, see vedere, 10. Proddrre, see condfirre, 129. Prot~ggere, 88. Provvede're, Jut. ana cond. uncontradted, otherwise like vede're, 10. Prtldere, reg. verb, has no pp., and i5 used only in the third pers. Pdgnere, see pdingere, 143. Pidngere, 143. Racco~gliere, see c~gliere, 134. R6adere, 89. Raggildngere, see giilngere, 138. Recidere, see decidere, 44. Redi'mere, 90. Re~ggere, 9 1. Re~ndere, 92. Repe~11ere, see espel~ere, 55. Repri'mere, see esprimere, 57. Resi'stere, see esfistere, 54. Resta~re is reg. Ri'dere, 93. Ridfirre, see conddrre, 129. Rifl~ttere, 94. Rifdlgere, 95. Rihlfcere, 96. Rimane're, 16. RisoOlvere (dissolve), see s08lvere, 107. RisoOlvere (determine), see assoOlvere, 31 Rispo~ndere, 97. Ristaire, see stare, 4. Risdmere, see constlmere, 39. R Odere, 98. RO'mpere, 99. Sape~re, 6. Sce'gliere, 135. Scetldere, 100. Sc~rre, see sc~gliere, 135. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 0 105 Scfndere, 101 Scio'gliere, 136. Scio~ivere, 102. Sciorre, see scio~ghere, 136. Scommebttere, see me'ttere, 73. Scoprifre, see coprire,. 150. Sco~rgere, 103. Scrf'vere, 104. Scuotere, 105. Sdrucifre, 159..ducr, see sdrucire, 159. Sede'e, 9. Sedfirre, see conddirre, 129. Seguifre, 162. Sepellifre, see seppelli're, 157. Seppellifre, 157. Sofferfre, see soifrifre, 152. Soff6lcere, wo6. Soifrifre, 152. So1e~re, 14. S8lvere, 107. Soppri'mere, see espri'mere, 57. Soprastaire, see sta're, 4. SO~rgere, io8. Sospe~ndere, 109. Sosta~re is reg. Sottosta~re, see stare, 4. Sovrastare, see stare, 4. Spaindere, 110o. Spairgere, i ii. Sparfire, 163. Spe~gnere, 144. Spe~ndere, 112. Sp~ngere, see spegnere, 144, Spe~rgere, 113. Spi'gnere, see spinfgere, 145. Splingere, 145,. Sp~rgere, 114. Sta're, 4. Stri'dere, reg. verb, has no Pp.P Stri'gnere, see str'Lngere, 146. Striingere, 146. Stridggere, i i5. Sublire is reg.: pres. sublsco. Succe~dere, 116.* Stiggere, 117. Susst'stere, see esi'stere, 54. Sv~l1ere, see ve~11ere, 133. Tace~re, 13. TUndere (trans.), 11i8. [p Te~ndere (intrans.), reg. verb, has no Tene're, 17. TUrgere, 1 19. Tfgnere, see tinfgere, 147. Tiffngere, 147. TO'gliere, 137. TO~rcere, 120. TO~rre, see t~gliere, 137. Tradiirre, see condiirre, 129. Traere, see tra~rre, 132. Transi'gere, see esigere, 53. Trairre, 132. Ucci'dere, 121. Udifre, 167. Ugnere, see 16ngere, 148. Ungere, 148. Uscifre, 168. Vale're, 18. Vede're, 10. V811ere, 133. Venire, 166. Ve~rre, see ve~llere, 133. VWrtere, reg. verb, is used only in the pres. and imp. Vilipe~ndere, see sosp~ndere, 109. Vinfcere, 122. Vi'vere, 123. Voie~re, 19.. V00lgere, 124. VO~lvere, 125. ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. IO1 ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. A, to, at, in. A', di, al, etc. = a + art. Abbellito, beautified. Accompagndre, accompany. Acc8rgersi, perceive. Acqua, water. Ad, see A. Affaccirsi, place one's self (at a window). Affrett6xe, hasten. Agguantdre, seize. Agostino, Gus. Albero, tree. Ale, wing. Al6tta, little wing. Alettina, little wing. Alfr6do, Alfred. Allontanare, send off. All6ra, then. Altro, other. Amxro, bitter. Anche, also, even. Anddr, see Anddre. Andfre, go, to go, going. Andirsene, go away. AndAto, gone. Anallo, ring. Animxle, animal. Animalino, little creature. Antico, old. Ape, bee. Appdna, hardly. App6sta, on purpose. Aria, air. Arricchito, enriched. Arrivdre, arrive. Arrivdto, having arrived. Asino, ass. Assalfre, attack. Assenzio, wormwood. Assoltito, absolute. Attimo, flash. Avdnti a, in front of. Avdre, have. Avved6rsi di, perceive. Azionccia, from Azi6ne. Azi6ne, action. Bdbbo, father, papa. Baddre, keep. Bagndre, bathe. Bambino, child. BArbaro, barbarian. Barb6ne, water-spaniel. Bar6ne, baron. Bast6ne, stick. Eel, see B11o. Bellissimo, very beautiful. B1l1o, beautiful, fine, kind. Ben, see Bene. BMne, well, nicely, much. Bane, good (noun). B6cca, mouth. B8ve, ox. BrAvo, worthy. 108 io8 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Brilldre, shine. Briitto, ugly. Buccito2 pricked. Bugia, lie. Biuiio, dark. Bu6no, good. Butt~re, throw. Buttdr giiý swallow. Cad6re, fall. Caiz6ni, trousers. Can, see Cdne. Cane, dog, Capa'ce, capable. Cpo, head. Da cdfio, daccdj~ once more. Capp~l~o, hat. Carlomnagno, Charlemagne. Cc~rne, flesh. C~sa, house, home. Casca-re, fall. Cass6tta, drawer. Cassett6ne, bureau. Castibllo, castle. Cattivo, bad, naughty. C~1ia, trick. Cibnto, a hundred. Cercagre, search. Certo, certain, some. Cespiiglio, bush. Che, who, which, that. Che, what. Che ciisa =what. Che, that. Che, than. Chi... chii, one.., another. Chiamaire, call. Chicca, sweetmeat. Ci, there. Cinque, five. Cittal, city. Cittadino, citizen. C6da, tail. C6gli, col, etc. =con + art. C~gliere, catch, pick.. C6iio, neck. C6rne, as, like, how, when. Comincia're, begin. Comnm6ttere, commit. Compaigno, companion. Comifine, town. Com~1ini-coimmons. Con, with. Conffetti, candy. Con6scere, know, find o~ut. C6nte, count. Continovam6nte, continually. Continuo, continual. C6nto, count. C6rpo, hody. Corr~ggersi, reform. C~sa, thing. CUsa pzibblica= government. Cosi, so, thus. Creat-ira, creature. Cr6dere, believe. Cfii, whom, whose. CuriositA, curiosity. Curi6so, curious., funny. Da, by, from, as to. Dd~le fidrtz -at the sides.Dacc~po, see CAipo. D&i, dal, etc.=-da +art. Ddre, give, look. De', d6gli, d6i, del, etc. -di- 4art Desid~rio, desire. Ddtto, said, told. Di, of, than, to, with. ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCAB3ULARY. 9 log Dic~rto, surely.. Di diftro, fromn behind. Di~ci, ten. Di~tro, behind, after. Di didlro= from behind. DidI/ro a -after. Dint6rni, neighborhood. Dio, God. Dire, say, speak. Diritto, right. Disc6rso, talk. Disobbediibnte, disobedient. Disperdto, desperate. Distdnza, distance. Distriiggere, destroy. Disubbidi~nte, disobedient. Ditino, from Dito. Dito, finger. Dito grcdsso=- thumb. Diventdre, become. D6dici, twelve. Dol6re, pain. D6po, after. D6ve, where. Dovdre, ought, must. Dfie, two. Duinque, therefore. Dur~nte, during. A, and. ic-co, this is. Ed, and. Enrico, Henry. Essa, it. Ibsse, them. iEssere, be. Pssere Per = be about to. Elssi, them. Eisso, it. PfAilo, fault. Fancidll1o, child. Fire, make, let. Farffdlla, butterfly. Fascialre, bandage. Fe-rro, iron. Figliu~lo, child, son. Figurairsi, imagine. Finohb non, until. Finibstra, window. Finire, finish. ]Fino a, up to. FPi6re', flower.: Fiorito, flowery. Firt-nze, Florence. Frirmam6nto, firmamient. F~glia, leaf. FP6nte, fountain. Forestifro, foreign. Fra, between, in, to. FPr6ddo, cold. FPr6nte, forehead. FPriitto, fruit. Fuggire, flee. Fu~ri, out. Fuiria, haste. Gdmnba, leg. Gdmbo, stem. Gdtto, cat. Genit6ri, parents. GiA, already. Giardino, garden. Giglio, lily. Giorg6tto, Georgie. Gi6rno, day. Gird.r, see Girdre. Girdre, go around. Girdto, gone around. Gfro, turn, circuit. Giro giro a, round and round. HO ITO ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Gui, down. Giudizio, judgment, idea. Gli, the. Gli, it. Gli, to him. Glie, see Gli, Le. GlO'bo, globe. GoI'so, glutton, greedy. Governdto, governed. Gra.nde, big. Grandissimo, very big. Grido, shout. Grbisso, big. Guard~rsi, refrain. I, the. Il, the. mluminAto, illumined. Il qudle, who. Imperat6re, emperor. Impibro, empire. In, in. Infdtti, in fact. Infinitamn6nte, infinitely. Infino, even. InfocAto, blazing. Ingordigia, gluttony. Insegndre, teach. Insftto, insect. Insit-me, together. Ins6mma, in short. Intendimrnito, intelligence. Int6rno, around (adv.). Int6rno a, around (p5rep.). Invasi6ne, invasion. Ispiralre, inspire. V', see La, Le, LO. La, the. La. it, her, LA, there. D~i bi ==there. Laceraire, tear. La'dra, thief. La-dro, robber. Laimpo, flash. Lanc~tta, hand. Lascidre, leave, let, let go. Lascidto, let. Lavora're, work. Le, the. Le, to her, to it. Le, them. Le6ne, lion. Libsto, quick. Leva-re, take away. Levdrsi (~with direct object) =. get rid of. Leva'to, up. Li, them. L1, there. Libero, free. Lo, the. Lo, him, it. Longobdrdo, Longobard. Lontaino, distant. LO'ro, them, their. Liice, light. Lucjbrtoia, lizard. Liii, him, he. Liime, light. Lumin6so, luminous. Liina, moon. Ma, but. Ma'dre, mother. lMaest6so, majestic. Maibstra, school-mistress. Maestro, school-master. Mdggio, May. Maggi6re, larger. ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. I I I I Mdi, ever. Non mdi = never. Mala'nno, harm. Far maldnni = mischief-making. Malaita, ill. Maldic~nte, gossip. Md1e, badly, ill. Mdle, wicked. Marnma, mother, mamma. Manddre, send. Mangia're, eat. Manifta, manner. Mdno, hand. Mattina, morning. M6no, less. MWnto, chin. MWntre, while. Meravigli6so, wonderful. MetA, half. MWttere, put. Me'ttersi = begin, put on. Mibzzo, half. Mezzo, middle. In mb~zo a =in the middle of. Miojo, puss, cat. Mili6ne, million. Minacoia~re, threaten. Min6re, smaller. Mind6to, minute. Mi o, my. M6do, way. Molestdre, annoy. M6Iti, many. M6lto, much. M6rdere, bite. M6sca, fly. M6stra, face. Miiro, wall. t~utdre, change. Nasc6sto, hidden. Na'so, nose. NAto, born. Ne, of it, for it. Nb, nor.I NMi, nel, etc. = in + art. Nemm6no, even. Nessiino, nobody. Nicoolino, Nicholas, Nick. Nido, nest. No, no. Di no= no. N~bile, noble. NobiltA, nobility. N6i, we, us. Nbia, trouble. Non, not. Nron... che =only, NMstro, our. N~tte, night. NMve, nine. Niilla, nothing. Nulmero, number. 0, or. 0, oh. Occhio, eye. Occhi6ne, from Occhio. Od6re, odor. d~gni, every. Ognfino, everybody. Oltre, beyond, over. Ora, now. Ora, hour. Oram6.i, at last. Origine, origin. Oro, gold. Oro1~gio, watch. 6tto, eight. Padroncino, little master, Pa1~zzo, palace. 112 112 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Panigre, basket. Panierino, from Panifte. Painni, clothes. Par6cohio, some. Par6re, seem. P~rte, part, side. Ddlle fidr/i= at the sides. A questa tidrte to this time. Participdre, participate. Pdsso, step. Pdtto, condition. A fidt/o cee= on condition that. Pel - per il. Pensdre, think. Per, for, in order to, on account of, through, by. Perchb, why, because. Pgrdere, lose. Perdondre, pardon. Perm6sso, permission. Per&, therefore, however. P6sce, fish. P~tto, chest. Picinta, plant. Piohi~re, strike. Piccino, tiny-, small. Piccolo, little, small. Pi~de, foot. Piano, full. Piglidre, take. Plinna, fin. PRiL, more, most. Po', little. P81, then, too. Portdre, take, bring. Pot6re, can, be able. Pbvero, poor. Pri~ndere, take. Pr~sso, near. Pr~sto, early. Pret~ndere, expect. Preval6re, prevail. Primo, first. Pr6nto, quick. Piibblico, public. Punfre, punish. Piinto, point. Quadrdpede, quadruped. Qudlche, some. Qualchediino, somebody. Qualcbsa, anything. Qualciino, somebody. Qud1e, see Il quale. Qududo, when. Qucduto, as much. Quatt6rdici, fourteen. Qudttro, four. Que', qu6i, fil. of Qu611o. Qu6gli, fil. of Qu6llo. Quel, see Qu,6llo. Qu6llo, that, that one. Qu6sto, this, this one. Qui, here. Di qui = here. Quindi, therefore. Raccontalre, relate. Ragghuingere, overtake. Ragi6ne, reason. Ras~nte, close. Refezi6ne, lunch. Rfggere, stand, endure. Respir~re, breathe. Rfttile, reptile. Riccdrdo, Richard. Ricomincidre, begin again. Ricorddrsi, remember. Ricreazio'ne, recess. ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. I13 Ridere, laugh. Riga, line. Dijfrima riga = firstclass. Righettina, little mark. Rimandare, send back. Riman6re, remain. RimediAre a, atone for. RimproverAre, reprove. Ripitere, repeat. Ripeso, rest. Risp6ndere, reply. RisputBre, spit again. R6mpere, break. Rbsa, rose. Rot6ndo, round. RubAre, steal. Sanguin6so, bloody. Sap6re, know, hear. SaporAccio, from Sap6re. Sap6re, taste. SAsso, stone. ScappAre, run away. Scina, scene. Sc6nder, see Sc6ndere. Sc6ndere, descend. Scuala, school. Se, if, whether. Se, see Si. SB, itself, himself, herself. Sec6ndo che, according as. SegnAto, marked. Seguire, turn out. Sii, six. Sbmpre, always. Sen6se, Sienese. Sentire, taste, hear. S6nza, without. Sarpe, snake. Servit6re, servant. SessAnta, sixty. Sitte, seven. SfacciatAggine, impudence. Si, himself, herself, itself. S1, yes, so. Sign6ra, lady. Sign6re, gentleman. Signoria, rule. Simile, like. SmisurAto, boundless. SoAve, sweet. Solam6nte, only. 561e, sun. Soll6cito, early, brisk. 561o, alone. Sommito, added. S6pra, on, above. Di sfjra= up, above. Sor8lla, sister. Sorellina, from Sor8lla. S8rte, lucky.. Sospettere, suspect. Sospitto, suspicion. Sost6gno, support. S6tto,, under. Di s5/to= down, underneath. Sparire, disappear. Spicchio, slice. Spina, thorn. Sputdre, spit. StAnza, room. StAre, stay, stand. St6lla, star. St6sso, himself. St6sso, same. St6sso, even. Straccidre, tear. 114 "ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Str6tto, close, tight. Strillare, scream. Su, on, up. Su', sul, etc. = su + art. Sibito, at once. Sto, its, his, her. Tanto, so much, so, much. Tdnto... quanto, both... and. Te, thee, you. Tempo, time. Tenito, held. Terra, earth, ground, land. Territ6rio, territory. Ti, thee, you. TirAre, throw, draw. Tirdrfuori, take out. T6cco, one o'clock. TornAre, return, returning. T6rno t6rno a, round and round. ToscAno, Tuscan. Tra, among, to. Tranquillam6nte, tranquilly. TrAtto: a un trdtto = all at once. Traversare, cross. Tre, three. Tr6dici, thirteen. Tr6nco, trunk. TrovAre, find. Tu, thou, you. "TiUo, thy, your. "Titto, all. Per tMtto = everywhere. TWtti e dze= both; t9tti e tre = all three; etc. Uccellino, from Uccllo. Uccllo, bird. Un, a, one. Una, a, one. ifndici, eleven. Uno, a, one. U6vo, egg. Uridre, yell. UTscio, door. Vassoino, tray. Ved6re, see. Ventiquattro, twenty-four. VeritA, truth. V4ro, true. V6scovo, bishop. VWspa, wasp. Vestire, dress. Via, off, away, so forth. Sometimes used instead of a verb of motion. ViAggio, way, journey. Vicino, near. Vi81a, violet. Vi6ttola, path. Viso, face. Vispo, lively. Viziaccio, from Vizio. Vizio, vice. V6ce, voice. V6glia, desire. Vol6re, wish. Volontariam6nte, voluntarily. V61ta, time. VoltAr, see VoltAre. Voltare, turn. ZAmpa, paw, foot. Zampina, little paw. ZanzAra, mosquito. Zimbillo, laughing-stock. ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 115 ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. Aun, iino, uina. Africa, Aifrica. After, d6po. Ago, fa. Aim, mirire. Air, diria. Alone, s6lo. Although, sebbe~ne. Always, Sempre. Amaze, meraviglikire. America, AMerica. An, see A. Ancient, antfco. And, e. Another, und~ltro,. April, aprifle, m. Around, intorno. As, c6me. As... as, qud nto, tdnto... c6me. Asia, Asia. At, a. Attach, attaccaire. August, ag6sto. Be, essere, irreg. (53, a). Beam, trive, f. or m. Beast, be'stia. Beautiful, be11o Because, perche'. Begin, cominciaire. Believe, cr6dere. Big, gr~sso. Bird, ec~lo Black, ne'o. Blood, saingue, m. Boil, bolif're. Boy, ragdizzo. Branch, rdimo. Bread, pdlne, mn. Brother, frate^11o, mn. Bubble, vescich6tta. But, ma. By, da. By chance - per cdiso. Call, chiam~ire. Capital, capitaileýf Car, vag6ne, mn. Care, cuira. Carriage, carro~zza. Carry, portaire. Case, ca'so. Chance, ca'so. By chance = pei cdlso. Charged, cdirico. Charity, caritit, Charles, Cairlo. Choose, sce'gliere, irreg. Christopher, Cristoforo. Circle, t6ndo. Cloud, ntivola. Club, basto'ne, in. Coat, Thito. 116 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Collect, racco~gliere, irreg. Columbus, Colodmbo. Come back, tornaire. Companion, compaigno. Confined, teniito. Construct, costruffre, irreg. Continue, seguiftire. Contrary, contrairio. Cool, raffredchirsi. Corner, cainto. Country, pae'se, m. Cover, coprire, irregCreature, anim aile, m. Crumb, briciola. Crush, schiacckiare. Dark, buiio. Day, gi6rno. December, dice~mbre, mn. Dense, de~nso. Department, dipartime'nto. Discover, scoprifre, irreg. Distance, distainza. Divide, divi'dere, irreg. Do, fdre, irreg. Dominion, domi'nio. Door, iiscio. Down, guiU. Dream, sogniire. Drop, g6cciola. Dropi by dropi a gocciola a gocciola. Duke, diica, m. Dungeon, cilircere, f. Dust, pO'lvere,. Earn, guadagnaire. Earth, te~rra. Eight hundred, otocnto. Ilither... or, o.. o. Emmanuel, Emanue'le. Emperor, imperato're, m. Empty, VUO~tO. End, terminaire. Enemy, nemifco. Escape, scappaire. Europe, Europa. Even, ainche. Ever, maii. Every, 6'gni. Everything, ttitto. Everywhere, per Oftto. Eye, noun, 6cchio. Eye, vb., occhialre. Fall, cadiita. Family, fami'gia, f. Far, lontaino, adv. and adj. Father, pa'dre, in., balbbo. February, febbriiio. Fief, f~udo. Fifth, quifnto. Find, trovaire. Finger, difto. P1. difta, f Fire, fuO^CO. First, prf'mo. Adv., pri'ma. Five, cinfque. Flat, piditto. Flee, fuggire. Flower, fi6re, mn. Fly, vohidre. Food, mangnidre, mn. For, per. For yourself (coync'n live) = vi, Si. Form, formiire. rort, forte'zza. Forth, fuo~ri. Forty, quariinta. Four, quaittro. ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. " 117 F'our hundred, quattroCento. France, Frnincia, f Friday, venerd'i, m. Friend, ami~co, mn., 23, c, (2). From, da. Fruit, frii tto. Furniture, mobf'lia. Genoa, Ge~nova. Give, dire, irregý. Go, andaire, irreg. Good, bubno. Grain, gr~ino. Great, gr~inde. Ground, te~rra. Grove, boschdtto. Grow up, venir su, irreg. Gun, schi6ppo, fucifle, mn. Hand, maino, f Happen, accad6re, irreg. Hardly, appe'na. Hasten, affrettdirsi. Hate, odi~ire. Have, av6re, irreg. (53, b). Heat, ca5ldo. Herb, e~rba. I, 100 If, se. Imagine, immagindre. In, in. Indeed, davv6ro. Inhabit, abitdre. Inside, did~ntro. Instance, esernipio. Intense, vivo. Intention, intenzi6negf. Into, in. It, lo, la, 6gli, gli. Italian, italidno. Italy, Itdlhia, f Its, silo, sula. Itself, Si. Jailer, carcerie~re, mn. January, genndio. July, MihOO. June, giiigno. King, re, in. Know, sap~re, irreg., con6scere (- be acquainted with), irreg. Land, pa6se, in., te,*rra. Large, grainde. Last, UIitimo (pirecedes noun). Last year = 1' Anno sc6rso. Latter, qu6sto. The' latter =qu6 -sti, in. sing. Leaf, f6glia. Leap-year, bisestille, in. Learn, impardre. Left, sini'stra. Lid, te~sto. Lift, sollevdre. Light, hice,f. Like, c6me. Little (= sniai?), piccolo, piccifno. Here, qua. High, Alto. Him, ho, gli, MEi. Himself, si. His, silo. History, st6ria. Holiday, f6sta. Honest, oneso To him -gli, a However, tuttavfa. Hunter, cacciat6re, in. u8 ii8 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Little (=a small quantity), pOco. Little by little -a Poco a p6co. Live, vi'vere, irreg. Loaded, cairico. Lorraine: of Lorraine -lorendse. Loud, f6rte. Low, Mdsso. Lower, abbassdire. Man, u6mo, j51. u6mini. Many, m6lti, oz., m6lte,f. March, mdirzo. Mask, ma'schera. May, mdggio. Me, mi, me. Melon, coco~mero. Merchant, mercdlnte, m. Middle, Mezzo. Mignonette, amorinfo. Mine, info. Moisture, umidith,f. Monday, luned'i, m. Month, m6se, m. Moon, Mina. More, piu'. Mortify, mortificire. most, ii piut. Mr., sign6r. my, info. Name, n6me, m. Napoleon, Napole6ne. Near, vicino a. Need, bis6gno. Never, non... indi. Nice, gentifle. Ninety, novainta. No, no. Nobody; nessulno. Nor. ne*. Not, non. November, nove'mbre. Now, 6ra. Object, oggeftto. Observe, osservdlre. Oceanica, Ocedinia. October, otto'bre. Of, di. Of them =ne. On, s6pra, su (before vow., sur). One, uino. One's self, Si. Only, s6lo (adj.), non...che (ad/v.). Opposite, oppo'sto. Or, o. Ought, dov6re, irreg. Out, fuo~ri. Outside, difuori, m. Over there, la ggii. Pace, ptisso. Parents, genit6ri, m. 61. Paris, Parifgi. Parrot, pappagaillo. Part, pairte, f. Peasant, contadinfo. Perfectly, pro~prio. Perhaps, f6rse. Persuade, persuaddre, irreg. Philip, Fil'ippo. Place, luo~go. Placed, po'sto. Plainly, schiettamdnte. Plant, piainta. Point, puinto. Poor, p~vero. Pot, pe'ntola. Present, present~ireo ENG;LISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. I1 119 Prevent, inipedire. Principle, princi'pio. Prison, prigi6neqf. Prisoner, prigioni&ro. Profession, professi6ne, / Purpose, ilso. Quantity, quantitl~f. Question, domdnda. Rain, pio'ggia. Raise, levdire. Rare, rdiro. Recognized, conosciu'to. Relate, raccontdlre. Remain, riman~re, irreg., rest~lre. Repeat, ripeftere. Reply, risp6ndere, irreg. Resolve, risci~gliere, irreg. Rest, posaire. Right, d~stra. Rise, saif're, irreg. Room, stinza. Root, radi'ce, f. Round, rot6ndo. Rule, signori'a. Sacrifice, sacrifi'zio. Sail, navigaire. Sailor, marin~lro. Same, st6sso (precedes noun). Satisfy, contentilre. Saturday, sdbato. Say, difre, irreg. Sea, maire, m. Second, sec6ndo. See, ved6re, irreg. Seed, same, mn. Sent, mand~lto. September, sette~mbre, m. Service, servizic. Seven, seftte. Shake, scubtere, irrug. Ship, ndive, f. Shoot, kirba. Short, co'rto. Show off, far veddre, &rrsg. Side, pdirte, f. Silence, si1e~nzio. Sinister, sinistro. Sir, sign6re, mt. Sixty, sessdlnta. Sky, cie~lo. Small, piccolo, piccfno. Smoke, frimo. So, cosil. So as to, per. Some, qudI~che. Somebody else, qualehedun' 61 -tro. Sometimes, qualchev6lta.. So much, U~nto. Son, figlic. Sort, s6rta. Spaniard, spagnu6lo. Speak, parhire. Spider, r~lgno, nignolo. Sprouted, germogihito. Stalk, fdsto. Steam, vap6re, m. Straight, diritto. Study, noun, stildio. Sun, s6le, m. Sunday, dome'nica. Support, manten6re, irreg. Surprised, sorpr~so. Surround, circondilre. 120 120 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Table, taivola. Take, pre~ndere, irreg. Tear, raschkire. Than, che, di. Thanks, gradzie,/ 1 That, conj., che. That, rel. piron., che. That, demons. firon., que'llo. The, ii, lo, la, i -,gli, le. Them, 1i, le, l6ro. Of them= ne. Then, p6i. There, 1ht, 111. Theref ore, perb. They, 6ssi, e'sse, l6ro. Thick, grO^sso. Thing, c6sa. Think, pens~lre. Third, te-rzo, Thirtieth, trente~simo. Thirty, trenta. Thirty-first, trente~simo prfn-mo. Thirty-,one, trentdino, trenttin. This, que'sto. Thousand, mu'le. Three, tre. Three hundred, trece~nto. Thursday, giovedli, m. Thus, cosi. Time, (Ex. 2) vo'lta; (Ex. 18 and 20) te~mpo. To, a. Tolhim -gli. Together, insie~me. Too (=also), dinche. roo excessively), tr6ppo. T'ree, Ailbero. Trunk, tro'nco. Tuesday, martedli, m. 1'urn, giralre. Tuscan, tosc~lno. Twelve, do'dici. Twenty-eight, vent6tto. Twenty-nine, ventino~ve. Twig, ramosce^11o. Two, due. Under, s6tto. Unfortunate, infeli'ce. Unhappy, sventurdito. Union, unio'ne,fUnite, racco6gliere, irreg. Until, f5re5., fifno a. Until, con]., finche'... non, Us, n6i, Ci (conjunctive). -Usual, uskto. Vapor, vapore, mn. Vegetable, vegeta~hile, m. Very, rn6lto, tainto. Victor, Vitrio. Villa, vf'lla. Village, villdggio. Water, alcquaWay (-~ manner), manie~ra. We, n6i. Web, tela. Wednesday, mercoledi, m. Week, settimaina. What, inlerrog. and exclam.,t che. What, rel., que'llo die. When, qudndo. Where, d6ve. Which, che. While, mdntre. Who, rel., che. Whom, rel., cdi. Willingly, volentiri. Wind, ve~nto. ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 121 Window, fine~stra. With, con. Without, sdnza. Wood, bo~sco. Word, paro~la. Working-day, gi6rno di lav~ro. World, m6ndo. Year, Ainno. Yes, gia'. You, v6i, vi, Le~i, la, le. To you - vi, le. Your, v6stro, Stio. Yourself, vi, si. For yoursel~f= vi, Si. APPENDIX. ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PRONUNCIATION. [The numbers prefixed to the following notes refer to the paragraphs of the first chapter in this book.] I. The Tuscan names of the letters are: a, bi, ci, di, e, ffe, gi, dcca, i, je or i lingo, elle, emme, enne, 6, pi, cu, rre, esse, ti, u, vu or vi, zeta (with z pronounced dz). They do not change in the plural. Their gender is not fixed; in general those ending in a or e are considered as feminine, the others as masculine. K, x, y are cdppa, iccase, ipsilon, all masculine. 2. a. The sounds a, e, d, followed by a single consonant, are somewhat longer than the other vowels: for instance, in ddto, fero, ovo the accented a, e, o are longer than in ddttero, vero, 've. Final accented vowels sound particularly short: as in amb, belta, caffi. p/. In forming i the mouth should be made as broad as possible from side to side. For u and 6 the lips should be puckered. For a and e the mouth should be opened very wide. 3. a. If an adverb in -mente is formed from an adjective containing e or d, this vowel has, in the adverb, a secondary accent, and retains its open sound: as (breve) brevemente, "briefly"; (ndbile) ndbilmente, "nobly." Furthermore, e and d retain their quality in seeming compounds that consist, in reality, of two or more separate words: as tostoche = tdstochd = tdsto che, "as soon as." /. Preterites and past participles in -esi, -eso, -osi, -oso have a close e or o; except chiesi (also chiesi), espldsi, espldso, lsi (not used), l&so. 123 124 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 7. In the suffixes. -eccio (-a), -esco (-a), -ese, -essa, -etto (-a), -ezzo (-a), -mente, and -mento the e is always close; while in the diminutive suffix -ello (-a), and in the endings -ente, -enza, -erio (or -ero), and -esimo (-a) it is open: as inglkse, " English "; probabilmd nte, "probably"; pruddnte, "prudent"; ventsimo, "twentieth." 8. In the endings -oio, -one, -ore, and in the suffix -oso (-a) the o is close; while in the ending -orio, and in -occio (-a), -otto (-a), and -ozzo (-a), used as suffixes to nouns or adjectives, it is open: as vassdio, "tray"; amre, " love "; romitrio, "hermitage"; castata, "good-sized house." e. In the following cases accented e or o may have either the close or the open sound: in Giorgio, maestra, maestro, nego (from negare), neve, organo, scendere, senza, siete and sono (from 'ssere), spegnere, Stefano, vendere; and in the conditional endings -esti, -emmo, -este. The present subjunctive forms dieno, sieno, stieno are pronounced also didno, sieno, stieno. ý. In poetry we often find e for it, 6 for u: as ven = viene, "he comes"; cor = cudre, " heart." 4. C. a. Between two vowels, of which the second is e or i, single c and single g are, in ordinary Tuscan speech, pronounced respectively like sh in "ship" and si in "vision": as pace, "peace "; stagine, "season." /f. Between two vowels, of which the second is a, o, or u, a single c is, in popular Tuscan speech, sounded nearly like English I: as poco (pdho), "little"; di questa cosa (di hwesta hosa), "of this thing." This pronunciation is regarded as vulgar. J. Some writers use j, except after a consonant, for the i that is pronounced y: as jeri for ieri, " yesterday "; pajo for paio, "pair." It is sometimes used also for final i in the plural of words in unaccented -io: as specchj (also specchi and occasionally specchii) for specchi, " mirrors," plural of specchio. z. Aside from verbs in -izzdre, z and zz have the value dz in the following words and their derivatives: - ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PRONUNCIATION. 125 arzillo frizzo magazzino romanzo zelo azzfirro garz6ne manzo ronzio zenit barzelletta gazz8lla mezzo rozzo zero bizza gazzetta orizz6nte zaffiro zAta brezza g6nzo orzo zaffrone zfnco br6nzo Lazzaro penzolo zanzara zodfaco donz811a lazzeretto prinzo zebra zlla dozzina lazzo ribrezzo zeffiro zona also in all derivatives of the Greek zoos, and in many uncommon words. 5. In pronouncing gli and gn the point of the tongue should remain behind the lower teeth: as figlio, "son"; Sgni, "every." 6. If one of the words mentioned below, or any oxytone ending in a vowel, is closely followed by a word beginning with a consonant, this consonant is, in Tuscany, generally pronounced double. The words are: * - a di, day giU o ~ s6pra che di', say ha piu sta t chi e ho qua sto ciob infra quilche su c6me faf intra qui te [ c6ntra fe, faith 1D re tra da fe'= f6ce 11 sa tre da, gives fo ma se, if tu da', give fra me se vat do fu mo' = m8do s vo= vado d6ve gih ne so vo'= v8glio Ex.: verra da me domani (verrdddammiddomani), "he will come to my house to-morrow." In such cases c is, of course, never pronounced like h (see 4, C, /3). * The materials for this list were taken from D' Ovidio's article in Grober's Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, p. 496. t Both the imperative sing. and the pres. ind. third sing. t The disjunctive form. ~ Both the conjunction " or " and the interrogative particle. 126 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. INFLECTIONS OF THE VOICE. i. Italian speech is at once smoother and less monotonous than American: it is less interrupted by breathings, and it has far greater variations of pitch. In order to speak or read Italian well, an American must learn to breathe in speaking as he does in singing; he must inhale deeply at the beginning of the clause, and not stop again until he reaches the end of it. The following directions may be of use; they are based on the Tuscan pronunciation, and particularly on that of Siena. 2. a. The simplest inflection in a declarative sentence is as follows: at the beginning the voice is pitched low; it rises in the middle (in earnest conversation often to a falsetto), and falls again at the end. The most emphatic word generally receives the highest tone; if there are no words after it to complete the cadence, the first words of the phrase are often repeated at the end: as me lo dicono tztti me lo dicono (" they all tell me so "), where the u of titti is an octave higher than the beginning and the close of the sentence. /3. When there is a pause on some not particularly emphatic word before the main verb, that word has a slight circumflex accent, the voice rising about one semitone and falling about three: as fu-ri di cittl A c' e zna bellissima villa \ (" outside the city there's a beautiful villa "), where bellissima has the high pitch, and the a of citta has the circumflex. This accent is generally heard whenever modifying clauses or phrases precede the main clause. y. Almost all declarative sentences are made up chiefly of these two inflections, the long rise and fall and the short circumflex. Americans must avoid breaking up their sentences by meaningless falling tones. The fall occurs in Italian, as in English, on a very emphatic word, and at the end of a sentence. It is used, also, with a verb of saying or thinking, followed by a direct quotation; INFLECTIONS OF THE VOICE. 127 and with any word or phrase used as a vocative, except in loud calling (see 4, /): as allra chidma Alfrido e gli dice \: Bambino \, dimmi la verita \ (Grammar, Exercise 17), where the syllablesfre, bar, and dim have the highest pitch. 3. a. Questions to which the answer may be "yes " or "no" have either one of two circumflex accents: in the first the voice rises about five semitones and falls one; in the second, which is sometimes used in reading and in polite phrases, the voice rises and falls about an octave. Ex.: 1' hdi visto (" have you seen him?"), where the pitches of 1' hdi, vi, and sto may be represented by the notes do, fa, mi; ha ben dormito ("did you sleep well?"), where mi is an octave higher than dor and to. The former accent may be heard in the Irish pronunciation of English. /p. These inflections are nearly always confined to the last few syllables of the sentence. In some questions, however, they appear twice, generally occurring first on the verb; and occasionally the circumflex on the verb is the only one. y: Questions that cannot be answered by "yes" or "no" usually begin high, the pitch depending on the emphasis. The voice then falls, but generally rises again at the last syllable, going up about three semitones: as o come \ hdifdito / (" how did you do it?"). This accent is common among the Irish, and may be heard in England. The final rise is, however, often omitted, especially in very short sentences and in polite phrases: as come sta N (" how do you do? "). 4. a. Exclamations of surprise begin very high, and sink rapidly: as s`nti \ (" no! " *); un afdr di niente \ (" you don't say so! " ), where un has the main stress; per mio bdcco ("I want to know!" ), with the accent on per. /p. In calling to persons at a distance, the Tuscans sing rather than speak; the usual tune is do, la, sol, the accented syllable being highest: as Agostina ("Augustine!"); parftnza ("all aboard!"). * Popular New England equivalents. INDEX. [The numbers refer to paragraphs. Af. N. means "Appendix, Additional Notes on Pro' nunciation"; A1f. V. stands for " Appendix, Inflections of the Voice."] A (letter): 2; Ap. N., 2. A (preposition): 79; 79, b, h. Accent: 7; 47; 48; 84; 92, e; Ap. V. Accents: 3; 7. Address (Forms of): 52. Adjectives: 26-34. Comparison: 31-34. Gender: 26; 28. Number: 26; 29. Position: 27. Used as nouns: 20; 30. Adverbs: 80-85. Ci, vi: 47, a; 84.. Comparison: 80, 2. Manner: 85. Ne." 47, a; 56, b. Never:. 83. Not, non. 80, I; 81; 91, a. Only." 82. Position: 8o, I. So. 85, a. All: 87. Alphabet: I; Ap. N., i. Altrui: oi, d. Any: 88. Articles: 9-16. Definite: see Definite. Indefinite: see Indefinite. Augmaentatives: 35-37. Auxiliary Verbs: $3-57. Avere: 53, b; 54, 3. Essere: 53, a; 54, I, 3 -Compound tenses: 54; 56. Modal auxiliaries: 57 -Avere: 53, b; 54, 3; 54, b; 92, 5. Be: 53, a; 54, I, 3; 54, a, c, d, f; 92, 126. Bello: 29, c. Both: 38, 4; 91. Buono-. 29, c. Can: see Modal Auxiliaries. Ci (adv.): 47, a; 84. Ci (pron.): 47-50. Close Vowels: 3; Ap. N., 3. Comparison: 31-34; 8o, 2. Adjectives: 31-34. Adverbs: 8o, 2. Irregular: 31, a; 8o, 2. Compound Tenses: 54; 56; 73; 75 -Conditional: 54, 2; 68,b; 76; 77; 92, c. Contracted: 65; 66, I; 92, c. Conjugation: 53-68; 92. First: 59. Second: 6o. Third: 6o. 129 130 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Fourth: 61. Variations: 63; 66, a; 68. Irregular verbs: 64-68; 92. Auxiliary verbs: 53-57. Compound tenses: 54; 56. Compound verbs: 67, a; 93, a. Conjunctions: 78. With subjunctive: 77, d; 78, a, b. Consonants: 4-6; Ap. N., 4-6. Contraction: 12; 23 (t); 50 (*); 63, d; 65; 66, i; 68, a. Da: 79, c, fg. Dates: 38, b; 39, b. Definite Article: 10-13. Form: 10-12. Use: 12, a; 13; 38, b; 39, a; 45; 69; 70. Di: 12; 17; 79, b, 3, f,j. Diminutives: 35-37. Do: 54, g. Double Letters: 6. Doubling: 48, d; 93, a; Ap. N., 6. E (letter): 3; 68, i,j; Ap. N.,3. E (conjunction): 78; 78, c. Ecco: 48, e; 84, a. Essere: 53, a; 54, I, 3; 54, ac,d; 92, 126. Exclamations: 43, b; 79, b; Ap. V., 4. For: 79, e. Fractions: 39, c. Future: 54, 2; 68, c; 74; 77. Contracted: 65; 66, I. Gender: 9-11; 14-15; 18-21; 26; 28. Grande: 29, c. H: 4; 22, a; 23, a, c; 59, a. Have: 53, b; 54,3; 54, b,k; 57, a; 92, 5 -Here: 84. I (letter): 2; 22, b; 23, b; 59, a; 60; 92, f; Ap. N., 2. I (euphonic): 79; 81. Imperative: 66, b; 72; 77, a. Imperfect: Form: 63; 63, c; 65; 68, a,h. Use: 54, d,e; 73; 75. [77, C Impersonal Verbs: 51; 51, h; Indefinite Article: 14-16. Form: 14-15. Use: 16; 38, I; 43, b. Infinitive: 48, b; 58; 69-72. Contracted: 65. Inflections of the voice: Ap. V. Interrogation: see Questions. Issimo (suffix): 35, a. It: 47; 51; 51,h. Letters:'i; Ap. N., i. May: see Modal Auxiliaries. Modal Auxiliaries: 57. Moods: 57; 69-77; 78, a. Conditional: 54, 2; 65; 66, i; 68, b; 76; 77. Imperative: 66,-b; 72; 77, a. Infinitive: 48, b; 58; 65; 69-72. Participle: 54, a, b; 62; 63, d; 69-71. Subjunctive: 44, c; 77; 78, a. Must: see Modal Auxiliaries. Myself, thyself, etc.: 47, 2; 51, e. | Ne (adv.): 47, a; 56, b; 84. SNe (pron.): 47, 3; 48; 49; 88; 89. INDEX. 131 Neuter Verbs: 54,3; 56, a. -Never: 83. Non: 80o,; i; 9i, a. Not: 80, 1; 81. Nouns: 17-25. Gender: 18-21. Number: 22-25. Number: 9-11; 22-25; 29. Numerals: 38-40. Cardinal: 38. Ordinal: 39. O (letter): 3; 59, b; Ap. N., 3. O (conjunction): 78; 78, c. Old Forms: 19(t); 23(t); 47(*); 48, d; 50(*); 63, d; 66, a; 68; 92; Ap. N., 3, C. One (indefinite): 55; 86. Only: 82. Open Vowels: 3; Ap. N., 3. Ought: see Modal Auxiliaries. Participle: 54, a, b; 62; 63, d; 69-71. Past: 54, a, b; 63, d; 71, c. Present: 62; 69-71. Partitive Genitive: 12, a; 88; 89. Passive: 54, 1; 54,f; 55; 56, c Perfect Tenses: 54, 3; 56; 73; 75. Personal Pronouns: 46-52. Conjunctive: 47-50. Form: 47; 48, c, d; 50; 52, I. Position: 48; 49. Disjunctive: 51-52. Omission: 51, 2; 51, h. Use: 51; 51, I; 5I, abh. Pitch: Ap. V. Plural: 22-25; 29. Irregular: 23, d; 25. Words in -co and -go: 23, c. Poetic Forms: see Old. Possessive: 17; 45; 52, 1. Prefixes: 93, a. Prepositions: 79. Da: 79, c, f, g. To 79, a, b. [74. Present: 65; 66, 4; 68, f g; 73; Preterite: 60; 65; 66, 2, 3; 68, d, e; 75. Preterite Perfect: 54, 3; 75. Pronouns: 41-52; 86-91. Demonstrative: 42. Indefinite: 86-91. Interrogative, 43. Personal: see Personal. Possessive: see Possessive. Reciprocal: see Reciprocal. Reflexive: see Reflexive. Relative: 44. Pronunciation: 1-8; Ap. N., 1-6; Ap. V. Quantity: 2; Ap. N., 2. Qualche: 29, b; 89. Questions: 43; 51, 2; 77, f g; 79, b; 81, a; Ap. V., 3. Reciprocal pronouns and verbs: 47, 2; 48; 49; 50; 51, 3; 51,f; 52, I; 56, b. Reflexive Pronouns: 47, 2; 48; 49; 50; 51, 3; 52, 1; 55; 56, b; 63, a; 86. Reflexive Verbs: 55; 56, b; 63, a; 86. Santo: 29, c. Shall: 54, 2; 57. 132 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. Should: 54, 2; Si: 47-50; 52; 86. 57; 76; 77 -55; 56, b; 63, a; So: 85, a. Some: 89. Spelling: 1-8. Subjunctive: 44, c; 77; 78, a. Suffixes: 35-37; 85; Ap. N., 3. Syllables: 8. Tenses: Compound: 54; 56; 73; 75. Future: see Future. Imperfect: see Imperfect. Present: see Present. Preterite: see Preterite. Than: 33. There: 84. Time of day: 38, c. To: 79, a, b. Verbs: 53-77; 92; 93. Auxiliary verbs: see Auxiliary. Conjugation: see Conjugation. Lists of irregular verbs: 92; 93. Alphabetical: 93. By conjugations: 92. Moods: see Moods. Tenses: see Tenses. Regular verbs: 55-56; 59-63. Irregular verbs: 64-68; 92. Regular parts: 66. Compound verbs: 67, a; 93, a. Old forms: 63, d; 68; 92. Vi (adv.): 47, a; 84. Vowels: 2-3; Ap. N., 2-3. "Whatever: 44, c. Whoever: 44, c. Will: 54, 2; 57. Would: 54, 2; 54, e; 57; 76; 77. T (letter): 2; Ap. N., 2. You: 52; 86. ADVERTISEMENTS Ibeatb's flbobern language Sertes, ROMANCE PHILOLOGY. 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Labiche's La Poudre aux Yeux (Wells). Vocabulary. 30 cts. Dumas's Due de Beaufort (Kitchen). Vocabulary. 30 cts. Dumas's Monte-Cristo (Spiers). Vocabulary. 40 cts. Assollant's R6cits de la Vieille France. Notes by E. B. Wanton. 25 ct. Berthet's Le Pacte de Famine. With notes by B. B. Dickinson. 25 cts. Erckmann-Chatrian's L'Histoire d'un Paysan (Lyon). 25 cts. France's Abeille (Lebon). 25 cts. Moinaux's Les deux Sourds (Spiers). 'Vocabulary. 25 cts. La Main Malheureuse (Guerber). Vocabulary. 25 cts. Enault's Le Chien du Capitaine (Fontaine). Vocabulary. 35 cts. Trois Contes Choisis par Daudet (Sanderson). Le Siýge de Berlin, La dernikre Classe, La Mule du Pafe. Vocabulary. 20 cts. Erckmann-Chatrian's Le Conscrit de 1813. Notes and vocabulary by Professor Super, Dickinson College. 45 cts. Selections for Sight Translation. Fifty fifteen-line extracts compiled bl Miss Bruce of the High School, Newton, Mass. 15 cts. Laboulaye's Contes Bleus. With notes and vocabulary by C. Fontaine Central High School, Washington, D.C. 35 cts. Nalot's Sans Famille (Spiers). Vocabulary. 40 cts. lbeatb's ~/lobern Lannuage series. INTERMEDIATE FRENCH TEXTS. (Partial List.) Dumas' La Tulipe Noire. With notes by Professor C. Fontaine, Central High School, Washington, D.C. 40 cts. With vocabulary, 50 cts. Erckmann - Chatrian's Waterloo. Abridged and annotated by Professor 0. B. Super of Dickinson College. 35 cts. About's Le Roi des Montagnes (Logie). 40 cts. Vocabulary, 50 cts. Pailleren's Le Monde oi l'on s'ennuie. A comedy with notes by Professor Pendleton of Bethany College, W. Va. 30 cts. Seuvestre's Le Mari de Mme de Solange. With notes by Professor Super of Dickinson College. 20 cts. Historiettes Modernes, Vol. I. Short modern stories, selected and edited, with notes, by C. Fontaine, Director of French in the High Schools of Washington, D.C. 60 cts. Historiettes Modernes, Vol. II. Short stories as above. 60 cts. Fleurs de France. A collection of short and choice French stories of recent date with notes by C. Fontaine, Washington, D.C. 35 cts. Sandeau's Mlle. de la Seiglifre. With introduction and notes by Professor Warren of Yale University. 30 cts. Souvestre's Un Philosophe sons les Toits. With notes by Professor Fraserof the University of Toronto. 5o cts. With vocab. 55 cts. Souvestre's Les Confessions d'un Ouvrier. With notes by Professor Super of Dickinson College. 30 cts. Augier's Le Gendre de M. Poirier. One of the masterpieces of modern comedy. Edited by Professor B. W. Wells. 25 cts. Scribe's Bataille de Dames. Edited by Professor B. W. Wells. 25 cts. Scribe's Le Verre d'eau. Edited by Professor C. A. Eggert. 30 cts. Merimde's Colomba. With notes by Professor J. A. Fontaine of Bryn Mawr College. 35 cts. With vocabulary, 45 cts. Merimbe's Chronique du Rdgne de Charles IX. With notes by Professor P. Desages, Cheltenham College, England. 25 cts. Musset's Pierre et Camille. Edited by Professor O. B. Super. 20 cts. Jules Verne's Tour du Monde en quatre vingts jours. Notes by Professor Edgren, University of Nebraska. 35 cts. Jules Verne's Vingt mille lieues sous la mer. Notes and vocabulary by C. Fontaine, High School, Washington, D.C. 45 cts. Sand's La Mare au Diable (Sumichrast). Vocabulary. 35 cts. Sand's La Petite Fadette (Super). Vocabulary. 35 cts. De Vigny's Le Cachet Rouge. With notes by Professor Fortier of Tulane University. 20 cts. De Vigny's Le Canne de Jonc. Edited by Professor Spiers, with Introduction by Professor Cohn of Columbia University. 40 cts. Halevy's L'Abb6 Constantin. Edited with notes by Professor Thomas Logie. 30 cts. With vocabulary, 40 cts. Thier's Expddition de Bonaparte en Egypte. With notes by Professor C. Fabregou, College of the City of New York. 25 cts. Gautier's Jettatura. With introduction and notes by A. Schinz, Ph.D. of Bryn Mawr College. 30 cts. Guorber's Marie-Louise. With notes. 25 cts. lbeatb's ~Isobern Zanouage Sertes. INTERMEDIATE FRENCH TEXTS. (Partial List.) Lamartine's Scenes de la R6volution FranSaise (Super). With notes and vocabulary. 40 cents. Lamartine's Graziella (Warren). 35 cts. Lamartine's Jeanne d'Arc (Barrbre). Vocabulary. 35 cts. Michelet: Extraits de 1'histoire de France (Wright). 30 cts. Hugo's La Chute. From Les Miserables (Huss). Vocabulary. 30 cts. Hugo's Bug Jargal (Bolelle). 40 cts. Hugo's Quatre-vingt-treize (Fontaine). Vocabulary. 50 cts. Champfleury's Le Violon de Faience (B6venot). 25 cts. Gautier's Voyage en Espagne (Steel). 25 cts. Balzac's Le Cur6 de Tours (Carter). 25 cts. Balzac: Cinq Sc6nes de la Com6die Humaine (Wells). 40 cts. Contes des Romanciers Naturalistes (Dow and Skinner). With notes and vocabulary. 55 cts. Daudet's Le Petit Chose (Super). Vocabulary. 40 cts. Daudet's La Belle-Nivernaise (Boielle). Vocabulary. 30 cts. Theuriet's Bigarreau (Fontaine). 25 cts. Musset: Trois Com6dies (McKenzie). 30 cts. Maupassant: Huit Contes Choisis (White). Vocabulary. 30 cts. Taine's L'Ancien R6gime (Giese). Vocabulary. 65 cts. Advanced Selections for Sight Translation. Extracts, twenty to fifty lines long, compiled by Mme. T. F. Colin, Wellesley College. 15 cts. Dumas' La Question d'Argent (Henning). 30 cts. Lesage's Gil Blas (Sanderson). 40 cts. Sarcey's Le Siege de Paris (Spiers). Vocabulary, 45 cts. About's La Mere de la Marquise (Brush). Vocabulary. 40 cts. Chateaubriand's Atala (Kuhns). Vocabulary. 30 cts. Erckmann-Chatrian's Le Juif Polonais (Manley). Vocabulary. 30 cts. Feuillet's Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre (Bruner). Vocab. 55 cts. Labiche's La Cagnotte (Farnsworth). 25 cts. La Brete's Mon Oncle et Mon Cure (Colin). Vocabulary. 45 cts. Meilhac and Halevy's L'Et6 de la St.-Martin (Frangois). Vocab. 25 cts. Voltaire's Zadig (Babbitt). Vocabulary. 45 cts. lbeatb's Ilbobern Language 5erfes. ADVANCED FRENCH TEXTS. Balzac's Le PBre Goriot (Sanderson). o80 cts. De Vigny's Cinq Mars (Sankey). Abridged. 70 cts. Zola's La DebAcle (Wells). Abridged. 7o ets. Sept Grands Auteurs du XIXe Siecle (Fortier). Lectures. 6o cts. French Lyrics (Bowen). 60 cts. Lamartine's Meditations (Curme). 75 cts. Loti's Pcheur d'Islande (Super). 30 cts. Loti's Ramuntcho (Fontaine). 30 cts. Renan's Souvenirs d'Enfance et de Jeunesse (Babbitt). 75 cts. Beaumarchais's Le Barbier de Seville (Spiers). 25 cts. Hugo's Hernani (Matzke). 6o cts. Hugo's Les Mis6rables (Super). Abridged. So cts. Hugo's Ruy Bias (Garner). 65 cts. Racine's Andromaque (Wells). 30 cts. Racine's Athalie (Eggert). 30 cts. Racine's Esther (Spiers). 30 cts. Racine's Les Plaideurs (Wright). 30 cts. Corneille's Le Cid (Warren). 30 cts. Corneille's Cinna (Matzke). 30 cts. Corneille's Horace (Matzke). 30 cts. Corneille's Polyeucte (Fortier). 30 cts. Molierd's L'Avare (Levi). 35 cts. Molierb's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (Warren). 30 cts. Molierd's Le Misanthrope (Eggert). 30 cts. Moliere's Les Femmes Savantes (Fortier). 30 cts. Molierd's Le Tartuffe (Wright). 30 cts. Molierd's Le Mddecin Malgr6 Lui (Gasc). I5 cts. Molierb's Les Pr6cieuses Ridicules (Toy). 25 cts. Piron's La M6tromanie (Delbos). 40 cts. Warren's Primer of French Literature. 75 cts. La Bruyere: Les Caracteres (Warren). o50 cts. Pascal: Selections (Warren). go cts. Lesage's Turcaret (Kerr), 30 cts. Taine's Introduction A I'Hist. de la Litt. Anglaise. s20 cts. Duval's Histoire de la Littdrature FranLaise. $s.oo. Voltaire's Prose (Cohn and Woodward). $Y.oo. French Prose of the XVIIth Century (Warren). $r.oo. La Triade FranSaise. Poems of Lamartine Musset, and Hugo 15 cts.