LIFE-BOATS, <Rz
PROJECTILES,
AND OTHER MEANS FOR
SAVING IIFE;
BY
R. B. FORlBES.
BOSTON:
WM. PARSONS LUNT,
102 WASHINGTON STREET,
1 8 7,2J




JAMES F. COTTER & CO., PRINTERS,
14 STATE STREET,
BOSTON.




INTRODUCTION.
It will be seen on reading the following pages, that there is
very little if any original matter contained therein.
It is to be hoped however that the renewal of many old
suggestions made by the writer, and others, may be productive
of good, and be the means of calling the attention of those
who manufacture laws, to the growing necessity for increased
care in protecting the lives of those who go to sea.
Whatever may be the award of the public in regard to this
little work as a literary composition, the writer will rest content
with having tried to mitigate the dangers of the sea, and will
consider his time and money well spent, if through these means
a single life shall be saved.








LIFE-BOATS.
IN discussing the qualities considered necessary in a life-boat,
the Committee appointed to award the premium of one hundred
guineas offered by the Duke of Northumberland, in 1851, rank
the qualities necessary for a good life-boat as hereunder:
Qualities for Rowing in all weathers,....       20
Sailing in all weathers,.........  18
As a sea boat, as to stability, safety, bouyancy at
bow for launching,.........    10
Small internal capacity for water up to the level
of the thwarts,...........    9
Means of freeing easily of water,...   8
Extra buoyancy; its nature, amount, distribution,
and mode of application,.......    7
Power of self-righting,.......             6
Suitableness for beaching,......              4
Room for passengers,.........             3
Protection from injury to bottom,....    3
Ballast; iron, 1, water, 2, cork, 3,.....    6
Access to stern or stern,......              3
Timber heads for warps,.......            2
Fenders, life-lines, etc.,.........            1
100
This is, no doubt, a very fair estimate of the qualities
considered necessary for boats for the coasts of Great Britain,
where many of them  are located in harbors of refuge, under
pier heads or breakwaters, where they can have the aid of
steam tugs to get them to the scene of disaster, and also the aid
of the men of the coast guard assisted by a dense population.
Of thirty boats offered for competition described in the report
alluded to and selected as coming near to the standard of
excellence out of two hundred and eighty, the one to which the




2
award was given was built by James Beeching, of Great
Yarmouth; length, 36 feet over all, 31 feet keel, beam, 9~ feet,
depth, 31 feet amidships, with 3 feet sheer; amount of extra
buoyancy in air, 300 cubic feet, or 81 tons: internal capacity
for water up to the thwarts, 5 tons; area of delivering tubes,
276 square inches; proportion of delivery area to capacity, 1
to 64; weight, 7,504 lbs.; ballast, 2 tons water, i-ton iron
keel; draught of water with 30 men on board, 2 feet 2 inches;
oars, 12 double banked; rig, 2 lugs; cost, ~250; outside a
cork fender 6 inches wide by 8 inches deep, 7 inches below
gunwale.  The extra buoyancy is in air cases in the bottom
and on part of the sides and in the ends for a length of 81 feet
to the height of the gunwale. The water ballast there is a tank
with compartments in the bottom amidships, 14 feet long by 5
wide, and 15 inches high, containing 77 cubic feet, equal to 2
tons, and an iron keel of 10 cwt.  The delivery valves are 8,
of 6 inches diameter, 4, of 4 inches; weight, 50 cwt., and
gear 17 cwt., total, 3 tons 7 cwt.  Can carry 70 persons; keel,
8 inches.
The Committee awarding to this boat a premium of one
hundred guineas, remark as to her qualities:
The form  is good for pulling and sailing in all weathers;
in places like Yarmouth, where there are plenty of hands to
launch her, the weight would cause no difficulty.  By means of
the large raised air-cases in the ends; the abscence of air-cases
for a length of 10 feet amidships; the introduction of 2 tons of
water into her bottom, and the iron keel of half a ton, she
would right herself when capsized, although, from her form, it
would be difficult to capsize her.  A passage or gap should be
left in the large end of the tanks to admit of men approaching
the ends.  The deep keel, though favorable for sailing and for
assisting to right her, will be objectionable in landing on a
beach, and would render her more difficult to turn in the event
of desiring to put her end on to a heavy roller.  The area of
delivery valves is large enough to free her rapidly, so that with
her crew on board only a few inches of water would remain on
the floor.  The air-cases being built into the boat, and a part
of the shell, renders them liable to accidents; if this were
remedied, and her internal capacity reduced, a 30 or 32 foot




boat on similar model, with internal fittings slightly modified,
would make an efficient life-boat, adapted for many parts of our
co ast. 
Remarks on the Beeching Boat:
Without undertaking to insist upon the acceptance of my
views as entirely orthodox, and yet believing that the experience
I have gained by long study and practice entitles them  to
consideration, I shall review the descriptions given and give my
opinion for what it is worth.
In the Journal of the Royal Institution for April, 1872, there
is a plan of the boat now most approved, which is 33 feet long,
8 feet beam, wherein the water-ballast seems to have given
place to cork in separate compartments.  This boat is said to
combine the following qualities: great stability, speed, facility
for launching and landing, immediate self-freeing of water, selfrighting, strength, and stowage for a large number of extra
persons.  The principal objections to this premium boat for use
on our coast are the weight and cost, and the steering by a
rudder; also, the deep keel would be very objectionable for
landing and quick turning to meet a roller.  The air-cases
should be detachable.
The recommendation of the Committee as to reduced size
and some change in the internal fittings, seems to have been
carried out in the boat above alluded to, as adopted. by the
Royal Institution.
Another boat, by Geo. Palmer, which may be considered as"
near the extreme on the side of lightness, is thus described:
Length, 26 feet; beam, 61; depth, 3a; sheer, 20 inches;
keel, 3; extra buoyancy; air, 82 cubic feet, equal to 21 tons;
internal capacity up to the level of thwarts, 1S tons; area of
delivery valves, none; weight, 15 cwt.; ballast, none; draught
with 22 men in her, 15 inches; 5 oars, single bank; no sails;
cost ~75.  Form general like a whaleboat; has a cork fender,
4 inches diameter, along the sides near the gunwale.  The
extra buoyancy is obtained by detached air-cases of wood, 18
inches square, along the sides up to the level of the thwarts,
and in the bow and stern sheets up to the gunwale, divided into
12 compartments, and by the fenders; no means of freeing of
water except by bailing; weight of the shell, 10 cwt., and of
gear, 5 cwt.




4
Remarks of the Committee:
" This boat would pull well, be light for transportation, easily
manned, has small internal capacity for holding water, all good
points in her favor; but she would not be self-righting, the aircases in the ends would prevent a near approach to the ends,
she is narrow for her length, and her rising floor would be 
unfavorable for landing. This model has generally been adopted
by the Royal National Institution, and is said to have saved
many lives."
The principal objections to the form and fittings of this boat
are the rise of floor, as noted by the Committee, would make
her unfit for landing on a beach.  The steering by a rudder, as
represented in the plan, is very objectionable. She would not be
self-righting: on the other hand, she would in the event of capsizing, be easily righted, and it would not be difficult speedily
to bail her out; she could not be swamped; is light to carry
along shore; and not costly; with a steering oar, and less
dead rise amidships, she would be much better for our coast
than the heavy Beeching boat.
Another by Lord John Hay, is described thus:
Length 322; beam, 7; depth, including keel, 3.10; sheer,
26; extra buoyancy, air 200 cubic feet, equal to 6 tons; internal capacity up to thwarts, 4 tons; area of valves, 240 square
inches; proportion, 1 to 6; weight, 32 cwt.; ballast, none;
draught, with 30 men, 18 inches; oars, 14; cost, ~70.
Remarks by Committee:
" Form  like a whaleboat, long flat floor, built of narrow
strakes pinned together through the edges, (supposed double
planked,) without timbers, of mahogany, and copper-fastened;
7 thwarts 25 inches apart, 9 below the gunwale, 11 above the
floor; pulls 14 oars, double-banked. The extra buoyancy is
obtained by an air-case under the floor, 20 inches deep; aircases in the ends for 61 feet, up to gunwale.  These cases
divided into compartments and detached from the shell, so as
to be removable at will; no ballast. The means for freeing
her of water consists in five scuppers on each side, 5 by 4
inches, on a level with the flooring, the area of which is 240
square inches. The water is led to the scuppers by a shoot or
water-course under the thwarts, raised 4 inches above the floor




with the entrance amidships, so that in rolling the water will
not come into the boat through the scuppers.  The provision
for righting consists in the raised ends; no sails; steered by a
sweep at either end.  She can carry 60 persons."
Remarks by the Committee:
" This boat will pull well in smooth water, but her light draft
and large surface in a strong wind and sea would retard her.
She would sail fast going free, is light for her length and easily
transported, has small internal capacity for water, (in fact none.)
In experiments with the model, it was found that the entrance
of the scuppers amidships delayed the exit of the water.  An
advantage of the side outlets over the usual valves through the
bottom  is that they would be less liable to be choaked in
grounding.  The provision for righting, namely, good sheer
and raised end cases, fully answered the purpose; mode of
construction, good; detached air-cases very good and the cork
covering for their protection might be generally adopted; a
passage to within two feet of the stem desirable; extra buoyancy
ample in amount, but its disposition questionable; as a general
rule, extra buoyancy should be placed high up; in this model
200 square feet of buoyancy are in the bottom, under the floor,
which lies 24 inches above the bottom of-the keel, or 5 inches
above the water line, with 30 men in her, without any compensating ballast. The centre of gravity would thus be so high as
to endanger stability, and were a sea to break into her, she
would capsize; were this point remedied by substituting cork
for some of the air cases in the bottom, she would be a serviceable boat in a rapid tide-way."
By substituting  cork for half of the air and making: a
different arrangement to deliver the water coming over the
floor, and fitting the oars to run with grommets, spreading the
thwarts so as to give more room  for the steersman and for 12
double bank oars instead of 14, and reduce the keel near the
ends to nothing, this boat would be well adapted to our coast,
though long for her beam; the detachable cases is an excellent
feature to be commended for all life-boats.
Another boat, by Henry Hinks, Appledore, is 30 feet long,
9 beam, 3 deep, 2 sheer, extra buoyancy, cork and air 105
cubic feet equal to 3 tons, internal capacity up to thwarts 31




tons, area of delivery 72 square incles, proportion of delivery
to capacity 1 to 1.6, weight 35 cwt,, ballast none, draught with 30
men, 18, 12 oars double banked, cost ~110.  The body like a
cutter, ends like a whaleboat, flat long floor, built of mahogany
and copper fastened, keel 5 inches and bilge pieces, cork fender
5x5 outside, 12 inches below the rail or gunwale and near to
upper side of air cases, bottom  sheathed with cork 3 inches
thick to water line.  The extra buoyancy is obtained by air
cases in bilge and side carried on a slope rounding towards
amidships to the top of the floor or grating, laid 9 inches above
the keelson, average width of the cases 18 inches by 12 deep,
and air-cases 4 feet long in the ends, the whole comprising 16
compartments, built into the boat, and to be lined with copper
or gutta percha and by the cork fenders; no ballast.  Provision
for righting consists in the end cases; no rig; steered by a
sweep at either end, will carry 40 persons.
Remarks of the Committee:
"' Form good for pulling in all weathers and would sail well
free; light for transportation and heavy enough to mailntain
momentum; small internal capacity and might be reduced to
advantage; area of delivery might be larger, but the gunwale
strake about 10 inches deep between end tanks, being left out
and the slope of the fore-and-aft cases running to the floor,
much of the water shipped would roll out through the open
upper strake.  The provision for righting consists in the end
cases, and the absence of any flat side cases which would enable
her to right easily.  An iron keel of 5 cwt. would insure thisall the cases are formed in the boat and liable to be stove, it
would be better to have all detachable, a passage should be left
in the end cases for approach to the ends of boat; with attention to these details she would be a suitable life-boat for many
parts of the coast.'
I consider the general proportions of this boat with the exception of the rake of the ends, which ought to be greater, and
the straight keel, as better for our coast than either of the preceding ones, the keel should be reduced to 2 inches in centre
and rounded off to nothing, and give her a centre-board of iron
which would make her weatherly under sail and add a trifle to
her stability, the opening at the sides from the end tanks, about




7
10 inches deep is a very good feature, the depth of the closed
part being sufficient for a boat of her size say 21 inches amidships from the top of keel or garboard, this would enable her
to right with a little help, the only objection I see to the opening
is the liability to stave the gunwale where the tholes and grommets ship by making this very strong there would be little
danger of rupture while the fender remains intact.
Another by Farrow of South Shields, 30 long, 10 beam, 3.9
deep, sheer 21, buoyancy extra 200 cubic feet or 6 tons, internal
capacity for water 31 tons, area of delivery 96 square inches,
proportion to capacity 1 to 11, weight 57 cwt., iron keel 5
cwt., 65 cwt., water 3 tons, draught with 30 men on board 30
inches, 10 oars double bank, no rig, cost ~130.
" Form similar to paddle-box boat, flat floor, raking stem and
stern, full end-lines, 20 inches camber or round of keel, cork
fender outside, 1 foot wide, 9 inches below gunwale, the extra.buoyancy is obtained by an air case, 15 inches deep, fore and
aft above the well, and 30 in the ends, by side air-cases sloping
from gunwale to the floor, and end cases 6 feet long, the whole
divided into compartments and built into the boat, extra buoyancy, air 6 tons, cork 2, ballast in a tank 14 feet long, by 15
inches, extending from side to side of bottom, divided by transverse partitions to prevent the washing of water, with limber
holes, the tank may be closed when full and is provided with
air tubes, and she has an iron keel, means of delivery are by 10
tubes of 3~ inches diameter; provision for righting consists in
the water ballast, iron keel, and end cases; no rig; steers with
a sweep."
Remarks of the Committee:
" Will pull well in smooth water, sail fast free, be buoyant
and lively, be turned rapidly, but would not steer steadily;
small internal capacity for water, up to thwarts; fair amount
of delivery, but will bear increasing; ample extra buoyancy,
chiefly attained in the air-case under the floor: if, under any
circumstances this is desirable, it is compensated here by the
large amount of ballast; but the difficulty of keeping the
bulkheads tight, and the danger of the water finding its way
into the head or stern, induces the Committee to prefer cork in
the bottom, which acts as ballast and buoyancy also in case of




8
emergency.  Farrow claims to be the inventor of water-tank
ballast, dating back to 1843.  The system  is now common.
Provision for righting consists in good sheer, end air-cases,
water and iron ballast, and is ample; a good passage is left
free to the ends and room for sweep steering oar. She is a fair
type of the Tyne and Wear life-boats.  The builder gained the
prize at South Shields, Dec. 1841, and at Newcastle, March,
1850."
This boat has plenty of beam and rake of ends, as well as
round of keel, in fact is an exaggeration of what I recommend
in the last, and the ends are described as very full, like the
nearly obsolete paddle-box boat. She would be too heavy for
our coast,-5,600 lbs.  The Committee say she would turn
rapidly by her steering oar, which is a vitally important feature
for a surf-boat. They also say she would not steer steadily;
from which I dissent, for if she can be turned easily that is a
quality which if used aright will surely enable her to be steered
straight; a boat with a long keel of 4 or 5 inches deep, being
hard to turn by the steering oar, is also hard to get straight
when slewed by the sea or the griping under a press of sail.
This boat is too rounding, and I should say that a boat with
less would be a happy medium, so far as handling is concerned,
between this boat and one with a perfectly straight keel.  Less
water ballast and more cork would improve her.  I cannot
appreciate the alleged difficulty of keeping the bulkheads in
tank tight enough to prevent undue oscillation of the water
ballast.
Boat by White, of Cowes:
" 32 long, 8 beam, 3 deep, sheer, 1; extra buoyancy 75
cubic feet, or 2 tons; water capacity to thwarts, 3 tons; no
delivery valves; draft 12 inches; 6 oars, single bank; weight 30
cwt.; 1 lug sail; cost, ~75. Form of whaleboat, slightly rising
floor amidships, moderate rake of.ends, carvel built and copper
fastened; keel 4 inches, straight; extra buoyancy is obtained
by air-cases round the sides internally sloping from gunwale to
floor, and end cases 5 feet long, divided into compartments and
built into the boat; no delivery valves; provision for righting
consists in the end tanks; rig, I lug; steers by a rudder;
draught with 30 men in her, 21 inches; will carry 30 persons."




9
Remarks by Committee:
"Form good for pulling and sailing in all weathers; a good
sea boat; light for transportation; has much less extra buoyancy than usual in life-boats, but is ample for common purposes,
but the air-cases being built into the boat is objectionable;
the internal capacity for water is not large, but she has no
delivery valves-no means of freeing herself of water save by
rolling it out, which would be facilitated by the shape of the
inside air-cases; not likely to upset, but if upset, the small
sheer, with no ballast in water or keel, would not enable her to
right herself; has less beam  than usual, but might be well
adapted to a rapid tide-way." 
This boat wants more beam and more rake of ends, reduction
of keel to two inches outside of garboard, tapering off to
nothing.at the scarf; a long steering oar fitted to be used at
either end, in place of the rudder, as shown in the plan, and a
centre-board.  She is called light for an English boat, say 3,360
lbs., but would be considered too heavy here.' Air-cases undetachable are always objectionable; to have them movable would
increase weight and cost.  This boat would not capsize easily,
but oughit to be righted and bailed out without much effort.
Boat by Lieut. B. Sharpe, R. N.:
" 30 long over all, 23 keel, 8 beam, 38  deep, 2 sheer; extra
buoyancy 320 square feet cork, equal to 61 tons; no room  for
water, consequently no delivery valves; weight, 25 cwt.; iron
keel, 3 cwt.; draught with 30 men, 2 feet; 10 double bank and
two single oars; 1 lug sail; cost; ~70.' Form of whaleboat, with less beam, long flat floor, very
raking ends, fender of cork outside; extra buoyancy, cork only
in bundles up to the thwarts, connected by rope, so as to be
removed and made into a raft; room  made for crew  and
passengers by removal of bundles; a canvas cover over all the
cork; a cone of cork at each end, 5 feet long by 2-~ at base
and rising above gunwale 6 inches: effective extra buoyancy
equal to 4 tons; ballast, a short flat iron keel 1- cwt.; no
internal capacity for water, (except where legs go,) any water
coming in above the cover is to leave by an opening 5 feet long
in the upper stroke on each side, opening outwards on hinges;
provision for righting consists in the end cones, the iron keel,
2




10
and 2 sliding keels to be used when necessary; no sail; steers
with a sweep at either end; will carry 20 persons; *beaml, 5
feet; cost, ~35.
Remarks of Committee, on the description, and not on the
plans.
" Form  to pull fast in smooth water, but in a sea way and
breeze would be difficult to steer, light for transporting and
easy to launch, the raised cones and keel would enable her to
right easily and her short keel would enable her to turn quickly.
The characteristic feature of this boat is the filling inside up to
the thwarts with cork whereby there is little space for water
and great buoyancy acting also as ballast.
" If sufficient buoyancy can be got by cork, and there is no
evidence to the contrary, it is far preferable to air-cases, the
best mode of distribution requires consideration; in this case
(the narrow boat) too much is sacrificed to the desire to form
a raft, which does not appear of sufficient advantage to lose the
space required for passengers and inconvenience to the rowers,
the raised cones are objectionable as they interfere with access to
the ends, one important advantage of this plan is that it is not
liable to injury like air cases, and it can be easily applied to a
common boat and much benefit would arise from thus fitting
fishing boats, coast guard boats and any others subject to
exposure to sudden gales and casualties."
I highly approve of the general form of this boat, flat floor,
good sheer, some round of keel, fine ends, and rake enough to
enable her to slew easily by the steering oar, this applies to the
plan and not to the description above given, the plan gives beam
8 feet while the description gives only 5, the principal objection
I see to the plan is a want of standing-room for the proper
handling of the steering oar; in order to give this room which
is vital to a surf-boat, one thwart must be removed, the plan
shows 7 thwarts, and the intention is to pull on five of them 10
double bank short oars, and near the tapering ends on the other
thwarts a somewhat longer single oar, making 12 oars, it will
be better to have only the 10 short double banked oars, or 8
*This description is different in beam and otherwise to the plan from which
the dimensions are talen.




double bank and two single, ten men is crew enough for a boat
of 30 feet, the plan shows an open strake between the end tanks
for a distance of 20 feet, so that she may be properly described
as a solid cork buoy with spaces for the legs of the crew, the
sliding keels alluded to are not distinctly illustrated in the plan
and probably don't amonnt to much.
The idea of connecting the bundles of cork together by ropes,
so as to avail of them for making a raft does not appear to me
to be practical; in the event of danger to a sinking vessel, if
there were no other means for constructing a raft, this cork
might come in play, but taking it out from under the thwarts of
this boat under such circumstances would render the boat herself
quite useless and it would obviously be better to keep the boat
intact or remove only a part of the cork to make room for more
legs, and have cork. or air rafts to save part of the people.
Notwithstanding the obvious defects in the plan as above stated,
I cannot but think the general plan of nearly filling the boat
with cork can be made practically useful in deciding on a
suitable life-boat for our coasts as well as for steamers. The boat
in question is said to weigh 2,800 pounds, too much for us,
though very light for an English life-boat; I dissent entirely
from the idea of fitting fishing-boats in this manner, they require
all the room they can get for nets, fish, etc.
Boat by Joseph  Francis, New  York.-No  plan  given;
described as hereunder.
"27 long, extreme; length of flat 22, beam 7, 21 deep,
~sheer 27 inches, rake 7 inches to the foot, built of corrugated
galvanized iron, 6 thwarts, 15 inches wide, 21 apart, 6 below
gunwale, and 20 above the floor; air-cases under them dividing the boat into six separate compartments, each having a'
delivery plug 3 inches in diameter on the side for the escape of
water.  A  stout rope fender with life-lines attached to it is
carried round the boat, 9 inches below the gunwale, extra
buoyancy is obtained by cone shaped air-cases, 41 feet long,
which at their square ends rise 20 inches above the gunwale,
and by air-cases under the thwarts, effective buoyancy 75 square
feet, or 2 tons, no ballast, internal capacity for water up to
thwarts 110 cubic feet, or 3 tons, nothing in the model to
show means of freeing herself; provision for righting by the




12
air-cases at the ends, no sails, said to carry 20 persons, 6 single
bank oars, and a sweep steering oar, draught with crew 20 inches.
weight of boat 9 cwt., and of gear 4 cwt., cost ~45."
The metallic car is thus described: "a shallow flat boat of
galvanized iron, ends alike, 26 feet long, 7 beam, 3~ deep,
straight stern and keel; it has a high cone shaped cover rising
from each end to 4i feet above the gunwale amidships, where a
space of six feet is left for the main hatchway; otherwise every
other part is tight, the object being, after communication is
established, to put passengers in and drag them ashore through
the surf unharmed, the testimonial accompanying the model
states that in the wreck of the Ayrshire on the coast of New
Jersey, January 12, 1850, 201 men, women and children, and
infants were landed in safety by one of these cars by the United
States Government, who in 1849 established 8 life-boat rtations
10 miles apart between Sandy Hook and Little Egg Harbor,
the stations are furnished with boats, cars, rockets and mortars,
at a cost of ~2,000."
Remarks of the Committee:
"The corrugated galvanized iron said to combine lightness,
strength, economy and durability; the ligit weight, if no more
than stated renders -transportation easy, and her strength would
enable her to land on a rocky beach unharmed, the end case
and the absence of side cases might cause her to right.  As a
surf-boat, if by that term  is meant merely for landing on a
beach, the shallow form might be suitable, but it is not adaptable
to the general purposes of a life-boat as used in this country to
go off shore to a stranded vessel.  The high end cases and flat
I)ottom would render her difficult to pull against wind and sea
and hard to steer.  Water shipped might perhaps be rolled out,
otherwise there is no provision for freeing herself and with the
crew on board it would be within 4 inches of the thwarts.  The
end cases prevent approach to the ends, a serious objection in
approaching a wreck end on.  The printed testimonials are
much in favor of the metal boats, which are stationed on the
coast by the Government, but with respect to the life surf-boat
there is a want of sufficient evidence as to the nature of the
shore, the distance the boat had to go, the state of the weather,
and of the sea, all of which are important points in considering




13
the subject; sufficient however is adduced to establish that in
strength, lightness, durability and economy, metal boats have
great advantages for particular purposes."
"Since the above was written a full sized boat similar to the
model has arrived; on weighing her she was found to weigh 19
cwt. instead of 9; on trial, in smooth water, it was found that
with plugs out and 6 men in her, the water stood level with the
thwarts, and on adding 5 cwt. of ballast, the water rose to within
3 inches of the gunwale, the boat turned over throwing her crew
into the water and she lay still bottom up, and on the men
taking hold of her to right her she turned over twice like a
cask; thus proving that however fit she may be for a surf-boat,
on the coast of America she is quite unsuitable, in her present
form, for the general purpose of a life-boat on any part of the
coast of this country."
The description given of this boat differs considerably from
any I remember to have seen, and I may say the same of the
car, 26 feet long, 7 beam, etc., therefore I shall confine my
remarks mainly to the things described; if the testimonial
accompanying the model of the life-car illustrating its actual use
in the case of the Ayrshire in 1849, gives the idea that the
fortunate car was like the description given by the committee,
I can only say that it differs very much from the car illustrated
in Francis blue-book, as well as from those belonging to the
Humane Society of Massachusetts, bought of the Francis Lifeboat Co., and said to be similar to the one which rescued the
Ayrshire's people.  The opening remarks of the Committee go
for little when we come to read the postscript, wherein the weight
of a full-sized boat was found to be 19 cwt. and not 9 cwt.,
arising probably from a typographical error.
The trial in smooth water fully confirms the unfavorable
opinion I have formed of the Francis Boat.  It has long been
the opinion of our surf men that the metallic boats placed by
the Government on the coast of New Jersey, and those given
to the Massachusetts Humane Society by the same, are practically valueless as surf-boats.  The Humane Society were
very glad to receive and house these boats at the time, thinking
there might be cases where ships with emigrants might find
them useful.  The Society have six situated at the following




14
points; Nantucket Bar, Monomoy, Chatham, Nausett, Gloucester, Scituate, they were handed over to the Society by the
Secretary of the Treasury, June 5, 1855, since that time, so
far as I remember, their record of services stands thus: Nantucket
once manned in a comparatively smooth time, and found to pull
well; Monomoy boat was made use of to take the crew off a
vessel about 15 years ago, and having no very rough water did
the work well; Chatham boat has never been distinguished in
saving life; Nausett has been afloat two or three times, once
in very cold weather within a year or two, but the wind was
off shore, the sea not rough, the seamen say that they would
not have attempted to go off in her had it been rough; the
Scituate boat has never been  utilized in saving life; the
Gloucester boat has been made useful on several occasions
in boarding wrecks in comparatively smooth water, pulling out of
the harbor, but has never been subjected to a severe trial.
There can be no doubt as to the strength and durability
under all changes of climate of the corrugated iron boat; those
we received of the Government in 1855, are perfectly good
now and have required only painting; by fitting them with
detachable end cases, large cork fenders, and air-cases inside
sufficient to keep the water, with large valves open and crew
on board, down to five inches below the thwarts, they can be
made very useful for ship's boats and for steamers.
The Raymond Boat, also made of galvanized iron, not corrugated, and fitted with detachable end tanks and air cases under
the thwarts at the sides, is a very useful, strong, durable ship's
boat, but I have never seen a Francis or a Raymond Boat that
can be said to fulfil the conditions of self-righting, and selffreeing of water, which are essential in a true life-boat.
The object in giving these details and expressing these views,
is to show to general readers interested in the subject what
kind of boats are most approved in Great Britain, and to have
the benefit of the experience of experts in that line. In the
above list, comprising only seven of the thirty most approved
out of two hundred and eighty plans and models, a sufficient
variety is given to illustrate the subject and to prepare the
way for a discussion of their merits, and thus endeavor to
inaugurate a system which shall be applicable to our coasts in




15
the vicinity of our principal ports, and also to our passenger
vessels.
The question as to the best vehicle is not easily answered.
The question as to what will be the best surf-boat for the open
beaches of New Jersey, Long Island, Nantucket, Cape Cod,
Cape Ann, etc., is still undecided, and after all my experience
I cannot recommend any well known and well recognized
system  as appropriate to all these and other localities on the
great lakes.  Seamen brought up on the coast have their own
ideas as to the kind of vehicle they require when they are to
risk their lives to save life and property.  Their wishes and
their prejudices must, to a certain extent, be consulted. If, on
the coast of New Jersey, they prefer the model which experience
has taught them to reverence; with a flat bottom, broad stern,
sloping sides and considerable sheer, built of cedar or light
corrugated iron, let them  have such, but we must insist on it
that no man shall go afloat, rough or smooth, without a cork
life-belt, made after the English style, but slightly less buoyant
and expensive, and every boat should be furnished with enough
spare ones contained in boxes under the thwarts to supply her
full carrying capacity.  She should have detachable end tanks,
and outside solid cork fenders fastened half-way between the
gunwale and the load-line; they should be large enough to give
stability when the boat ships water; they will then be very
valuable, though they will make it more difficult to right her
when capsized; this we cannot help.  It is a very difficult
question to decide as to the just medium between too much
weight and too little buoyancy when she ships water. A boat
built of light wood, 30x8 and 3 deep, need not weigh over
1,000 lbs., and the chances are that a boat of this weight can
be got off and on through a surf, the men being supplied with
life-belts, when no boat called a life-boat and deserving the
name could be manned and got off (n the Jersey coast by Jersey
beach men.
I presume the same remarks apply to the coast of Long Island.
At Nantucket, where the surf is heavy and the beaches
frequently steep, the surf-men prefer light wooden clincher-built
boats, with large beam  and considerable sheer, pulling long
oars, single bank, and steering like whaleboats.  By attaching




16
vulcanized rubber cylinders outside, or stout cork fenders, with
end air-cases, these boats will stand up with considerable water
and a large crew in them, and in case of being stoven, they can
be got on shore with some risk and difficulty; but the rubber
cylinders are constantly giving trouble by imperfections in the
valves and bellows, and the air-cannisters, unless made of heavy
copper, deteriorate very fast and offer a prize to the rascals
who infest our coasts and steal our ropes, oars, etc.; for these
reasons I have concluded to depend mostly on cork for extra
buoyancy, and to limit this, so that a boat shall not weigh over
1,500 lbs. with all her fittings.
Leaving Nantucket, we' come to the Cape shore.  In the
vicinity of Chatham and Orleans, the surf-men use for their
fishing and wrecking purposes, full built, flat round bottomed
cedar built boats, both ends alike, and they naturally feel
confidence in them, and will risk their lives in them when
nothing would induce them  to attempt to launch a life-boat
weighing a ton only.
Going a little further to Provincetown we find that they want
boats more like whaleboats but with more beam, fair sheer
and very much shoaler than the Orleans boats, very light built,
boats that pull 5 oars, and that can be picked up bodily by five
or six men, and run off to meet the rollers, it requires considerable urging to induce them to admit any extra buoyancy, or
even to put on their belts.  Now we cross over to Cape Ann,
here the seamen have nearly all been long accustomed to handling dories pulling short oars cross handed, the largest pulling 4
and the rest 2 oars, a well managed dory will get off of a rough
beach dry, when no other boat can, and are very useful at times
in saving life by carrying off a line, etc., but they are worthless
for landing numbers of clumsy passengers.  Brought up to the
short oar the Cape Ann and Marblehead men want double bank
boats, therefore, as a general rule it is desirable to consult the
people whom we are to call upon in time of need.
Taking into view the prejudices and preferences of our coast
men, giving due weight to their wishes, if I had the means and
authority to inaugurate a system of boats, including durability,
economy in the long run, and ability to commiand the confidence
of the men who are to use themn, I think I should build light




17
corrugated iron boats about 25 feet, 61 beam, and 30 inches
deep, with good sheer say 15 inches, flat midship section and
not very fine ends with centre-boards, to pull at Nantucket, 5
oars single bank, elsewhere I should fit them to pull 6 short
oars double bank and one at the bow thwart single, the standing room should not be less in length than that of a whaleboat,
say from the sternpost becket to the after thwart about 8 feet,
much depends on the steering oar and it is most important to
have plenty of room to operate it successfully; on the outside I
should lash securely, cork fenders, made of solid pieces with a
rope rove through the centre and cover them with the best
cotton canvas, well sewed so as to exclude the water as long
as possible; these should be placed far enough below the gunwale to clear the oars, but not far enough to drag in the water:
say 6 inches below the gunwale amidships; in the ends, an air
cannister of copper, or cork fastened together in a mass, sufficient to assist in righting her-more we cannot expect of them
with the opposition of thO fenders; under the thwarts, fore and
aft, nearly up to them and for about half the length of the boat,
I should lash on each side a cork float, say 12 or 15 inches in
diameter, to assist in keeping the boat somewhat manageable when she ships water, or is stove. If we attempt to add
any more extra buoyancy the boat will be too heavy to launch
and to transport, and will not command the confidence of the
beach men.  The inside floats should be carefully covered with
the best cotton canvas, so as to exclude water; they need only
to be stopped to the risings, and will be very useful sometimes in
sending to a wreck, or in buoying up hawsers, etc. Everything
should be detachable, so that if the boat be found too heavy,
a part or all can be removed without cost and put back at
pleasure.  This is the best and simplest compromise I can
recommend for our exposed beaches, where the population is
sparse.
As an experiment, I should very much like to see a boat
built of light wood or iron, as full of solid cork as will be
possible and admit of room  for the feet of the rowers and the
steersman, and have valves well up on the side, sufficiently
handy for the oarsmen to open readily to let out water.  The
only objection to such a plan would be that the steersman must
3




18
have room, not only to stand but to move round sharp, and for
this he would require an open space about 4 by 2~ feet,
sufficiently low down to handle his long oar.  If the rest of the
boat should have space only for the feet of the men, in the
event of shipping water, this standing-room would be flooded and
the boat would be in danger by tipping by the stern, and thus
interfere with readily handling her.  The only way to get over
this would be to leave a space forward equal in cubic feet to the
standing-room  aft to counterbalance the same; these spaces
being supplied with delivery valves would clear themselves of
water; all this being well, we should have to encounter the
chances of getting water into one space and not into the other
which might occur sometimes.  I am of opinion, on the whole,
that these spaces could be fitted so as to relieve themselves of
water almost instantly by the aid of the large mass of cork.
Another difficulty, that of want of room to take in as many at
the least as the crew consists of, must be met by having certain
blocks, removable, so as to admit the'feet of passengers; this
can be easily managed, all else being well.  Cork of good
quality although buoyant absorbs some water, and becomes
considerably heavier by immersion and by long exposure to
dampness-how much I do not know; not enough I suppose to
prevent its use in such a boat.
I presume that masses of cork, made to shape in sections to
fit the boat up to the thwarts, could be kept dry by covering
them with cotton canvas, with or without paint; but this would
add to the weight and cost, and be constantly rotting.  Again,
it may be that the separate pieces of cork constituting the
blocks could be economically cemented by marine glue or some
light pigment, to keep out water from their interstices; all of
which are hints worthy of consideration in applying cork to
boats.




ON MEANS FOR 
COMMUNICATING WITH WRECKS.
In England, the Manby mortar, fully illustrated and
described in a pamphlet dated 1826, was for some
time the popular means for getting communication,
and in this country a similar piece of ordnance continues to be the mediumn, and as it is likely to be, I will
say a few words as to its use. Manby's original mortar
weighed, with the bed or block on which it was
mounted, about 3 cwt., and was said to carry by means
of a 24-lb shot, a rope of 1 inches 200 yards, or a
dep-sea line 270 yards "against the utmost power of
the wind."  It was also recommended as suitable to
throw  out a grapnel shot carrying a rope strong
enough to facilitate hauling a boat through the surf.
Manby also recommended and illustrated the use of a
small mortar, which was exhibited to a Committee of
the House of Commons, in 1814. The apparatus,
including the line and frame upon which it was "faked,"
cartridges, tubes, port-fire, slow-match, all arranged to
be slung by a strap over the shoulders, weighed only
32 lbs.; the calibre of the piece 2 lbs.; the line of the
size of a "log-line" was projected 120 yards.
As " the utmost power of the wind," a rope  strong
enough to haul a boat off shore," a " log-line," are very
indefinite terms, no correct idea can be formed of the
power of the Manby mortar from his own description.
Manby connected his projectiles with the line to be
thrown by tails or beckets long enough to reach two
feet beyond the muzzle of the mortar, made of plaited




20
green hide. Manby justly places great stress on the
laying of the line clear for running, and illustrates
several ways of doing it.  One very good method,
especially for preparing the line in the dark is to "fake"
it back and forth over pins standing up six inches,
round the edge of a frame of wood; this is an effective
way of keeping the line from fouling; when made up
and ready for firing, the frame is capsized, leaving the
line in a pile clear for running.  Manby also illustrates
a pistol with a box over the lock intended to keep the
powder dry ready to fire the mortar; also a shell containing inflamable matter and a fuse to be fired at
night to illuminate the vicinity of the wreck, and
enable the operators of the mortar to point it aright;
also a shell filled with composition, attached to the line,
it has four holes in the side towards the powder and
in being fired is intendeJ to throw out tails of fire,
like a rocket, so that its flight to the wreck may be
correctly ascertained. It is not stated that these shells
were ever brought into actual practice.
Manby also illustrates a mode of placing anchors off
shore outside the broken water at all stations, connected by bridles, and these supported by a buoy, so
that the grapnel anchor or shot could be projected
and catch on the bridle or mooring rope, and thus
furnish a means for hauling the boat off. I am not
aware that this idea was ever carried out; on a rocky
shore, where the bottom is not subject to changes, it
might answer a good purpose and is worth consideration for some localities on our coast. But, in places
like the Jersey or Nantucket, or Cape Cod shores, it
would be useless on account of the shifting nature of
the sands, and the liability to be carried away by ice.
Manby having been long a resident on the seacoast,
gives some very good general hints as to life-boats,




21
and among other things says, in speaking of the original
boat of Greathead: " She is excellent for the entrance
of a harbor where there is no difficulty in launching,
or the aid of sails necessary, but her size and weight
would render it impossible to launch her through a
heavy surf. The form  is different from  the boats
peculiar to the coast. It is of the first importance for
a life-boat to resemble as much as possible those which
the pilots and beach-men are accustomed to and have
confidence in, not only because it is necessary to
humor the prejudices of men whose services are
required, but because whatever tends to increase their
confidence, must in proportion increase the chance of
saving life."
Whatever may be said of the antiquated ideas of
Manby, the above quotation will forever hold good.
Manby also recommends all life-boats to be furnished
with a short gun to throw a line from the boat to a
wreck, where the nature of the case renders a very
near approach difficult; I shall allude to the best
means for effecting this further on. Manby also illustrates several modes of getting people on shore, after
lhaving established communication by the mortar; one
is by slinging a ships' cot with the bottom opened to
let out water, and another a hammock padded outside
by any convenient means for protection in landing on
a, rocky shore; another by a snatch block and common
sling. He alludes particularly to a case where the.
vessel cannot be reached by mortar line, or where
there is no boat-the crew paying out a line by means
of a cask or spar, but the undertow keeps it out of
reach of persons on the beach-then some means to
grapple it must come in play, either by the small
mortar or the anchor shot, or by throwing out a hand
line armed with hooks to catch the rope.




22
Lastly, Manby gives some valuable suggestions as
to making signals by motions of the arms, to be recognized on board of all vessels, and by black-boards,
whereon can be written in chalk certain orders as to
manipulating the ropes, etc.   Notwithstanding the
ancient date of Manby's work, it mnay be read with
profit.  Without taking up any more time in quoting
from  it let me proceed to quote from the report to the
Duke of Northumberland, some of its facts and suggestions as to mortars, rockets, lines, life-boat gear, etc.
Commander Jerningham's report to the Comptroller
of the Coast Guard, says, in brief:
" That the experiments on Woolwich marshes gives
the following results:
Range obtained by Manby mortar of brass, 5- inch
calibre, elevation 33~0 charge 10 oz. powder, being
the mean of 20 rounds:
In fine weather with Russia hemp line of 6-thread, 245 yds.
"4    "    "'   Manilla, same size,..    285 "
Moderate weather, fresh breeze, hemp,... 237 
s         "      "    ":Manilla,.. 279  "
Strong gale, squally, elevation 28~, hemp,. 211;'    "'"'"      "  Manilla,.. 243'
He says, "a strong wind directly against the wind
requires a less elevation than in moderate weather,
280 to 33~ will be the best in blowy weather, and in
moderate and calm  weather 37~. The wind across
the range will reduce the flight more than the wind
directly  ahead.   Variation  of ranges are so capricious that I have obtained the same results with 25~
as 33~. The laws of projectiles require it to be kept
in mind that the more horizontally the line can be fired,
the less resistance.




23; The quality and charge of powder, is a matter of
the utmost importance; some addition must be made
to the charge, when powder has been long kept in a
damp boat-house.
"With reference to the charge no more than 16 oz.
ought to be used in the 51 inch brass mortar, and
when the charge exceeds 12 oz. the large cylindrical
shot should be used, the initial velocity being less
than with a lighter shot, a manilla line laid up soft,
and carefully made of best stock, will stand 16 oz.,
when 12 oz. will break russia hemp.  The manilla
lines are less liable to kink,  120 fathoms of I inch
line, weighing  11 lbs. against 151 lbs. for russia
hemp. I found that the lines balled up after the
manner of rope-makers spun-yarn, were more portable
than on racks, as in present use; were less liable to
foul, and would always run out clear when taken fron
the heart of the ball, and require less space.
"Manilla rope beckets may be made fast directly to
the shot without the intervention of hide, the latter
becoming stiff and breaking frequently after being long
in store.  One shot was fired 27 times with the same
manilla strap without any apparent damage and is much
less expensive and uncertain than hide.  Manilla line
will bear being coiled away when wet with salt water,
it is especially appropriate for the lines of communication between the shore and the wreck."
In regard to charges, he says:
" Not less than  6 oz. should be used, which in
moderate weather and a 30-pound shot, will give 200
yards; where a long range is necessary, requiring two
lines of 120 fathoms, a lead shot, and a becket of 11
ma.nilla fitted with a long running eye so as to allow
of rendering, thereby  obviating the  sudden jerk,
are requisite on the large cylindrical shot, (weight not




24
given.)  These may be fired with 16 oz. powder, and
will give in moderate weather a range of 350 yards
with 37~ elevation and in strong winds 280, with 28~
elevation.
" In case a wreck is close, the bight of a larger line,
carrying a small block, may be fired off with 16 oz.
I have fired many lines after being wet, as they lay
on the beach, with complete success; but when time
will allow, the line should be reeled into balls, and
stored when dry, in canvas bags.  If it is desired to
illuminate the line, it can be carried in a covered tub,
which being filled with oil and phosphorus will have
that effect. Experiments are in progress by Lieut.
Colguhoun, for effecting  communication  at short
distances by means of a hand-rocket.  I have a small
hand-mortar with a shoulder stock to carry a leaden
projectile and line 80 yards, as suggested by Miss
Gurney, of Northrepps.
" I enclose a sketch of an anchor-shot, which, after
many anxious experiments, I can recommend to stand
10 oz. powder fired from the 51 inch mortar, with a
rope of 1, 210 yards, in moderate weather, elevation
33^ and 150 in a gale. Its holding power on sandy
bottom is equal to the strength of 12 men, and two
such anchors would haul off any life-boat on the
Eastern coast. The length of the,shank is 30 inches
and of the stock 26 inches, flukes 30, weight 45 lbs.
In the manufacture great care is requisite that the
best iron be used, it should be capable of having a
knot tied in a cold bar.  The principal difficulty I
had to contend with was the breaking of the stock,
but it was overcome, I have one, now which has been
fired 17 times, and is still fit for use.
"I found an ash stock stood well, but it held too
much wind."




25
In reference to these quotations, I have to remark
that in the small iron mortars of the Humane Society
carrying a 12 lb. solid shot, and shell of about 9 lb.,
with fine manilla line of six-thread, manilla rope
beckets of 11 inch, spliced into a sunken eye in the
shot and shell, and 4 ounces of powder, we have
obtained in moderate weather, ranges of 200 to 250
yards with the solid shot. Against the wind, the shell
cannot be sent so far, and its initial velocity, at the
start, with 4 ounces powder is sometimes too great for
the becket; but, with the wind, it will go about as far
as the shot, and being less costly and lighter there is
economy in it. In the only 5' inch Manby mortar
belonging to the Humane Society, presented many
years ago by the Royal National Institution, we have
used in experiments both solid shot and shell, and find
it difficult to insure the integrity of the lanyard or
becket with over 8 ounces powder.  We have several
new mortars of same calibre, but longer, which will
bear more charge, being mounted on heavy block
carriages without wheels, calculated to stand a heavy
recoil. The original carriages, although carefully made
at the Navy Yard, have been found too weak to withstand the recoil of 51 inch mortars.  Much depends,
as Jerninghami says, on the quality of the powder, in
fact, next to the integrity of the lines and beckets,
this is the great point, and one which should be carefully tested by government experts. My impression
is that fine rifle powder is too sudden in its effects, and
that we want coarser powder to start the heavy projectiles more gradually; but this is a question which
I leave to experiments by experts.  We have never
attempted to fire 16 ounces powder from our heaviest
mortars; the recoil, unless the block is buried in the
sand, would be great, and the line or becket be sure
4




26
to break.  Our beaches are generally so steep that
vessels come near enough to be reached with small
charges, except in certain localities, as off Nausett,
and Peaked Hill Bars on Cape Cod, and off some of
the beaches of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and
in these localities the "rips " or sand bars lie too far
off to be reached by any mortar. In my experience, the
ball is the simplest and best way of preparing the line
for a first fire, taking care to haul out two or three
fathoms from the heart of the ball; after once firing,
to save time the line may be ranged along the beach
and will generally run out clear if carefully laid, but
not so far as when dry; the becket should be wet just
before putting the shot in place. We have recently
had made at the Navy Yard, some rawhide selvagee
beckets, carefully marled down, which so far as tried,
promise well; but they must be kept supple by oil.
On the whole, I am inclined to recommend the manilla becket, because it can always be fitted from the
general stores in a few minutes, and it requires no
special care beyond keeping dry. The running eye,
to which Jerningham  alludes, ought to be tested
against the usual splice.
As to the means of communicating between the
life-boat and the wreck, or between the shore and
wreck, when near by. Various means, more simple
and practicable than carrying a fire-arm, offer to my
mind. A person accustomed to throw off a bluefish
leaden bait, can easily throw by hand a cod-line by
means of a leaden weight, 60 or eighty yards; next
to this a short shoulder-piece, say of inch calibre, can
throw the same line attached to a stick fitted after the
French plan, to be described further on, a distance of
80 to 100 yards, according to the wind. It does not
often occur that a boat cannot approach a wreck under




27
her lee, or anchor to windward and veer down to it.
Still, it is well in this discussion, to consider and to
provide for all contingencies.  The anchor-shot of
Jerningham, and Manby's grapnel-shot deserve careful
study.
Among the fittings of a station on the English coast,
I find:-Transporting cart, with 120 fathoms 3-inch
manilla; a whip of 1  inch, 2 coils of 120 fathoms
spliced together, rove through a 5 inch block, with
its tail consisting of 4 small lines, 3 in balls and I in a
tub; 4 round barbed shot, fitted with fuzes, weight 30
lbs; 2 cylindrical barbed shot, and two large oval long
barbed shot, suspended under the axle, and 3 anchor
shot in the cart; also the mortar and its bed; ammunition box to contain 8 charges of 10 ounces, 16 of 8,
and 8 of 4; port-fire, slow-match, pistol and tube-box
or percussion caps, water-proof cartridges, hammers,
shovel, 50 fathoms 1 inch line, to be used as stray-line,
to be bent on to the outer end of the small line, spunyarn, sheepskin to wipe mortar, beckets for shot, to be
in the form of grommets of 1 mnanilla, 1 foot long in
the bight, and marled with manilla; tallies should
also be attached to the cart to send off, marked, " make
fast tail-block," "make fast this, and cast off whip."
Full directions are given as to how to get the communication, how to make fast the shore end of the travelling rope, by converting the cart into an anchor; the
plan of illuminating the line is detailed; all of which
though interesting must be left to the general intelligence of operators.
As to the means used in this country for landing
persons after the communication is obtained, a few
words will not be amiss. A simple bowline hung to a
snatch block, to travel by means of the whip or
hauling line, has been used with success at Nantucket.




28
Recently we have adopted the Beeching cork bodybuoy with canvas legs, to be hung to the travelling
rope by a bridle.
Next, for certain places, and for use where large
numbers, or where women and children and sick
persons are to be landed, a " balsa," made up of hoops
strengthened by battens and covered with canvas,
with a man-hole and nozzle of canvas, strings, etc. are
provided; the form is that of two cones with their
bases attached; it weighs very little, and has solid ends,
through which runs a bolt with an eye on the outside
for the hauling lines.  This machine, though never yet
instrumental in saving life, has been tried and found
very good to haul back and forth on the water by the
whip, or by travelling on the large rope if required,
all of which will depend in practice on the nature of
the shore and the state of the weather; ordinarily, on
a sand beach, two persons could be got on shore dry
in it with ease through a heavy surf, without risk of
fracture. The persons being placed in it, could draw
in the canvas nozzle and tie it, or hold it in their
hands, or it can be tied outside, after placing them.
This is a cheap and very effective vehicle, much easier
to handle than our Francis metallic cars, about 8 or
10 feet long and weighing some 400 or 500 lbs.
Although it appears to be in use, I do not remember
to have seen any detailed account of the performance
of the anchor-shot in England.
My attention was called about two years ago to the
inventions of Mr. John B. Rogers, of London, for saving
life, the principal feature of which is a projectile
anchor, said to weigh 112 Ibs.; it has three folding
flukes, and is to be fired like Jerningham's; it has
attached to it a block of peculiar construction, said to
be free from all danger of choking byweeds, etc.; this




29
block is to be carried with the anchor and a whip or
hauling line to the wreck, without the intervention
and loss of time by getting off a small line by mortar
or rocket, or the anchor is td be planted outside the
surf, to haul out a boat. Mr. Rogers also has a coneshaped projectile of wood, to be thrown with the block,
when not necessary to throw the anchor.
In January, 1870, as I learn through an exhaustive
list of testimonials contained in a pamphlet on Rogers'
projectile anchor, an experiment was made under the
auspices of the Admiralty; the article says; " with
the exception of one or two slight defects in the construction, which can be easily remedied, the trial was
attended with complete success, and has firmly established the value of the anchor, the weight of which,
thrown from an 8 inch mortar, with 12 ounces of large
grain powder, was 134 lbs., and with block and line,
200, the range was 134 yards and 2 feet.""
Another interesting trial took place in April, under
Mr. Rogers's own eye, when it is said the anchor was
successfully projected from a common howitzer. Again
in June, experiments were made at Portsmouth, under
the supervision of Capt. Boys, of the Excellent.
The article from the Times, June 2, 1870, says:
"An 8 inch ordinary mortar was used; in the first
experiment a projectile anchor weighing 128 lbs.,
with an expansive block, and a line of one inch rove
in the block, was carried 156 yards with 8 oz. powder,
and by these means a 3' inch hawser was passed as a
continuous rope. In the second experiment, it was
sent with the same charge and an elevation of 380,
152 yards from  the shore, by this the hawser was
hauled off to the anchor and the ship's launch and 10
men not assisting, were hauled off without tripping
the anchor. In the third experiment) the cone and




30
block were thrown with same charge 163 yards. In
the fourth experiment, 12 oz. threw the cone and
block 217 yards; an inch rope was used in each ca.se."
The Army and Navy Gazette, says, under date
Sept. 10, 1870: "that the Lords of the Admiralty
have given Mr. Rogers ~200 towards his expenses in
testing the merits of his invention."
The Liverpool Courier, of Oct. 1, 1870, says, "h that
a large party went down the river to see Mr. Rogers
experiment with his cone and a line of one inch, the
first shot out of a little 31 inch mortar firing a 12 lb.
projectile with 2 oz. powder and an elevation of 450,
sent the cone up 150 yards, and it fell at 80 from the
operating steamer.  It was again tried at a low eleva~
tion with the same charge, and then carried the cone
and line 200 yards.  On the third trial a very light
line was sent in a straight line upwards of 400 yards,
but the line fouling broke and the cone and block
were lost."
The Daily Post, of Liverpool, 3d Oct., gives the
first shot at 200 yards up, and considered it a valuable test of the power to get a line up a cliff the
second shot at 250, and at the third fire with more
powder and a finer line, it went 400 yards, this
account states that the model mortar weighing 8 lbs.,
threw a 3 pound projectile and line 80 yards with a
thimble full of powder.
The coxswain and crew  of a life-boat at New
Brighton, having seen the experiments, say: "we
consider the invention far superior to the present
rocket system."
In Nov. 1870, at a meeting of the Royal Naval
Reserve Club, Mark Lane, sundry resolves were agreed
on, from  which I quote only one: "considering the
number and variety of experiments this invention




31
has gone through, with the sanction and approval
(and the assistance) of the Admiralty, this meeting
strongly recommend its adoption by that excellent
and valuable body known as the Royal National Lifeboat Institution."
In December the Shipping andi Mercantile Gazette,
says: " a final trial of Rogers process will take place at
Shoeburyness shortly, at the expense of the, Board of
Trade."
On  receiving  the  above  important facts  the
Humane Society of Massachusetts, took measures to
try Rogers apparatus and procured permission to
have it done "Secundum arten" at the Watertown
Arsenal, the writer requested Mr. Rogers to ship per
United States Ship Worcester when she returned from
her mission of mercy, a perfect sample of the apparatus, but it was never sent.
In answer to my inquiries as to the Rogers anchor,
Captain J. R. Ward, Inspector of the Royal National
Society, informed me on the 31st January, 1871, that
a trial would be made at Shoeburyness, as above stated.
I have never been informed of the result of that
trial, if it took place. Captain Ward, who has had
great experience in life saving means, expresses the
opinion that the Rogers apparatus will not take the
place of the Boxer rocket, nor does he think it desirable to throw off a double line and block in preference
to a single one; the anchor shot he thinks would be
very likely to attach itself in the wrong place.
Captain Ward also says that where the boats of the
Royal Institution are not locomotive by land, they
have permanent anchors and warps laid down during
the winter months, and where there are transporting
carriages, they can be launched from them without the
aid of an anchor, and where the shore is flat, anchors




32
would be of no use, as they could not be thrown far
enough to haul a boat through the surf. He says, also,
that Rogers succeeds in throwing an anchor by a 70
lb. mortar to a much greater distance with the block
and double line than he expected.  I shall take
measures to ascertain the result of the experiments at
Shoeburyness. The testimony I have quoted above
still leaves a considerable margin to hope that the
Rogers anchor may be utilized in this country where
we have no Boxer rocket apparatus.
TIlE  BOXER  ROCKEr.
I learn from a letter of Thomas Gray, Esq.,Secretary
of the Board of Trade, Whitehall, London, of date
12th June, 1867, that the Manby mortar has "been
almost entirely superseded by the rocket, designed by
Lieut.-Col. Boxer, R. A., of the Royal Laboratory,
Woolwich. It consists of two rockets arranged end
on to each other in one case. The effect is that on
the first rocket being expended, after reaching a
certain distance, the second takes fire and completes
the range.  With it is used a line made of Italian
hemp, of 500 yards, weighing 46 lbs."  With the
letter from which I have quoted, there came drawings
of the rocket and apparatus, as well as a book of
instructions for the use thereof, from which I extract
a portion, showing how completely the organization
is carried out.




33
"The inspecting officer of coast guard is responsible
for the efficiency of the mortar and rocket in his
division. They are inspected and exercised once a
quarter; one or two, but not more than four shots
may be fired, and the whole operation of setting up a
hawser and hauling persons to and from a tree or flag
staff to be gone through.  Annual report to be made
by inspectors to the Board of Trade. The number of
rockets to each apparatus is 18; lines, 2 or more."
The apparatus is described as hereunder.
"A spring cart with broad or narrow tires, to suit
the coast, fitted with lamps, drag ropes similar to field
artillery, box with stores, and a water-tight compartment for carrying the rockets, crutches for the tubes,
staves and triangle, boxes with faking pins for the
lines, a 3 inch manilla hawser 40 to 120 fathoms,
according to the steepness of the shore, a whip I I inch
manilla, double the length of the hawser, rove through
a. block with a tail of two fathoms, the ends of whip
spliced together so as to make an endless rope."
Here let me say, the block should have a swallow
large enough to pass freely a snug eye-splice, to be
made in each end of the whip, whereby the turns can
be taken out the more readily and the whip spread
along the shore; if spliced together to make a permanent and continuous rope as above quoted, the whip
will be likely to get full of kinks.
To go on with the abbreviated instructions: "a slung
buoy with petticoat breeches, in which to place a person to be hauled on shore; a traveller or inverted
block attached to the buoy to carry it along the hawser by the whip or hauling line."  NOTE. —I have
adopted for this traveller an iron ring and eye, the
ring covered with trucks so that it cannot well choke
by seaweed, ice, etc. This I consider better than a
5




34
block.  "a tackle for setting up the hawser, 3 small
spars arranged for a triangle to raise the hawser clear
of the crest of the waves, an anchor with one fluke,
whereby to set up the hawser-a good substitute is a
plank with a piece of chain to be buried in the sand
or earth, a red flag and staff, and a lantern with a red
lens, two spades, a shovel and pick, a selvagee strap, a
light hand-barrow; three sets of tally-boards, 9 by 5
inches, with directions (written in French and English,)
to be sent off to the wreck."  NOTE.-In some cases
we have used india rubber pocket books with parchment tallies in them, and in other cases a strong bottle
has been sent off by the small line with directions to
await the fall of the tide or the coming of the boat,
etc.'"Long'light of Boxer's 1 box, 18 signal rockets
showing white and red stars, 2 heaving sticks with
lines."  NOTE.-A bluefish line and its leaden bait and
hook can be thrown 80 yards or more.  "A hawser
cutter, a tarpaulin to cover the cart and to lay on the
beach to coil the whip on, two of Capt. Ward's lifebelts, and two life-lines."   NOTE.-All the rockets
and illuminating gear with mortars, powder, shot, etc.,
are supplied by the War Department. "The mortar
fittings consist of, mortar 51 inch, bed, round 24-lb.
shot, oblong 24, with fuzes, copper friction-tubes, and
L. G. powder."
As space does not admit of recapitulating all the
details contained in the book of instructions, I shall
content myself with extracting only sufficient to turn
attention in the right direction.
" Eight men required for full drill of the rocket apparatus, hawser, lines, etc., four of these belong to Coast
Guard attached to station, the rest called from other
stations or volunteers; exercise to be on shore, so as
to recover the shot, meas.ure range, etc.; Coast Guard




men not paid for exercise, unless they travel over four
miles, for the excess three pence a mile paid. Under
the Shipping Act, horses and carts can be taken, but
it is best to understand with near residents as to loan
of these in case of emergency. The Inspector or
Custom's Officer, has power to command all present
to assist at a rescue, any one refusing can be made to
pavy ~50.  The elevation of the Boxer tube to be 35
to 38 degrees, depending on the wind.  The first shot
to be fired from the box, tilted in the direction of the
wreck; afterwards, to save time, from  the beach;
great care necessary for first shot, as a wet and dirty
line does not go so well."
IHere follow details as to the management in getting
off the hawser, etc.
Remuneration to Coast Guard men, etc.:
When going to a wreck and saving life, 2 shillings
to each, otherwise, 1 shilling.  In cases of special
importance, if the inspector approves, more will be
paid, others assisting may be recommended for pay.
Chief officers at stations paid double the men when
assisting at a wreck. In no case where lives are saved
by apparatus is salvage to be claimed on the ship.
Volunteer companies to be encouraged and assisted
by Coast Guard.  To these apparatus will be found,
rent of house paid, and remuneration awarded by the
Board of Trade, according to the circumstances of
rescue, perfection of drill, etc. Volunteer brigades to
be subject to order of the Senior Officer of Coast
Guard, if present, or Senior Custom Officer; in their
absence, to the Senior Officer of the brigade. Rates
of pay for volunteers, for exercise, 2 shillings each, and
at wrecks, from 2 shillings and 6 pence to ~1, according
to circumstances, the limit as to the number in each
case, 25."  Here follow details as to the drill of rocket




36
brigade, too long to copy, but from which the following
brief hints are extracted.
" Coast Guard stations occur all along the coast, fire
guns by day, or burn lights or rockets by night, to call
the crews. Each man works by his number in moving
to the scene of wreck, similar to the drill of guns in.vessels of war, every man has his special duty to do;
many stations having old men-of-war's men, use the
boatswain's call in drill and service."
I have before me a detailed drawing of the Boxer
accelerating rocket and fittings, from which is seen
that the details are most carefully got up. There are
plain drawings of all the parts and of the manner of
manipulating them.  The explanation warrants some
further notice.  It is "A compound rocket, so arranged
that when the first rocket has expended its force, the
second is ignited and gives a new impulse. By this
arrangement of the force an increased range is obtained
without breaking the line, (which would occur if the
force of the two were applied to the first start.) The
line is attached to the stick, passing along the side of
the rocket case, by a knot in the end, which passes
through india rubber washers; this relieves the sudden
shock of the start. The rocket is fired both by a lock
attached near the tail of the case, or by a fuze and
port-fire. The ignition of the second charge should
take place when the rocket has reached the highest
point of the trajectory, or just beyond it."
I have been thus particular in describing the Boxer
rocket, because I desire to call the attention of our
legislators and governors and their servants to the
importance, as we progress in the scale of nations, of
inaugurating the best means in use in older countries
for diminishing the dangers of the sea.  I would also
call the attention of the government to the propriety




37
of striking off a suitable medal to be awarded to all
who may have the good fortune of distinguishing
themselves through the instrumentalities afforded by
the government stations.
Victoria, by the grace of God, etc., etc.," in 1866,
instituted a decoration styled the Albert Medal, a gold
oval-shaped badge inscribed "for gallantry in saving
life at sea," to be given upon the recommendation of
the Board of Trade.  It is wisely provided that if any
one holding the decoration shall be guilty, in the
opinion of the Queen, of any conduct which ought to
disqualify him from holding the badge, it shall be forfeited, and every person before receiving it shall enter
into a contract to return it if called for. This is an
example worthy of imitation by our government.
This book of instructions, from which I have made
suclh liberal extracts, closes by giving directions for
restoring suspended animation, by Drs. Marshall Hall,
and H. R. Silvester's methods, with illustrations of the
manner of handling  the body.  These instructions
are posted at all the stations and circulate throughout
the country and colonies and in the navy and coast
guard service.
The Humane Society of Massachusetts would long
since have adopted the Boxer rocket if it could have
afforded means for buying, drilling and keeping the apparatus in order. It will be found much more portable
than the mortar apparatus and has a longer range and
can be seen in its flight at night, when a shot or shell
cannot, unless the latter be filled with some inflamable material.  The use of the rocket is held under
letters patent in England and can only be procured
from  the manufacturers, with whom  Col. Boxer has
bargained for its use.




38
The  cost of a  complete set of Boxer rocket
apparatus, as I learned in 1867 from  the manufacturers, J. & A. W. Birt, Dock Street, Nos. 3 and 4,
London, as per list: 24 rockets and sticks, 20 lights,
20 port-fires, 24 primers, 28 port-fire primers, handles,
3 lines, 3 line-boxes, whip and hawser, tally-boards,
blocks, sling-buoy, triangle, 2 Ward belts, and life-lines,
flag, lantern, tarpaulin, anchor, axe, spade, handbarrow, straps, 36 tubes detonating, 36 fuzes, 74 washers,
36 pins, rocket-frame, diagrams, and packing, is ~125
cash, exclusive of the shipping charges.
Some correspondence was had with the U. S. War
Department, on the subject of  making the Boxer
rocket at the U. S. Laboratories, after procuring permission from  Col. Boxer.  Major Gen. Dyer, Chief
of Ordnance informed me Aug. 5, 1867, that if we
could not get them made by private parties, an order
would be given to make them  at Watertown, but as
Col. Boxer had arranged his business with the Birts,
for the manufacture and sale, nothing, further could
be done, than to import a set; this the Humane Society was not in a condition to do; or was not called
on to do by reason of my absence for two years in
Europe.
For many years the Dennett rocket was used in
England, and it was tried here by the Humane Society,
but it was found to deteriorate very much when
exposed to the changes of climate and sometimes it
bursts prematurely; its use has therefore been discontinued, the Boxer rocket costs in England about ten
shillings, rendering it expensive to exercise on a
large scale.
I will now proceed to speak on the subject of




39
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE LIFE-BOAT AND MORTAR APPARATUS
OF THE ROYAL NATIONAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT
BRITAIN.
Without organization all our efforts in the direction
of saving life will be feeble or useless; unless the
establishments lately decided on, upon  our coasts
under the prestige of the Government, are to be
cared for, by well paid competent men, they will
prove failures. In the discussion of this subject we
may get some - valuable hints from the rules of the
Royal Society. I shall therefore quote liberally from
the regulations of that body, date 1860.
"C st. The crew of a first-class boat consists of first
and second coxswain, bowman, and as many oarsmen
as there are oars.
"2nd. For every boat an equal number are enrolled,
the first to form the regular crew and the rest to fill
vacancies and absences.
" 3rd.  They are to consist of men living near by.' 4th.  Salary of first coxswain ~8 per annum.
When required to go afloat to save life, they will
receive 10 shillings by day, and ~1 at night, and for
going on exercise, 5 shillings in rough weather, and 3
shillings for smooth.
" 5th.  If money be received as salvage of property
two shares to be reserved for the local committee, for
the maintenance and repair of the boat, the remainder to be divided among the coxswains and crew. If
the salvage paid be for the saving of life, no portion
to go to the crew."
A note to this says:   Salvage for saving life shall
be, according to Shipping Act of 1854, Section 459,
payable by owners prior to any other claim; but as




40
the life-boat crew are paid by the Society, it is desirable that no demand be made except under extraordinary circumstances and the sanction of the Central
Committee obtained."
" 6th. If local rewards ate obtained for special acts
of gallantry it is recommended that the award be
paid to the crew.'7th. At each station is a local Committee to govern
the movements of the boat.
" 8th. The boat to be put afloat for exercise once a
quarter; preference to be given to rough weather.
"9th. Committee to make quarterly report in regard
to condition of apparatus.
" 10th.  Boat to be kept on her carriage in boat-house
with all gear except perishable articles which must be
secured from damp.
" 11th.  Three keys kept in different places with the
address painted on the door, one with coxswain, and
two with the local Committee.
" 12th.  In the event of a call, coxswain assembles
his crew, and if any are absent he is to call for volunteers, to be paid like the crew.
cc 13th. If the wreck is distant the coxswain to press
horses into service.
"14th. Reward of 7 shillings to the first man who
brings news of a wreck out of sight of the station."
15th. As to signals by day and night to call crew.
16th. As to manner of boarding the wreck.
" 17th.  On boarding, the saving of life to be the first
and sole consideration.  No goods or baggage to be
put in to the danger of the boat.
18th.  On landing men from wreck, notice to be
given to the   Fisherman's and Mariner's Benevolent
Society.'




41
"19th.  No one to leave in a life-boat except the
crew or by the sanction of Committee
"20th.  Boat not to be used to take off an anchor,
nor for salvage of property, stores, pilot, or orders, so
as to interfere with private enterprise, except by
permission of Committee.
"21st.  Relates to the preparations to be made by
the coxswain when the weather looks bad.
"22nd.  In winter, in certain places, it is recommended to place an anchor off shore with buoy and
line ready to haul off the boat.
" 23d.  Coxswain to keep a journal to be sent after
each service on wreck to the Society in London.
"' 24th.  Instructions and illustrations for restoring
suspended animation to be posted in boat-house and
to be always carried in the boat.
"25th.  On returning from  service the boat to be
hauled up, and the first fine day examined, dried, etc.
26th.  Coxswain held responsible for the efficiency
and good order of his boat and gear."
The above general regulations are very much curtailed, others are given as to the time of painting,
inspection after winter, etc., etc.
The gear of a life-boat consists of:
1st. For 32 foot boats, anchor 75 lbs., secured to
the platform of the boat; cable 60 fathoms, 3.1 inch.
2nd.  Grapnel 25 lbs.
3d.  Spring for cable.
4th. A norman to ship in step of mast for towing,
or riding at anchor.
5th. Set of oars with lanyards, and a spare oar for
every two men.
6th. Iron thole-pins, grormmets, and spare ones.
7th.  Two steering oars, and two boat-hooks.
8th.  Two hand-grapnels, and heaving-lines.
6




42
9th. One axe, and two hatchets in each boat.
10th. Life-buoy and line of l1 manilla lines over
the side knotted, for life-lines.
11th. Boat compass and binnacle where necessary.
12th. Spy-glass, port-fires, Lantern, etc.
13th. Hand-rockets for throwing line to wreck.
14th. Hand lead and line.
15th. Hammer  and  nails, sheet  lead, chisel,
marline-spike, grease, oakum, etc.
16th. Cork belt for every one of crew.
17th. Keg of water.
18th. Boat-carriage, and gear.
19th.  Chest of small stores.
20th. Mast, Sails, etc.
RAFTS AND GENERAL MEANS, FOR SAVING LIFE AT
SEA AND ON SHORE.
1st. Within my experience comes the raft, called by
its present owners, the " Monitor Raft," originally
known as the Perry Raft.
A three cylinder raft went to England under sail,
leaving New York June 12, 1867, arriving, July 25.
The raft consists of two or more air-tight cylinders,
incased in heavy canvas and connected by canvas
flanges forming when inflated a sort of deck, the
whole distended into shape by a frame of wood and
thwarts, and so arranged that it can be put together
and inflated by an inexperienced crew  after once
seeing it done, in eight minutes, and the air let out
and packed in about the same time, the tine of
inflating may be shortened by having larger valves
and bellows, an experienced crew can inflate it in less
time. The vulcanized rubber cylinders are the reservoir, the canvas is mainly for protecting them, and




43
preventing rupture.  It is very compact when made
up and can be thrown over board from a high vessel
without injury.
The following extracts from my report of a trial in
Sept., 1870, will show that I have perfect confidence
in the Monitor raft.
EXTRACTS FROM  REPORT TO HUMANE SOCIETY,
I have recently tried  the monitor raft sent by W. C.
Thompson, President of Raft Company, and have accepted
it.  I went first to Provincetown, in the Revenue Cutter
Vigilant, exercising the men on the way in preparing and
packing the machine. About eight minutes are required to
inflate the cylinders and get ready to launch, and about the
same time to let out the air and pack up.  On arrival at
Provincetown, the raft was inflated, thrown overboard, and
thirteen men landed on the beach, pulling six oars, and the
raft was packed and carted over to the shore near to Peaked
Hill Bars, inflated in seven minutes, and put off the beach with
an officer and six men of the cutter's crew, the sea was not
rough enough to make this a fair trial of the utility of the raft.
I also manned it with seven men of the locality, and they shoved
off and went through and beyond the breakers on the bars and
landed much pleased with the performance; the cutter's crew
manned it again, and shoved off and pulled round to Herring
Cove, along shore eight or nine miles, within the outer breakers,
until they met the cutter, while I drove along shore to see the
performance.
Not deeming the surf sufficient at Cape Cod, I proceeded to
Nantucket, arriving off the Bar on the 8th. We launched the
raft and proceeded for the shore, accompanied by a whaleboat
manned by Nantucket men. In pulling in about three miles
the whaleboat beat the raft about one-third, showing very fair
speed for the latter.




44
The raft was immediately landed, rolled up, put on a cart and
taken to the South Shore, where we found a heavy surf; inflated
the raft, with new hands, in about eight minutes, and having
fully stated its qualities, according to the theory given in books,
I called for volunteers to ma.n it and go through the heavy
breakers.  After a good deal of delay, and with expressions of
confidence in its safety by myself, as well as by Mr. Wilson,
who was sent on by the raft company to teach us how to use it,
only three men came forwtard! It was quite clear that while
neither the agent or myself were ready to lead a crew, the
beach-men of Nantucket would not have confidence enough to
push off.  The surf was large and ran very furiously, frequently
breaking from one-quarter to one-half a mile off the beach.  I
had great doubt if any of the surf-boats, dories, or life-boats,
would have ventured to launch in such a surf, unless prompted
by an earnest desire to save life, or to establish the first claim to
a rich salvace from a wreck. The trial was therefore abandoned
for that day, and the considerable crowd returned disappointed
to the city.  On the 9th, arrrangemelits were made for a crew,
and we went again to the South Shore.  The surf was considerably less than the day before, but still running too high to
permit of any of the habitual fishermen going off on their daily
work in dories.  I induced a young man named Gardner to
carry off a tub of whale-line, two hundred fathoms, and plant
two dory anchors outside the inner rollers.  After a delay of
nearly half an hour, watching for a smooth time, the little shell
was pushed off, and gallantly riding over the smooth rollers,
planted the anchors and returned safely to the shore with the
end of the whale line.  The operation was very exciting;
sometimes the dory would meet a roller and jump it, just
as it was going to curl over, and disappear behind it, and
again, she would wait or back in a little and allow a huge
breaker to spend itself outside of her.  In coming in, a wave
ran her up within reach of the men on the beach, when she was
hauled up.  Having now established a line, it was rove through
a block at each end of the raft and the slack line hauled in; one
man got upon the raft, and five or six others watching a chance,
it was shoved off and easily hanled beyond the regular surf
by this one man, and again landedl; then the whole crew got on




45
it, seven in number, and hauled off and on, gradually getting
confidence, until very soon they purposely veered in, so as to
receive the worst " coamers," then I ordered them to weigh the
anchor, and permit the raft to drift in without any guidance
from oar or rope, the people on the beach merely hauling in the
slack of the rope; she came, sometimes taking the surf on her
end and sometimes on her side; finally, she was thrown high
up by a huge roller, and as her stern touched the sand, the bow
flew round and the men were thoroughly drenched by the curl
of the surf, but all held on securely and seemed to like it.
As soon as she touched the beach all hands jumped off, and
assisted by willing hands, ha.uled the raft up.
Every man present felt convinced that no life-boat could have
been submitted to such an ordeal without being rolled over and
over. It was made clear that the raft cannot be upset nor
submerged by any amount of sea.-Speed in surf-boats and
dories is essential to safety, as they must be able to meet and
to retreat quickly from coming rollers.  The raft does not need
speed; once clear of the sand, she can go ahead safely, without
paying any attention to the coming breaker.  I do not mean to
say, that it would always be expedient to wet the crew, when
by delay, or quickly going ahead or astern, a breaker might be
avoided; but I mean to say, that nothing more than a wetting
would result from meeting the crest of a very large breaker.
The reasons for not going off and on under oars, were, first,
that the rowlocks and steering-oar, as well as the seats, are too
low to permit of laying out full power, and next, the men were
thoroughly wet and had no change of clothes at hand.
Necessary alterations in the rowlocks —and the seats will be
made, and a surf-boat on. hand for a competitive trial, if a good
surf exists.
I think the raft can carry out an anchor of 1,000 to 1,500 lbs.
and a lot of stout hawser, with a crew of seven men, or if a
hauling line be first established, with only men enough to tip
off the anchor from a. lifting plank. If this can be demonstrated,
the raft will become a very popular institution with wreckers as
well as humanitarians.
In continuation of my report I have to say, I went to Nantucket,
and on the 23d launched the monitor raft through a considerable




46
surf and relanded safely, carrying an anchor weighing over
1200 lbs. besides the stock. No surf boat could have done
it, none would attempt it. The raft was manned by seven experienced surf-men and was hauled off by the aid of a whale
line and a small anchor planted outside the breakers. After
landing the anchor the raft was again launched and rowed to the
westward, where a heavier surf prevailed and was manoeuvred
in it sufficiently to establish the fact in the minds of all present
that it can do safely what no surf-boat can do.
The prospectus of the Raft Company furnishes ample
evidence of its utility, by naval officers and others.
A letter from J. W. Smith, Commander of the Santiago
de Cuba, says, while laying off Graytown: "December
11, 1866, 4, p. M., launched raft and sent 25 soldiers on
it with knapsacks and fotur days -rations to land on
the beach.  The Norther had increased and the sea
and surf were violent, all landed safely, not even
getting wet, though the beach was steep and the surf
running fearfully high, at dark the gale increased; I
ran the ship three miles out to sea and anchored, not
thinking they would attempt to bring off the raft; but
to my surprise, at 9, P. M., the raft was alongside, four
men and an officer, pulling dead to windward, through
a heavy sea in a gale of wind.  It is compact, can be
stowed in small space, and made ready in six minutes,
five men can launch it, and it can carry 40 with ease."
A still stroiger testimonial'of its utility in a high
surf is found in a letter of C. C. Comstock, Commander of the Golden City, Pacific Mail Steamer lost on
the  coast of California, he writes; "I take great
pleasure in reporting the great efficiency of the
Monitor raft in saving life and property from the
wreck  of the Golden  City.  It forms a part of the




47
equipment of all the P. M. Steamers, and proved much
more efficient than the boats and was used in preference
for landing the sick and aged, all of whom  were
landed without being wet, there being considerable
surf at the time. Upon return trips the life-boats
were, by the aid of twenty men, launched through
the surf with great difficulty, while the raft drawing
only two or three inches, was got off easily and made
two trips to one of the boats.
We spent about thirty days at the wreck working
in the surf, in which time nearly all the boats were
stove and rendered useless, while the raft at the close
was in as good order as at first, its elastic nature
enabling it to stand the shocks which stove the boats.
In sending  the boats to intercept steamers to
obtain relief, the surf being high, it was only with
great difficulty and danger that we could get outside
the breakers, on these occasions the raft accompanied
them as a precaution to pick up the crew.
"From what I have experienced I would much
rather take my chance on a raft than in a life-boat,
and I do not consider any vessel complete in her life
saving equipments without your invaluable raft."
With all this incontestible evidence before us, I
cannot understand why the Monitor raft has not
become a more popular institution, unless it be on
account of the cost which is $450 or $5(00 for one of
two cylinders; a good life-boat, suitable for a large
steamer and capable of carrying less safely, one-third
less men, will cost nearly as much.
The only defect I found on trial which was easily
remedied was that the rowlocks were too low, and
the steering oar not well arranged. I am assured by
Capt. Thompson, the President of the Raft Co., that a
raft sent home from the Pacific for repairs after six




48
years service, required only a small expense to render
it as good as new.
There is in use a metallic raft, one of which was on
board the Metis, recently wrecked, under circumstances
when it ought to have been of great use; but, as I
have seen no particular notice of its doings on that
occasion and as none of the evidence made public
alludes to the raft, the inference is not favorable, not
knowing anything as to its weight and construction,
I cannot speak knowingly as to its qualities.
Among  the valuable  contributions  for floating
power my attention has been called to the "' Greene's
patent, Nautilus or Life-Preserving Mattress."  It consists of a mattress made of cork with a hole in the
centre, usually filled up by a hair cushion, this hole is
large enough to enable a full grown person by the
help of a suspensory band to sit comfortably, head
and shoulders above water. A similar machine having
a joint in the centre, and a hole in the middle, so as
to double down behind and before a person like a
South American Poncho, and filled with granulated
cork has been long in use in England. Either of
these machines would prove very valuable on board
of vessels in cases of emergency like that of the
Metis, and Bienville, and on board the Bristol had she
been wrecked at sea; but they will not be adopted
unless it can be shown that they can be furnished
cheaper than a mattress filled with pig's hair, corn
husks, or excelsior fibre. Next to this bed, I recommend all steam-ships to be furnished with doors to
unship easily, and to have an ornamental metallic
panel in them  and handles to hold on by, and to
make saloon decks detachable. If properly braced
and  made buoyant by air-cases, or cork  fillings
between the carlines, they will tend to save life,




49
perhaps long enough to find succor, especially now
that we have steamers leaving the United States and
Europe, about every eight hours. Among the life
saving means adopted in Europe, on which I have
already enlarged; the French stand, second only to
Great Britain in the number and efficiency of their
organizations.
The " Societe Centrale de Sauvetage des Naufrages,"
dates back only to 1865, when there were a few
life-boats on the coast of France, supported by private
associations. The present society is mostly supported
by private contributions, as is the English institution,
and like that it has considerable help from the government, in the loan or gift of arms. Like the English
institution, it is patronized extensively by the government, the honorary presidents being three of the
ministers; the president is an admiral, and the vicepresidents were, in July, 1872, cardinals, dukes, etc.
Many notable names are found in the long list of the
counsel.  The work, as elsewhere, is done by the
secretary, M. C. Dore. In the July number of the
"Annales du Sauvetage Maritime" I find that there
are 48 life-boat stations and 139 where the "porteamnmares" are located.  Since the commencement the
number of lives saved is 667, and the number saved
by means outside the society, where rewards have
been given, was 117, making 784.  The expenses to
the date named, were 867,764 francs, and are estimated
at 150,000 per annum.
The engines or ordnance for casting lines to get
communication with a wreck consist of, —the " mousketon" or carbine, whereby a line of about one-eighth
of an inch in diameter is projected 80 to 100 yards,
by means of a stick fitting the bore of the arm loosely,
it is protected by brass ferrules at the ends, and pro:




50
jects several inches from the muzzle; a "coulant  or
sliding becket is placed on the stick before inserting
it, outside the muzzle, and to this becket the line is
attached, and is carried ready for running in a small
box suspended to the shoulder. The carbine is loaded
in the usual way.  For firing short ranges, as in
rescuing a person in the surf near by, small cork floats
are attached to the line; these of course reduce the
flight, but have been found useful in rescuing persons.
These "mousketons" are placed in charge of all coast
guard, custom  house, and light house keepers, and
have saved many lives.
The arrangement may be utilized for getting communication from boats or from the shore to wrecks, and
with some modifications, will be found very useful for
tug-boats in getting their lines to vessels in rough waters.
Next comes the " espingole" or blunderbuss, weighing about forty pounds, and about one pound calibre.
This is intended to be fired from any convenient place
where the swivel or standard can be shipped;  it is
about a yard long, and carries both wooden and iron
"fleches " or arrows.  The wooden arrows may, in case
of the line breaking, go 600 metres, and the iron ones
1,000, rendering care necessary in exercising.  Ordinarily, the flight with wood is about 200 yards, and
with iron 250, carrying the line.
Next comes the " perrier" or swivel gun, weighing
about 80 kilogrammes and over a yard long.  These
guns are supplied by the government from old stocks
in the arsenals, but are not so well adapted to the end
desired as the new piece of Mr. August Delvigne,
which will be presently described. The perrier is of
calibre about four pound.
It was found, after a long course of experiments by
gXons. Delvigne, and by the government, that the




51
fleche could be fired with good effect out of any
small gun, whether smooth bore or rifled, and that his
system for loading any gun carrying a heavy projectile
compared to the diameter of'the bore, was the best.
This system consists in placing in the gun, which
has no chamber, a disk of light wood and paper, so
that the powder shall not reach the bottom  of the
bore by about three inches, the powder is contained
in a case, with a wooden sabot outside of it, and the
vent is so arranged that the powder is fired at about
one-third the length of cartridge from the outer end.
This arrangement causes the sudden shock which
would otherwise be given to the projectile, to be more
gradual in starting it, and the chances of breaking
the line are diminished.
This is well illustrated in the following extract
from  a work by Delvigne. He quotes experiments
made by the government in order to test his theory
of a vacant space behind the cartridge. " Six ordinary
brass thirty pound marine guns of the same size and
make were tried; two were charged as usual, namely,
with 71 kilogrammes (about 15 pounds,) powder and
a heavy elongated projectile of 45 kilogrammes, or
nearly 90 pounds; this burst the gun at the eleventh
fire. The second burst at the twelfth.  One charged
according to my plan with the vacant space and the
same amount of powder and projectile stood 178 fires;
one, 167; these had a vacant space equal to 16 centimetres; two others with this space 20 centimetres,
stood 162 and 108 discharges respectively, the aggregate of which is 27 to 1 in favor of the space."
The perrier is fired simply by elevating it on a
frame something like a saw-horse, leaving the breech
of the gun on the soil.




52
The new piece of ordnance got up by Delvigne,
weighs only 20 kilos., is made of gun metal, almost
a straight cylinder, about 18 inches long, and has an
iron tail-piece screwed into the breech and pointed,
so that in firing it is simply thrust into the soil until
the square breech brings up; the elevation is regulated by a quadrant and plummet put into the muzzle,
the bore is about 14 inch, or half that of the perrier,
the piece carries wooden arrows, fitted with an iron
tail to reach the charge, and at the muzzle these are
much larger than the tail-piece, so that the shock of
the explosion operates on the square base of the arrow
which is protected by a ring of metal. In loading
this piece a vacant space is left as in the others, and
the cartridge is fired near its outer end; the piece
being very short, this brings the vent about in the
centre of the length. The iron arrows are about onethird longer than the gun, and about half the length
of the arrow is in the gun when ready to fire. The
advantages claimed by Delvigne in this little piece
over the long perrier and espingole are its cheapness
and portability, while with sufficient charge it gives
an equal or better range; besides the wooden and
iron arrows he fires a wooden arrow out of the perrier
or almost any gun, which has cross bars of round iron
made malleable to resist the shock; these cross pieces
are fixed at right angles to the arrow, near the outer
end, and are about as long as three diameters of the
arrow. It is found that in firing this, the cross pieces
are bent to an angle of about forty-five degrees with
the plane of the arrow, and thus form an anchor or
grapnel, useful for many purposes. I saw one projected
at Vincennes about two hundred yards from a four
pound rifle gun, which held on to the soil sufficiently
to have broken the line of about inch stuff.




53
Having briefly described the various arms in use in
France for casting lines, it becomes necessary to go a
little into detail as to the means of attaching the lines,
which without due knowledge and practice of the
system, will be quite useless.
The wooden "fldches" or arrows, are made both
round and eight-square, the former must be accurately
turned, and the latter planed true, therefore, the latter
are more simple and easy to make on board ship or
on shore. The " coulant," or literally slider, consists
of half a dozen turns of line put on something, as a
whipping is put on a rope, only the ends overlaid by
the rest must be left out, so that the turns can easily
be pulled taut; much depends on this being done
right; if the turns are too tight, the becket with its
double bight and the line moves too slowly, and the
" coulant" jams half way, causing the fleche to wabble
and turn over; and if put on too loose, it runs down
when the gun is fired, so fast as to break when it
arrives at the projecting ferrule at the base. It is not
too much to say that all depends on this being done
right; the fleche should be slightly greased and the
line either fired from a ball, or from the ground, as in
the mortar exercise. Practice has made this so perfect
that in France failures seldom occur from this cause.
Arrows of wood have the advantage of floating if they
drop near the wreck, and of being readily recovered
when they go beyond or fall far short. The iron
fleche is intended for long ranges or strong contrary
winds. The distance depends so much on weather, on
the amount of charge, elevation, and the line running
clear, that I will only say it varies from  180 to 350
metres.
The system is worth study by every navigator, and
in war ships where the drill can be made perfect, and




54
where there always are or should be guns of small
calibre, and material for fleches and lines, it will prove
of great value for communicating with wrecks, with
the shore, or with vessels afloat. The rifled twelve
pound boat gun is perfectly adapted for throwing a
stick as long as a common handspike. Even for army
purposes, it would be very useful for throwing a line
across streams in aid of pontoon movements, etc., and
in fire brigades on shore, a small gun and stout line
would often come in play to communicate with high
buildings, so that rope or other ladders could be got up.
In regard to the vacant space behind heavy projectiles, which Delvigne claims to start them  more
gradually, I would suggest that the system might be
found valuable for military purposes, when firing heavy
projectiles out of such guns as the hundred pound
Parrot guns,-but this is treading on ground where I
am' a green hand. I should have said further back in
regard to the small new gun, that besides using it by
thrusting the tail into the soil, it is mounted in a
moment for service, where the ground is hard, on
a simple block, which can be elevated by simply
blocking up.
We have a melancholy catalogue of wrecks and
losses of lives, which have occurred, within the last
twenty years, among which I recall among the most
prominent,-the Amazon; the Connaught, destroyed
on the Atlantic; the Ocean Monarch, off Liverpool;
the Bienville and the America by fire; the Birkenhead,
off the Cape of Good Hope; the Caledonia, emigrant
ship; the Arctic, Capt. Luce, off the coast of Newfoundland; the City of Bath, off Hatteras; the Charles Bartlett, emigrant ship; Atlantic, on Lake Erie; the Northern
Light, sailing ship; the Pacific, Capt. Eldridge; the
steamer Golden City, in California; the Atlantic, near




Fisher's Island Sound; the Roval Charter, coast of
Ireland; the Henry Clay, burned on the North River;
the William Penn, off Hatteras; and among vessels of
war, the frigate Bombay, in La Plata; a Russian liner,
in the Baltic, not long ago; the Captain; one of our
Monitors, off Charleston; the Oneida, Japan; and a
host of others on the ocean, lakes, and rivers, too
numerous to mention. When we reflect on these
losses, we cannot but feel that there has been a great
want of practical humanity and caution in not providing more efficient means for saving life.
The loss of the Birkenhead iron troop-ship near the
Cape of Good Hope, some fifteen years ago, furnishes
a beautiful illustration of the value of discipline in
cases of sudden emergency.
The  details have  escaped  my memory, but I
remember very well the effect on my mind of the one
fact, that after embarking the women and the aged
and sick, there being, unfortunately, no means for
temporarily floating all the soldiers, they were drawn
up on the quarterdeck, as if for parade, and went
down with the ship.
This wreck occurred by striking on a rock quite
near to the land; the weather was not boisterous;
the ship broke in two, engulfing a large nunber.
While writing on the subject of wrecks, I cannot
but congratulate the passengers on board the steamer
Providence, which vessel ran  into a scow  in Hell
Gate a few days since. All escaped without injury,
although it is said that "all the upper works were
carried away," which, of course, must be an exaggeration of the typos.
I notice also the loss of the " Lac la Belle," propeller
on Lake Michigan, on the 14th October. It appears
that she had about twenty passengers, and thirty-two




belonging to the vessel on board, making fifty-two
souls, and that she had "two life-boats, a yawl and two
small boats," enough, one would think, if of proper
size, to carry all; but it appears that several persons,
afraid to trust to the small boats, remained by the
steamer, and are supposed to have been lost with her.
It seems very odd that these should not have found
sufficient floating material to sustain themselves a
short time. The vessel sank early in the morning;
the best evidence we have that the weather was not
very bad is found in the fact that all the boats landed
or were picked up.
One account says: "During the forenoon a propeller with two smoke stacks passed quite near to us,
but made no response to our signals, although I am
confident they saw us."
I trust that the writer of the above was mistaken.
It cannot be true that any one bearing the human
form could have been so dead to all humanity. It
must be kept in mind that a small boat may be passed
at sea quite near and not seen, unless a good lookout
be kept.  If it can be proved that a steamer passed
by a boat as stated, the responsible party should be
sent to Marblehead and served as Ireson was!
"Ireson, for his hard heart,
Was tarred and feathered and rode in a cart."
One of the most successful rescues, effected by
means of a small mortar at Nantucket, was in the case
of the schooner Eveline Treat, in December, 1865.
She was cast on shore on the south side during a gale,
and filled in the surf; a line was got to her, and by
means of this a larger rope, which being set up on
the beach and kept clear of the crest of the waves by
a crotch, was used to convey the crew to the shore by




57
means of a hanging  bowline and a seat attached to it,
like a common swing seat.  When the captain came
along  the rope  the  hauling line fouled, and he was
arrested midway, and in great danger of being swept
off, when a gallant young man named F. W. Ramsdell
mounted  the  rope, laid  his body  on  it, and  thus
balancing himself worked his way off to the captain,
cleared  the line and assisted him  to land.  The feat
was performed in presence of many spectators on the
beach.
GENERAL REMARKS ON OTHER MPEANS FOR SAVING LIIFE.
In No. 81, Volume 8, of the' Journal of the National LifeBoat Institution 1 of England, there is a very interesting paper
by Admiral Ryder regarding the utility of the naval hammock,
as a means for'saving life in the now too common event of the
sudden loss of a ship by collision, capsizing or blowing up by
torpedoes.
In alluding to this paper I shall make use of some of Admiral
Ryder's facts and arguments, and offer such suggestions of my
own, as may lead to a thorough ventilation of the subject.
I have long persisted in suggesting that men-of-war should be
furnished with life-boats, and every convenient and practicable
form of life-preserver; there is no valid reason why fighting
men, who ship to be killed and drowned, should not be
furnisled at the cost of the government they serve with means
for rescuing them  fiom  sudden death when such accidents
occur, as we have lately witnessed in the cases of the Captain;
the Amazon; a Russian fiigate, sunk at midday, by accidentally
rammiing another vessel; a British man-of-war, the Bombay,
lost off the English Bank, Rio de la Plata; our own steamer
Oneida, on the coast of Japan, and many others, fresh in the
memory of my readers.  The paper alluded to relates principally to the value of the hammock as a safe, handy and cheap
life-preserver; I shall therefore confine my suggestions mostly
to this article of furniture.
8




58
Commander Bridge, of the Caledonia, at Malta, September,
1870, reports to Admiral Ryder the result of experiments,
thus:-~" A well lashed hammock containing only a bed and
blanket supported for a few minutes seven naked men; for a
considerable time four men, and would, I believe, have continued to do so for nearly an hour. The officers who witnessed
the experiment were, with myself,- astonished at the floating
power of the hammock. The hammock was a new one, and consequently less pervious to water than an old one would have been."
Captain Wilmshurst, of the Valiant, made further experiments, by order of Admiral Ryder.  He estimates the buoyant
properties of a hammock, thus:"Weight of water displaced by a well lashed
hammock,.......... 138.24 lbs.
Weight of same with bed and blanket, when
dry,......    24.5
Buoyancy of dry hammock,...... 113.75
Length, 55A inches; Diameter, rolled up, 94 inches; Volume,
2.16 cubic feet.
A weight of 6 lbs. attached to one end of this hammock sank
it in five minutes. If the same weight were attached to the
middle it would float much longer: or, by actual experiment,
nine minutes.
By simply oiling the bed-ticking the hammock floated two
and one-half hours, and would, no doubt, have supported a man
for that time."
Captain Wilmshurst says that the horsehair bed supplied to
the seamen of the Royal Navy is charged to them at 10s. 6d.,
that beds stuffed with cork shavings can be supplied by wholesale at 5s., and with cocoanut fibre 7s. 6d.; the latter would
be less buoyant but more comfortable.  He states that a bed
6 feet long, 4 feet wide and 4 inches thick, stuffed with cork
shavings, weighs 20 lbs.  This will support 80 lbs. of dead
weight.  A mattress stuffed with cork shavings costs in England
less than half the cost of hair.
In conclusion the admiral writes: " I have been told by an
officer of rank, who was on board the Bombay when she was
burned, off Monte Video, that if it had occurred to them  to




59
stand by hammocks, before the men jumped overboard, all
hands might have been saved.  Many of the men were drowned
while the overladen boats near by could contain no more; the
boom (or stowed boats) could not be got out, because the falls
were burned, and there was not time to make a raft, as all
hands were employed in attempts to subdue the fire until they
were ordered to leave the ship."
Without stopping to comment on this large loss of life, from
a first-class man-of-war, in smooth water, let us discuss, carefully, the value of the hammock.
The British hammock, with horsehair bed and pillow, will
sustain a man who has his wits about him " a considerable time,"
-long enough to save him if there be vessels near by.  This
bed costs Jack 10 shillings.
A hammock with mattress of cork shavings, 6 feet by 4 and
4 inches thick, would sustain two or three men indefinitely, at
half the cost.
Nothing but red tape, after this, ought to prevent a sale of
all the hair beds in the navy, and substituting cork shavings.
But it may be said, and said truly, that the comfort and health
of the men is of more importance than saving a few when rare
accidents occur, therefore, stick  to hair.  And hammocks
stowed in the nettings (if such things have not become obsolete
since ironclads came into fashion,) filled with hair beds and
blankets, keep out grape and musket balls, therefore, stick to
hair.
Perhaps cork shavings may answer this purpose even better
than hair.  For my part, I cannot see that the health of the
men could be impaired by sleeping on cork shavings, in a
hammock.  A thin cork bed put on deck, would be hard, and
perhaps impair health in the long run.  I would inquire why
hair mattresses cannot be entirely dispensed with in men-of-war
for the men?
Conceding that hammock nettings, grape-shot and musket
balls are out of date, and that ironclads may carry all their
hammocks in lockers on deck, ready for capsizing and sinking
gracefully in the day time, or suddenly at night; I would
suggest that, instead of a common hammock and hair. bed,
costing poor Jack altogether a pound sterling, at the least, the




60
governnment should supply, as part of the outfit, a water-tiglt
bag to stow the hammlock in.  Such a hammock would be
ready for any emergency, and would be very healthy and
comfortable, would be very compact, and amply sufficient in
buoyancy to float a man.  Of course, all this is supposing the
weather to be suitable, or not cold enough to chill a man
through in a slort time; this is a contingency difficult to guard
against by any floating power where the body is to be exposed
to cold.
All I ask is that the mattress and pillow, whether of bair.'
cork shavings, cork dust or air reservoir, shall be well mad.e
and furnished by the country, and its condition well inspected;
occasionally the hammocks should be piped up and every nma.t
made to go overboard; in this way a raft could be made
capable of transporting stores and all hands.
All vessels of war should be provided with means to
float the whole crew by their hammocks.  The objection to this for exercise is that wetting the bedding with
salt water will be very objectionable on a large scale, and
unless it is done on a large scale, the exercise will not
be worth much.  My attention having been called to
the subject, I tried a mattress filled with cork shavings
with an excellent result, so far as buoyancy is concerned; but the difficulty of drying bed and blankets
thoroughly, induced me to make a close woven cotton
canvas bag, sufficiently large to contain the common
hammock and cork mattress, when made up as usual.
This bag  being carefully made, with a double seam,
and a strong line to tie the mouth, was found to float
two thirty-two pound shot four hours, and one shot
indefinitely, only dampening the hammock. This adds
but little to the cost of a hammock and bed, and keeps
it dry and clean in the nettings.  The only practical
disadvantage which  occurs to  me is the fact, that
putting in the hammock after being lashed, adds to
the time necessary to prepare for the sinking of the




61
ship.  Subsequent triatl proved that a hammoc]k with
the usual hair mattress, blankets, etc., could be kept
up twenty-four hours, with one thirty-two pound shot
attached to it, then another was added and it continued
to float and was still floating the next day when the
report was made.
I have heard of a well drilled crew reefing topsails
in three minutes,-with such a crew,-life being at
stake,-two or three minutes ought to suffice to open
their peepers, make up and bag their hammocks, and
be ready to go overboard or to join them to spars and
casks for making a raft that would carry all hands.
We hear a good deal about the active exercises of
housing masts, changing topmasts and sails, lowering
boats and landing howitzers, but very little as to saving
life, except a case of a man falling overboard occasionally.  I think a little more time, more means should
be given, and more interest should be felt in saving
life.  Men-of-war do not have life-boats, nor do they
give much study to anything but the means for keeping
the ship in trim and making her effective in defending
the flag. The list of stores, it is true, contains perhaps
twenty life-preservers, not good for much, and an
effective life-buoy or two, to drop over and show a
light; these are very well so far as they go, but they
do not go far enough.  Every boat's crew  should  be
provided with a IVfe-belt to be kept in the boat. Every
man-of-war should have at least one monitor raft and
a gun rigged for casting lines, and every boat should
be provided with some extra buoyancy by cork.  We
are very well aware that a boat going off armed on
an expedition has little room  for life saving gear; in
such cases, it can be omitted; killing being the rule,
and saving life the exception;  still, for all general
purposes, something should be added to the equipment




62
for extra buoyancy.   Take the case of the loss of
Admiral Bell, and his Lieutenant and 11 men of his
boat's crew, off the bar of Oasaka, Japan, for instance.
If he hadc been provided with life-belts all would probably have been saved;  whereas, only three escaped
by swimming.  The three cylinder monitor raft can
carry out easily the  stream  anchor of a first-class
steamer, weighing perhaps 2,000 pounds, and get rid
of it without danger.  At present, the usual means
for carrying out an anchor of that weight is by one
of the large cutter's, hanging it under her; this draws
considerable water, and offers great resistance to pulling to windward or against tide, and in towing off by
other boats; whereas, a mnonitor raft, carrying an
anchor of 2,000 or 4,000 pounds, can be towed off
handily, and will draw  less water than  the  steam
launch.
Loss OF THE CAPTAIN.
The loss of the ironclad Gaptain offers a very strong comment on the want of means in vessels of war for saving life in
sudden emergencies.
I quote at some length from the English Nautical liMagazine
for October, 1870:Lord Warden, at sea, off Cape Finisterre,
Wednesday, September 7th, 1870.
Sir,-It has been my painful duty to forward  by HIer
Majesty's steam vessel Psyche to Vigo the following telegram)
transmitted to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty,
reporting the sad loss of Her Majesty's ship Captain with all
hands, viz.:




63
Very much regret sending painful news.  Captain must
have foundered in the night. She was close to this ship at two
this morning; sudden S.W. gale.  Very heavy squalls.  Daybreak, Captain missing.  This afternoon her boats and spars
found.   Crew  unfortunately perished.  Inconstant sails tomorrow  morning with report."
I beg leave to transmit to their lordships full and early
details of this most disastrous event.  Yesterday morning,
the 6th instant, I went on board to inspect the Captain, with
Captain Brandreth and my flag lieutenant, and visited most
minutely every part of her. At one P. Ti. a trial of sailing
with the ships of the squadron was commenced and continued
until five o'clock, when the recall was made.  The direction
of the wind was S. by W. Force about six knots-some of
the ships carrying *heir royals during the whole time, Captain
included.  At six o'clock the breeze had freshened, and the.
speed of the Captain, which at first was nine and a half knots,
increased to an average from eleven knots to thirteen knots.
The sea was washing over the lee side of her deck, as she
had a swell on her lee bow, the lee gunwale of deck being
level with the water.  I returned to the Lord Warden at
half-past five P. M.
Being close to the rendezvous (twenty miles west of Cape
Finisterre,)  the  squadron  was again  formed  with  eight
divisions-the Lord Warden, Minotaur and Agincourt, Agincourt leading, the Captain being next astern of the Lord
Warden.  The signal was also made to take in two reels
and send down the royal yards, and the ships stood to the
west-north-west under double  reefed  topsails, foretopmast
staysail, and foresail topgallant sails furled, steam  ready to
be used as required, force of the wind about six to seven.
At eight and ten P. AM. the ships were in  station, and
there was no indications of a heavy gale, although it looked
cloudy to the westward.  At eleven  the breeze began to
freshen, with rain.  Towards midnight the barometer had
fallen and the wind increased, which rendered it necessary
to reef, but before one A. 1r. the gale had set in at southwest; our square sails were furled.  At the time the Captain
was astern of this ship, apparently closing  under steam.




64
The signal " Open order" was made, and at once answered,
and at a quarter-past one A. M. she was on the Lord Warden's
starboard or lee quarter, about six points abaft the beam.
From  that time till about half-past one A. AI. I constantly
watched the ship; her topsails'were right close reefed, or
on the cap; her foresail was close up (the mainsail having
been furled at half-past five P. M.,) but I could not see any
fore and aft sail set.  She was heeling over a good deal
to starboard.  Her red bow light was all this time clearly
seen.  Some minutes after I again looked for her light, but
it was thick with rain, and the light was no longer visible.
The squalls of wind and rain were very heavy, and the Lord
Warden was kept by the aid of the screw  and after trysails
with her bow  to a heavy cross sea, and at times it was
thought that the sea would have broken over her gangways.
At a quarter-past two A. M. (the 7th instant,) the gale
had somewhat subsided, and the wind went round to the
northwest, but without any squall; in  fact, the  weather
moderated, the heavy bank of clouds had  passed'to the
eastward, and  the stars came out clear and  bright; the
moon, which had given considerable light, was setting.  No
large ship was seen near us where the Captain had been
last observed, although the lights of some were partly, at
a distance.
When day broke the squadron was somewhat scattered,
and only ten ships instead of eleven could be discerned, the
Captain being the missing one.  We bore up for the rendezvous, thinking she might have gone in that direction, but
no large vessel being in sight from the' masthead, I became
alarmed for her safety, because, if disabled, she ought to
have been within sight, and if not disabled, in company with
the squadron, and I signalled the following ships to proceed
in the direction indicated, to look out:-Agincourt, to the
southwest; Monarch, south; Warrior, S.E.S.; Inconstant,
S.E.;  Hercules, S.S.E.;  Northumberland, east;  Bristol,
N.E.; Bellerophon, to the north  by east; Minotaur also
went N.E.  These vessels proceeded about ten to eleven
miles, but nothing was seen of the missing ship.




65
The greater part of the ships were recalled and formed
in line abreast, and steered at three or four cables apart to
the southeast, looking for any wreck.  The Monarch first
picked up a topgallant-yard of the Captain, the Lord Warden
another with sails bent.  Then some studding-sail booms,
and on the Psyche joining me from  Vigo at sunset, she
reported having passed  two cutters painted white, bottom
up, with a large amount of wreck, apparently the hurricane
deck, amongst which was found the body of a seaman, with; Rose " marked on his flannel.
I have thus stated all that occurred under the eyes of the
flag-captain and myself, and I much regret to say, that I can
come to no other conclusion than that the Captain foundered
with all hands on board, probably in one of the heavy squalls
between 1.30 and 2.15 A. M. of this morning, (7th instant,)
at which time a heavy cross sea was running; but how the
catastrophe occurred will probably never be known.  I had
the most perfect confidence in Captain Burgoyne, Commander
Sheepshanks, and the executive officers with whom  I had
come in contact.  Captain Burgoyne himself was a thoroughly
practical seaman, and it is impossible that the Captain could
have been better commanded.  The service will mourn the
loss of an officer of much ability and promise.  I regret, also,
Captain Coles should have shared the same fate.  He had
been several passages in his newly-constructed ship, and took
a deep interest in all that concerned her.
I greatly deplore the sad event, which has cast a deep
gloom on the whole squadron.       I have, &e.,
(Signed)                A. W. MILNE, Admiral.
Minotaur lost sight of Captain about 1.45 A. M.
Northumberland last saw  Captain between nine and ten
P. M., before the heavy rain set in.
Agincourt saw Captain last about eleven p. mr.
Inconstant saw Captain last about 10.15 P. M.
Warrior saw Captain last about 10.30 P. M.
Bristol saw Captain last about ten P. M.
Psyche picked up one dead body and passed two cutters
bottom up, and several other spars.
9




66
Monarch picked up main topgallant-yard and topgallant
studding boom sail.
Bellerophon picked up bow  roller of boom  boat, white
boat, a launch and six-oared boat.
Agincourt picked up part of cutter, two signal lockers'
upper deck hatchway, broken gaff and topmast, deck planks,
oars and mahogany office fittings.
Minotaur picked up.two launch's oars, piu-nace'  sail in
cover, and ensign.
Inconstant-Two oars and mahogany board and hammock
netting.
Warrior picked up skylight, port, and small gear of turret
and cabin-windows, sashes and pieces of inside lining.
Bristol picked up two oars, second cutter's breakers and
two pieces of hammocl netting.
Hercules picked up two swinging booms, jib-booms, three
middling sail booms, all marked " Captain;" royal yards,
standard, compass, splinted oars and part of a boat's upper
deck grating; and half of bowsprit, -with sword-belt, and
handkerchief entangled.
Lord Warden-Mizen topgallant-yard, with sail bent, and
office-desk and portion of small grating.
The Captain had a complement of more than 500 officers and
men.  Captain Cowper Coles, the designer of this ship, was oi
board, and has been lost. Mr. Childers has lost a son, so has
Lord Northbrook.  Sir Baldwin Walker has not only lost a,
son-in-law in Captain Burgoyne, but has to bewail the death of
a son, who had gone on a cruise with his relative as an amateur.
Extracts from  the  Western Morning News. This tells us
thatAll went well up to the 6th of September, on the afternoon
of which day Admiral Milne and his staff went on board the
Captain to witness from her a trial of sailing, in which she
was to take part, with the Monarch, Inconstant and Bristol.
The gallant admiral remained on board the vessel until the
evening, happily declining the invitation of the officers to remain
to dinner, and go on board his own ship next morning.
When he left the Captain, at about 7 P. m., the sea was




67
pouring over her upper deck in cataracts, so much so that
the admiral's galley was nearly swamped whilst alongside.
It is reported that when he arrived on board the Lord Warden,
Admiral Milne was heard to say, " Thank God! he was on
board his own ship again."
At seven o'clock the Captain communicated with the fleet
by signal, and this was the last time she ever did so, as
night soon after closed in. About this time, a gale sprung
up from the S.W., which all the vessels weathered out up to
1.30 on the morning of the 7th.  At that time the Captain
was seen from  the Lord Warden steering N.N.WX., under
treble-reefed fore and main-topsails and foretopmast staysail.
Fourteen minutes after, at 1.44 A. nr., a sudden tremendous
squall struck the fleet, the wind having shifted round to
N.N.W.  Nearly all the vessels were " taken aback," and a
signal was made from  the Lord Warden to "wear ships."
The squall lasted for two hours, causing considerable loss to
all the ships in the topsails, which were split and blown
away.  When the day dawned all the vessels of the fleet
were in sight with the exception of'the Captain.  It was
then presumed that when the wind shifted and the signal to
" wear " was given she had not observed it, and standing on,
was now out of sight.
Two theories were advanced in the fleet to account for the
calamity.  One, supported by Sir Alexander Milne, is that
when the wind shifted at 1.44 on the morning of the 7th, the
Captain was taken aback, and one sea swept over her; that
before she had time to " shake herself free " from it another
dashed on her, sweeping away all her upper works and her
poop —which, by the way, from  its shape, had been called
"the coffin "-and that she then filled immediately and sunk.
The other opinion is, and that is agreed in by many officers
of great experience in the fleet, that when " aback" the sea
burst in her large stern port-which was much larger than
that in any other ship-and that she went down stern foremost.  The manner of her loss will only be known when the
survivors, who have been landed near Corunna, are able to
tell the tale.  It is evident that her destruction came upon
her with fearful suddenness.  Though in the midst of a large




68
fleet she had not time to fire a rocket or make any signal
of distress.   Her boats, with the exception of her steam
pinnace, a life-boat, which has since arrived with the eighteen
survivors at Corcubion-were picked up at sea by ships of
the fleet.
The Hampshire Telegcralh publishes the following further
details of the loss:
Captain Burgoyne was on deck  at the time  when  the
accident occurred.  He was dressed in his uniform  cap, pilot
cloth reefer, and an old pair of trousers.  The ship was under
steam and sail, with her double-reefed fore and main topsail,
fore staysail, and the fore top-mast staysail set.
When the middle watch was called at.twelve o'clock the
weather was exceedingly squally, and the captain remained
on deck giving orders. At five minutes past twelve the watch
was piped to muster, and two minutes afterwards the men,
with the exception of the marines, were on deck, and those
who had been relieved were below in the act of turning in.
As soon as the new watch were on deck, and before their eyes
were perfectly open, the captain  gave orders to man the
weather foretopsail brace, and then to let go topsail halyards
and lee topsail sheets.  Subsequently the order was given to
let go the weather topsail sheets. No sooner had the latter
order been given, and ere it could be executed, a terrific
sea struck the ship on the weather beam  and swamped her
decks.  The men of the watch, with the captain, were now
in the water, the ship being over on her side, and trembling
violently in the endeavor to right herself. As soon as the men
could see what was going on around them, the ship was floating
with her keel uppermost, and nothing could be heard of the
crew.
They were now fighting for life with the sea, and after about
ten minutes or a quarter of an hour had elapsed, one of the
party saw the ship's steam pinnace life-boat some yards off keel
upwards.  They then swam with considerable difficulty to the
pinnace, the captain, Mr. May and an able seaman named
Heard reaching it together.  Heard had held on the captain
by the collar of his jacket.  With assistance, the captain




69
succeeded in getting on to the pinnace with the rest of the
party, and caught sight of a ship not a great distance off,
which they believed to be either the Bellerophon or the Lord
Warden.  At this time the Captain had disappeared altogether.
Urged by the gallant captain, the men shouted as loud as they
could,' Ship ahoy!" for a considerable time, but got no
response.  So frantic were their cries for help that the men
became perfectly hoarse, and the majority lost their voices
altogether for a time, and endeavored to prepare themselves
for what they conceived to be their fate, namely, a watery
grave with the rest of the unfortunate crew. All this time
the pinnace was being tossed heavily, and the men were
frequently washed from  its keel into the mass of seething
waters around them, but succeeded in getting on again, with
what little assistance their fellow-sufferers were in a position
to render them.
After being tossed about for some time in this way, the men
saw the ship's second launch floating towards them with two
men in, and raised feeble shouts to attract their attention.
When the launch came to within a short distance of the
pinnace Captain Burgoyne shouted out, " Hold to your oars,
my men; hold to your oars," which order was, as far as
possible, carried out, and the launch got close to the pinnace,
the men leaping joyfully on board her.  The sea frequently
parted the two boats, and ere Captain Burgoyne and the noble
seaman Heard, before referred to, could get from the pinnace,
she was some little distance off. Heard stuck by the captain,
who remained, sad looking, but calm, and as firm  as if on
board the ill-fated ship he had commanded. Heard took hold
of him  by the hand and said, " Come, sir, let's jump! " to
which he replied, " Save your own life, my man."  Finding
that the distance between the launch and the pinnace was
rapidly increasing, the seaman said, " Will you come or not,
sir? " when the captain replied, " Jump and save yourself.  I
shall not forget you some day."  The seaman jumped, and
with difficulty reached the launch, and was hauled on board,
and within a few minutes the pinnace and the captain was lost
sight of.




70
We turn now  from  all this sad detail to ask why so
unprecedented an occurrence should take place as that a ship
capsized should turn over, so that her keel should actually be
uppermost; and while for two minutes in that position, she
should actually sink stern foremost?  It is an occurrence of
which  we have never before  heard.  And  we naturally
enquire, are the rest of our iron ships safe?  Would not the
same thing occur with them  all?  It would be well if we
could assure ourselves that they would not follow the example
of the Captain.  Where was the centre of gravity of the
unfortunate Captain?  She herself furnishes the reply: it was
so near to her upper deck, her turrets with their guns, that
they turn her keel, the lightest part of her uppermost,-even
out of the water.  It seems unprecedented.  And yet the
Captain has been repeatedly under trial, reported on, considered to be perfection.  And yet, after all, a mere gale
of wind brings out this stupendous, this most alarming fact.
She gets beyond her bearings, she turns over, so as literally to
bring her with her keel uppermost.  She " trembles violently"
after being struck by a sea " in the endeavor to right herself,"
and she is not mope than  two minutes in that dreadful
position before she sinks stern foremost.  Such an event we
believe to be without precedent.  But we do trust that all
future contract-built ships will undergo the test of their centres
of gravity being found with all their weights on board when
ready for sea.  A court-martial or of enquiry, we are informed,
as usual on all such occasions, is to take place; when it is
possible it may appear why the unfortunate Captain should
have shown her keel before she foundered.
Among the means for making the highways of the
ocean  more safe, may be cited  the letter of M. F.
Maury, Superintendent of the National Observatory,
dated February  15, 1855, to some of the merchants
and underwriters of Boston, on the subject of different
routes for Atlantic steamers out and home.  Nothing
coming from  the prolific pen of Maury strikes me as of
more importance to the safety of Atlantic navigation.




71
The letter alluded to, with a chart and diagram, was
published by the Board of Underwriters of New York,
A. B. Neilson, then President. At that time we had
a steamer, perhaps, once in ten days going  and
coming; now we have one about every eight hours,
not counting those going to and from  Canada in
summer and Portland in winter.
Measures are being taken to induce the Board of
Underwriters to republish the letter and illustrations
alluded to, but in the meantime I shall quote largely
from the letter of Lieut. Maury.
He says:' Illustrative of the lanes, observations of
not less than 46,000 days were made on the weather,
currents, etc.; I find the adoption of the lanes will
shorten the passage to the west, and not increase the
average east more than a few hours, if at all.
"While the time will not be prolonged, the danger
of collisions will be materially reduced.
"The part of the route between the meridians 15~
and 65~ West, is from  150 to 300 miles broad, consequently there is a breadth of 300 miles where
sailing vessels are liable to be brought into collision
with steamers.  Now, suppose we lay off a lane 25
miles broad near the northern edge of this space and
another near the southern edge, and recommend the
steamers coming west to use the former, and those
going east to take the other; would it not contribute
to the general safety?
"If these lanes be adopted and engraved on the
charts, as on the one herewith, sailing vessels would
take care to avoid them at night or in thick weather.
" The lane coming west is a better track than the
one now used, and for these reasons: it is thirty miles
shorter; it runs so far south of Cape Race and the




2
Virgin Rocks that no time need be lost in avoiding
these in foggy weather.
In fact, the nearer we go to Cape Race the shorter
the distance by great circle; but in practice, the
time is shortened by avoiding Cape Race.
"The shortest distance  between  Liverpool and
Sandy Hook is 3009 miles, the average actually made
is 3069, and the distance by the lane coming is 3038.
By this route there is some favorable current along
the northern edge of the Gulf Stream. The help thus
gained  gives the actual distance  2998  miles, or
allowing a little for detour, 3018."
Speaking of the route out, Maury goes on to say:" Though the distance is greater by a few miles, yet
on account of the Gulf Stream it is in time the shortest
a steamer can take. It is 106 miles greater from
Sandy Hook to Liverpool than by the home track,
but the current will make up the difference, and the
weather is more favorable."
As evidence in regard to the weather, Maury cites
the result of a vast number of observations derived
from logs, and seems to find therein ample proof that
there is less fog and more favorable gales than further
north.
He winds up by stating that one "lane" shortens
the distance from Cape Clear to Sandy Hook and the
Delaware 30 miles, while the other lengthens it 75
miles; but when measured for safety, and in time, it
will prove the shortest.
With the chart before  one  the  tracks appear
perfectly practical, and, I think, ought to be followed;
not as Maury suggests, principally to make sailing
vessels safer, but to avoid the danger of collisions by
steamers.




73
A word or two more on the new gun of Delvigne,
and mode of charging:In October, 1869, I received a letter from this
gentleman, from which I extract:
"The octogonal fleche is much easier to make true
by a plane. I beg you to pay particular attention to
my principle, namely, shortness of the barrel, smallness of calibre, giving thickness of metal and great
strength, compared to the longer barrel and larger
bore. There is no doubt my mode of loading with
the touch-hole coming into the forward end of the
cartridge, and the empty space behind it, gives considerable more power. My little gun, 20 kilos. weight,
gives much more power than the blunderbuss of the
same weight, and permits using a greater charge,
carrying a heavier fleche and line, but to what degree
we know not yet. Another interesting question of
economy is to decide whether we can get necessary
strength by cast-iron instead of brass, without increasing the weight too much; this question will be settled
by experiments to be made in Belgium, where the
foundries are open to all."
Again, on the 24th February, 1870, Delvigne writes
in regard to the apparatus sent to the Humane
Society:
"T The block for mounting the gun rmay be made of
any convenient form to stand the recoil, and the gun
can be placed on it so as readily to be removed and
planted in the soil when required.  You will be
surprised to see one vent at the extreme inner end
of the bore as well as one near the forward end of the
cartridge. The reason is this: Suppose the want of
caps, or damage to the caps, intended to fire in the
usual way at the forward end of the cartridge, you
can put in powder in the rear vent and fire the charge
10




74
thus. After putting in the paper cylinder to  iake
the empty space behind the cartridge, 50 grammes of
powder brings the forward end thereof to the forward
vent. Your experiments must depend on the strength
of your powder; it will be well to begin with 40
grammes. Forged iron or steel would be good for the
guns, but would cost nearly as much."
The advocates of the French system  lay great
stress on the adaptability of the fleche to any gun on
board of ships. A ship-carpenter can make a suitable
projectile out of a hand-spike in ten minutes, and this
can be fired from a boat howitzer or swivel like any
other projectile, and may be made to carry a deep-sea
line 100 fathoms. Many cases occur in manoeuvring
at sea, picking up wrecks or boats in a strong tideway, or getting a hawser to a vessel to tow her, where
the French " Porte Ammares" would be very useful.
In the   Annales du Sauvetage Maritime " of August,
1872, I find that Mons. Delvigne has been carrying
on further experiments under the auspices of the
government; from the report I gather the following
facts:
That the new gun of 20 kilos. throws out 300 metres
of line, 8 millimetres in diameter, attached to a fleche
of wood 8 kilos.; while the Perrier, or heavy long
swivel, throws out only 250 attached to a fleche of 5
kilos. the line being 5 millimetres. For firing against
a strong wind the filche used is iron.  In 1870,
Delvigne experimented with a shoulder-arm weighing
10 kilos. out of which he fired a fleche of 400 gramumes,
being eight times the weight of the ball thrown by
the mousketon, or " fusil de rampart," the charge being
10 grammes of powder, without any difficulty from
the shoulder. In the Annales alluded to the question
of adopting the fieche for ordinary uses is discussed at




75
length. In 1870-'71,Delvigne passed eightmonths at
Toulon, and for several days witnessed experiments
on board of Admiral La Gravieres squadron. The
carpenter was ordered to make a wooden fleche for a
4-pounder, which  was quickly  done.  Here  the
experiments seem  to have ended, it being assumed,
apparently, that if a gun and a fieche and a line
existed, nothing more was required!
Kites, called by the French " cerf volants," or flying
stags, have been occasionally utilized for saving life
by carrying a line from the shore to a wreck, and the
reverse.  This machine seems to have been invented
by Captain I. Brodie of the Royal Navy, in 1817. It
consisted of a sort of parachute, or air-bag of light
material open at one side, to be sent off from the
masthead by the force of the wind.
In 1854 I find the idea practically carried out by
Kane, who constructed a kite of the usual form, with
a tail, to which was attached a little bag containing
instructions; by these means he rescued the crew of
a vessel stranded on the ice, they being inaccessible
to him on the opposite side of an open channel. The
machine was constructed and sent over in about one
hour, its fall at the right time and place  being
regulated by a tripping-line attached to the head of
the kite.
It would be very easy to communicate with the
shore from a stranded vessel by such means, provided
the wind was favorable.  In the Annales for 1868, I
find notice of a buoy to be dropped from  a ship, by
Admiral Exelmans, one feature of which I highly
approve, and that is to have attached to it a line of
1000 yards, carried on a reel, which in revolving gives
a general alarm. I suggest that all life-buoys fitted to
be dropped from  a vessel to save a man falling




76
overboard, should have a pudding-bag or floating
anchor to keep them from being carried by the wind
and sea to leeward faster than a man can swim. Many
lives have been lost for want of some means to arrest
the speed of the life-buoy.
In looking back at the long list of wrecks, it may
not be out of place to offer a few general remarks as
to the mistakes made. After the disaster, while-sitting
quietly at home, it is not difficult to see these mistakes
and to apply the remedy; nevertheless, the discussion
of these may in the future be productive of good.
In the case of the steamer Central America, Captain
W. L. Herndon, foundered at sea, in September, 1857,
everything was done by the gallant captain and his
officers that could be done to save the passengers and
crew, amounting to 592, of whom 419 perished,-that
is to say, from the time the gale began on the 11th,
until the brig Marine came near, a period of about 30
hours, everything was done that good discipline and
good seamanship could do to free the ship of water
and get her head to wind. At about 2, p. M., on the
12th, the Marine rounded to under her lee, and was
requested to lie by the steamer, then half full of water,
all hands manfully pumping and bailing. The account
before me, in the U. S. Nautical Magazine of January,
1S58, Vol. 7, says:" We had originally five wooden life-boats and one
metallic; one of the wooden ones had been washed
away.  As the gale had abated since 10, A. M., orders
were given to lower the boats. Two were lowered
successfully, one was stove; of the other two stowed
on the upper deck, one was successfully launched, but
the metallic (Francis) boat was caught under the
guard and stove, and almost immediately sunk."




77
The three boats, under command of petty officers,
then commenced to carry the women and children to
the brig. They were lowered in by means of bowlines from the lee davits. By the time these boats
had got to the brig the second time, she had forged
ahead and gone to leeward fioe miles. Then some sail
was made to cause the steamer to approach the brig.
In the two trips the boats had been much damaged,
one alongside the brig, so as to be useless, one other
so as to leak badly and get nearly filled with water,
and the third so much as to require constant bailing.
By the time she got back to the steamer she was
unfit to receive any beyond her crew, and some one
hailed and ordered her to keep off: Darkness had
now set in. About this time the second mate, Jas.
Frazer, deposes that all hope of saving the ship was
at an end, and at a quarter to eight bailing was
discontinued.  Shortly after she went down stern
foremost.  The engineer, saved, testified that the
engines continued to work up to 1, P. M., on the 11th,
when they stopped at times for want of steam, until
between 4 and 5, when the water finally put out the
fires.  The donkey boiler continued to work the
Worthington pumps until about 8, p. M., when they
became choked until on the morning of the 12th,
the donkey was again started, and worked well until,
at 9, the water being 9 or 10 feet high in the engineroom, the fire was put out.  The only resort after
this was to continue bailing, in the hope of keeping
the ship afloat until the transfer of the people could
be effected. Captain Badger, a passenger, testified
" that as the boats approached there was a rush for
them, and it was apprehended they would be swamped.
About two hours before the ship sank, a schooner ran
down under the stern, but could render no assistance




78
for want of boats. The lights of this vessel were seen
far to leeward. Rockets were fired from the steamer,
and then she went down! The devoted Herndon
remained on the wheel-house, and went with her at
8 o'clock Saturday night. I was standing on the
quarterdeck. The captain said he would not leave;
I promised I would remain, and so did Frazer, the
second mate. All at once she made a plunge, and
with a shriek from the engulfed mass she disappeared,
and five hundred souls were left on the bosom of the
deep with no hope of succor. At 1.15, A. Mr., Sunday,
the Norwegian bark Ellen came running before it,
and she hove to under short sail. The task of rescuing
the survivors was nobly commenced, and by 9, A. M., 49
had been picked up. Diligent search was made until
noon, when we bore away for Norfolk,  where we
arrived on the 17th."
I repeat, that up to a certain time everything was
done that human ingenuity and good order could
devise to keep the ship afloat.
But when, at about 2, P. M., on the 12th, the brig
came under the stern, it did not occur to the captain
that the best thing to do was to get a hawser to the
brig, and taking in all her sail but the maintop-sail
aback, allow her to ride by the wreck as near as
possible. If this had been done many more, if not all,
would have been saved.  Of course it will be said,
and by experts, too, that in a tumbling sea, to get a
communication by means of lines and finally a hawser,
was a difficult process. I grant, that without preconcerted measures, care, forethought, it would have
been very difficult, but if at the time the Marine was
seen running down, due preparations had been made
with lines, hawser and buoys, assisted by a boat, there
would have been no appreciable difficulty in mooring




79
the brig to the steamer within an hundred feet, and
being close at hand, the boats, with their precious
fireight, could have been hauled back and forth by
lines with the help of few men. So again when the
schooner came within hail. Or if the steamer or the
vessels had been provided with means for throwing a
stout line 80 or 100 yards, communication might have
been established and  all hands saved.  A  schooner
once made fast to a large steamer like the Central
America could have been hauled up within 50 yards
and received every one with little risk.  So much for
the Central America..
In a pamphlet published January, 1855, I gave my
views at some length on the subject of ocean steam
navigation, and particularly on the loss of the steamers
Arctic by collision and the Amazon by fire. I now
give extracts from this pamphlet: —
OCEAN  STEAM  NAVIGATION.
The terrible fate of the arctic, and the loss of so many
valuable lives, is a theme about which too much cannot be said
at this juncture, while the public heart is bleeding.
This calamity must be discussed in all its bearings, and in
doing this, something must necessarily be said which will inflict
pain; but the wounds must be probed in order to ascertain
their depth, and in order to suggest the means to guard against
similar accidents.
I shall endeavor to discuss the subject with a practical eye,
and as I have no prejudices to overcome, and no interests of a
private nature to serve, I hope that what I shall say will be
considered as impartial, and as emanating solely from a desire
to contribute my mite to the preservation of human life and the
mitigation of the sorrows of the sea.
After the loss of the Amazon by fire, early in the year 1852,
or late in 1851, I addressed a letter to the Boston Daily
Advertiser, dated 10th February, 1852, which was published,




80
and also extensively forwarded by circular to all those who
had any interest in steam navigation and packet-ships.  The
letter was no doubt extensively read and soon forgotten. This
does not deter me from publishing anew the material portions
which have a bearing upon the recent calamity:
" I have made several passages to and from England, and to
and from China, and have had the good fortune to go and come
in fine ships, well commanded and well manned, and in nearly'all cases (certainly all on this side of the Isthmus of Suez) I
have found the organization nearly perfect as regards the
ordinary routine of duty, both in the duties of captain, officers,
engineers and stewards; but I must say, that in all my travels
by sea in steamers, I have not sailed in one where I consider
the organization complete for cases of sudden alarm by collision,
grounding or fire.  While I entertain a personal regard for
every captain, and with one or two exceptions, for all the
officers I have had occasion to travel with, and while I accord
to them full credit for the qualities which constitute good
seamen and gentlemen, I feel that I should not be doing the
subject justice did I not point out in plain terms wherein the
custom, or habit, of the service has led them  to neglect to
prepare their boats and crews by stationing them  and by
occasionally exercising them, so that on a sudden alarm, real,
or only for the purpose of exercise, the men would, at a given
signal, instantly proceed to their stations, and be prepared for
any emergency.  The ordinary routine of a steamer may be
neglected without serious accident, the watches may be relieved
a few minutes too late or too early, and in the event of a want
of order in the daily duty, no very serious consequences would
necessarily arise, but in a sudden alarm, it is absolutely vital to
have organization, discipline, to insure any approach to concert
of action; what would become of the crew of a ship of war,
consisting of several hundred men, without discipline in cases
of emergency, and particularly in case of fire, that element
most to be dreaded at sea?
" In case of any such alarm, the crew is usually called to' quarters,' that is to say, every man goes to his place at the
call of the bugle or the roll of the drum.




81
-   In every well regulated steamer, every man should have a
station for sudden emergencies, and he should be reminded by
sounding the signal (after due  notice  to the passengers)
occasionally, so as to make him familiar with his place.
" In several steamers I have sailed in, I have seen a' quarter
bill' posted up, where all hands, as well as the passengers,
could see it, and in it the places of the men were designated,
and particularly for the usual and ordinary duties of the ship.
I have seen the crews of several ships mustered on Sunday, and
examined as to their names, cleanliness, &c., but in all m
experience I have never heard of a merchant steamer's crew
being mustered for stations for fire, collision, or on a general
alarm.    *    * X    e                                  *
" The organization should not only be complete as to the
stations of the officers and crew, but the stewards and servants
should have certain specific duties to perform, and there should
always be some small casks of water, some canisters of provisions and  other necessaries placed  in  some  convenient
locality, ready for such emergencies."
The general suggestions contained in this letter cannot be
too often repeated. I would remark, in addition to what is
therein said, that it is of paramount importance, in order to
carry out a plan of organization, to have more petty officers,
more trusty and well-tried seamen. These can only be secured
in our Atlantic steamers by giving extraordinary encouragement to good men to remain by the ship.  The excuses now
are, and I regret to say that in American steamers and packetships they are valid to a certain degree, that " we cannot get
men in these short voyages who will stay by us.  We leave
New York oftentimes with firemen and seamen whom we have
never before seen, and whose names we do not know, and they
scarcely know under what names they have shipped.  By the
time we get fairly at sea, and begin to think of getting matters
into ship-shape order, we find ourselves on the other side.  In
fact, all our time and all our energy is expended in taking in
and making sail, steering the ship, keeping a good look-out,
cleaning ship, and the usual duties of the sea.  We have no
time to drill green hands, or seamen who are strangers to us,
11




82
in matters relating to boats; we do no expect to run anybody
down, and we really cannot undertake to neglect the daily
routine of ship's duty for the purpose of drilling strangers for
emergencies which may never happen."
These excuses are not unreasonable. The public demands
that the steamship, aye, and the sailing packet, shall make the
quickest possible run, deliver her freight in the best order
ahead of all competitors, and this must be done by a physical
power only brought together for the first time a week since, and
wholly dependent on moral suasion for its government.  With
such elements as we have to deal with, I submit that this is
asking too much.  But let me not dwell too long on the existing evils.  I must come to the remedies.  It is sufficient to say,
in regard to the speed of steamships in thick weather, that the
public voice insists on speed, and I am ready to sustain this
verdict for several reasons.  At a high rate of speed the time
of danger and the chances of collision and of damage by gales
of wind are lessened; and last, not least, the danger to the
steamship and her crowd of passengers, in case of meeting an
obstruction, is not so great as at a slow pace,-she can be more
readily controlled by the helm.  These are among the principal
reasons for going at full speed in fogs, when the wind is
usually moderate.
Much blame was attributed to the Europa for going at full
speed when she run down the Charles Bartlett, in 1849. For
my part, I think our speed saved us who were on board; had
the ship struck us where the Arctic was struck, the Europa
would most probably have been where the Arctic now is, at the
bottom of the sea, and there would have been very few from
either ship to tell the tale! Much blame is attributed to
Captain Luce for doing exactly what the projprietors of all the
Atlantic steamers try to do, and boast of when done: namely,
to make the shortest passage, to beat all competitors.
I say, then, "go ahead" when you know where you are,
and sound frequently when you do not.  Sometimes fogs prevail
for days at a time, and in certain locations, where there is the
most danger of coming in collision, even for weeks; suppose
the Atlantic steamers and packet-ships should by common consent, or by force of law, determine that five or six knots must




83
be the limit of speed in foggy weather, and that bells must be
rung, and whistles blown and guns fired!  What a splendid
accumulation of dangers would be present! To my mind the
dangers of tie sea would be vastly increased.
But there are certainly some things to be done.  A  certain
number of picked men should be kept in the steamship, at
whatever cost, and they should be sufficient in number to steer
the ship, to keep the look-out, and to have charge under the
mates of the  boats, pump-gear and  life-saving  apparatus.
Each boat should have a regular crew, each man to know his
place in the boat, each boat should have a set of oars and some
spare oars, and be in all respects a life-boat, and she should be
provided with a mast and sail, compass and lantern, water
breaker and hand port fire, and in some convenient and wellknown locality a supply of stores should be placed, marked and
kept ready for each boat.  It is not necessary to provide roast
turkey and plum-pudding, nor chronometer and theodolites, but
a small supply of imperishable provisions in canisters, ready for
emergencies.  Every steamer in the Atlantic trade should have
at least two large life-boats thirty-two feet long and about eight
feet beam, lined with cork and fitted with life-lines, india-rubber
buckets for bailing, compass, port fires, water breakers and
other apparatus.  Besides, at least, six life-boats, capable of
carrying at least forty persons, all large ocean steamers ought
to be provided with half-a-dozen vulcanized india-rubber pontoons, say twenty to twenty-five feet long, and from  eighteen
inches to two feet in diameter.  These pontoons, when collapsed and stowed away, would not occupy together more space
than a small boat, and could always be kept on deck, ready to
be inflated and formed into rafts, or be attached by lines passing
under the boats, so that for an emergency like that of the
Arctic, the boats could be increased in capacity, so as to sustain,
if not accommodate, a hundred more passengers; these pontoons
may be made of any required size, and would vastly increase
the chances of saving lives.*
*Since the above was -written, the Perry or Monitor raft has been brought into
use, as already stated.




84
As to other means for the better preservation of life, there
are many floats styled life-preservers.  Very few  of these'
contrivances are of much value to persons who are panicstricken.  Metal cannisters of various forms have been got up.
The most valuable of these floats is the invention of a Mr.
Fitch, and is made by W. O. Haskell, Boston.  Having tried
it in the water, I speak understandingly when I say that it is
next to impossible for a person to drown in tolerably smooth
water with one of these fixtures properly applied. The Tewksbury seats are also valuable, particularly when two or more
are lashed together.  In regard to these stools, I have seen a
strong seaman nearly exhaust himself by attempting to get his
body balanced upon it, while I am confident that I could sustain myself for hours with one of them, without exertion,
provided the temperature of the elements was not too lowa
But the best of all these floats is an invention of a New York
engineer, Mr. Thompson, which consists of a comfortable chair,
which, when opened or expanded, makes a most desirable lifepreserver.  This seat should be put on board of all steamers
and passenger ships, particularly on rivers and other narrow
waters.  It is more expensive than any of the life-preserver
seats, but this should not prevent its general adoption.
The Cartes life-preserver is an English invention, and is a
most valuable one; it consists of a circle or ring of cork shavings,
covered by painted canvas large enough to go round the body
under the arms, and having sufficient buoyancy to support a
full-sized person.
All these body-floats require fastening to the body, and are
Soften entirely useless on account of the want of a litlle coolness
or tact in adjusting them.  Whatever body-floats are used,
every state-room should be supplied with drawings of them, and
full directions for their use.  True, the agony of life may be
prolonged only for an hour, or less, and life cannot be insured
by any life-preserver; but in a case like the Arctic, many
might have been saved, especially if the boats had been in
sufficient number hovering about when the ship finally sank.
While on the subject of floats and life-preservers, I would
strongly recommend that every state-room  door on board of
steamships and river and lake boats, or others carrying large




85
numbers' of passengers, should be hung on " pintles and gadgeons," and have for a centre panel a metal box, three or four
feet long by one or two feet wide, and about two inches thick,
so that, in the event of a sudden fire, they would serve to prolong life until assistance could be rendered. Many, many lives
have been lost, in my short day, for want of means to support
life for an hour or less.
Various methods are in use for safely and quickly lowering
boats. The most simple one is to have a strong pennant at
each end of the boat, which by passing over a cleat on the
davits, sustains the boat when once hoisted up by the tackles,
which are then unhooked.  When the boat is to be lowered, it
is done by the pennants, which may be both suddenly let go,
releasing the boat from the ship, or the after one may be let go
and the forward one may be used as a painter. These pennants
must be long enough to permit the boat to reach the water, and
strong enough to sustain her.  The usual difficulty is in clearing
boats from the tackles simultaneously, and it often happens that
the bow tackle is unhooked, and the stern tackle fouled by the
boat swinging round.
Having said enough on the subject of floats and what are
called " life-preservers," I come aow to speak of other means
tending to avoid collisions on the ocean during foggy weather
and dark nights.  There is a great diversity of opinion among
nautical men of experience as to the propriety of making night
hideous to the passengers by sounding the bell, blowing horns,
firing guns and shrieking through the steam  whistle; some
contend that perfect silence is the best thing for self, and there
is no reason why self should not be cared for first in this
particular;  for my part, I think  that the steam  whistle,
systematically and regularly blown during fogs and thick dark
nights is the safest and best thing; but in order to make it
effective in ocean steamers, there should be a rule that one
blast at intervals of five or ten minutes should denote a westerly
course, two blasts an easterly course, and  three  blasts a
southerly, and four a northerly course. This would be simple
enough for Atlantic navigation, as Atlantic steamers in given
localities are not beating about on diverse courses, like sailing
ships.




86
There are so many steamers now crossing the Atlantic, going
out and coming back by the same track, that the danger of
collisions is much increased, though still very small indeed.
To avoid this particular danger in some degree, I suggest that
a rule be adopted for outward steamers habitually to keep a
little more to the north or to the south than homeward bound
steamers, after passing Cape Race.  If a rule should be established to this effect by the regular lines, the chances of collision
would be still smaller, and the sailing ships would generally be
aware, when she heard the steamer's whistle in a fog, which
way she was heading, not only by the number of blasts, but by
the position or place of the ship.
A port fire or blue light burned at stated periods in thick
weather finds some advocates, but it has serious disadvantages;
it cannot be seen far in a fog, and it cannot denote the course
of the ship, while it blinds the men on the lookout on board of
the ship, and it would cost more than a little waste of steam.
The steam whistle, then, I consider the true thing to warn an
approaching ship.
One great cause of loss of life on the occasion of the loss of
steamer Atlantic, on Lake Erie, and in the case of the Arctic,
was, no doubt, the prevailing idea that sinking ships go down
suddenly, creating a whirlpool or vortex. A sinking ship is,
thank Heaven, not a usual sight, but it is not altogether a
novelty with me, for I have been on board of one that capsized
and sunk in a few minutes, and I have seen another sink under
the bows of the Europa, and I am not a believer in jumping
into real danger in order to avoid an imaginary one! Ships
go down more or less suddenly, no doubt, and there is in some
cases a tendency to draw down to a certain extent all those who
may be on the deck, but not to an extent greater than would
be the case by jumping from the ship's rail, in which process
any ordinary "life-preserver" is likely to be damaged by
breaking its fastenings.
This is a good occasion to illustrate the value of a good lookout from  aloft several times a day, on board of all vessels at
sea.  There is no knowing how many despairing souls might
have been saved, as was Captain Luce, by a good lookout from
aloft, if every shipmaster should send a man aloft several times
a day, to look for wrecks, particularly in the stormy Atlantic.




87
I have treated of the means obviously useful for saving life
in cases. of sudden wreck, and I come now  to make some
suggestions as to more extensive means for this great end in
steamships.  All steamers, whether of wood or of iron, should
have a practically water-tight bulkhead before the engine-room,
and another abaft the same, so that any serious fracture at
either end would enable the engines still to work, and keep the
small leaks under.  True, the bulkhead cannot be always
perfectly tight, but we must not give them up for this reason, any
more than we should give up ships because they sometimes leak.
The saloon-deck of steamers, generally sixty or eighty feet
long, may be so built and fastened to the standing part or sides
as to be detached at short notice and form  a valuable raft,
especially if spars, pontoons and life-lines and railings are so
prepared as to meet the exigency.  A short time ago, the idea
of constructing a steamer so as to sink with comparative safety
to her passengers, would have been met with ridicule; but we
now realize, from the sad experience of the Arctic, that good
ships can sink, and that many lives can be lost by sudden
accidents for want of precautions in their original construction.
Besides the saloon-deck and the bulkheads, it would be a good
plan in constructing sea steamers, to have all hatches, doors
in bulkheads and other apertures, so contrived that they can be
closely fastened; firstly, to exclude air in cases of fire, and
next, to keep in the air when the ship is, by an accident like
that to the Arctic, gradually sinking.  I do not hesitate to say,
that had the engines of the Arctic been stopped as soon as the
probability of sinking was imminent, and all the ports, deadlights and hatches securely caulked and fastened down, the ship
would have filled much less rapidly; it is not necessary that
the apertures should be entirely air-tight, nor that the bulkheads should be perfectly water-tight in order to stop the vent.
As fire on board ship is not uncommon, we all resort in such a case
to excluding the air, and I see no valid reason why we should
not keep the air in when the leaks get the better of the pumps.
I come now to speak of the mistakes made in the management of the Arctic.  In making these remarks, I would not be
understood as implying blame to the gallant commander.  From
a personal knowledge of him, I am quite sure that he thought




88
only of the safety of his passengers, and while I make some
comments on his proceedings, I would frankly say that it is
much easier, while sitting by our firesides, after the disaster, to
suggest what ought to have been done. It was a fatal mistake
to run the ship when it was ascertained that the leak was
rapidly gaining on the pumps. The land was forty or fifty
miles distant, and every revolution of the wheels not _only
increased the leak, but carried the ship further from the direct
track of vessels.  The ship should have been arrested in her
course, and all the means applied to getting the boats safely
manned, all apertures should have been carefully closed, and
the masts should have been cut away, as they would have done
more towards forming rafts than all the spare spars.  In all
the accounts which I have seen, not one word is said as to any
attempt to cut away the masts; perhaps no axes were at hand,
and if this is true, it shows a lamentable want of precaution for
an emergency liable to happen to any ship. Allowing that the
officers and most of the crew had already accidentally or
wilfully left the ship, it can hardly be possible that there were
iio passengers who could handle an axe, and the only way that
I can account for the omission of this expedient, is by supposing
that the axes had been taken away, or that the ship was not
provided with them.  But the great cause of the immense loss
of life was the want of due organization for such an emergency,
and this cause operated to a fearful extent in consequence of
the want of sufficient boats to take anything like the whole
number of persons comprising the crew and passengers of the ship.
Great allowances must be made for Captain Luce, when we
cast any imputation on his judgment in running the ship after
he was sure that nothing could save her.  Who is there with
such a vast accumulation of responsibility on his mind and
heart who would have done more than he?  Surrounded as he
was by despairing friends, looking to him  for superhuman
exertions, practically deserted by his men and by most of those
to wvhom they had been accustomed to look up to for orders and
control, what more could he do than to raise his voice, and by
his manly example show that if he had been properly supported
many might have been saved.  As to the desertion of the firemen and seamen, little more need be said than that they obeyed




89
the instinct of self-preservation.  They are not usually men
from  whom you would expect a different course.  With few
exceptions, they were men without any particular attachment
to the ship, or to her officers or passengers.  If they had been
duly organized for such a fearful crisis, and if they had felt
that the boat would contain every soul on board, there would
have been put on the record of humanity many acts of disinterestedness and devotion to duty.  But without discipline,.pree ncerted and duly enforced discipline, what else could have
been expected of them than to rush for the boats? The few
who did not do this deserve to be enrolled among the heroes;
but I doubt not there were among the deserters many men
who, under proper control, would have equally deserved the
name!
I understand from  one of the survivors of the Arctic's
officers, that she had a good set of seamen on high wages, and
that they were generally sober men; men to be relied upon in
time of danger from the ordinary perils of the sea. I can, if
this be true, only attribute their anxiety to leave the ship to a
want of confidence in the means provided for saving them.
True, the law says that the seamen must stick by the ship and
assist the passengers, and after seeing them safely deposited in
the boats, they may sink or swim at their leisure, if there be no
means to buoy them up.  But what seaman, who has not served
in a ship of war, under strict orders, and having a certain
amount of "esprit du corps," can be expected to study the
niceties of Blackstone or Story on. board a sinking ship!
I pity the man who lost so good an opportunity of distinguishing himself, but I can scarcely blame him.  Life in a
coal-stained skin and a red shirt is as dear as if clad in broadcloth and velvet.
Finally, the ceiling and timbers in the wake of a steamship's
engine room  should be closely fitted and made water-tight
between the bulkheads.  In this case a leak in the fore-hold,
or after-hold, or in any place forward or abaft the bulkheads, would be kept from  flooding the engine-room; and
the pumps, even those attached  to  the  engine, could  be
worked much more effectually than when in danger of being
flooded.
12




90
In the case of the loss of the Amazon, by fire, 1851
or'52, the engineers were driven from  the engineroom, and there being no means for stopping the ship
accessible from the deck, she ran at speed, and in the
attempt to lower the boats, they were swamped, and
many lives were lost. Having no account at hand I
am unable to state how many were rescued, or by what
means.
This is a good place to reiterate what I have often
said, namely, that every steamer should have means
for shutting off steam  from the deck, and donkey
boilers and engines, for pumping and throwing water,
should be located, not as usual, in some corner of the
engine-room, but in some place much more accessible
from the upper deck.
Many cases could be cited besides the Amazon, the
Central America, and the America, to show the folly
of placing the donkey engine and boiler, in or near
the engine-room.
The recent loss of the Pacific Mail Steamer, by fire,
in the Harbor of Yokohama, so well detailed in the
Daily Advertiser, of the 12th Oct., shows the necessity
for keeping up steam  in the donkey boiler at all
times,when the main engines are not in use. The
want of steam seems to have been the principal cause
of the loss of this noble ship, and so many lives.
Next to this the preparation of the boats and rafts, was
too long neglected in the necessity for fighting the fire.
To one looking at the loss of this fine ship, from this
side of the Continent, it seems inexplicable that so
many lives should have been lost, in a smooth harbor,
with plenty of vessels at hand, and I cannot but think
that there was a great want of good management on
the part of the spectators.




91
In the case of the Bienville, recently lost by fire,
every one acquainted with Capt. Maury gives him
credit for being a thorough seaman, and a humane
gentleman; but here is a case where the resources
provided by the owners in boats, floats, or rafts were
insufficient for the emergency, and some of the means
provided, were of an unstable character.
Not having seen any detailed account of the examination of Capt. Maury and his officers, or of the
survivors. I abstain  from  making  any  extended
comments on the loss of this ship, and part of her
people.
In the case of propeller Metis, recently lost between
Watch Hill and Point Judith, I would remark that I
have seen no official report of the examination by the
inspectors; but I have read all the newspaper details,
and I do not remember to have seen or heard a single'
word on what appears to me, to have been the great
neglect or oversight; and that was, in not immediately
bringing her wounded side to windward, and by every
means giving her a list to starboard, in order to get at
and stop the fracture. The wind being to the South or
Southeast, blowing on shore pretty fresh; if her head
had been put to seaward her anchors let go, and
exertions made to heel her to starboard, the chances
are that the leak could have been kept under control
by the full power of her steam  pumps. Whereas,
when too late, it was found that she was leaking badly,
she was run at fill speed towards the land, directly
away from  the well known track of passing vessels.
In this case there was a lamentable want of organization; the boats were insufficient as life-boats, were
under little control, and the metallic pontoon or raft,
scarcely mentioned in the published accounts, appears
never to have left the hurricane deck, until it broke




92
up. I would much like to know, how much this raft
did towards the saving of life, and how much it failed
to do.
The loss of the Metis will be forever remembered
as illustrating the great value of the detachable upper
deck. Although it was not made to come off, it is
quite clear that it was the means of saving many lives'
If the steamer herself had reached the shore nearly
full of water, drawing fifteen or twenty feet, and been
thrown among the breakers, perhaps a quarter of a
mile from the beach, the chances are that more lives
would have been lost than by remaining where she
was struck, even had she filled there and sunk, or by
going down where she did. As a schooner's bowsprit
is several feet above water, it is fair to conclude that
the main fracture was mostly above water, and that if
it had been properly examined and measures taken to
stop the hole, instead of forcing in the water by keeping on, the result would have been very different.
To go back a little to ocean disasters, I would cite
-the case of the steamer Connaught, lost near our coast
in October, 1860. She first sprung a bad leak and
then took fire. The whole crew were saved by the
brig Minnie Schiffer, Capt. Wilson, who got a hawser
to the steamler, and thus quickly and safely rescued
every soul. But for the close connection between the
steamer and the brig, many lives would probably have
been lost.
In the winter of 1865-'6, the ship Caledonia, with
immigrants, became disabled in the Atlantic, not very
far from our coast. All hands were rescued success-fully by boats, by the bark Fredonia, Capt. Burke,
whose management met the high encomiums of the
Humane Society and of the public. He threw over
a considerable part of his cargo to make room for the




93
passengers and brought them into port. He did not
make a connection between his vessel and the ship.
Not knowing all the circumstances of wind and
weather, and knowing that he saved all, the inference
is that he acted for the best.
I have before me the report of the Chief of Revenue
Marine, N. B. Devereux, for 1870, to the Secretary of
the Treasury, on revenue cutters, hospitals and lifesaving stations, from which I extract the following
useful information, relating to the life-saving stations
and means for saving life generally. At page 43, I
notice that the credit due to Capt. Ottinger for the
origin of the life-car is acknowledged.  There are
twenty-eight stations fron Cape May to Sandy Hook,
on the Jersey shore, and twenty-six between Coney
Island and Montauk Point, on the Long Island shore.
There is an interval of five miles between each station.
Congress appropriated $15,000 to the Humane Society
of Massachusetts in the year ending June 30, 1871, to
be accounted for to the Secretary of the Treasury,
and a further act provided for pay of six men to
each alternate boat station, on the coast of New
Jersey and Long Island, from 15th December to 15th
March, at the rate of $40 per month. This pay is
stated to give these men at the rate of more than
double the compensation the keepers receive, which
is $200 per annum.  The report recommends correcting this, and giving keepers $350, and also increasing
the salaries of the two superintendents, H. W. Sawyer
and H. E. Hunting, to $2,000 per annum; also that
the crew be paid a regular salary. The report treats
fully on the various boats used and recommended for
use on the coasts of New Jersey and Long Island, and
alludes to the Manby mortar and the Delvigne processes. In speaking of the former, page 55, it says,
"with a 5' inch mortar and 14 pounds of powder,




94
Manby threw 310 yards of deep sea line, and with an
8 inch mortar nearly 479." Of course it was intended
to say 14 ounces and not pounds. The report also
says that the Delvigne process had not been conducted
on a proper scale.  To this I would say, that I have
before me the most exhaustive trials of the process,
under government authority.  The report also says,
that if Manby threw out, experimentally, 479 yards,
there ought to be no difficulty in throwing uat six or
eight hundred. To this I would remark, that if we
have a 15 inch mortar and a suitable charge, and a
sufficiently strong attachment to a heavy projectile,
we can throw a rope a mile or more. But this is not
the question; the limit as to range must necessarily
be governed by the ability to transport the mortar
and its gear along a sandy shore. One very important
consideration is suggested in this report, and this is to
have scientific and elaborate tests made by U. S.
Engineers, so as to provide the best means for throwing lines to wrecks.
Looking back a little, to a lecture given in 1867
for the benefit of the Snug Harbor, I find some hints
worth repeating.
In allusion to the loss of the City of Bath, off Hatteras, under distressing circumstances, it was recommended that steamers be provided with means to
inject steam into the coal-bunkers and cargo spaces, in
crder to put out fire; the pipes capable of being
operated from the deck. Since that paper was printed
I have heard of steamers so fitted, and I have recently
noticed that the America, lately destroyed in Japan,
had means for thus extinguishing fires; but she had
not steam  to'spare, either to pump water or to put
out fire, when lost. Donkey engines and boilers are
generally used for washing decks and hoisting cargo,
rather than for putting oit fires!




95
Allusion was made in this lecture to the utility of
pumps operated by hand, supplied by a suction hose,
to be put over the side at any convenient point. One
or two powerful pumps, thus fitted, would be valuable
as auxiliary to the steam pumps, and might save life
and property sometimes when the steam  pumps give
out. Reference is also made to a plan originating
with Mr. Gray, of London, for making water-tight
bulkheads in iron ships double, leaving a space of a
few inches between them, so that the space could
generally be kept full of water, as a preventive against
fire.  This plan would make the hull stronger, provided the bulkhead was properly put in and stayed.
Cargo hatches should be packed so as to be watertight, anl  each compartment should have its steam
pump connection, as well as hand pumps competent
to keep the water within control, even if the bottom
should be fractured, and provided the cargo itself is
buoyant. Much may be done in the construction and
fitting of ocean steamers towards sinking very gradulally when stove by grounding or by collision. Even if
the ship cannot be saved, she may be kept above water
for hours, so as to afford a chance for rescuing the
lives of her people.  Many cases have occurred where
the gain of an hour or two would have saved many
lives.  Such a gain as this, as I am assured by a practical engineer of great repute, may be attained by
making the boilers of steamers subservient to keeping
them afloat, for a time; that is to say, if the proper
arrangements be made originally in the fitting of the
boilers, and the right thing done in such cases as the
Artic, MIetis, and others, they can be converted into
floating power instead of adding to the dead weights
which tend to sink the ship.




96
Much has been said and much has been done in the
way of invention and in the way of legislation, in
regard to boat-lowering apparatus.  Among practical
men few of the patent arrangements find favor. Simultaneous lowering machines and detaching machines
work very well on paper.  So far as my experience
goes, nothing is more simple and safe than the usual
hoisting tackles, taking care, however, to put the rings
in the lower blocks and the hooks in the boat; this
renders the hooking on and unhooking of boats very
much more safe. After hoisting up the boat thus, she
should be hung by stout pennants, securely made fast
inboard, and sufficiently strong to do the duty of a
tackle, and long enough to permit of lowering the
boat to the water, when they may be let go simultaneously; the after one thrown over and the forward
one used as a painter. I believe that this mode of
lowering boats will, in the long run, be found the
simpilest and best.
The usual contrivances for davits, or cranes forhoisting up boats, in merchant vessels and steamers
generally, have descended to us from our forefathers,
and should be modified in all places where the standing rigging does not interfere, by an arrangement
adopted by me, whereby the boats may be hung
inboard; or over the gunwale; or further out, ready
to lower.  The arrangement consists of two stout
timbers or stanchions fastened to the side on a line
with the rail or the edge of the hurricane-deck, and
extending about four or five feet above the rail or
deck, to these are attached two flat bar davits, eight
or ten feet long, connected together by a spar swivelling on gudgeons at the head of the davits, to this
spar the boat hangs. The guys which support the
davits must be set up to the rail or deck in a true line




97
with the bolts on which'the foot of the davit swings
out and in, and then the boat can be swung out and
in with great ease, the motion of the davits being
controlled and regulated by lines leading from their
heads across the deck, and by a stout chain and tackle
leading from the middle of the davit through an eye on
the head of the stanchion, A ship's launch, or a heavy
life-boat can be got in and out by this arrangement
by few men, without the aid of stay or yard tackles.
It is specially adapted to passenger vessels, which,
going in and out of dock frequently, must as a rule,
have their boats inboard, and ought to have them. at
all times ready to swing out. As now arranged the
boats are stowed in chocks on deck, covered with
canvass fitted to be lowered only by considerable labor
and after long delay.  My arrangement will save full
half the labor and time, whether it be three minutes
or twenty.
The life-preservers recuired by lawb must be sufficient in number for all hands, and of capacity to float
sixteen pounds dead weight; this is little enough
when it is considered that in a panic one will have
often to do double duty. Wherever they are placed,
there should be illustrations of the mode of attaching
them.
Among the dangers to which iron vessels and
steamers are exposed, whether of wood or iron, is the
effect of local attraction on the needle, exposing them
to great errors in their courses; by constant study
and frequent observations of celestial objects vessels
running in a given trade can and usually do get along
tolerably well; they have a table of errors for every
point of the compass to be applied on every course or
to be registered or recorded on a distorted card by
which the course is regulated.
13




98
The Savans of the Old World have not found any
universal panacea, or means for curing local attraction,
so that a vessel corrected here or in London can navigate with the same corrections into the Southern
Hemisphere.  Many devices by means of magnets and
soft iron have been tried, and some of them have done
well in particular ships in particular trades; but no
one that I am aware of in Europe pretends to correct
local attraction for both hemispheres.
We have a man in this country who has corrected
for me several iron vessels, where the compass was
practically useless; in some cases more than ten points
out.  These vessels have gone to China, and to the
Rio de la Plata, sailing by their regulated compasses,
without any table of errors, entirely free from  the
effect of local attraction.
This is something that has neither been done or
attempted in Europe.
No single thing will tend more directly to lessen
the dangers of the sea than a reliable compass, speaking for itself, and not dependant for its integrity on a
table of errors.
Among the small things requisite as helps to safety,
I would suggest that every ship's boat be provided
with a pudding-bag ldrag, a conical bag similar to the
canvas log chip; having its cable, and its trippingline for spilling or reversing it, this little machine will
be found very useful to lay-to by, or to use in running
through a surf. Another very important auxiliary to
safety in laying-to, in scudding, and calming the waves
when transshipping passengers, will be found in dropping over oil in small quantities; it has a wonderful
effect in keeping the water from  breaking; a good
drag, and a keg of oil in a sea-way will make an
ordinary boat comparitively safe.




99
In  the education of youth, swimming  should be
taught as well as riding, or dancing, or skating, and
generally will be found as useful as either in saving
life and promoting health.
We find that in foreign countries the governments
take a prominent part in  encouraging life-saving
associations, and although the principal associations
are supported by voluntary subscriptions, the governments furnish valuable aid by the loan of materials,
and by drilling their coast guard for saving life, as
well as for saving  revenue.  If any new  invention
comes up it is fully tested by the government. It is
to be hoped that our government will follow  the
example of England and France in this direction, and.if it cannot give the aid of its coast guard, let it grant
liberal sums for protecting our seaboard, and permit
its revenue officers, and its ordinance officers and
engineers to aid all humane efforts for saving life.
In May last, officers were detailed to examine and
report on sundry life saving means, at Seabright.  The
board consisted of:
J. H. SAVILLE, Chairman,
Chief Clerk Treasury Department.
C. S. BOGGS,
Rear Admircd.
C. B. PATTERSON,
Hydrographic Inspector of the Coast Survey.
WILLIAM GAS;ELL,
CHARLES W. MAXSON,
Experts in Surf-boats.
The report of these gentlemen, a copy of which I
have before me, says:   the trials were conducted by
Capt. John Faunce of the Revenue Marine.  The wind
was fresh from  southward and eastward but with a
very  moderate sea, not enough  surf to afford an
approximately fair test of the qualities of the life-boats.




100
"The mortar charged with three ounces of powder,
threw out 210 yards of line and with a larger charge
would  have  gone flrther; the  committee wisely
recommended  the Government to make extended
experiments with large mortars, and also to devise
some better mode of attaching the line, or becket, to
the shot.  Next came an experiment with a rocket
invented by Mr. Lilliendahl, I consisting of a steel cased
rocket with a long metallic loop to serve as a staff
and an ingenious and simple way of attaching the line,
the rocket is fired from  a tube resting on a tripod
arranged for any required elevation, the charge is
ignited by a lock, the line running clear from a box.'
" At the first fire, the line parted in consequence of
fouling a fence; the second and third trials gave
highly satisfactory results, stretching out 283 yards of
line against a fresh breeze."
The size of the line, and the angle of elevation are
not given; another rocket contained in a paper case
was tried but was not approved.
The Committee wisely recommended extended trials
of the Lilliendahl rocket, so as to get a just medium
in regard to cost, range, etc.
The first boats tried were three cedar boats, common
to the location, and  popular with  the  surf-men.
They were presented  by Messrs. Curtis, of Squam,
Waddel,  of Deal, and the Coast Wrecking Co., of
Long Branch.
"They went off rapidly together in fine style and
although the surf was only moderate, the manner in
which they were launched, and handled evidenced their
superior qualities as surf-boats, and gave promise of
what they are capable of doing in a high surf; and bad
weather."




101
The size, weight, and extra buoyancy of these boats,
is not given; I presume they are mere shells, and
have no extra buoyancy in the shape of air-cases or
cork.
Next, the American Monitor Raft Co., presented one
of their rafts, manned by seven men, " it was launched
at the same moment with the boats, and gave evidence
of possessing many good points as a life saving vehicle,"
this is all the report says as to the Monitor raft.
Next came the trial of the iron boat of Lieut.
Stodder, the report says:
" A crew consisting of thirteen took their places in
the boat, with tossed oars, and she was successfully
launched from  the wagon, the trucks of which were
just within the edge of the surf. The impetus obtained
in her descent on the inclined skids, shot her a full
length into the surf, but it was only by a tremendous
effort of the crew that she was kept head to the sea,
until the full force of her oars could give her headway;
when this was obtained however, she was rowed easily
to seaward, floating with much buoyancy, displaying
very excellent qualities, as also a handsome appearance
on the water. In designing this boat, Lieut. Stodder
has combined many of the best points of the boats
in use on the coast of Great Britain, and has succeeded
in producing a boat of fine model, amply buoyant,
self-baling, and self-righting; but, in its present form
larger than necessary, and in the opinion of competent
judges, altogether too heavy for use, except at two or
three points along our coast."
The Committee do not give the weight or size, or
describe the means for self-righting and baling, nor
do they say that these were tested. I infer, however,
from what follows, that time did not admit of a more
thorough trial.  I have since learned through the




102
press, that in a trial in Newport harbor, the self-right"
ing and bailing qualities were successfully tested.
Next, the Beaupre life-boat was presented for trial.
The Committee say:
"She was launched like the Stodder boat, is similar
in general design, but very inferior in model, and did
not impress the Committee favorably"
The Committee refer to a description of this boat
by Messrs. Prindle & Co., from  which  I gather the
following information. This communication was made
to  the  Board, on  the  3d  of June, a week  after
the trial.
JOHN H. SAVILLE, ESQ.,
Chief Cleri Treasury Department:
DEAR SIR:
We have the honor to submit the following remarks
with reference to Life-boats for use at the life saving stations
upon the Atlantic coast, and request that they may be presented
to the Board of Examination, of which you are the head.
The time allowed for building and presenting the Beaupre
Life-boat was so short, as to render it impossible for us to
obtain a correct understanding as to the especial features
required for the service, and therefore, our boat while fully
illustrating the principles involved, proved entirely unsuitable
by reason of its excessive weight and defective model.  Had
a sufficient length of time been obtainable, in the latter respect
at least, our boat would have been constructed in a satisfactory
manner.
From the light now had upon the subject, we are of the
opinion that the self-righting principle, however advantageous
in the open water, is of little or no use in the surf, and that
therefore, it should be dispensed with in boats intended for the
purpose above named, by which means the weight and cost of
the boat could be reduced nearly or quite one-third, and the
improved device rendered far more easy to handle than would
otherwise be possible.




103
The second principle involved in our boat, viz.:-Self-baling5'is of vital importance to surf-boats, which as we are informed,
are frequently filled by the surf one or more times before they
can be launched in rough weather; such filling entirely destroying the usefulness of ordinary boats, and rendering it necessary
that they should be baled out before a farther attempt at launching can be made.  With our self-baling principle applied to a
boat, the only effect produced by the shipping of water would
be to temporarily increase the difficulty of propulsion, as by
adapting the capacity of the lifting chambers to the weight to
be carried, the water thus shipped can be caused to pass from
the boat in ten seconds, leaving a margin of twenty seconds
before a second wave would strike it, during which interval
sufficient headway could be obtained to carry said boat beyond
the point of danger.
While firmly believing that metallic boats are best adapted
for the service required, we are of the opinion that some advantage may arise from the use of wood, and would state that the
self-baling apparatus can be applied to such boats as readily as
to those constructed of or from iron, and that when thus protected from swamping, surf-men would be enabled to go to sea
in weather when no ordinary boat could live for a moment.*
While at Seabright, on the 27th ult., we conversed with
nearly all of the surf-men present at the trial of life saving
apparatus, and found that without exception they considered
the self-baling or emptying principle of great importance, and
that, if applied to their cedar boats, the greatest obstacle to a
passage through the surf would be removed.
In view of the above, we propose to furnish for use at life
saving stations, metal or wood boats, constructed upon any
model required, and which, when filled, shall be capable of
automatically relieving themselves from water, in from ten to
fifteen seconds, when provided with a full working crew.
Very Respectfully,
PRINDLE & CO.
WASHINGTON, D. C., JUNE SD, 1872.
*No light wooden boat could be built so as to insure keeping the air-case
in the bottom tight.




101
The Commission say that they "did not have an
opportunity to examine either the Stodder or the
Beaupre boat in detail or critically. The time required for a thorough consideration of the subject
could not be spared, and it is believed that a better
and more satisfactory examination and report can be
obtained by selecting persons who can avail themselves of more time, and at a season when the various
appliances can be put to the test of actual use. From
the limited examination we were able to make, we
were convinced of the superiority of the cedar boats
over any other for general service on the coast of New
Jersey.  That these boats have been found by the
long experience of practical surf-men to be the best
adapted for any sort of work in the surf, is sufficient
argument in their favor, without more than a passing
allusion to the fact that these man could never be
induced to use any of the boats of different shape
supplied to the stations since their first establishment.
lherefore, we recommend that a boat of similar model
be placed at every station. It appears, however, to
be worthy of consideration whether these boats may
not be improved by adding air-chambers and other
appliances as will make them self-righting, without
materially increasing their weight or changing their
form. Also, whether they may not be constructed of
galvanized iron, and thus provide against shrinkage
and dry rot.  To determine those points it is recommended that Captain Gaskill, an experienced surf-man,
be authorized to propose  plans, specifications and
model of such a boat as in his judgment will be best
adapted for ordinary service in all weathers on the
New Jersey coast."
The Commission also recommend that Lieutenant
Stodder's system  be applied to smaller and lighter




105
boats, and that a "' number of these be placed at points
adjacent to such inlets as may admit of the egress of
the boat seaward with a crew of seven men."
The Commission speak of sending the boat-wagon
and  Stodder's boat to  Narragansett pier, where I
understand they are now located.
During the  boat trials Mr. Meriam  exhibited his
life-preserving dress, which was very highly approved
and recommended  for the stations.  Coston's night
signals were also exhibited and approved of.
In conclusion the report says: "Our visit to Seabright convinced us that the life-saving service deserves the fostering care of the department, and in
order to carry out the generous and humane designs
of Congress the  service  should  be thoroughly  reorganized."
Everybody must heartily concur in these sentiments
and in the suggestion to have more full trials of the
boats and other apparatus.
BOSTON, 6th September, 1872.
ADMIRAL C. S. BOGGS, Washington.
Dear Sir,-I have read the report of the trial of life-boats,
at Seabright, on the 27th May, with great interest, and concur
with its general purport.  I take note particularly of what is
said on pages 7 and 8, in regard to the want of time and
suitable weather for a thorough trial. Allow me to call your
attention to an article furnished to the Daily Advertiser, on or
about the 10th ultimo, wherein' I advocate a more extended
trial in more suitable weather, so that the several boats, the
raft and rockets, can be tested more fully. After reading your
report, I am more than ever convinced that this ought to be
done before expending much money.
14




106
There should be first a boat of the approved New Jersey
model, built of galvanized iron, to be furnished with air-tanks
of considerable capacity, say 40 gallons, in the ends; cork
floats on the outside, say 8 inches in diameter in the centre,
tapering to 3 or 4 at the ends, and two cork floats on the
inside under the thwarts, say 1 foot in diameter, fitted with
beckets and capable of being removed at pleasure, to use as
transporting buoys and for various obvious purposes as life
saving material.  The end  tanks should  be separate and
distinct from the shell of the boat and not a part of it, so that
they can be removed for examination, painting, etc.  If on
trial in competition with a simple cedar shell, this boat should
be found too heavy to handle in launching, all the extra
weight, such as tanks and floats, can be removed in a few
minutes, so as to give her a fair chance; iron against wood in
a rough surf.
So long as the wooden boat remains sound and free from
water, she will compete successfully with all others-but the
moment a fracture takes place, opening a leak, or a sea breaks
on board, it is clear that the boat provided with floats will sustain
her crew and others, and save lives, when the other will not.
Now we must consider how far the extra weight of tanks, etc.,
renders the boat more liable to ship water, and how far it
prevents quick evolutions by means of the oars.
It is quite clear to my mind that the lighter a boat is, the
better she can avail herself of the right moment to shove off
and be propelled to meet a coming roller at the right time, and
this is one of the most important elements of success in launching a surf-boat and getting beyond the breakers; after this is
accomplished in a strong head wind, more weight would be
very valuable-hence a water reservoir to be filled at will
would be an excellent adjunct in an iron boat, provided it did
not add too much to the weight and cost; when full it would
tend to prevent capsizing, it would enable her to keep up the
momentum, and it would help materially to right her in the
event of being capsized.
Still, the well-founded prejudices of our surf-men against
weight should not be ignored, and it should not be forgotten
that the chances of keeping a light boat upright may more than




107
overbalance the value of the water bottom. Then comes the
question of bringing to the shore a number of extra men-the
lighter the boat and the greater the space in her, the more
persons she can land; the most dangerous time is in the landing when overloaded, but if the beach be well manned, as
is likely, and the crew of the boat be provided with cork
belts for themselves and for all she can carry, the chances for
ultimate safety are, to my mind, quite as good in the wood shell
as in the heavier boat fitted with floats.  The question of
durability under the effect of exposure to heat and cold must
not be lost sight of,-in this the iron boat would have a great
advantage; therefore, taking all things into consideration, I
recommend the trial of the iron Jersey model boat, with
movable floats, delivery valves and end tanks.
Next comes the cedar surf-boat, the vehicle par-excellence:,
best adapted, to insure the confidence of the surf-men, but let
her be provided with a cork life-belt for every man of the crew,
and one for every extra person she can carry without materially
interfering with the management of the boat.
Third, a Beaupr6 boat should be tested alongside the others.
Fourth, a monitor raft, the valuable qualities of this raft I have
tested at Nantucket, in a surf, and I am well convinced that it
can be got off and on in a surf when no other boat could live;
it cannot be capsized, it cannot be filled unless ruptured, and it
can be made to carry out and to land a much greater number
of persons than any ordinary surf-boat.  At Nantucket I placed
on one of two cylinders an anchor weighing 1,200 lbs., besides
the wooden stock, and carried it out and landed it with ease;
no life-boat, at the time, could have taken out a kedge of 400
lbs. I do not think that in your report you have given sufficient prominence to the monitor raft.
Lastly, it would be well enough in a competitive trial, in
rough water, to attempt to launch Lieut. Stodder's boat. If
she can be got off the beach and through the breakers in a
rough time, she would no doubt do well when beyond them.
As to the Meriam dress, which I see you recommend very
highly for all the stations and all the men, not having had any
experience of it, I cannot speak confidently as to its utility for
general purposes, but I would venture a few remarks on the




108
value of all material of India-rubber, which I have found, after
long trial, to be unreliable; in warm  weather it would not be
popular with men who require the full use of all their muscles.
The cork life-belt, under these conditions, and a cedar boat,
would be preferred by surf-men.  In cold weather it would be
stiff and cumbersome perhaps, and I should, myself, prefer to
trust to warm clothing and a cork belt.  For service on the
beach in launching and awaiting the landing of the boat, it will
be found valuable. It will be expensive in first cost, difficult
to maintain in good order, and in cold weather it will be
uncomfortable.  The best test of the value of the Merianm dress
will be as to whether the beach-men prefer it afloat to a cork
life-belt.
I take note of your suggestion to make life-boats of double
diagonal planking, like the English and French life-boats.  This
would doubtless be an improvement, but it would require too
much time and money to reduce it to a system.  What we want
is a light, good modelled and cheap boat, such as can be
readily made and repaired by ordinary boat-builders; as we
can have more of these for our money, and transport them
with more facility, the end of saving life will be best attained
thereby.
In regard to the " life car," originally devised by Captain
Ottinger, of the U. S. Revenue Service, but altered and made
of iron, under the name of the Francis car, I would say these
are too heavy and cumbersome to haul off and on through a
surf.  There have been instances where it has saved many
lives and attained a good name, but I prefer the mode adopted
in Europe, which consists of a cork buoy slung to the hawser
by a bridle and traveller, and fitted with canvas legs to support
a person in a sitting posture.  This contrivance is cheap,
portable and convenient.
The Coston night signals will be found very useful for
illuminating the beach when operating the mortar or rockets
and preparing to land shipwrecked persons.




109
Mr. Samuel Webber has submitted to my inspection
a model 30 inches long of an improved Beaupre boat
made of tin. The boat to be made after this model of
iron is to be 20 feet long, 6 feet 2 inches beam from
gunwale to gunwale, depth exclusive of keel 26 inches,
sheer 26. She is to have outside air-cases about 5 by
16 inches, and inside air-cases under the thwarts. A
platform or deck, constituting a large double bottom
or tank, the whole length between the end tanks,
which rise to a considerable height above the gunwale,
so that the boat is nearly 41 feet high at the ends;
the stem and stern posts are upright, the lines full.
The platform  is to be perforated  by four large
automatic delivery valves 6 by 8 inches. She is to
have four thwarts to pull eight short oars double
bank: and to steer with a sweep. The model is said
to be stiff, and to free itself of water readily and to be
self-righting, which property in the full-sized boat is
to be insured by weight at the keel, which is quite
straight.  Whether the theory illustrated by the
model is to be fully carried out on a large scale
remains to be seen.
I visited South Boston to inspect an iron boat made
by Mr. Webber, similar, though not identical, with
the one described above. She is 20 feet long and
weighs about 900 lbs, has large end tanks, a double
bottom or deck, constituting an air-case about 8 inches
above the bottom in the centre, and 10 inches near
the end cases. Also air-cases on the outside, but none
under the thwarts at the side, like the model. This
boat has four thwarts, and is now fitted to pull four
double bank oars and has room for six. The thwarts
are not far enough apart to pull freely in rough water
and she is not fitted to steer with a sweep, but may
be. I found this boat stiff enough and buoyant enough




110
with six men in her. She pulls fairly, but with this
weight in her an inch of water was admitted through
the four automatic valves, showing that the air-case in
her bottom is not of sufficient capacity to keep her
dry with open valves.
She was taken alongside of a small schooner and
turned over by a parbuckle, when she righted with considerable water in her, heeling over, so that'the water
remained in her until a man got into her and brought
her upright, when the water gradually subsided.
This experiment proved that if capsized with four
or five men in her, she would have been very likely
to roll over like a log. Mr. Webber attributed the
want of self-righting and self-freeing of water to too
much dead rise and the absence of weight at the keel
to assist in righting her. Without intending to condemn the future full-sized boat to be made like the
model, I must say that the one I have seen is a
failure, and cannot be considered a life-boat.  The
boat would be safer and better in all respects if onethird the space under the floor were filled with cork
in several compartments, one-third by several aircases not built into the boat but removable, and
about one-third for a water ballast tank, to be filled
on getting afloat. This would enable her to dispense
with permanent ballast in the shape of an iron keel,
and would make her self-righting, and ought to enable
her to free herself of water if the valves are large
enough and work freely.  The' construction of the
boat tried is very slight, and the double bottom will
be very easily punctured, when she would float too
deep to pull well in a sea-way. Should Beaupre construct a boat to pull six oars double bank, and make
her strong enough to stand the hard work of a lifeboat, with cork, air, and water under her floor as




111
Ill
suggested, all in separate compartments, and also have
the end tanks separate and removable, she would be too
heavy and too costly to become popular as a surf-boat,
but she would be very good for a passenger steamer.
In  connection with safety to steamers burning
bituminous coal, and ships carrying the same, to
distant markets it may be well to remind ship-owners
that means should be provided to detect the heating
of such coal and thus to guard against spontaneous
combustion. Steamers carrying large masses of soft
coal, should have stout iron pipes leading to the
bottom of the ship; by letting down a thermometer
occasionally, the temperature may be ascertained and
measures taken to guard against fire. In short trips
across the Atlantic, perhaps there is no appreciable
danger of spontaneous combustion, but in  longer
voyages to the tropics the precaution alluded to will
not be found valueless. In sailing vessels carrying
large masses of coal, not well ventilated and subject
to being wet in the bottom  of the ship, there is
always great danger of spontaneous combustion. It
is a question well worth considering whether such
vessels should  not be provided  with  means for
ascertaining the heating of the cargo as well as means
for quickly arresting the fire when it begins.  It
seems to me to be quite practicable to guard against
fire under these circumstances and at a small expense
compared to the extra insurance one has to pay on
ships loaded with bituminous coal.
1 understand that there are to be erected, and ready
for occupation, ten Government Stations by the 1st of
December. They are to be located at the following
places: Race Point, Provincetown; Peaked Hill Bars,
about half-way between Race Point and Highland Light;
Highlands, about one mile north of Highland Light;




112
Parmet Hollow; Cahoon's Hollow, Wellfleet; Nausett;
Orleans; Chatham, 1' south of Lights; Monornoy; and
one on the southwest point of Block Island. According
to a plan and specifications for the New Jersey and
Long Island Stations, furnished me some time ago, I
conclude the dimensions of the above named houses,
are to be, 42 by 18 feet, with a lower story 91 feet,
and an attic; the ground plan will have a boat-room
29 feet long, and a "living-room,'  with fire-place, and
closets. I understand that when these Stations are
fully furnished they will have a boat, mortar and
apparatus, bunks for shipwrecked  men, and  that
keepers will be appointed, whose duty will be to take
care of the apparatus, and organize crews who shall
be on hand in stormy weather ready for any emergency, and that the whole will be under the superintendence of an active agent, who will receive a salary
similar to that of the Superintendents on the New
Jersey and Long Island shores; but, as the appropriation procured by the Honorable Mr. Buffington is
insufficient to fully supply and organize these stations,
I conclude that Congress will be called on to give
further means for this purpose, before the stations can
be completed. I am not aware whether it has been
determined to supply these stations with a modified
Stodder boat; an iron boat, on the Jersey model with
some extra buoyancy; or the ordinary Cedar Boat, so
well known on the Jersey shore.
As these stations may be considered in some sense
as experimental, as to their general utility, also, as to
their boats, and mortars, and their organization; it
will be well to have boats of various models, and with
various fittings; so that the trained men, who, I understand are to have constant charge, and regular pay,
may come to some definite conclusion as to what will
be a good boat for each locality.




113
EXTRACT FROM  A  LETTER  TO  AN  UNDERWRITER,
DATED  JANUARY  28, 1861.
You know very well that ships and men cannot, in all their
essential points of competency, be classed by any existing rule,
and a premium  charged in accordance therewith. If you were
to undertake this task, others would get the premium while you
were debating the merits of the risk.  A classification of the
block is necessary, yet that does not always, if generally,
regulate the premium; the classification of the block-head who
is to command is not sufficiently taken into account! You may
ask, and generally do ask the owner, " who is going master? 
If the reply does not bring to mind a recent loss, a recent trial
for cruelty or neglect, or a providential escape from  great
danger, (incurred by reason of gross carelessness,) and for
which the captain has been perhaps rewarded, you accept him
as all right; and if the applicant is a good customer, you insure
his first-rate ships and his ordinary ships, his first-rate and his
ordinary captains, at the same rate of premium  for the same
voyage, trusting to the laws of chance to make a good average
profit.
Marine risks in former times were remunerative, but now
there seems to be a general distrust of them, and I think this
has arisen mainly for want of a proper scrutiny on the part of
insurers upon the main points of the risk, which to my apprehension, are:1st.  The standing and capacity of the imaaster, particularly
in regard to his personal character, and his education as a
navigator and his experience in the particular trade he is
going into.
2d.  The findings and fittings of the ship, particularly in
regard to pumps, windlass, capstan, compasses, chronometers,
and other instruments, charts, lights, signals, etc., etc.
3d.  The number and quality of officers, men, and boys,
comprising the crew.
I think it of very little consequence, comparatively, whether
the ship class A 1 or B 2, provided the securities named above
are carefully looked after.  I had much rather insure a poor
15




114
ship with only one chronometer, with a first-rate captain and
crew, than an A 1 ship loaded with chronometers, with an
incompetent master and crew.
You have inspectors of ships, who take a cursory glance at
some of them while building or repairing, and whose opinions
are very often made up from  the statements of owners or
builders, as to their fastenings and general qualifications.  You
pay these competent and honest agents liberally for making up
printed reports, which are very useful as references when you
desire to ascertain the facts as to name, rig, port of register,
when and where built or repaired, coppered, etc.  I believe
there are no columns for the name or standing of the captain
or owners, which are subjects of momentous interest in estimating the value of marine risks.  Besides these, I think you want
a place for recording the length and quality of chain cables, for
the weight and quality and kind of anchors, and a record as to
whether these have been tested, and by what standard.
The comparatively modern custom  of building ships and
fitting them by contract, "ready for sea," has been a fruitful
source of disaster, it being the direct interest of the contractor
to furnish the cheapest articles of essential utility and safety.
Of course there are exceptions to this rule, and these exceptions
are among the ruined contractors.
Nothing is more common than to see a first-rate ship furnished
with anchors which would break if dropped thirty feet upon a
rock, and with chains which have never been subjected to the
slightest test, and which come from  notoriously cheap manufactories in England.  Nothing more common than to see iron
used for the vital parts of a ship's rigging of the same poor
quality as that put into her hull. Nothing more common than
to see a fine ship calked by contract, in the very worst weather,
and the garboard seam in particular, when the weight of the ship
rests mostly upon the keel blocks, the result of which is, generally,
a leaky ship.  Nothing more common than for valuable ships
and steamers to be sent to sea without any test of the correctness of their compasses, which, however good in themselves,
are liable to be far out by reason of local attraction, and very
often with very little attention to the quality of the instruments
themselves.  Nothing more common than for ships to go to sea




115
without local coast charts, and for masters to be wholly ignorant
of harbor navigation, and wholly dependent on pilots, whereby
it often happens that much greater risks are incurred, than
would be if the captain had a little local knowledge as to his
port of destination.
The great improvements, within the last twenty years, in
ship's pumps, windlasses, capstans, rig, steering-gear, and in
most of the details which make ships safer, when placed by the
side of the scale of premiums, and compared with former rates,
shows quite clearly that the enhanced value of risks is caused
principally by a falling off in the quality of masters, mates and
men, by bad anchors and chains, by bad calking, bad iron work,
defective compasses, poor chronometers, a want of good charts,
inattention to or ignorance of lunar observations, and a false
economy on the part of owners.




116
Here is a plan for hoisting and lowering ships' boats, through
which they can be managed without the use of yard and stay
tackles.  It consists simply of two " stanchions " bolted to the
side of the ship, attached to which, at the point where they
intersect the hammock rail or the hurricane deck, are flat iron
davits.  Fig. 2, shows the boat in three positions:-A',.ready
to lower; B', stowed for ordinary sea use, or when  using
the guns; C/, ready to lower on deck, or suspended inboard to
avoid the risks of collision.  In position A', the davit may be
variously supported; the simplest way perhaps, is as shown
by a chain, D', or by passing the chain through an eye in the
head of the davit.  At F', this chain and tackle is shown to
hold what is got in moving to the upright position, B', and also
to ease the boat down gradually to position C'.
Fig. 1, shows a fore-and-aft view of the boat stowed in
position B'. The davits are kept steady by a permanent spar to
which the boat is attached; this spar turns in iron gudgeons
working in the' ends of the bar davits; it is.further steadied in
a fore-and-aft direction by permanent guys, D, of rope or chain,
which, being set up in a line with the bolt holding the davit to
the stanchion, are always " taut."  E, represents the gripes,
and G, the line of rail; the weight of the boat is partly taken
off of the spar and davits by landing in crotches, F, which turn
down flat when the boat is to be lowered.  The seaman will
readily perceive that by this simple arrangement the boats —
where the shrouds do not interfere —are always ready to put
out or to be taken in.  The plan is specially useful for vessels
having no yards to hoist the launch or for those with "1 hurricane"
decks.  In vessels of the latter class there should be no "fly-rail"
abreast of the boats, and they need not come above the plankshire or covering board more than a foot, and may be landed
either in permanlent or movable chocks.
In vessels-of-war, as is well known, the boats are generally
much in the way of damage by the concussion of heavy guns; in
saluting they are generally lowered, but in fighting at sea they
must be kept in place, not only much exposed to damage by the
concussion of one's own guns, but by shot from  the enemy;
the latter cannot be avoided, and in case of. being run into, the
boats, as usually stowed, are the first to suffer by the shock. In
my plan they can be swung in at a minute's notice, and in case
of any disaster, involving the sinking of the ship, the lives of
the crew are more likely to be saved by having the heavy boats
practically always ready to put into the water; though to speak
the simple truth such boats as are universally supplied to war
ships are not very good vehicles for saving life, for there is not
a bolf Jide " life-boa.t" in the navy that I know of.




"'I
= II:W
I =
3
rg r.
lilllllrl Hn N: ~ —a;
______,,,- r. c;o
~~
----—,~~ — ~~\
r h:
I
\',''
nl I\ au
`': —--'W
~, Tn r-.
._.rff —--—' —:,:, —— zl-_~~ilg-' —slB L-.,N~l-,-r-=J*-;`Zlil _ —8 ---— "-'`Li
-,r
---
iliilifiM
1- \\illll\'n,\\\\\\\\\\\l\\i\:!
t;J




118
SHIP's BOATS.
It has often been said that there is not in the whole
navy a single life-boat-that is to say, a boat which
can never be sunken, and which can be righted when
turned over.  These are the most essential qualities
of a life-boat; more, we cannot well have in ship's
boats, on account of the weight and the room required
to make them perfect life-boats.  We shall be told by
naval men that it is very easy, at short notice, to
convert any boat into a life-boat by lashing waterbreakers somewhere in the interior.  This will answer
to prevent sinking too deep to be bailed out; but, if
lashed low down, they would assist her turning bottom
up, and keep her so, in a surf or sea-way. We therefore repeat, there are no life-boats in the navy. As
we cannot carry perfect life-boats at the davits, we
must devise the most simple means for making boats
somewhat insubmergible  and  easy to right when
turned over.
Boats for war vessels must have room  for arms,
ammunition and supplies. In what we propose to say,
we desire our readers to understand that we go for
working boats, and not mere pleasure boats.  We
think every boat can afford space for an air-tank at
each end, varying in size according to size of the
boat.  This will be very useful in assisting to righten
the boat, and if it has a man-hole, it can be used as a
safe place of deposit for valuable traps, as signal lights
or papersnot occupying sufficient space to impair its
utility as a float.  And under the thwarts, at the side, in
double bank boats, and amidships in single bank, there
should be some floating power, as cork or air cannisters,
sufficient in buoyancy with the help of the end cannisters to keep the boat in condition to be bailed out




119
if filled by shipping water, or partly full when righted.
This is all we can expect to attain in a ship's boat.
All ship's boats, whether for merchant service or for
the navy, should have a centre-board, and no projection of keel.  In suggesting this to a naval friend, he
answers: " For one or two  boats, officers would
appreciate the centre-board; launches are generally
propelled by steam, and are supposed to be capable
of towing all the other boats, so as to spare the men."
And he also says: " Boats of men-o'-war are fitted
with lug-sails, and these are regarded'as only to be
used when the boat will lay her course; beating to
windward is usually not allowed, partly on account of
the insufficiency of the rig, and partly because pulling
is a good physical exercise; a lug does not lumber a
boat, and  does very well with a free wind; for
beaching, the absence of keel will be a great advantage."
Presuming this to be the general reasoning of naval
men, we would say that a properly cut and properly
set lug-sail is as good as any ship's boat can have, and
with the aid of centre-board, will be weatherly, sure.in stays, safe to go on a beach, easy to stow within
another boat and at the davits, will turn more quickly
under sail or oars; in short, she will be more safe
and more manageable in all respects than a keel boat.
If beating dead to windward is out of order, the rule
is the result of poor fittings. It cannot be out of
order to make good the courses, instead of making
several points lee-way. If it is recognized as good
economy to husband the strength of the men for great
efforts by towing  under steam, there can be no
objection to exercising the same economy by doing
well what we now do very badly for want of centreboards and properly fitted lug-sails.




120
In a cutter 30 feet long, there is room for masts of
18 feet, without interfering with the stern-sheets.
The fore and main-sails may be exactly alike; the
latter has a light boom, which is necessary to make it
set well. The fore-yard is two feet longer than the
main, in order to set on it a jib, representing a splitlug.  This is a valuable auxiliary in tacking as well as
in balancing the canvas.  The jib is not necessarily a
fixture, but may often be dispensed with; still, when
reefed with the others, it will be found very effective
in stays.
In what is called a whaleboat in a frigate, though
not like one except in general shape, the sprits come
to the tack of the sail and shove into a pocket 5 or 6
feet up, so that, when brailed to the mast, you have
practically a reefed sail of the shape called " shoulder
of mutton."  The principal advantage attained by
bringing the tack of a lug-sail to the mast is that it
needs no dipping.
In the Journal for October, 1855, I find a valuable
paper on the management of boats in a surf, from
which I extract some hints, which, like those for
rescuing drowning men, require practice rather than
theory.  At the same time, no harm  can arise by
making use of the experience of the writer.  In discussing this subject, I would remark that beaches
differ almost as much as roads; some are steep-to, with
little currents others with cross-currents, others running off shoal and regular, others intersected by
bars and gullies; so that, in laying down rules for
manoeuvring in a surf, it has to be borne in mind that
the boat must be adapted to the locality, and the men
themselves must be acquainted with it.  No general
rule will answer for every place, and we cannot have
a boat adapted to all.  Men accustomed to whaleboats,




121
pulling long oars, are not the best for double bank
oars, and those who have been accustomed to dories,
pulling short oars cross handed, if put into a whaleboat, would be out of place.  With this preface, I
shall quote so much from the Journal as will illustrate
the subject:
In conversing with our beach men, I find that they
prefer a light, fast-pulling, flat midship-section boat,
for the following reasons: time being precious, they
can transport them to the scene of action readily with
few men  they can shove them off and get headway
on them  to pass a coming roller before it breaks, or
they can back astern to avoid a s coamer" much
quicker than in a heavy boat. If the boat is slightly
rounding on the flat bottom, or what is called rocker
bottom, she can be slewed to meet or to avoid a
coming sea by the steersman, without the necessity, as
in a large boat, of being simultaneously assisted by the
oars. The latter is a delicate operation, seldom well
done except by a thoroughly drilled crew.  In fact,
the safety of a boat in going off-shore depends almost
altogether on the management of the steer oar.  In
coming in before the sea it is still the most important
thing, but in this case the oarsmen, when facing the
sea, can more readily assist the steersman. The fact
that the fewer the men operating a boat in a dangerous sea the more chance for safety, is well illustrated
in the dory, which, for the information of   outside
barbarians," I will describe. They are very light, flat,
rocker bottomed skiffs with considerable sheer, and sides
flaring out to the gunwale; the bow is sharp, and the
stern cut off so as to leave the end about 18 inches or
2 feet across; the flat of the bottom  is perhaps half
the beam  from  gunwale to gunwale; they differ in
size, so that fishermen  carry  them  in nests three
16




122
together, some pulling four short oars by two men and
some only two.  Now, as the smallest of these shells
when once off the beach are controlled by one mind, one
impulse, and controlled very quickly, it follows that they
can get off and on, meeting heavy rollers before they
break or backing astern to avoid breakers, when veryfew
surf-boats could go; but they are so crank and easily
overloaded, that they are quite useless in boarding
wrecks to bring inexperienced persons to the shore.
In a larger dory, pulling four oars, the chance of
mismanagement is increased, although the power to
pull to windward is doubled.  In proportion, therefore,
as we increase the size and the number of men, we
increase the chances of mistakes. Still, the necessity
exists to have boats capable of bringing to the shore
several persons besides the crew. We must therefore
have experienced men for crews; if possible, men who
have been accustomed to operate together, men who
can understand what the steersman requires of them
and act simultaneously. If a boat is to be manned in
a harbor, and intended to be pulled to sea over a bar
where there is sufficient broken water at all times,
there is no objection to a large double-bank boat to
pull ten or twelve oars; but to go off a shelving beach
in a rough time, such a boat will never be popular
with our surf-men.
MANAGEMENT OF BOATS IN A SURF AND BROKEN
WATER.
The management of a boat in the dangerous circumstances of
a heavy sea and broken water is so practical a thing, that it
may be thought no rules or instructions can be given which
would be of, much value to those called on to put them in
execution.  Experience alone can give that confidence and
presence of mind and skill which are indispensable to safety.




123
Nevertheless, as all our boatmen are not equally skilful, and
as the majority of other sailors have no experience in the
managing of boats in a surf, we propose to offer some recommendations, not the result of our own experience alone, but of
that collected from various parts of our coasts.
In offering our opinion in so important a matter, on which
life or death will often depend, we desire to do so with all
deference to those who have already experience for a guide,
who, having a practical knowledge of the particular character
of the sea and surf in their own localities, and of their own
boats, have learned that particular management which has
appeared most suitable to them. They will be able to compare
our suggestions with their experience, and will then be guided
by their own judgment in a matter wherein their own safety is
concerned; but they are not the persons for whose use our
recommendations are more especially offered.
When it is considered how various is the character of broken
water, according as it is on a beach, in a tide-way, in the bar
of a river, or the edge of a shoal, how it will vary according to
the steepness or flatness of the shore, the relative directions of
the current or the wind, and of the wind and the shore.  And
when the variety in the build and size of boats in different
localities is remembered, the conclusion will be come to, that
no one rule will be applicable to meet all cases; that the same
rule will not apply alike to all boats; that it will not apply
alike to the irregular sea on the edge of a shoal, to the long
and steady rollers advancing in parallel lines on the open
beach on exposed parts of the coast, or to the short and
dangerous sea occasioned by the set of tides. There will be
special peculiarities to be consulted at every locality which
will call for some deviation in detail from  any general rule,
yet on the other hand, there are undoubtedly some leading
principles which are more or less applicable to all, and which
should therefore be ever borne in mind.
With a view to ascertain the results of local experience, and
as to how far any general rule might apply, the Committee of
the National Life-boat Institution caused a series of questions
on the " management of boats in a surf and broken water " to
he printed and circulated.  To these, replies were received




124
from 128 different places on the coasts of the United Kingdom;
and they contain a large amount of valuable information.
In our observations on the subject, we propose to state the
substance of the information thus obtained on the different
points of management, and to add our own comments upon
them.
We will premise that our remarks chiefly refer to open boats,
which are managed either by oars alone, or indifferently with
sails and oars.
Our subject will then be arranged into two divisions, viz.,
the proper management on going off from the shore against a
heavy sea, and that on running before a surf or heavy broken
sea for the land.
Whilst on some questions a curious contrast of opinion on
the same points may be observed even at places contiguous to
each other, yet on one point, viz, as to the relative amount of
danger on going off against a head sea, and on running before
it, the opinion is almost unanimous; that the greater danger
exists when running before, or away fiom a sea; also, that
this greater danger arises from the liability of boats to broach-to;
if the sea be heavy they are upset. Another point on which
nearly all agree is, that open boats under sail, before entering
the broken water, on running for the land, should take in their
sails and go through under oars.
The question on management was as follows: in rowing to
windward, would you give a boat all possible speed against
a heavy broken sea on its approach; and when running before
one, would you do the same away from it, or would you check
the boat's way until it had passed?
The replies were thus divided:
On going off, 18 were in favor of giving all speed; 81 in
favor of checking speed.
On running before a sea, 27 in favor of giving all speed; 71
in favor of checking speed.
It will be observed that the opinions are on these points more
conflicting than might have been anticipated; as, however,
there can be but one right way to manage boats placed in
similar circumstances, it follows that either the boatmen at some
parts of the coasts are unacquainted with the proper manage



-125
ment, or that there are local circumstances which make it vary
at different places; probably both of these causes must be
referred to in order to account for the disparity above displayed.
On the first point, that of going off through broken water,
the replies are of four kinds: 1. Give all speed possible.  2.
Check speed.  3. Keep steerage-way on the boat.  4. Avoid
the sea by watching for a smooth.
On the second point, of running for the shore, the replies
are: 1. Check speed as much as possible.  2. Give all speed
possible. 3. Bring all weights aft,. and keep the boat well
down by the stern.  4. Tow astern a pig of ballast or other
weight, or a hollow conical canvas bag called a " drogue."  5.
Watch opportunity and avoid the sea.  6. Keep steerage-way
on the boat.  7. If under sail, run in under small head-sail
only.  8. In sail, and take the boat in under oars.  9. Steer
with an oar.  10. Turn the bow round to the sea and back in
stern foremost.
On the first point, the majority of places where the seamen
are noted for skill and experience are in favor of giving a boat
all the speed possible on going off.  On the second point, it is
their custom to check a boat's way when running, and to row
back against each heavy sea until it has passed, then to follow
it in, repeating the operation.
A singular exception to the above rule is Deal, where the
boatmen are notoriously courageous and experienced, and where
their custom appears to be exactly the reverse of the above,
giving all speed on running before a sea, and checking speed
on going off against it.  It appears, however, that several boats,
have been lost at Deal by broaching-to and upsetting when
running before a sea.  On the first point, going off against a
sea, the custom may be resolved into two kinds-to give all
speed through a broken sea, and to check speed on the immediate
approach of a heavy wave.  Again, the rule to avoid a sea is
only applicable to places where, from  the steepness of the
shore, the sea does not break until close to it, when boats, by
the right opportunity being watched for, may often avoid the
worst of the sea; where, however, the shore is flat, and the
sea breaks at a quarter of a mile or more from  the beach, a
boat must of necessity encounter a succession of seas before she




126
is clear of the broken water on going off, and after she has
entered it on running for the land.
The danger on going off is of two kinds, 1st, the risk of being
overwhelmed by the sea breaking over the boat and filling her.
2ndly, of being driven back by the sea and turned end over
end, or turned round broadside to the sea and capsized by the
same or the following wave before she can be got head to the
sea again. The first danger will be more or less imminent in
proportion to the size of the boat and the height of her bow as
compared with the magnitude of the waves. If the boat be
small, with a low bow, it would be folly to row her right into
the crest of a heavy roller at the moment of its curling over, as
it would then fall into and fill the boat.  The preferable
management would doubtless be, if possible, so to place her
as that each sea should break a little ahead of her.  The
second danger will be the more imminent the less way there is
on the boat, and the fuller and bluffer her bow; it would
probably also be greater in a light than a heavy boat, the cause
being that the boat not having sufficient speed or inertia to
carry her up the ascent of the approaching wave, and over its
crest, she is carried back by it, and may then, if a short boat,
be turned instantly end over end, if a long one, be driven
down stern foremost, or turned broadside to the sea, and capsized by the same or the next wave.  On this point our opinion
as to the management is, that in a small boat, if possible, the
seas should be avoided until after breaking, but if they cannot
be so, that the utmost speed which oars can effect should be
given to the boat; whilst in larger boats, and in life-boats,
which are not in the same danger of swamping, the utmost
speed should invariably be given; indeed, we feel persuaded
that the safety of a boat will often depend, in a really heavy
sea, on preserving her headway, and that the wide or bluff
boat, which cannot retain its headway, is, for that reason, often
more unsafe than a narrower and sharper boat.
On the second point, running before a broken sea, an equal
variety of management is observable, yet all intended to meet
the one great risk of " broaching-to," which nearly all agree in
considering to be the greatest danger to which a boat can be




127
exposed, and to be that-which calls for the most skill and
management to obviate it.
The greater number of boatmen on the coast are in the
habit of checking a boat's way through the water, or of backing
her against a heavy sea. Their practice is to stop the boat's
way by backing their oars until the crest of the wave has struck
the boat's stern and passed her midship part, then to give way
again, running in on the back of that wave, as far as they may
be able to, and repeating the same operation until they arrive
at the beach, being careful, by steering with oars at the quarter
or stern, to keep the boat, as far as possible, end on to the
direction in which the sea is running. In a sailing boat this
principle can only be so far acted on as to diminish the boat's
speed through the water by taking her in under a very reduced
amount of sail, which is commonly done, and by towing weights
or instruments made for the purpose.
The steering with an oar on each quarter is another expedient,
employed, to prevent broaching-to, as, when running, a boat will
not answer her helm on being overtaken by a sea.
The recommendation to watch for an opportunity and avoid
a sea, equally in running as on going off, could only be practiced at those localities where the beach is steep.
In reply to the question as to whether any particular kinds
of boats are more liable than others to broach-to, the answers
given are so conflicting as to afford no information on the point.
Broaching-to may be correctly accounted for as follows: " On
a boat encountering a heavy broken sea or roller end on, if she
be stationary or is being propelled in a contrary direction to
the wave, she will receive its blow, and it will quickly pass by
her, her own inertia preventing her being carried away by it.
If, however, she is being propelled in the same direction as the
waves, and running rapidly through the water with her stern
towards them, on a wave overtaking her, its first effect is to
throw her stern up and to depress her bow, when she offers so
slight resistance to it that she is hurried along with it, her
stern high up immersed in the crest of the sea, and her bow
down at its base; as the wave approaches shoaler water, its
inshore surface approaches more and more nearly to a perpendicular, and the tendency of the boat to run down this steep




128
inclination, added to the momentum  she has already from her
previous motion, causes her to run her bow under water, when
her buoyancy at that end being destroyed, her stern is pressed
onward by the summit of the wave, and she is instantly, if a
short boat, turned " end over end," or if a long one, capsized
quarter-wise.  If she have so high a bow that it does not
become altogether immersed, or if, as in a life-boat, the end of
the boat is occupied by a water-tight air-case to the height of
the gunwale, so as to prevent the admission of the water over
the bow, the effect then is that the boat is instantaneously
turned round broadside to the sea, when again, unless she be a
life-boat of a superior description, she is almost certain to be
upset.  In the circumstances thus described, the sole cause of a
boat's running herself under water or broaching-to, is that of
running from a sea instead of awaiting it, and suffering it to
pass by.  If, on the other hand, the wave passes the boat, as
its crest advances from the stern to the fore part, the stern is
thrown out of the water; steering oars are therefore a most
valuable auxiliary aid when running before a sea.
After the danger of broaching-to has passed, there remains
the lesser danger of beaching. The general custom appears to
be, that where the beach is more or less steep, she is steered
into it in an oblique direction, the bow being turned partially
round towards that direction from which the sea is running.
If, however, the shore be very flat, she is steered perpendicularly to the beach.
We have now only to offer our own opinion and recommendations on the subject for the use of those who have not
already experience and skill for their guides, and for the
consideration of those who have.  Amongst the former we
would especially address ourselves to the crews of merchant
vessels, who, having to desert their ships from any cause, may
attempt to land on the open coast.
1st. On going off fiom the shore against a heavy broken sea,
whether from the beach on an open coast, or over the bar of a
river, and whether the beach be steep or flat, no boat which is
not of sufficient size and power, in proportion to the nature of
the sea, to offer some chance of safety, will be taken off.  In
any such boat, unless from  the steepness of the beach and




129
nature of the sea, she can, by skilful management, be made
to avoid it by watching a favorable opportunity, the safest
plan is to give her all the speed which can be obtained by
rowing.
2nd. On the management of a boat, when running through
broken water for the land; our opinion is that the greatest
danger consists in following the natural impulse to escape from
the seas as rapidly as possible; no boat can be propelled so
fast but that the waves will overtake her.  Our recommenda-.
tions then are, 1st, Before entering broken water, if a sail be
set take it in, unship the mast, and lash both, with any other
spare gear, to the thwarts of the boat, to prevent it falling over
on the lee side, if the boat should be struck by a sea and thrown
on her beam ends.  Next, if the boat be a square-sterned one,
turn her round with her head to the sea; then row or back her
in, carefully keeping her, both with the aid of the rudder and
oars, end on to the sea.  Watch each sea as it advances, and
check the boat's progress, by rowing or backing the oars, until
the brow of the wave has passed the centre of the boat, then go
in on the back of it, if it can be done, but keeping a constant
lookout behind for the coming up of the next wave, when the
same operation has to be repeated.  Even with these precautions the sea may be so overwhelming, or the boat so inferior,
that they may fail to save her, but we conceive them to be her
only means.
As regards the crews of merchant vessels leaving their ships
and attempting to land in their own boats, we recommend that
they should not take to a boat as long as there might be any
chance of safety in their ship, especially in the night time; that
if not fitted up as a life-boat, they should secure, if there should
be time to do. so, some small empty casks, tightly corked, under
the thwarts, and in the head and stern-sheets of the boat; that
if the vessel should be provided with any life-buoys or life-belts,
the former should be taken in the boat, and the latter be worn
by themselves.  That on leaving their vessel they should, if
practicable, make for the nearest harbor or other sheltered
place in preference to attempting a landing on the open coast;
even if the weather should be fine, or the wind off the land, as
there often is a surf on the beach in such situations that would
17




130
be dangerous to ordinary ships' boats, even in calm and fine
weather.
We cannot conclude this humble effort to render a service to
the boatmen and other seamen who may be exposed to risk on,
our own coasts or elsewhere, without addressing a few words
to shipowners in case it should come to their notice.
We think that they would be rendering an important service
by endeavoring to afford their servants every reasonable protection to their lives in case of shipwreck, or the necessity for
taking to their boats.  It would not put any owner to a very
great expense to fit up one boat in his vessel as a life-boat, or,
so far a life-boat that she should not founder with her crew in
if filled by a sea.  It would not put him to a very great expense
to furnish a life-buoy to his vessel, and as many good life-belts
as the number of his crew.  These'trifling things supplied to
all vessels, as they ought to be, would be the means of saving
many a poor fellow's life; the supplying them would not only
be a duty to humanity, but an act of policy.
I also notice in the same Journal, a suggestion of
Lieut. E. G. Butler, R. N., in regard to means to be
attached to the bottom  of boats, by which when capsized the crew can hold on and thus assist to right them.
He suggests placing a rod along the bottom  near the
keel to which life-lines are attached; he thinks, these
would not interfere materially with the speed of the
boat.
I suggest that metallic rods near the keel, will get
out of order and be difficult to reach unless the lifelines are so long as to be an incumbrance; I would
therefore recommend, that the bilge-battens, generally
placed say two feet from  the keel, be made a little
thicker, and be provided with  short life-lines which
can be more readily grasped by men in the water and
will be nearly as efficient in righting the boat as the
others.




131
Some valuable hints to men going to the rescue of
drowning or drowned persons, may be gathered from
a paper in  the British Nautical Mctagazine for Sept.
1870, originally published in the Life Boat Journal.
While this operation can only be done well, by those
who have practiced the rules, these hints may be of
some value to those who go overboard without previous
experience, to  save their fellow men: these form  the
rule while the exceptions are among men who are perfectly at home in the water.  The writer says:RESCUE  OF LIFE BY SWIMiING, AND  EXPERIMENTS THEREON.
The accompanying paper is from  remarks, by M. Ferrand,
member of the Lyons Board of Health.  He was deputed by
the French Government to re-organize the system of life-buoys
in that country, the insufficiency of which had too often been
made palpable.  " While looking at the great display of the
resources of civilized nations, my subject leads me to speak of
a feat which, to my mind, has a peculiar magnificence,-1 mean
rescue by a man, without life-belt or rope, but stripped for the
emergency; the man who, with no aid but his own courage,
throws hitself into the waves to save the life of a fellow-creature
at the risk of his own life.  The difficulty of this operation is
generally very great, but it appears to me to be increased to an
enormous extent, so as to render abortive  many attempts,
through ignorance of the best method of accomplishing the
rescue of a drowning person.
" I have frequently questioned retired boatmen of the Rllone,
Saone, and elsewhere, all tried men for courage and skill, and
their unanimous reply has been:'a drowning man must be
taken hold of as best possible: you are lucky if you can simply
support him, if a boat or a rope is seen at hand; in the absence
of these you must either push him on before you, or drag him,
according to circumstances.'  But, I answered, what happens if
you are unable to hold the head of the drowning man long enough
out of water?' Suffocation takes place while he is in your
hands.'




132
" The method which has most interested me is that performed
by. an Englishman named Hodgson, of Sunderland; and after
having experimented on and developed it, I recommend it for its
precision and efficacy. It consists in holding the drowning man
by the hair, and turning him on his back.  Then the salvor turns
over rapidly with his face upwards, places the head of the man
on his breast, and thus swims to land. This method is so simple
and easy, that in an' experiment which I had the pleasure of
making this autumn with my friend Dr. Bron, I was able with
ease to practice simultaneously the rescue of two persons more
or less motionless.
" The drowning man, then, should be held with the left hand,
his face, and his face only, being out of water.  If he is bald,
support him by the beard or chin, or even by the top of his coat
collar.  Keep your right hand free to help you in swimming, or
to take more secure hold of ropes or boats, if any be near for
if the shore cannot be gained you can support yourself thus in
the water for several hours.
" I have thus examined the easiest case, that of the fainting,
or at least motionless drowned man, but I will next discuss the
case that I have found full of anxiety, that of saving a man
who, without help, must certainly die, and who struggles with
the energy of despair. All English and other rescuers invariably
answer,' don't touch him; the sacrifice of your life will be useless; wait till he becomes calm; which happens after the first
spasm.' This waiting may be prudent up to a certain point, but
it appears to me particularly cruel.  If two hours of care and
effort are sometimes necessary to restore a drowned man to life,
it often requires but a minute to make him a dead man.  The
desperate clutch of the dying man undoubtedly has its dangers,
but only if you allow yourself to be seized first. As a man loses
consciousness he gradually releases his hold of the object which
he has seized with his clenched hand. I object, then, to that
excessive prudence which is recommended, as it may be attended
with serious consequences.
6 Don't let yourself be seized, I said but I must add, be ready
to seize the drowning man rapidly from behind him, and at two
points simultaneously, to render his body, as far as possible,
motionless.  Keeping the face out of water, seize him at the




OO
133
same time by the hair with the left hand, and by the right
shoulder with the right hand.  Thus keep him at a distance,
your arms extended in front and your body in an upright position; then take care of his right arm, and if he throws himself
about, if he seeks a point of support which may prevent your
turning him on his back, seize this arm because that is the part
easiest to take firm hold of, and place it forcibly on your left
hand behind his head.  Very quickly, as will easily be conceived,
the two hands of the dying man will fix themselves instinctively
on the left hand of the rescuer.  If the case is otherwise, if the
hands of the man are fastened closely on the side of him who
comes to snacth him frolm death, it does not matter. The rescuer
is bound not to return alone.  His head is kept free from all
surprise, alnd his legs are out of reach.
" When the drowning man has sunk to the bottom  he often
reappears once or twice on the surface, and by that time, when
he is reached, his exhausted strength renders him by no means
dangerous; and in all cases, the muscular relaxation having
destroyed all his tightness of grasp, the process of taking him
to land has no longer the violent character of which I have just
spoken.  If the man you are saving is conscious, encourage
him, sustain him  a minute with your outstretched arm while
taking hold of him by one of the armpits; tell him to keep his
legs stretched out, as you are going to place his head on your
breast, and carry him off in complete safety.
" But the third situation, which causes me most anxiety, is
that of the man who dives, and who by reason of the refracting
medium  in which he finds himself, distinguishes only with
difficulty the uncertain shape of the drowning man, who is
moving about at the bottom; he may then be surprised and
seized at random. The judicious boldness of the rescuer must
then make him consider the time that passes away, for the
danger exists only during the first moments.
It is not without reason that I persist in saying that however
perilous be the situation, the proceeding which consists in taking
hold of a drowning man who is unconscious, or who has not
come to his full senses, is perfectly and readily practicable.
" To enforce this point, I invite the reader to follow the
narration of the experiences which I subjoin.




134
" It is well known that a body plunged into the water has its
weight diminished by a quantity equal to the weight of the
quantity of water displaced by the body; let us see what is the
quantity of water displaced by the drowning man. According to
my experience, an adult weighing one hundred and fifty pounds
displaces about eighteen gallons, and therefore weighs no more
than about four pounds when submerged.  If the head is out
of water, the volume displaced is less, and the weight is
augmented by from eight to twelve pounds.  This is a weight
easily borne, varying with different persons.
" I have said that this quantity was variable, according to
the individuals; with young subjects, or those who are lean
and withered, the specific gravity is higher.  By keeping
nothing but the face of the drowning man out of the water, the
weight can be reduced to six pounds.
" The trunk of the body has then very nearly the same
specific gravity as water; bit during life, and especially when
long breaths are taken, it becomes lighter than water.
" If the question is raised, as to whether the position of the
rescuer lying on his back is quite necessary, I answer that I
recommend it after thorough study. In considering their exact
advantages, I have come to the following conclusions:-In
swimming on the back, I easily practiced the simultaneous
rescue of two adults whose heads were placed on miy breast;
and'in another experiment, I found it impracticable to save a
single youth of fifteen years old resting on my shoulders,
swimming in the ordinary way.  To show how far the first
named experiment could be carried, I performed the following
experiment: a weight of twenty-four to thirty pounds placed
on the chest of the swimmer was easily supported above the
surface of the water; whilst attached to the nape of the neck
or to the shoulders he was soon obliged to place himself in an
upright posiiion in order to get breath.  In other words, it was
simply like fastening a stone to the neck to drown one's self.
One of these two positions then was defective, that of
swimming on the stomach.  Why is this?  for it seems to be
more natural and preferable, especially as offering the aid of
the two arms to swimming, and of being able to see in front.
I think the explanation is to be found in the estimate of weights




135
which I have just given, proving that he who swims in the most
customary manner, on the stomach, is really heavier than he who
swims on his back.  The difference is in the man himself, for,
in the ordinary way,  he has to bear the weight of his own head
in addition to his burden, whilst in swimming on the back, the
head is submerged all but the face, and the weight which the
swimmer has to support becomes less.  Scientific estimates may
be called in to the support of swimming on the back.  Is it not
a scientific fact, that a body plunged into a liquid undergoes
from  this liquid a vertical pressure equal to the volume of the
liquid which it displaces?  Now, in swimming on the stomach,
this pressure compresses the chest, which is the dilatable part,
and thus renders most painful the deep inspirations required
after prolonged efforts.
"Is it not certain that the stability of a floating body is so
much the greater in proportion to the lowness of position of the
centre of gravity?
I' In swimming on the back, the rescuer has more stability,
his chest is more dilatable, his respiration less difficult, his
specific gravity lightened by the greatest possible introduction
of exterior air  he is free from every obstacle, and his hands
being so much freer, easily sustain and protect him whose life
he wislhes to save.' To discover the point where a drowned man is, who has
disappeared in calm water, the bubbles of air which rise to the
surface are a sure indication for the diver.
" Finally.  Such is my confidence in the method above described that I desire to make it known by all possible means,
and above all, by the practice of my directions in all swimming
schools.  In effect, I propose to make as many men capable of
saving their fellow-men as there are swimmers, and thus to
augment the chances of safety for all who are in peril of
drowni g."




136
MISCELLANEOUS.
The Journal of the " National Life-Boat Association"
for January, 1870, contains an able article concerning
the mercantile  marine of Great Britain.  In reading
it carefully I cannot but be struck with the fact that
we are  suffering  from  the  same or similar causes.
In  quoting  therefrom  somewhat liberally, it will be
realized how similar are the conditions under which
Great Britain  and  the  United  States legislate  for
political objects and manufactures, to the neglect of
the  commerce  of  the  sea.  I  have  condensed  the
language of the writer as much as possible, without
impairing the sense, and beg pardon in advance for
the liberty I take.
The " British Public" has manifested a considerable degree
of dissatisfaction at the state of the Mercantile Marine; a
dissatisfaction none the less real because it can hardly be said
to have assumed a tangible form.  Or, perhaps, that the writers
have dealt with particular evils, instead of holding surveys of
the whole subject, and have combined this mode of dealing
with such an evident display of animosity towards some particular class, who in their opinion is to blame, as to shake the
faith of uninitiated impartial readers in the existence of any
evils at all.
Thus we have one class of speakers and writers blaming the
House of Commons, whose members, they assert are' grossly
ignorant of, and indifferent to the whole matter." Such persons
must be reminded, that the House of Commons is the scrutinizer
and rejecter of laws, rather than the framer of them; and that
all laws relating to particular interests, must emanate from the
class or profession itself in the first instance, and only in exceptional cases can the House be expected to help a particular body
or interest, without its members having previously expressed
that they require the legislature to interfere.
Another class say that the Board of Trade is at fault; that
with all possible means of information at their disposal, they




137
may be expected to draw up regulations which would meet
every evil.  "Why," say they, " does the Board always move
so slowly? and why, when it does move, is there always so
much left to futurity? "  But, it must be remembered that the
Board of Trade is what the nation has made it, and what at
present, it wills it to remain. It is, in fact, composed of two
distinct parts, which must of necessity be frequently as widely
as the poles, in thought and opinion on every conceivable point
of public duty.  These two parts we may divide into the permanent or working staff, and the parliamentary leaders.  Now,
as the political head changes with the ministry, it cannot be
expected that the views of any president will exactly coincide
with those of his predecessor or successor; and so we can
easily conceive, that the elaborate scheme of reform, prepared
tndzr the auspices of a whig leader, and prepared, too, with
infinite care and wisdom  by the permanent officials, may yet
be so opposed to the views of a tory successor, or vice versa,
that it may never see the light at all, or be so mutilated as to
be robbed of half its power and meaning.
Again, one president may, as a Member of Parliament, have
for his constituents the men of some great northern seaport, and
influenced by their views of some point of sorely-needed reform,
he may give certain bias to the laws he is preparing for the
approval of Parliament; but while the proposed measure is
still not law-lo, the ministry changes! Well, the in-coming
president has for his constituents the leading men of the port of
London, who are pretty certain to regard the question from a
totally different point of view; and so, whatever may be his
own views, the new man  has to choose between the favor of his
electors, or the destruction of the bill.  That the officials- are
anxious to do all in their power to remedy existing evils in the
mercantile marine, the elaborate " Merchant Shipping Bill for
1870 " sufficiently proves.
There is also a considerable number of persons, who speak
and write as though every wreck were to be directly traced to
the incompetence or carelessness of masters of merchant ships,
and who hold theml up to public opprobrium, as monsters of
brutality.  There are, no doubt, drunken and incompetent persons to be found in command of merchant ships; but we cannot
18




138
admit there is a greater proportion so placed than may be met
with in other walks of life.  That there is a considerable number of persons intrusted with command at sea, who are wofully
deficient in education, cannot be denied; and possibly no people
more deeply deplore the deficiency than the members of the
profession themselves; but here, as in many other points connected with this subject, the nation and the nation's rulers are
to blame.  Many years ago, a special means of education at
the national expense should have been provided,-a means of
training youthful aspirants, and a means of completing in later
years the training of older officers
It may be asked " Why should the officers of the merchant
service be treated with more consideration than the members of
any other profession, who are not servants of the state? "  We
reply that the mercantile marine is so intimately associated with
the vital interests of the nation that it must always stand alone
in its relation to the general public.
Not that we propose that gentlemen intended for the merchant
service should be educated solely at the public expense, any
more than we should consider it a reasonable proposition, that
henceforth students intended for the bar or the church should
be received at the universities free of charge; but we do think
that somewhat similar institutions should long ago have been
called into existence for the benefit of the merchant service.
Not only does the rapid development of science, in its application to the requirements of navigation, demand such an institution, but the best interests of the nation would be effectually
served by its establishment.  Moreover, it is tolerably certain
that nothing but that isolation from his fellows, and that want
of opportunity to discuss and make known his wants, which has
ever been the peculiar misfortune of the sailor, has prevented
members of the merchant service from forcing this question on
public attention and eliciting those substantial marks of sympathy
which the occasion would seem to require.
The country, in fact, never has duly recognized its obligations
to the mercantile marine, and has always practically ignored
the right;t possesses to one of the first places in the nation's
regard.  In exact accordance with the decay or prosperity of
the mercantile marine, and with it, the safety of her merchan



139
dise, the stability of her merchants, and the ability of the
country to produce at any moment the largest number of good
sailors in the world, must ever be the decrease or otherwise of
this country's safety, credit, and wealth.
As to the sense that is shown of this great obligation we are
under to the officers and men of our merchant navy, let the
daily records of vessels sent to sea to be lost; of vessels
improperly provisioned; of vessels with insufficient accommodation for their crews; of vessels with barely half the crew
they ought to have; of vessels with no medical necessaries;
of vessels with neither life-belts or boats, or with bad ones; of
vessels sent on long voyages short of water, short of food, and
badly commanded: let these things answer that question.  Let
the true description of any of our great seaports bear witness
also; and the fact that the great mass of our sailors have ever
been the prey of their fellow-subjects on shore, while until very
recently the legislature has seemed to consider this to be the
natural order of things, and that they were not responsible for
the scandal.  Let the fact that crews have been, and until very
lately, without hindrance, on their return from long voyages,
drugged, and robbed, and reshipped drunk, in open day; the
fact that no care is taken by the State to educate the officers, or
to keep up the supply of the men, and that year by year the
proportion of British-born sailors is decreasing, and the proportion of avoidable wrecks is increasing; let these things
show  how nobly the nation recognizes its obligations to the
merchant service.
But the most hardly used people of all are the shipowners.
Who remembers that they, of all people, have the most to gain
by an efficient mercantile marine, and in the long run, the most
to lose by the continuation of the present state of things?  Can
it be doubted that the majority of our shipowners would gladly
inaugurate reform, if only they saw the way to carry it into
effect? Or is it not reasonable to suppose that if they, who
must know better than the public exactly what is wrong, and
to what extent, do not remedy existing evils, or at least try
to do so, it is simply because they are so placed that they
cannot?  Can it be doubted, for instance, that the shipowners
would prefer that their ships should be manned by Britisl




140
seamen, if only they could be found in sufficient numbers, and
if they could he placed on a par with foreign seamen (now so
extensively employed) in the point of sobriety and steadinessthat they would hail with joy the day when they could be sure
their ships were putting to sea well-manned and well-commanded, instead of knowing, as they too often do now, that
their vessels are being towed out to sea with crews on board
who, partly from  their different nationalities, partly from
disease and partly front intoxication, are ill-prepared to meet
the emergencies induced by storms and difficult navigation.
So long as an owner has power to insure his vessel for her
full value, there will always be a considerable number of
persons who are entirely unconcerned as to the ultimate fate
of their ships; yet we must believe that there are numbers
more who look at the question from a wider and higher point
of view, and who are as deeply concerned at loss of life or
property, which could have been prevented by better crews and
better outfits, as the most patriotic citizen.
The fact is, shipowners are beset with many special difficulties, which are not generally taken into consideration; every
improvement, whether in the ships or the men, must be a
question of profit and loss; and it is an unfortunate truth that
it must be one of direct loss to the owner.  Whether the reform
take the shape of entering and training up lads for sailors, or
the placing better found ships at sea, or devoting' more space
to the accommodation of the crews, or whatever else we
may wish to see carried out, it must be paid for out of the
pockets of the owners, who introduce the measure first into
their ships; and so long as these owners continue this practice,
they must be working at a loss, and be content with the
pleasure of introducing reforms for the general good at the
price of ruin to themselves.  Certain owners dwelling in one
end of the kingdom  hold peculiar views on certain measures,
and these views are steadily opposed by owners dwelling at the
other end; so that such measures would never be introduced
but by a Board of Trade, politically powerful, and independent
enough to set one-half of the entire shipping interest at defiance.
When have we had such a Board, and who is the strong-handed
reformer, able and willing to devise and administer laws,




141
dealing equal justice to owners and underwriters, sailors and
officers, together with all possible protection to the public?
" Well, if all this be so, and no one is to blame, things are
already at their best! We must make up our minds to the
decay in numbers of British-born seamen and the increase in
numbers of avoidable wrecks."
We reply,-no; that is not our meaning.  On the contrary,
every nerve should be strained to bring about wholesale reform;
to insure all classes of ships being sent to sea well-thoroughly
well-found; to insure their being all commanded by perfectly
competent persons; to insure their all being provided with
proper, not sham, means of saving life. Every effort should be
made to induce a healthier tone in the shipping transactions at
the Royal Exchange, and to eliminate, as far as possible-, the
swindling element from  the necessary and ordinary business
transacted with marine insurers.  Much, also, can be done by
legislation to decrease the number of wrecks; much, undoubtedly, will be effected by the new " merchant Shipping
Bill," and much more may be expected when an efficient and
energetic staff of authorized persons is organized to. carry its
wise provisions into effect. The public press can also help
materially by ventilating freely the circumstances of every
wreck, and every questionable  transaction on'Change, of
which it has any knowledge.  We must seek to soothe the
angry feeling of all sides, and we must seek to bring about a
union in thought and aim  of the leaders of the mercantile
interests. The great owners of the North must sacrifice some
of their cherished notions, and the great owners of the South
some of theirs; while the Board of Trade is strengthened by the
united voice of the mercantile marine world, and not distracted
by its opposed views and conflicting opinions.
In short, we know  as well, and possibly better, than most
other people, that the nation has good reason to be dissatisfied
with the present state of the mercantile marine, and the
numerous important interests  connected  therewith.   And,
moreover, having that great and! holy cause of "saving life
at sea" deeply at heart, we are desirous above all things that
a great change for the better should take place therein, being
firmly convinced that, however noble it may be to send help to




142
the drowning mariner, however philanthropic to provide lifeboats for the distressed ship, it is, to say the least, wiser to
prevent the mariner from  being unnecessarily exposed  to
danger: and more judicious to take measures to prevent, as
far as possible, the vessel being wrecked at all.  Holding
these views, we also hold that every measure whensoever
originated, which has for its object the improvement of the
moral or social status of the sailor, the education of the officer,
the greater sea-worthiness of the ship, and fairness and honesty
of the monetary transactions connected therewith, is a measure
directly, and very appreciably affecting the number of wrecks,
and, as a necessary consequence, the number of lives lost at sea.
We do not therefore desire to have the matter quashed, nor do
we think " things are already at their best," but we deprecate
ignorant criticism, and we appeal to the good sense of the
public against wholesale  abuse, and  undeserved  or unfair
strictures.
In examining old papers I find the following circular
and letters on the subject of lessening the dangers of
navigating the Atlantic; all came from high authority,
and while old navigators will say there is nothing new
in them, I cannot but think  the truths therein stated
will be of use to  some who do not profess to  have
learned everything in regard to their duty.
BOSTON, DEC. 25, 1854.
SIR,-In a preceding letter a reply was attempted to the
important question, " What can be done to lessen the risks of
Ocean Navigation?"  In this connection a change of route to
and from the North of Europe was recommended,-an extreme
northerly course having for some years had the preference over
a more direct one, and thereby ships have necessarily incurred
the dangers of icebergs, of the fogs prevalent upon the Banks,
and worse yet, of the rocks of Newfoundland.  It was essayed
to show that a course from the southern extremity of Ireland,
Cape Clear, so shaped as to leave the southern point of Newfoundland, Cape Race, at least one hundred miles to the North,




143
would materially lessen the dangers of the voyage.  The only
reason assigned for adherence to the Northern track is, that it
shortens the passage.  But the distance saved is vaguely
estimated at from seventy-five miles to " a whole day's running
distance," (three hundred miles,) a difference which certainly
might seem to some sufficient to.put the more prudent course
out of the question.  Who would not risk a thousand lives,
rather than prolong the passage a day! Happily, this alternative is not presented, and caution and speed may be consulted
in common, since, while approaching Cape Race no nearer than
one hundred miles, the voyage from Europe will be increased
only twenty miles.  The verification of this fact is well worth
all the attention which this discussion has received; that it
rests upon more than mere assumption, will appear upon the
authority of the subjoined letter from the learned and accurate
Professor of Mathematics of Harvard University.  His statement, much as it may surprise some navigators, will be valued
in Europe as at home. I am also permitted to add the remarks
of Messrs. C. H. Davis and M. F. Maury, distinguished as
scientific officers of the United States Navy.
Another consideration not to be overlooked by the advocates
for a northern course to shorten the passage is, that even the
hour and a half apparently gained, may be greatly overbalanced
by having to "run slow" through the region of fogs.  The
idea advanced, that any competent navigator, with scientific
knowledge enough to entitle him  to the command of an ocean
steamer, would willingly run for a dangerous point merely to
" sight it and verify his position," after a week at sea, is not to
be entertained.  There are truly perils enough to be dreaded
in the ever shifting iceberg and scudding ships, particularly
when shrouded in fog or night, to keep officers on the alert,
without running purposely for rocks whose position is known.
THOMAS B. CURTIS.
CAMBRIDGE, DEC. 1, 1854.
MY DEAR SI, —Permit me to thank you for your letter upon
the propriety of giving Cape Race a clear berth in coming from
England. It has induced me to make an exact computation of




144
the gain in distance arising from the hazardous coasting of this
point of land.
I find that for every mile by which the course of the voyage
is removed from Cape Race at its nearest approach, the passage
is prolonged one-fifth of a mile, or a minute in time, if the
average speed of the ship is twelve miles an hour.
Sincerely and respectfully your friend,
T. B. CURTIS, ESQ.              BENJAMIN  PEIRCE.
NATIONAL OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON, DEC. 2, 1854.
DEAR SIR,-I have this morning your favor, with a printed
copy of your circular letter.  I sympathize with you most
heartily in your efforts to cause action in the right quarter, with
the view of lessening the steam dangers of the sea.  I wish,
with all my heart, the owners of the lines and the insurance
offices would take the matter up. I sent you all the charts I
have which would be likely to be of any service to you.
Respectfully, &c.,
T. B. CURTIS, ESQ.                     M. F. MAURY.
CAMBRIDGE, DEC. 22, 1854.
MY DEAR SIR,-In connection with the views contained in
your interesting letter of December 1, it may be satisfactory to
you to know, that a vessel bound from St. George's Channel to
New York, would only increase her distance twenty miles, if,
instead of pursuing the great circle route to Cape Race, she
were to take the great circle route to a point one hundred miles
southeast of Cape Race, and go thence, by Mercator's sailing,
to the light-boat off the shoals of Nantucket.
Very faithfully yours,
T. B. CURTIS, ESQ.                      C. H. DAVIS.
In the  early part of my remarks, giving extracts
from Manby's pamphlet of 1826, I find that I have not
given him  sufficient credit for his early and disinterested service in the cause of humanity.
In the Journal of the Life Boat Institution, for Jan.
to Oct. 1855, is a memoir of Capt. Manby, from which




145
it appears that he began his mortar experiments about
1783, and after much study and expense, with some
help from  the Board of Ordnance, he perfected his
experiments; and on the 12th February, 1808, he rescued a crew of seven persons, from a wreck cast on
shore in a N. E. gale. Previous to this successful trial
in saving life, namely in 1792, Lieut. Bell, of the Royal
Artillery had devised " a plan for throwing a line by
means of a shell."  Similar experiments were also
made by a Frenchman named La Fere; Manby had
never heard of these, he therefore is justly entitled to
be considered the one who first successfully introduced
throwing a line by a mortar to a wreck.
In 1810, after rescuing the crews of other vessels,
he brought the mortar to the notice of Parliament and
received substantial aid, and prior to 1824 had yielded
his right in his apparatus to the Government; he died
in December, 1854, aged 89.
Referring to what has been written in the foregoing
pages, as to assistance to the Royal National Institution
from the Government through the Board of Trade, I
find by the Life Boat Journal of January 1870, which
discusses the Merchants Shipping Act of 1869, that
in consequence of the noble manner in which the
public have supported the Institution it has been enabled to relinquish pecuniary aid from the Board and
thus successfully carry on its great work without any
government help whatever."
The Mortar and Rocket apparatus is still managed
by the Coast Guard, under the authority and.at the
expense of the Government.
A  curious bit of history may here be recorded
in regard to the establishment in 1853-4 of several
life-boats on Sable Island. Miss D. L. Dix procured
19




146
subscriptions for them from certain merchants and
underwriters of New York, Philadelphia and Boston,
I have a letter before me, from Mr. Eben. Merriam,
of Brooklyn, N. Y., who was at that time one of the
leaders in all good works; he gives me under date
January 8, 1855, quotation from a letter of Miss Dix,
dated Liverpool, December 20, 1854; in which she
quotes from a letter of the Honorable Hugh Bell, of
Halifax, dated 7 December, the fact that the very
day after the arrival at Sable Island of the boats, sent
by Miss Dix, from  New York; they rescued under
very perilous circumstances, 180  persons from  an
American ship cast on shore about twenty miles from
the Government station.
The boats are said to be Francis Metallic Life-boats.
The Reliance and Grace Darling, 26 feet long, 7 feet
wide; the Samaritan, 16 feet long; they were provided
in the fall of 1853; were shipped for Halifax in a
vessel that was wrecked on that coast, and as I understood at that time, the crew were saved by them.
They were damaged, returned to New York, repaired
and shipped to Halifax, and as the rescue did not occur
until late in'54, I presume they were long delayed
repairing.
I had the pleasure of raising means in the fall of
1853 for one boat, built at Nantucket of wood, which
was shipped on the 2nd December, 1853, by a Cunard
steamer on account of Miss Dix, and which would
have been shipped in the same vessel with the others
but for'what I wrote to her on the 27th October 1853
as follows:-" I think it would' be best to send the
New York and Philadelphia boats from New York, and
the Boston boat from here, or to use a trite adage' not put all your eggs in one basket.'"




147
The performance of the metallic boats was highly
satisfactory on the occasion referred to.
It is to be hoped that the fact, of the placing four
boats on an English Island by an American lady will
not be forgotten.
Recent trials of the Francis metallic boats, received
in  1855 from  the  Treasury Department, by the
Humane Society of Massachusetts, proves that they
are very hard to turn over by means of a parbuckle
from a vessel, and that it requires about half of that
power to turn them back again; this is owing principally to cork fenders lashed to the outside about eight
inches below the gunwale. When turned bottom up
several men can stand on them without making much
impression, and when righted with the plugs out the
water nearly comes up to the thwarts, or about nine
inches below the gunwale.
Hence it will be seen that they are in no sense
life-boats," and as they pull heavy and are difficult
to transport, they are quite useless, compared to
light wooden boats for saving life. It is worthy of
remark that in an experience of more than thirty
years as a servant of the Humane Society, I do not
call to mind but two or three cases of loss of life to
the crews of the so-called life-boats, and one at least
of these, was the result of running the boat before
the sea, alongside of the wreck and suddenly checking
her by the painter, when she slewed round, capsized,
lost part of her crew, the rest floated safely to the
beach.
In regard to charges for our 51 inch mortars, recent
trials show that 10 ounces of powder is about the
maximum  to insure the integrity of the line and
becket; and in the small iron mortars, 4 ounces is
about enough.




148
While writing my concluding lines I am shocked to
learn of the loss by fire of the Missouri, near Abaco,
on her way from New York to Havana, with news as
yet, of only twelve or thirteen saved out of near an
hundred souls.
It is safe to conclude that this large loss of life was
principally owing to a want of preparation for the
emergency, by due drill and organization.
Referring to what is said in the foregoing pages
about the prize boat of the Royal National Institution
and as to rockets and mortars, I give the result in a
letter of Capt. J. R. Ward, who is the chief inspector
and agent of the institution.
BURNHAM, SOMERSET, 25TH OCT. 1872.
My Dear Sir:
In answer to your questions:
IST LIFE-BOATS:
As regards forms, the present life-boat of this Institution is
somewhat sharper at the ends, but with a flatter floor than the
boat of Mr. Beeching which gained the Northumberland prize.
Its size, depth of keel, and its general form, varies according
to local circumstances; such as nature of the shore, number of
men available to work it, whether likely to be cheifly used under
sail or oars, etc.
As regards internal fittings, Beeching's boat was solely ballasted by a tank of water, and which being fitted on a wrong
principal caused accidents attended with loss of life, which led
to the discontinuance of water ballast altogether, in the selfrighting boats.
The water in them was contained in a wide tank under the
deck, covering about two-thirds the width of the boat, and as a
consequence when only partially filled, which was liable to be
the case, the water falling to the lee-side when under pressure of
sail or struck by a sea it settled on that side like the shifted
cargo of a loaded ship.




149
Had the ballast tanks been long and narrow and divided into
compartments, the above danger would have been avoided, as
whether full or only partially so, the water would have been
confined to the central part of the boat, immediately over the keel.
This Institution however from the first adopted fixed ballast,
consisting of a heavy cast iron keel and of a body of cork in
water tight cases, or of solid fir wood beneath the deck. In
consequence of its becoming decayed, the solid wood has for
some years been given up, and the space under the deck is now
filled with light water tight boxes (with air spaces between
them for ventilation,) a certain number of these boxes in the
central part of the boat being filled with cork. The weight of
the keels varies in our 32 and 33 feet boats from 8 to 10 cwt.,
and of the boxes and cork under deck from 5 to 7 cwt. The
manifold advantage of the system is that if a boat should be
stove in the floor, the water space is so reduced below the deck,
(the buoyancy of the empty and cork boxes then becoming
available) that she could still take aboard a considerable
number of persons besides her crew without being too deeply
immersed.
2ND ROCKETS AND MORTARS:
This Institution gave up all connection with the supply and
management of the Rocket and Mortar Apparatus as far back
as 1854, since which time it has been exclusively in the hands
of the Board of Trade, and with the exception of two or three
local Volunteer Rocket Brigades is worked by the officers and
men of the coast-guard.
The Board of Trade have still a certain number of Stations
supplied with the Manby Mortar and shot, but on account of the
greater portability and longer range of the Boxer double rocket,
the latter is preferred and is mostly in use.
I am my dear sir,
Very faithfully yours,
J. R. WARD.




150
Just as I had determined to spread no more ink at
this time on Life-boats, Anchor-shot, etc., I received
the Life Boat Journal of November lst,-No. 86, containing an elaborate article on boats for vessels of war,
and another on anchor-shot for aiding the launch of
the life-boats.
I have condensed the language so far as I could
without impairing the sense and perhaps ought to
apologize to the writers in advance for the liberty I
take. I have already alluded to the Manby Grapnel
Shot, p. 20, and the anchor of Capt. Jerningham, p. 24,
as well as to Rodgers' anchor, pp. 28 to 32; but as my
motive is to invite discussion and promote experiments
for saving life, I shall rest content in the hope that my
large sins of omission and commission will be forgiven
above if not here below.
The article on anchor shot appears to have emanated
from dissatisfaction on the part of Mr. J. B. Rodgers,
because the Royal Institution according to his view,
did not give encouragement to his apparatus; while I
should like to see Rodgers' anchor fairly tried, I am
inclined to think the inspectors of the Royal Institution, are right.
LIFE-BOATS FOR SHIPS OF WAR.
The melancholy accident which occurred to boats of H.M.S.
Ariadne, in March last, has revived the questions as to the most
suitable life-boats for ships, and the best apparatus for lowering
them into the water.
A seaman had fallen overboard, the ship running ten knots,
with the wind on the quarter. She was quickly hove to, and a
cutter was sent in search of the man. The ship, dropping fast
to leeward, steam was got up, and she was steered towards the
boat; which was seen to broach to, and upset.




151
Another cutter was at once lowered, but one of the tackles
fouling, she was swamped, with the loss of one man, the rest
being with difficulty saved.
The ship was then placed in position as to drift toward the
first boat, and, with very great difficulty, four of its crew were
saved, two officers and eight seamen perished; besides the man
who had fallen overboard, and both the boats were lost.
The Ariadne had no life-boat, the Admiralty having left it
optional with the captains to have one or not.
The reasons for their not having them are:1st. That life-boats are heavier than ordinary boats.
2nd. Much of the space within them being occupied by the
air compartments they have less space disposable for stowage.
3rd. That accidents to the boats of ships of war are unfrequent, therefore it is not worth while to sustain an inconvenience
to meet a rare evil.
Before entering on the question of life-boats, we remark on
the objections:
1st. Increased weight.
The increase need not be great, as the material of the air
compartments can be of the lightest description consistent with
strength. In a merchant vessel, this increase of weight, might
be of consequence; but in a ship of war, it would not be'worth
consideration; and it would only be requisite to make the davits
and fittings, and the hoisting gear stronger.
2nd. Stowage-room.
Undoubtedly a life-boat should not be used as a cargo boat,
and there is little need for boats of a frigate to carry cargo,
beyond armament and stores.
It is, however, most important that the stowage-room should
not be diminished in the boats of a ship of war; a suitable lifeboat has a positive advattage, since the air compartments forming
its surplus buoyancy, form seats which is an advantage of a very
important character.
3rd. Unfrequency of accidents to the boats of ships of war.
In time of peace accidents are not of frequent occurrence, but
in time of war it would be often important to have at least one
boat in every ship capable of going through a surf, or through
a heavy sea, without serious risk to crew.  The upsetting of a




152
boat in attempting to cross the bar, off Kiel, in 1854-5, when
Capt. JOHN FOOTE, R.N., was drowned, together with some of
his men, may be quoted as an illustration of this need. Having
reference, to times of peace, there are few ships which have
cruised three years without having lost one or more men at sea,
and we consider it a duty to every seaman that there should be
means provided for his safety, in the event of his falling overboard; and that it is an equally imperative duty to provide the
same for those who proceed to his aid.
It should not be optional with the captain to carry a life-boat
or not, but every vessel should have one; and all the larger
class should carry two, one on each side of the ship.
We regret that the Commission appointed by the Admiralty
to enquire into the subject of boats and lowering apparatus,
have reported that the boats supplied to ships of war are sufficient, and they consider also that the ordinary tackles used are
all that is requisite.
We think that the Commission have forgotten the loss of Capt.
FOOTE and his boat's crew; and that they did not sufficiently
bear in mind the importance of being able to communicate safely
at all times between the ships of a fleet and the shore.
On reading the evidence given before the Commission, we
observe that whilst it is generally admitted that it would be an
advantage to have a life-boat, they uniformly object to have one
in lieu of an ordinary boat, but consider that there should be an
extra one. They come to this conclusion from the belief that
none of the present boats could be spared from the general use
of the ship, whilst they say that a life-boat is unfitted for such
use.  It was also considered by some of them, that a cork belt
outside, or more or less cork inside a boat, would be desirable.
We feel convinced that these difficulties may be easily met.
There is, however, but one mode of giving a boat sufficient extra
buoyancy to make her a life-boat, viz., by placing within her a
large amount of enclosed air, in perfectly watertight cases, and
by the distribution of the same in such a manner that it. shall
not only provide the requisite buoyancy, but greatly add to her
stability and safety.
It was the opinion of the Commissioners and of the officers
examined, that it is sufficient to make a boat insubmergible; we




153
contend that no boat is worthy of the name of a life-boat, unless
she floats high enough, after being filled by a sea, to be manageable; which a boat submerged to her thwarts, cannot be. Such
a boat is, then, nothing more than a water life-buoy.  In a moderate breeze, every sea would break into her, and she would be
very crank. It is, therefore, an illusion to suppose that a little
cork, either inside or outside, will make a life-boat.  Some merchant vessels' thus fitted, are life-boats only in name.  Cork, in
the boats of the National Institution, is used as ballast; and it
is too heavy for any other use.
Admitting, then, that enclosed air as being the lightest, is the
only suitable one, the questions follow: what should be its
amount, and how should it be distributed?
Its amount should be the greatest possible, without interfering with the use of the oars, and it should be distributed along
the sides and the ends of a boat, where in the one case it will
add to the lateral, and in the other to the longitudinal stability,
for it follows that the buoyant or lifting property of the enclosed
air on one side or at either end of a boat, when submerged,
would powerfully tend to right her, whilst, if it is sufficient in
amount, by confining the water within the boat to the centre, it
acts as ballast, instead of rushing from side to side.
To effect this object the side cases should extend from floor to
thwarts, conforming with the shape of the boat to the thwart
level, and equal in width to one-fourth of the boat; the inner
sides being perpendicular to check the rushing of the water from
side to side with every motion of the boat. Also that the end
cases should be each equal to one-eighth the length of the boat.
These proportions have been tried, and found to give the qualities of extra buoyancy, stability, and steadiness.
It may be thought that so large an amount of enclosed air
space at the sides would interfere with the free use of the oars
and with stowage-room. It will be found, however, that in a
double-banked boat, where the rowers sit close together, such is
not the case, and the less will it be so if the upper inner angle
of the side cases is cut off to allow depression of the oars to
raise the blades above the sea.  In a single-banked boat there
would be more inconvenience, but we think all life-boats should,
when practicable, be double-banked.  Passengers can also be
20




154
stowed more conveniently in such boats than in single-banked
ones, as they can sit round the sides on the air-cases and thwarts
without being in the way of the rowers.
As regards the stowage of cargo, the two functions are
incompatible; but, if a ship's cutters are required to carry
cargoes, other than human, in harbor, the side cases can be so
fitted that they can be removed. This is the only way of meeting the difficulty.  As to the amount of enclosed air-space,
there can be no compromise, since in exact ratio to its increase
is the water space decreased, and in the same ratio will the
boat become manageable after being filled by a sea.
Another property in any life-boat worthy of the name, is
self-relief of water to the outside level.  Two holes of three 
inches diameter, fitted with plugs, would suffice to lower the
water in the boat to the outside level, after shipping a heavy
sea, when the remainder could be baled out.
Let the Admiralty cause a cutter, without any alteration in
the model, (although such boats would be better sea-boats with
round or pointed sterns,) to be fitted with portable air-cases,
and then tested, when the advantages will be apparent.
In concluding these remarks, we cannot but express our
regret that the Commissioners should have interrogated parties
unconnected with this Institution as to the qualifications of its
life-boats, which led to replies depreciatory of them, representing them as incapable of rowing to windward against a moderate
wind; a defect which, if correct, would disqualify them for the
work they are provided to do.
It is true that their success over a long period of years, and
their very few failures to reach wrecked vessels, in the face of
gales, entirely refutes such an opinion; yet no opportunity was
afforded to bring forward evidence of the efficiency of its boats.




155
ANCHOR  SHOT AS AIDS  TO LAUNCHING  LIFE-BOATS.
In 1845 it was proposed to throw an anchor or grapnel from
a mortar, with a line attached to it, to haul boats through a
surf. A Mr. Offord, designed a grapnel with flukes or arms for
that purpose, and in the following year Captain, now Admiral
Jerningham, designed a folding anchor.  Each weighed about
45 lbs., and was fired from Manby's brass 51 inch mortars, with
from 8 to 12 ounces of powder, carrying a 1~ inch Manilla line.
The anchor and grapnel were tried at Woolwich, in 1846, by
the Royal Artillery, when a maximum range of 170 yards was
attained. Capt. Jerninghain's anchor had on a previous occasion ranged to 210 yards. Further trials were made on the
coast in 1852, but it was considered that they had not sufficient
holding power; that they could not be depended on for hauling
a life-boat through a surf; and it is evident that if there should
be any uncertainty at the moment of launching, such an instrument would be worse than useless: it would be like the broken
bow in the hand of the hunter, or as the rotten staff in that of
the pilgrim, which would fail them in the hour of need.
If any real want had been felt for such a contrivance, further
experiments would have been made, and larger anchors frori
larger mortars have been tried; if no improvements had taken
place in the life-boat carriage of that day, the want would have
been felt; the requirement being to launch a life-boat without
coming in contact with the ground, and with sufficient impetus
to enable her to be got under command with oars or sails.
At an early period, the attention of the Institution was turned
to the improvement of its life-boat carriages, and no pains or
expense were spared to make them efficient, not only for transport, but as a means of launching a life-boat safely, quickly, and
effectually.  Those results were attained, and the carriage
adopted answers every purpose.  It has only to be drawn into
the water by horses, or pushed into it by men, sufficiently far to
insure the floating of the boat on leaving it, her bow being at
the same time pointed at a right angle to the advancing waves,
a nd her crew being seated in her with their oars in hand.  She
is then run with rapidity into the sea by means of self-detaching
ropes, which are worked by people or horses on-the shore, and




156
is thus at once got under command. At the greater number of
stations the shore is flat, and this plan is sufficient; but where a
beach is steep a hauling-off rope is often an advantage.
At most of such localities a larger class of life-boat is
stationed, which are unprovided with carriages, and at which
places permanent warps are provided, attached to a buoy,
moored at a sufficient distance from the shore. These warps
are kept out through the winter months only.
Another mode of giving a boat this first impetus is by means
of poles, called "sets," from  35 to 50 feet long, with an iron
fork at one end, which being placed against the boat, and
pushed by persons on the shore, are often very effective.
By these methods the life-boats of the Institution have been
safely launched during the twenty years of their existence. The
want of any further means to accompany boats by land on their
carriages, has not been felt; and the Committee have not thought
it necessary to experimentalize with a costly apparatus.
Nevertheless they have been called to account by inexperienced
persons, many of whom have never even seen a life-boat launched
to go to a wreck,for not adopting or making trial of a modification
of the anchor and grapnel of Capt. Jerningham and Mr. Offord,
as designed, a few years since, by a Mr. J. B. Rogers.
The distinction between their plan and his is, that theirs
threw a single line, by which the crew had to haul themselves
afloat; whereas his has a block attached to the anchor, and
thereby carries a double line rove through the block, by which
a larger line can be rove, and the boat be hauled off by persons
on the shore.
Although throwing a small double line, with power to reeve
a stouter one, is a great improvement on those which carried a
single one, there would be serious inconveniences in its adoption;
and the need of any such aid has not been sufficiently felt to
induce the Committee to incur them. These inconveniences are:
1st. The apparatus and cart for its transport, and a house
in which to keep it, would cost at least ~150, which would be
a serious expense to each life-boat.
2nd. It would require horse power to transport it to wrecks,
whilst it is often difficult to procure enough to draw the lifeboat on its carriage.




157
3rd.  Delay would be occasioned both by the transport of
the apparatus and the time occupied in loading and firing it,
whilst it is questionable if the life-boat men would, in general,
have patience to await the operation.
4th. As the life-boat men at nearly all stations are fishermen,
pilots, or the owners of pleasure-boats, unaccustomed to the use
of guns, and the services of Coast-guard men are rarely
available, it has been thought that during the excitement which
always prevails at such periods, and more especially in the
night, accidents would be very likely to occur by its use.
5th. That at most stations, the shore being flat, the surf
extends to several hundred yards from the shore; and all,
therefore, that such an apparatus could do would be to haul a'boat through the inner surf, and leave the greater surf to be
encountered.
6th.  Owing to the varying nature of the ground in different
localities, and sometimes in the same locality, there would
always be some uncertainty as to the anchor holding; the
disadvantage of which defect we have already referred to.
But the want of such an apparatus has not been seriously
felt; and surely those who are most interested in pursuing their
work with success, whatever it may be, should be allowed to
be the best judges of what they require.
The Life-Boat Journal, No. 86, contains  a  full
account of the wrecks occurring on the coast of Great
Britain in 1871, from which I derive the following
facts:
The number of wrecks was 1,575, or 73 more than
in 1870.  The average loss, 1852-56,           1,045
1857-61,        1,320
1862-66,        1,611
1867-71,        1,575
Or an average of nearly 1,388 for the last 20 years.
The least number was in 1853, being 832; and the
largest in  1869, when 2,114 were lost.  The loss of
life during  the last 11 years, from  1861 to  1871




158
inclusive, within a fraction of 800-the least number
being 516, in 1864, and the, greatest 1,333, in 1867.
In the gale of October, 1859, when the Royal Charter
was wrecked, 343 wrecks took place.  In November,
1864, there were 264 wrecks; on the 2d of December,
1867, 146 were lost; on 22d and 23d August, 1868,
more wrecks occurred than in any previous August.
Including the 1,575 wrecks with damages by collision, etc., there were casualties in 1871 amounting to
1,927, of which 1,668 were British, and of these 1,173
were coasters; and among the casualties were 351 by
collision. The number reported as lost during ten
years by reason of unseaworthiness is 524.  Among
the wrecks in 1871 were 506 colliers, many of them
old and unsound; and in this year there were wrecked
155 nearly new, and 302 less than seven years old,
361 between.7 and 14, 554 between 15 and 30, 265
between 30 and 50, 44 between 50 and 60, 19 from
60 to 70, 6 from  70 to 80, 8 from  80 to 90, and 3
upwards of 100! —and the ages of 210 are unknown.
Of the wrecked and damaged in 1871-1,927-there
were 223 steamers, 84 ships, 232 barks, 282 brigs,
219 brigantines, 493 schooners, 103 smacks, and the
balance "' small vessels of various rigs;" 806 were less
than 100 tons, 687 from 100 to 300, 279 from  300 to
600, and only 155 above 600 tons.  This fact speaks
well for the better educated seamen of England.  Of
the 626 lives lost during 1871, 96 were lost in vessels
foundering, 131 by collisions, 319 by being cast on
shore, and 80 from various causes. During the year
4,336 were rescued by life-boats and other means. At
the close of the year there were on the coasts of Great
Britain 264 life-boats, of which 233 belonged to the
Royal Institution and 31 to others; and there were
2.81 sets of rocket and mortar apparatus provided by




159
the Board of Trade, under management of the coastguard.  129 " Volunteer Life Brigades" have been
formed for instruction in the various methods in use
for saving life and for co-operation with the coastguard.
It is worthy of note that nothing is said in these
statistics relating to the proportion of loss in iron
vessels as compared to wood. I take it for granted
that most of the small craft were of wood, but it would
be interesting to know the proportion of losses among
the different classes in vessels at sea or on foreign
shores.
It must be remembered that these statistics relate
solely to the coasts of the United Kingdom.
It is to be hoped that the example in providing
means to save life will be followed by this country,
and that no efforts will be spared to induce Congress
to appropriate means wherever local societies exist for
the purpose.
Whether the means ought to be utilized under the
prestige of the Government or by private associations,
remains to be seen.
The British Merchant Shipping act and Navigation
bill came into operation on the 1st of May, 1870.
It covers some three hundred long pages, and is
arranged under eighteen heads, namely:
Part 1st, Covers 30 pages, and relates to registry,
measurement, transfers, mortgages, character, liability
of owners, forgery, evidence, etc.
2d, Covers over 70 pages, and relates to masters
and  seamen, mates, engineers, mercantile  marine
offices, apprentices, agreements, loss, wages, discharges, rights, seamen's savings banks, relief to
families, leaving men abroad volunteering for navy,




160
provisions, health, accommodation, complaint, discipline, consular courts, registration of seamen.
3d, Covers 18 pages, and relates to collisions, equipments for safety, surveys of passenger steamers, order
among passengers, accidents, carrying dangerous goods,
cables and anchors.
4th, 4 pages, relates to delivery of goods on lien for
freight exclusively.
5th, 8 pages, on general liability of owners.
6th, 22 pages, casualties, vessels in distress, wrecks,
salvage of life and property, jurisdiction of courts,
receivers of wrecks, fees of receivers, etc.
7th, 22 pages, pilotage, Trinity House, powers of
authorities, returns, licenses, rights, dues, licensing
masters and mates as pilots, offences, boats, pilot
fund, etc.
8th, 14 pages, light-houses, sea-works, dues, authorities, construction, false lights and damages to
light-houses.
9th, 14 pages, conservancy, inquiries, regulations as
to works, obstructions  to  navigation, removal of
shingle, etc.
10th, 14 pages, harbor dues, accounts, officers, regulations, warehouses, cranes, etc.,-life-boats, gauges,
damage to harbor, battery sites, special and general
acts.
11th, 3 pages, on loans to harbors.
12th, 2 pages, on powers by provisional orders.
13th, 5 pages, charges to shipping, liabilities, dues
on ships sold, etc.
14th, 5 pages, Board of Trade, documents, forgeries,
stamps, inspectors, etc.
15th, 5 pages, mercantile marine fund-its maintenance, uses, etc.
16th, 2 pages, on provisional orders.




161
17th, 14 pages, on legal proceedings, powers of
judges, damages, punishment, etc.
18th, Miscellaneous, covering powers of commissioners, harbor-master, coasting trade, etc.
It would seem to be very wonderful if such a vast
mass of red tape should work satisfactorily, yet it is
believed that in no country in the world can the
citizen on shore and at sea be said to be so carefully
guarded as to his rights; and it may be said that if a
redundancy of regulations for the protection of seamen
be any evidence of their immunity from danger, they
ought to feel quite safe.
In March last, Lieut.-Commander W. O'Neil of the
Ohio made experiments, at my request, on the utility
of the naval hammock as a life-preserver.
A cotton canvas hammock, with a mattress of cork
shavings, sustained 160 lbs. of iron six minutes, 96 lbs.
ten minutes, 62 lbs. one hour and five minutes, and
32 lbs. indefinitely. The same hammock and bed put
into a close woven, cotton, canvas bag was floated one
hour and twelve minutes against six minutes, eight
hours and a half against ten minutes, and four hours
against one hour and five minutes.  It will be seen
from  this, that when the water gets through very
slowly the buoyancy decreases, as a matter of course,
but the hammock still floats nearly four times as long
as without the bag.  A further test showed that a
common hammock and hair bed put into the bag floated
twenty-four hours with one 32 lb. shot attached to it,
and continued to float a long time, not stated, with two
shots.  Twenty hammocks thus provided will float an
anchor weighing 2,000 lbs., and a hundred would float
the largest anchor in the navy, or with a few spars and
casks would make a raft to carry the crew of a frigate.
21




162
SABLE ISLAND LIFE-BOATS.
Extract from report of Department of Marine and
Fisheries, June 30, 1869:
" At- Sable Island there is a staff of sixteen men
maintained as a humane establishment, at a cost of
upwards of $5,000 per annum; of this amount the
British  Government pay ~400.  A  small sum  is
realized annually from  the sale of cranberries grown
on the island.  Provisions for the staff are sent from
the mainland."
Further extracts from the journal of the Assembly
of Nova Scotia from 1865 to 1867, when the humane
establishment was transferred to the Dominion of
Canada:
" At Sable Island there have been three wrecks of
small vessels, and one of a  large American ship, the
Acadia, from which 180 lives were saved, and in this
case the safety of the passengers and crew is in a great
measure to be attributed to the efficiency of the lifeboats generously furnished by Miss Dix.  The first
shipment of boats were wrecked at Yarmouth, and
replaced;  the second  shipment was  driven  into
Yarmouth, and had only arrived a few days before the
Acadia was wrecked; but for them few, if any, would
have been saved."
Another report of H. Bell, C. B. W., of February 6,
1855, says:
" August 6, 1855, Sable Island was placed under the
superintendence of R. S. Dodd.  In 1856, two wrecks
occurred, cargoes and crew saved; 1857, no wrecks;
1858, two wrecks, no particulars reported; 1859, no
wrecks reported; 1860, brigantine Argo wrecked,
crew and materials saved; 1861, no wrecks; 1862,
May 7, ship Zone of Portland came on shore, one man
lost,-August 1st, the Jane Lovett wrecked, crew




163
saved;  1863, brig Gordon  and  steamer Georgia
wrecked, crews saved; 1864, brigantine Dash, April
12, and schooner Weather Gage, 27th February, were
lost, all saved,-March 8, schooner Langdon Gilmore
of New York came on shore on the south side, captain
and two men drowned, the remainder of the crew
saved by the life-boat of the island-December 20th,
brigantine William Bennett of St. Johns came on shore
on the north side, crew all saved,-but two of the lifeboat men, after the most brave and humane conduct,
struggling in the surf during an inclement cold day to
connect a line to the wreck, by which a female passenger and infant were safely landed, were exhausted
by fatigue and cold, and perished on their way to
their respective stations in the evening; 1865, brigantine Triumph of St. Johns was wrecked March 31, all
hands saved,-ship Malakoff of Hull stranded June 12,
on south side, crew saved. A large expenditure will
be required to refit the life-boats which were damaged in the attempt to reach the W. Bennett, 1869.
Bark M. and E. Robbins of Yarmouth wrecked February 24, on south side, two lives lost."
Although the above extracts are very meagre and
indistinct as to the work done by the boats, they convey ample evidence of the value of the work done,
principally through the active instrumentality of Miss
Dix.