A SELECTION
OF
ENGLISH SYNONYMS.
FIRST AMERICAN EDITION,
F.R OM THE SE, C OND LONDON ED I TI O,
REVI.SED AND ENLARGED.
BOSTON AND CAMBRIDGE:
JAMES MUNROE AND COMPANY.
M DCCC LI1,




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, by
JAMES MUNROE & COMPANY)
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Miassachusetts.
STEREOTYPE EDITION.
THURSTON, TORRY, AND EMERSONX PRINTIRS.




EDITOR'S PREFACE.THIS little work has been carefully revised by me,
throughout; and though I am far from presuming
to call it perfect, it is, I am confident, very much
the best that has appeared on the subject.
Of the importance of that subject itself, very
different opinions will probably be found to exist.
Some advantage, indeed, all will acknowledge, in
the cultivation of correctness and precision in our
expressions.  But the importance of this, and of
all that relates to language, will be much less
highly estimated by those who have adopted the
metaphysical theory of ideas, and who consider
the use of language to be merely the conveying
our meaning to others, than by those who adhere
to the opposite- the nominalist- view, (which I
have set forth in the Introduction to the Logic,
~ 8,) and who accordingly regard words —or some
kind of signs equivalent to words —as an indispensable instrument of thought, in all cases, where
a process of reasoning takes place.
RICHARD DUBLIN.








PREFACE, BY  THE AUTHOR.
IN offering a collection of synonyms to the public,
a few words of explanation may be necessary.
It is scarcely needful to remind the reader that
the word'synonym' is, in fact, a misnomer, as
applied to words of the description in question.
Literally, it implies an exact coincidence of meaning in two or more words: in which case there
would be no room for discussion; but it is generally
applied to words which would be more correctly
termed pseudo-synonyms - i. e., words having a
shade of difference, yet with a sufficient resemblance of meaning to make them liable to be confounded together. And it is in the number and
variety of these that (as the Abbe Girard well
remarks) the richness of a language consists. To
have two or more words with exactly the same
sense, is no proof of copiousness, but simply an
inconvenience. A house would not be called well
furnished from its having a much larger number of
chairs and tables of one kind than were needed,
a




6                   PREFACE.
but from its having a separate article:-for each distinct use.  The more power we have of discriminating the nicer shades of meaning, the greater
facility we possess of giving force and precision
to our expressions.  Our own language possesses
great advantages in this respect; for being partly
derived from the'Teutohic, and partly from the
Latin, we have a large number of duplicates from
the two sources; which are, for the most part, though
not universally, slightly varied in their meaning.
These slight variations of meaning add to the
copiousness of the English language, by affording
words of more and less familiarity, and of greater
and less force. This may be easily understood, if
we consider that the branch of the Teutonic, spoken
in England during the Anglo-Saxon period, never
became extinct, but that three-fourths of the English language at present consist of words altered
or derived from that ancient dialect; that these
words usually express the most familiar ideas, such
as man, house, land, &c.; and that the French terms
gradually introduced, being those of a more highly
civilized people, were adapted to express the more
refined ideas., This is true even of physical objects;
thus, for instance, most of the names of the animals
used for food are still Teutonic, such as ox, sheep,
swine, &c.  The Anglo-Saxons, like the modern




rREFACE.                    7
Germans, had no objection to say ox-flesl, sheepflesh, swzine's-Jlesh,-but the Norman conquerors,
introducing a more refined cookery, introduced with
it French words for the flesh of the animal; hence
we have beef, mutton, pork.'
We have entirely lost such compounds as ox-flesh,
sheep-flesh, but we still retain swine's-flesh, with a
peculiar modification of meaning, when we speak
of it as one of the meats prohibited t by the Mosaic
Law, in which case it is plain that it presents to the
mind a gross idea, which pork does not.
In the case of such duplicates as have no assignable difference, it may happen, from  the  mnere fact
of the greater or less familiarity which one word
presents to the mind, that although it be in most
cases indifferent which we use, yet in some instances
custom, founded on  the facts  above mentioned,
makes a difference in their employment. (See the
articles' Liberty, Freedom,'' Righteous, Just,' &c.)
It has not been the design of this work to notice
all the synonyms in our language; which would,
indeed, be an almost endless task; but merely
(after excluding technical terms, and words which
do exactly coincide) to select a few of those groups
x See the amusing remarks on this subject in the second chapter
of Scott's Ivanhoe.
t Isai. lxv. 4; lxvi, 17. 2 5Mac vi. 18:




8                     VBPREFACE.
of words which are in most frequent use, and are
most liable to be confounded.
Many persons imagine that two words must either
coincide precisely in their meaning, so as to be, in
the primary and strict sense of the word,'synonymous,' or else stand for two (more or less) distinct
thing's. Indeed, it would often be regarded as almost
a truism to assert this; but those who maintain such
an opinion overlook the fact, that two words, without
exactly coinciding in sense, may nevertheless relate
to one and the same thing, regarded in two different points of view.  An illustration of this is
afforded in the relation which exists between the
words'inference' and'proof.'  Whoever justly
infers, proves; and whoever proves, infers: but the
word'inference' leads the mind from the premises
which have been assumed, to the conclusion which
follows from them: while the word'proof' follows
a reverse process, and leads the mind from the conclusion to the premises. We say,' What do you
infer from this?' and' how  do you prove that?' *
Another illustration may be quoted in the synonyms'expense' and' cost'- — considered elsewhere more
at length. The,same article may be expensive and
* See Whately's Logic, book IV. chap. iii. ~ 1, in which the above
is illustrated by the difference between the road from London to
York, and the road from York to London.




PIrEFACE.                        9
costly; but we speak of expense in reference to the
means of the purchaser; of cost, in reference to the
actual value of the article.
W7We have  seldom  in  tiie followring  pages introduced, —lwha)t  are  usually  considered  so  closely
connected  with  the  subject of  synonyms  as  to
demand  a prominent place in a work of this kind,
-namely, etymologies;  which  are  generally  appended to every group  of synonyms as an almost
essential part of it.
But it may be doubted whether this procedure
does not tend to confuse the su-bject it was intended
to clear.  The  history of the  derivationz  of avords
is, indeed, one which offers a most interesting and
important field  of inquiry, and. one which  may
accidentally  throw  light on  their meanings; but
the two  questions  are in  themselves  completely
distinct;  and, in  inquiring  into  the  actual  and
present meaning  of a word, the  consideration  of
what it origi-nacil/  meant  may frequently  tend  to
lead us astray.Y
* The following n-otice is extracted from the Common-place Book
of the late Bishop Copleston:-'Words apparently synonymous —and really so in the great
majority of instances - have nevertheless each an appropriate meaning, which on certain occasions is made to appear. The propriety
of meaning is know'n, ( pr'iori, b-y tlhe scholar whlo is acquainted
with the etymology of the word, but the person who has collected its
mneaning only from its use is ever liable to rnistakes, and often to




:10                       PREFACE.
It is curious, and illustrative of national character
and customs, to observe how completely words,
radically  the  same, modify  their meaning  in  the
various languages which branch out from  one common  source.  Who would  expect to  see words, so
nearly the same, differ so widely in meaning as our
English word altered (changed), the French'altere,'
(overheated  or thirsty,') and  the  Italian'alterato'
(angry): and then, again, our English word alternative, (a  choice  between  two  courses,)  and  the
Spanish'alternativa,' (the social circle in which a
person moves,) all these different words springing
from  the Latin'alter' (another)?  Who would suppose  that the  same  word, the French'defendre,'
should  signify'to defend' and' to forbid?' or that
the most ridiculous mistakes; because, perhaps, in the course of
his experience, it has never been used in such a manner as to
demonstrate its peculiar signification.  E. g., Benevolence and
Philanthropy are frequently synonymous —they might, nine times
out of ten, be substituted for one another; and an illiterate person,
recollecting that each term is applied to characters and actions of
kindness, mercy, and humanity, will indiscriminately use them,
even when that humanity is shown towards the brute creation, than
which mistake nothing could be more ludicrous.'
Many other words, however, are now used habitually with impropriety, as far as regards etymology, - as wine, tea, coffee, which
originally signified liquors drawn from particular plants, and are
now applied to any imitations of these liquors, as'sage-tea,''ginger-wine.'
* It originally meant, altered for the worse —then, angry or
excited — thence, heated, and, lastly, thirsty.




PREFACE.                      11
one word, honesty, (honnetete,) should imply civility
in France, and probity in England; and another,
(virtus,) valor in Latin, and excellence in the arts
in Italian? or that the three words'substantia,''understanding,' "'hypostasis,' should all three have
corresponding origins, though so widely different in
their signification?
Again, it is curious to observe what different ideas
originally suggested the words which now mean
precisely the same thing in different languages.
The word'Heaven,' for instance, conveyed with
it the idea of something heaved or lifted up, as
also the old word'lift,' and the German'luft.''Ccelum,' again, referred to something hollowed
out or vaulted, being derived from the Greek word
koilon, hollow, our own word' coiled' being probably
of the same origin.'A torrent,' again, signified in
Latin a stream, which was burnt up in summer,
while the Greek word referred to its flowing (only)
in winter.
All these variations of meaning help to elucidate
national manners and habits of thought, and as
such are valuable and curious; but though they
may occasionally help us, they must not be allowed
* Understanding ('onderstonding') in Dutch, is help.'Give me
understanding that I may keep thy law' — would to a person comparing Dutch (as a cognate dialect) suggest,'Give me help.'




12f-                  IIVPREEFACE.
to influence our decisions with respect to the significations of words. Our question is, not what ought
to be, or formerly was, the meaning of a word, but
what it now is; nor can we be completely guided
by quotations from  Shakspeare or Milton, or even
from Addison or Johnson. Language has undergone such changes, even within the last sixty or
seventy years, that many words, at that time considered pure, are now obsolete; while others (of
which the word'mob' is a specimen,)  formerly
slang, are now used by our best writers, and
received, like pardoned outlaws, into the body of
respectable citizens. The standard we shall refer
to in the present work, is the sense in which a
word is used by the purest writers and most correct
speakers of our own days.
A few observations may be added on the subject
of conjugate or paronymous words; by which is
meant, correctly speaking, different parts of speech
from the same root, which exactly correspond in
point of meaning: for example, the adjective'expensive' is conjugate  or paronymous with  the
substantive' expense;' the verb' to restrain' with
the substantive'-restraint,' &c.
* The word'flimsy' affords another instance of a word which
was formerly a slang expression; it was a corruption of /ilm-sy. It
would not be found in Johnson's Dictionary.




rPE FACE.                 13
But, like the word'synonym,' this -designation
has been somewhat corrupted in its use; words
being called'conjugate,' which are in fact pseudoconjugate — i. e., which coincide in point of grammar and derivation, but not precisely in meaning.
Such are' sorrow' and' sorry,''fright' and'frightful,' and many others.
Where the conjugates exactly and completely
correspond, we have sometimes used them indifferently in this work, as in the instance of' expense'
and' cost,' answering respectively to' expensive' and'costly;' but where there is a shade of difference,
it has been noticed, as being an important branch
of the subject.
In order to avoid confusion, we have thought it
best to divide the groups of synonyms according
to the parts of speech —viz., into particles, nouns,
adjectives, and verbs.
b








TABLE OF CONTENTS.
ADVERBS, PRONOUNS, PARTICLES.
PAcE
Which, that...  21
In spite of, notwithstanding....      22
While, though.....  23
Nearly, almost......      23
Completely, entirely, and                                  23
Scarcely, hardly                                           2
With, through, by.....      24
But, however, yet, still, notwithstanding, nevertheless.  25
Also, too, likewise, besides....      26
Voluntarily, willingly.....  27
Therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, hence, thence, so,
consequently......  28
Because, since, inasmuch as, for, as...      29
Amid, amidst, among, amongst....  31
Betwixt, between...      31
Though, although.....  32
Indeed, nay......      32
Only, solely, alone, merely, simply.             33
Except, excepting, but, save....      34
VERBS.
To allow, permit, suffer, tolerate....  35
To confess, acknowledge, own, avow...      35
To charm, enchant, enrapture, captivate, fascinate, attract.  37
To contemn, or show contempt, despise, scorn, disdain.   38
To conquer, subdue, vanquish, subjugate,..  39




16                         CONTENTS.
PAGE.
To ask, request, beg, beseech, supplicate, entreat, implore,
solicit.......  40
To bear, suffer, endure.....      41
To puzzle, perplex, embarrass....   41
To forbid, prohibit.....      42
To guide, direct, sway....   42
To mislead, delude...      43
To think, believe, surmise, suppose, presume, conjecture.   43
To abandon, desert, forsake....      45
To abdicate, resign, relinquish.   45
To distinguish, discriminate....      46
To teach, instruct, inform, educate....  46
To alleviate, mitigate, relieve....      48
To announce, proclaim, declare....   48
To renounce, recant, abjure...      49
To understand, to comprehend...  50
To praise, to admire, to commend, to extol, to eulogize.     50
To promote, to forward.....   51
To be, to exist......       51
To remark, to observe..... 52
To endue, to endow..                                    52
To shun, avoid, elude.....   52''o( amaze, to astonish..                 53
To employ, to make use of.....  54
Shall, will....                     54
To rend, to tear.....   56
ADJECTIVES.
Civil, polite, courteous, polished, well-bred.   58
Graceful, elegant....          59
Beautiful, handsome, pretty, lovely; fine...   61
Sincere, honest, upright.....      62
Wonderful, strange, surprising, admirable, curious..   63
Silly, foolish, absurd, weak, stupid, simple, dull.      64
Joyful, glad, pleased, delighted, gratified...   65
Idle, lazy, indolent, slothful....      66
Grateful, thankful....   67




CONTENTS.                          17
PAG;E.
Fruitless, useless, ineffectual, vain..              67
Frank, open, candid, ingenious..                  68
Rash, fool-hardy.                                            69
Transient, transitory, fleeting....   69
Bright, shining, sparkling, brilliant, glistening, glittering  70
Timid, cowardly, timorous, dastardly...   71
Mild, gentle, meek, soft....              71
Different, unlike, dissimilar, distinct...   73
Romantic, sentimental.....      74
Authentic, genuine..                                        75
Secret, hidden, concealed, covert..              75
Everlasting, eternal..76
Durable, lasting, permanent.                  76
Continual, continuous, perpetual.              76
Talkative, loquacious, garrulous.                            77
Strong, powerful, vigorous, forcible, potent...  77
Inconsistent, incongruous...       79
Cruel, barbarous, inhuman, savage....   80
Sublime, magnificent, splendid, grand, superb..      80
Pleasing, agreeable, pleasant..          82
Calm, tranquil, quiet, placid....      82
Delightful, delicious.                                       83
Obstinate, stubborn.....      84
Fickle, capricious, variable, changeable...   84
Deep, profound.....      85
Weighty, heavy.....   85
Faultless, blameless, spotless, innocent..      S6
Wicked, sinful, criminal, depraved, guilty...   86
Benevolent, beneficent, charitable, munificent, liberal, bountiful, philanthropic.....   88
Benignant, kind, good-natured...      90
Neglectful, negligent.....   90
Absent, abstracted...              91
Trifling, trivial...                          91
Fatherly, paternal; motherly, maternal; brotherly, fraternal;
kingly, regal......   92
Friendly, amicable....      92




18                        CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Righteous, just.....           92
Calculated, fit, suitable, apt...          93
Accurate, exact, precise....   93
Famous, celebrated, illustrious, renowned..      94
Sly, cunning, crafty, deceitful...          94
NOUNS.
Diligence, industry......                     96
Contentment, satisfaction...                    96
Anger, indignation, displeasure, resentment...   97
Recompense, reward, meed....                    98
Approval, approbation.....   99
Timidity, bashfulness, shyness, diffidence..      99
Sorrow, grief, affliction, distress, regret, sadness, melancholy  100
Fear, fright, terror, alarm, dread, apprehension..     102
Patience, fortitude, resignation.  105
Utility, usefulness.....     106
Expense, cost......  106
Wisdom, prudence.....     107
Self conceit, pride, vanity, arrogance, haughtiness.  108
Effects, consequences, results....     110
Conflict, combat, contest, contention....  111
Detestation, aversion, antipathy, dislike, abhorrence, hatred,
repugnance...... 112
Enemy, antagonist, adversary, opponent...     113
Reproof, rebuke, reprimand, censure, remonstrance, expostulation, reproach.....      114
Answer, reply, rejoinder.....  116
Command, injunction, order...             116
Deference, respect, veneration.... 117
Illusion, delusion                                            118
Falsehood, falsity......  118
Deceit, deception, fraud..                            118
Admittance, admission.....  119
Compulsion, coercion, restraint, constraint..     119
Determination, resolution, decision.... 121
Narration, narrative, relation, account, history, tale.    122




CONTENTS.                           19
PAGE.
Display, show, parade, ostentation...  123
Imagination, conception, fancy....     124
Conviction, persuasion...      125
Goodness, virtue....     127
Hinderance, obstacle, impediment....  128
Allegiance, loyalty.....     128
Security, safety, surety.....  129
Reformation, reform.....     129
Faith, belief, certainty.....  130
Forgiveness, pardon...                     131
Feelings, sentiments....  132
Speech, oration, harangue, discourse...     132
Pity, compassion, sympathy.....  132
Modesty, diffidence, humility....     133
Austerity, severity, rigor, sternness, strictness..  135
Genius, wisdom, abilities, talents, parts, ingenuity, capacity,
cleverness......  136
Fortitude, courage, valor, bravery, intrepidity, gallantry,
heroism.....     138
Law, statute, rule, regulation....     139
Consolation, comfort, solace....          140
Gift, present, donation....     140
Reason, cause, source, origin....  141
Self-love, selfishness.....     143
Discipline, trial......  144
Attachment, affection, tenderness, fondness, love, liking.   145
Reason, sense, understanding....  147
Gaiety, liveliness, animation, vivacity.                  148
Misfortune, calamity, disaster..;.  149
Envy, emulation, jealousy....     149
Privacy, retirement, solitude, seclusion, loneliness.      153
Earth, world, globe....     154
Profit, gain, emolument.....  156
Import, meaning, sense....     156
Amusement, entertainment, diversion, recreation..  157
Usage, custom.                         158
Dexterity, address, skill....  158




20                        CONTENTS.
PAGE,
Help, aid, assistance.....      159
Act, action, deed..... 159
Anger, wrath.....     160
Tyranny, despotism.                                       161
Liberty, freedom...     162
Vestiges, traces...... 162
Chastisement, punishment, penalty....163
Project, design, scheme, plan...         164
Purpose, intent, intention...             164
List, catalogue...             165
Brevity, conciseness.....     166
Tolerance, toleration.... 166
Confidence, trust, reliance...     166
Error, mistake, blunder..... 167
Malice, spite..                                         167
Occupation, business, avocation.... 168
Novel, romance.....     168
Poverty, indigence, pauperism.             169
Matter, subject......     170
Language, words, terms, expressions... 170
Suggestion, bint......     171
Moment, instant..... 171




SYNONYMS.
ADVERBS, PRONOUNS, AND PARTICLES.
WHICIIH  THAT.'WHICH' and' that' are very often used synonymously;
but there are some cases where either particle might be
used, but where the sense of the whole would be materially
altered by the choice made.
1st.'Which' is used in speaking of a class generally,
and' that' when we mean to designate any particular individual of that class. For instance, in this sentence:'A
person who declines investing his money in a railway spec.
ulation which is highly advantageous,' we should imply that
a railway speculation in general is an advantageous thing;
but if we say,' in a railway speculation that is highly advantageous,' we mean that the particular speculation we are
speaking of is so. Again:'The South-American Indians
make great use of horses, which are very serviceable animals.'' Which,' here implies that we are speaking of the
class horse; if we said'that,' it would seem to allude to
some individual horses.
2dly, (and, indeed, this second rule follows from  the
first).' That' is applied to the antecedent immediately preceding the relative, and' which' to an antecedent sentence
1




22_ A COLLECTION1 OFor part of a sentence. For instance:' I should be unwilling at this juncture to introduce a new question which might
raise objections.' This would imply that the introduction of
any question might raise objections, whatever its purport
might be; if we said' that might raise objections,' it would
imply that this individual question itself might raise them.
IN SPITE OF, NOTWITHSTANDING.'Notwithstanding' is a milder expression than' in spite
of.''In spite of' implies some decided obstacles to be
overcome.'Notwithstanding' simply indicates the presence of some circumstance which may be supposed to be
an impediment.  If we say,'Notwithstanding his youth,
he has made great progress in his studies,' this would generally imply that the tender age which might have been an
impediment to him, did not prove tb be one; but when we
say,' In spite of a bad education, his attainments are of a
very high order,' we point out that the bad education was a
real obstacle and impediment, which he was able to break
through and overcome, but which could not be regarded as
otherwise than an impediment. They are, however, often
used synonymously; but'notwithstanding' generally applies more to negative hinderances, passive difficulties; and' in spite of' to active opposition. We should say,' He was
dragged along in spite of his resistance,' rather than'notwithstanding.' Again, it would be a more polite form of
expression to say,' Notwithstanding what you have said, I
still think,' than' In spite of what you have said.'
To act in spite of experience, is to go against the lesson
it teaches. But if we were to say,' Notwithstanding his
experience, he acted thus,' we should imply that the person
alluded to had not gained any such lessons by his experience.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  23
WHILE, THOUGH.'Though' implies more of contrast in the parallels made
than' while.' For instance, we should say,' While I
admire his courage, I esteem his mildness and moderation;'
but' Though I admire his courage, I detest his ferocity.''While' might be used, indeed, in both these cases, but'though' necessarily implies contrast.
NEARIY,~ ALMOST.
These words are often used synonymously, but there is a
slight difference between them:' nearly' is applied rather
to questions of quantity, time, and space: as,' It is nearly
eight o'clock'-' This child is nearly ten years old'- -' I
walked nearly two miles.''Almost' might be used in the
same way, but it is less frequently so employed, and more
commonly appropriated to questions of degree; as, for instance,' It is almost as white as snow'-' He is so plain as
to be almost ugly.' In this sense we should not say' nearly.''Almost' is never used with a negative.  We should
say,' She is not nearly so handsome as her sister;' in this
case,'almost' could not be applied.
COMPLETELY,  ENTIRELY.  SCARCELY, HARDLY.
These two pairs of adverbs bear very much the same
relation to each other as' nearly' and' almost.''Completely,' like' almost,' is used in questions of degree;'entirely'
in those of quantity. They are often used synonymously,
but still we should say,' I am completely tired,' not' I am
entirely tired,' and' The space was completely (not entirely)
filled up.'' Scarcely,' again, relates to quantity;' hardly'
to degree. We say,' He is scarcely ten years old,'' it is
scarcely a mile off;' but,'I shall hardly be able to finish
this work,' &c.




24                 A COLLECTION. OF
WITH, THROUGH, BY.'By' and' with' are in many cases used synonymously,
but there are also many cases in which they convey a distinct meaning to the mind.
Whenever a certain effect is implied as proceeding from
two causes, the remote and original cause is expressed by
the use of'by,' and the immediate one by' with.' For
instance:'The tree was cut down by a woodman with an
axe.' If we said' by an axe,' it would imply some free
agency on the part of the axe.' Wlith a woodsman,' on
the other hand, would imply that the woodsman was an unconscious instrument in the tree's destruction. On the other
hand, whenever a conscious agent is implied, we use the
word' by.'
This was not the case in old English: Shakspeare uses
the expression -' marred with traitors'- in modern speech
it would be'by traitors'- but marred with the swords of
traitors or with the wounds inflicted by them. In general,'with' is improper, not only when a conscious agent is supposed, but when the agent is personified to a certain degree
in our own minds, from its action being apparently voluntary. For instance, we hardly ever say' struck with lightning' or'with a thunderbolt,' but' by:' although if another
agency were poetically or mythically introduced, the expression would again be changed to' with,' as'Jupiter struck
him to the ground with a thunderbolt.'' By' and' with' are often used when no agent is spoken
of, but a certain object is said to be accomplished by certain
means. But in this case,' by' implies that the means used
are essential;' with,' only that they are useful in aiding our
endeavors. The two following phrases,'By patience and
perseverance the work will be completed,' or' with patience,'
&c., would be equally correct: but the word'by' implies




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 25
that patience and perseverance are the chief instruments in
accomplishing the work; while' with' points out merely
that they will prove useful auxiliaries in its prosecution.'By' and'with,' however, have each separate meanings
of their own, completely distinct from those we have just
mentioned, but tending to throw additional difficulty on the
subject of their relation to each other.'With' implies
companionship as well as instrumentality; and'by'without reckoning the cases in which it is synonymous with'beside'- is also applied to designate the mode of performing some act; as,'this is locked by a key, tied by a
string, shut by a clasp;''we travelled by railroad;''the
letter was sent by express.' In Greek and Latin,' with'
was expressed by the dative or ablative case;' by,' by the
word'hypo' in Greek, (with a genitive,) and a or ab in
Latin (with an ablative.)''Through' is somewhat different from the other words
mentioned. It often implies that the means used are the
appointed channel for the conveyance of the object or
advantage specified; as'I heard the news through such a
person;''I received a remittance through the bank.'
BUT, HOWEVER, YET, STILL, NOTWITHSTAND1NG,
NEVERTHELESS.'But,' like its corresponding conjunctions in French,
Italian, and Greek, has two distinct meanings, one in a
certain sense conjunctive, and the other disjunctive.  The
one would be expressed at full length by'but yet,' the other
by' but on the contrary.' For instance:'This is not summer, but it is almost as warm,' would express the first, and' This is not summer but winter,' the second. Horne Tooke
was so struck with the difference of these two meanings
of' but,' that he referred the word to two separate roots, one
being'boot,' (besides,) the other' be-out,' (left out.)  Inge1*




26                    A COLLECTION OF
nious as this theory is, it is hardly tenable; for not only
in French and Italian, but even in Greek, there is but one
conjunction to express these two different meanings.* In
German, Spanish, and Latin, we find a conjunction for each
of these two meanings; the German aber, the Spanish pero,
the Latin autem, answering to' but yet;' and sondern, sino,
and sed, to'but on the contrary.'
The other words in the group before us all correspond to
the first of these two meanings (' but yet'). The weakest
of them all in disjunctive power is' however,' which seems
rather to waive the question than to qualify or alter it.' This, however, is not essential,' differs in force from,' but
this is not essential;' the latter rather implying that it might
be thought essential.'Yet' is stronger than'but,' and'still' even stronger
again, as it indicates an exception to what has been said
before. It seems an abbreviation of' not removed.'' All
you say is true, still I think' - this implies that full weight
is given to the opponent's arguments, but that they do not
remove the difficulty in the mind of the objector.'Notwithstanding' and'nevertheless' are, again, stronger than' still.'  Nevertheless' is strongest of all.
ALSO, TOO LIKEWISE, BESIDES.'Too' is a slighter, and a more familiar expression than' Soot,' however, is probably the origin of'but,' as'allos,'
(another,) is of' alla,' (but,) in Greek. So in Latin' ceeterum' signifies'but.' Horne Tooke may have intended to allude to a third
sense of the word'but,' where it bears the same meaning as'except,' which does literally imply'left out' And even this third
meaning is probably derived from'boot,' (first implying addition,
and afterwards exception,) just as in old English we sometimes see
the word' beside' loosely used for' except,' as' all beside him.' The
Greek pleen, except, was probably derived from pleion, more.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 27'also,' which has something in it more specified and formal.
This is the only difference between the two words.'Likewise' has a rather different meaning.  Originally it meant,'in like manner,' and it has preserved something of that
signification. It implies some connection or agreement
between the words it unites. We may say,' He is a poet,
and likewise a musician:' but we should not say,' He is a
prince, and.likewise a musician,' because there is no natural connection between these qualities: but'also' implies
merely addition.'Besides' is used rather when some additional circumstance is named after others; as a kind of after-thought,
and generally to usher in some new clause of a sentence;
as,' Besides what has been said, this must be considered,'
&c.
VOLUNTARILY, WILLINGLY.'Voluntarily' is more restricted in its sense than'willingly;' it simply means that the thing done is not performed under immediate compulsion, nor without intention.
All our outward actions are voluntary, — for that cannot
be called an action which is not voluntary; but they
are not necessarily performed willingly; for this implies
that our wishes and inclinations go along with the action
performed.  There are many things which are done voluntarily, but are much against the wishes of the agent. For
instance, in Roman-catholic countries a girl who takes
the veil must do so voluntarily; but it frequently happens
that she is far from doing it willingly; the entreaties
and threats of her friends, unhappiness at home, despair
of a better fate, will often induce her to decide on taking a
step which nevertheless is quite against her inclination.
Originally, however, these words,'willingly' and'voluntarily,' must have had the same meaning.




28. A COLLECTION OF
THEREFORE, WHEREFORE, THEN, ACCORDINGLY, HENCE,
THENCE, SO, CONSEQUENTLY.
All these are what are called illative particles — i. e.,
particles which denote that which in some way follows from
what has been previously said; but they denote this in different ways.' Therefore' and' wherefore' are nearly alike, but' therefore' may indicate a conclusion from several reasons
adduced;'wherefore' refers only to something immediately preceding. We might say —' This and that and the
other difficulty will attend such a procedure; I cannot,
therefore, approve of this measure.' And again:' I found
his testimonials insufficient, wherefore I refused to appoint
him.'' Wherefore' is, however, rather obsolete. In old
English, it was used to signify not only'for which cause,'
but also'for what cause;' as'the more part knew  not
wherefore they were gathered together.' (Acts, xx. 32.)'Then' bears the same relation to' therefore' that' as'
does to'because;' it is less formally conclusive, and is
used more by the way and incidentally than'therefore.'
Whenever the main-object is to establish a certain propo.
sition, the word'therefore' is used; when this point is
subsidiary,' then' is to be preferred. In establishing a proposition of Euclid, it would be inappropriate to say,'the
angles of a triangle are then equal,' &c.:' therefore' would
be the proper word. In using'then,' we often imply that
the proposition on which our argument is based is taken for
granted; it seems to say,' Recollect this has been proved.'
In old English,' therefore' is used where' then' is now;
as' There   being justified by faith, we have peace,' &c.,
we should now say,' Being then justified by faith,' as the
question had been already discussed and fully established.' Hence' and' thence' resemble' then' more than' there



ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  29
fore;' they answer nearly to' this' and' that,' the one indicating an antecedent reason close at hand; the other, one
more remote.'Accordingly' is something like'therefore,' but more
limited in its meaning.' Therefore' includes both inference
and proof - both physical and logical sequence;'accordingly,' only the former. We might say,'It has rained,
therefore - or accordingly - the ground is wet;' and' It is
wet, therefore it has rained:' in this last sense we could
not use' accordingly.''Therefore,'' accordingly,' and'then,' often indicate a practical course of action following
from certain causes or reasons;'hence' and'thence' are
applied exclusively to reasoning. For instance,'I determined not to act hastily, and therefore consulted the best
advisers. Such an one's opinion seemed to me the most
just, and accordingly I adopted the course of action he
recommended; I fixed then upon this plan,' &c. In such
a sentence,' hence' and' thence' could not be used; but
we say,'hence we may infer,' or' thence we may conclude.''So' is something like' then,' but slighter and more colloquial.'Consequently' is the most formally and deliberately
conclusive of the whole group; it is generally confined to
a practical sequence or conclusion, and is seldom used in
mere speculative argument.
BECAUSE, SINCE, INASMUCH AS, FOR, AS.
These are all causal particles; i. e., they indicate a proposition from  which something follows; they correspond,
conversely, to the illative, which point out that which does
follow.'Because' (by cause) would seem from  its etymology to
* See Whately's Logic - Inference and Proof.




30                  A COLLECTION OF
have originally referred only to physical sequence, but is
now used as an answer to' why?' in the three senses in,which it may be asked, 1st, indicating physical sequence,
(from what cause?) as,' Why are the days longest in summer?' 2dly, logical sequence, (how is it proved?) as,'Why is this line equal to that?-' and 3dly,' For what purpose?' as,' Why did you go to London yesterday?'' Since' is more incidental and less formal than' because;'
it also generally begins the sentence, or is understood as the
beginning.'inasmuch as' has something of a qualifying power,
which the others do not possess; it is nearly the same as' in as far.' This sentence, for example, -'I approve of
his sentiments, inasmuch as they are patriotic,' would imply
that they are approved only so far and no further. If we
substituted' because,' we should be accounting for, instead
of qualifying, our approbation.'As' is even more incidental than' since,' and seems to
take for granted what is stated; for instance, in saying,' As I know him to be dishonest, I must take these precautions'-the fact of the dishonesty is merely noticed in
passing, as something already established; just as in the
relation of'then' to'therefore.''As' seems to suppose
its corresponding word'so' to follow. In our earlier writers' so' is generally expressed; but unless some very strict
comparison is intended, it is commonly omitted by moderns.*'For' is a slighter'because.' In the older writers, as
Shakspeare, we may find it used as'because' would be
now:'I hate him  for he is a Christian.'- (Mlerchant of
* Thus in a letter of Sir F. Walsingham to Harleigh:'As your
studie in these things is very commendable, so I thank you fobr the
same;' in modern language this would be,' as your studie, &c., I
thank you.'




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                   31
Venice). Cowper has accordingly introduced it into John
Gilpin, which is an imitation of the antique style,'for that
wine is dear,' &c.
AMID, AMIDST, AMONG, AMONGST.
These words preserve much of their etymological signification.' Among' originally signified'one out of many':'amid' and'amidst,''in the middle of.' Hence, then,' among' and'amongst' always imply number,' amid' and'amidst' enerally -quantity.  We should say, -' Among'
(not'amidst')'all these books I cannot find the one I want;'
but not,' I was out among snow and rain:' in this last case'amidst' would be the correct expression.'Amid' and'amidst' also indicate that the thing specified
is of a different class from those around it; while' among'
and'amongst' are oftener (though not always) applied to
objects surrounded with those of the same class. We speak
of'a rose amidst nettles,' but not of'a tree amidst the
forest;' we are said to be'among friends,' but' amidst
enemies.' *
BETWIXT, BETWEEN.'Betwixt' is ordinarily confined to places;' between' has
* In poetry these rules are not strictly adhered to. See 1Milton's
description of the seraph Abdiel:-' faithful found,1
Among the faithless faithful only he:
Among innumerable false, unmov'd,
Unshaken, unseduced, unterrified,
His loyalty he kept, his love, his zeal:
Nor number, nor example, with him wrought
To swerve from truth, or change his constant mind
Though single. From amidst them forth he pass'd.'
Paradise Lost, Book V.
Here the two words are used indifferently.




32                 A COLLECTION OF
a much more extended signification. We speak of-' what
may happen between morning and evening,' of'hesitating
between opposite courses:' we could not use' betwixt' in
these senses; but' betwixt the chair and the table,'' betwixt
the road and the mountain,' would be quite correct.  In
poetry, however,'betwixt' is used much as'between' is
in prose: as in Scott's ballad of'Alice Brand,' —' Betwixt
night and day,' &c.
THOUGH, ALTHOUGH.
These particles nearly approach each other in meaning;
but'although' is the stronger and more emphatic of the
two, and is therefore generally chosen to begin a sentence:
as,-' Although my difficulties are great, I ope to succeed.'
It seems to imply that full weight is allowed to the former
clause of the sentence, and to answer to the additional' all'
so often introduced into old English, as,' all too soon,' * a
combination still preserved in German,-' all zu-wohl,' or'gar zu sch6n.'
INDEED, NAY.' Indeed' still preserves its original etymological meaning,
which is nearly the same as -' in reality,'' in fact,'' in
truth.' When used synonymously with'nay,' it generally
adds to the force of the second clause of a sentence, -as,' I know it, indeed I am sure of it.'' Nay' has this force
in a much more intense degree, and makes the second
clause even stronger in proportion to the first than'indeed,'
- as,' I think, nay, I am sure.' In old English,' yea' had
nearly the same sense as'nay' has now, - as in Cor. ix.,'yea, I judge not mine ownself:' in modern English the
* The particle' alto,' likewise used in old English, and meaning'entirely,' is sometimes confounded with this expression. But in'all too soon,'' entirely' could not have been meant.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  33
word'nay' would have been here employed.  Each of
them signifies,' this is not all, for -;' or,' not only this,
but-.' These ellipses were often expressed in Greek by' alla' (but) or' gar' (for).  An instance where this ellipse
was mistaken by our translators occurs in 1 Cor. xv.,-'for
one star differeth from another in glory.' The Greek word
used is the one usually translated'for;' but'nay,' or' indeed,' would have been the correct rendering of the idea
in English.
ONLY; SOLELY,  ALONE, MERELY1 SIMPLY.'Only' (preserving its etymology, one-ly) relates to cases
of number, time, or quantity, which none of the others do:
as,' I have only one left;'' he only left me just now.'
But when'only' relates to questions unconnected with
time, number, or quantity,'solely' approaches the nearest
to it in sense. It differs, however, in being more emphatic
and deliberate, and in marking more distinctly the exception indicated. For instance, the phrase,' I resolved to
attend only to this case,' draws the attention to the abandonment of all others; while'I attended solely to this,' points
out the circumstance of one being singled from the rest.
Or we might say,' This I have mentioned is only one out of
many reasons;' but,' I have been influenced solely by this
consideration.''In the former sentence the word'only'
could not be substituted.'Alone,' when used as a particle,
has nearly the same meaning as'only.''Merely' and' simply' somewhat resemble each other;
but'merely' conveys (at present) the sense of'no more
than;' while'simply' seems (according to its original
meaning) to convey a disavowal of complex acts or motives
in the speaker.  The former implies no addition-sthe
latter, no admixture. For instance,'this is merely a personal argument,' implies that nothing more is urged:' this
2




34        A COLLECTION OF ENGLISH SYNONYMS.
is simply a statement of facts,' excludes the idea of any
comment accompanying it.' Only' might be used for any of the other three particles.*
EXCEPT, EXCEPTING, BUT, SAVE.'Except' and' excepting' are nearly the same, the latter
being more cumbrous and less in use.
The chief difference between them  and'but' is, that'except' seems to imply a more decided and emphatic
exclusion of the case specified than'but.''I have written
all my letters but one,' conveys a less marked exception
than' all except one.''Save,' is almost exclusively limited
to poetry.
*~' I only meant
To show the reed on which you leant,
Deeming this path y6u might pursue
Without a pass from Roderick Dhu.'
SCOTT's Lady of the Lake, Canto V.




YEi RB S.
TO ALLOW, PERMIT, SUFFER; TOLERATE.'To allow,' and ito permit,' are often used synonymously;
but'to allow' is used rather more in the active, -' permit,'
in the passive sense. In saying,' I allow him to walk in my
garden,' we seem to give a positive sanction to the action;'I permit him,' simply implies that' I do not hinder him.'' To suffer' is more passive than either. It ihmplies rather
tolerance than sanction.  An indolent and careless teacher
will suffer his pupils to neglect their lessons; if we said, lihe
allowed or permitted them, it would imply that he formally
gave them leave to be idle. To tolerate is always used in
the sense of permitting something unpleasant or otherwise
objectionable to the tolerator; thus, we speak of tolerating
differences in religion, &c.
TO CONFESS, ACKNOWLEDGE, OWN, AVOW.' To confess' is to make a declaration of some action we
have done, which is not known by the persons to whom we
speak; as a Roman-catholic penitent confesses his sins to
his priest. If the action is already known, but not the
author of it, the declaring ourselves to be the doers of it
would be called acknowledging, or owning.  Or again, if
both the action and the doer of it are known, we acknowledge it, by declaring our consciousness of it, as for instance,
we acknowledge or own a fault which we are already known
to have committed. Hence we speak of a person's' refusing to acknowledge himself in the wrong,' which implies




36                  A COLLECTION OF
that his fault is already known; but we should speak of'extorting a confession,' not'an acknowledgment,' from a
criminal;- because his confession would be a statement of
facts not supposed, at least, to be known to others.
We sometimes speak of' acknowledging' or'confessing'- indifferently - some fault: but in using the word
confess we are pointing out the fact that we are not known
to- be the doers of the action; while in using the word
acknowledge we are rather adverting to the fact that the
action itself is known.  If both the action and the doer of
it were known, we could not speak of'confessing it.' We
do indeed speak of'confessing our sins to God,' to whom
all must be known; but this is rather said figuratively, —
as we are commanded in the Scriptures'to make our requests known' to Him, though of course they must be
known already before we make them.  But in both these
cases the words used refer to our own state of mind.
Confessing is oftener applied in reference to a fault than
either owning or acknowledging: indeed, strictly speaking,
it almost always implies some error.'To avow' is never
used in the sense of confessing a fault, though the noun
avowal sometimes is. But' to avow' implies a bold, frank
acknowledgment of the truth. We never avow what we
are ashamed of; but we avow our motives, the reasons of
our conduct, our opinions, &c.  We confess our weakness,
errors, or faults — we acknowledge or own what we are
charged with.
The conjugate word' confessor,' * is used in two senses,
both very unlike those implied by the verb; first, indicating
* It is curious that this word and one other- i. e.,'prisoner'present almost the only exceptions to the general rule in our language, that the terminations'or' and'er' indicate an agent, and
not a passive recipient.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 37
one who receives a confession, and secondly, one who has
boldly avowed his religious faith, (whether previously known
or not,) and has suffered for that avowal. This last employment of the word probably grew out of the older and less
defined use of the verb' to confess,' which, as we may see
in our translation of the Bible, was often formerly used
where we should now substitute the word'avow,' or'acknowledge.'
TO CHARM, ENCHANT, ENRAPTURE, CAPTIVATE) FASCINATE, ATTRACT.'To charm,'' to enchant,' and' to enrapture,' have a considerable resemblance in meaning. They differ chiefly in
point of force;' enchant' being stronger than' charm,' and'enrapture' stronger still. This last word is distinguished
also from the other two, by implying a powerful excitement
of feeling, as well as of taste or fancy; and by being very
rarely, if ever, applied to the feelings awakened by persons.'To attract' is to draw after one, -to win upon a person's liking,- to inspire an inclination. It is used generally
for persons; whereas the other three terms apply equally
well to things. We are charmed or enchanted with beautiful poetry, music, or scenery, by personal beauty or agreeable manners,- we are attracted by person and manners
only. The conjugate word' attraction' is less limited in
specification; we speak of places, pursuits, &c., as having
a'strong attraction.''To captivate' and'to fascinate' have nearly the same
meaning as'to attract;' but they are stronger terms, and
the latter implies something of design; we use it in speaking of the manners of an accomplished woman of the world,
who knows and uses her power. The conjugate adjective'fascinating' does not convey so unfavorable a meaning,
2*




38                 A COLLECTION -OF
though it generally implies more of art than'captivating'
or' attractive.'
TO CONTEMN OR SHOWV CONTEMPT, DESPISE, SCORN,
DISDAIN.'To contemn' is less commonly used than its conjugate
noun, contempt. This word is' nearly the same in its meaning as' to despise,' or rather it may be said that despise is
the verb, and contempt the noun belonging to it. A proud
man despises or feels contempt for those beneath him. Both
imply looking down upon others, considering them as unworthy of notice.'To contemn' is rather different in its
meaning, both from' to despise' and also from its own conjugate,' contempt.' We never speak of contemning an individual; the expression is exclusively applied to qualities.
We may despise, or feel contempt for persons who act in
such or such a way; we only contemn their actions, or the
dispositions which lead to those actions.'To scorn' and' to disdain' are used in a stronger sense
than the words before mentioned. These verbs, like'contemn,' are never properly used towards persons, though
their conjugate nouns are. We are said to treat an inferior
with scorn or disdain, but not to scorn or disdain him. Disdain implies a feeling of haughty indignation. The Italian
sdegno is evidently from  the same root, and somewhat
resembles in its meaning our own word, though it is more
frequently used to designate anger.  Disdain is shown by
a haughty supercilious manner, — contempt often shows
itself in good-humored condescension.  Scorn implies a
mocking, scoffing spirit, -it forms a kind of link in its
meaning between contempt and ridicule.
We have said that the verbs' to scorn' and' to disdain'
are used rather towards things than persons. We speak of' disdaining' or' scorning' a proposal or course of action;




ENCLISH SYNONYMS.                 39
but there is a shade of difference in the meaning. We
disdain something which we consider beneath our station,
capacity, or powers; we scorn what is in itse7f disgraceful
or contemptible. Alexander disdained to share the Persian
Empire with Darius, though it was a compromise very
fitting for Parmenio: he would have scorned to do anything
unworthy of a Macedonian.
TO CONQUER, SUBDUE, VANQUJISH, SUBJUGATE.'To conquer' is less individual and more general in its
meaning than'to vanquish:' we vanquish an enemy who
attacks us; we conquer a country.'Vanquish' is always used for a combat, generally with
some personal enemy;'conquer' for a series of combats.
We speak of vanquishing an enemy in a single encounter,
but of conquering a country. Achilles vanquished [Eector
before Troy; Napoleon, in his campaigns, conquered great
part of Europe.'To conquer' is oftener used metaphorically than'to
vanquish;' we talk of conquering evil inclinations, conquering oneself, &c. But in this last sense,' to subdue' is
oftener used.' Subdue' implies a more continued pressure,
and a more gradual, but surer and final victory.
When a nation has ceased to resist, we say it is subdued.'Subjugate' (which originally means, to bring under the
yoke) implies external and continued restrictions.  We
subdued the French, but we did not subjugate them. Poland
is subjugated- that is to say, kept under by a continuous
pressure from without; but its spirit remains unsubdued.'Subjugate' is always used in speaking of nations —
never of individuals, and never in an abstract sense.'Subdue' may be applied to individuals even in a literal sense,
but always indicates mental as well as physical conquest.
A child, or a captive, is said to be completely subdued by




40                  A COLLECTION OF
severe treatment, when the spirit is broken and the mind
enfeebled, or cowed, as it is sometimes expressed.
TO ASK, REQUEST, BEG, BESEECH, SUPPLICATE,
ENTREAT, IMPLORE, SOLICIT.'To ask' (not in the sense of inquiring) is the simplest
form of making a request.' Request' is merely a more
polite form of asking.'To beg' is stronger; a starving
man is said to beg, not to ask, for alms.'To beseech' is the same as to beg, but stronger still,
and more high-flown and poetical.' To entreat,' again, is
nearly the same; but beseeching is more urgent- entreating more argumentative: we entreat an equal; we beseech
a superior; we entreat a person on whom we are urging
advice, when he is, in fact, receiving a favor from us: in
this sense it is merely to urge strongly.' To supplicate' and' to implore' both imply extreme
distress and urgency of entreaty; but we implore equals -
we supplicate superiors. Supplication generally implies a
state of humiliation and abject inferiority; a slave will supplicate pardon of his master — a captive supplicate a con.
queror to spare his life.  These two last verbs are stronger
than any of the other mentioned.'To solicit,' on the other
hand, is simply to make a request to some one whom we
address as our superior.
The government of these eight verbs is somewhat different.'To ask,''to beg,''to request,' govern commonly,
though not always, the object sought; the other five, generally the person to whom the request is made. WVe ask a.
favor, a mendicant begs his bread; but we implore or supplicate some one to grant us our request. This rule, however, does not universally hold good: we may ask a person
for something, entreat a favor, implore pardon.




ENGLISH SYNONYM S.                  41
TO BEAR, SUFFER, ENDURE.'To suffer,' when used as an intransitive verb, implies
simply to be in pain or distress of body or mind.'To
bear' or' endure,' is to support that distress with fortitude.
It is true that the adverbs,' patiently,'  firmly,'' resolutely,'
are generally added to the verbs' to bear' and'to endure;'
but still they have not so decidedly a negative action as' to
suffer:' we may say,'He suffers a great deal, hut has no
idea of bearing pain' —' it is impossible to bear (or endure)
such distress,' &c.; meaning, to bear with fortitude.' Endure' is often used synonymously with' bear,' but it generally implies bearing for a long continuance.' To suffer,'
when transitively used, is nearly the same as' to tolerate.'
I have called the verb'to suffer' an intransitive verb
when applied to the endurance of pain or distress; for
though it is true that we often speak of'suffering pain,'
&c., yet it seems to be rather an elliptical expression for' suffering under or from pain,' as no action takes place;
and we could not reverse the expression, and speak of pain'being suffered,' though we often speak of its being borne
or endured. This seems to show the intransitive character
of the verb' to suffer,' in the sense under consideration.
TO PUZZLE, PERPLEX, EMBARRASS.
We are puzzled when our intellectual faculties are confused, and we cannot comprehend what is proposed to us:
we are perplexed when the feelings and will are brought
into play as well as the intellect, and we are at a loss what
to decide or how to act.  We are embarrassed by some hinderance or difficulty which impedes our powers of thought,
speech, or action. This need not necessarily be an intellectual hinderance; it is generally either of a kind which
affects the feelings, as timidity or bashfulness, or a material




42                  A COLLECTION OF
obstacle which hampers us, such as an impediment in the
speech. A schoolboy is puzzled with a difficult sum: a
riddle puzzles those who try to guess it: we are perplexed
by the subtleties of a casuist, or in the midst of conflicting
opinions: a rustic is embarrassed in the presence of his
superiors, or a traveller when trying to speak a foreign languhge he knows but imperfectly. It is the characteristic of
embarrassment to take away our presence of mind.
The French use the word'embarrass,' not only in our
sense, but also as we should use the expression' hampered'
or encumbered.  We use the word in this sense when we
speak of' embarrassed circumstances.'
TO FORBID, PROHIBIT.
The expression'to prohibit' has more of an official
character than is implied by'to forbid,' which is oftener
used in relation to private life.  A  government prohibits
contraband goods: a schoolmaster forbids his pupils to
break the rules of the school.
TO GUIDE, DIRECT, SWAY.'To guide' and'to direct' are words similar to the
results which they indicate, but not similar in the means by
which these results are attained.  We may be directed
from a distance: a guide must accompany and keep close
to us.
A person in a road unknown to him requires directions.
A blind man needs a guide.  A  general may direct the
movements of his army from head-quarters: a ship is not
directed, but guided, by the pilot or steersman. Directions
are often nearly equivalent to commands, with this difference, that they always imply instructions how to act in
some particular case, and not merely a positive order.  We
may command a person to be silent, or to speak: we could




ENGLISH SYNONYtIS.                43
not, in such a case, be said'to direct;' we direct a child
or scholar to perform the prescribed task.'To sway' implies a propelling force, which neither of
the other words do, and also implies that the person who
sways is himself the propelling force. It is most generally
used in an abstract or moral sense, and in such cases,
always indicates an exertion of the lower faculties. A man
is guided or directed by his reason or intellect, but swayed
by his passions or interests.
TO MISLEAD, DELUDE.'To mislead' is, simply, to lead astray in any manner:'to delude,' is to mislead by acting on the imagination. A
man may be misled by any one who gives him bad advice;
Mahomet deluded his followers with his visionary tales and
pretended inspiration.'To delude' always implies some intention to deceive;
when we speak of being' deluded by passion or vanity' we
personify the qualities mentioned, and speak as if they were
agents with evil intentions.'To mislead' does not necessarily imply design: we may be misled by the obscurity of
writing on a sign-post, or by a mistaken interpretation from
a foreign language; the word deluded could not be used in
such a case.
TO THINK, BELIEVE, SURMISE, SUPPOSE, PRESUME,
CONJECTURE.'To think,' is used in three senses.
1st. To express the ordinary operations of the intellect.
2d. An opinion formed in the mind; and,
3d. A belief in something as nearly, but not quite certain.
The threefollowing sentences are specimens: —' Thinking is a useful exercise for the mind.'




44                  A COLLECTION OF'I think this a sensible book.'' I think such and such an event has happened, but I am
not sure.'' To believe' has also two meanings; one, a decided faith
in some opinion; the other, nearly synonymous with the
third meaning of'to think;' as,'I believe, but am not
sure,' which is nearly the same as' I think,' but expresses
a rather stronger conviction.'To suppose' has also two senses; one in which we
assume a thing for the sake of argument; the other, in
which we conclude it to be most likely.' We will suppose
such a thing to be the case.'' I suppose this must be true.'' To presume' is to go upon a supposition, to consider the'burden of proof' as on the other side.  (See Whately's
Rhetoric.)  Presumption is not quite conjugate to the verb' presume,' being weaker.' There is a presumption in
favor of his guilt, because he is a bankrupt,' is different
from,' We may presume he is guilty.''To conjecture' and'to surmise,' with their respective substantives, which are
strictly conjugate to the verbs, are nearly, but not quite
alike. We conjecture in a case in which we have little or
no direct evidence to go upon.'To surmise' is nearly the
same, but differsFirst, in being always practical. We may form conjec-tures about the volcanoes in the moon, or the immateriality
of the soul: we can only surmise the truth of some practical transaction, as the reality of a crime being committed.
Secondly, a surmise is a strong conjecture, and must be
founded on more evidence. We might say,' I can form no
surmise in a case like this, it must be a matter of mere conjecture.'
Thirdly, a surmise is always expressed and brought forward: a conjecture may be kept to ourselves; and, lastly,




ENGLISH SYNONYMIS.                45
a surmise is generally unfavorable. We may conjecture the
innocence of a suspected criminal: we surmise his guilt.
TO ABANDON, DESERT, FORSAKE.
WVe may abandon not only persons but things: we can
only desert a person or a cause. A man abandons house,
lands, and wealth; he deserts his friends, his country, or
his standard.'To abandon' is generally, though not always, blameable.
It usually implies that the thing or person abandoned suffers
some loss; hence, it must imply blame, except in an abstract
case, such as'abandoning a useless pursuit or hopeless undertaking.''To desert' is always disgraceful, even when
used in an abstract sense.'To desert' a cause, is to abandon it in a case where it cannot be abandoned without disgrace. A soldier who abandons his standard shamefully
deserts his duty.' Forsake' is rarely, if ever, used in reference to anything abstract: we may forsake a house, friends, or country; but not fortune, rank, or station. It is also distinguished
from the other two words by implying no blame. An early
Christian might forsake his family and friends for his religion: he would not be said to abandon them, except when
reproached by his heathen enemies.  It likewise implies no
loss to the person or thing forsaken.
The conjugate particles are all more or less different:'forsaken' is nearly the same as deserted, and both imply
loss or bereavement; they in fact nearly correspond to the
verb'abandon.' To abandon a place is to leave it deserted.
TO ABDICATE, RESIGN, RELINQIUISH.
We can only abdicate a high dignity or station; we may
resign any situation, high or low —or indeed any advan3




46                  A COLLECTION OF
tage. A king abdicates his crown; a private person may
resign wealth or station; a servant may resign his place:
in short, any benefit may be resigned.'To relinquish' is
oftener used for claims of some kind —something whose
possession is disputed or struggled for; as, for example, a
contested inheritance. But it always implies yielding after
a struggle. We might say,' He would not resign his claims
to the property without an effort; but after a long struggle,
he was compelled to relinquish his object.'
TO DISTINGUISHI  DISCRIMINATE.'To distinguish' is merely to mark broad and obvious
differences;'to discriminate' is to notice minuter and more
subtle differences. The generality of people can distinguish
color; but many who possess the faculty to a certain point
do not readily discriminate between the nicer shades. An
ignorant man can distinguish a rose from a lily: only a
botanist can discriminate between the varieties most closely
allied and nearly resembling. The faculty of distinguishing
belongs to every one whose intellect is above that of a child
or a brute: it is only those who are skilled or well informed
in any particular department who can discriminate clearly.
TO TEACH, INSTRUCT', INFORM, EDUCATE.
Of these words the first two are often used synonymously,
but they have also a distinct meaning.'Teaching,' strictly
speaking, when distinguished from instruction, is applied to
the practice of an art or branch of knowledge: instruction to
the theory. A child is (correctly speaking) instructed in the
grammar of a language, and taught to speak the language.
Thus, teaching may be merely mechanical; while' instruction' implies a degree of understanding in the pupil, as well
as the master. A child who has been taught to learn lessons by rote, without understanding them, will find difficulty




ENGLISH SYNONYlMSS.                 47
in comprehending instruction in the principles of what he
has learned.  Hence, we speak of teaching a brute, but
never of instructing it.
Information,*' again, is distinguished from instruction, in
relation to the truths conveyed by it.  Matters of fact, made
known to one who could not have known them before, are
called information: instruction elicits new truths out of
subject-matter already existing in the mind. (See Whately's
Logic, book iv. ~ 1.)
A traveller gives us information respecting foreign countries; a metaphysician instructs us in the principles of moral
science -principles drawn from facts already known to us.
The two processes may take place at the same time - a
child in learning a lesson receives both information and
instruction- he is taught things he never knew before, and
also taught to apply and mnake use of what he does know
already. In fact, pure mathematics is the only branch of
instruction which includes no information, as the propositions
are all based on principles, previously assumed.
In short, a person who is informed knows something he
did not know before -one who is instructed understands
something he did not before —one who is taught can do
something he could not do before.
Education is more comprehensive than any of the other
words before us.  It includes the whole course of moral and
intellectual teaching. One who gives occasional lessons is
not said to educate.  To educate, (agreeably to its derivation,
from' e-duco,' not' in-duco,') includes the drawing out of
the faculties, so as to teach the pupil how to teach himself;
which is one of the most valuable of arts.
Moral training, considered by itself, is called' teaching;'
* We have here used the nouns instead of the verbs for convenience' sake, as they precisely correspond.




48                  A COLLECTION OF
this constitutes no exception to the rule laid down, as its
object is to enable us - not to know - but to do what is
right.  We see an example of this in Kenn's well-known
evening hymn,Teach me to live, that I may dread, &c.
TO ALLEVIATE, MITIGATE, RELIEVE.
The first two words express a more limited action than
the third; or rather, to speak more correctly, the- verb' to
relieve' includes both a limited and a complete action;
while' to mitigate' and' to alleviate' have only a limited
one. Pain or grief is said to be relieved when it is either
lessened or entirely removed; when it is alleviated or mitigated, it is only partially removed.  We might say,'I hope
this remedy will mitigate your sufferings, even if it cannot
entirely relieve them.'' To relieve' may also be applied
either to persons or things. We speak not only of' relieving a sufferer,' but of' relieving pain or distress.''To mitigate' and'to alleviate' resemble each other
very nearly; but there is a slight shade of difference.'To
alleviate' is only used to describe what is done to others;'to
mitigate' is rather oftener applied to ourselves.  We may
pursue some course of action to mitigate our own sorrow
and anxiety; we endeavor to alleviate the sorrow of another.'Alleviate' is only applied to suffering or distress;'mitigate' may be used in speaking of the severity of the laws.
TO ANNOUNCE, PROCLAIM, DECLARE.
The arrival of a distinguished person is announced - the
tidings of a victory are proclainied- a man on trial declares his innocence.' To announce' is applied to persons
and tidings, but not to opinions;' to declare' and' proclaim,'
to tidings and opinions, but not to persons.'To announce,'




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 49
extends not only to the present, but to things a little future,
or just at hand; an approaching marriage, for example, is
announced, but'to proclaim' and' to declare' only apply
to the present and what is just past. A determination may
be either announced, proclaimed, or declared; but when
announced, it is merely noticed as about to take place; when
proclaimed, published to the world at large, and as it were
officially, (a thing can only be proclaimed to a number)when declared, merely stated openly.
Formerly,' to declare' meant, to make clear, or to prove:
as we may see in the 22d Article of our Church,' unless
it may be declared that they be taken from Scripture.'
TO RENOUNCE, REFCANT, ABJURE.'To renounce' is simply to give up or throw aside a possession, a pursuit, or an opinion; we may even renounce a
thing we never had, or a pursuit we never followed, if we
are capable of having it, are supposed to have had it, or are
liable to have or to follow it; as when a child has the promise made for him at his baptism, of' renouncing the world,'
&c.'To recant' is limited to opinions, and implies change;
and not only this, but an open declaration of having changed
the opinion in question, and almost a confession of error.'To abjure' is applied both to opinions and to allegiance or
adherance to any person or party; and it does not necessarily imply any change, as is shown by the formula of abjuring all allegiance to the Pope, 6&c.
Perhaps it may be added, that to abjure, properly speaking, is an act professing to be performed readily and of free
will, while a recantation or renunciation may be forced.
We might say,' these two men have changed in a very different way; the one has altered his sentiments and abjures
his opinions; the other, rather than renounce certain privileges, was induced to recant.'
3*




50                 A COLLECTION OF'To abjure' also preserves much of its original meaning,
(ab-juro, to swear against); it always implies a solemn and
strong protest against the thing abjured. WVe may renounce
what we think good-for-nothing, or even what we still value;
we may recant opinions we in our hearts approve of; we
abjure what we detest, or are supposed to detest.
TO UNDERSTAND; TO COMPREHEND.
The former of these verbs is used in a much more extended sense than the latter. Whatever we comprehend,
we understand; but'to understand' is used on many occasions in which to comprehend would be inadmissible. We
never speak of' not comprehending a foreign language,' or
indistinct speech; in these cases' understand' would be the
correct word. But we may comprehend the sense of some
deep and abstruse discourse or problem, though'understand' might also be employed in this sense. It would be
quite correct to say,' I did not comprehend his exposition, or
his arguments, although I understood the language, and
the grammatical import of each sentence.'
Some deep and rather hidden meaning seems to be implied by the word' comprehend;' it preserves something of
its old etymology,'to take in' — and in this sense many
English readers are accustomed to take for granted that the
word' incomprehensible' in the Athanasian Creed, implies
a deep mystery which cannot be comprehended: whereas
the word used is an obsolete and now incorrect translation
of the Latin' Immensus,' and should be rendered' Infinite.'
TO PRAISE, TO ADMIRE, TO  COMMEND, TO EXTOL; TO
EULOGIZE.
We praise or commend a person for what he does; we
admire him for what he is; we praise his actions; we admire his natural qualities. No natural endowment can be




ENGLISH SYNONYMS. -                51.
correctly praised or commended. Secondly,'to admire'
relates to feeling rather than to the expression of that feeling; while'to praise' or' commend' is the outward expression of sentiments of esteem or approbation.  We are said'to praise' a person in verse  we could not be said to
admire him in verse, but'only to give utterance to our admiration.' To praise' has also a second and religious meaning,
which is the chief distinction between it and the verb' to
commend.' In' praising God,' it would be impious to conceive that any idea of approbation or commendation could
be intended; the expression is nearly synonymous with'glorify' or'magnify.''To extol,' is to express either praise or admiration in a
vehement and high-flown manner:'to eulogize,' is to do the
same thing in a set discourse. The substantive'eulogy'
may be considered as a conjugate to both these verbs.
TO PROMOTE) TO FORWARD.
These words are often, but not uniformly, synonymous.
1st.' To forward' applies to the means;' to promote,' to
the end. A philanthropist is said to promote, not forward,
the welfare of mankind: he endeavors to forward those
objects which are undertaken with this view.
2dly.' To promote' is often used in relation to some
effect which is only beginning to be produced, while'to forward' would be used when the cause was actually in operation. For instance:'I have taken great pains to promote
education in an uncivilized and ignorant district, and the
contributions of my friends have done much to forward my
views.'
TO BE) TO EXIST.
These two verbs are often used in a nearly similar sense:




f52                 A COLLECTION -OF
but' to exist' refers more to the original nature of things
than' to be.' If we say,' there could not be freedom of
the press under a despotic government,' we merely imply
that it would not be allowed; but the phrase' freedom of
the press could not exist' under a despotic government,'
would imply an inherent incompatibility in the nature of the
two institutions.
TO REMARK, TO OBSERVE.
These verbs are used sometimes to describe the act of the
mind, and sometimes the expression of that act: in this last
sense they are nearly if not quite synonymous.
But where the mental act is the thing referred to, the verb'to observe' is more general,' to remark' more particular.
We should say, in reference to any natural phenomenon,'I
observe that such and such a law generally prevails; I remarked several instances of it.'' I observe he has a harsh
and cold demeanor; if you watch you will remark proofs of
it.' In this last clause,' to observe' might have been used
instead of' to remark:' but we do not usually speak of
remarking' a general principle.
We speak of' a habit of observing;' of' the advantage
of knowing how to observe,' &c.; in neither of these cases
could the verb' to remark' be substituted.
TO ENDUE, TO  ENDOW'.'To endue,' is limited to mental qualifications:'to en.
dow' also includes physical and worldly ones: indeed, primarily it refers to property, and is only figuratively extended
to qualities of the mind or person. An institution is richly
endowed; a person is endowed with beauty, strength, talents, &c.: he is endued only with mental qualifications.
TO SHUN, AVOID, ELUDE.'We shun a person we dislike or dread: we avoid either




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 53
a person, a thing, an action or course of action; we elude
search or pursuit only.' To elude' always implies literally
or figuratively an attempt to defeat efforts to seek or follow
us; and it also implies (as its root e-ludo does) a roundabout and indirect way of escape. The prisoner we read
of, who was set by the Indians to run for his life, would not
be said to elude pursuit as long as his course was on an
open plain; as soon as he had recourse to the bushes and
sought concealment, the word might be applicable.
To shun or avoid, on the other hand, are hardly ever used
when a search is implied. To shun is always personal; for
when we speak of'shunning vice,' &c. a personification is
always implied.  It also indicates a more  pointed and
marked endeavor to keep out of a person's way than'to
avoid.''To avoid' is used in a more abstract sense than
either' shun' or' elude;' we not only avoid persons and
things, but trouble, thought, &c.
Lastly,' to avoid' * and' to elude' both generally, if not
always, imply success: which' shun' does not.' To shun'
is only to seek to avoid. We might say,' I have constantly
shunned him, but I cannot avoid meeting him sometimes,
for I cannot elude his continued pursuit of me.'
TO AMAZED TO ASTONISH.'To astonish' merely implies, to affect very strongly with
overpowering wonder.'To amaze'generally conveys the
impression of some degree of perplexity or bewilderment.
It may be said, to use a colloquialism, that we c do not know
what to make' of anything that amazes us.  AWe are asto, -
ished at some marvel of nature or art: we are amazed when
a person's conduct is quite different fiom what we expected.
The immediate root of this last verb -the word' maze'
* Originally, to make void, or of no effect.




54                 A COLLECTION OF
— conveys the idea of entanglement and bewilderment,
whether mental or material.
In the West of England,' mazed' is the expression used
among the common people for'mad,' still implying the
same notion of entanglement in the brain.
TO EMPLOY, TO MAKE USE OF.'To employ' generally, though not always, implies some
degree of co-operation, or at least of consciousness in the
agent.' To make use of' implies a passive agency. We
employ an amanuensis - we make use of a pen. Hence,
when a person is said to' make use' of another, it generally
implies an idea degrading or insulting towards the agent;
which would not be conveyed by the word'employ.' A
person is made use of unconsciously, or perhaps even against
his will. A confidential second is employed by his superior:
a tool in the hands of an intriguer is made use of. Hence,
we speak of a person's employing himself, but making use
of hisffaculties.
Both these words, correctly speaking, imply the use of
means to an end, and do not apply to any act which is itself
the end. Hence the expression common among the lower
classes of Irish,' to make use of food,' sounds anomalous in
the ears of strangers. It is true that the act of taking food,
and of inhaling air, is a means used for the purpose of supporting life; but in breathing and eating this is not contemplated at the moment, these acts being instinctive: therefore, the expression' to make use of' does not apply to
them.
SHALL, WILL.
These two verbs have undergone curious alterations. In
very old English,' shall' indicated simple futurity, and' will' intention.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                   55
At the time our Bible translation was made, the language
in this respect was in a state of transition; in some cases,
the two verbs were used in the old sense, while in others
they were applied nearly in our modern acceptation. For
instance: in 2 Kings, we read -' Ahab shall slay me,' and
in Gal. v.' Walk in the spirit and ye shall not fulfil the lusts
of the flesh.'
In both these sentences,' will' would be used in modern
English; and in many others a misapprehension of the real
meaning of the sacred writers is induced by a forgetfulness
of this difference.  But then, again, in John xvi. 2, we have'Whosoever killeth you will think that he doeth God service:''will' is here employed exactly as it would be in
modern English.
It is difficult to define intelligibly to a foreigner the
modern use of these two words, though throughout the
whole of England no misuse of them can be observed,
even among the lowest of the people.* But in Ireland they
are constantly reversed, and in Scotland' will' is used improperly, though' shall' is not.
In our modern use of these verbs, we have curiously
divided the persons of each.' I will, you shall, he shall,'
denotes a futurity connected with the will of the speaker:
while,' I shall, you will, he will,' implies a futurity unconnected with the speaker's resolve. For instance, we should
say,' I will go, you shall go, he shall go'-  but' I shall
die, you will die, he will die.'
We always say,'I shall attain such an age next birthday:'
if'will' were substituted, it would imply a power of volun* The expression common in the West of England,'I will if I
shall,' cannot be considered an exception; for it is an ellipse for' I
will if you say that I shall.'




56                  A COLLECTION OF
tarily determining our age.'You shall have some money
to-morrow' implies' I will procure it for you.''You will
have it,' indicates an expectation quite independent of the
speaker's intentions.  When, however, will is emphatic, so
that one would write it underscored, or in italics, as denoting
resolute determination, it has the same sense in all three
persons; as, for instance, —' I [or you, or he] will take
this course, whatever may be said to the contrary.' The
opposite to' will' in this sense, is not' shall' but' must;'
as,' I [or you, or he] must submit to this, however unwillingly.'
There are some cases in which either' shall' or' will'
might be used, but in which the meaning would be modified
according to the word employed. In answering a request,' I will,' indicates compliance;'I shall' would convey an
intention of doing the thing asked, quite independently of
any wish to gratify the asker.' I shall go,' indicates simple
futurity -6 I will go,' both futurity and a determined intention.' I shall go,' in a case where we are determined,
expresses therefore less than we mean: and we sometimes
use this fotrm of un'der-stating our meaning, - or what the
Greeks called Eironeia, - to express very strong resolution.
Hence the common expression -' I shall do no such thing'
-' He won't make me do so' - which are often used to
convey the strongest idea of determination, and therefore,
at first sight, appear exceptions to the rules here laid down.
TO REND, TO TEAR.' To rend' differs from' to tear;' first, in implying voluntary action, never accidental, while'tear' may apply to
either. We may tear a dress in falling down: an eastern
mourner rends his garments to express grief.  We do, indeed, speak of rocks being rent by an earthquake or sails




ENGLISI1 SYNONYMS.                   57
by the wind,* but the natural agent is always supposed to be
personified.
Secondly,' to rend' always implies splitting or dividing:
we are said to tear, not rend the hair: an exile is torn, not
rent, from his native land. A tree is rent by lightning,
and torn up by the roots by a high wind.
* See the lines in Scott's llarmion, canto vi.:-'The pennon sunk and rose;
As bends the bark's mast in the gale,
When rent are rigging, shrouds, and sail,
It wavered'mid the foes.'
4




ADJECTIVES.
CIVIL, POLITE, COURTEOUS, POLISHED, WELL-BRED.
Civility is now something less than politeness or courtesy.
In old English it was used for elegance, or polish in general
(see Pilgrim's Progress). It now implies that attention to
others which is absolutely necessary, and no more. If a
servant-maid, or a workman, is spoken of as being civil, it
is considered as a term of approbation, because no more is
expected from them; but with the higher classes civility
ought to be taken for granted, and something more of prevenance and polish of manners is expected.
The difference between' courtesy' on the one hand, and' politeness' and' polish' on the other, - is, that courtesy has
more reference to others -politeness to ourselves. We may
say indifferently,' He received me' courteously,' or' He received me politely,' - but in the one case we should be
dwelling on the attention he was paying to us, as a part
of his duty to us, -and in the other, on the behavior assumed by him  from proper self-respect.  Courtesy, then,
seems to imply more kindliness of feeling. Politeness has,
indeed, been defined as'benevolence in trifles,'- but this
outward benevolence may spring merely from outward
regard for the opinion of the world, without real kindness
of heart.  Hence, St. Peter does not recommend us' to be' polite,' but to be' courteous,' because he is treating of our
duty towards our neighbours, not of what is due to ourselves.
In short, a man is polite for himself- courteous for others.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 59
Polish refers even more completely to ourselves than
politeness.  We should not speak of'behaving to such a
person in a polished manner,' but' politely.' In short,'politeness' occupies a place half-way between' polish' and'courtesy.''Polish' also implies a high degree of elegance
and refinement, and cannot exist without considerable cultivation; it seems, as it were, to belong to artificial life.'Well-bred' is rather referable to general conduct than
to particular actions.  A well-bred person will behave poZitely to others. It also implies general propriety of behavior, whether connected with others or not.'Ill-bred,' on
the other hand, is oftener applied to individual actions than' well-bred,' though it applies equally to general conduct.
We say,' that is a very ill-bred speech,' but we should not
speak of a well-bred speech, but rather of well-bred conduct
and deportment. It originally referred to a good early education, and still indicates that conduct and those manners
which would be the natural effect of such an education.
GRACEFUL, ELEGANT.
Grace is in a great measure a natural gift; elegance
implies cultivation, or something of a more artificial character. A rustic, uneducated girl may be graceful; but an
elegant woman must be accomplished and well trained.  It
is the same with things as with persons; we talk of a graceful tree, but of an elegant house or other building. Animals
may be graceful, but they cannot be elegant. The movements of a'kitten, or a young fawn, are full of grace; but
to call them elegant animals would be absurd. Lastly,'elegant' may be applied to mental qualifications, which'graceful' never can.  Elegance must always imply something that is made or invented by man. An imitation of
nature is not called so; therefore we do not speak of an' elegant picture,' though we do of an elegant pattern for a
gown, an elegant piece of work.




60                  A COLLECTION OF
With respect to the other fine arts, it is a curious fact,
that though music and poetry are both reckoned as the
offspring of the mind, yet the term'elegant,' which is constantly applied to a poem, is not admitted in speaking of a
piece of music. The reason of this may perhaps be, that
poetry is really more emphatically the- production' of the
mind than music. If disagreeable images, or discordant
metres, are introduced, the poetry is bad, but still it is
poetry, and the fault that we find with it rests on the very
fact of its being such. On the other hand, music is called
bad if it is feeble, heavy, or tasteless; but unless the
musical notes are selected in obedience to certain laws,
they are not music. Strictly speaking, false chords should
not be denominated' bad music,' but no music at all. The
laws of melody and harmony are laws of nature, as immutable as the laws of gravitation. The musician has a large
choice of various combinations, but not an unlimited one;
he must adhere to these laws, and is not permitted to invent
any combination of notes at variance with them.
But whether this difference between music and poetry be
considered as altogether holding good or not, certain it is
that music seems to be regarded as belonging more to nature
than to art. Melodies are discovered, rather than invented;
and hence, while'graceful' is a term often used in reference to them,' elegant' is not.
When used in connection with the productions of the
intellect,' elegant' is always applied to the lighter branches
of study.'An elegant scholar,''elegant literature,' are
terms always implying a reference to the Belles Lettres.
Lastly,'elegant' is applied to a kind of merit which consists rather in the absence of glaring faults than in striking
beauties. An elegant poem is smooth and well-constructed,
but not a work of original genius.'Graceful,' on the other
hand, is frequently applied to bodily movements; which




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 61
scarcely ever is the case with elegant.  Even in speaking
of movements which are acquired, and therefore to a certain extent artificial, the word'graceful' is used instead of'elegant;' as a graceful dancer; a graceful manner of
doing the honors of a table. This sense of the word forms,
perhaps, an exception to the general rule - that elegance is
the characteristic of art, and grace of nature.' Grace' originally meant' favor,' and the derivative,' gracious,' has preserved the same meaning. The religious
sense of the word was evidently from the same origin.
BEAUTIFUL, HANDSOME, PRETTY, LOVELY, FINE.'Beautiful' includes all the other terms of admiration
mentioned here: and is stronger than any of them, except,
perhaps,'lovely.' From  being generally opposed to the
sublime, it has gradually come to imply a certain degree of
softness and delicacy which makes it inapplicable to a man,
for whom  the only terms of admiration are'handsome'
and' fine.'' Handsome' implies- 1st. Not exactly an artificial beauty, but the beauty of some person or thing which is trained
or cultivated.  We speak of a' handsome' man or woman,
a' handsome' house, a' handsome' horse, or dog, or tree;
but we should not speak of a' handsome' wild animal, or a'handsome' prospect: (though these expressions are incorrectly used by the Irish and Americans.)
2dly.' Handsome' implies beauty on a large scale. A
lady who is very petite and slight in figure, an infant, or a
small animal, is never called-' handsome.'
3dly. It excludes the highest degree of beauty; and the
same is the case when applied to moral conduct.' Handsome behavior' is behavior that is liberal, fair, right, honorable: but a heroically generous action would never be
called' handsome.'
4*




62                  A COLLECTION OF'Pretty' is applied to external beauty on a small scale,
and never of a very high order. It implies softness and
delicacy, and is therefore never used for a man except in
contempt.'Lovely' implies something more than mere external
beauty. It may be applied to the mind as well as the person. We usually understand by it personal beauty and
pleasing manners combined.  A woman who is disagreeable and ungraceful would never be called a'lovely'
woman, however faultless her features may be.'Fine' is perhaps a more puzzling word than any of the
group. Its original sense was that of something delicate,
subtle, slender, fin, in short; and this has been preserved
in one sense of the word, in speaking, for example, of a'fine' edge, a'fine' sense of touch or hearing, a'fine'
thread, &c. But its other and commonest meaning is, -
beauty of rather a large and coarse kind — the reverse of
delicate. A'fine' face is one.with a bold and strongly
marked contour; a' fine' child is a stout, rosy, healthy
child; a'fine' woman is one whose features and figure are
rather on a large scale.'Fine' in its third sense implies over-fastidious, proud,
ready to give oneself airs. The conjugate word, finery,- is
nearest to this sense of the word. Its origin was probably
the Latin finis, an end; it was first transferred to an edge
or sharp point, and thence to something subtle and delicate.' Fine' in the sense of an amende, a sum of money paid
down as a penalty, has probably the same root; the end of
a trial or lawsuit being the payment of the forfeited sum.
SINCERE, HONEST, UPRIGHT.'Sincerity' may be used in two senses; and this leads to
much ambiguity in reasoning. It may either mean, on
the one hand, reality of conviction and earnestness of pur



ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 63
pose, - or, on the other, purity from all unfairness or dishonesty.  Many people overlook this; they will speak of
a man's being' sincere,' when they mean he has a real
conviction that his end is a good one, - and imagine this
must imply that he is' honest;' whereas, he may be' sincere' in his desire to gain his end, and dishonest in the
means he employs for that end.'Honest,' on the other
hand, is not an ambiguous term; it implies straightforwardness and fairness of conduct.'Upright,' implies honesty
and dignity of character; it is the opposite of'meanness,'
as' honesty' is of' shuffling' or' insincerity.' -
WONDERFUL, STRANGE, SURPRISING, ADMIRABLE, CURIOUS.
We admire what is excellent, noble, glorious, eminent;
we are, properly speaking, surprised simply at what is
une2spected; we wonder at what is extraordinary, lofty,
great, or striking, although it may not be unexpected.
An intelligent mind will be filled with wonder while contemplating many of the works of nature, although they may
be well known, and even familiar.
The word'strange' refers, as well as'wonderful,' to
something in itself uncommon; but' wonderful' is applied
to something great or noble, something, in short, above the
common; while' strange' signifies rather what is beside
the common —in short, something odd. We should not
say, in speaking of the higher and more sublime phenomena
of the creation, that they are'strange,' but that they are'wonderful;' but any oddity or freak of nature, on a
smaller scale, we call' strange.'
Nothing that awakens any feeling of awe or sublimity, or
any poetical feeling, would be called'strange;' hence it
*' Upright' may be considered as the conjugate of the substantive
rectitude.'




64                  A COLLECTION OF
often happens that new and remarkable natural phenomena,
or striking discoveries, awaken a sentiment of wonder in
thoughtful and  inquiring  minds, while  the vulgar and
thoughtless designate them as'very strange.'
Lastly, what is positively unpleasant to the eye or mind
may be' strange,' but not' wonderful.' We speak of' wonderfully beautiful,' but of'strangely ugly.''Curious' means something' wonderful' on a small scale;
it is perhaps nearer to' strange' in its meaning, but does
not exclude the idea of beauty. The minute parts of a leaf
or flower are at once'curious' and beautiful.  In old
English,' strange' was used where' wonderful' would now
be employed. Shakspeare speaks of'strange swiftness.'
SILLY, FOOLISHI, ABSURD, WEAK, STUPID, SIMPLE, DULL.'Silly' is most commonly applied to words, writings,
manners, or character;' foolish' to actions. We speak of
a'silly' book, a 6silly' speech, a'silly' manner; but
seldom of taking a'silly' step, committing a' silly' action;
in these last cases, we use the word' foolish.'' Silly' very
frequently, though not always, implies deficiency of intellect
or feebleness of character;' foolish' an abuse of intellect.
A' foolish' man is one who does not make use of the
sense he possesses.  More of blame is implied in the word'foolish;' more of contempt in' silly.'' Weak' implies some moral deficiency; a weak man is
one who either wants sufficient firmness to maintain his
principles, or wants clearness of moral sense to perceive
distinctly what is right.' Absurd,' applied to an action, implies something laughable. An absurd person is one who commits ridiculous
acts of folly.'Stupid' is used merely to express a lumpish, heavy,




ENGLISH SYNONYMIS.                 65
cloudy perception of everything proceeding from a want of
intellect. It is entirely a negative quality.' Dull' is not quite the same; it implies slowness, but not
necessarily deficiency of intellect. A boy who is slow and
dull in learning may, nevertheless, be not wanting in sense,
and may be able to understand a subject well, when once
he has mastered its difficulties.'Simple,' when it is applied to an act of folly, implies a
want of quicksightedness - of what the French call savoir
faire, springing either from natural deficiency or want of
experience. The French bonhommie and the Greek Euthes
are used to signify the same thing.
JOYFUL, GLADI PLEASED, DELIGHTED, GRATIFIED.'Joyful,' and its conjugate word,'joy,' are used for the
highest degree of pleasure, and always for pleasure excited
by some external event. They are in their nature transient;
though'joys' is used in a different sense, implying a very
high degree of pleasure, whether externally excited at the
moment or not.'Glad' is the lowest degree of pleasure; it answers to' sorry,' as an opposite term — like'sorry,' too, it was
used in a stronger sense in old English:'Then are they
glad, because they are at rest.' (Psalm cvii.)'Pleased' may imply either gladness or approbation.'Delighted' is a much stronger expression of the same feeling.' Gratified' always refers to a pleasure conferred by some
human agent, but is not the same as'grateful.''Grateful' refers to the feeling of the recipient towards the donor;'gratified' implies a sense of pleasure modified by the consideration that in part we owe it to another.
Conjugate words. -' Joyous' is used for a mood of the
mind -a state of feeling occasioned by high animal spirits.




66                  A COLLECTION OF' Enjoy' is used in a lower sense; it merely implies a
sense of the pleasures around us.'Enjoyment,' when
used alone, is rather lower still - more connected with the
pleasures of the senses. A cow grazing in a rich pasture
would be said to be in a state of' enjoyment.'' To rejoice' is nearly the same as'to be glad,' but
stronger.'To gladden' is decidedly stronger than' glad:'
it preserves more of the early meaning of the word; and
so does' gladness.'' Gratification' is not exactly the same as' gratified;' it
does not necessarily imply that the pleasure is conferred by
another person. It is frequently used for sensual enjoyment - as,' the gratifcations of the palate.''To gratify'
is sometimes used for satisfying a desire - as,' to gratify
the appetite;' still more for a mental passion - as,' to grat.
ify vanity or ambition.'
IDLE, LAZY, INDOLENT, SLOTHFUL.'Slothful' and' indolent' are applied to a general slowness and languor, and hatred of movement or exertion. An' indolent' person likes always to remain quiet.  A' lazy'
person is one who is disposed to be idle. It is more applied
to the disposition itself;' idleness' to a tendency to yield
to it. But an' idle' person may be active in his way; he
may even be very persevering in following up some scheme
of his own; but he will be reluctant to force himself to do
what he does not like, and he will seldom like continuous
exertion of any kind.  Many idle boys will work very hard
at their own sports, and take great pains to leap, run, or
play at games; but neglect their lessons. A lazy person,
on the other hand, may employ himself, but will dislike the
trouble of getting up to fetch a dictionary if he is learning
a lesson, or of going to consult some person who might help
him in the business he is transacting; and to spare himself




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  67
the exertion, he will be obliged to work harder in the end:
hence the proverb, that' lazy people take the most trouble.'
Lazy' may be considered as the opposite to' alert.''Slothful' and' indolent' as opposed to' active.''Idle' as opposed to'busy,' and'negligent' to'diligent.'
GRATEFUL, THANKFUL.' Grateful' is an expression most commonly used in reference to a human agent who has conferred some special
favor on us.' Thankful' is more commonly applied to
express our feeling of the goodness of Providence. One
who makes an ill return for the kindness of a benefactor is'ungrateful;' one who is forgetful of the mercies shown
him by his Creator is' unthankful.'' Thankfulness' and'unthankfulness' are more used to describe the state of a
person's mind:'gratitude,' and still more,' ingratitude,'
for the conduct springing from the state of mind. This,
perhaps, follows from the first proposition, as we cannot
make any return for the benefits of Providence, and can
only prove our gratitude by the state of our minds.' Grateful' however, is more applied to disposition, and less to
conduct, than' ungrateful.'
FRUITLESS, USELESS, INEFFECTUAL, VAIN.' Fruitless' is generally applied to an undertaking which
fails, not from its being ill-calculated to produce good effects,
but from some unexpected hinderance or calamity arising to
frustrate it. For example,' Such an one has made a fruitless attempt to dissuade his friend from the rash step he was
about to take:' here the attempt is supposed to fail, not from
its being unwise or ill-judged, but from the obstinacy or
folly of the person advised.




68                  A COLLECTION OF'Useless,' on the other hand, is applied to undertakings
which are in themselves ill-calculated for success.
We should say to a very self-willed person,' It is useless
to advise you'-meaning,'your character makes such
attempts- utterly hopeless, and it is ill-advised of any one
who knows you to make them.'
A bad crab-tree, and an apple-tree spoilt by a blight, are
equally unlikely to produce good fruit; but the first it is'useless,' the second' fruitless,' to attempt to improve.'Ineffectual' nearly resembles'fruitless,' but implies a
failure of a less hopeless character. We might say,' I desisted, finding all my efforts fruitless:' but' after several
ineffectual efforts I at last succeeded.''Vain,' in the sense in which we are now considering it,
is nearly synonymous with'fruitless.'
FRANK, OPEN, CANDID) INGENUOUS.'Open' is generally applied to dispositions, not to speeches.
An' open' disposition merely implies a disposition to speak
out what is in the mind - a difficulty in concealment.' Frank,' on the other hand, is oftener applied to words or
manners, though a disposition is sometimes called' frank.'
It is a more active quality, so to speak, than' openness.'
A timid person may be open; one who is' frank' must be
bold and fearless: it is sometimes used for a freedom of
speech that borders on bluntness.'Ingenuous' implies as moral quality; it includes both
openness and candor. A person who is open merely from
deficiency in natural reserve, would not be necessarily
called' ingenuous;' and' disingenuous' is always used as
a term of blame.' Candor' signifies fairness of mind -readiness to acknowledge an error. One who can see what is right, and




ENGLISH SYNONYMS. -                 69
cast aside all prejudice in owning it, is'candid.' It implies, indeed, nearly the same disposition as' ingenuous.' *
RASH, FOOL-HARDY.' Rashness' is, correctly speaking, applied to some risk
encountered for the sake of something in itself important,
though not so as to be adequate to the danger incurred.
To be'fool-hardy,' on the other hand, is to run a risk for
the sake of some trifling and unimportant object, or from
mere wantonness.  For instance, a soldier who should
charge an overwhelming body of the enemy at the head of
a handful of men, would be' rash:' but one who should
expose himself to a battery of cannon, merely to obtain a
draught of water, would be'fool-hardy.'
TRANSIENT, TRANSITORY, FLEETING.
What is'transient' is in itself momentary and short in
duration; what is' transitory' is liable to pass away. The
one expression directs attention to its shortness, the other to
its uncertainty. All earthly pleasures are' transitory;' the
diversions which yield but momentary amusements are'transient,' or'fleeting.'  These two words are nearly
alike: but' fleeting' refers rather to the fact of their being
in the act of passing away,' transient' to their shortness of
stay.' Transient' and'fleeting' may also be applied to
objects of sight, as light or colors:'transitory' only to
abstract things.
* The Greeks do not appear to have had any word answering to'candid.' In the Greek Testament the word gennaios, noble, or generous, is used in describing the fairness of mind with which the
Bereans searched the Scriptures
5




70                   A COLLLCTION OF
BRIGHT, SHINING,  SPARKLING, BRILLIANT, GLISTENING,
GLITTERING.
Of these words, two,' sparkling' and brilliant,' especially
the latter, are very frequently used in a figurative sense.
We speak of' brilliant talents' as often as of a'brilliant
gem.' The two first words, on the other hand,'bright'
and'shining,' are usualZly applied only to the literal effects
of light; though they, too, are occasionally used figuratively.'Bright' has the most extended signification of
all these words, and includes them  all.'Shining' is most
commonly applied to the effect of light on a smooth or
polished surface.'Sparkling' is used for the fitful and rapid emission of
points or flashes of light.  It is figuratively applied to those
mental powers which show themselves in rapid, sudden scintillations: as'sparkling wit,' or gaiety.  A  diamond, or
finely cut piece of crystal, is'sparkling;' the sea often
sparkles in the sun; a plate of polished metal is' shining;'
but both would be called' bright.''Brilliant' is a stronger expression than'bright,' when
used in its literal sense.'Bright' and'shining' are now
scarce ever used figuratively, (unless the modern expression,'a bright face,''a bright smile,' be considered as
such,) except in a negative sense, as' he is not very bright,'' he has no shining talents.''Glittering' implies a fitful, scintillating light, but less
concentrated and intense, and more broken and scattered
than what we describe as' sparkling.' An icicle is' glittering;' a diamond is'sparkling.'  The human eye is not
usually said to' glitter,' but to' sparkle,' except when a
wild, unsteady glance is indicated.'Glistening,' on the other hand, implies a soft and yet




ENGLISH SYNONYAMS. -               71
fitful light, modified by moisture. The moonbeams'glisten' on the water, the eyes through tears.
TIMID, COWARDLY, TIMOROUS, DASTARDLY.'Timid' is applied both to the state of mind (sometimes
transient) in which a person may happen to be at the moment, and to the habitual disposition;' timorous,' only to
the disposition.' Timid' is, therefore, the more extensive
term, and comprehends the meanings of'timorous' as well
as its own. Both are equally applied to a dread of personal
danger; but'timorous' is oftener used for moral danger
than'timid.'  Both  are equally applied to character.'Cowardly' and'dastardly' are used alike for character
and conduct, and both as terms of strong reproach.' Dastardly' implies meanness as well as cowardice.' Cowardice' is merely timidity carried into action. A timid man
may be led by strong motives to perform individual acts of
bravery; a timid mother will often incur great risks for her
children; but a cowardly person can never on any occasion
act bravely;'cowardice,' therefore implies a character
more completely governed by fear than mere'timidity.''Timid,' in short, may be said to denote the disposition,
and' cowardly' the habit.
MILD,  GENTLE) MEEK, SOFT.
Of these four words,' meek' is the only one which is
exclusively employed in a moral sense; the other three may
be either moral or physical in their signification.' Soft' denotes an influence which is weak but pleasant.
A soft voice, a soft light, are in themselves agreeable. But
it is not consistent with the highest degree of power, or
indeed, with great force of any kind. A powerful voice,
however sweet-toned, would not be commonly denominated'soft.' A soft color cannot be bright or intense.  The




1172                A COLLECTION OF
term'soft music' is applied generally to music which
pleases without exciting or enrapturing. Milton has preserved this meaning in his Allegro -
I Lap me in soft Lydian airs.'
In this line he describes music as an agreeable accompaniment to other pleasures; he uses very different language
when he describes in the Penseroso the higher effects of
music.' Mild' and' gentle' are more negative'in their meaning.
In their primary sense, they merely imply an influence
which does not act with an unpleasant force. A gentle
voice is one that is not loud; mild air, air that is not sharp,
or cold. If there is an exception to this rule, it is in the
case of disposition or temper, in which'gentleness' seems
to imply a more positively amiable and pleasing quality than'mildness.' (The substantives and adjectives have here
exactly corresponding meanings.)
In manners,'mildness' and'gentleness' are consistent
with dignity of deportment, which' softness' is not.' Meekness' differs from the other three words in being
applied to the temper only, never to mere manners and
deportment. It is a word which has undergone some change.
In former times, (as may be seen from the use made of it
in the Bible,) it denoted a religious patience and submission
to injuries and humility before God. It is evidently in this
sense that Moses is spoken of as the'meekest of men.'
In modern times, it may be said to be used in two different
senses, and while the strictly theological meaning (if we
may so express it) is pretty much what it formerly was, its
secondary and ordinary coiloquial meaning, in conformity
with the tendency to degenerate which may be observed
in all words descriptive of virtues, has come to signify a
(especially when applied to a man) somewhat excessive
disposition to yield and submit.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 73
This ambiguity is perhaps to be regretted, as it attaches
a ludicrous or contemptible signification to a word, which
originally and properly denoted a virtue peculiarly belonging
to the people of God. In its oldest and most correct religious sense, it always implied humility; in which it was
distinguished from the other three words under consideration. A person may be soft and mild in manners, without
real humility or sweetness of temper.  Many think that a
woman whose manners are very soft must necessarily be
meek, whereas softness is consistent even with self-will and
obstinacy.
DIFFERENT, UNLIKE, DISSIMILAR; DISTINCT.
The word'different' calls the attention to the separation
into classes. Things are called'different,' from the circumstance that they cannot be mistaken for each other, or
confounded together; they are not viewed as necessarily
opposed, but as having qualities which keep them apart.
We may say,'These things are diferent, and yet not
unlike.' The word' unlike' calls the attention to opposition
or contrast in the things compared; and this more particularly when they do not belong to separate classes. We
should say,' These two sisters are so unlike, that one would
suppose they belonged to diferent families.'  In short,
things are said to be'unlike,' when they might be expected
to be'like;''different,' when non-resemblance is in the
natural course of things.
I'Different,' however, is rendered more puzzling by its
having, in fact, two meanings, corresponding exactly to the
two meanings of the word SAME,* one of which implies
similarity, the other identity.  The two senses of the
word'different' are precisely opposed, relatively, to these
* See Appendix to Whately's Logic.
5*




74                  A COLLECTION OF
meanings of'same' - one, signifying non-identity; the
other, non-similarity.  In the first sense, we might say,'These are two different dresses, made of exactly the
same material;' in the other,'They are of very different
colors.''Dissimilar' is nearly the same as'unlike,' but less
strong, as is generally the case with words of Latin origin,
when contrasted with Saxon ones.'Distinct' is nearly the same as' different,' but is chiefly
used with abstract terms.
ROMANTIC, SENTIMENTAL.
Both these terms are used to express the effects of illdirected or excessive feeling and imagination; but in
romance the imagination, in sentiment the feelings have
the predominance. A' romantic' scheme is one which is
wild, impracticable, and yet contains something which captivates the fancy. A romantic mind loves to dwell on
adventures and dazzling enterprises, and on such incidents
as would grace a wild fiction or a poem, and delights in
every action, every event, that can be invested with a picturesque or dramatic character.'
A' sentimental' mind, on the other hand, is rather prone
to over-wrought feeling and exaggerated tenderness. The
sickly compassion or benevolence which expands itself in
lamentations instead of actions - the weak and foolish
manifestations of love or friendship, come under the head
of' sentimentality.'
The' Romantic' may be considered as the less dangerous
of these two tendencies: a certain degree of romance is
commonly found in young people when the imagination is
active and the temperament enthusiastic; and it is then
* See Foster's Essay on this word.




ENGLISI-1 SYNONYMS.               75
easily subdued by experience and reason.' Sentimentality'
is the characteristic of a weaker mind, and is therefore less
curable. It is easier to correct an abuse of imagination
than an abuse of feeling.
AUTHENTIC, GENUINE.
Bishop Watson thus distinguishes between things' authentic' and things' genuine.''A genuine book is that which was written by the person
whose name it bears, as the author of it. An authentic book
is that which relates matters of fact as they really happened;
a book may be genuine without being authentic, and a book
may be authentic without being genuine.  The books [written by] Richardson and Fielding are genuine books, though
the histories of Clarissa and Tom Jones are fables.  The
history of the Island of Formosa is a genuine book: it was
written by Psalmanazar; but it is not an authentic book,
(though it was long esteemed as such, and translated into
different languages;) for the author, in the latter part of his
life, -took shame to himself for having imposed upon the
world, and confessed that it was a mere romance. Anson's
Voyage may de considered as an authentic book: it probably contains a true narrative of the principal events recorded in it; but it is not a genuine book, having not been written
by Walter, to whom it is ascribed, but by Robins.'
SECRET, HIDDEN, CONCEALED, COVERT.
What is' secret' may be accidentally or unintentially so:'hidden' and'concealed' imply something intentionally
kept secret.  We speak of'a hidden plot,' a' concealed
intention.''Covert' is something not avowed.  It may be
intended to be seen;'a covert allusion' is meant to be
understood, but is not openly expressed.'Secret' is opposed to' well-known;'' hidden' and' concealed' to' open;''covert' to' avowed' or' displayed.'




76                 A COLLECTION OF
EVERLASTING, ETERNAL.
Both these terms imply endless duration: but' eternal'
extends to something more -that, viz., which has always
existed. Many infidel writers hold that the world is' eternal'- that is, that it never had a beginning.  The heathens
believed that their gods were' everlasting'- i. e., immortal.
but not' eternal,' for their birth and origin were always recorded.'Everlasting' is, in old English, used improperly for'eternal,' as in the Psalms,'Thou art from everlasting,'
~c.
DURABLE, LASTING, PERMANENT.'Lasting' is generally applied in an abstract sense - as,'a lasting remembrance,'' a lasting effect:'' durable' oftener to sensible objects - as,' a durable material;'' permanent,' to both, but with different varieties of meaning. When
applied to abstract subjects, and compared with'lasting,' it
implies something which is established and intended to
remain -not intended to be removed or changed; as,'a
permanent situation,''a permanent resting-place.' When
applied to tangible objects, on the other hand, and contrasted
with'durable,''permanent' means something that remains
as it is, and will not wear out of itself.'A permanent dye'
or color in painting is one which will not fade or be changed
by time.'Durable,' on the other hand, is oftener applied
to texture, and always to something which will endure, not
time alone, but wear and tear; a' durable' stuff will bear
rough handling, and can be worn long.
CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS, PERPETUAL.
A' continuous' action is one which is uninterrupted, and
goes on unceasingly as long as it lasts, though that time




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  77
may be longer or shorter.' Continual' is that which is constantly renewed and recurring, though it may be interrupted
as frequently as it is renewed. A storm of wind or rain,
which never intermits an instant, is' continuous;' a succession of showers is' continual.'' If I am exposed to continual interruptions, I cannot pursue a continuous train of
thought.'
Perpetual' is sometimes used in the sense of' continual,'
but has rather a stronger signification, implying something
which is still more constantly recurring. It also means
something which is at once continuous and lasting; as,' the
perpetual motion.'
TALKATIVE, LOQUACIOUS, GARRULOUS.
A little child just learning to speak may be' talkative;'
a lively woman may be' loquacious;' an old man in his
dotage is often garrulous.'' Talkative' implies a continual
desire to speak, which may exist without ever saying much
at a time;'loquacious' includes this, and also implies a
great flow of words at command. A'garrulous' person
indulges in prosy, tiresome, and lengthy talk, with frequent
repetition and needless minuteness of detail. Justice Shallow is represented as' talkative,' having little or nothing to
say, but constantly speaking.  Miss Mitford, in her picture
of' the talking lady,' gives an exact picture of a'loquacious' person. Homer represents old Nestor as' garrulous.''Talkativeness' and'loquacity' often proceed from  high
animal spirits, and often, also, from that combination described by phrenologists as an active temperament with an
inferior mental development.'Garrulity' generally arises
from feebleness of mind and uncontrolled egotism.
STRONG, POWERFUL,  VIGOROUS, FORCIBLE, POTENT.
Of these five terms, the first two alone are applied to




78                  A COLLECTION OF
physical force. But they are applied to it in somewhat different senses;'strong' being the more comprehensive of
the two.  A'powerful' man must be'strong,' but a'strong person is not necessarily'powerful.''Strong' is
more appropriately-used to describe a person of sound, firm
constitution, capable of enduring fatigue;' powerful,' one
who is able to exert his physical force actively, and to perform feats of strength.' Power' is almost always active in
its signification.' Strength' is both active and passive.
(The two substantives exactly correspond to their adjectives,' strong' and' powerful.') The same analogy is preserved
when these words are applied to mental qualifications. A'strong' mind is firm, capable of sustaining shocks, - not
easily shaken; a' powerful' mind is something more — capable of great active efforts, as well as passive endurance,
and fitted to command and influence others.'Vigorous,' in accordance with its root' vigere,' implies
powers (either of mind or body) in an active state: hence
we speak of a vigorous (not powerful) shoot of a tree.
Thus, too, it is applied to temporary conditions; we might
say' he has a powerful (or strong) mind, but it was not then
in a vigorous state.' A powerful style, implies great ability; a vigorous style, the exertion of that ability.'Forcible' is never used to describe qualities of either
mind or body, but only the individual efforts which those
qualities may call forth; it is generally applied to mental
efforts; we speak of a forcible argument, a forcible illustration; but it is sometimes applied as the adjective corresponding to the noun force, implying coercive violence, as'to
make a forcible entry,' &c; the adverb'forcibly' is also
used in this sense. There is, however, a difference between
the mental efforts designated as' strong' and' forcible.' A'forcible' expression is one both strong and to the point.
A' strong' expression is merely vehement.




ENGLiSIS SYNONYMS.                 79' Potent' is occasionally used for reasoning, but generally
when speaking of the properties of drugs, poisonous, medicinal, or intoxicating, as'a potent drug,' a' potent dram.'
INCONSISTENT, INCONGRUOUS.' Inconsistent' is almost always applied either to character
or conduct, though we sometimes speak of' two inconsistent
opinions or propositions.' But a proposition can only be
inconsistent as compared with another proposition; if we
speak of an inconsistent opinion, it is always as compared
with some other, previously alluded to, or understood as
being held by the same person. A man is sometimes taxed
with inconsistency, from having changed his opinions; a
charge, which, if true, would cause every person to be
inconsistent, who was neither foolishly obstinate nor born
perfect. The real inconsistency is, not the' being wiser to.
day than we were yesterday,' but the holding at the same
moment contradictory opinions, or implying by our conduct
that we do not hold them.
At first sight it would seem as if consistency in conduct
was impossible, since every one who professes to act on
principle must more or less fall short of the standard of perfection; and in this sense all mortals are inconsistent. But
what is generally regarded as emphatically inconsistent, is
not the falling occasionally into faults, but the holding two
different standards of action,- aiming at one thing and professing another; as when a person professes, in the abstract,
a great horror of falsehood, and yet holds that it is allowable to lie on certain occasions, or for certain reasons. One
who is at the same time religious and worldly in his conduct,
presents the commonest example of this kind of inconsistency. There is a difference between'serving two masters,'
and serving one from whom we may sometimes stray.'Incongruous' is generally applied to some production,




80                  A COLLECTION OF
viewed as a whole, whose parts do not agree with each
other.  A mixture of architectural styles in one building —
a dress which is in part homely, in part elaborate - or a
selection of colors which do not harmonize, are all incongruous. Thus the term is applied to all works of art or
skill in which this defect is perceived.
CRUEL: BARBAROUS, INHUMAN, SAVAGE.
A' cruel' man is one who takes pleasure in another's
pain.  A'barbarous' man is one who inflicts pain, whether
from spite, revenge, or interest, in a wild and violent manner.' Savage' is much the same as' barbarous,' but rather
an exaggeration of it, implying even more violence.
One who is' inhuman,' again, is utterly dead to compassion - he may not take delight in purposely inflicting suffer.
ing; but he either inflicts it if he sees cause, or endures the
sight of it, without either compunction or pity  - he is hardhearted.
SUBLIME, MAGNIFICENT, SPLENDID, GRAND, SUPERB.'Sublime' is the highest and strongest of these words.
When applied to the productions of genius, whether in art
or literature, it is always limited to such as are in the loftiest
style of excellence - of such kinds as inspire awe rather
than delight. In natural scenery it is the same; those landscapes which are called' sublime' must be characterized by
the most awful and lofty character, and it is never applied
to anything on a small scale, whether in art or nature.* It
also differs from all the other words under consideration, in
being applied to human actions and sentiments; heroic conduct, or an elevated tone of feeling or principles of morality, are sometimes called' sublime.'
See Burke's remarks in the Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful.




ENGLISH SYNONYIS.                   81'Magnificent' is also applied to objects of beauty on a
large and grand scale, but it is never properly applied to
human conduct, nor to productions of the fine arts, (except
architecture,) or of literature. It is only correctly used to
qualify - 1st, scenery and natural objects, such as birds and
beasts, and even human beings, considered only in reference
to their personal and material endowments; and, 2dly, those
artificial productions which belong rather to the costly,
pompous, and luxurious in the artistic class; as buildings,
furniture, jewelry, &c. For example, we should not speak
correctly of a statue or picture, when considering it in the
light of a work of art, as being magnificent, but we might
speak of a magnificent palace or set of jewels. On the
other hand, we might speak of a beautiful-woman, if on a
large scale, so that the material is prominent, as'magnificent.' We might also call her voice, if possessing much
volume and richness of tone,' magnificent,' but not her style
of singing.
Architecture forms an exception to the other fine arts, in
this respect; the terms' magnificent' and' splendid' may be
applied to it; but it does not in reality form an exception to
the rule before mentioned; as a simple and grand style
of building would never be called' magnificent;' it is only
in so far as its gorgeous and costly character strikes us that
we use that term, as in the rich and complicated florid Gothic
architecture.' Splendid' is like' magnificent,' but rather less strong in
its signification; it differs also in this point, that it is applied
to abstract qualities, which' magnificent' never is; we
speak of' splendid talents,''a splendid display of genius,'
&c. It always implies something brilliant, gorgeous, or
striking.' Grand' is merely used for something in a great or lofty
style.
6




82                 A COLLECTION OF' Superb' is nearly the same as magnificent, but has been
less completely adopted into our language, being still somewhat Frenchified.
PLEASING, AGREEABLE, PLEASANT.'Pleasing' is generally applied to manners and personal
appearance.' Agreeable' is used in a more extended sense:
when applied to manners and conversation it differs from'pleasing,' and means rather clever and entertaining, than
winning or attractive. Many persons are' agreeable' who
are not' pleasing'; and a' pleasing' person may not have
sufficient spirit, or variety of conversation, to constitute him' agreeable.'' Pleasing' refers more to the person himself;' agreeable' to the impression made on others.'Pleasant' was'formerly used to describe merry and
playful conversation, or a jocose and lively person; now it
is in a great measure withdrawn from persons and applied
to things, - to weather, scenery, situations, &c.' Pleasantry' is a relic of the old meaning. The French
plaisant has changed in a reverse way. Formerly it meant
what we now call'pleasant,' as may be seen from the' Lament of Mary Queen of Scots:'-' Adieu, plaisant pays de France!'
Now it has come to mean, as it formerly did with us,' funny'
or' jocose.'
CALM, TRANQUIL, QUIET, PLACID.'Calm' applies either to the outward manner, to the
temperament, or to the mood of mind at the moment.'Tranquil,' properly speaking, only to the mood of mind.
There is also a difference in the state which they describe.
Tranquillity implies not only outward serenity, but ease
of mind. If we exhort a person' to be calm,' we are merely




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  83
advising him to practise self-control: the expression,'you
may be tranquil,' implies,'you need feel no alarm.' A
strong-minded person will be calm in the midst of dangers
and calamities; but if we say,' He saw his country ruined
with a tranquil eye,' it would imply, not firmness of soul,
but apathy.' Quiet' is more applicable, in general, to external circumstances than to temper or manner; when applied to these,
it implies a silent, retiring disposition.'Placid' is something like'tranquil,' but implies less of
quiescence, and more of cheerful ease and smoothness. If
we speak of'a placid sea,' it implies a more settled state
than'tranquil.'  The sea might be both tranquil and
gloomy.
DELIGHTFUL, DELICIOUS.' Delightful' is applied both to the pleasures of the mind
and those of the senses:' delicious' only to those of the
senses. An excursion, a social circle, a place of abode,
may be' delightful;' a perfume, or a fruit,' delicious.'' Delightful' may be used, however, for all pleasures connected with the bodily senses, except taste; a climate, a
breeze, a scent, may be either'delightful' or' delicious.''Delicious' is limited, in general, to the lower senses. —
taste, smell, or feeling
Some people do sometimes speak of music as' delicious;'
but they are generally those who regard music chiefly as a
sensual pleasure, or what the Germans call an ohrenschmaus,
or banquet for the ears — something that does not concern
the mind. No one possessing a musician's soul ever denominated music as' a delicious art.'' Delightful' is also applied to moral gratification. A
well-ordered and happy family -a joyful reunion -are
delightful to witness.




84                  A COLLECTION OF
OBSTINATE, STUBBORN.' Both obstinacy and stubbornness imply an excessive and
vicious perseverence in pursuing our own judgment in opposition to that of others; but to be obstinate implies the
doing what we ourselves chose. To be stubborn denotes,
rather, not to do what others advise or desire.  An obstinate
man will pursue his own foolish purpose, in spite of the
wisest and kindest counsel.  A stubborn child will not comply with the advice, or obey the commands of a parent.
Obstinacy requires a positive idea; stubbornness merely a
negation.  Obstinacy is generally applied to the superior;
stubbornness to the inferior. An obstinate king, under a
false appearance of firmness, brings ruin on his country; a
stubborn people is insensible to benevolence, and can only
be subdued by punishment.  Obstinacy refers more to outward acts, and stubbornness to disposition.' - Sir J. Mackintosh.
FICKLE; CAPRICIOUS, VARIABLE, CHANGEABLE.
The first two of these adjectives are, properly speaking,
limited to persons, and only applied to things by a kind of
metaphor: the two latter are applied indifferently to persons
and things.
The chief difference between' fickle' and'capricious'
is, that' fickle' refers rather to a want of constancy, whether
in tastes or attachments - while'capricious' not only includes this, but also a disposition to take violent and shortlived fancies or antipathies to persons or things.
A friend whose affection cools speedily is' fickle;' one
who takes sudden and unreasonable likings or dislikes is' capricious.' In short,' fickle' conveys the idea of a preference being short-lived;'capricious' of its being also
suddenly formed, and without sufficient cause.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 85'Variable' and'changeable' refer for the most part to
climate; when applied to persons they preserve an analogy
to their original meaning, implying a change rather in the
mood of mind than in the affections; a variable temperament is distinguished rather by rapid  transitions from
grave to gay, from hot to cold, than by actual want of
constancy.'Changeable' is, however, often used to describe that
kind of fickleness or caprice, which is also denominated
whimsicality.'
DEEP. PROFOUND.'Deep' and' profound' are often, but not always, synonymous. They differ, first, in this respect - that' profound'
is almost limited to abstract subjects, while' deep' includes
also natural objects. We may speak indifferently of'a
deep well,'' a deep color,' or'a deep feeling,'' deep learning.'' Profound' could only be applied in these last
cases.
In matters of sentiment and reflection' deep' is generally,
though not uniformly, preferred to'profound;' in cases in
which the particular intellectual faculties are in question,'profound' is more generally used.  We speak of' deep
sorrow,'' deep thought,' — but of'profound contempt,''a
profound knowledge of a subject.'
WEIGHTY, HEAVY.
These words bear somewhat the same relation to each
other as'deep' and'profound.' We speak of'weighty
reasons,' but' heavy cares.' As a term of blame,'heavy'
is always the word employed; we should say,' This man's
speech contained weighty arguments, but his opponent's
was a very heavy discourse.'




86                  A COLLECTION -OF
FAULTLESS, BLAMELESS, SPOTLESS, INNOCENT.
A' faultless' character is not only free from imputation
of evil, but also free from defects: one who is blameless or
spotless is one whose character has never had any charge
brought against it.
Spotless and faultless apply to the general character only;
blameless may be used in reference to particular points.
We might say,' He is blameless in this respect' -' in this
instance I can declare that I am  blameless' -in such
phrases we could not use the words' faultless' or' spotless.'' Faultless' may also be applied (which the other two
cannot be) to personal appearance as well as mind.' Innocent' is sometimes used to indicate a state of utter
ignorance of evil, like that of a child; at other times it is
used in opposition to' guilt' - to imply that a person is
free from the fault with which he is charged. Innocent, in
this last sense, (like guilty) is used in reference to actions
and not feelings or intentions: thus differing from'spotless'
and' faultless.'
Our first parents were innocent till the moment of their
tasting of the forbidden tree; but they could not be called' spotless' or' faultless,? since as sin evidently lies in the intention, they incurred it as soon as the wish to commit the
act ha'd been fully formed. From a want of comprehension
of this, and an inattention to the meaning of the word innocent, much confusion of thought is produced. Adam and
Eve being often spoken of as if they were not only innocent,
but faultless and spotless, before the fall.
WICKED, SINFUL, CRIMINAL1 DEPRAVED, GUIILTY.
The word' wicked' affords a curious exemplification of
the kind of change, through which words now  indicative
of evil have frequently passed. It originally meant' alive,'




ENGLISH SYNONYIMS.                  87
as' wick, still does in the north of England. The' wick'
of a candle has the same origin, meaning the living or flam.
ing part of it; and the word' quick' was the same,  From'alive' and' lively,'' wicked' came to signify restless and
turbulent, and at last assumed its present sense, expressive
of unmitigated moral evil, either of character or actions.' Criminal' always implies the commission of some fault
which is considered as such in the sight of Man; and gen.
erally, with reference to human laws, supposed to be just;
for transgressions of iniquitous laws, though in one sense
they may be termed crimes, are not correctly designated as
criminal. Under the earlier Roman emperors, the profession of Christianity was punished as a crime: but it would
never be described as criminal. The laws to which such
actions are ideally referred, must be supposed, then, to be
just and equitable.
Whatever, in this sense, then, is criminal, must also, be
sinful; but' sinful' designates faults only as they incur the
divine displeasure; hence the word is far more extended in
meaning than' criminal:' it extends to thoughts and words
as well as actions; while' criminal,' if ever used in reference
to thoughts, is only so employed in as far as they are supposed to lead to actions.
We occasionally speak of'a criminal thirst for vengeance,' &c., but it is always with reference to this passion
as naturally leading to the crime of murder; and the conjugate word crime is never correctly used except to designate
an action; while the word'sin' may not only refer to a
thought, but even quite as frequently to general evil propensities and tendencies.' Depraved' implies not only positive wickedness, but an
entire corruption of nature.
One who is depraved must originally have been capable of




88                  A COLLECTION OF
something better.* It is extended to character as well as
actions.'Guilty,' like'criminal,' always has reference to some
positive  action, and to  human condemnation; whereas' wicked' and' depraved' may apply to the whole character,
as well as to individual acts. But' guilty' refers chiefly to
the question of a person's having or not having actually
committed a certain action, while' criminal' may be considered rather as describing the character of that action.
We might say,' He is guilty of such and such a fault; but
he is not as criminal as some of his companions in so acting.'
Guilt does not admit of degree, though it does of amount.
A person may be guilty of more or of less crime, but cannot be more or less guilty in what he has committed; though
he may be more or less wicked, sinful, or criminal. t
BENEVOLENT, BENEFICENT, CHARITABLE, MUNIFICENT,
LIBERAL, BOUNTIFUL, PHILANTHROPIC.
Benevolent and beneficent, together with their conjugates,
have curiously diverged fiom their original meaning. Etymologically,'benevolent' implied merely wishing well to
others, and'beneficent' doing well;T now,'benevolent'
includes both kinds of feelings and actions, and' beneficent'
is restricted to acts of kindness on a great scale, and generally performed by some one of exalted station and character; hence we speak of the'beneficence' rather than
the' benevolence' of the Creator. It may perhaps be said
to follow from this, that' benevolent' draws our attention
more to the character of the agent,'beneficent,' to that of
* It is in this sense that we speak of the depravity of human nature.
It was a fall from a better state.
t See Archbishop Whately's Charge on Infant Baptism.
f The French use the corresponding words'bienveillance' and'bienfaisance' more correctly according to their etymology.




ENGLISH SYNONYrMS.                  89
the act performed; retaining, so far, a tinge of their etymology.'Charitable' (when not used in reference to a mild and
candid judgment of others) seems to be restricted to one
kind of benevolence, that which consists in almsgiving.'Munificent' resembles'beneficent,' in referring always
to favors on a large scale, and conferred by superiors; but
there is this important difference, that'beneficent' always
implies some real and essential good done, while' munificent' (as its derivation implies) may be applied equally to
any gift, whether really useful or not.* One who makes a
present of jewelry or pictures to a friend is munificent,
but would not be called' beneficent.' If he raised a distressed family from starvation, the word' beneficent' would
be more appropriate. But one who gives largely to the
Public, or to some institution, is called munificent. It seems
to convey the idea of splendor; no one can be called munificent who does not give on a large scale.
Any one who is ready to give freely, as the etymology
implies, on whatever scale, is' liberal.''Bountiful,' again,
is stronger than' liberal,' and implies giving in abundance;
it also differs from' liberal,' in being restricted to giving;
while'liberal' is applied to any easy style of expenditure
in general; to the reverse, in short, of' stingy,' or' miserly.'
Many people live in a liberal style, who are very far from
being' bountiful.' Bountiful always seems to imply, giving
out of an ample store.'Philanthropic' (as its etymology indicates) implies benevolence solely in reference to the human race — and always
to masses, not to individuals. One who devises some plan
to benefit numbers is called' philanthropic'; but we should
*'cMunificent' nearly answers to the Greek word megaloprepes, as
described by Aristotle.




90                  A COLLECTION OF
not talk of'philanthropically giving a loaf to a hungry
child.' - (See note to Preface.)
BENIGNANT,  KIND, GOOD-NATURED.'Benignant' is an expression more generally used to
describe manner than actions; and almost always refers to
the manners of a superior. It seems to imply a condescending amenity of deportment.'Kind' is used to describe both manners and conduct, and has by far the most
extended signification of the three words: it includes almost
every manifestation of benevolence, small or great.'Goodnatured,' on the other hand, is limited to its lowest exercise,
to kindness in trifles, and always to kindness springing from
constitutional obligingness and amiability. A person who is
kind from conscientiousness alone, is never called'goodnatured.'
The old original word was'well-natured,' which is grammatically more correct than the modern word; for the
adverb is properly used to qualify the adjective.  We speak
of'well-born,''well-bred,' not of   good-born,' &c.  A
person of a good disposition is said to be well-disposed, not
good-disposed.  In old English, the word'well-tempered'
was used instead of'good-tempered.'
NEGLECTFUL, NEGLIGENT.'Neglectful' has reference generally to our conduct
towards persons;' negligent' towards things.  A  person
is said to be neglectful of his friends; negligent of his
business. A negligent correspondent is one who is careless
in writing, mislays letters, and forgets whether he has
answered them or no; a neglectful correspondent is one
who forgets his friends when away from them, and acts
on the maxim -' Out of sight, out of mind.'
Hence, if we reproach a person with neglect (the sub



ENGLISH SYNONYMIS.                91
stantives'neglect' and'negligence' correspond with the
adjectives), we are supposed to charge him with real unkindness or coldness; while only carelessness is implied if
he is charged with negligence.
The verb' to neglect' is a conjugate of both these adjectives and substantives. We might say,' He did not use to
neglect his business, but he has been very negligent of it
lately;''I did not think he would neglect his friends, but
he has been very neglectful of me.'
ABSENT, ABSTRACTED.'Absent' refers merely to the circumstance of the attention being withdrawn from outward objects;' abstracted'
implies also concentration of the thoughts on something
foreign to what is before us. One who is' absent' does not
attend to what is around him —it may be from languor of
mind or carelessness; but one who is' abstracted' is inattentive because he is thinking of something else.'Absence' is therefore a habit;' abstraction' an accident. We
do sometimes, indeed, speak of an habitually absent person
as'abstracted;' but one who is from any particular cause
in an abstracted state of mind would not be called an'absent' person. Byron's Dying Gladiator, who'Heard it, but he heeded not; his thoughts
Were with his heart, and that was far away,'
was then abstracted; but to call him absent would be ludicrous.
TRIFLING, TRIVIAL.
A trifling matter is one merely of small importance: a
trivial matter is a small matter made too much of. The
word' trivial' implies contempt, which' trifling' does not.
By saying,' He never neglects a trjfling matter,' we are
rather supposed to praise; but in blaming a person for




92                  A COLLECTION OF
frivolity, we often say,' He is always engrossed with trivial
concerns.' The substantive'trifle' is conjugate to both.
FATHERLY, PATERNAL; MOTHERLY, MATERNAL; BROTHERLY, FRATERNAL; KINGLY, REGAL.
These pairs of words are formed from corresponding
roots in Latin and Saxon; and, as has been already observed,
they all bear nearly the same relation to each other; the
Latin word being the more polite and cold, the Saxon the
more hearty and cordial. In these groups of words, also,
the Latin word is always used to express the office, the Saxon
the manners and deportment.  We speak of'a paternal
government'-' maternal duties;' but of' a fatherly kindness of manner' —'a motherly tenderness.' The same
may be said of the relation between the words' kingly' and
" regal.' We speak of the' iegal state -''the regal prerogative' — but of a' kingly deportment' -' kingly splendor.'
FRIENDLY, AMICABLE.
The same relation exists between these two words;
neither denote any strong affection, neither are conjugate to
the noun' friendship;' but' friendly' implies something of
real cordiality, while'amicable' hardly signifies more than
that the persons specified are not disposed to quarrel; thence
we speak of' amicable relations between foreign States.'
RIGHTEOUS, JUST.
We have here again a Saxon * and a Latin term, whose
roots exactly correspond in meaning; but they have even
more curiously diverged than many other pairs of words.
* The root of the word'righteous' is, in fact, both Latin and
Saxon, the words I recht' and'rectus' being evidently of kindred
origin.




ENG-LISI  SYNONYMS.                 93'Righteous' is now  exclusively applied to rectitude of
conduct drawn from  religious principle, while'just' is
simply used for moral uprightness. A heathen or atheist
may be called just, but not righteous. But many are apt to
overlook the fact, that these words were really and originally
the same. For instance, in the Douay version of the Bible,
made from the Vulgate, the words of Latin derivation are
invariably preferred to the Saxon; and we find'just' constantly used for' righteous,' as the translation of the Greek
dikaios.
CALCULATED, FIT, SUITABLE, APT.'Calculated' is always so employed as not to lose the
force of the figure.  It must be read with an emphasis, and
followed by words which direct and qualify its meaning, or
explain its application; as' These plants are calculated for
our climate.'' Suitable,' and' fit,' may be used by themselves, which
could not be the case with' calculated.' We might say indifferently -'Do you think him calculated - fit - or suitable, for this situation?' but we might also say more briefly,' Do you think him suitable or fit?' in this last case,' calculated' would be inadmissible.'Calculated' must also
be differently qualified: we speak of' very fit' —but of'very well calculated.''Apt' is somewhat different from the others. It rather
implies readiness than suitability: and it is used to qualify
a simile or illustration; in which sense it implies not only'suitable' but' happy'-  or'pointed.' It is also used in
the sense of' liable,' as,' I am very apt to forget.'
ACCURATE, EXACT, PRECISE.
What is accurate must be exact; but exactness does not
necessarily imply accuracy. An account of any transac7




94                  A COLLECTION OF
tion may be accidentally exact, but to be accurate, care
must have been bestowed. An accurate writer is one who
aims at exactness.
We speak of an'exact coincidence,' —we should not
use the word'accurate' in this sense.'Precise,' when
applied to things, is nearly the same as'exact,' but less
extended in signification. A likeness may be exact, but
could not be precise. It is most correctly applied to anything which is within certain defined limits, thus adhering
to its etymology, which signifies,'cut to a pattern,' (from
the Latin pre-cido.)
It is curious that the expression,'an exact person,' is
synonymous with'an accurate person;' but' a precise person' always implies one who is over-strict and scrupulous
in trifles.
FAMOUS, CELEBRATEDI ILLUSTRIOUS, RENOWNED.
Famous and celebrated approach the nearest to each
other in meaning of this group; but'famous' seems to
convey the idea of a name being more' blazoned abroad,'
and loudly praised, than' celebrated.''Illustrious' always
implies fame of a lofty and elevated character. We may
speak of' a famous juggler,''a celebrated chess-player,'
but we should not call them illustrious.'Illustrious' is also
used for distinguished rank and station.' Renowned' resembles' famous,' but, like illustrious, is
used for a high and dignified kind of reputation.' A renowned chess-player' could be so called only in irony.
SLY, CUNN1NG, CRAFTY, DECEITFUL.'Sly' differs from' cunning' and' crafty,' first, by indicating manifestations of deceit on a small scale, and,
secondly, from its being generally of a negative character,
implying rather concealment than invention.  We speak of




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  95'sly humor;' this seems to imply humor that is furtive and
covert, in opposition to' broad humor.''Cunning' has departed, in some degree, from its original meaning,'knowing' (from a word cognate with the
German kennen, to know,) and now implies deceit, united
with a low kind of skill or cleverness.' Crafty' (according to its etymology) implies some higher degree of mental power, united with deceit. A statesman is called crafty; a fortune-teller cunning; a child sly.'Deceitful' differs from these in applying more to character than to individual acts; while the three other words
would equally suit both. It may also (like the substantive' deception,' which is in fact its real conjugate) be applied
to illusory appearances.
We might say'these appearances are deceiiful; the
cause of the deception is so and so.' - (See the head DECEIT, DECEPTION.)




NOUNS.
DILIGENCES INDUSTRY.' Industry' includes' diligence;' but it includes also something more. An industrious * man not only labors perseveringly at any given task, but is constantly on the watch
for opportunities to improve his condition or his mind, as the
case may be. The term is therefore applied to the design,
as well as to the execution.  The industrious man is always
ready for employment -always looking out for fresh work.
The diligent man merely performs steadily the individual
task he may be set. No one could be called industrious
who was not also diligent in the execution of his task; but
if we set a child some lesson to learn, we do not usually
exhort him  to' industry,' but to' diligence.'  They are
often, however, used synonymously.
CONTENTMENT, SATISFACTION.'Contentment' may be classed among those words in
the English language which adhere strictly to their etymology. Its root was undoubtedly the verb'to contain,' and
the substantive and its adjective have not departed from this
meaning. A contented person does not indulge in fruitless
wishes for what is beyond his reach; his desires are limited
by what he possesses.' Satisfaction' implies more: this word has likewise retained the signification of its root, and means that we have
* The nouns and adjectives here correspond.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                   97
obtained all we want; not that our desires are limited, but
that they have been gratified. A poor and needy man
may be'contented,' but he cannot feel'satisfaction' with
his condition. We might say,' Since I cannot obtain satisfaction, I must be content without it.'Satisfaction' also implies an amende honorable. Sometimes, when applied to conduct, it indicates approbation -
as,'Your behavior gives me great satisfaction.'' Satisfied"
implies a less amount of gratification:' I am  satisfied with
your conduct,' implies less of praise than' It gives me satisfaction.'' Not content' and' not satisfied' differ in this in modern
usage, that the latter often signifies not being pleased at all,
which the former does not in English, though it does in
French. The Pope was not satisfied with the Reformation
of Henry VIII.; but the reformers were not content with it.
ANGER, IND1GNATION, DISPLEASURE, RESENTMENT.
The difference between'anger' and'indignation' is,
that'anger' is always personal, and always applies to injuries inflicted, or supposed to be inflicted, on ourselves, or
on others so nearly connected by ties of kindred or friendship, as to be regarded almost as a part of ourselves.'Indignation' is more generally used in reference to
some injustice or oppression shown to others, whether to
strangers or friends; though it also includes anger on our
own account. It may be considered as denoting sympathetic
anger; - a feeling that such and such conduct might justly
provoke anger. And hence it is that a person, under the
influence of anger at some wrong done him, often prefers
describing himself as feeling' indignation;' meaning thereby to disavow selfish personal feelings, and to imply that he
is affected merely by the character of the act in itself, just
7*




98                 A COLLECTION OF
as he would have been, had the wrong been done to a
stranger.' Displeasure' is a calmer feeling than either' anger' or'indignation.' It implies a sentiment scarcely stronger
than simple disapproval, and is generally applied to the
faults of an inferior, either in age or station. We should
not speak of being' displeased' at the conduct of a superior, however ill we might think of him.' Resentment' is a stronger feeling than any of those
before mentioned. It generally implies a long-continued
feeling. It may be defined as a long-continued anger felt
against some one who has knowingly injured us; in no other
case can the word be correctly applied.
We may feel'anger' against a child for behaving ill,
though his conduct may do us no harm; we may be angry
with some one who is the innocent cause of annoyance to
us; but in neither of these cases should we be said to feel' resentment.'
RECOMPENSE, REWARD, MEED.
A' recompense' implies a reward equivalent to the action
done (etymologically, a compensation).
A' reward' includes a recompense, but does not imply it
— its simple, primary meaning is merely a pleasure or
benefit (whether adequate or not) conferred in return for
some action.  TWe may say:' I cannot recompense you for
this;' meaning,' I cannot make any fitting return to you.'
Hence it is incorrect to speak of recompensing a child
for good behavior;' reward' would be the correct term.' Meed' is a reward which we earn by our own exertions,
and to which we are fairly entitled: A free gift cannot be
a meed.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  99
APPROVAL, APPROBATION.'Approbation' is used in a much more extended sense
than'approval.''Approval generally implies a formal
sanction of some plan or mode of action; as,'I proposed
such a measure to the Prime Minister, for his approval.' It
implies also such a sanction as can only come from a superior; whereas,' approbation' requires no such distinctions.
A private man may give his' approbation' to the measures
of government; but we could not say that he gave them
his' approval.'
Lastly, some consequences must follow for an' approval;'
while' approbation' does not necessarily imply anything of
the kind.
TIMIDITY, BASHFULNESS, SHYNESS, DIFFIDENCE.' Timidity' implies a liability to fear of any kind, whether
personal or moral.'Bashfulness,'' shyness,' and' diffidence,' all refer to the fear of blame or disapprobation. But
a person may be shy or bashful without being diffident.'Diffidence' implies a real distrust of our own powers,
combined with a fear lest our failure should be censured;
for a dread of failure unconnected with censure is not usually called' diffidence.' We should not say that Robinson
Crusoe on his island, if he distrusted his own powers of
building a canoe, was diffident. The word seems to imply
spectators, and the companionship of others. It is generally
applied to a reluctance to attempt some undertaking, or a
fear of exhibiting our own powers; but' shyness' and'bashfulness' are more applicable to general deportment
and manners.' Bashfulness' is generally applied to an awkward, sheepish kind of' timidity;'' shyness' to an excessive selfconsciousness, and a continual impression that every one Is




100                 A COLLECTION OF
looking at us. Bashfulness would be shown by hanging
back timidly, or sitting silent and stupefied.  Shyness is
often manifested by an apparent haughtiness and stateliness
of manner, (hence it is almost proverbially mistaken for
pride,) or, still oftener, by an affected smile, and a frequent
forced laugh.
In short,' shyness' invariably arises from thinking too
much about oneself,'diffidence' generally from  underrating one's own powers, (which is compatible with perfect selfpossession,) and' bashfulness' and' timidity' from a fearful disposition and a want of presence of mind. Shyness
and bashfulness, however, imply awkwardness, which timidity does not.
SORROW, GRIEF7 AFFLICTION, DISTRESS7 REGRET)
SADNESS, MELANCHOLY.'Sorrow' and'affliction' are used generally -' grief'
only for particular cases. We speak of' such an one having known sorrow' or' affliction,' but not of' having known
grief.''Grief' is usually applied to'sorrow' for some
definite causes, and always for the past. We speak of feeling'grief' for the death of a friend, but not for his illness
or misconduct at this present moment. In such a case,'sorrow' or' affliction' would be better words.' Sorrow' and' grief' always imply mental distress;' affliction' is used in a more extended sense, and is sometimes
applied to one class of bodily evils, — to those, namely,
which are occasioned by the privation of a sense, or the loss
of a bodily power. Pain and sickness, however severe, are
not called afflictions, though a person suffering from them
may be said to be a/Jicted; but blindness, deafness, or loss
of the use of any of the limbs, are constantly spoken of as' afflictions.''Distress' may be used either generally, or particularly.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 101
It includes a wider range of evils than affliction, - for poverty, sickness, and pain, come under this head. When applied, in particular to any one kind of evil, it usually expresses an uneasy, restless suffering, whether of body or mind
- or else very pressing, griping poverty; - and it almost
always implies a struggle. One who is sunk in despair
would not be said to be in' distress.'' Sadness' and' melancholy' are both applied to moods
of the mind exclusively.' Regret' is used for a slighter kind of sorrow than any
of the words above mentioned; when used in speaking of
losses by death, it implies the mildest degree of sorrow. In
its stronger sense, it is chiefly used when speaking of our
past conduct, and in this case its meaning is very limited.
We feel remorse or repentance for deep and heavy faults,' regret' only for follies or carelessness. But'regret' has
a special reference to one particular kind of repentance -
that which is felt for having lost an opportunity.
Conjugate words. —' Grief' was formerly used in the
sense of the French' grief,' for a subject of complaint or
injury. It has preserved this sense in two of its pseudoparonymes, or conjugates -' to aggrieve' and' grievance.'' Grievous' was formerly used for an illness or accident,
where we now say'severe,' and now is used to qualify an
event at which we feel' sorrow' mingled with a degree of
vexation.  Grieved is a far less strong expression than'grief.' We say to a child who has behaved ill,-' I am
grieved at your conduct,' but we should not speak of being
in grief for such a cause.'Sorry,' again, is a much weaker expression than' sorrow.' The description once given by a foreigner of the
grief of some friends of his for the loss of their only child
—'They are very sorry,' would almost raise a laugh in
England; and yet in old English, as we see by our Bible




102                 A COLLECTION OF
translation,' sorry' was regarded as answering to' sorrow.'' And when his fellow-servants heard that, they were very
sorry.'
Afflicted' has a double meaning. It is used for' being
visited with affliction,' or, for the state of mind naturally
produced by it - the state of'grief' or' sorrow.' This
last meaning is applied by metonymy, just as the adjective'melancholy' was formerly used for a sad disposition, and
now for incidents or speeches which may occasion' sadness.'
Sad has also acquired this secondary meaning. This word
has undergone some curious changes. Being derived from
the verb to sit, it was formerly used very much in the sense
of settled, as now applied to conduct; indeed, in old
times it signified firm, as in Wickliffe's translation of the
Bible, where the' house built upon a rock,' is said to be
built upon a sad stone.  Hence it came to signify seriousness, both of character and of material objects; thus sad
garments, for what the French called un habit serieux. Its
meaning at present, as well as that of the noun, still verges
upon the idea of earnestness, as in the rather old-fashioned'
expression,' in sober sadness,' -that is,' in collected earnestness.'
FEAR, FRIGHT, TERROR, ALARMI DREAD, APPREHENSION.'Fear' is a general term, which includes many of the
rest.  It is sometimes spoken of as a passion; sometimes as
a mere intellectual consciousness of danger. It is also used,
as far as this latter is concerned, in two senses: 1st, the apprehension of actual danger; 2dly, the hypothetical apprehension.  For instance,'I have a great fear of catching
cold,' implies the actual apprehension of an evil — i. e.,' catching cold;' but'I have a great fear of being out in
the rain,' implies a hypothetical apprehension. What is




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                   103
understood by it is,' I have afear of the evil which may be
produced by going out in the rain- viz., catching cold.*'Fright' implies a degree of fear which paralyzes and
takes complete possession of the mind.'Terror' is the
same thing in a stronger degree.' Alarm' merely signifies
a sudden apprehension of immediately-impending danger,
probably derived from  the Italian' All' armi!' a common
cry of soldiers when surprised. A brave man may be' alarmed,' (for it implies nothing unreasonable or cowardly
in its primary sense,) and he may feel' fear;' but he could
not be'frightened.''Dread' differs from' fear' in being more definite and
more intense: we may speak of' being in a state of fear'
without reference to the object feared; but not, of' being in
a state of dread.' t' Fear,''fright,' and' alarm' are, in general, only used
for apprehension of some painful or destructive physical
evil; the two last constantly: but' fear' is often used in
reference to the opinion of others, especially those whom
we respect. Men are said to be' governed by the fear of
the world, the fear of their superiors,' &c.; and' fear' has
always been the most appropriate expression that is used in
-reference to our Creator.
The conjugate verbs,' to fear' and'to dread,' do not
exactly correspond with the nouns.' To fear' is generally
used for a hypothetical apprehension; and'to dread' is
mostly applied in reference to some impending evil. The
expression,' I dread crossing the sea,' would imply that we
* The adjective'afraid' has the same varieties of meaning. It
may be said to be conjugate to the noun'fear.'' To be afraid,'
however, when used alone, means nearly the same as' to be frightened.'
t' Dread' was formerly used more as' fear' is now. It was used
towards the Deity, as we may see in our liturgy.




1041               A COLLECTION OF
expected soon to cross.' To dread' may also be applied to
any evil, whether connected with positive pain or danger, or
not.'I dread the meeting with such an one,' might be used
by one who expected to be afflicted with sorrow or agitation
at the meeting,' Ifear meeting him,' would imply that the
meeting would be the cause of some physical evil or danger.
We should not say,' I fear committing a crime,' unless we
meant that we feared the punishment the crime might bring
on us; if our fear was based on conscientious or honorable
motives, we should use the word' dread.' "'  With regard to
the faults of others, however, we say' fear:' Ifear he may
be led into such and such an action.''Apprehension' simply implies the consciousness of danger. It is a word which has undergone some change in its
meaning.  Originally, it was used merely to express expectation, or simple consciousness, without implying necessarily
the expectation of consciousness of danger; and this original sense has been preserved in its derivative or conjugate
verb,' to apprehend.' By degrees, the idea of fear or danger
came to be understood in the case of the noun substantive,
and also the adjective,' apprehensive.'
The conjugates belonging to this group have most of them
preserved their original meaning; but' fearful' may either
be applied to one who feels fear, or to circumstances calculated to inspire the feeling.  And' frightful,' which is now
limited in its meaning to that which is likely to inspire
fright, was formerly used in speaking of persons who were
easily frightened. This change of expression by metonymy
has taken place with many words in our language.
The expression' to be afraid,' conveys the same idea as' dread,'
with respect to committing a fault. A brave and conscientious person will be' afraid' of nothing so much as of doing wrong.




ENGLISIH SYNONYMS.                 105
PATIENCE, FORTITUDE, RESIGNATION,'Fortitude' may be classed in two ways: it may either
be reckoned with courage, intrepidity, &c., on the one hand,
or with' patience' and' resignation on the other. It may
be called a link between two classes of virtues. It is always
used, however, in the same sense; as, a rssistance to evil
rather than a submission to it; it is shown in sustaining
firmly some violent and overwhelming shock, whether bodily
or mental.' Patience,' on the other hand, implies a gentle
submission to the lesser evils of life, and an endurance of
continuous suffering, whether of body or mind.'Fortitude' would be shown in sustaining some great
calamity or sudden reverse of fortune, or in enduring a
severe operation without a groan.'Patience' is manifested rather in bearing a lingering
illness with serenity and gentleness - in enduring some
continuous and wearying, though not violent pain - or trials
from the bad temper or ill conduct of others. It is also
applied to unremitting perseverance in some disagreeable or
discouraging task or duty. A person is spoken of as being
a patient teacher of stupid or inattentive pupils —as not
losing' patience' when trying to conquer some difficulty.
In this sense,' patience' is active; but' fortitude' is always
passive.
The opposite of' fortitude' is the weakness which yields
and is conquered by circumstances: a want of it is manifested by giving way to uncontrolled grief, terror, or outward
expressions of pain. The opposite of'patience,' on the
other hand, is irritability, querulousness, or peevishness.
Both are equally necessary, but' patience' is more frequently so than' fortitude.' The common evils of life should be
submitted to; the greater and rarer ones require to be met
with resolution.
8




106                 A COLLECTION OF' Resignation' more nearly resembles' patience' than'fortitude,' inasmuch as it implies submission, and not resistance; but, on the other hand, it is always passive. It is
generally applied either to those mental evils commonly
called aftlictions, or to bodily evils, which, being of a nearly
hopeless character, are also classed under the same head.
A person is not said to be resigned under a violent toothache; but under hopeless blindness, or incurable illness, the
term would be properly applied. It therefore refers more to
the mental suffering'which accompanies these evils than to
the evils themselves; and, in particular, it implies a readiness to resign hope.'Resignation' always implies a religious submission; in this, it differs from the two words before
mentioned.  A  stoic might display fortitude; patience is
often the result of a sluggish tameness of character; but
nothing short of Christian principle can inspire resignation;
its essential character is submission to the will of our
Maker.
UTILITY, USEFULNESS.'Utility' is employed in a more general and abstract
sense than'usefulness.'  We speak of the'utility' of an
invention or discovery; of the'usefulness' of the article
discovered or invented: of the'utility' of a society or institution; of the' usefulness' of an individual.' Usefulness,'
however, is sometimes employed in the sense of'utility;'' utility' much seldomer in the sense of' usefulness.' The
abstract quality is always called'utility.''Beauty and
utility,' for example, are placed in opposition to each
other.
EXPENSE,- COST.
Strictly speaking,'expense' should be applied to the
purchaser, and'cost' to the thing purchased.  A splendid




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  107
carriage is a costly article; the person who bought it is an
expensive liver, or one of expensive habits.  But the original
meaning of these words (both adjectives and nouns) has
been so corrupted, that they are now used almost indiscriminately one for the other.  Still,'expensive' is generally
and most correctly used with reference to the means of the
purchaser; and' costly' with reference to the value of the
article bought. Many persons are tempted to buy articles
of dress or furniture because they are not costly, forgetting
that, if their means are small, these purchases may still be
too e.rpensive; and, generally speaking, there are few ways
in which more'expense' is incurred than in constantly
buying what are called' great bargains.'
WISDOM, PRUDENCE.'Wisdom,' in the words of one writer,*'consists in the
ready and accurate perception of analogies:' and in those
of another,' in the employment of the best means for the
attainment of the most important ends-:' the one being the
description of thefaculty, the other of its operation.' Prudence' is a lower kind of' wisdom:' it consists in
the employment of the best means for the accomplishment
of any one particular end, whether it be important or no.
A man may therefore be prudent in some things and not in
others; for example, if his careful and diligent pursuit of
riches should peril his soul. Prudence, again, is of a more
negative character than wisdom: it rather consists in avoiding danger than in taking a decided step for the accomplishment of any object.  A prudent general is one who will
not let himself be surprised or taken at disadvantage; but
not always one who gains victories.  A prudent statesman
will keep out of war and debt, but will not always pass
* See Archbishop Whately's Rhetoric.




108                A COLLECTION OF
important laws or make improvemeuts. He may not even
show foresight in respect of very distant evils.  Sir Robert
Walpole appears to have been a prudent statesman for his
own day; but he showed a want of real wisdom in taking
no measures to allay the irritation which existed in the Highlands, and which, though it did not break out in his time,
was a source of great evils a few years afterwards.*' Prudence,' in short, takes a lower range than' wisdom.'
The Greeks had only one word for both, phronimos.  The
word sophos is sometimes translated' wise,' but incorrectly:
it meant rather' skilful in the arts;' and, used as a general
term, answered to what we call philosophical.
SELF-CONCEIT, PRIDE, VANITY, ARROGANCE, HAUGHTINESS.
To be'self-conceited,' is to entertain an overweening
opinion of oneself. A person, however, may be conceited
in some things and not in others; he may greatly overrate
his own capacity in some one particular point, while in
others he has a just estimate, or even perhaps too low an
estimate of himself.' Pride,' on the other hand, may be defined as a disposition to rate one's own claims to respect or attention too
highly, and to disdain others — viewing our equals as our
inferiors, and our superiors as our equals. A proud man, in
short, rates very highly what he himself really possesses -
a self-conceited man imagines himself to possess what he
really does not. And so, the term'pride of birth,''pride
of wealth or rank,' &c., means, rating the claims of birth or
rank very highly.  Hence we may see men of high rank
and great wealth who look down on those who are far superior in mind to themselves; this does not proceed from
their overrating their own abilities, but merely from their
* See Macaulay's Essays.




ENGLISHI SYNONYMS.                 109
overrating the claims of that very wealth and rank, and
thinking it entitled to more respect and veneration than the
greatest talents or the most eminent virtues.' Haughtiness' proceeds from  pride, but is applied almost
exclusively to manners and deportment.  A proud disposition will often show itself in haughty manners.' Vanity' may exist along with pride or self-conceit, but
is not implied by either of them. It is a word which has
undergone a great variety of changes. Originally it meant
emptiness, hollowness, (from the Latin vanus,) thence it
came to signify something unreal, fictitious, false. This
was its meaning in Shakspeare's time; he speaks of' lying
vainness.'  By degrees its meaning was modified, till it
came to be used in the sense which it has now acquired —
an excessive desire of applause and approbation for qualities
we do possess, as well as for those we do not. Persons are
said to be vain of their talents or beauty, when they really
possess these qualifications.
Many extremely vain persons nevertheless underrate
themselves; indeed, a high opinion of oneself acts rather as
a check than an an incentive to vanity.' Arrogance' is often confounded with self-conceit, though
totally different from it. The quality is, in fact, consistent
with a very low opinion of oneself, and a high admiration
and respect for others. It has been defined * as' an habitual
and exclusive self-deference.' An arrogant man is without
deference, even for those of whom he himzself thinks most
highly. He may say, and think, that he is extremely inferior to certain persons; he may hold them in the highest
esteem and admiration, but were they to differ from him on
any point, even in a matter in which they were fully con-~ See Archbishop Whately's Rhetoric, 7th edit. p. 119. See also
the article in this work under the head DEFERENCE, &c.
8*




110                A COLLECTION OF
versant and he wholly ignorant, he would set their opinions
utterly at nought. He may not have a high estimation of
his own powers in general; but practically, on each particular occasion, he appears to consider himself infallible:
and this is, what leads many to attribute to self-conceit what
in reality springs from arrogance.
EFFECTS$ CONSEqUENCES, RESULTS.'Effects' are the genus, —' consequences and'results'
the species, —therefore'consequences' and results' must
also be' effects,' - since the species includes the genus, -
but' effects' are not necessarily' consequences' or' results.''6 Effects,' as distinguished from the other terms we have
mentioned, are applied to something which immediately
follows from any cause, whether mental or physical. They
can therefore be to a certain extent calculated on beforehand.'Consequences' are more remote and spring less
directly from causes; they rather follow in the train of an
event.  We may foresee the'consequences' of any thing,
but we always act with a view to its'effects.' For instance,
the effect of wearing clothes, is to cover one; the consequence is, that they wear out; we foresee this consequence
in buying them, but it is with a view to the immediate
efect (the covering us) that we act.
Again, we should say,' His conduct had a bad effect on
those around him;' but not' bad consequences,' although
we might add,' that the consequence of this conduct was,such and such an event.' Hence we see how much more
remote are'consequences 9 than' effects,' simply so called,
although a'consequence' must be an'effect,' as before
stated.'Effects' likewise often imply some direct agency
or design, which' consequences' never do.'Results' are still more remote than'consequences.'




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  1 i'Consequences' and' effects' are both applied to a change
which is in the act of taking place, while' result' implies
the state of things when the change has taken place.
Hence, it is both more remote and more general than
either'consequences' or' effects.' We should say,' My
entreaties produced a powerful effect on him, and the result
was that he granted my request.' The'effect' of ploughing is, the loosening of the soil; the'consequences' are
that seed can be sown on it; the'result' is, the fertility of
the land.
CONFLICT; COMBAT, CONTEST, CONTENTION.
Formerly, the first two of these terms were applied to the
striving together of foes in battle; now,'combat' is the
only one used in this sense, though it is sometimes also
applied figuratively to the strife of words, or of mental and
moral feelings and emotions.  But'conflict' has almost
entirely lost its original meaning of a battle or skirmish, and
is only applied to it figuratively. A' contest' was never
used for fighting.' Contest' is generally used for a hot
argument or verbal dispute. A'conflict' is now more
frequently applied to an inward struggle of the mind,- to
the strife of contending opinions or feelings. We speak of'undergoing a mental conflict' -' of conflicting passions,'
&c.; but it is sometimes, though more rarely, used in the
sense of' contest.''Contention' was formerly used in the same sense as'contest' as in Acts, xv. 39: —' and the contention was so
sharp between them,' &c.  Now,' contest' is used for the
act of disputing or quarrelling, and' contention' for the
habit. We speak of' a spirit of contention,' (meaning a
tendency to habitual striving and disputing,) or of' a contentious disposition;' but never of a' spirit of contest.'




112                  A COLLECTION OF
DETESTATION, AVERSION) ANTIPATHY, DISLIKE) ABHORRENCE, HATRED, REPUGNANCE.'Aversion' is merely a stronger form of' dislike;' they
differ only in degree, not in kind. We have a dislike to
what is unpleasant to us - we have an aversion to something that shocks, disgusts, or inspires us with horror.'Antipathy' is always used for a causeless' dislike,' or
rather for one of which we cannot define the cause.  Many
persons have an'antipathy' to a cat; this is perhaps not
utterly without cause, and may be accounted for by the
electricity which resides in that animal; but being without
any certain and obvious reason, and unaccountable even to
the person who feels it, it is denominated an' antipathy.' *' Repugnance' is a feeling akin to disgust; but it is often
applied to an extreme reluctance, or shrinking from some
particular course of action.' Hatred implies enmity, or a desire for the destruction of
its object. It is generally applied to qualities of a personal
kind, though not always strictly  personal.  It may be
directed against abstractions of qualities; as, for- instance,
we may hate a liar, a traitor, an ungrateful man, in the abstract; but it is rarely directed-perhaps never correctly
- against qualities belonging to things, whether in the abstract or otherwise. In this respect it differs from some of
the other words classified hereof
-  When the discoveries of science shall have thrown more light on
the subject, an explanation will, doubtless, be afforded of many at
present unaccountable antipathies, both with regard to persons and
things.
t Aristotle, in his Rhetoric, has given an admirable parallel between' anger' and' hatred;' in which he points out that' anger'
can only be directed against an individual or individuals, while'hatred' may be felt towards a class or nation; that' anger' only




ENGLISH SYNONYM~S.                 113'Detestation' is somewhat like' aversion,' but is oftener
applied to persons or personal qualities in the abstract. We
talk of'detesting' cruelty or lying - we should not speak
of having an'aversion' to them —because'aversion' is
scarcely ever applied to qualities in the abstract.'Abhorrence' is as strong a term  as'aversion,' but it is
differently applied.' Aversion' may be felt either towards
individual persons or things, but never towards actions.' Abhorrence' is applied generally in reference to actions.
The proper object of abhorrence is guilt or crime; we may
speak, indeed, of our'abhorrence' of such and such a
man; but it is always applied to him as the author of some
criminal action, and, strictly speaking, it applies only to bad
conduct.
ENEMY, ANTAGONIST, ADVERSARY, OPPONENT.
Of these four words,'enemy' is the only one which
implies general personal hostility. We may be adversaries,
antagonists, or opponents of those with whom we are in
general on friendly terms. The chief difference, indeed,
between an' enemy' and an'adversary' is, that the word' enemy' is oftener applied to one who is personally hostile,
and' adversary' to one who happens for a time to be placed
in the position of an'enemy,' as in war or in argument.'Antagonist' and'opponent' are generally used in speaking of a single combat, or a debate or dispute between two.
seeks retaliation, which shall be known and understood as such
by its object, while'hatred' desires destruction; and lastly, that'anger' cannot subsist at the same moment with'fear' though'hatred' and' fear' are quite compatible. His example, however,
has not been followed in this work, in classing' anger' and' hatred'
together, because, though the two passions may often be confounded
together, and mistaken one for the other, the two words are not liable
to be mistaken; and it is with words that we have now to do.




114                A COLLECTION OF'Antagonist' (as its etymology implies) is applied to-one
who is actively struggling with another, whether literally or
in argument.'Opponent' simply denotes one who differs,
or who opposes a passive resistance.' Antagonist' may be
used either for real fighting, or for verbal disputes;'opponent,' almost exclusively for the last.
Of these four words, two,'antagonist' and'adversary'
are exclusively personal. The first,'enemy,' may be used
for one who has a hatred and utter dislike of certain things;
as, an' enemy to luxury'- -' an enemy to such and such a
course.''Opponent' is sometimes also used in the same
way; we may speak of'an opponent of such and such
measures,' but always particularly and never generally,we could not speak, for instance, of an opponent to luxury
or avarice.
REPROOF, REBUKE, REPRIMAND, CENSURE, REMONSRANCE5
EXPOSTULATION, REPROACH.
A'reproof' is a simple admonition, expressive of our
disapprobation, generally addressed to some one beneath
us in age or station.'Rebuke' is now used nearly in
the same sense, but is a stronger term. It was formerly
applied rather as a' remonstrance' to an equal, or even to
a superior; as in the Bible,' Peter took him and began to
rebuke him.' *'A'reprimand' is always addressed to inferiors, and has
a stronger sense than either of the former words. It is
understood to imply something of an official reproof, and
from one having authority.'Censure' has less of personality than any of these
words; it is rather the expression of an unfavorable opinion
* The nouns and verbs are here used indifferently, as they precisely correspond.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  115
than a direct'reproof.' The conduct of a public man is'censured' in the papers; an author is'censured in a
review. It always applied to the opinion of equals, or to
those who judge as equals, even if they are not really so.'We never'censure' an inferior, and in'censuring' a superior, we place ourselves for the time on an equality with
him.' Remonstrance' and'expostulation' are both more argumentative, and have more of the character of advice than
any of the other words mentioned. They have also this
characteristic, that they always imply an attempt to dissuade
their object from some action or line of conduct which is
either taking place, or about to take place, - some step
which a person is about to take; while' censure' applies to
what is past. We might say,' his conduct deserves censure,
for he acted as he did in spite of the remonstrances (or
expostulations) of his friends.'
The chief difference between these two words is, that
a'remonstrance' may be used with a superior, while'expostulation' is more generally applied to an equal or inferior.
A'reproach' differs from all the other words mentioned
in three ways. First, it is more personal. A'reproof' is
always supposed to be given for the behefit of the person
reproved; a'reproach' is often merely a vent to the feelings of the person who gives it. Secondly, it is not limited
to any grade or relation, but may be given to equals, superiors, or inferiors. A child may reproach a parent with his
neglected education; a king may reproach his subjects for
their desertion -his allies for their faithlessness.  Thirdly,'reproach' differs in respect of its object. To reproach a
person, is to attribute a fault to him which he does not admit;
while to reprove him is to dwell on the wrong he has done
in committing it. Thus, we reprove the Romanists for their




116                A COLLECTION OF
idolatry; we reproach some professed members of our own
Church with being Romanists at heart.
ANSWER, REPLY, REJOINDER.
An' answer' and a'reply' may be synonymous, but are
not always so. In general, we are said to' answer' a question, and to' reply' to an attack. The first time a question
is responded to, it is always called an'answer;' but if this,
again, is'answered,' the' answer' to the'answer' is called
a'reply.' A' rejoinder' is an' answer' given in support
of some former' answer.' It is chiefly used as a law-term,
but in general it implies something said in a later stage of
the debate or discussion, rather than a'reply.' But'answer' (whether used as a noun or as a verb) is used in a
secondary sense, to imply something which serves the purpose for which it was said - which satisfies the questioner,
confutes or silences the objector, defeats the opponent, &c.
A'reply' is merely something said in return, or by way
of an'answer' to some question, attack, &c.  Hence we
say,'this reply is no answer;''Many books have been
written in reply to this author, but he has never yet been
answered.'
A COMMAND, INJUNCTION, ORDER.'Command' is the most general term of the three. We
speak of a' divine command,' rather than' injunction' or'order.''Injunction' relates more to general conduct;'order' to particular acts. A child receives' orders to learn
his lesson, but'injunctions' to be diligent and attentive.
We should not speak of giving a servant'orders,' but' injunctions' to be tidy. A' command,' though not more
absolute or despotic than an' order' or'injunction,' generally indicates persons of a higher station: a king or general issues' commands;' an inferior officer gives' orders.'




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 117'Commandment,' the other noun derived from the verb'to command,' is now nearly obsolete, and used only for
the laws laid down in the Bible. The original meaning of
our wvord'command' seems to have been'power' or authority.  (See SHAKSPEARE, King Lear.)
DEFERENCE, RESPECT) VENERATION.'Deference' may be felt for those whose general character we neither'respect' nor'venerate.' It is often entertained unconsciously, and is nothing more than an habitual
presumption in favor of a person's opinions; a feeling
rather than an opinion, that he is more likely to be right
than another. We may feel' deference' for a person on
particular points only; for instance, we should defer to, or
feel deference for, a sailor in matters connected with the
sea, or a lawyer in questions of law. But'respect' and'veneration' must be felt for the whole character of their
object. These two last words approach each other in their
meaning; but'veneration' is a much stronger sentiment
than' respect.' We may both'respect' and' venerate'
those for whom we have no' deference;' but this is a circumstance rarely if ever acknowledged, even to ourselves.*
Lastly,' respect' and' veneration' are felt exclusively for
moral qualities, to which' deference' is not confined. We
should not think of respecting such a man for his mathematical talents, or venerating another for his skill in some
work of art; but in both these cases we might feel' deference.'
Conjugate words.- The conjugates' respectable' and'venerable' have considerably diverged from the meaning
of their roots.' Respectable' is almost the lowest term of
approbation we can use; and' venerable' is always applied
* See Whately's Rhetoric, under the head' Deference.'
9




118                 A COLLECTION OF
to something ancient; whereas, we may' venerate' virtue,
whether in youth or age.'Deferential' is merely applied
to manners. The verbs strictly correspond with the nouns.
ILLUSION, DELUSION.'Illusion' has most to do with visions of the imagination:'delusion' with some decided mental deception.  An' illusion' is an idea which is presented before our bodily or
mental vision, and which does not exist in reality. A' delusion' is a false view entertained of something which
really exists, but which does not possess the quality or attribute erroneously ascribed to it.'Delusions' may likewise be applied to perverted opinions.  A fanatic sectarian is said to be possessed by' delusions.''Illusions,' on the other hand, are solely applied to
the visions of a distempered imagination, the chimerical
ideas of one blinded by hope, passion, or credulity —or,
lastly, to spectral and other occular deceptions, to which
the word' delusion' is never applied.
FALSEHOOD, FALSITY.'Falsity' is, properly speaking, the quality of a false
proposition;' falsehood,' the proposition itself. When we
have found out that a person has told a'falsehood,' we are
convinced of the' falsity' of his assertion. The educated
classes are very apt to use the word' falsehood' for' falsity;'
as' I perceive the falsehood of your declaration.' The
vulgar fall into the reverse error, and sometimes speak of'telling afalsity.'
DECEIT, DECEPTION, FRAUD.'Deception' is used for individual instances, or acts, of
one who deceives;' deceit,' for the acts, and also from the
habit of mind, or for the act when continued and repeated.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 119
We speak of' a long course of deceit,' but of' an act of
deception.''Deception' is likewise used more in respect
of the effect produced on the person deceived;'deceit'
with regard to the agent, or deceiver.'Deception' may
therefore be used in cases where no guilt is implied; we
speak of a'deception' of the senses, an optical'deception, &c.@'Deceit' could not be used in these instances,
as it always has a reference to the intention of the agent.
The conjugate' deceptive' is generally applied to illusions
of the senses.' Fraud' is always used for an individual act of deceit:'a system of fraud' is a series of such individual acts.
ADMITTANCE, ADMISSION.'Admittance' is almost invariably applied to a literal
permission to enter some place, and is never used figuratively.'Admission' is more general in its signification,
and is used both in a literal and in a figurative sense; as,'to make some admissions on a disputed subject.' But
even in the literal sense, in which either' admittance' or'admission' may be used, they somewhat differ in their
shades of meaning.'Admittance' is, in fact, a right to' admission.' When
a ticket of' admittance' to some show or sight is given, it
implies merely a permission to enter: when we have entered,
we have obtained' admission;''admittance' was gained
as soon as the ticket was ours.
COMPULSION, COERCION5 RESTRAINT, CONSTRAINT.'Compulsion' and'coercion' are more active in their
signification than the two other terms mentioned; that is to
say, they imply a positive as well as negative force. We
* See the article on the adjectives, DECEITFUL, &C.




120                 A COLLECTION OF
are' restrained' from doing something we should wish to
do; but we are' coerced,' or'compelled,' to act in some
way against our will. A prisoner is compelled to work in a
house of correction; he is restrained from escaping.Secondly,'compulsion' and'coercion' are never used
to express the force a person exercises on himself, but. only
in relation to others;'restraint' and'constraint' may be
applied to ourselves.
There is a difference again, between'compulsion' and'coercion.'' Compulsion' is actual force, used directly to
induce others to act as we would have them do;' coercion'
is a more remotely exercised force, being an appeal to the
passion of fear, &c. A government is said to use'coercion'
to make its subjects profess the established form of religion;
a traveller in the hands of robbers gives up his purse, or signs
an order for a ransom, under' compulsion.' It is true that,
in both cases, the object may be gained by awakening the
same kind of fear: but the word'coercion' directs the
attention rather to the moral or mental, and'compulsion'
to the physical force employed.'Constraint' differs from' restraint,' chiefly in implying
a resistance of the will to the force used.'Restraint,'
when applied to the power we exercise on ourselves, generally implies that force which is exerted by an inward principle of self-control; while'constraint,' though it may be
exercised on ourselves, proceeds from some external cause,
supplying the motive.  A  man of frail temper'restrains'
himself to a sense of duty; but he is' constrained; to control himself by the presence'of those whom he fears, respects, or regards with suspicion. We exercise' constraint'
on ourselves unwillingly: a' constrained' manner always
implies a manner acted upon by some influence from without,
* The verbs here correspond with the nouns.




ENGLISHI SYNONYMS.                 1 21
not by any inward motive- a curb put on the manner.
It is therefore generally applied to outward indications;
whereas'restraint' may be exercised on the feelings or
passions.'Constraint' is always personal; I restraint' may be
applied to the emotions or feelings.  A  man is himse7f'constrained;' we should not say that his feelings were'constrained;' his feelings, or emotions, are' restrained.'
Again,' constraint' is positive,' restraint' negative; hence
the passage in the Bible,' The love of Christ constraineth
us.' *  We could not say,' restraineth' us, unless it were
from doing anything to which we were tempted. A person
is'restrained'from some action, and' constrained' to do it.
DETERMINATION, RESOLUTION,  DECISION.'Decision' differs from the other two words in implying
a choice between several courses of action, which the others
do not.
We' decide't  between opposite courses, we' determine'
what to do, and' resolve' to carry out our' determination.'' Determination' is a lower kind of' decision.'' Resolution' has more of a moral character.  A' resolution' taken
is a promise made to oneself. A stubborn man is' determined.' A firm man is'resolved.' A man who is quick
in forming a judgment, and firm in adhering to it, is' decided.' A' resolute' or a' decided' character both imply
something higher than a' determined' one.
These three substantives have in fact two meanings; one
implying the act of' resolving,' or' deciding,' or' determine
* In old English, the verb' constrain' was used in a wider sense
than it is now, being often used where we should now use the words'urge' or' persuade.'
t The conjugate verbs and adjectives have corresponding senses
with the substantives.
9*




19.2               A COLLECTION OF
ing,' the other, the habit. We have been considering the
latter, which would, however, be better expressed by' resoluteness,''decisiveness,' &c.
-NARRATION, NARRATIVE, RELATION, ACCOUNT, HISTORY;
TALE.' Narrative' and'narration' are nearly the same, and are
the widest in their meaning of all the group.'Relation'
is also nearly synonymous with them, but is less frequently
used, being more French than English. An' account' is
always a report of some individual event, and is only used
when its connexion with the event alluded to is decidedly
expressed.  We may speak generally of an  interesting'narrative' or'narration,' but an account must always be
of some incident, its connexion with which is never lost sight
of or left to be understood.
A' record' is a report of some event, or series of events,
made for the purpose of reference,- something of the
nature of a memorandum of a fuller kind.
A'history' must always be a connected account of a
series of events, generally one of some length. The incidents recorded in it must be of some importance in themselves - we should not speak of the' history' of any trivial
occurrence, except ironically. The expression'family history' is no exception to this rule, for it has a relative importance, though only of a private character; but' history' is
more usually and correctly appropriated, to public events.
It is always used for a general outline, whereas' account'
must be particular.  We should say,' in the history of this
author we have an account of such and such a battle.'
The events related in history are always at least supposed
to be true; whereas the word' story' is generally (though
not universally), applied to evident and apparent fiction, or to
onomething, at all events, of doubtful truth. For instance,




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  123
we say,' I will, tell you the history of my life;' but' he
told me a long story of what had happened to him, which I
did not believe.'
The three words,'history,'' story,' and'narrative,' are
however often used synonymously.' Tale' is nearly the same as' story,' but implies fiction
still more decidedly and necessarily.  We always speak of
a' fairy-tale,'' a legendary tale,'-' story' in this case
would not be used. The expression,' he told me the whole
story,' would not necessarily imply fiction; if the word' tale'
were substituted, it certainly would, The only exception,
indeed, to this word's implying fiction, is the expression,'tale-bearing,' or' tale-telling.'
DISPLAY~, SHOW, PARADE, OSTENTATION.' Display' is the only one of these four terms which does
not necessarily imply excess; for though the expression' a
love of display' is sometimes used in that sense, yet we
frequently speak of' a display' of talent or beauty, without
meaning to convey the idea of blame by the term.'Display, is not limited to any one class of subjects, but is equally used in material and in abstract cases.' This man is
clever, but is too fond of the display of his talents;''the
song she sang was well fitted for the display of her powers
of voice:'' the peacock seems to delight in the display of
his fine plumage.''Show,'- when used by itself, is always applied to an
appearance of outward and material splendor —either
something that indicates wealth, or an imitation of it;*
we say, for instance,'wealth is too often wasted in idle
show-a love of show and brilliancy has ruined many.'
* The adjective' showy' corresponds with this sense of the word' show.'




124                A COLLECTION OF'Show,' however, when used in conjunction with another
substantive, is more like' display' in its meaning, but conveys also the idea of fiction. A' show' of piety must be
feigned. One who really gives munificently may make a'display' of his liberality; but if he were said to' make a
show of liberality,' it would imply that he only appeared to
give, while he really kept back his money.'Parade' may be applied either to material objects or to
mental qualifications; in both cases it indicates an excessive
and absurd display and boasting — which forces the things'displayed' upon the public notice in an offensive manner.
A  refined person may be fond of'show,' or inclined to' display:'' parade' is always vulgar.' Ostentation,' which
was the same in its original sense as' show,' now generally
indicates a parade of virtues or other qualities for which we
expect to, be honored. The conjugate adjective,' ostentatious,' is more commonly applied to outward and material
splendor, and the substantive to a display of virtue; but
either may be used for either.
IMAGINATION, CONCEPTION, FANCY.'Imagination' and' fancy' are frequently confounded
together, but are, nevertheless, very distinct in their signification. In the first place,' imagination' implies more of
a creative power than' fancy;' it requires a greater combination of various powers, and is therefore a higher exercise of genius.'Fancy,' on the other hand, is more an
employment of ingenuity and taste, though it also requires
inventive power. Secondly,' imagination' implies a longer
flight;'fancy,' rather a succession of short efforts: the
one is a steady blaze, the other a series of sparkles. An
epic poem would require an exercise of the first; a ballad,
or other lighter production, of the last. Hence we may see




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 125
that, as it has been well remarked,* the difference between
the two is, in some measure, one of subject-matter; for the
same power which we call' fancy,' when employed in a
melody of Moore, would be called'imagination' in the
works of Dante or Milton.
In short, the efforts of' fancy' bear the same relation to
those of'imagination' that the carving and polishing of a
gem or seal does to sculpture.
In the third place, wit may come into works of' fancy,'
and could not be admitted into the province of'imagination.' The same with what are called conceits.' Conception' has something in common with imagination,
but it implies more decidedly a creative power, and is referred to something tangible and real; whereas, in efforts of
fancy and imagination, there is always a consciousness of
unreality. The province of' conception' is that which has
a real existence.  Hence, the productions of painters,
sculptors, and musicians are called' conceptions.''Conception' also denotes something framed and origi.
nated in our own mind; whereas the imagination or fancy
may be acted on merely from without. The poet or writer
of fiction exercises his own conceptions, but awakens the
imagination of his readers.
CONVICTION,  PERSUASION.'Conviction' is the act of the understanding;'persuasion' of the will.'Conviction' is effected by such a train
of argument as will bring the understanding to admit the
conclusion to which it leads;'persuasion' is effected by
exhortation, whose office it is to enlist the feelings and will
in the orator's service. The first is the province of logic,
* See an interesting article in the Edinburgh Revienw for April,
1842, on Moore's Poems.




126                A COLLECTION  i)F
the second of rhetoric; but it is a mistake to suppose, as
many do, that they can be exercised independently of each
other, in reference to action.
To induce men to act as we would have them  do, two
conditions are requisite: first, they must be shown that certain means are essential, or at least the best possible,
towards a certain end; and, secondly, that the end to be
attained is desirable.@  It would be no use to prove to an
army that such and such means were likely to enable them
to conquer the enemy, unless they were inspired with the
desire of victory; and, on the other hand, the most animating exhortations to bravery and daring would not induce
them to a certain mode of procedure, unless they thought
it conducive to that object.
But often one-half of the desired effect has been already
accomplished, and we have only the other half to perform:
the auditors are already convinced, and we have only to exhort, - or, their feelings or desires sufficiently excited, and
we have only to convince them of the best means for accomplishing the end in view.
Hence, it is a mistake to say that the wisest of mankind
are governed by reason, and the majority by their feelings;
for the wise could not act on their convictions, unless their
will were influenced; and the multitude are convinced as
well as impelled by feeling, though they are often led by
their passions to accept bad and inconclusive reasoning as
convincing.
The real state of the case is, that the wisest and best of
mankind use their reason to bring their will and feelings
under control, while the unthinking crowd allow their feelings to take captive their reason, and are first excited, and
then convinced on insufficient grounds.
* See Whately's Rhetoric, Part II., chap. i, ~ 1.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  127'Persuasion,' then, is the wider term  of the two: it in.
eludes both'conviction,' and that excitement of feeling
which leads to action; while - conviction' alone is inactive.
Formerly,'persuasion' was used much as' conviction' is
now, as we may see in some passages of our Bible translation. From the old use of the word probably arose the
expression,' religious persuasion;' though it might almost
pass for a satire on the proneness of mankind to follow their
feelings rather than their reason in matters of religious
belief.
GOODNESS) VIRTUE.
These words are used indiscriminately; but when their
meaning is distinct,' goodness' is usually applied to that
which is natural and without effort, and'virtue' to the
merit which springs from self-discipline, and a steady resistance to temptations which are felt to be strong.*
One who had been brought up as a thief would be doing
a virtuous action in abstaining from depredation; if, by longcontinued efforts, his character at last so improved that theft
was odious instead of tempting to him, he would perform
fewer virtuous acts, but his'goodness' would be greater.
Goodness of heart' is, indeed, used to express a mere passive benevolence; but'goodness,' in the abstract, is used
to express a higher excellence than'virtue.' We can venture to apply the term to the Supreme Being; whereas'virtue' is purely a human quality.  As long as we live on
* A very pleasing description of untutored natural goodness of disposition may be found in Wordsworth's Ode to Duty:'Glad hearts, without reproach or blot,
Who do thy will and know it not.'
The word'virtue' could not be applied to this instinctive kind of
goodness: nor could it be applied to the highest kind; it seems to
indicate a middle state.




128                A COLLECTION OF
this earth, the best must spend their lives in resisting and
struggling against temptations, and controlling evil tendencies; but in sinless perfection there can be no virtue.
I[INDRANCE, OBSTACLE, IMPEDIMENT.
A'hindrance' holds us back when we are about to start
forward: an' obstacle' is found in our path, and opposes us
when we have started: an' impediment' makes our further
progress more difficult, and hampers us in what we wish to
do; whence the Romans called their baggage impedimenta.
A weight carried is an' impediment;' a bar thrown across
the road is an'obstacle:' an importunate visitor who prevents our setting out is a' hindrance.' We might say,' I
had so many hindrances before starting that I could not set
out as early as I wished; I had many things to carry with
me, and this was an impediment to my speed; the obstacles
I met with on the road tempted me to turn back.'
A'hindrance' or'impediment' may be merely of a material kind: an'obstacle' is something decidedly hostile,
and set in opposition to us. Even when the' obstacle' is
inanimate, we, as it were, personify it for the time, and
consider it in the light of something intentionally hostile.
Hence, the expressions we use in connexion with these
words are different. We remove an' impediment' or' hindrance;' we surmount an'obstacle.' We proceed notwithstanding an' impediment' or hindrance;' in spite of an'obstacle.'
ALLEGIANCE) LOYALTY.' Allegiance' is a principle of action;' loyalty' a sentiment.' Loyalty' is also more personal, and is more limited
to our relation to a hereditary monarch:' allegiance' would
apply equally to any form of government, merely implying
fidelity and obedience. In short,' loyalty' is a faithful ad



ENGLISH SYINONYLMS.               129
herence to some individual monarch or ruler as such;' allegiance,' fidelity to any government, old or new, monarchical or republican, to which we have sworn obedience.
The words are originally the same,* indicating obedience
to law, and thereby showing how little the light thrown by
derivations on the modern meaning of a word can be
trusted.
SECURITY, SAFETY, SURETY.'Security' has preserved something of its etymological
meaning (securus, without care); it implies an absence of
all fear or anxiety, but not necessarily absence of danger;
for there may be afalyse security.
By'safety' we understand a well-grounded security; an
absence of danger, not merely of the sense of danger. iVWe
might say,' They believed themselves in a place of safety,
but theirs was a false security.'' Security' has, however, another sense, which is nearly
synonymous with'surety;' both referring to precautions
taken to ensure safety. The adjective'secure,' and the
verb'to secure,' are not conjugate with the noun' security,'
but rather with' safety.'
The adjective'sure' is a contraction of'secure,' and
when applied to things and places is synonymous with it;
when to persons, it implies a strong conviction, but not
certain knowledge.
REF ORMATION) REFORM.'Reformation' is generally applied to great occasions; to
the amendment of principles, articles of belief, or points
affecting the highest and gravest interests of a nation or inSomre consider'allegiance' to be derived from alligo, to bind:
this derivation, however, is by others considered doubtful.
10




130                 A COLLECTION OF
dividual.'Reform' is oftener applied to practical details.
We speak of a'reformation' in religion, but of a' reform'
in government; of the' reformation' of a criminal, but of
a'reform' in the management of a household, or administration of business. A man whose character has undergone
a complete' reformation,' will generally effect a' reform' in
his habits and way of life.
It is a recent custom to speak of' reforming' abuses; but
this is an impropriety of language; abuses may be remedied, or extirpated, but they cannot be' reformed.' In the
same way, we speak improperly of' curing diseases;' it is,
correctly speaking, the patient who is cured.
FAITH, BELIEF, CERTAINTY.' Belief' is merely an assent. of the understanding, in
which the will is not concerned: and this is the chief distinction between it and faith.
Faith may, however, be said to have, besides this, three
distinguishing characteristics.
First, —It must be a belief founded on authority: this
does not imply a blind assent, in the absence of proof: for
we may have good and sufficient evidence for the trustworthiness of our authority. It is often supposed that faith,
to be perfect, requires that reason should be put aside or
kept in subjection: but this would be to make credulity a
a necessary accompaniment of -faith. It is too often found
so combined: but the highest faith is not of this nature.
The true test of its merit and virtue is, not assenting to
anything against our reason, but against our prejudices or
interests.
Secondly, - Faith implies an assent to a system or series
of propositions, not to one insulated fact.  Our trust in the
assertion of some one who was administering medicine to
us, that he had taken a certain bottle from a certain shelf,




ENGLISTT SYNONYMS.                1 3 1
would not be called faith; though our reliance on his general mode of practice would be so designated.*
Thirdly, - Faith is generally of a practical nature. We
do not speak of having' faith' in the Copernican system,
though we may believe it firmly on. authority, because it
does not directly lead to any course of action: but one who
had been induced by the representations of its earliest
followers to attempt a voyage round the world, would be
justly said to have' faith' in what they told him, because he
not only held their opinions in theory, but followed them up
in practice.
Hence a mere assent to the truths of Christianity, such as
we give to any mere historical fact, and which does not
affect the conduct, cannot be called' faith.''Certainty' is generally applied to a firm conviction of
the truth of any proposition: but when opposed to' belief'
or' faith,' it describes more correctly that conviction which
is only produced by demonstration, or the evidence of the
senses.'Certainty' has come to be applied by a metonymy to the,
thing, which is the object of a certain belief.
FORGIVENESS, PARDON.
As is usually the case where a Saxon and a Latin word
are used in nearly the same sense, the Saxon word gives
the more forcible, homely, and serious meaning- the Latin,
on the other hand, the more polite and colloquial one.
Both' forgiveness' and' pardon' are alike used, it is true,
in a religious sense; but in ordinary life' pardon' is applied
in more trifling matters than' forgiveness.' We beg a person's 6 pardon' for jostling him in a crowd: we ask his' forgiveness' for having seriously injured him.
* The primary notion of faith would seem to be, trust in a person.




182                 A COLLECTIO(N OF
It is remarkable that the words in all European languages
which express' forgiveness' or' pardon,' all imply free gift.
FEELINGS, SENTIMENTS.' Sentiments' are used in a wider sense than'feelings,'
including not only what are strictly called' matters of feeling,' but also matters of opinion of one kind; viz., those in
which feelings are concerned.  Thus, we speak of our
sentiments on religious, political, or moral questions; but
we should not speak of' sentiments' on chemistry or mathematics.'Sentiments' are never spoken of alone and in the
abstract, except in reference to the natural moral faculties,
in a physiological sense.  We speak of a person as having'strong' or'lively' feelings, but never as having strong' sentiments.'
SPEECH, ORATION; HARANGUE, DISCOURSE.
A member of Parliament makes a' speech;' a king is
received by a deputation, whose leader makes an' oration'
in his honor; a popular leader makes an' harangue' to a
mob. A'-speech' is the simplest mode of delivering one's
sentiments; an' oration' is an elaborate and prepared
speech; an' harangue' is a vehement appeal to the passions
of the persons addressed, or a speech which has something
disputatious and combative in it.
A' discourse' is a set speech on some subject which is
intended to convey instruction to the listeners.  It differs
from the other three in being applied to what is written —
the others are only spoken.
PITY, COMIPASSION, SYMPATHY.' Pity 9' and' compassion' resemble each other very nearly
in their signification; but there is a shade of difference.' Pity' often implies an approach to contempt;' compassion'




ENGLISH SYNOTYMTS.                  1 33
has more of tenderness in it.  WVe may speak of pitying
the wicked, or the hopelessly foolish; we only speak of
compassionating those into whose feelings we can enter,
and whose actions we may conceive ourselves performing.
Again,' compassion' is sometimes felt for imaginary sorrows;' pity' seldomer.' Sympathy' implies more of fellow-feeling than either of
the other terms, and is not restricted to subjects of pain, but
may be equally felt for the pleasures of others.
A certain degree of equality in station, age, mind, or
qualities, is essential.  We cannot feel sympathy with any
but one who is nearly an equal; we may feel compassion
for a superior or inferior likewise; we pity, generally, only
one whom we regard as in some way an inferior.* Great
admiration and pity cannot be felt at the same time for the
same person. No one could pity a martyr, or a hero nobly
dying for his country. The proper object of'pity,' as has
been well observed by an eminent writer,t is suffering not
wholly unmerited, but occasioned rather by weaknesses than
faults; its most fitting subject is a character of mixed good
and evil, being neither of a very high nor low order — like
Shakspieare's Lear, for example, or Scott's Amy Robsart.
MODESTY, DIFFIDENCE, HUMILITY.'Modesty' and'humility' are virtues;' diffidence' is
not in itself a virtue; and, in some cases, even amounts to
a defect.  It implies a great, sometimes even an excessive,
* Hence, a high-spirited person feels it a degradation to be the
object of pity. Scott has alluded to this feeling in the Lady of the
Lake, -' And last, and worst to spirit proud,
Had borne the pity of the crovd.'
t In one of the numbers of the Quarterly Reviewv. The doctrine is
Aristotle's, to whom the reviewer refers.
10*




413                 A COILF CTONT oEf
distrust of our own powers.  A diffident man will shrink
from doing that which he is perfectly equal' to perform, from
an unreasonable dread of failure.'Modesty' does not
imply self-distrust, but simply an unwillingness to put ourselves forward, and an absence of all over-confidence in
our own powers. A modest man may feel a proper confidence in his own powers, but he will not be eager to display
them.  He will rather shrink from  notice than court it, and
when called to any post of distinction, he will'bear his
honors meekly,' and make no attempt to claim even the
deference which might fairly be due to him.
And here it may be remarked, thnt the jealousy felt by
the generality of mankind towards superior talents is such,
that a man of emin'ent abilities is scarcely forgiven for
rating himself as he deserves -  though one of moderate
intellect is allowed to do so.' Humility' somewhat resembles' modesty,' but it implies
rather a readiness to yield our clairms, than a reluctance to
court notice.' Humility' is often falsely defined to be a
disposition to underrate ourselves; but this is a mistake.
There is no humility in a clever man's thinking himself a
fool; in fact, such a mistaken estimate is more likely to
lead to a restless, irritable vanity.  Real humility consists
in rating our own claims low - in being willing to waive our
rights, and descend to a lower place than might be our due;
in being ready to admit our liability to error, and listening
patiently to objections, even when they thwart our views; in
freely owning our faults when conscious of having been
wrong, and, in short, in not being over-careful of our own
dignity.
Finally, we may consider that the opposite to' diffidence'
is confidence; the opposite to'modesty,' impudence or
assurance; the opposite to' humility,' pride or conceit.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                    135
AUSTERITY, SEVERITY, RIGOR, STERNNESS, STRICTNESS.'Austerity' and'strictness' are the only ones among
these terms which apply to the mode of life.' Strictness'
is'rigor,' in the sense of a particular adherence to rules,
and steadiness in enforcing them. It also usually implies a
disposition to multiply rules and prohibitions, - to restrict
liberty.'Austerity' is chiefly used in reference to the
person characterized.' Severity' is almost exclusively applied to our judgments of, or conduct to, others.'Rigor'
may either mean an excess of severity, or great strictness in
adhering to rules.
A  hermit leads a life of austerity; a parent or teacher
may treat his children or pupils with severity; the laws
under a despotic government are enforced with rigor.' Rigor' does not necessarily imply severity, but only strictness; a government may enforce moderate rules with rigor.
The opposite to'rigor' is'relaxation,' as'lax' is to'rigorous;' the opposite of' severity' is' mildness;' that
of' austerity'-  as relating to our conduct with others -is
indulgence;' but personal austerity has no opposite, except
that which points out a blameable excess on the one side, as
self-indulgence, or luxuriousness. The medium, in which,
as Aristotle says, virtue lies, is nameless.:-' Sternness' is more applicable to character and manners
thanto judgment and actions.  A man of stern disposition
shows it to all with whom he comes in contact, whether
offenders or not.
* It may, perhaps, be suggested, that the word'temperance' would
express this medium; but the use of this word by itself is almost
entirely confined to moderation in eating and drinking; and it would,
therefore, be more appropriately described as a medium between' intemperance  and'abstemiousness,' than between'austerity' and'self-indulgence,' which apply to every part of a person's life, and
are not restricted to the gratification of the appetite.




136                A COLLECTTON OF
The two following groups of synonyms (with the exception of the paragraph on' cleverness') are quoted from the
Diary of Sir James Mackintosh, whose definitions cannot
be improved upon:-'GENIUS, WISDOM, ABILITIES, TALENTS, PARTS, INGENUITY, CAPACITY, CLEVERNESS.'Genius is the power of new combination, and may be
shown in a campaign, a plan of policy, a steam-engine, a
system of philosophy, or an epic poem. It seems to require
seriousness, and some dignity in the purpose; on ludicrous
subjects it is called wit; and in weaving together the parts
of an argument, or the incidents of a tale, it receives the
inferior name of ingenuity.'Wisdom is the habitual employment of a patient and
comprehensive understanding in combining various and
remote means to promote the happiness of mankind. It is
most properly applied to him who actually renders signal
services of the most difficult nature to society. It is well
used to denote the teachers of moral and political truth,
because the inculcation of such truth must in process of
time produce its practical application. It is also applied to
those who improved the general modes of exerting intellect,
from a just, though not perhaps distinct, perception of the
ultimate tendency of intellectual cultivation to increase the
means of happiness, and to improve the moral nature of
man.  But to mere speculation, or to those sciences of
which the professors have no immediate reference to human
improvement, this high and august term cannot be applied.
It is the loftiest and most venerable of all terms of commendation, because it is the only word for intellectual superiority, which necessarily includes a moral tendency, if not
a virtuous purpose. It is the highest exertion of reason for
the most pure end.




ENGLISH SY1NONYrI~S.               137'Abilities may be exerted in conduct, or in the arts and
sciences, but rather in the former; and when the term is
applied to the latter, it is rather in the practical sense of
attaining a particular object, that in that of general excellence.'Talents are the power of executing well a conception,
either original or adopted. They may be possessed in a'
degree very disproportioned to general power, as habit may
strengthen a mind for one sort of exertion far above its
general vigor.'Parts have lost a considerable portion of their dignity.
They were used in the last century perhaps almost in the
sense in which we now  rather employ talents.  They at
present, if at all used, might signify a specious sort of
smartness.'Capacity is a power of acquiring. It is most remarkable
in the different degrees of facility with which different men
acquire a language.' Sir Isaac Newton and Milton are equally men of genius.
Bacon is the wisest of writers, not only because he is so
great a teacher of moral and civil wisdom, but because he
has contributed more than any other man to the general
improvement of the human understanding.  Sir Isaac Newton had the highest philosophical genius, but the sciences on
which he employed it do not allow the praise of wisdom.
Sir Robert Walpole and Lord Godolphin were ministers of
great abilities, though they did not possess either the brilliant talents of Bolingbroke, or the commanding genius of
Chatham.''Cleverness' (derived evidently from the verb to cleave*)
X It is curious to observe, that several of the words which describe
the various mental powers are derived from words signifying to split,
cleave, or separate; as science from scio, probably the same as scindo, to cut: clever, from cleave: distinguish, discriminate, both signifying a dividing or sifting process, &c.




138                A COTLECTTON OF
is correctly applied to a certain quickness and readiness in
the operations of the mind, and especially in the act of
acquiring knowledge. But the loose way in which ideas
are expressed in ordinary conversation has led to a considerable abuse of this word, which is not seldom applied to
every kind of talent.
FORTITUDE, COURAGE, VALOR, BRAVERY, INTREPIDITY,
GALLANTRY, HEROISM.'Fortitude is the most comprehensive of these words.
It is always used morally, and is the name of a virtue which
consists in the habit of bearing pain and encountering danger. It is often confined to the endurance of pain, and is
used almost synonymously with patience, though it rather
indicates a spirit that resists pain, than one which submits to
it.  Courage is activefortitude, and is shown against every
sort of danger. Bravery and valor are both courage, exhibited against the danger of death from a living opponent;
bravery, perhaps, extends to all living opponents; valor is
certainly confined to human adversaries, and chiefly, if not
solely, in regular war. Firm courage is intrepidity; adventurous courage is gallantry.  The contempt of danger,
not from ignorance or inconsiderate levity, but from just
confidence in the power of overcoming the peril, is heroism.
Fortitude is one of those moral qualities, which, on account
of their eminent importance, were called by the ancients
cardinal virtues. Regulus showed a determined fortitude
when he returned to death rather than violate his pledged
word.'Courage may be shown by a seaman who braves the
dangers of the. sea, or by a horseman who mounts a horse
which no one else will approach.' Valor and bravery can only be displayed against present
danger from a living - if not a human - adversary. The




ENGLISH SYNONY1MS.                139
tortures of Regulus were distant, though certain; he would
rather be said to have encountered them with fortitude.
He might be praised for courage, but he would not be called
brave or valiant.  He who climbs up a house almost destroyed by fire to save a life may show the greatest courage,
but not bravery or valor. It is more natural to say that a
man encounters a tiger with courage, but perhaps there is
no impropriety in saying that he showed bravery. Bravery
may be proved in single combat; valor is the courage of a
soldier in war -it cannot be applied to single combats. A
defence is'intrepid,' and seems scarcely to be'gallant,'
unless we consider the attacks by which the defence is carried on; it is in attack that gallantry is shown.'The consciousness of power which forms a hero usually
inspires sentiments so elevated, that the word denotes magnanimity and generosity, however irregular, as well as courage. We say, indeed, a barbarous hero, but it is a phrase
which is striking, from the perception of some degree of
repugnancy between the parts which compose it.'
LAW1 STATUTE) RULE, REGULATION.
A' law' is a' rule' formed by the government of a country. A nation is governed by laws; a household by rules.
A'statute' is a'law' which is solemnly and formally
enacted, and distinctly set forth in words. The expression'statute-law' is opposed to' common-law,' or law established
by long custom. The by-laws of an university are also
called' statutes.'
A' regulation' is nearly the same as a'rule,' in its ordinary sense. The enactments of a subordinate body are
called'regulations,' or' by-laws:' those of a church,' ordinances.'' Rule' and' law' have, however, other meanings besides
those we have mentioned, which are sometimes liable to be




140                 A COLLECTION OF
confounded with them.'Rule' sometimes implies a governing force or power; as,' to live under a stern, or a gentle
rule.''Law' is used for an invariable custom.  It is in
this sense we speak of the laws of nature; they are simply
certain events which happen invariably, and it is only by
observation we can discover them.  If one of them  was
broken through, it would cease to be a law of nature: but
a human law is no less a law, however ill it be obeyed.'
CONSOLATION, COMFORT, SOLACE.'Consolation' and' comfort' are often synonymous;
where they differ, the chief difference between them is,
1st, that' consolation' has relation chiefly to real afflictions, while'comfort' may also apply to what mitigates
lesser evils, besides including the material and substantial
conveniences of life.
2dly,' Consolation' is used in a more active sense than'comfort.' It implies, generally, the agency of another.
We administer'consolation' to a friend in distress; we
exhort him'to take comfort,' not'to take consolation.''Solace' differs from both the other words, in being never
applied to human agents.  We do not' afford a solace' to
sufferers, as we may afford consolation, or even comfort.
Habits or occupations are most frequently described as
affording' a solace' in trouble; as, for example,' books aro
his chief solace in his present melancholy situation,' -' the
companionship even of a mouse or spider has often been a
solace to a lonely prisoner.'
GIFT, PRESENT, DONATION.
Where no qualifying clause is inserted,' gift' is generally
understood to imply something of considerable value, and
* See the article' Law,' in the Appendix to Elements of Logic.




ENGLISH SYNONYIIMS.                141'present' something comparatively trifling.  A property is
conferred by a deed of' gift;' one friend makes a' present'
to another of some small article of use or ornament.
2dly, a' present' must be intended as a mark of real or
supposed regard, or at least a kind of compliment: a' gift'
may be made without any personal view to its object. An
author will sometimes make a' gift' of some of his works
to a library or to a bookseller, merely with a view to circulate them  more widely; in such a case the word'present'
would be inappropriate. Any benefit, conferred as it were
accidentally, and not of compliment to its object, may be
called a'gift;' hence we speak of' the gifts of nature or
of fortune'- not of their' presents.'
In the common expression,'a New-year's or Christmasgift,''gift' is used synonymously with'present.'
A' donation' is always a' gift' made to a public charity
or other institution.
REASON, CAUSE, SOURCE, ORIGIN.'Reason' relates, originally, to logical sequence; that
which takes place in an argument; as, for instance,'be
always ready to give a reason of the hope that is in you.' —
(1 Pet. iii. 15.) Strictly speaking, a' reason' is the cause,
not of so and so existing or occurring, but of our knowing
or believing it: as, the print of a man's footsteps is the'cause' - not of his having passed that way, but of our
knowing it. But in conversation, and sometimes in books,
one may find this word employed in the sense of' cause,'
properly so called, viz.: either the physical'cause,' (that
which produces such and such an effect,) or what is called
the final'cause,' * (or object aimed at in the production of
* See Whately's Logic under the head' Reason' and' Cause,' in
which this subject is fully discussed.
11




142                 A COLLECTION OF
that effect.) Thus, we may hear people say,' the reason
why the days are longest in summer is so and so;' or' the
reason why this house was built on high ground was to
escape the floods.' But in such expressions,' cause' would
have been more proper.  In the latter of these sentences, it
is, strictly speaking, the wish to avoid floods that caused the
choosing of that site for the house.
Though'reason' is often used for'cause,' the converse
rarely takes place.  We seldom find'cause' put for'reason.''Source' and'origin' both have reference to physical,
not to logical sequence. They are sometimes used indifferently, but in general they preserve the character of their
respective etymological derivations. The Latin surgere,
the root or'source,' often implies rising, as if from the
ground; hence'source' was used to describe a fountain or
spring. And the idea conveyed by a spring, that of yielding
or producing as well as rising, has been preserved in the
more abstract meanings of the word. A'source' of information is not only that from which our information proceeds,
but one to which we can recur, and from  which we can
draw fresh stores. If we say,' the source of his strength
and resolution is his ardent patriotism,' we imply that the
feeling described continually feeds the flame it has kindled;
but if' we said,'the origin of my liking for such a person
was so and so,' it might imply that the circumstance from
which it had risen, had itself passed away.  Hence we
speak of the'origin' not of the'source,' of a family, a
dynasty, a discovery, or a language; but of a'source of
happiness, of information, of interest, or of gain. We might
say,' this or that was the origin of the friendship which is
now such a source of happiness to me.'
Finally'origin' is perhaps less remote than'source;'




.ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 143
we call that a' source' to which something is ultimately
traced.
SELF-LOVE, SELFISHNESS.' Self-love' is not only a feeling, but a principle of action;'selfishness' is a habit.' Self-love' is a calm, deliberate
pursuit of that which is, supposed to conduce to our welfare;'selfishness' is the almost instinctive desire of seeking our
own gratification at the moment, without regard to any other
consideration. Like all other instincts, it is not far-sighted;
as the object of hunger is not happiness, but food, so the
object of' selfishness' is not happiness, but immediate gratification. It will assume different forms, according to the
character of its possessor: as has been justly remarked,' every one has a self of his own.' One person will seek
glory; another ease; another wealth: the disposition is the
same.' Self-love,' on the other hand, has happiness —as such -
for its object, and will sacrifice present pleasure to attain
that object; hence, it is implied by a rational nature, and
cannot exist without it.' Selfishness,' however, is applied generally to a disregard
of the welfare of others, whether that disregard is shown in
grasping at momentary pleasures, or in deliberately following the dictates of'self-love,' and pursuing our own advantage at the expense of others. In either case, it must be
blameable; whereas' self-love,' if unaccompanied with'selfishness,' is not necessarily so. Indeed, as Bishop Butler has well remarked,* the world would be better than it is
if men had more' self-love;' it is from  the eager pursuit
of transient gratifications that most evil takes place,not from
the pursuit of happiness, as such.
* See Introduction to Butler's Sermons.




144                 A COLLECTION -OF' Self-love' is sometimes used in another sense, as something compounded of self-esteem and love of approbation -
self-respect, heightened by our sense of the estimation in
which others hold us. It is in this sense that we speak of'wounded self-love,' &c.
DISCIPLINE, TRIAL.
These two words have each senses quite remote and unmistakeable; but they have also a sense in which they are
occasionally and justly applied to the same things; they
then differ in the view taken of the things they qualify.' Discipline' is given with a view to training; as its etymology implies, it is a kind of teaching. A' trial,' on the
other hand, is given to prove the strength or proficiency of
its object. A student receives instructions by way of' discipline;' his examination is a'trial.' A gun is subjected to
various processes to strengthen the metal, which answer to'discipline;' it is loaded to the muzzle, and fired by way of'trial,' or proof, as it is called.
But two circumstances cause these two words to be
confounded together.  One is, that a trial well stood does
answer the purpose of discipline. A candidate who contends for a prize, or is examined to test his proficiency, is
likely to be the better scholar after this trial of skill; and
so in other cases.
Secondly, the circumstance of a trial being successfully
passed through, is often the cause of our knowing the qualifications of the person or thing tried; and we are then apt to
think it has been the cause of these qualifications. For example, men and animals in cold, mountainous, and barren
districts, are generally strong and hardy; and many imagine
that the life of privation they lead actually gives them
strength; the fact being, that such a life is not a'discipline,'
but a' trial.' It is a trial which kills all the weaker ones;




ENGLTSH SYr'NONYrTS.               145
none but the strong can stand it: but as their power of resisting such a life enables us to see that they are strong, we
are prone to imagine that it gives them strength.
The words' discipline' and' trial,' are both frequently
applied in reference to the crosses and afflictions of life,
and not incorrectly, in different senses. Primarily, they
may be all said to come under the head of'trials;' some
of them, however, are undoubtedly, in themselves, well
calculated for a'discipline' to the mind.  But there are
others which have no tendency in themselves to make us
better, and are rather to be regarded as tests or trials of our
faith, patience, and Christian principles. Still, if these' trials' are well borne, they also form a most salutary' discipline' to us; and we have then reason -from experience,
as well as from the teaching of Scripture - to believe that
they were intended as such by the wise and merciful Ruler
of the world. The word' discipline' is not, therefore, misapplied in speaking of them; though it should be remembered that they are' trials' in themselves, and' discipline'
only so far as we make them such.
ATTACHMENT, AFFECTION, TENDERNESS, FONDNESS,
LOVE, LIKING.
Attachment' is generally used to express a feeling which
has more of the character of fidelity than of sentiment: for
though often used in precisely the same sense as' affection,'
it is also often used to denote merely a faithful adherence to
its object. A man may have a strong' attachment' to his
party, sect, or class: in this sense, the word' affection'
would never be used.  A faithful subject would have an'attachment' to his king — a Highland clansman, to his
chief; in all these cases, the word implies devoted fidelity.
It is also used in relation to our feeling towards places,
which is seldom or never the case with' affection.' And
11*




146                 A COLL ECTION OF
yet, strangely enough, the expression'an attachment,' in the
abstract, is frequently used to denote an afaire de ccurthe very' affection' which is generally considered as emphatically more sentimental than constant.'Affection' is' attachment,' combined with more warmth
and feeling: it is also less restricted in its sense.' Attachment' is not felt towards inferiors either in age or station:'affection' may be felt to all.  A mother is not said to feel' attachment,' but' affection,' for her child.' Tenderness,' in reference to the words under consideration,@ may be considered as a sort of accompaniment to' affection,' refining that affection by a certain delicacy and
softness, and by a thoughtfulness and care, not only for the
welfare and real interest of its object, but even for his feelings, his comforts, and smallest pleasures. It can only be
shown, in general, by the educated and civilized, because
they alone are considerate.  A little child, or a barbarian,
may be full of' affection,' but cannot show'tenderness;'
and, in general, the softer and gentler natures possess it
most.'Fondness' originally meant foolishness; and is now
generally applied to that caressing kind of affection which
has more of demonstration than deep feeling.  It is the only
one of the words before us, except'love,' which is used
with reference to tastes and pursuits as well as persons;
though the adjective' fond' is oftener used in this sense.
But we may have a' fondness' for gardening or mechanics
— for music or painting (though, by the way, this last
expression is seldom used by those who are really devoted
* It has two other meanings, one of them nearly conjugate to the
adjective' tender hearted,' which implies an extreme degree of compassion and passive benevolence; the other, implying great carefulness and attention in performing any office.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  147
to the fine arts:) but' fondness' is never used in reference
to higher pursuits, as science or philosophy. It is used in
reference chiefly to habits.'Love' is the most general of all the terms before us;
and includes almost all their different meanings; though, in
the abstract, usually employed to qualify one kind of affection, the being' in love.'' Love' is also used for a strong desire for the welfare of
its object, which may be felt quite apart from  any preference of his society or feeling of tenderness. It is in this
sense we speak of' the love of mankind;' in this sense
that we are commanded to' love our neighbour,''to love our
enemies,' &c. It does not imply any personal knowledge
of its object, or any consciousness on the part of that object.'Liking,' on the other hand, implies a preference for the
society of its object quite independent of any wish for his
welfare, or any feeling of strong affection.  Hence, people
are liked for very different qualities from those for which
they are loved.' Liking' is also extended not only to pursuits and habits, but to inanimate objects, which is not the
case with any of the other words under consideration.
REASON, SENSE, UNDERSTANDING.'Reason' is the most comprehensive of these three words,
as it takes in the faculty of' understanding' in its widest
and most abstract signification. But it is used in three
senses, which are sometimes overlooked, from their close
connexion. The first, as we have said, is that which denotes
all the intellectual powers collectively; the second, those
particular powers which distinguish man from the brutes.*
The third, the arguments which are addressed to the reasoning faculty. This last is the sensd in which persons are
* See Appendix to Whately's Logic, and Easy Lessons on Reasoning.




148                 A COLLECTION OF
exhorted to'hear reason.'' Reason,' in short, in the second
sense, is the faculty which enables us to understand a' reason' in the third sense.'Sense' and'understanding' are used for a certain
amount of' reason.' One who possesses a large share of' reason' is said to have' good sense,' or a' good understanding.' These two expressions, however, are not synonymous.' Sense' is both active and passive in its signification;' understanding,' only passive.' Understanding' is used for
a clear perception of what is put before us; * good'sense'
enables us to find out such things for ourselves.'Sense'
is accordingly used for judgment in the practical affairs of
life;' understanding' is never so employed. The expression,' want of reason,' implies something different from' want of sense.' One who shows want of' sense' must be
naturally stupid or silly; one who shows want of' reason'
may be so blinded by passion or prejudice as not to make
use of the' sense' he possesses.
GAIETY; LIVELINESS. ANIMATION, VIVACITY.'Liveliness' and' gaiety' are, perhaps, the nearest to each
other in meaning amongst this group; but there is this great
difference between them, that' gaiety' refers more to a temporary state or mood of mind,'liveliness' more to the
habitual disposition and character.'Gaiety' is applied by
metonymy to those things which are supposed to excite it,
such as amusement and dissipation; while' liveliness' is
seldom applied to designate anything but character.'Animation' appears at first sight to resemble' liveliness,'
but it is, in fact, different. Both literally signify' alive,'
but imply it in different senses. An animated person is
* See Proverbs and Precepts; in which may be found a translation
of the lines of Hesiod on the subject.




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                  149
eager, and easily excited; a lively person- is light, gayspirited, cheerful.' Vivacity' is something between' liveliness' and' animation;' it is less frequently used, being rather recently
adopted from the French. In French, it has come to mean
something more like' hot-tefnpered.'
MISFORTUNE. CALAMITY, DISASTER.'Misfortune' is the most general of these words, and
applies to all kinds of untoward events.'Calamity' is
oftenest applied to some great public or family misfortune,
such as famine, or pestilence, or the death or ruin of the
head of a household.' Disaster' is rather more correctly
applied to some unfortunate event, occurring as a hindrance
to some undertaking or work. A man who loses his property encounters a'misfortune;' if he meets with losses in
some speculation or other enterprise, they are' disasters;'
a war is a great calamity to a nation, and entails misfortunes
on individuals; the defeats and failures incidental to it are
disasters.'
It is the same with the conjugate words.'Calamitous'
draws the attention to the fact of the event itself being
unfortunate:' disastrous' to the evils accompanying it. A
war is' calamitous' in itself: it is' disastrous' if it turns
out ill.
ENVY, EMULATION, JEALOUSY.
All these words relate to sensations of uneasiness produced by the sight of another's advantages, not on his
account, but on our own. But their exact meaning it is
difficult to define, not only because their boundaries, as it
were, trench closely on each other, but because the names
are rendered uncertain by people's proneness to disguise the
thing. They are unwilling to admit, either to others, or




150                 A COLLECTION OF
even to themselves, that they are guilty of faults which are
so revolting to the ideas of all as'envy' and'jealousy,'
especially the former.*'Envy' is a dislike felt towards another, caused by the
circumstance of his possessing some good, either not possesse,d at all by ourselves, or possessed in an inferior degree,
or in which the superiority on our side is at least doubtful.' Enmlation,' on the other hand, is a desire to attain, ourselves, an equal share of some good which we see another
possess, without any dislike to him, or wish to deprive him
of it.  The actions to which these two feelings give rise are
very different: emulation leading us to endeavor to attain a
share of the good for ourselves which we see another enjoy;
envy, to deprive him of it.  The one has for its object, our
own gain; the other, our neighbour's loss.' Emulation,'
accordingly, is not used in reference to every kind of good
which can be desired, but only to those things which we may
possibly attain by striving. Hence, it is almost limited to
honors, power, station, or excellence in any pursuit or moral
habit. We are not emulous of another's beauty, health, or
natural talents, though we may be' emulous' of his attainments or virtue. But' envy' may be felt equally for any
advantage, whether attainable by ourselves or not.
Many moralists are in the habit of speaking of' emulation' as a feeling utterly bad in itself; and in support of
this opinion the passage from the Epistle to the Galatians
is quoted, on' emulations, wrath, strife,' &c.  But the word
in the original, which is here translated' emulation' (zelos)
* This remark has been happily expressed by a German writer:'No one is envious: envy is something so nasty that no one will
touch it. People hate their neighbours from jealousy - from a sense
of honor — from a consciousness of dependence -it all comes to the
same as envy. But envious! heaven forbid! no one is envious.' -
From the Dramas of Princess Amalie of Saxony.




ENGLISIH SYNONYrMS.                151
is in other parts of the New Testament rendered by' jealousy,''rivalry,' or' zeal;' and the word is almost as often
used in commendation as in blame. Hence, it seems clear
that, in the above-mentioned passage, it is used for an
unchristian and bitter spirit of rivalry and contention, and
not simply for the feeling we understand as' emulation.'
This sentiment is, in moderation, a useful one; it requires,
however, to be kept in check, as it is too liable, if indulged
to excess, to degenerate into' envy.'' Jealousy' is a somewhat ambiguous word, being capable
of three different senses, and used both to express a passion
and a habit.
First, it is used for a proneness to suspect a slight, or
faithlessness, or coldness, in the object of affection - this is
the habit.
Secondly, for a desire for the exclusive possession of
power, influence, approbation, or affection: this is the
passion.
And thirdly, it is used, though perhaps improperly, for a
modification of this passion, in the pain felt by those who
feel they have not their just due of affection or preference.
A child who sees his parents treat a brother or sister with
unjust preference may feel jealous in this sense, without
having a jealous temper. The other two kinds mentioned,
- the passion and the habit, - are not necessarily combined, though they are generally found together.'Jealousy' differs from' envy' in being oftener (though
not always) appropriated to cases in which the affections are
concerned, and also, in relating more to ourselves and less
to others. A person is jealous on his own account, envious
on that of another. The person, too, over whom (to use an
old English expression, which avoids an ambiguity) he is
jealous, must always be some one beloved.
There are two or three other sentiments, to express which




152                A COLLECTION OF
we have no very exact words, and which are very apt to be
confounded with those we have mentioned, though in reality
different, because they all relate to pain felt at another's
good fortune.
The first we shall mention is the feeling called by Aristotle nemesis. It is an indignation at seeing another possess
a good of which he is undeserving,- or of which he makes
a bad use, —or which he is incapable of valuing. Those
who, like David,'grieve to see the ungodly in such prosperity,' - or a poor student who sees an ignorant rich man
unable to appreciate his splendid library, —alike feel nemesis.  But, natural and justifiable as is this feeling, it
requires, even more than emulation, to be kept in check;
for it is the disguise under which envy gains access to the
mind; and many will secretly excuse their really envious
feelings on the ground that they are merely' indignant' at
the sight of ill-bestowed and ill-used advantages. But it is
a mistake, not of words, but of things, when this feeling, in
itself, is called by the name of' envy.'
Another sentiment of a really blameable kind, which may
be considered as in some degree akin to' envy,' is what
may be called' grudging,' or, to use a polite term,' exclusiveness,'- the dislike that any one besides ourselves should
possess some advantage we value. The lady who is mentioned as having boiled a valuable flower-root before sending
it to a friend, to prevent the possibility of her plant being
propagated, affords an instance of this disposition; as, also,
those persons who suffer a valuable invention to die with
them rather than impart it: and the still more numerous
class who are in constant dread of any one obtaining possession of a song, a dress, a picture, or an ornament, which
they imagine to be their peculiar property. The Greeks
included this quality under the name phthonos, which also
comprised'envy,' properly so called: zelos included'emu



ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                153
lation,' and some kinds of'jealousy.' The three passions,
phthonos, zelos, and nemesis, are discussed and compared
together in an admirable portion of Aristotle's Rhetoric.
PRIVACY, RETIREMENT, SOLITUDE, SECLUSION,
LONELINESS.'Privacy,' sometimes implies absence from the bustle
and state of public life; at other times, it is nearly synonymous with' retirement;' with this difference, that' privacy'
may be occasional and temporary, while'retirement' always implies some continuance.  If we withdraw to our
own rooms for an hour, we spend that hour in'privacy;''retirement' refers to the habitual mode of life, and includes
not only absence from public life, but even from much
general society. One who leads a life of retirement has but
few associates, and mixes seldom in the gay world.'Solitude' and'seclusion' imply more than this - an
entire absence from all society; but they imply this in
different senses.' Seclusion' must be, to a certain extent,
voluntary;'' solitude' may be used for a forced absence
from society. No one would say that a prisoner alone in
his cell, or a shipwrecked man on a desert island, were
living in'seclusion,' but in' solitude.'' Seclusion' seems
to imply shutting oneself up from the external world, as its
derivation indicates (claudo, to shut up or close): hence, it is
more applicable to a monk, or nun in a convent, than to a
hermit in the wilderness. When we say that' seclusion' is
to a certain extent voluntary, we do not mean that it is
always in accordance with the wishes of those who practise
it. Many persons submit to a life of seclusion against their
inclinations; but still, in such cases no direct force is used;
they are not compelled, in the sense that a prisoner is compelled, to leave the world.
Correctly speaking, also,' solitude' is applied to one per12




154                 A COLLECTION OF
son alone:'seclusion' is more properly applied to a small
number of persons living together - as a family, or a community, or even the inhabitants of a retired village.' Loneliness' implies rather the solitude of the heart. We
may be lonely in a crowd; or, indeed, lonely in a circle
of acquaintance. —even of connexions, if they are unsympathizing and uninterested in us.'Privacyy' is opposed to publicity.' Retirement,' to gaiety, or life in the world.'Solitude,' to the adjective social, or to society.' Seclusion,' to society, in the widest sense.'Loneliness,' to sympathetic companionship.
The adjectives are some of them not strictly conjugate.'Lonely' applies more to places than persons, though sometimes to the latter. A' lonely' place is one where we should
feel lonely.'Solitary' and' retired' are also generally
applied to places;'retired' always, except when a person is
described as having withdrawn from some public situation -
as, a' retired' officer, or statesman.' Secluded' is always
(correctly speaking) confined to places.' Private' is now
more directly opposed to' public' than is its conjugate noun,
Cprivacy.' A'private' interview, letter, or individual, is
exactly the opposite to a public one.
EARTH, WORLD, GLOBE.
In speaking of'the earth,' we refer more to its external
and material part: in speaking of'the world,' to the moral
and abstract view of the same thing. In considering the
c earth,' we look at its construction, its natural productions,
its geological formation; in comparing our own with other
planets or systems, we always speak of'the earth' —as,' The earth moves round the sun:' in this sense,'world'
would be inadmissible.
The' world' is rather the' earth' viewed with reference




ENGLISH SYNONYImoS.                155
to its inhabitants.  We speak of the providential care and
moral government of the'world,' not of the'earth:' we
might say,' The wonders and beauties with which the earth
abounds display the wisdom  and goodness of the Creator,
but still more his government of the world.' And not only
is the expression,'world,' used with reference to mankind
in preference to' earth,' but with reference to man intellectually, in contradistinction to physically.  We speak of the
various races which inhabit the' earth,' but of the' civilized
world.' Hence, America was called'The New  World,'
being viewed with reference to a place that was to be inhabited.* In speaking of men as forming a community,'world' is always used instead of' earth:' as we speak of'the intellectual, political, theological, or gay world' —or
even of'a poet's world' -' the world of fancy or of
dreams,' &c. Formerly' earth' was used as'world' is
now, as we may see in our translation of the Psalms,'The
ends of the earth shall hear him,' &c.' Globe' is generally used geologically, and occasionally
in poetry.
Lastly,'earth' is limited to our own planet; but we
speak of other'worlds.' The planets are supposed to be' worlds;' the starry sky may be full of systems of worlds;
the abode to which we look for a future life is continually
called' a better world.'
This may partly arise from the different derivations of
these words.'Earth' is immediately traceable to the German erde; but it is probable that the original root of all was
+ There are exceptions to this rule, the principal one being the
expression,' sailing round the world,' which is always used instead
of' earth.' This, probably, arises from the fact, that' earth' is also
generally used synonymously with'land,' in contradistinction to'sea,' hence the expression,'sailing round the earth,' would be
somewhat anomalous.




156                A COLLECTION OF
the Hebrew Erets, supposed to be derived from a verb signifying to crumble or break in pieces.'World' (whirled) was evidently expressive merely of
roundness: as the Latin mundus and Greek cosmos were of'order.' Cosmos and mundus were both used to indicate
the universe. And it is curious that our derived word, cosmogony, always relates to the'earth,' as distinguished from'world.V  The'world,' in our modern sense, was rendered
in Latin by seculum, and in Greek by aion.
PROFIT, GAIN, EMOLUMENT.'Profit' is distinguished from the other two words of this
group by being always applied to gain accruing from something that has been laid out first. We speak of'profits'
made by the sale of goods, but not of' the profits of labor,'
or'winning profits' in a lottery.'Gain' includes every
advantage obtained which was not ours before.'Emolument' is always the reward of labor, and that
reward obtained in a regular way, and not by chance.
The history of the derivation of this word is curious: its
root is the Latin mola, a mill; it was first used to signify
anything which could be ground out of a mill; then it
came to be figuratively employed, as if to convey the idea
of'grist to the mill,' and so gradually assumed its present
sense.
IMPORT, MEANING, SENSE.
The import of a speech or book is the idea which it most
readily conveys to others; the meaning is the idea really
intended to be conveyed by the speaker or writer: the sense
is, either, 1st, The general substance of the whole; or,
2dly, The different ways in which it may be understood,
and the ideas it may be made to convey.
For instance, we might say,'This writer declares his




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 157
meaning to be so and so; it is true his words may be
brought to bear that sense, but such is not their obvious import.' Or again,'The Articles of our Church have been
received by certain writers in a non-natural sense; but whatever may have been~ the meaning of their compilers, the
import is quite unlike what they are now made to say.'
AMUSEMENT, ENTERTAINMENT1 DIVERSION, RECREATION.
These four words are sometimes used indifferently, but
there are occasionally variations in their meaning.' Diversion' often preserves something of its etymological
sense, and conveys the idea of distracting the attention and
drawing the mind from subjects fatiguing or depressing: at
other times it is used to describe the lightest and gayest
kind of pleasures, and those which excite most laughter and
merriment.' Recreation' adheres even more strictly to its
etymology: it always implies refreshment after business or
serious employment.@  An idle person may enjoy amusement, entertainment, or diversion; but never recreation.'Amusement' and' entertainment' are perhaps the most
alike in meaning; but there is this great difference, that a
useful pursuit may be an amusement, if it pleases and recreates the mind: but nothing can be looked on in the light of' entertainment' which is not pursued for sake of that alone.
For instance, we should say,' I find much amusement in
gardening,' but not' much entertainment:' or,' I derive so
much amusement from the labors of my garden, that I do not
care for idle diversions.' Again,'an entertainment' always
conveys the idea of an elaborate show or spectacle, which
is not given by' an amusement,' or' a diversion.' t' Rec* See some Remarks on the subject in English Life, Social and
Domestic.
* The conjugate adjective'entertaining' is nearly the same as'amusing.'
12*




158                A COLLECTION OF
reation' differs from the other three in always implying that
an active part is taken in it. We speak of'the recreation
of dancing,' but not' the recreation of witnessing' a ballet:
where the pleasure is passive,' amusement' or'entertainment is employed. We might express ourselves thus:'They enjoyed the recreation of a game of cricket: the
spectacle afforded much amusement, (or entertainment,) to
the spectators: and the ludicrous falls of some of the players supplied them with infinite diversion.'
USAGE, CUSTOM.'Whenever' usage' is employed,' custom' might be substituted, though with less force: but a custom is not necessarily a usage. A'custom' is merely that which is often
repeated; a'usage' must be both often repeated and of.
long standing. Hence we may speak of'a new custom,'
but not of' a new usage.'
The history of the word' custom' is curious - it probably had the same origin as' accost' - to come near - and
thence' to be habitual.' The root is the Latin' costa,' the
side or rib.
DEXTERITY; ADDRESS) SKILL.'Dexterity' is most applicable to those actions in which
there is more call for quickness and readiness with the hands
than for deliberate contrivance and intelligence.'Skill,'
on the other hand, implies more of head and less of handwork. A cricket or billiard player shows dexterity: an
artist or mechanician, skill. The same with the conjugate
adjectives: a dexterous workman is quick, neat, and handy;
a skilful workman understands the theory and practice of
his business thoroughly: it would not be enough for a
watchmaker to be dexterous, he must be also skilful.'Address' is sometimes applied to feats of'sleight of




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 159
hand,' but oftener to diplomatic readiness and acuteness in
accommodating ourselves to those we have to deal with.
The French use'address,' generally, where we use the
word' dexterity.'
HELP, AID, ASSISTANCE.
These words are nearly synonymous; but as generally
happens when words of Saxon and Latin derivation are
compared together, the Saxon word is the stronger.' Help'
implies more done by the helper, and less by the person
helped, than' aid' or' assistance:' and it is the same with
the conjugate verbs: we may aid a person in carrying a
load, we help him out of a ditch into which he has fallen.
Hence, in a religious sense, it is usual to speak of' seeking
help' not' aid' from above, - unless we are understood to
speak of a power co-operating with man; when the word'aid' is admissible. In sudden distress the cry raised is
always' Help!' not' aid.' In the common expressions,' I
cannot help this' —' you must help yourself,' the word' aid'
could not be substituted.*' Assistance' implies still more of co-operation, and less
of succor, than even' aid.' Two persons are said to' assist
each other,' not'to aid each other.' It implies mutual aid.
We might say,'Beaumont and Fletcher wrote plays, in
which each afforded assistance to the other: Beaumont
could not have succeeded without Fletcher's aid, and when
he was in a difficulty his friend's help extricated him.'
ACT, ACTION, DEED.
These first two words are often synonymous, but there
* There is a curious colloquial incorrectness in the common phrase,'Don't do so more than you can help:' correctly speaking, it should
be'more than you can't help;' though this last would sound so
strange that it could hardly pass current.




1 60                A COLLECTIoN OF
are essential differences between them.  1st.' Act' does
not necessarily imply an external result;'action' always
does. We may speak of repentance, for example, as an'act:' we could not call it an' action.' The expression,
now nearly obsolete, but formerly common among Roman
Catholic writers, and our older divines, of' an act of faith,
contrition, humility,' &c. - signifying merely a mental
determination, — shows how strong was the tendency
even then to extend the word'act' to operations of the
mind.*
2dly. -An act must be individual: we may speak of' a
course of action.'' Action,' without the article, may even
be spoken of in the abstract as opposed to a state of' repose,''indolence,' or'contemplation:' this could never be done
with the word' act.' +
Lastly. —' Act,' when qualified, is oftener, though not
universally, coupled  with another substantive:'action'
always by an adjective preceding it.  We speak of' a kind
action'- but of' an act of kindness.'' A kind act' might
be admissible, though not usual; but' an action of kindness'
is an expression never used.  Deed appears synonymous
with' act.'
ANGER, WRATH.'Anger' is more correctly applied to the inward feeling:'wrath' to the outward manifestation. Hence, in describing
external effects, which seem like those produced by anger,
the word' wrath' is always used. We should not speak of
" The French use the expression' actions de graces' for thanksgivings; this is evidently derived from the Latin,' agere gratias.'
t The only way in which' act' could be used without the article,
would be in such an expression as'in act to strike.'




ENGLISH SYNONY1MS.                161
the'anger' but of the'wrath' of the elements.*   We
therefore speak of' the -wrath of God,' more correctly than
of his anger. We cannot attribute to Him passions like
those of men: we can only describe the external effects
which in men would be produced by those passions.
TYRANNY, DESPOTISM.
Both of these terms generally imply absolute power,
and power which is exercised for the pleasure of the governor, not the benefit of the governed. But' despotism' is
applicable to a power which is regularly established by law,
however unjustly: while'tyranny' indicates the abuse of
extensive power, whether legal or otherwise. A nation may
be said either to suffer under' despotism' or' tyranny;' but
the word'despotism' draws attention to the absolute power
of a government;'tyranny,' to the severe and harsh use
of that power.  The word'tyranny' is likewise much less
limited to the description of the government of a country,
than' despotism.'  We speak of the'tyranny' exercised by
a harsh parent ot schoolmaster, or even by a stronger boy
over a weaker. Even in an abstract sense, we often speak
of'the tyranny' of fashion, habit or the passions; in none
of these cases could we use the word' despotism.'t
Tyranny and despotism must both be unjust in all cases,
since they imply a preference of the interest of the governor
to that of the governed: but a tyranny must also necessarily be cruel: a despotism may be mild, and even in its
way beneficent. A slave-owner may be benevolent and
* See Scott's Rokeby:'Mine be the eve of tropic sun!
No pale gradations mark his way,
No twilight dews his wrath allay.'
i The conjugate adjective,' despotic,' somewhat differs from the
substantive in this respect. We do speak of' a despotic parent,' &c




162                 A COLLT,ECTION OF
kind to his serfs, but his government of them must be a
despotism, that being implied in the very meaning of the
word, which has deviated but little from its original etymological signification in Greek: -' a master of slaves' (Despotes).
Tyranny, on the contrary, originally implied merely an
absolute government. It is used in this sense by the early
Greek poets: though the oldest prose writers on record
apply the word exclusively to those who had usurped absolute power in a free country.
It is a curious satire on human nature, that the word
which originally implied only unlimited power, should have
afterwards come to imply the abuse of that power, as if the
last was the necessary consequence of the first.*
LIBERTY, FREEDOM.
When applied to the condition either of a nation or individual, these words are strictly synonymous, and conjugates
of the same adjective' free;' but when used in ordinary
polite conversation, there is the same shade of difference
which is observable (as has been remarked before) in other
pairs of Saxon and Latin synonymes.'May I take the
liberty?' is an expression in frequent use:' may I take the
freedom?' would be considered as a piece of vulgarism.
VEST1GES, TRACES.
These words have a corresponding origin, and are often
synonymous; when they differ, the word'vestiges' is always applied in its analogical sense, while'traces' may be
used either in this or in its primary sense.  We follow the
* It has been suggested that the Greek Tyrannos may be nearly related to the Irish Tigerhach (pronounced Tierna) a chief or lord,
which is the word used as an equivalent to Kurios in the Greek Testament.




ENGLISHI S rNON YrMS.    1         63
traces of a person or animal lost sight of: we discover the
vestiges of earlier formations in geology. In this last sense
the word'traces' might be equally well used: but we never
speak of'the vestiges of foot-marks in a wood,' &c.
It may be observed that words of Latin origin are much
sooner corrupted from their original signification than AngloSaxon ones: probably from the body of the language being
essentially Teutonic.
CHASTISEMENT) PUNISHMENT, PENALTY.
According to its primary sense,'punishment' meant
neither more nor less than vengeance or retribution. It
originally implied the giving satisfaction to individuals:
hence the Latin expression' sunere pcenas,' (to take or receive the punisment of an offender); and' luere [or solvere]
pcenas' (to'pay,' or discharge the penalty). In short, punishment was correlative to the sentiment of anger; and
accordingly Bacon speaks of revenge as'a wild justice.'
But in its established modern sense, both punishment and
chastisement may be defined as pain inflicted with a view
to prevent future wrong-doing.  The chief difference between them  is, that'punishment' is the term  applied to
designate suffering inflicted with a view to deter either the
sufferer or others: while' chastisement' is confined to the
individual who is the object of it, and is supposed and intended to have some reforming and corrective, as well as
deterring power.
Hence afflictions are called the' chastisements' (not tile
punishments) sent by Providence: but the future retribution
of the wicked is spoken of as a'punishment,' because it
cannot act as a corrective, but as a terror (in prospect) to
offenders.
The pains inflicted by the law of the land are, correctly
speaking, punishments, not chastisements; for though some




164                A COLLECTION OF
of them may happen to be of a reformatory character, their
primary object is to deter, not to correct.
A'penalty' is a punishment considered in the light of a
debt incurred by certain offences, which must be paid of by
its object. The expression, when used in reference to the
law, is oftenest applied to fines; and in a more general
application it is used to describe those sufferings which are
the natural consequences of a fault, and which may be considered as the debt which the offender incurs.  We should
say,'sickness, or poverty, is the penalty which the intemperate, or the extravagant, must pay for their criminal
indulgences.'
PROJECT, DESIGN, SCHEME, PLAN.
All these words imply a certain end in view, and means
used to accomplish it: of the four,' design' looks most to
the end, and least to the means:'scheme' and'plan'
most to the means and least to the end: while' project'
seems to hold a middle place between the extremes.' Scheme,' in accordance with its original root (schema, a
pattern), implies something fully formed and sketched out.' Plan' conveys this idea even more fully, and betokens a
more advanced and matured state than' scheme.'
For instance:'they formed a project to revolutionize the
country: with this design they concocted a scheme; they
then met together to mature their plan.'
PURPOSE, INTENT, INTENTION.
The word'purpose' always implies the use of some
means towards an end; with' intention' this is not the case.
For instance,' he had long harbored the intention of taking
the life of his enemy, and for this purpose he provided himself with weapons.''Purpose' has some resemblance to' design.' (See the




ENGLISH SYNONYMS.                 165
head, Design, project, scheme:)  It was originally a corruption of'pro-pose,' and the conjugate of the verb'to
propose,' or'to purpose,' as it was formerly called.'Intent' and'intention' are much the same in signification.'Intent' was used in old English where'intention'
would now be employed; (as may be seen from the technical expression,' with intent to kill.'' Intention' was then
never used except -
First, in the logical sense of'first or second intentions.'
Secondly, in a technical theological sense,* which it still
preserves: i. e. the Romish doctrine of intention, which
inculcates that if a priest administers any of the sacraments
without the inward wvill and determination to exercise his
priestly function, those sacraments are null and void.
[See the Archives of the Council of Trent, where an
anathema is pronounced upon those who doubt the truth of
this doctrine.  See also some remarks on the subject in the
third number of the Cautions for the Times.]
LIST, CATALOGUE,
A catalogue always implies some description of the articles named; a list, though it does not exclude a description,
only implies a simple enumeration.  Hence, we never speak
of a catalogue of subscribers, a visiting catalogue, &c.,
because then the names alone are enumerated: but the contents of a museum, library, or picture gallery, are said to
be set down in a' catalogue,' because something answering
to a description is always appended, though it may only be
the title of a book, which is not a mere arbitrary sound like
the name of an individual, but conveys some sort of description of its contents.
* Many of the old technical terms in theology were scarcely
altered from the Latin.
13




166                A COLLECTION -OF
BREVITY, CONCISENESS.'Brevity' is often used indifferently with'conciseness;'
but when any difference is implied, then properly speaking,'brevity' refers to the matter, and'conciseness' to the
style. In fact, when brevity of style is spoken of, it may
be considered as synonymous with' conciseness.' Strictly
speaking, however,' brevity' merely implies the use of few
words, while'conciseness' implies a great deal of matter
concentrated in a small space.
Brevity is sometimes attained by leaving much unsaid:
in such a case, what is said is not necessarily expressed
with conciseness;:" this last can only be attained by long
practice in the art of compressing.
A concise discourse is like a well-packed trunk, which
contains much more than it at first sight appears to do: a
brief discourse may be like a trunk half full; short, because
it is scanty.
TOLERANCE,  TOLERATION.
Tolerance is a habit of mind; toleration applies to action,
not disposition.  Principles of tolerance will lead to the
toleration of different opinions.
CONFIDENCE, TRUST, RELIANCE.
Confidence implies trust — but trust does not always
imply confidence.  Trust is rather particular than general:
we may feel trust in a man's honesty, but not in his good
judgment, &c.; but confidence, though sometimes used in
this partial sense, is also used in reference to the general
character.  But we may repose trust in a person in whose
character, as a whole, we have no confidence. For instance,
i. See DMidsummer V7-iget's Dream -' A tedions brief plav.'




ENGLISHr SYNONYMS.                 167
we might say,' I canl trust * in such a person's acting in
this way because it is his interest, or, he-is afraid of acting
otherwise;' these expressions themselves imply that the
person referred to is unworthy of confidence.' Reliance'
is only applied to qualities or actions: not in general to
persons; if so used, it may usually be considered as transferred by metonymy from the action or quality to the person
qualified.
ERROR,  MIISTAKE,  BLUNDER.' Error' is always used to designate some action which
is blamed, whether morally or intellectually. It may proceed from  nothing but a failure in judgment; still the word
implies some degree of blame, though generally sligght.
An error is always a mistake'; a mistake is not always an
error.  A mistake may attach no sort of blame to the person who makes it; it may even be'a ]Jrtunate mistake.'
A blunder implies a mistake which is inconsistent withI
the knowledge the agent possesses.  If any one is said to
make a blunder in spelling or grammar, it implies that he is
acquainted with both.  We talk, it is true. of''blundering
on an object in the dark,' but this is rather flor vwahnt of a
more correct expression.
A' bull' is in fact a blunder.
MALICE,  SPITE.
These words age often used indifferently, and both imply
a desire of' giving pain for its own sake; but there are
important distincttions between them.
Malice, like its conjugate' malicious,' is applied not only
to individual acts, but to the whole character and disposi,
tion;'spite' and' spiteful,' only to individual manifesta* The verbs and nouns correspond exactly.




168                 A COLLECTION' OFr
tions.  For when a person is described as'spiteful,' it is
always with reference to some particular speech or action.
Malice, as its root (malurn) would seem  to imply, is often
used to describe an utterly unprovoked and spontaneous
desire of giving pain: in French, it is used to express a
mere love of teasing for fun's sake; in English, it describes
that ill-will which often springs originally from  that principle when perverted and exaggerated.'Spite,' which immediately is derived from despite (depit),
seems traceable to the Latin root despuo, to spit out, as if
something loathsome and offensive. It has still preserved
so much of its etymology, as to imply ill-will resulting from
some feeling of pique, anger, or opposition; and it generally indicates a low and petty manifestation of the feeling.
A cruel boy will torment a younger child or an animal from
malice; a successful candidate is slandered by his rivals
from spite.
OCCUPATIONS BUSINESS) AVOCATION.
The word'occupation' is applied to whlatever employs
us, either at the moment or habitually.' Business' must
always be a necessary, or, at least, important and pressing
occupation — something connected with our profession or
other duties in life; while'occupation' may describe a
merely amusing or ornamental pursuit.  Painting affords an
agreeable occupation to an amateur; to a professional artist
it is a business.
An' avocation,' strictly speaking, is, as its root (a-voco)
indicates, that which calls us off, hinders us, from  other
employments. It can, therefore, be only correctly used
relatively to other things..
NOVEL, ROMANCE.
Both these words have widely diverged from their etymol



ENGLISH SYNONYMIS.                 1(69
ogy.  Originally a novel meant merely a neiw tale.*   7ozv
(as the common term,' a new novel,' may show) the idea of
newness is nowise. connected with it. To define a novel is
no very easy task; but it generally seems to convey the idea
of something longer and more elaborate than a mere' tale;'
and the complement of three volumes appears even more
closely connected with it than the magic' five acts' with a
tragedy.
A  romance originally meant something written in the
Romance language, the old langue d'oc of the south of
France, which was the vehicle of the earliest poety of the
middle ages.  Thence it has now come to signify a tale of
a wild, high-flown, adventurous, and poetical cast — something very far removed from ordinary life.
The French have also preserved the word' romance,' but
use it to describe a very different style of composition —
the lyrical ballad.' Roman' seems to apply equally to the
novel and the' romance.'
POVERTY, INDIGENCE, PAUPERIS1I.
Poverty simply implies a difficulty in supporting oneself
in one's own station; it is therefore relative; what is pov.
erty to a gentleman would be affluence to a laborer.
Indigence implies extreme distress, and alnmost destitution.
Pauperism signifies being maintainer insidleness by public charity; it is therefore the most hopel esly degrading
state of all. Xa.p,< r man, even an indigent man, may retain
his independenc   haracter and self-respect: but a pauper
is degraded in his own eyes and those of all others.  EDn* In old English, a'novelist' signified a propounder of new opiniolns
in science or politics.




170                A COLLECTION OF
couraged, nay, urged on, to a life of indolent inaction,
and owing his wretched subsistence to that forced charity
which, reversing the description of'the quality of mercy,'
which' is not strained'- may be said truly, to be' doubly
cursed -cursing him that gives and him that takes' — his
existence cannot but be miserable and degraded.
MATTER, SUBJECT.
The matter of a discourse, book, &c., is from within; the
subject, from without. The matter comprises the arguments
used and the substance of what is said- all, in short, except
what concerns the style of writing or speaking.
The subject, on the other hand, is the theme of the discourse, that about which the arguments are brought forward.
Two persons taking different sides in a debate must treat
of the same subject: but the matter of their discourse mnust
be different.
We might say -'The subject of discussion was very interesting: in Mr. A.'s speech the matter was good, though
ill-expressed; MIr. B.'s style was better, but his matter inferior.'
LNGUAGE, WCOIDS, TERMS,  EXPRESSIONS.
In classing these substantives together, we do not, of
course, allude to their separate and independent meanings,
but merely to the sense in which they are used to describe
the matter and manner of a discourse.' Words' are used to
designate the simple meaning and sens  of what is said,
without any allusion to its manner, style, or grammatical
accuracy.'Language,' on the other hand, is generally used
to describe these latter characteristics. If we praise any one
for using'good language,' we are understood to praise his
correctness of style and manner, not his matter; but if we




ENGLISH SYNONYDIS.               171
say,'These are good words,' this, though not a usual ex.
pression, would be understood to refer to the meaning of
what was said. The phrase' bitter words,' would be used
to describe words whose meaning was bitter.'Terms' are generally used to describe or define something else: and one term may be composed of several
words.'Expressions' resemble'language,' but apply more to
individual words or phrases, and less to the general tenor of
a discourse.' Words,' terms,' and' language' may sometimes be used
indifferently -as when we speak of'delivering an opinion
in plain terms, words, or language; in such a phrase as this,'expressions' would be inadmissible.
SUGGESTION, HINT.
A suggestion is generally supposed to furnish us with
some practical assistance or directions; a hint implies
something slighter and more covert, and may be merely
negative in its tendency.
We may throw out a' hint' against some one's character
- we dissuade another from taking certain steps by a timely'hint:' in neither of these cases could we be said to give a'suggestion.'
We might say-' He gave me a hint of the danger to
which I was exposed; and afterwards supplied me with
suggestions as to the best means of avoiding it.'
MOMENT, INSTANT.
These words are most commonly synonymous; where
they differ,' instant' seems to imply something even more
speedy than' moment.'' This instant,' conveys the idea of
greater rapidity than'this moment.' Another difference




172      A COLLECTION OF ENGLISH SYNONYMS.
may be mentioned; the expression,' a few moments'-'two or three moments' - is not uncommon:'a few instants' is never used. In this, our habit of speaking presents a striking contrast to the French, with whom' quelques
instants' is such a favorite expression




INDEX.
PAE                              PA GC
Abandon                      45 Authentic                    75
Abdicate                     45 Aversion                     112
Abhorrence..      112 Avow                         35
Abjure                       49 Amicable                     92
Abilities                   136 Apt..  93
Absurd.                     64 Amid
Accordingly                  28 Amidst
Account..     122 Among
Acknowledge..  35 Amongst
Admittance                  119 Admire                       50
Admission                       Amaze                        5"
Admirable                    63 Astonish         
Adversary                   113 Alone                        33
Affection                   145 Absent
Affliction                  100 Abstracted
A greeable                  82 Although                      32
Alleviate                    48 Accurate                     93
Alarm... 102 Address.        158
Almost.. ~          23 A musement.    157
Also                        26 Aid                          159
Allow..     35 Assistance
Allegiance                 128 Act                          159
Announce..     4  Action
Animation.                 148 Avocation                   168
Answer                      116 Anger                    97, 160
Antagonist                  113 Avoid                        52
Antipathy                  112
Aproval                         Barbarous..  80
Approbation                     Bashfulness                  99
Apprehension               102 Bear                          41
Arrogance.        108 Because                       29
As                          29 Beg40
Ask...40 Beseech
Attract...     37 Besides,.         26
Attachment.. 145 Believe..  43
Austerity..    135 Belief.!30




174                          INDEX.
PAGE                              PAGE
Beautiful...  61 Continual                        67
BrightContinuous                                                 67
Brilliant                         Contentment..       96
Bravery.             138 Contenmn..           38
But...  25, 34 Confess...       35
By....  24 Cost...106
Betwixt                       31 Courage..     138
Between                       3Courteous... 58
Be..  51 Cowardly..       71
Benevolent     )                  Covert.              75
Beneficent.      88 Cruel...       80
Bountiful                         Curious.                   63
Benignant..          90 Comprehend.                 50
Blameless.             86 Commend...  50
Brotherly..  92 Criminal..       86
Brevity..            166 Charitable...  88
Blunder... 167 Calculated..       93
Business..     168 Celebrated...  94
Cunning  
Calm...  82 Crafty
Captivate..      37 Custom..         158
Capacity... 136 Chastisement.     163
Calamity.             149 Cleverness... 136
Capricious...  84 Catalogue..     165
Cause..     141 Conciseness.. 166
Candid..          68 Confidence..      166
Charm..      37
Changeable..  84 Despise?               8
Certainty..     130 Disdain                         0
Censure... 114 Direct.              42
Civil...      58 Delude...  43
Comfort..    117, 140 Desert..             45
Command..     116 Distinguish                    46
Compassion.. 122 Discriminate   5
Completely                    23  Declare..              48
Compulsion                        Delighted...  65
Coercion..119 Dull.              64
Constraint                        Dastardly...  71
Conflict                          Dissimilar
Combat                            Different                      73
Contest        f                  Distinct
Contention                        Durable...  76
Consolation.. 140  Delightful?              83
Conception..     124 Delicious
Concealed...  75 Deep...  85
Conquer..      39 Diligence..      96
Conjecture...  43  Displeasure..  97
Consequences..     110  Diffidence..      99
Consequently..  28 Distress... 100
Conviction.         125 Dread...     102




INDEX.                           175
PAGE I                            PAGE
Dislike.                    Emolument.. 156
112
Detestation                       Entertainment.               157
Deference..     117 Error... 167
Delusion..     118
Deceit.     118 Famous                          94
Deception                         Forward.          51
Determination  1                  Faultless..       86
Decision                          For.                     29
Display...            123 Fascinate...  37
Discourse..      132 Forbid.              42
Diffidence.            133 Forsake..      45
Donation... 140 Fine...       61
Discipline..     144 Foolish...  6,1
Disaster.                    149 Fruitless.          67
Depraved..      86 Frank...  68
Deceitful...  94 Fool-hardy..      69
Diversion..     157 Fleeting...  69
Dexterity... 158 Forcible..       77
Deed..             159 Fickle...  84
Despotism.. 161 Fear                           102
Design..     164 Fright
Fortitude               105, 138
Enrapture                     37 Falsehood                      1i
Enchant.       57 Falsity                                       118
Entirely.      23 Fraud                         118
Entreat..      40 Fancy...      124
Endure..          41  Faith...          130
Embarrass..      41 Forgiveness..     131
Educate.             46 Fortitude... 105
Expostulation.  114 Feelings..132
Elegant...      59 Fondness..     145
E verlasting                  76 Fatherly                       92
E ternal                          Famous...  94
Expense..     106 Fraternal..      92
Effects... 110 Friendly...  92
Enemy...     113 Fit...      93
Envy                         149 Freedo... 162
E mulation   
Earth..            154 Garrulous...  77
Excepting                     3     1 Gallantry                 138
Except         5                  Gaiety... 148
Extol          }                  Gentle...       71
Eulogize                      50 Genuine.75
Exist..          51 Genius..     136
Endue                             Gift... 140
Endow          5              52Glad                             65
Expressions.    131, 170 Gratified
Elude...      52 Globe... 154
Employ...  51 Goodness..      127
Ecact...      93 Grief... 10




176                          INDEX.
PAnflE:                          PaGE
Grand.                 80 Import...  156
Glistening                        Intent                        164
Glittering                        Intention
Graceful.             59 Indigence.             169
Grateful..  67 Instant...      171
Guide...      42
Gain.     156 Jealousy... 149
Good-natured.              90 Just..       92
Guilty.          86 Joyful.                  65
Hardly...  23 Kingly...       92
Haughtiness.         108 Kind...  90
Hatred..     112
Handsome..      61 Lazy...      66
Harangue..         132 Lasting..          76
Hence..2SLaw..             139
Heroism.                     138  Likewise..  26
Hidden.                     75 Liking..             145
History. 122 I Liveliness..         148
Hinderance.            128 Loquacious.             77
Honest...  62 Lovely..           61
However                       25 *  Love.                   145
Humility. 133 Loyalty..      128
Heavy  v.          85 Loneliness..     153
Hint.. 171 Liberty..         162
Help...     159 Liberal..              88
List.. 165
Idle..      66 Language..     170
Inasmuch as.               29 
Indignation..          97 Magnificent.          80
Industry.             96 IMild
Ineffectual..  67 Meek                             7
Incongruous                       Mislead.                   43
Inconsistent                     IMitigate                       48
Implore...  40 Meed.                  98
Indolent..             66 Melancholy.             100
Inform...  46 Modesty.. 133
Ingenuous.             68 Misfortune..      149
Inhuman...  80 Merely.  33
Injunction.         116 Munificent..      88
Ingenuity... 136 Motherly
Intrepidity..     138 Maternal.  92
Instruct...  46 Meaning..      156
In spite of.             22 Mistake.                   167
Illusion... 118 Malice,                       167
Imagination..     124 Matter.. 170
Impediment,. 128 Mioment,,             171
Indeed...      32
Innocent..        86 Notwithstanding.         22, 25
Illustrious.             94!Nearly..       23




INDEX.                          177
PAGE                             PAGE.
Nevertheless.          25 Promote..      51
Narrative, narration.    122 Precise...  93
Nay...  32 Profit..            156
Neglectful                   90 Punishment                    163
Negligent                        Penalty
Novel. 168 Project                       164
Plan
Own...      35 Paternal...  92
Open...  68 Purpose.                     164
Obstinate..      84 Poverty. 169
Ostentation.. 123 Pauperism
Order                       116
Opponent..         113 Quiet...     82
Obstacle..    12S
Oration..     132 Rash...  69
Origin...     141 Resign                        45
Observe.    ~..  52 Relinquish
Only...      33 Relieve...  48
Occupation.         168 Renounce                      49
Recant
Permit.                     35 Romantic...  74
Puzzle                           Resentment..     97
Perplex                      41 Recompense                    98
Prohibit..      42 Reward
Presume..          45 Regret...    100
Proclaim                     48 Resignation. 105
Polished.              Refrmation                   129
Pretty...      61 Rigor..'135
Pleased...  65 Relation.     122
Permanent..      67 Rule
Perpetual.            167 Regulation
Powerful                     77 Reason..   141, 147
Potent                           Restraint                   119
Pleasing                     82 Resolution... 121
Pleasant                     82 Repugnance                    112
Placid...      82. Rebuke
Profound..  85 Reproof
Patience..    105 Remonstrance..          114
Philanthropic..  88 Reprimand
Prudence.         107 Reproach
Pride..         108 Request.         40
Parade..            123 Reply                        11
Persuasion... 125 Rejoinder                     116
Pardon..            131 Respect..        117
Pity... 132 Results                     * 110
Parts..            136 Retirement..    153
Present..         140 Remark,                   52
Privacy...    153 Regal                          92
Praise.   0 Rend.56




178                          INDEX.
PaGEI                            PAGE
Righteous                     92 Severity
Renowned..          94 Sternness                     135
Reliance..     166 Strictness
Recreation... 157 Statute..         139
Romance..     168 Solace... 140
Source...     141
Self-conceit.. 108 Self-love
Secret.                75 Selfishness
Scarcely...  23 Sense                     147, 156
Still...      25 Solitude                       153
So..             28 Seclusion
Since..         29 Solely
Suffer..      35, 41 Simply
Scorn..         38 Save.                 34
Subdue                        39 Shun.               52
Subjugate                     39 Shall...  54
Shall s..      54
Supplicate                    40 Spotless.               86
Solicit                           Sinful                       8.
Suffer...  41 Suitable.             93
Sway..             42 Sly....  94
Surmise                      43 Sense                         156
Suppose                          Skill..         158
Sincere.                     62 Scheme..        164
Strange                          Spite... 167
Surprising     S                 Subject..        170
Silly          )                 Suggestion..     171
Stupid.      64
Simple                           That...  21
Slothful...  66 Though                      23, 32
Sparkling                    70 Through...  24
Shining'          Therefore
Soft...  71 Then                           28
Sentimental..      74 Thence
Strong...  77 Tolerate...  35
Savage...       80 Think...      43
Sublime                          Teach...  46
Splendid.         80 Thankful..      67
Superb                           Transient                     6
Stubborn                     84 Transitory
Satisfaction                  96 Timid  7
Shyness.             99 Timorous  ~                     71
Sorrow                      100 Timidity                       99
Sadness                          Too                           26
Show.                   123 Talkative..  77
Security       )                 Terror...     102
Safety.. 129 Tale... 122
Surety                            Talents...    136
Sentiments                   132 Tranquil..          82
Speech... 132 Trial...     144
Sympathy..     132 Tenderness..         145




INDEX.                           1l9
PAGE                              PAGE.
Though..             32  Virtue... 127
Tear...  56  Voluntarily..      27
Trifling                          Vigorous.  77
Trivial                           Vesties.             162
Tyranny... 161 Veneration... ]17
Traces..         162 Valor..     138
Trust... 166 Vivacity... 118
Tolerance                      6
Toleration                        Which                          21
Termns..         170  While                          23
With..          24
Upright...      62  Willingly..      27
Understand..  50  Wherefore.                    28
Useless..             67  Well-bred.          58
Unlike..          73  Weak..          64
Utility                      106  Wisdom.        107 136
Usefulness     3                  World... 154
Understanding.. 147  Will...       54
Use (to make, of).      54  Wicked.                    86
Usage... 158  Words...      170
Wonderful...  63
Variable                      84 Weighty..       85
Vanity...    108  Wrath..          160
Vain..          67
Vanquish..          39 Yet.          25
THE END.