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D?.~.~,j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~',,. ~~ __~. = =========~ —--- __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ ___. - I'd > / ( K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IN'W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~I )~ I 1~e /i I C,~ ~ (.........; A i ili~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i Ei-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l ONE HUNDRED YEARS' PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES: GIVING, IN A HISTORICAL FORM, THE VAST IMPROVEMENTS MADE IN AGRICULTURE; CULTIVATION OF COTTON AND SUGAR; COMMERCE; TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION; STEAM ENGINE; MANUFACTURE OF COTTON, WOOLEN, SILK, PAPER, FIRE-ARMS, CUTLERY, HATS, CARRIAGES AND COACHES, PLATED WARE, LEATHER, BOOTS AND SHOES, CLOCKS AND WATCHES, PINS, REFINED SUGAR, GLASS, AND INDIA RUBBER; FISHING BUSINESS; FUR AND FUR TRADE; HUMANITARIAN INSTITUTIONS, ETC., ETC.; WITH A LARGE AMOUNT OF STATISTICAL INFORMATION, SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE PROGRESS OF THE DIFFERENT STATES WITH EACH OTHER, AND THIS COUNTRY WITH OTHER NATIONS. WITH AN APPENDIX ENTITLED MARVELS THAT OUR GRANDCHILDREN WILL SEE; Or, ONE HUNDRED YEARS' PROGRESS IN THE FUTURE. BEING AN ESTIMATE OF THE VAST INCREASE OF POPULATION, WEALTH, GROWTH OF CITIES, AND DEVELOPMENT OF ALL BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY, DEDUCED FROM FACTS AND FIGURES OF THE PAST ONE HUNDRED YEARS, WITH REMARKS ON THE PROSPECTIVE INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUAL AND CORPORATIVE MONOPOLIES; CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR; INCREASE OF PROTECTIVE UNIONS; ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY; EXHAUSTION OF PUBLIC LANDS; GREAT ADVANCE IN REAL ESTATE, &C.; WITH REFLECTIONS ON THE SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS CHANGES WHICH WILL ENSUE FROM THE TRANSFERENCE OF THE GOVERNING POWER FROM THE ANGLO-SAXON RACE TO THE TEUTONIC, CELTIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN RACES OF EUROPE, AND MONGOLIAN, MALAY, AND AFRICAN RACES; WITH EXAMPLES FROM ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY OF THE EFFECT OP SUCH CHANQES OF POPULATION ON THE INSTITUTIONS OF THE OLD WORLD. BY EMINENT LITERARY MEN, WHO HAVE MADE THE SUBJECTS ON WHICH THEY HAVE WRITTEN THEIR SPECIAL STUDY. EMBELLISHED WITH TWO HUNDRED AND EIGHTY ENGRAVINGS, Executed by the First Artists in the Country, Illustrating the Progress of the various Interests treated of. iFUIt ISIHIE3D ]BY AG ENTS ONILY4 HARTFORD, CONN.: PTUBjISHED BY -J. STE 3BBNMTS 1870. State of Want att' n(gyaPig in t1t thme sf tI 3mmeitin 1sehdiwn, THE FAMCY TITLE PAGE ENGRAVED BY HE NEW YORE BANK NOTE COMPANY, 50 WALL STREET, N.. BFY L. STEB BINSED In the office of the lerk of the District Court of the nited States for the District of Conn. ]n SeLVR accordinga to of C B pesolufion of cBINS, the office ofthe C l~erkofhe Distuhe UtSate Phil D iC In the office of the Clerk of the District Court of the Unitedl States for the District of Conn. SUBJECTS AND AUTHORS. PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE: Giving an account of the early settlement of this country, with the attendant hardships and privations; early modes of cultivating the soil; rapid advance of settlements; improvements in Agricultural Implements; in breeds of Stock, as Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, Poultry, and Bees; Cultivation of Wheat, Corn, Rye, Buckwheat, Barley, Potatoes; various kinds of Grasses; Hops, Flax, Hemp, Tobacco, Silk, Fruits, &c.; the Lumber Business, together with a large amount of statistical matter. By CHARLES L. FLINT, Secretary iassachusetts Board of Agriculture; Author of " Grasses," "Forage Plants," ".lilch Cows and Dairy'arming," &c., &Jc. CULTIVATION OF COTTON: Its importance in Commerce, Cheap Lands, Labor, &c., &c. By PROF. C. F. MoCAY, late of Columbia College, S. C. STEAM ENGINE, Its invention, various improvements, manufacture, and uses, with reference to its influence upon the industry of the country, in its application to manufactures. By J. C. MERRIAM, Editor and Proprietor of the "American Engineer." COMMERCE AND TRADE, Colonial Trade, Imperial Restriction, Emancipation of Inhabitants, Changed Interest, Manufactures, Course of Trade, Speculation, Revulsion, Bankrupt Law, English Free Trade, Revolution in France, Farmers, Gold, Ships, Tonnage, Navigation Laws, &c. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MEANS OF TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, Including Common Roads, Turnpikes, M'Adam, Plank, and Railroads, River and Ocean Steamers; giving a history of their origin, progress, and influence upon the growth of the country; their extent, construction, cost, &c. Iv SUBJECTS AND AUTHORS. MANUFACTURES Of Cotton, Woollen, Paper, Leather; Boots and Shoes, Fire-Arms, Cutlery, Carriages and Coaches, Clocks and Watches, Electro-plated Ware, Pins, Refined Sugars, Silk, Fire. Proof Safes, Bank-Locks, Glass, India-Rubber, Sewing Machines, Musical Instruments: showing the various improvements made by machinery and other means of manufacture, the extent of operations and value of productions, &c., &c. BUILDING, BUILDING MATERIALS, FISHING INTERESTS, AND FLOUR MILLS. By THOMAS P. KETTELL, for many years Editor of Hunt's "'MLerchants' lMagazine," and Author of various Statistical Works, "History of the Great Rebellion," &G. APPENDIX. BY L. P. BROCKETT, M.D. Author of " Woman's Work in the Civil War," "] Men of Our Day," Editorial contributor to " Appleton's Cyclopedia," &c. PREFACE IT has been said that history, as generally written, is but an account of the wars and contentions by which dynasties have striven for the mastery of nations. It imparts little or no information in respect to the social condition or material progress of the people themselves. It is true that the means of preserving such information have never before existed in the shape of those printing facilities which at this day place every variety of intelligence within the reach of the poorest classes. These facilities are themselves among the wonders that have attended the progress of the American people during the past eighty years. In that period a nation has been born, and grown to unexampled power and place among the nations of the earth. Inasmuch, however, as that the nature, the institutions, and the administration of the American nation are different from all others, so must its history be in an entirely different style. If there are no regal intrigues to chronicle or military exploits to recount, there are more lasting triumphs in every useful science to record. If we have no Alexander, or Caesar, or Bonaparte, or Wellington, to shine on the stormy pages of our history, we have such names as Franklin, Whitney, Morse, and a host of others, to shed a more beneficent lustre on the story of our rise. The means by which a few poor colonists have come to excel all nations in the arts of peace, and to astonish the people of Europe with their achievements through the development of their inventive genius, are true subjects for a history of the United States. Such a history is now for the first time presented to the American people. In its preparation no pains or expense has been spared in the view of making it perfectly reliable, and it is believed that a work has been produced which will be standard on the subject. When the War of Independence was finished, the American people, free on their own soil, turned their quick intellect and undivided attention to the great object of improvement, material and mental, and they have wrought out results that have become not only the admiration but the exemplar of all nations. The great genius of the people manifested itself in the invention of labor-saving machines, because labor was scarce and dear. The steam engine was adopted, vI PEFPREFACE. improved, and applied to every branch of labor. It was applied to navigation, to locomotion, and to manufacturing in all its branches, great and small. Inventions were introduced in all possible branches of manufacturing by which labor was saved. It is probable that one man now produces as much by the aid of machines as one hundred did formerly. In other words, that inventive genius has increased manufacturing production a hundredfold. At the same time a vast continent has been settled; and here again has inventive genius supplied machinery as a substitute for farm laborers, and one man may, by their aid, harvest a large surplus above his family wants. These machines have become the models for Europe. This vigor of production has enabled the construction of as many miles of railroads as all Europe put together. The telegraph has been invented for transmission of intelligence, and more miles of it used than in all Europe. In ship-building, the American improvements have outstripped the boasted wooden walls of old England, and given the model to the world. Their active enterprise has won the foremost rank in foreign commerce, and covered the inland waters with more steam tonnage than all other nations possess. The cities of America have sprung up with magic growth, and increased with marvellous vigor. There is no example in history where so many large cities have been built in a similar period. In producing a carefully written history of all these events, a vast amount of labor and research has been gone through to collate reliable statistical matter. Every effort has been used to place the results in a clear and attractive view, so as to make the reader master of every branch of the subject, and enable him to speak understandingly of his country's triumphs. To this end a great expense has been incurred for engravings illustrative of the various industries, It is believed that the work now offered to the public is the most complete history of a nation's progress ever written. CONTENTS. PAGEPA.GS AGRICUILTURE. Wooden Forks........................... 27 Description of Ploughs.. 30 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS................. 19 Modern Improvements in Ploughs........ 30 First Settlers........................... 19 Ten Millions saved in Ploughing............ 30 James River Settlement, Virginia.......... 19 First Patent for Cast Iron Ploughs........ 31 Plymouth Colony....................... 19 Thomas Jefferson on Ploughs............. 31 Stock of early Settlers.................. 20 Massachusetts Plough Manufactories....... 31 Introduction of Clover in England, 1633.... 20 The Harrow, Cultivator, Grubbers, &c...... 32 Beef and Mutton, same date............ 20 Sickle and Cradle.................... 32 Early Agricultural Implements............ 20 Reapers and Mowers................... 33 Customs of the Indians................ 21 Horse Rake.......................... 36 Indians' method of clearing Forests....... 21 Malthus on Population.................. 36 Indians instruct the English how to cultivate Trial of American, English, and French Corn............................... 21 Threshing Machines................... 36 Indians' mode of storing Corn............. 21 RAISING OF STOK.............. 37 First sight of Ships...................... 22 First Stock imported..................... 37 Low condition of Agriculture before the Crossing of different Breeds of Cattle...... 38 Revolution........................... 22 Fodder for Cattle in Virginia.............. 38 Raisings and Huskings of early times....... 22 Cattle in Illinois in 1682.. 39 Early Settlers manufacture their Garments.. 22 Stock Raising in England............. 39 Courtship and Marriage.................... 23 Large Prices for Improved Stock.......... 40.Number of Newspapers.................. 23 Hereford and Devon Breeds.............. 40 Prejudice against housing and milking Cows Methods of improving the Breeds of Cattle.. 41 in Winter......................... 23 Milch Cows............................ 42 Emigrating West meaning Western New Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois Cattle. 47 York............................... 24 18,378,907 head of Cattle in 1850...... 47 ASSOCIATED AND LEGISLATIVE EFFORT........ 24 Animals slaughtered in 1850 worth $111,703Letter of Washington to Sir John Sinclair.. 24 142............................ 47 South Carolina Agricultural Society........ 25 Importing Choice Stock.................. 48 Massachusetts do do........ 25 Ohio Company for importing, Capital $9,200. 48 First Agricultural Exhibition in 1809.......25 Short Horns, Jerseys, Ayrshires........... 49 Effects of Agricultural Societies............ 26 Value of Cattle in Ohio in 1857, $11,315,560 50 FARM IMPLEMENTS......................... 26 Average number lbs. Butter per Cow in differJack at all Trades...................... 27 ent states............................ 51 Ploughs in Virginia in 1617............... 27 Average number lbs. Cheese............. 51 Thirty-seven Ploughs in Massachusetts in Number of Cows per inhabitant........... 51 1637,,................... 27 Stock Raising in Southern States.......... 52 CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE HORSES................................ 52 Wheat in California...................... 77 Roads, Mails at four miles per hour........ 52 PRODUCTION OF OTHER GRAINS.............. 77 Speed desired in Horses.................. 52 Rye, Oats, Buckwheat................... 78 First Horses imported by Columbus....... 53 Buckwheat raised South, West and North.. 78 Wild Horses Descendants of Spanish Breeds 53 Clover and Grass seed............. 79 Demand for Fast Horses.................. 53 POTATOES............................... 79 The Morgan and Black Hawk............ 54 PEAS AND BEANS......................... 79 Horseback Riding in the South............ 54 GRASS AND HAY CROP..................... 79 Number of Horses in 1850, 4,336,719, not in- Timothy found by Mr, Herd in a Swamp, eluding Cities and Large Towns......... 54 taken to Maryland and Virginia by Timothy SHEEP................................... 59 Hanson........................... 80 First Imported Sheep................... 59 Value of Hay Crop................ 80 Wool Two Dollars per pound.............. 59 Hay consumed per head of Cattle in differThe Dog Law......................... 60 ent States.................. 80 Tennessee Wool takes the Premium at the CULTURE OF FRUIT....................... 81 World's Fair......................... 60 First Apples in this Country........... 81 Great Britain produces 275,000,000 lbs. Wool First Horticultural Society.......81 annually............................. 60 The Nurseries of Western New York...... 82 Wool of the South, West and North........ 63 Orchards in the South.............. 82 SWINE AND PORK........................ 63 Peaches in the South............. 82 First Swine imported.................... 63 Fruit in California................ 83 Improvement in Breeds of Swine........... 64 Wine in do.............. 83 Native Hogs of the West................. 64 Imports of Fruits which may be grown in Swine of the South, West and North...... 65 California............................83 Manner of killing Hogs................. 65 Thousand Dollars worth of Pears on one acre 84 Pork Packing....................... 66 Orchard Products of 1850........... 84 Lard Oil............................... 67 Fruit Books........................... 84 Quantity of Pork packed in Cincinnati for Pears imported from France in 1851.......84 twenty-seven years.................... 67 CULTURE OF TOBACCO..................... 85 Number of Hogs killed in Western States.. 67 Columbus presented with a Cigar......... 85 PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.................... 68 French Revenue from Tobacco......... 85 Indian Corn............................ 68 Tobacco at Forty Cents per pound........ 86 Indian Mythology................ 68 Exports of Tobacco................. 86 Early Exports of Corn................... 69 Tobacco raised South, West and North.... 87 Increased Exports of Corn since 1820..... 10 Manufacture of Cigars................ 87 Corn produced in France and Russia....... 70 CULTURE OF HOPS..... 88 1,000,000,000 bushels Corn in 1855........ 10 Hops introduced as early as 1828..... 88 Corn exported from 1851 to 1858.......... 71 Hops Raised South, West and North...... 89 England imports $225,000,000 worth of Grain 71 FLAX AND HEMP..........................89 WIHEAT................................. 72 Quantity raised South, West and North..... 90 Samples of Wheat sent to Holland in 1626.. 12 CULTURE OF SILK.................. 90 Damage to Wheat by Blast, Insects, &c..... 13 BEE CULTURE............................ 90 Raising Wheat in New England.......... 13 POULTRY............................... 90 Exports of Wheat and Flour............. 74 LUMBER BUSINESS.................. 91 French Settlements in the West........... 74 Great Variety of Trees..................91 Soldiers of the Revolution settle in Illinois.. 75 New Settlers......................... 91 Chicago Grain Depot.................... 15 The Lumbermen in the Forest............92 Grain Store-houses of Illinois Central Rail- Rafting Business................ 93 road7..........7.....6 1 Lumbering in Maine.............. 94 Agricultural Products Sixteen Hundred Mil- Kinds of Lumber.......................94 lions annually......................... 6 The way Lumber is sold.........95 Agricultural Interests four-fifths of Taxes in Lumbering at Green Bay..............96 New York State...................... 77 Chicago Lumber Market.................96 Wheat produced South, West and North... 17 AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE................ 97 CONTENTS. ix PAGE PAGE Essays by Jared Elliot.................. 97 SUGAR CULTIVATION AND CONSUMPTION. The American Farmer................... 97 Various Agricultural Papers............ 98 Cane first introduced in Louisiana......... 127 Agricultural Books...................... 98 Five kinds of Cane...................... 127 Agricultural Colleges.................... 99 Mode of Cultivating.................... 128 Chemistry in aid of Agriculture............. 99 Sugar Mills........................... 128 Guano as a Fertilizer.................... 100 Quantity Sugar produced per acre.......... 129 Two Million Tons Guano from Chincha Islands 100 Consumption of Sugar in the United States.. 129 THE PROSPECT OF AGRIQULTURE IN THE COUNTRY 101 MAPLE SUGAR........................... 130 Comparison with other Countries.......... 101 Number of Farms in the United States...... 102 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Remarks of Daniel Webster.............. 102 Rmarks of Daniel Webster..102COLONIAL TRADE, &c...................... 132 COTTON CULTURE. Rapid Development.................... 132 Early Settlers and Imperial Government.... 133 Capital and Labor....................... 103 Colonists forbidden to Coin Money.......... 133 Early Exports of Produce............... 104 Early Manufactures...................... 133 Labor in Comparison with Europe......... 105 The Colonies forbidden to Manufacture.... 133 Cotton great Export Article............... 106 Report of Parliamentary Committee on CoTrade with Brazil...................... 107 lonial Manufactures and Trade......... 133 Cotton, Rice and Tobacco South........... 107 West India and American Rum............ 135 PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON.......... 108 Imports and Exports of 1770............. 136 Machinery for Spinning Cotton........... 108 Burdens of the Colonies................. 137 Steam Engine Important in Cotton Manufac- The Revolutionary War................ 137 turing............................ 109 Paper Currency..................... 138 Early Manufactures in England........... 109 Trade with Great Britain from 1784 to 1790. 138 Cotton Trade of France.................. 109 Insurrection in St. Domingo.............. 139 Comparative Consumption of Cotton....... 110 Stephen Girard......................... 139 Cotton found by Columbus................ 110 Jay's Treaty........................... 139 Sea Island Cotton....................111 Table Imports and Exports from 1790 to 1807k140 Whitney Cotton Gin............. 111 Mr. Hamilton, Secretary of Treasury, Report 141 Vexatious Law Suits.................... 113 Table of Exports....................... 141 Increase of Cotton from 1820 to 1830....... 114 American Manufactures................. 142 Prices of Cotton decline................ 114 Table of Tonnage, Exports and Imports, Decline in Shipping Tonnage of Charleston.. 114 from 1808 to 1820.................... 142 Rice Culture........................... 115 The Embargo............................ 143 Railroads in the South.................. 115 National Debt at close of the War of 1812.. 143 Cotton Factories in the South............ 115 Increase of Population,Wealth, &c., from 1791 MONOPOLY OF THE MARKET-SLAVE LABOR.... 116 to 1820.............................. 144 Limit of Sea Island Cotton................ 116 CHANGED INTERESTS, MANUFACTURES, &C... 144 Cotton in various Countries.............. 117 Table of Imports and Exports from 1821 to Paper read before the Society of Arts....... 118 1839................................ 145 Experiment with American Cotton in India. 118 Capital employed in Cotton Manufacture in Picking Cotton......................... 119 1830............................... 141 Slave Labor............................ 119 Table Imports and Exports from 1831 to 1840 147 Humanity of the Master................. 119 Large Fire in New York in 1835......... 148 Maine Liquor Law among Slaves.......... 120 Two Hundred Millions sent West to start Ploughing in February................... 120 Banks............................... 151 Cultivating Cotton................... 121 The Panic of 1837...................... 151 Distribution of Labor among Whites and United States Bank...................... 151 Blacks............................... 121 United States Bankrupt Law.............. 152 Slaves Marry and are given in Marriage.... 121 Table of Imports and Exports from 1841 to Cotton and Gold support high Tariff..... 122 1850............................ 153 Northern Furniture in Southern Houses.... 122 Famine in Ireland................... 153 Northern Books do do... 123 French Silks in Tricolors................. 154 r~~~~~X ~CONTENTS. PAGB PAGB Gold discovered at Capt. Sutter's Fort.... 154 First Steamboat built for the Ohio River... 165 Nine millions Gold received from California Territory drained by the Ohio........... 166 in 1850...................... 154 Opening of Erie Canal in 1825....... 166 Exportation of Gold depreciating.........154 Table showing the number, kinds, &c., of Six hundred million dollars of Gold receiv- Vessels navigating the Lakes in 1858... 166 ed from California from 1850 to 1860.... 155 Losses of Screw Propellers from 1848 to Emigrants bring in $251,805,400 Gold from 1856........................ 166 1850 to 1860........................ 155 Lake Cities, their rapid growth.......... 166 Five hundred million dollars expended in Lopez Propeller................... 167 land operations from 1850 to 1860..... 155 Ship-building at the Lake ports for LiverFailure of Corn crops in Europe.......... 155 pool..................... 161 Table of Exports and Imports from 1851 to Ship-building, Clipper model............. 167 1860............................... 156 Tonnage owned in U. S. in 1860......... 168 Wheat crop of 1850 equal to 22,000,000 Table of National Exports from 1800 to barrels flour......................... 156 1860...................... 168 Exports of Agriculture from 1850 to 1856.............................. 156 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Table of Exports for periods of ten years.. 157 The area of Great Britain............... 157 EARLY ROADS, POST ROADS, &c............171 Lands sold and given for public works..... 157 Gen. Washington as an Engineer. 173 Quantities of Corn and Pork exported to Stock of Dismal Swamp Canal............. 173 Great Britain from 1840 to 1858........ 158 Statistics of Mail Service from 1791 to 1859. 174 Imports of Cotton from India............ 158 Country Roads....................... 175 Internal production of wares............. 159 Charcoal do......................... 176 Value of Manufactures and Agricultural Plank -do........................ 176 productions..................... 159 Turnpike do......................... 176 The firms in business in 1857............ 159 Macadam do..................176 Exchanges at the Clearing House, New York 160 Roads in Ohio.......................... 177 Growth of the U. S.................... 160 Cumberland Road...................... 177 Ships-Tonnage-Navigation Laws....... 161 COASTERS, STEAMBOATS, CANALS............. 178 Two ships to do the work of one......... 161 Sloop experiment....................... 178 Vessels built in the several Provinces in Fulton's Steamer Clermont................ 179 1771................................ 163 The first Steamer Hell Gate............... 179 Bounties on Fisheries.................. 162 Progressive speed of Steamers from 1811 to Tables showing tonnage of Shipping from 1860............................. 180 1789 to 1858..................... 163 Flat Boats on the Mississippi.......... 181 Cotton as Freighting................... 163 First Steamboat on the Ohio.............. 181 Measure of tonnage..................... 163 Time of passage from New Orleans to St. Effect of Mexican and English wars in Louis reduced from 120 to 3 days........ 183 China on trade............. 163 Increase of Steam Tonnage on the Western Favorable treaty between the United States Rivers from 1842 to 1860.............. 183 and China....................... 164 Ground broken for the Erie Canal.......... 184 Caleb Cushing robbed of his Baggage on Early Canal Projects............... 185 his way home from China vid Mexico... 164 Loss of Water in Canals by leakage........ 186 British and French Expedition from Varna Transportation from Buffalo to New York, to the Crimea....................... 164 $100 per Tun......................... 186 First arrival of a Steamer from England.. 164 Increase of Steam Tonnage on the Lakes Table showing the different Lines of Steam- from 1841 to 1860..................... 187 ers between Europe and U. S.......... 164 Opening of Lumber Trade of Western New Table showing the number and names of York................................ 188 Ocean Steamers lost.................. 165 List of Ohio Canals...................... 188 Growth of Steam service in the interior.. 165 John Q. Adams and Charles Carroll turn Keel-boats on the Ohio River............ 165 first earth for Canals..................189 First sea-going Brig built on the Ohio River 165 List of Important Canals.............. 190 CONTENTS. Xl PAGE PAGE Total receipts from New York Canals...... 190 Tonnage of Steam Vessels of United States.. 243 EARLY RAILROADS, LAND GRANTS, &C........ 191 LOCOMOTIVES............................. 243 First Railroad in the United States........ 192 First experiments....................... 244 Massachusetts Western Railroad...... 193 First Locomotive built in America......... 245 Process of Railroad Building............... 195 Export of Locomotives................... 246 Cost per mile of Running Locomotives...... 196 Cost of Locomotives..................... 247 Earnings of New York Central Railroad from Great speed of a Locomotive............. 249 1853 to 1859......................... 198 Time saved in England by Railroad TravelErie Railroad chartered................. 201 ling in comparison with Stages........ 250 Receipts and Expenditures of Erie Railroad. 202 Dummy Engines....................... 250 Pennsylvania, Baltimore and Ohio Railroads. 203 STATIONARY ENGINE.................... 252 Georgia Railroads....................... 205 Rotary Engine......................... 253 Illinois Central Railroad................. 205 Corliss Engine.......................... 254 Land Department of Illinois Central Railroad 207 Portable Engine........................ 255 Table showing the Land Grants to the sev- Steam Saw Mills............256 eral States........................... 207 Description of Steam................... 256 Railroads from Maine to Louisiana, with the Brooklyn Water Works Engine........... 258 names of different Corporations.......... 208 STEAM PUMPS.......................... 258 Michigan Railroads...................... 208 Fire Engines..................... 259 Missouri Railroads...................... 209 MISCELLANEOUS...................... 263 RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES PROJECTED. 209 Use of Steam in Farming................. 264 Length and miles completed, with the Capital Steam in Manufacturing................. 266 paid in and Funded Debt............... 209 CONCLUSION......................... 268 Miles of Canals and Railroads for transporta- Caloric Engines......................... 270 tion of Coal.......................... 220 Experiments of United States Government Miles of Railroad in use for transportation of on the Expansion of Steam............. 272 Cotton, with number Bales of Cotton..... 220 Railroads entering Chicago............... 221 COTTON MANUFACTURES. Tonnage of the five great East and West ORIGIN-HAND-WORK-INVENTIONS. 274 Transportation Lines. 22......... 1 Hand Car........ 221 275 New York and Philadelphia Stages........ 222 The rst Spinning Jenny...... 275 City Railroads......................... 223 First Carding Machine. 276 Number miles of Railroads in the world, with First Power Loom..... 276 the cost per mile in each country....... 224 io Prii i......... 2 First Calico Printing in England......... 276 -~STEAM. -The American Invention of Mr. Perkins.... 277 Early Importations of Cotton into Great BriHISTORY OF TIE STEAM ENGINE.............. 227 tain.......................... 277 First Steam Engines in America........... 227 Dates of Important Inventions in Cotton MaRobert Fulton; Oliver Evans, Watt........ 228 chinery............................ 27 Horse Power of Steam Engines........... 228 MANUFACTURE IN AMERICA................. 280 High and Low Pressure................. 229 First Cotton Mills in Rhode Island......... 280 First adoption of the Crank for the Steam The number of Cotton Mills in 1809..... 281 Engine......229 The first Mill in the world combining all English and American Steamers.......... 232 branches of Cotton Manufacture, establishDescription of the Steam Engine......... 233 ed in Waltham, Mass.................. 282 STEAMBOATS.............................. 234 The beginning of Lowell................. 282 John Fitch............................ 234 Statistical Table of Cotton Mills in 1831..... 283 Steamboats on the Ohio River............. 239 do do do 1850..... 285 Steamboats on the Lakes................. 239 INVENTIONS, MODE OF MANUFACTURE, PRINTING, The Propeller................... 240................................. 286 The Adriatic.......................... 241 The meaning of Staple as applied to Cotton.. 286 First use of Coal for Steamers............ 241 Description of Calico Printing............ 288 Explosion of the Boiler of Steamboat Wash- Statistics of Cotton Manufacture in the United ington............................ 242 States, from 1809 to 1860............. 290 Xii CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE PAPER: ITS MANUFACTURE. Colt's Fire-Arms at the World's Fair....... 331 Colt's Manufactory...................... 332 MATERIALS-PROGRESS..................... 291 Shape's Rifle and Pistol.332 First Paper Mill in Massachusetts......... 292 Stafford and Whitney Arms.333 Importations of Rags into the United Statesnited States Armories............... 334 from 1846 to 1857............292......... 29335 Rags consumed in the United States, Great: Comparative Strength of Iron and Bronze... 335 Britain and France............ 293 Process asting............ 335 Mummy Wrappers used for Paper......... 293 Method of Proving.336 Water Mark........................ -294 ^Naval Warfare.......................... 337 1NVENTIONS-MANUFACTTJURE..................... 295 Large Gun for Harbor Defence............ 337 Fourdrinier Machine............... 295 The loyd Gun...... 29337 Names and Dimensions of Paper....... 296 Powder used................ 338 Description of Manufacture.............. 296 Statistics of Manufacture................. 298 CUTLERY WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES. UNITED STATES INDUSTRY-AXES........... 339 CARDING-WEAVING-FELTING..................E300 European. System........................ 339 Value of Manufactures from 1810 to 1850.. 300 Shears at Seven Cents p dozen 340 Machines for making..Cards............... 301 Table Cutlery manufactured in the United Manufacture of Worsted................. 301 tates by Machinery................ 340 yin on th1 s.304 Grinding and Polishing................... 340 Dyeig Cloths.......................... 304 Felting.305 Butcher and Shoe Knives, Forks.......... 341 Felting................................ 305 Carpets.36........................ Axe Manufacture..................... 341 Qatsy of Carpeting made in......sachusett..... Statistics of Cutlery and Edge Tools for 1850. 342 Quantity of Carpeting made in Massachusetts and New York in 1855................ 308 CLOTHING TRADE.......................... 309 FURS AND FU TADE. Statistics for 1850....................... 309 Trade with the Indians.................. 343 Large Manufactories....................... 310 Statistics of Woollen Manufactures in 1850..311 Hudnob Bay Company 343 John Jacob Astor in Fur trade............ 344 Manufactures of Massachusetts, New York Exports of Furfor 1850 345 List of Prices of various Furs............. 346 Imports of Cloths....................... 312 Prices of different kinds per set............ 347 Imports of Wool, total consumption........ 313 ing of Fur......................... 347 Shoddy, description of................... 313 LEATHER. HATS. TANNING-BOOTS AND SHOES................ 316 EARLY HISTORY-IMPROVEMENTS............ 348 Leather Manufacture in 1850.............. 316 The London Hatters.................... 348 Different kinds of Hides................ 317 Early Fashions........................ 348 Disposition of Hides brought into New York. 318 Hat Business in New York............... 349 Description of Tanning................... 319 Monopoly of Machinery.................. 349 Time required for Tanning different Hides... 322 Silk Hats............................. 350 Number and value of Boots and Shoes man- Finishing.............................. 350 ufactured in Massachusetts..............324 Pegging Machines..................... 325 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. Statistics of Leather Trade of New York for 1855.............. 326 Introductory Remarks................... 353 BUILDINGS AND BUILDING MATERIALS........ 353 FPIRE-A.MS *Number and value of Dwellings in the United States in 1798 and 1850................ 354 COLT'S REVOLVERS....................... 328 Dwellings as per population.............. 354 The Match-lock and Flint-lock............ 328 Supposed value of Buildings in 1870.. 355 Colt's Inventions......................... 331 Improvements, Fixtures................ 355 CONTENTS. XMI] PAGE PAGE Lumber Business..................... 356 Annual Value of Candies............. 392 Machinery used in Building............... 357 SILK.................................... 393 Lumber Trade East, West and South...... 357 Early Culture of Silk in America.......... 393 Brick Making........................... 358 Morus Multicaulis Speculation............ 394 Lime.......................... 358 Imports of Raw Silk................... 395 Stone.................................. 359 FIRE-PROOF SAFES AND SAFE LOOKS.......... 395 Ship Building.......................... 359 First Imports of Safes................... 396 Statistics of House and Ship Building...... 360 Spontaneous Combustion of a Safe......... 396 CARRIAGES AND COACHES................... 360 Wilder's, Marvin's, and other Safes......... 397 New York Omnibus..................... 360 Bank Locks at the World's Fair........... 398 Kinds of Timber used................... 361 GLASS MANUFACTURE................... 398 Description of Messrs. G. & D. Cook & Co.'s Various uses of Glass.................... 398 Manufactory......................... 361 Glass of remote antiquity................. 399 Carriage and Car Manufactories in New York 362 Early manufacturing in England........... 399 Express Wagons........................ 367 First Glass Works in America............ 399 Statistics for 1850...................... 368 Materials for Glass................ 400 CLOCKS AND YATCHES....................... 368 Description of Manufacture............... 401 Alfred the Great uses Candles as Time-pieces 368 American Inventions for Grinding Glass.... 403 Connecticut Clocks................ 369 Silvering Glass......................... 404 Terry, Thomas, Jerome, and others........ 369 Enamelled Glass...................... 405 Barnum in the Clock Business............ 370 INDIA-RUBBER AND ITS MANUFACTURE....... 406 Exportation of Clocks.......... 370 Countries producing it, gathering, &c....... 406 Roxbury Watch Factory................ 370 Goodyear's experiments.. 410 Watches made by Machinery at Waltham... 371 Belting and Hose Manufacture............ 411 ELECTRO-PLATING....................... 372 Rubber Car Springs..................... 411 Description of the Process................ 372 Statistics of the Trade................... 412 FISHERIES............................... 377 SEWING MACHINES........................ 413 Venice founded by Fishermen............ 378 Elias Howe, Jun., Lock-stitch............. 413 Holland and England, do................ 378 Three classes of Machines................ 414 Yankee Fishermen.................. 378 Mr. Wilson's improvement................ 419 Fishing Bountie....................... 378 Description of Wheeler and Wilson's Machine 419 Cod, Mackerel, Herring and Halibut Fishing 378 Singer & Co.'s Machines, description of tneir Oyster Trade...................... 384 Manufactory......................... 421 Whale Fishery........................ 385 Grover & Baker Machines.......... 424 Seal Fishery........................... 385 Finkle & Lyon's Machines................ 425 Statistics of Fishing Trade............... 386 Number Machines made under Howe's patent 426 ICE.................................... 386 Comparison between Hand and Machine SewUse of Ice by the Ancients............ 386 ing................................ 426 General uses of Ice.............. 387 Various uses of Machines, Statistics &c... 428 Massachusetts in the Ice Trade............ 387 Comparative Statistics of Great Britain and Exports of Ice........................ 388 the United States..................... 430 Gathering Ice in Houses................. 388 MmLs................................... 431 Use.of Ice in the East Indies-Incident re- Product of Flour and Grist Mills.......... 431 lated by Edward Everett............. 389 Number of Flour Mills in 1840 and 1850... 432 PINS................................. 389 Descriptions of Mills..................... 432 Pin Manufacture in State Prisons.......... 390 MUSIcOA INSTRUMENTS....................434 Pin Machines.......................... 390 Manufactory at Waterbury..........390 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTI. HEFINED SUGAR. ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~,391 *T'UTIONS. REFINESUGAR...............,~~3... TUT IONS. Consumption of Sugar per head of population in UnitedStates, Great Britain, France, Prisons and Prison Discipline...435 and Germany.......................... 391 Auburn Prisons....................... 436 Beet Sugar in France.........3i......... 3:92 The Silent System............. 437 Introduction of Machiner................ 392 Great Britain and Germany, Prisons in.... 438 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE. PAGE, 1, On the Mississippi,..........(Steel plate.) 55, Cotton Press, Campbell, Whittier & Co., 2, Fancy Title,............. (Steel plate.) Boston, Mass...................... 107 3, Continental Bank Note,............... 2 56, Cleaning Cotton by hand,............ 112 4, The Aborigines,....................... 17 57, Cotton Gin......... 112 5, The Beginning,................. 18 58, Gathering Statistics among the Cotton 6, Life in New England 1770,............. 20 Plantations............. (Steel plate,) 114 7, The Deer,....................... 22 59, Plantation Preacher,................ 120 8, Golden Plover,....................... 23 60, Picking Cotton,...................... 125 9, Partridges,........................... 23 61, Gathering the Cane,.................. 126 10, Wild Turkey,............... 23 62, Commerce,.......................... 131 11, Canvass Back Duck,............. 23 63, Clipper Ship......................... 149 12, Farming Tools of 1790,........28 64, Emigrant Ship...... 150 13, Farming Tools at the Present Time,.....29 65, Wall Street, New York,.... (Steel Plate,) 159 14, Threshing Machine, James Brayley, Buf- 67, The Bridle Path............... 171 falo, N. Y.,...................... 30 68, The Stage Coach,.................... 171 15, Threshing by Hand,............ 30 69, The Canal...................... 171 16, Excelsior Mower, 8............. 31 70, The Railway,........................ 171 17, Wheeler's Patent Reaper,.............. 34 71, Captain Bunker's Sloop,....(Steel Plate,) 181 18, Landing at Jamestown,...... (Steel plate,) 36 72, Flat Boat,.......................... 182 19, Milch Cow,.......................... 43 73, Western Steamboat, 182 20, Short horn Bull,....................... 43 74, First Locomotive on the Mohawk R.R.,. 194 21, Jennie,................................44 75, Modern Train, Pullman's Palace Cars,.. 194 22, Devon Bull,.......................... 45 76, Emigrants,..........................198 23, Ayrshire Bull,.................. 46 77, Emigrant Train,......1......... 199 24, Petersham Morgan,.............. 55 78, Panama R. R,....................... 224 25, Trotting Childers...................... 56 79, Trestle opposite Auburn.............. 224 26, Cotswold Sheep,....................... 57 80, Truss Bridge, Clipper Ravine,........ 224 27, South Downs,.........................58 81, Bloomer Cut,................ 224 28, Southern Pine-woods Hog,.......... 61 82, Long Ravine,.................... 224 29, Western Beech-nut Hog,....... 61 83, Trestle at Secrettown,................. 224 30, Improved Suffolk,..................... 61 84, Trestle in Clipper Ravine,............ 224 31, Improved Essex,................... 62 85, Experimental Boat,................... 226 32, Berkshire Hog,..................... 62 86, First Passenger Steamboat,...... 226 33, Slaughtering Hog.................. 64 87, The First Propeller,.......... 235 34, " ".....................65 88, Oliver Evans' Orukter Amphibolos,.... 235 35, The Pasture,............ (Steel Plate,) 79 89, Machinery of Fulton's first Boat...... 236 86, Making Ready for Cultivation,......... 81 90, The North River of Clermont,.......... 236 37, Cultivation of Small Fruit,......... 81 91, Steamer Adriatic,.................... 287 38, Fruit Piece,.................( Chromo,) 82 92, Marine Engine,.....................240 39, Gathering Hops,....................... 88 93, Riveting the Boilers................. 240 40, Domestic Poultry,.............(Chromo,) 90 94, Bending and Cutting Engines,......... 241 41, Hauling Logs,...................... 92 95, Cutting Engine,.................... 241 42, Sawing off Logs,..................... 92 96, Casting Cylinder............... 241 43, Floating Logs,.................... 92 97, Amoskeag Locomotive Works,......... 247 44, The Jam,............................. 93 98, " Fire Engine,............ 248 45, Loading the Ship,............... 93 99, Stationary Engine, Woodruff & Beach 46, Lumbermen Cabin?.................. 93 Iron Works, Hartford, Conn.,...... 252 47, Manufacture of Turpentine, No. 1,...... 94 100, Section No. 4 Iron Works,............ 252 48, " " No. 2, 94 101, " No. 5 "........... 252 49, ". No. 3,......94 102, " No. 6 "............ 252 50, " " No. 4... 95 103, " No. 2 "............. 253 51, " " No. 5...... 95 104, " No. 3 ".............. 253 52, " " No. 6......95105, Silsby's Fire Engine.................. 261 53. Agriculture Department Building, Wash- 106, Caloric Engine,............... 262 ington, D. C.,........................ 98 107, Hand Loom,......................... 278 54, Hauling Cotton to Market,............ 106 108, Power Loom,.................. 278 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.'XV PAGE. PAGE. 109, Spinning by hand.................. 279 165, Champion,................ 363 110, Mule Spinner,................ 279 166, American Sociable Rockaway, Lawrence, 111, 200 Spindle Spinning Jack, D. Taintor, Bradley & Pardee, New Haven, Conn., 363 Worcester, Mass.,................. 282 167, Sensible Buggie, do do.... 364 112, Double Cylinder Twister-Fales, Jenks 168, Deep side box Buggie, do do... 364 & Sons' Pawtucket, R. I.;.......... 283 169, Victoria Phaeton, do do.... 364 113, Lyall's Postive Motion Loom, Lyall Loom 170, York Wagon, do do.... 365 Co., 35 Wooster St., N. Y.,......... 289 171, English Square Phaeton, do.... 365 114, Section 4,................. 289 172, C. Spring Victoria, do.... 365 115, " 3............................. 288 173, View. of Elgin Watch Factory,......... 370 116, " 2,..................... 289 174, The Train Room..................... 370 117, Making Paper by hand,................ 295 175, Elgin Machine Shop.................. 370 118, Paper Engine................ 295 176, Setting up the Watches,................ 370 119, Fourdrinier Paper Machine,............ 295 177, First Clocks used by Country people,.... 370 120, Hand Carding,................... 299 178, Hour Glass,........................... 370 121, Iron Frame Finisher Carding Machine, D. 179, Sun-Dial,. 370 Taintor, Worcester, Mass.,.......... 302 180, Lever 30 hour 6 inch Clock, American 122, Crompton's Improved Fancy Loom, Geo. Clock Co., 3 Courtland st. N. Y.,.... 370 Crompton, Worcester, Mass.,........ 303 181, Lever, 30 hour 8 inch, do do.... 370 123, Marble's Gig, Curtis & Marble, Worcester, 182, 8 Day Cabinet, do do.... 370 Mass.............................. 303 183, Octagon, do do.... 370 124, Cotton Shearing Machine, Curtis & Mar- 184, Cottage, do. do.... 370 ble, Worcester, Mass.,............... 304 185, 8 Day Office Calendar, do do.... 370 125, Improved Perpetual Shearing Machine, 186, Mantel Clock, do do.... 371 Curtis & Marble, Worcester, Mass.,.. 305 187, ". do do.... 371 126, Double Acting Brusher, Curtis & Marble, 188, " " glass cover, do do.... 371 Worcester, Mass.,............. 305 189, Tea Set, The Wilcox Silver Plate Co., 127,'Over the Beam,....................... 324 West Meriden, Conn.,.... 373 128, Hide Splitting Machine,.............. 324 190, Tea Set, do do.... 373 129, Unhairing the Hide,............ 324 191, " " do do.... 373 130, Tan Yard....................3..... 324 192, " " do do.... 373 131, Pegging Boots by hand,................ 325 193, " " do do.... 373 132, Wax-end Sewing Machine, D.Whittemore, 194, " " do do.... 373 Boston, Mass.,................... 325 195, Toilet Stand, do do.... 374 133, Pegging Machine, D. Whittemore, Boston, 196, Medalion Spoon holder, do do.... 374 Mass....................... 325 197, Vegetable Dish, do do.... 374 134, Military Rifle......................... 329 198, Celery Stand, do do.... 374 135, Sporting Rifle,.................. 329 199, Card Receiver, do do.... 374 136, New Model Pistol,.................... 329 200, Cup, do do.... 374 137, Revolving Pistol,..................... 329 201, Grub Cup, do do.... 374 138, Holster Pistol,......................... 329 202, Glass lined Dessert Set, do do.... 374 139, Sporting Rifle,.............3.......... 331 203, Soup Tureen, do do.... 375 140, Military Carbine....................... 331 204, Pickle Caster, do do.... 375 141, Revolving Shot Gun................... 331 205, Berry Dish, do do.... 375 142, Regulation Rifle...................... 331 206, Olive Jar, do do.... 375 143, Iron-clads and Monitors,....(Steel Plate,) 338 207, Vase, do do.... 375 144, Buffalo,.............................. 346 208, Cake Basket, do do.... 375 145, Polar Bear,.......................... 346 209, Spoon Holder, do do.... 375 146, Black Bear,................ 346 210, Fruit Dish, do do.... 375 147, Fox,................................. 346 211, Chased Ice Pitcher, do do.... 376 148, Otter............................ 346 212, Chased Urn, do do.... 376 149, Beavers,.......................... 346 213, Revolving Wine Stand, do do.... 376 150, Muskquash,............................ 347 214, Caster, do do.... 376 151, American Sable,.................... 347 215, Goblet, do do.... 376 152, View Chickering & Son Piano-Forte Man- 216, Butter Dish, do do.... 376 ufactory.......................... 352 217, Napkin Ring, do do.... 376 153, Getting out floor boards by hand........ 357 218, Whale Fishery,....................... 379 154, Woodworth Plaining Machine, Ball & Co., 219, Cod Fishery,. 380 Worcester, Mass.,.................. 357 220, Trout Fishing........................ 385 155, Wagon of 1810,....................... 362 221, Clearing Ice of Snow,......... 388 156, Wagon of 1820,................ 362 222, Marking and Cutting,................ 388 157, Thorough Brace,.................... 362 223, Sawing and bearing off................ 388 158, First Elliptic Springs................. 362 224, Canaling to the Ice house,.............. 389 159, Jagger,.................... 362 225, The Elevator,......................... 389 160, Gazelle,.............................. 362 226, Packing away the Ice,.............. 389 161, Cricket,...................... 362 227, Fire-proof Safe..... 396 162, French Dog Cart..................... 362 228, " "....................... 396 163, Doctor's Phaeton..................... 363 229, Medal............................. 396 164, Full Top Cabriolet,................. 363 1 230, Buffet Side board Safe,.................39 X:vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE. PACE. 231, House Safe, Door open................ 397 258, Singer Machines, Folding cover, open for 232, " " closed,.................... 397 use,............................. 416 233, Champion Triple Bankers' Safe,..... 398 259, Singer Machines, Cabinet Case,......... 416 234, Fire-proof Safe with inside Bankers' chest, 398 260, ". " " open,.... 416 235, Manufactory of Glass bottles,........... 404 261, Sewing by hand,...................... 417 236, Goblet Makers,................ 404 262, The Weed F. F. Machine,........... 417 237, Press for Moulding Goblets............ 404 263, Under view of F. F. Machine.......... 417 238, Manuffctory Window Glass........... 404 264, Machine with a corder attached,........ 417 239, The Great Calendar Machine,.......... 407 265, F. F. Machine, full Cabinet case....... 417 240, Cutting Rubber....................... 407 266, M. F. Machine,....................... 417 241, Picus Elastica,........................ 407 267, Wilcox & Gibbs Machine without table,.. 526 242, Machine for washing India Rubber,..... 408 268, No. 2 Machine, do " ".. 426 243, India Rubber Grinding Mill.......... 408 269, No. 4 Case " do " ".. 426 244, Past,........................ 413 270, Half Case " do " ".. 426 245, Present.................... 413 271, Cabinet "' opened, " ".. 426 246, Wheeler &Wilson Sewing Machine, Fig.l, 414 272, Section No. 2........................ 426 247, " " " " 2, 414 273, " No. 3,............ 426 248, " " " " "3, 414 274, " No. 4,................. 426 249, "" " " " 4, 415 275, " No. 5......................... 426 250, " " " 5, 415 176, " Letter E............... 426 251, " " " "6, 415 177, " Needle bar and Needle......... 426 252, " " " " "7, 415 278, View of Grover & Baker's Warehouse,.. 428 253, " " " " 8, 415 279, East River Bridge, N. Y.,... (Steel plate,) 354, " " " " 9, 415 280, Suspension Bridge, Cincinnati, Ohio, 255, Singer Machines, plain,,.............. 416 (Steel Plate,)........................ 256, " " Folding cover....... 416 281, Map of the United States,............ 257, " " Extra finished, Folding 282, Map of North America,............. cover,.,.,..,............ 416 NOTE.-Some parties, from seeing engravings of machinery and manufactured articles, suppose this to be an advertising work. This is a mistake. These engravings are necessary in illustrating articles on these subjects. Not a word has been written with reference to advertising, or a penny received, directly or indirectly, for it. In some half dozen cases, parties who had such engravings as were required, have kindly offered the privilege of electrotyping from them. PUBLISHER. x~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:..... ~\') \ \s\:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~.~_~::~-~~~ ~~~~~~ ~:~.\ r - ~';~~ j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~, 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -~~~~Oi iES 7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\3 jj~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~"~ r ii/1 /" ~I, jl/ j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. t~~~~:~~ THEBEINNNG AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. I SUPPOSE it will be conceded that agri- and laboriously, that practical knowledge of culture is the largest and most important in- their new situation, for the details of which terest of this country. It is my purpose to no previous training could have fitted them. trace its progress from the time of the es- When we consider the hardships they had tablishment of the first settlements upon to encounter, especiallythat portion of them these shores, but more especially during the who had to endure, year after year, the rigor last hundred years. If I mistake not, a of a northern winter, we cannot wonder that sketch of its history will be found to possess their progress in farming was slow. much that is interesting, useful, and in- It is true, the different colonies, as they structive. were originally established, had a somewhat It is not necessary to dwell upon the con- different experience. The winters of Virdition of America at the time when it was ginia were less severe than those of New first settled by Europeans. The charac- England. The settlers on the James river ter and the objects of the men who proposed suffered less, probably, than those further to establish a home here, are already familiar north, but all had to undergo many privato the mind of every intelligent person. tions which are unknown to an old and imThey left countries which were considerably proved country. All were surrounded by advanced in civilization, and better cultivated, a howling wilderness, by savage men, by probably, than any others, at that time, on wild beasts ready to prey upon their live the globe, with the exception, possibly, of the stock, or destroy their crops. In these reChinese empire. They came to settle down spects the circumstances of the settlers. in all in circumstances wholly new to them, with parts of the country were nearly the same, a climate and soil unlike any which they Let us look, for a moment, at the condition bad known before. They were to begin life of things in the Plymouth colony, and we anew, as it were, where their previous ex- can gather therefrom a pretty correct idea perience could afford them little or no aid, of that in the other settlements. For many in a wilderness which was to be subdued by months after the arrival of the pilgrims at their own hands, in the midst of a thousand Plymouth, they had no beasts of burden, obstacles. and when at last a few cows were brought With the exception of some extensive over, they were poorly fed on the coarse tracts of prairie, chiefly confined to the great wild grasses, and they often died from exwest, then wholly unknown and inaccessible, posure and want of proper food, or fell a there was no large extent of territory which prey to the wolves or the Indians. Owing was not covered with the primeval forest, to the difficulties and expense of importathough here and there a partially cultivated tion, the price was so high as to put them opening occurred, which was, or had been, beyond the reach of many, even in modoroccupied by the Indians. They were, there- ate circumstances. In the colony of the fore, to start anew; to acquire, painfully Massachusetts Bay, a red calf soon came to 2 2u AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. be cheaper than a black one, on account of mitted a greater degree of reliance on the the greater liability to be mistaken for a wild luxuriance of nature. deer and killed by the wolves. When cows The cattle that first arrived, in 1624, were were so high as to sell, in 1636, at from kept through the long winters on poor and twenty-five to thirty pounds sterling, and miserable swale hay, or more frequently on oxen at forty pounds a pair, a quart of the salt hay cut from the marshes, and death new milk could be bought for a penny, and from starvation and exposure was no uncomfour eggs at the same price. mon occurrence, the farmer sometimes losIt is important to bear in mind that the ing his entire herd. The treatment of ancattle of that day, even in England, were imals now as they were treated during the not to be compared with the beautiful ani- whole, or nearly the whole, of the first mals now to be seen there. The ox of that century of the colony, would subject the day was small, ill-shaped, and in every way owner to prosecution for cruelty. This inferior to the ox of the present time. treatment was, in part, no doubt, owing to The sheep has, since then, been improved the poverty of the settlers, but more, probato an equal, or even greater extent, both in bly, to the ideas and practices in which they form and size, and in the fineness and value had been early trained in a different climate. of its wool. The draught-horse, so service- Besides, on account of the high price of able on the farm, long the pride of London, cattle at that period, and the risks to which and now, to an almost equal extent, of most they were exposed, it-is not probable that of our large cities, was not then known. the settlers selected the best specimens then It is difficult to appreciate fully the changes to be found in England. There is no eviwhich the increased attention to agriculture denee that they were at all particular in this has effected in our domestic animals, even respect. Nor was the difficulty of procurwithin the last half century. ing agricultural implements the least of the But when we consider that no attention obstacles to the successful pursuit of farmwhatever was paid to the culture of the ing. A few, no doubt, were brought over, grasses; that very few, if any, of the vegeta- from time to time, fiom the mother counbles, now extensively cultivated as food for try, but all could not obtain them in this stock, were then introduced there; that the way; while the only metal to be had was introduction of red clover into England did made of bog ore, very brittle, and liable to not take place till 1633; of sainfoin, not till break and put a stop to a day's work. Most 1651; of yellow clover, not till 1659; and of were made of wood, and those imported white, or Dutch clover, not till the year were extremely rude in construction, being 1700; and that the form, size, and perfec- very heavy and unwieldy, and having compartion of animals depend largely upon a full atively little fitness for the purpose for which supply of food and good care when young, they were designed. The process of casting we shall cease to iwxonder, when we are told steel was not discovered till the middle of by the highest authority, that during the the last century, and then it was kept a early part of the last century the average secret in Sheffield for some years. The gross weight of the neat cattle brought for number and variety of implements have sale to the Smithfield market was not over been infinitely increased, as we shall see, three hundred and seventy pounds, and that even within the last half century, to meet of sheep, twenty-eight pounds; while the the wants of a more advanced state of agaverage weight of the former is now over riculture, to which, indeed, these mechanical eight hundred pounds, and of the latter, over improvements have, mi their turn, largely eighty pounds. contributed. It is a fact worthy of note in this con- Indian corn, pumpkins, squashes, potatoes, nection, as it throws much light upon the and tobacco, were plants which few of the early farming in this country, that the ex- early colonists had ever seen previous to their tensive and practical cultivation of the nat- arrival here, but necessity taught them their ural grasses originated here; or, at least, was value, and they were not slow in adopting introduced here long before it was into the Indian methods of cultivating them. England. The necessities of our rigorous As the general cultivation among the coloclimate, indeed, compelled attention to this nies continued much the same for many branch of husbandry very soon after the set- years, with slight modifications, on the intiement, while the climate of England ad- troduction of the European implements, it u "ij~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~j / -.", - m7-: LIP:>IN NEW NGLAND, 177. j:: - N - I~~~~.'Si /~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ LIFE IN NEWV ENGLAND, 1770. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 21 may not be inappropriate to turn our atten- of fish in the hill as a fertilizer was common, tion, for a moment, to the agriculture of the also, in the interior. Beans were planted natives. with the corn after it had come up, and Most of the hard work among the Indians, grew up supported by it. it is well known, fell to the lot of the Great attention was paid to the protection women, with the assistance, sometimes, of their crops from weeds, while the corn of the old men and little boys. Among was carefully guarded from destruction by their thankless tasks was that of farming, insects and birds. To prevent loss by the which they carried on to an extent quite re- latter, a small watch-house was erected in the markable, when we consider the rudeness of midst of a field of corn, in which one of the the implements with which they had to family, often the eldest child, slept, and work, and the circumstances in which they early in the morning rose to watch the birds. were placed. They had no art of manufac- It was their universal custom to hill the corn, turing metal, and, of course, could have no often from one to two feet high, for its supsuitable contrivances for tilling the ground. port, and spots are often seen at the present Their cultivation was not so rude, however, day which were evidently cultivated by as one would naturally suppose. They made them. The.colonists very generally imitated a kind of hoe by tying the shoulder-blade this custom, and it has been continued down of a moose, bear, or deer, to a stick or pole, to our own times in many parts of the counand managed to do much of the work with try. The men planted and cured their tobacthat. co, which was, ordinarily, the only plant they The land, when selected, was cleared by worked upon, the women managing all the keeping up a fire around the foot of each rest. tree till its bark was so burned that it would This brief sketch of the farming of the die. Then they planted their corn. When Indians would not be complete without an a tree fell, it was burned into pieces of such allusion to their mode of storing grain for length that they could be rolled into a heap their winter supply. Large holes were dug and burned to ashes. In this way, by in the earth, and the sides carefully lined degrees, a piece covered with wood was with bark; this was also the work of the wholly cleared. An industrious woman women. The corn and the beans, after could burn off as marny dry, fallen logs in a being dried in the sun, or on rocks or flakes day as a strong man could, at that time, cut over a fire, were thrown into these holes, and with an axe in two or three. They used a then they were covered up level with the stone axe, made 1mu1ch in the same manner surface of the ground. They were thus preas the hoe above described, to scrape the served, if necessary, through the winter. charred surface of the logs and hasten the These excavated barns were carefully conburning. This mode of clearing was pretty cealed by the women from their lazy huscommon among the natives in different parts bands and sons, -lest they should discover of the country. Sometimes the tree was and eat up their contents; yet, with all the first girdled with the axe and thus killed, care they could take, the hogs of the coloallowed to become dry, and then burned by nists often unhinged their barn-doors, and kindling a fire around it, as above described. helped themselves to the golden treasure. Several of these stone axes, of different History says that'one of these Indian barns sizes, are now in my possession. was discovered by the pilgrims at Truro, at The Indians taught the settlers to select a time when their store of provisions was so the finest ears of corn for seed, to plant it reduced as to contain but five kernels of at a proper time, to weed it, and to hill it. corn to each individual. They were accustomed to dig small holes They sometimes made additional provisfour feet apart, with a clumsy instrument ion for winter by means of large boxes of resembling the one described, which was wicker-work, or bags or sacks of hemp, made, not unfrequently, of a large clam- which were filled and kept in the wigwam shell. Those living in the vicinity of the for the more immediate wants of the family. sea-shore put into each hole a horse-shoe They had, of course, little or no occasion to crab or two, or a fish, upon which they cut grass, though it grew in abundance along dropped four, and sometimes six kernels of the marshes and the rivers, and in places corn, and covered it with tle' implement which had been cleared for cultivation. It with which they had dug the hole. The use was of a coarse quality, and served the colo 22 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. nists a good turn till they resorted to the farm labor. It was performed' as an evil cultivation of better. which must be endured from stern necessity. We may imagine the surprise of the na- Iard work was the order of the day. The tives at the first sight of a plough. They forests were to be cleared, the buildings for could not understand so complicated a ma- shelter erected, the stone walls to be laid, chine. They wanted to see it work; and and little time or inclination was left for when it tore up more ground in a day than the " humanities" of life. they, with their clam-shells, could scrape up The inhabitants of country towns, a hunin a month, and they saw the colter and the dred years ago, most of whom were, of share to be of iron, they told the ploughman course, engaged in tilling the soil, seldom if he was not the devil himself, he was very visited even their neighboring towns, and much like him. many a farmer and farmer's son did not leave The first sight of a ship, it is recorded, his own township from one year's end to anhad excited their wonder even to a greater other. The liberalizing influence of social extent. To them it was a floating island; intercourse was unknown and unappreciated, its masts were nothing but trees; its sails unless the village tavern and the frequent were clouds; its discharge of guns was glass might be considered as forming an exthunder and lightning; but as soon as the ception, while it afforded an opportunity, of thunder and lightning ceased, they pushed which most men availed themselves, of form, off their canoes to go and pick strawberries ing new acquaintances and talking over the on the island! stale gossip of the neighborhood, or indulgThis cursory glance at the early surround- ing in the ribald jest. ings of the settlers of the country, will en- People for some miles around turned out able us the better to comprehend the diffi- to a "raising," as the erection of a frame culties in the way of making rapid progress. building was termed, and a merry time it When poor and miserable cattle, poor and was, where the flip and the cider flowed like miserable implements, poor and miserable water. On a more limited scale, the "huskideas of farming were the best of every thing ings" brought together, also, a pretty large they had, we can well imagine that little was neighborhood, when the same favorite drinks done which was not forced upon them by did much to enliven a long autumn evening, the pressure of necessity. Their wants were the whole being followed by a sumptuous retoo many, and required too vigorous exer- past of pumpkin pies, etc., continued into the tions to provide what was indispensable, to small hours of the night. Then the "spinadmit of their spending time to experiment ning bees" afforded a time for talk, and song, or seek out new principles to be applied to and riddle. Election day often, however, practical farming. As long as new lands brought the people from a greater distance. could be had almost for the asking, it was No butcher drove up to the farmer's door, not to be expected that they would till them with his ever fresh supply of meats, to give vavery thoroughly. The soil was rich in riety to the daily and homely fare; no bamould-the accumulation of ages-and did ker, with his jingling bells, travelled his not require very careful cultivation to se- rounds on stated days to relieve the monotcure an abundant return. But years of con- ony of the housewife's toil. Salted meats stant cropping exhausted its productiveness, were the almost universal food from when other lands were taken to subject to autumn till spring, and often from spring the same process. The farmer raised wheat till autumn, though now and then a sheep year after year on the same land, till the soil or a lamb fell a victim to the necessity for became too poor, and then he planted corn; change. No cottons, no calicoes, no gingand when it would no longer grow corn, he hams, no linens, no flannels loaded the sowed barley, or rye, and so on to beans. counters of the village store, to be had at a Agriculture, so far as any real improve- sixpence, or a ninepence, or a quarter a ment was concerned, was, therefore, natural- yard. The farmer, and the farmer's family, ly enough, in a state of extreme depression wore homespun, and the spinning-wheel and for more than a century and a half after the the huge timber loom were a part of nearly establishment of colonies in various parts of every household furniture, and their noise the country. There were few intelligent cul- was rarely silenced. If linens were wanted, tivators previous to the Revolution, and there the flax was sown, and weeded, and pulled, was no spirit of inquiry to give a charm to and rotted, and broken, and swingled-for all GAME OF THE EARLY SETTLERS AND FRONTIERSMEN. ~ ~~~~l./_c.:`. _ (~~~..., ~__.. r...~- - - /__~ ~ ~:-~ ~,:', i- t' -,:'_: M::s~~ —~~.~.Jl-~F t~N /i... )EE1~. PARTRIDGES. GOLDEN PLOVER. A"-VAS BAGK D "UCK QUAIL....AS-BAC DUCK. QUAIL,0ANVAS -BAKDUK... AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 23 of which processes nearly a year was re- that, too, in "the old of the moon;" if he quired before the fibre was ready for spin- did not sow just as much rye to the acre, ning, and bleaching on the grass, and making use the same number of oxen to plough, and and wearing. If woollens, the sheep were get in his crops on the same day; or if he sheared, and the wool dyed and got in read- did not hoe as many times as his father and iness, and months were often required before his grandfather did-if, in fine, he did not it could be got into shape for wearing. wear the same kind of homespun dress and. Courtships were, therefore, of longer dura- adopt the same religious views and prejution than many of them now-a-days, and two dices, he was shunned in company by the years was about as soon as the betrothed old and young, and looked upon as a visionfarmer's daughter could get ready to go to ary. He knew nothing of a rotation of keeping house. Not unfrequently the flax crops. The use and value of manures were had to be sown as the preliminary step, and little regarded. Even so late as within the to pass through all its forms of transition in- memory of men still living, the barn was to cloth and garments. With our present sometimes removed to get it out of the way facilities for manufacturing by machinery of heaps of manure by which it was surevery conceivable variety of fabric, and rounded, because the owner would not go to that, too, in the shortest space of time, it is the expense of removing these accumulaimpossible to appreciate fully the state of tions and put them upon his fields. The things among all classes of society a century swine were generally allowed to run at large; ago. Even the old processes of curing and the cattle were seldom or never housed at preparing flax, and the variety of fabrics night during the summer and fall months; made from it, have undergone an entire the potato patch often came up to the very change. Processes which then required door, and the litter of the yard seldom left many months to complete, are now wholly much to admire in the general appearance avoided by the more perfect and economical of things about the barn or the house. ones at present known and in constant use. Farmers thought it necessary to let their Owing to the imperfect provision for cattle run at large very late in the fall, and to schools for the great body of the people, the stand exposed to the severest colds of a winboy was trained up to a narrow routine of ter's day, "to toughen." It was the cornlabor, as his fathers had been for a century mon opinion in the Virginia colony, that before. He often affected to despise all in- housing and milking cows in the winter telligent cultivation of the soil, and not only would kill them. Orchards had been plantscrupulously followed the beaten track, but ed in many parts of the country, but the was intolerant of all innovation, simply be- fruit was, as a general thing, of an inferior cause it was innovation. Very few of the quality, and used chiefly for the purpose of rural population of that day saw a newspa- making cider. per or a journal of any kind. There were This is no picture drawn from the imaginot, probably, a dozen published in the nation. It is strictly and literally true of whole country a century ago. There was the farming of the country as a whole, a not one in New England at the beginning of century ago, though it should be remarked the last century, and but four in 1750, and that a slightly modified state of things exthese had an extremely small circulation be- isted in localities widely distant. But with yond the limits of the metropolis. some differences in detail, it will be found to Obstinate adherence to prejudice of any be consonant with historical facts. kind is now generally regarded as a mark It would be extremely interesting, were it of ignorance or stupidity. A century ago, in our power, to support, by accurate stathe reverse was the case. In many a small tistics, this general view of the condition of country town a greater degree of intelli- farming during the last century, but, unforgence-except on the part of the parson and tunately, no reliable statistics were taken till the doctor-than was possessed by his neigh- the year 1790, and then, chiefly to ascertain bors, brought down upon the possessor the the number of the population, with special ridicule of the whole community. If he reference to the distribution of the represenventured to make experiments, to strike out tation, or the political power of the several new paths of practice and adopt new modes states. We are, therefore, wholly destitute of culture; or if he did not plant just as of statistical information of the products of many acres of corn as his fathers did, and farming industry during the last century; 24 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. nor was it till the fourth decennial census, in upon mind, by means of association or social 1820, that the population was divided ac- intercourse, is of comparatively recent oricording to industrial pursuits, so that we gin in this country. It can scarcely date have no means of ascertaining even the back to the beginning of the present centunumber engaged in the occupation of farm- ry, though the necessity of it had, even ing. We only know that the general esti- then, become impressed upon the minds of mate of the population at the time of the patriotic and public-spirited men. Revolution, which fixed it at three millions, On the 20th of July, 1794, Washington, was considerably too high. then president of the United States, adThe occurrence of the Revolution, and the dressed a letter to Sir John Sinclair, in which period immediately succeeding, very natu- he says: " It will be some time, I fear, before rally brought men of all' pursuits and from an agricultural society, with congressional all parts of the country more frequently and aid, will be established in this country. We closely together, and gave all classes, and must walk, as other countries have, before farmers among the rest, a more general we can run; smaller societies must prepare knowledge of what was passing in the world the way for greater; but, with the lights around them. Intercommunication became before us, I hope we shall not be so slow in more easy and frequent, and had its influence maturation as older nations' have been. An upon the masses of the people. In the latter attempt, as you will perceive by the enclosed part of the last century many left the sea- outlines of a plan, is making to establish a board and removed to the interior to avoid state society in Pennsylvania for agricultural the inconvenience arising from the difficul- improvements. If it succeeds, it will be a ties between this and. the mother country, step in the ladder; at present, it is too much and for other reasons; more attention began in embryo to decide upon the result." And to be paid to agriculture. Emigration fiom again, in his annual address on the 7th I)ethe east began to set toward the so-called.cember, 1796, when he met for the last time inexhaustible west, which at that time meant the two houses of Congress, he said: "It central or western New York. will not be doubted that, with reference to Up to this point our survey of the con- either individual or national welfare, agriculdition of agriculture has necessarily been ture is of primary importance. In proporgeneral. No one branch of farming had tion as nations advance in population, and made any marked and perceptible progress. other circumstances of maturity, this truth It has been said that a good strong man becomes more apparent, and renders the culcould have carried all the implements in use tivation of the soil more and more an object on the farm, except the cart and old clumsy of public patronage. Institutions for proharrow, upon his shoulders, fifty years ago, moting it grow up, supported by the public and we know that many a year occurred purse; and to what object can it be dedicawhen grain, and even hay, had to be imported ted with greater propriety 2 Among the from England to keep the people and the means which have been employed to this cattle from starvation. Hereafter, it will be end, none have been attended with greater more convenient to trace the progress of the success than the establishment of boards, different branches of farm industry, and the composed of proper characters, charged with means brought to bear in the development collecting and diffusing information, and enand improvement of agriculture, in a more abled, by premiums and small pecuniary distinct and separate manner, in order that aids, to encourage and assist a spirit of diswe may get a clearer idea of the relative covery and improvement. progress and influence of each. And first, "This species of establishment contribof the origin and growth of utes doubly to the increase of improvement, by stimulating to enterprise and experiment, ASSOCIATED AND LEGISLATIVE EFFORT. and by drawing to a common centre the reOne of the characteristic features of the suits, everywhere, of individual skill and obfarming of the present day, is the extent servation, and spreading them thence over to which associated effort is brought to bear the whole nation. Experience, accordingly, upon all its details, by way of exhibitions, has shown that they are very cheap instrupremiums, clubs for discussion, and the pub- ments of immense national benefit." lication of reports for wide and gratuitous Some few individuals, even before this distribution. This enormous power of mind date, had felt the necessity for some such ac AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 25 tion as would lead to the development of have been the Columbian Agricultural Sothe agricultural resources of the country, ciety for the Promotion of Rural and Doand as the result, the South Carolina Agri- mestic Economy, organized at a convention cultural Society had been established in held in Georgetown, D. C., on the 28th No1784, and still exists. The Philadelphia vember, 1809; and the first agricultural exSociety for the Improvement of Agriculture hibition in this country was, probably, one was formed in the same year, or the year held by that society in Georgetown, on the after, followed by a similar association in 10th of May, 1810, when large premiums New York in 1791, which was incorporated were offered for the encouragement of sheep in 1793. The Massachusetts Society for raising, etc. In the October following,'in Promoting Agriculture was incorporated in tie same year, Elkanah Watson exhibited 1792, and soon after commenced the publi- three merino sheep under tile great elm tree cation of a series of papers known as the in Pittsfield, Mass., which was the germ of Agricultural Repository, which, for sound the Berkshire County Agricultural Society, good sense and judicious suggestion, chal- whose regular exhibitions began the year lenges comparison with any similar series following, and are believed to have been the ever published. It should be stated, how- first county exhibitions ever instituted in ever, that the prime movers in the formation this country. To show the feeling with reof these societies were not men actually en- gard to what was, at that time, considered an gaged in farming, though many of them were innovation, in a strictly farming community, owners of fine estates. The mass of farmers the projector of that society encountered the were not, as yet, fully prepared for this pro- opposition and ridicule of all classes of sogressive effort, and all the agricultural teach- ciety, from the moment the proposition was ings of educated and scientific men prove un- madeb It was viewed by many with conavailing, unless the people themselves, the tempt. Gradually, however, the feelings of actual tillers of the soil, are prepared to re- the people were enlisted in its favor, premiceive and profit by their teachings. Many urms were offered and awarded, and a large years elapsed after these early efforts were concourse, from all parts of the county, inmade, before the habit of reading became creasing rapidly from year to year, showed sufficiently common among the masses of clearly that something had reached the heart practical farmers to justify the expectation of the community. that any general benefit would arise from the But though this was the first county exhiannual publication of the transactions of bition, so far as I am informed, it was not these societies. the first county society that was formed. There was little or no disposition in the The Kennebec Agricultural Society was incommunity to examine the subject, and they stituted at Augusta in 1800 and incorporafailed to excite any spirit of emulation in ted in 1801, being the second society incorthe public mind. The improvements pro-. porated within the limits of Massachusetts, to posed fell almost dead upon the people, who which Maine, at that time, belonged. A rejected "book farming" as impertinent and voluntary association of the Middlesex hususeless, and knew as little of the chemistry bandmen had also been formed in 1794, and of agriculture as of the problems of astron- incorporated in 1803, under the name of the omy. A quarter of a century, however, ef- Western Society -of Middlesex Husbandfected some change, and in 1816 the Massa- men. chusetts society held its first exhibition, at These were some of the early efforts in Brighton, at which a list of premiums was this direction, and though they, like other offered, and a ploughing match instituted, similar attempts, met with some opposition on not so much with the object of improving the part of the very class they were intended the plough as to try the strength and docil- to benefit, the increasing intelligence of the ity of the oxen. But the plough-maker hap- people very soon enabled them to live it pened to be there, and to have his eyes down. Now we have more than a thousand open; and since that day, an amount of similar associations, all striving, by the offer knowledge has been brought to bear upon ofpremiumns, arid by bringing together the best this implement sufficient to bring it very products of the farm and the garden, to ennear perfection. courage improvement and stimulate enterThe first national society established with prise. Almost every state in the Union has this specific object in view, is believed to its state society, and almost every county, 26 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. and, in some of the states, every county, terest of both to attend and avail themselves has its county organization. And what of the facilities offered them. Thus a great is the result? It is well known that by far public interest is served, notwithstanding the the largest and most valuable part of our individual mechanic or inventor may have practical knowledge is that which is got in his own interest chiefly at heart. our intercourse with our fellow men, with And what is true with regard to agriculthose who are engaged in the same pursuits tural implements, is true o nearly an equal and have the same interests as ourselves. extent of every thing else brought for exhibiThe farmer has, therefore, gained, and tion to the fairs of the societies. A farmer is gaining a vast amount of information, sees fruits that he knew nothing of, and much of which he can apply to advantage on could not obtain otherwise. He knows who his farm. Emerging from his naturally iso- presented them, secures the same for his own lated position, he has become a more social farm, and within five years can present as being. More frequent contact with others, good samples himself. He sees animals by way of competition, has stimulated men- brought to a degree of perfection of which tal activity. Contrast him now with his he had never, perhaps, conceived. Thought father on the same farm half a century ago, is excited. He asks himself whether they and see if there is not some improvement are more profitable than his own; procures that can be traced to the social influences of them, perhaps, and thus an improved stock the agricultural clubs and societies. is disseminated over the country to take the In addition to these societies, most, if not place of that which is inferior, but which all of which are encouraged by the several costs the individual nearly or quite as much states in a substantial manner, there exist, in to keep as that more valuable and profitable. some of the states, boards of agriculture, or- I need not enlarge upon this point. ganized as departments of the state govern- Enough has been said, I think, to show that ment, and having a general supervision of the modern system of associated effort is a the societies, receiving their official returns, most decided progressive movement; but let and publishing an abstract of the most valu- us trace out more in detail some of its reable papers presented, for general distribu- sults. And first, in the multiplication and tion. improvement of I do not think it is claiming too much for the agricultural societies throughout the FARM IMPLEMENTS. country, to say that the general spirit of in- There is, perhaps, no branch of farm econquiry in relation to farm improvements, and omy in which the progress of improvement much of the enterprise manifested by farm- has been so apparent and unquestionable, as ers of the present day, is due to their efforts. that made in the implements of agriculture The most impartial judgment would, in fact, during the last half century. It might algo much further than this, and say that a most be said that progress in agriculture itlarge proportion of the actual improvement self may be measured by an increased dethat has been made in farm stock, farm im- mand for new and better implements, as the plements, and farm products, may be traced, advance in civilization is shown by a greater directly or indirectly, to the influence of the demand for comforts and luxuries by the agricultural associations of the country. people. To appreciate this influence it is only nec- There was a time, as we have seen, in the essary to consider the immense facilities history of American farming, when labor which a well-conducted exhibition gives, not was cheap, when strong limbs and the power only to the agricultural mechanic for mak- of endurance were the requisites chiefly ing known the nature and value of his im- sought for in the hired man, and when his provements, but to the farmer for becoming labor was paid for as so much brute, physiacquainted with them. Many an invention cal force. Intelligent labor, skill, and would have slumbered in oblivion, or enjoy- thought found higher rewards in other called only a limited and local fame, had it not ings, and the practical farmer was thought been for the multitudes brought together at to be sufficiently well informed if he was the state, county, and town fairs, which, it able to hold plough, to mow, to sow, and to will thus be seen, furnish a most admirable reap. The labor-the physical force necesmedium of communication, both to the me- sary to carry on the operations of the farmchanic and the farmer, making it for the in- could be obtained very easily in those days, AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 2'7 and it was natural that farmers should be about to work in this way. The massive old satisfied with the limited variety of imple- wooden plough required a strong and wellments then in use. The. isolated position fed team to move it through the soil, a in which they were placed, their limited op- heavy, muscular man to press it into the portunities for travel and observation,. the ground, another to hold, and another to drive. difficulties, in fact, of getting about among WTe may judge, therefore, of the economy people engaged in the same pursuits,. all of the work it performed. What was true helped to strengthen prejudice and foster a of the early period of the settlement, was repugnance to try new and unused imple- true, to nearly an equal extent, for a hundred ments, or to strike out into new fields of ex- and fifty years, so far as the implements and periments. Besides these obstacles in the the processes of farming are concerned. All way of improvement, the progress then made these last were traditional, handed down in the various branches of mechanics was from sire to son, and adhered to in the extremely limited, and the adoption of new strictest manner. The implements consisted and improved implements must follow, of almost^ wholly of the plough, the spade, a course, in the wake of mechanical invention. clumsy wooden fork, and now and then a The few rude and imperfect implements in harrow. I have in my possession two of use at an early day were; for the most part, these wooden forks, made, and in use, at of home manufacture, or made by the least a hundred and fifty years ago, in the neighboring blacksmith, who had a thousand Massachusetts colony. They were regarded other things to make at the same time. as curious for their antiquity in the youth There was little idea of a division of labor. of the grandfather of the donor, who died Jack at all trades was good at none.. some years ago, upward of ninety years of As early as 1617, some ploughs were set age. That would date them back nearly to work in the Virginia plantation, but in two centuries, perhaps. that year the governor complained to the At this time, the ploughs used among the company that the colony "did suffer for French settlers in Illinois were made of want of skilful husbandmen, and means to wood, with a small point of iron tied upset their ploughs on work; having as good on the wood with straps of raw-hide. The ground as any man can desire, and about beams rested on an axle and small wooden forty bulls and oxen, but they wanted men wheels, the whole drawn by oxen yoked to to bring them to labor, and iron for the the ploughs by the horns, by means of a ploughs, and harness for the cattle. Some straight yoke attached by raw leather straps, thirty or forty acres we had sown with one with a pole extended from the yoke back to plough, but it stood so long on the ground the axle. The plough was very large and before it was reaped, it was most shaken, and clumsy, and no small one was used by them the rest spoiled with the cattle and rats in to plough among the corn till after the war the barn." This complaint had some effect, of 1812. The carts they used had not a for, in 1648, a cotemporary resident says: particle of iron about them. " We have now going near upon a hundred During the last century, the old " Carey and fifty ploughs," and they were drawn by plough" was more extensively used in the oxen. Atlantic states than any other pattern, though It is recorded that in 1637 there were but the particular form of this instrument varied thirty-seven ploughs in the colony of Massa- almost as much as the number of small manchusetts Bay. Twelve years after the land- ufacturers or blacksmiths who made it. ing of the pilgrims, the farmers about Bos- The Carey plough had a clumsy wrought ton had no ploughs, and were compelled to iron share, a land-side and standard made of break up the bushes. and prepare for cultiva- wood, a wooden mould-board, often plated tion with their hands, and with rude and over, in a rough manner, with pieces of old clumsy hoes or mattocks. It was the cus- saw-plates, tin, or sheet iron. The handles tom, in that part of the country, even to a were upright, and were held by two pins; much later period, for any one owning a a powerful man was required to hold it, plough to go about and do the ploughing and double the strength of team now comfor the inhabitants over a considerable extent monly used in doing the same kind of work. of territory. A town often paid a bounty The "bar-side plough," or the "bull to any one who would buy anrd keep a plough," was also used to some extent. A plough in repair for the purpose of going I flat bar formed the land-side, and a big .' ~ ~ Y.~~ —~~~ — r-7{ -ZEE.-s~~~~~- i~~~~"~~~" ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Ij~/j FARMG TOOLS IN USEIN~1~0 FARMnING TOOLS OF THE PRtESENT TI31W I~ ~ Ilk ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~!ljil~ 1 jj/ j I jilij/ R A 1,I I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ii ii r I~~~~~~~~~~~~ IL Alll N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4-1 1 WO i7- M 80 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. clump of iron, shaped a little like the half iment, that the draught depends less on the of a lance head, served as a point, into the weight of the plough itself, than on its conupper part of which a kind of colter was struction. The draught does not increase in fastened. The mould-board was wooden, proportion to an increase of weight, and and fitted to the irons in the most bungling hence, though some still object to the modmanner. The action might be illustrated by ern plough, as compared with the models in holding a sharp-pointed shovel back up, and use fifty years ago, on account of their being thrusting it through the ground. heavier, yet it is a common remark that the In the southern states, the "shovel draught is easier, and they require much less plough" was in general use down to a very strength of team to do the same, or a far recent date, and is, indeed, to some extent, at better work. the present day. It was made of a rough- The excessive friction of the old-fashioned hewn stick for a beam, with another stick bull plough was the great objection to it. framed in, upon the end of which a piece of It was constructed awkwardly enough, in the iron, shaped somewhat like a shovel, sharp- first place, but the form of the mould-board pointed, was fastened. The two rough han- was especially defective, and this it was that dies were nailed or pinned on to the sides required such great strength of team. It of the beam, having a wooden prop, with a did pretty fair work, no doubt, on light and draft iron, or a raw-hide loop, at the forward easy soils, but the share and the mould-board end of the beam were so attached, as to make the wedge too Generally speaking, it might be said that blunt, which, of course, made the friction the ploughs used in this country a century excessive. It broke and crumbled the furago, were not very unlike those used by the row-slice, in places, and was not calculated old Romans before the Christian era, and by to turn a flat furrow. But the action of the some of the people of southern Europe even old plough was not uniform, some furrows at the present day. They were not unfre- being set too much on the edge, while othquently nor inaptly termed the "hog ers were laid quite flat. It was not its plough," on account, probably, of their pro- weight so much as its form that needed impensity to root into and out of the ground. provement. Its construction not being And in describing the plough, an adequate based on such principles as to make it of idea of all other kinds of farm implements- easy draught, it was more difficult to hold, the variety, as we have' seen, being extreme- more easily thrown out of the ground, and ly small-is clearly enough conveyed. These required constant watchfulness on the part old-fashioned wooden ploughs continued, of the ploughman. It was difficult to cultiwith little or no improvement, till after the vate to any depth without the help of one beginning of the present century. or two men to ride on the beam to "hold By far the greater part of the draught of the down." The mould-board was firequently plough, or strength of team required, is due shod with iron, as we have seen, to diminish to friction in the soil. The cutting, raising, the friction and prevent wear; but it was in and turning over of the turf add compara- strips, and uneven, and the desired effect tively little to the draught, though, it is true, was not always produced. the friction itself is somewhat increased by It is not too much to say that the changes the weight of the plough, and this weight is, and modifications made in the mould-board of course, increased by the weight of the within the last forty years, have effected such furrow-slice as it is lifted from its bed. improvements as to enable the farmer to do Hence, the draught of the plough is but slight- a much greater amount of better work, with ly increased by an increase of speed, since far less expenditure of strength, and to reap the friction is not increased, but remains larger crops as the result, while the original nearly the same on the bottom of the fur- cost of the implement is less than it formerrow, on the land-side, and between the fur- ly was. The saving to the country from row-slice and the mould-board, whether the these improvements alone, within the last motion be fast or slow. Modern improve- twenty-five years, has been estimated at no ments have aimed, therefore, to overcome less than $10,000,000 a year in the work of the friction and resistance by an improv- teams, and $1,000,000 in the cost of ploughs, ed construction of the mould-board and, while the aggregate of the crops has been by the use of better materials, for it is increased by many millions of bushels. now well established, by practical exper- These improvements in the form of the i Oneman ets ut fom teja to fifteea bushels per day.Mahnsvrifszero r, fouor-t-o tv,,,lv,"E thors,.tefower. 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AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 31 mould-board will be understood, when we wrote a treatise on the form of the mouldconsider that one side of the furrow-slice, as board, discussing it on scientific principles, soon as it is cut, begins to rise gradually, calculating mathematically its exact form and till, as the plough advances, it is turned en- size, and especially its curvature, with a view tirely over. The mould-board should be so to lessen its friction. I have seen his origconstructed as to offer the least possible re- inal manuscript of this essay, containing his sistance as it moves along, and to run as drawings, etc., now in the possession of a far as possible without clogging, to which gentleman of Boston. Since his time, such the old plough was especially liable, the an amount of scientific and practical skill lines of its mould-board being concave, in- has been brought to bear upon this implestead of convex or straight, according to the ment, as to leave little to suggest. But it rules more recently laid down requiring the should be stated that the successive improve"board to be composed of straight lines in ments were not readily adopted by the mass the direction of its length, with continually of farmers. Their introduction was far increasing angles to the line of the furrow; slower than that of an improved implement and these last lines are severally straight, would be at the present time, though the convex, and concave." Ransome, after the prejudice against the use of new inventions most mature study of this implement, says: has not yet wholly disappeared. Many a "Although no one form of mould-board will, farmer, clinging to the old wooden plough, or can be applicable to every variety of soil asserted that cast iron poisoned the ground, and circumstance, there is no description of and spoilt the crops. Still, the modern soil for which a perfect mould-board may styles gradually gained ground, as real imnot be made by this rule in some of its mod- provements always will. In one respect we ifications." have especially improved, and that is the Such was the condition of things with re- adaptation of our ploughs to the different gard to this, and most other farm imple- kinds of soil on which they are to be used. meuts, at the close of the last and beginning When attention was first directed to the imof the present century, or till within the last provement of this implement during the latforty or fifty years. ter part of the last century, the principles of The first patent for a cast iron plough in ploughing were not so well understood as at this country, is believed to have been that the present day. The work was neither so of Charles Newbold, of Burlington, N. J., carefully done nor so critically examined, in 1797. This patent combined the mould- and, consequently, the want of different board, share, and land-side, all cast together. forms of the plough adapted to the varieties It was so great and manifest an improvement of surface and of soil was not so much felt as on the old wooden plough, that Peacock, in now, when nearly every farmer sees that he his patent of 1807, paid the original inven- cannot produce directly opposite effects with tor of the plough of 1797 the sum of $500 the same implement. In another respect, for the privilege of copying some parts of it. also, custom has changed as much as the A cast iron mould-board had been invent- forms of the plough itself, for while a half ed in Scotland, it is proper to remark, as century ago it was made by the blacksmith early as 1740, by James Small, but he still in nearly every small town in the country, continued to use the wrought iron share, it is now made in large establishments by cast iron not being used in its construction those who devote themselves exclusively to till 1785. Small established a plough man- the business, and these establishments have ufactory in 1 763, and becoming familiar with gradually diminished in number, while the the manufacture of cast iron, not long after- aggregate number of ploughs has largely inward, he conceived the idea of making pat- creased. In the single state of Massachuterns of the principal parts of the plough. setts, for example, there were, in 1845, no But whether the American inventor had a less than seventy-three plough manufactoknowledge of the existence of these ploughs ries, making annually 61,334 ploughs and is not known. other agricultural implements, while in 1855 Such was the extreme importance of this there were but twenty-two plough manufacimplement, as to command the attention of tories, making 152,686 ploughs, valued at scientific men in studying to improve its $707,175.86. Up to the year 1855 there form and construction, and, in 1798, Thomas had been no less than three hundred and Jefferson applied himself to the task, and seventy-two patents issued from the Patent 32 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Office at WTashington, for changes and im- struction, we may mention a large class provements on this implement. known as horse-hoes, grubbers, cultivators, I need not dwell upon the wonderful per- drills, seed-sowers, and others of like charformances of the steam plough, the practical acter. The seed-sowers and drills scatter and successful operation of which is one of the seed more uniformly than it could posthe proudest triumphs of modern agricul- Sibly be done by hand; dropping also, when tural mechanics and engineering. I need it is desired, any concentrated or pulverized not dwell on the vastly increased facilities it manure, and covering the rows. All the will give for developing the resources of the implements named, of which there is an west, through whose almost boundless prai- infinite variety of forms, are most marked ries it will run unobstructed, like.a thing of and decided improvements on manual labor, life. which was required by our forefathers for The harrow naturally follows the plough, the same processes. and is equally indispensable. It has, prob- Another large class of implements, among ably undergone fewer changes and modifica- the most important of modern inventions, tiolns, if we except those made within are the various kinds of harvesters, particuthe last ten years, than any other of our larly the reapers and the mowers. farm implements, most of the forms of the Many of our grain crops, like wheat, barmodern harrow in use bearing a close resem- ley, and oats, come to maturity at nearly the blance to those of the ancients, as illustrated same time. Wheat is liable to sprout in on medals and sculptures. The old harrow, moist weather, and'barley to become disand that used by our fathers till within the colored if allowed to stand too long. The memory of men still living, was made of work of harvesting by the old method was wood, of simple bars and cross-bars furnish- necessarily slow and protracted. Previous ed with teeth. More recently the material to the introduction of the reaper, very large used has been of iron, with teeth commonly quantities of our most valuable grain were pointed with steel, and this has partly obvi- annually lost, owing to the impossibility of ated the objections made to this implement harvesting it properly and at the proper on account of its great weight, which re- time. It is not, therefore, too much to say, quired too slow a motion on the part of the that the successful introduction of the team. reaper into our grain fields has added many A light, sharp-toothed harrow, moved millions of dollars to the value of our anquickly over the ground, accomplishes far nual harvest, not only by enabling us to sethe best work in preparing the soil for the cure the whole product, but also by making reception of seed. So important is it tha it possible for the farmer to increase the area this implement should be rapidly moved, of his cultivated fields, with a certainty of that the work of the same implement, drawn being able to gather in his whole crop. sluggishly over the ground, or moved more The sickle, which was in common use for rapidly, differs very widely in its results. A harvesting the grain crop till the introduccertain amount of weight is very important, tion of the cradle, and, in fact, till a very it is true, and this weight differs according recent date, was undoubtedly as old as Tubal to circumstances; but it is desirable to have Cain. No one who has had a practical exit in the most compact form. The recent perience of its use, bending over in the most improvements, by Which a complete rotatory painful position from "early morn till dewy motion is secured, together with a certain eve," can fail to appreciate the immense savdegree of flexibility gained by pieces of ing of human muscle, and of slow and framework hinged together so that any part wearisome hand labor, by the introduction of the implement can be lifted or moved and use of the reaper. without disturbing the operation of the rest, Itwould have been an astonishing evidence seem to leave little to desire in respect to of stupidity on the part of the ancients, who this important farm implement. This is a relied mainly onwheat and the other smaller case, as well as that of- the plough, of most grains,' had they not tried, at least, to replace decided improvement in an implement of the sickle by something better. This they very ancient date, handed down to us, in did, for it is recorded that the farmers of fact, from remote antiquity. Gaul used a simple reaper, not long after the As specimens of important labor-saving time of Christ. Pliny asserts that the inimplements of modern invention and con- habitants of that country fixed a series of - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -~~~ --- --------- --- 1_ _ ________ ~-jk/ —-fI- 4 — "EXELIO MOER WRKNG IT TE CTTR ARELEATD NDRIGT HEL FSSNGTHOUG ADICH r-_-~~~~~~~~~~R INN, i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~r i i_ ~!I ~~~~~~~lli~NV EXCELSIOR MOWEI07 WORKING WITH THE CUTTER BAR ELEVATED AND RIGHT WHEEL PASSING THROUGH A DITCH. ~ ~ ~ - - -- --- - --—. —---- ~ ~ - - - - - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -~~g-~~ =~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~V-= = _ - _' = = H _ =' -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~= --'I _ = ~:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ WHEELER'S PATENT REAPER AT WORXQ AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 35 knives into the tail-end of a cart, and this and satisfaction of a large concourse of specbeing propelled through the grain, clipped tators, and the judges themselves could not off the ears or heads, and thus it was har- restrain their enthusiasm, but cried out vested. "Good, good, well done," while the people Many efforts were made in England and hurrahed for the American reaper, crying Scotland, at the beginning of the present out, " That's the machine, that's the macentury, to accomplish the same result, but chine!" All the laurels," says the report with no great success. In the year 1833, of a French agricultural journal, "' we are Schnebley, of Maryland, obtained a patent on free to confess, have been gloriously won by a machine for reaping grain; but that of Americans, and this achievement cannot be Obed Hussey, of Baltimore; patented in the looked upon with indifference, as it plainly same year, has not only been successfully foreshadows the ultimate destiny of the new and somewhat extensively used from that world!" time to this, in the western states, but has And so with the mowing machines. The furnished the basis for the most successful hay crop of the country is estimated at models in this country, among the most three hundred and fifty millions of dollars a noted of which are those of McCormick, of year. It must be gathered at a season when Virginia, and Manny & Atkins, of Illinois. labor is to be obtained with difficulty, and The American reaping machines have been at even higher than the usual price of brought to a high state of perfection within wages, and when the weather is often fickle the last ten years. They have already a and precarious, generally oppressively hot, world-wide reputation. Their superiority making the task doubly irksome and unis generally acknowledged, and the credit healthy. But besides this, many acres of of having for the first time made the prin- grass on our ordinary farms ripen at about ciples applicable to such machinery prac- the same time, which, if allowed to stand too tically useful, undoubtedly belongs to our long, will decrease in quantity and value of own ingenious mechanics. In the summer hay which might otherwise have been made of 1855, the American machines were from it. By the use of the mowing machine brought to trial at the exhibition at Paris, in it can be secured and saved most quickly, competition with the world. easily, and cheaply. This trial took place in a field of oats Mowing is, at best, one of the severest of about forty miles from the city, each ma- the labors of the farm, notwithstanding the chine having about one acre to cut. Three efforts of poets and other writers to make us machines'were entered for the first trial, one believe it is all fun. It calls into play American, one English, and a third from nearly every voluntary muscle in the body, Algiers, all at the same time raking as well requiring not only the more frequent and as cutting. The American machine did its regular movements of these muscles, but, on work in twenty-two minutes, the English in account of the twisting motion of the body, sixty-six, and the Algerian in seventy-two. an unusually great exertion of muscular At a subsequent trial on the same piece, power. Nor does it require any small when three other machines were entered, of amount of skill to become a good mower, American, English, and French manufacture, since it is proverbial that, unless the boy respectively, the American machine cut its becomes accustomed to the scythe, and acre in twenty-two minutes, while the two learns while young, he can never become a others failed. The successful competitor on skilful mower. It is not at all surprising, this occasion, " did its work in the most ex- therefore, that mechanical ingenuity should quisite manner," says a French journal, have been directed to shorten and lighten "not leaving a single stalk ungathered, and this severe operation. it discharged the grain in the most perfect The first mowing machine which met shape, as if placed by hand, for the binders. with any success in this country, is believed It finished its piece most gloriously." to have been that of William Manning, of New The contest was finally narrowed down to Jersey, patented in 1831, and which met three machines, all American. Two ma- with a limited success more than twenty chines were afterward converted from reap- years ago. In 1834 appeared the Ambler ers into mowers, one making the change in patent, simple in its construction, with a one minute, the other in twenty. Both cutter bar of wrought iron, and a single performed their task to the astonishment smooth-edged knife, operated by means of a 3 36 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. crank which gave it a vibratory motion. It and a French journal, in speaking of the was used in 1835 and 1836. A few other trial, said: "This American machine liter-'fforts were made about that time, and met ally devoured the sheaves of wheat. The with some slight success, but it was not till eye cannot follow the work which is effecta recent date that the machine was con- ed between the entrance of the sheaves and structed in a manner to give a confident the end of the operation. It is one of the hope of its ultimate and complete success. greatest results which it is possible to atThat hope has been fully realized, and the tain. The impression which this spectacle mower is one of the grandest agricultural produced on the Arab chiefs was profound." inventions of modern times. Like all other At the great fair in New York, in 1853, inventions, it was adopted by the farmer a machine was exhibited which not only with his usual caution, but its triumph has threshed and winnowed the wheat, but measbeen so complete, that its utility and its ured it, placed it inbags ready forthe market, economy are almost universally admitted, and recorded accurately the number of bushand the number manufactured, and the sales els, and all by one continuous operation. to farmers, have been immense, and are even These vast and acknowledged improvenow rapidly increasing every year. As an ments in harvesting and threshing grain will evidence of this, McCormick is reported to be seen to be of the utmost importance, have sold no less than four thousand of his when it is considered that we annually raise reapers to the farmers around Chicago, for about two hundred millions of bushels of the single harvest of 1860, and other manu- wheat, and of rye, barley, and oats over one facturers have no doubt met with similar hundred millions, and that the resources of encouragement. the country may be developed, by the use Contrast also the slow process of raking of machinery, to an extent far beyond the hay by the common hand rake, with the reach of present calculation. rapid and easy method of gathering it with The reaper, the thresher, and the mower tile horse rake, accomplishing with great ease are types of the ever restless and progressto a single man who drives, the labor of at ive spirit of the age. They point out to us least ten men with the old hand rake. a glorious future, in which they will accomWith a common revolving rake, from twenty plish for us and for our country triumphs to twenty-five acres a day may be gathered grander than the triumphs of arms, for they up, and sixteen acres a day have been raked will develop the means of supporting the with the simplest form. What a security on millions of human beings which the implethe approach of a storm, when the farmer ments of war can only destroy. would be comparatively helpless with nothing Could the learned Malthus-who proclaimbut the common rake to rely on! ed the gloomy theory. that war, famine, and But what shall we say of the modern pestilence were checks, designed by an allthreshing machine as compared with the wise Being to keep down the increase of flail Who does not well remember its population to a level with the means of susfamiliar sound, and that beautiful description tenance-now rise up from his sleep of death of Cowper- and see the population of England more "Thump after thump resounds the constant flail, than doubled since his day, and that of this That seems to swing uncertain, and yet falls country multiplied many times, while the Full on the destined ear"? people are better fed, and better clothed, Only think of the difference in the results. with less labor and less suffering, with the At the trial of threshing-machines at the possibility of a famine wholly and forever Paris exhibition, the victory was won by an removed, he might change his shameful American machine, and during the opera- doctrine, and adopt a more cheerful and tion, to ascertain the comparative rapidity hopeful view of the providence of God. of threshing, six men were engaged in With an immense multiplication of the huthreshing with flails, who in one hour man species in all civilized countries which threshed sixty litres of wheat. In the same have been devoted to the arts of peace and time the development of their material resources, a bountiful Father has sent us a superabunPitt's American machine threshed 740 litres, da Clayton's English it 410 "1 Clayton's Englnish tl"ele 7 410 l iedance of food? instead of famine, and has Puvoir's French " " 250taught us to rely on the exhaustless bounty Pinet's " " " 150 " of the fruitful earth, and upon his beneficent \\\\\ \\ I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,-Zp iz~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _v. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ I,, k C~~ mvz 7 LALYIDIK~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J~~~~~~~~ Awl??:i:~W~n3 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 37 promise that seed time and harvest shall given to the raising of stock, it is not surnever fail to supply the daily wants of his prising to find the number of cattle in Virchildren. ginia in 1620 amounting to about five hunBut with all the progress which we have dred head; and in 1639, to thirty thousand; made in improving the implements of the while from thefact that in 1648 the number farm, we have not reached perfection. No had been reduced to twenty thousand, we bound is set to human ingenuity, and further may infer that the restrictions on iilling means may yet be devised to shorten labor them had been removed. - Many also had and increase the products of the soil. been sent to New England. WTe cannot hope, nor is it desirable, to The first cattle that were introduced into avoid labor. This is not the object of im- the Plymouth colony, and undoubtedly the proved machinery; but to make labor more earliest brought into New England, arrived attractive, agreeable, and productive; to at Plymouth, in the ship Charity, in 1624. bring into subjection the rude forces of They were imported by Governor Winslow nature, and make them. do our bidding and for the colony, and consisted of three heifers increase our stores; to redeem tlousands of and a bull. A division of the stock, which acres now lying waste from wildness and des- appears to have been held in common, was olation, and to make our country the gran- made in 1627, when one or two are described ary of the world-these are triumphs we as black, black and white, others brindle; an may hope to gainfrom the introduction and evidence that there was no uniformity of use of improved machinery, and in this view color. These animals were to remain in the the subject commends itself to the attention hands of individuals receiving them for ten of the highest intellect, and opens a field for years, they to have the produce, while the the labors of the noblest philanthropy. old stock was still to be owned by the colony in common. Twelve cows were sent to PROGRESS IN TIHE RAISING OF STOCK. Cape Ann in 1626, and in 1629 thirty more, Allusion has already been made, incident- while in 1630 ahut a hundred animals were ally, to the character of the cattle fiom which imported for the "governor and company *the early importations into this country of the Massachusetts Bay in Newr England." must, for the most part, have been drawn. These cattle were kept at Salem. The first animals that arrived in any part In the meantime, the first importation of the present territory of the United States was made into New York from Iolland by were probably those taken to the colony on the Dutch West India Company, and the the James river, in Virginia, previous to the foundation laid for a valuable race of aniyear 1609, the exact date of their arrival meals. The nulmer in all introduced was not being known. Several cows are known one hundred and three, consisting of horses to have been carried there in 1610, and dur- and cattle for breeding.' The company furing the following year, 1611, no less than nished each tenant with four cows, four one hundred head arrived there from abroad. horses, some sheep and pigs, for the term of It is probable that those first introduced six years, when the number of animals rethere were brought over by the earliest ad- ceived was to be returned, their increase venturers, and others came from the West being left in the hands of each farmer. Indies. It is well known that some of their Then the cattle belonging to the company cattle came from Ireland. Those from the were distributed among those who were unWest Indies were the descendants of cattle able to buy stock. brought to America by Columnbus in his And so, for the settlements along the second voyage, in 1493. I have seen it as- Delaware, cattle were introduced by the serted that so important was it considered Swedish West India Company in 1627. It that the cattle introduced into the infant will be seen, therefore, that before the close colony should be preserved and allowed to of the year 1630, the number of horned increase, that an order was issued forbidding cattle in all the colonies must have risenr the killing of domestic animals of any kind, by natural increase and by the importations on pain of death to the principal, burning above named, to several thousands. of the hand and cropping the ears of the And then, in 1631, 1632, and 1633, sevaccessory, and a sound whipping of twenty- eral importations were made into what ii four hours for the concealer of a knowledge now New Hampshire, by Captain John of the facts. Such encouragement being Mason, who, with Gorges, procured the 38 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. patent of large tracts of land in the vicinity There is sufficient evidence to show that of Piscataqua river, and immediately formed they were interchanged between the colosettlements there. The prime object of nies to some extent, at an early day. Some Mason was to carry on the manufacture of of the Virginia cattle were early sent to potash, and for this purpose he employed New England, while others found their way the Danes; and it was in his voyages to and to Virginia through Pennsylvania, so that from Denmark that he procured many Dan- the mixture was great and inevitable. Of ish cattle, chieflyfor the purposes of draught. the mode of keeping cattle in the Virginia They were, undoubtedly, considerably larger colony, Glover, a cotemporary, in the Histhan the average of the cattle of England at torical Register, says: " All the inhabitants that day, of a uniformly light yellow color, give their cattle in winter is only the husks and made very fine oxen for labor. They of their Indian corn, unless it be some of soon became widely diffused over the whole theIm that hav-e a little wheat straw, neither region, and are said to have remained, with do they. give them any more of these than a great degree of purity of blood, or little will serve to keep them alive; by reason intermixture, down to the year 1820. Traces whereofthey venture into the marshy grounds of them can be found even at the present and swamps for food, where very many are day. They were, no doubt, large and coarse lost." And Clayton, another equally high animals, and well adapted to endure the authority, says, "that.they neither housed severity of the climate and the hardships to nor milked their cows in winter, having a which they were subjected in the lumbering notion that it would kill them." And still operations of that new colony. They, un- another, a Swedish traveller, Kalm, more questionably, did much to lay the foundation recently, 1749, in speaking of the James of the "native" stock of New England, over river colony, says: "They make scarce which they spread in the course of a very any manure for their corn fields, but when few years, and became mixed with the cattle one piece of ground has been exhausted by imported into Salem and Plymouth, and continual cropping, they clear and cultivate probably, to some extent, with the Dutch another piece of fresh land, and when that cattle already alluded to; perhaps, also, with is exhausted proceed to a third. Their catthe black cattle of Spain and Wales, and tle are allowed to wander through the subsequently with the long-horns and the woods and uncultivated grounds, where they short-horns, most or all of which crosses are half starved, having long ago extirpated were accidental, or the result of individual almost all the annual grasses by cropping convenience or other local circumstances. them too early in the spring, before they From thenm the working oxen of New Eng- had time to form their flowers or to shed land derive much of their character and their seeds." The poorness of pasturage reputation for strength, hardihood, quick- and want of food had caused the cattle to ness, and docility. diminish in size fiom one generation to Now we find the sources from which the another, till they had become stunted and native cattle of this country sprang. The small, and were not improperly termed "litearly importations into Virginia were origi- tle runts," or "natives." nally derived, mainly, probably, from Eng- In color, the natives, as already indicated, land; some were from the black cattle of are exceedingly various. Crosses of the DenSpain, though the importation of 1611 marks with the Spanish and Welsh would probably came from England; the cattle of naturally have made a dark brindle; crosses the Plymouth colony came from the coast of the Denmarks and the Devons often made of Devonshire; those brought into New a lighter or yellowish brindle; while the York from the island of Texel, on the coast more recent importations of Jerseys and of Holland, and were mostly, without doubt, short-horns have generally produced a beauthe black and white Dutch cattle; those on tifully spotted progeny. The prejudice in the Delaware were brought from Sweden; favor of deep red, which was long the fathose in New Hampshire were the large, vorite color of New England, is fast giving yellow Danish cattle; and as the earlier im- way to more variegated colors. portations were the most extensive that In the year 1553, some Portuguese had were made for many years, these various taken cattle to Newfoundland and Nova stocks were crossed, and thus formed the Scotia, while in 1604, a Frenchman had inoriginal stock of the country. troduced the small French cattle into Acadia, AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 39 firom whence, in 1608, they were carried to now be considered pretty hard fare. Hard Canada, and from there several animals were seasons and the want of winter feeding and taken into what is now known as the shelter were obstacles vastly more difficult "American Bottom," in Illinois, in 1682, to overcome then than now. where they increased rapidly. The first Those who should, " during the space of cattle imported into Carolina were obtained one year, keep the greatest weight of horned in England in 1670, and we find that the cattle," got the premiums offered by the Indians on the Red River in Louisiana had London Society of Arts, rather than those cattle as early ag 1690. The first importa- who should exhibit the greatest degree of tion into Georgia was made, so far as we improvement in their animals. But with are informed, in 1732, followed by others in the increase and abundance of good food, 1735. the tide of improvement set in, and size In 1750 the keeping of stock had assumed began to be the grand aim of the earlier some importance in certain localities, par- graziers, and the production of enormous ticularly in the older eastern settlements, monstrosities was the result. Now Bakewhere it had become comparatively safe well, a man of remarkable sagacity and close from molestation, for it is known that some observation, steps in and establishes a new large farmers in Rhode Island kept as many system of animal development. With him as ona hundred cows and upward, and the mere size was no object. HIe wanted to sale of thirteen thousand pounds of cheese build up a breed which should give the from one farm is recorded, and in one case greatest amount of saleable beef for the seventy-three cows produced ten thousand amount of food consumed, having the best pounds of butter in five months, or an aver- parts bearing a larger proportion to the age of very nearly a pound a day to a cow, offal than what was usually found. Smallwhich, for that length of time, must be re- ness of bone, and tendency to fatten and gardced as a good yield. mature early, he thought indispensable in It will be borne in mind that up to this cattle bred for the shambles. Up to his time, and in fact for nearly half a century day, both in England and America, it had later, no well-directed efforts at improve- been customary to keep oxen till they were ment had been made even in England; but seven or eight years old, before they were at that time some localities there possessed fatted for the butcher. He travelled over classes or races of animals peculiar to them- England, Ireland, and Holland to find aniselves, whose merits had begun to attract mals adapted to his purposes. "The old. attention, though there was no general in- notion was," says Arthur Young, "that where terest in the subject before the days of you had large bones there was plenty of Bakewell, who " sat in the huge chimney room to lay the flesh on. This, Mr. Bake. corner of a log kitchen, hung round with well has proved to be a mistake. He asserts the finest joints of his dried oxen, preserved the smaller the bones, the truer will be the as specimens of proportions; a tall, stout, make of the beast, the quicker she will broad-shouldered man, of brown, red con- fatten, and her weight will have a larger plexion, clad in a brown, loose coat and proportion of valuable meat." The greatest scarlet waistcoat, leather breeches, and top physiologists have shown, upon the highest boots," and demonstrated what could be scientific principles, that the formation of a done by attention to true physiological laws large bony system is the result of defective in the breeding of cattle. The choice of nutrition. breeds and obtaining good crosses were Other breeders, stimulated in part by nowhere thought of previous to his time. Bakewell's efforts, and the wide and honora. In fact, before the cultivation of the natural ble reputation he achieved, immediately enand artificial grasses and the introduction of tered the field of competition, and Chaplin the turnip and other root crops, the farmer became the champion of the Lincolnshire had comparatively little control over the sheep, as Bakewell of the Leicesters; and the frames of his cattle. He was obliged to brothers Charles and Robert Coiling directgive them such food as he had, or rather ed their efforts to improving the short-horns, they were obliged to take such as they as Bakewell the long-horns; while the Duke could get, which, on a vast majority of the of Bedford, Quartly, and others, not to be farms, both of England and the American outdone, espoused the claims of the Devons, provinces, at that time, was what would and Benjamin Tomkins those of the Here 40 AGRICULTURE IN TIE UNITED STATES. fords. So successful were these enterprising 1years. In!830, owing, in a large measure, breeders, both in preserving purity of blood to the enthusiasm which had been created, in their stock, and in extending the reputa- commencing first by the efforts of indition of their several herds, that at Charles viduals, and radiating out through the comColling's sale on the 11th of October, munity in every direction, the average 1810, Comet was bid off at 1,000 guineas, weight had increased to 656 pounds, an inor $5,000, and many other animals about crease, in twenty-five years, of more than as high in proportion; the forty-eight head forty per cent. in weight, while the average sold, including considerable young stock, age had been reduced to four years instead bringing no less than $35,579. The cow of five. What a contrast A saving of one Lily, sired by Comet, brought 410 guineas, whole year's consumption of forage, and an or $2,050; the bull Petrarch, also by increase of forty per cent. in the profitable Comet, sold for 365 guineas, or $1,825, and results, in the course of a quarter of a centhe calf Cecil for 130 guineas, or $650. tury! But since then the average age has There were seventeen cows, eleven bulls, been still further reduced, and the average seven bull calves, seven heifers, and five weight a good deal increased. heifer calves, for which this successful breeder Such being the striking results in England, received an average of $741 a head. That it is not surprising that when an interest sale, and that of Robert Colling in 1818, was awakened in the improvement of our that of Lord Spencer in 1846, that of the agriculture, a desire was felt by intelligent Bates, or Kirkleavington herd in 1850, that breeders to avail themselves of the advanof Lord Ducie two years later; and some tages which had already been gained abroad. still more recent and extensive sales, are the Importations began, and a more systematic marked eras in the history of the short-horns course of breeding was adopted; at first, by in England, and it was through these sales, a very limited number of. enterprising far-' and the universal enthusiasm awakened by mers, till, within the last twenty years, that them, that the short-horns have become more number has rapidly increased, and the rewidely spread over Great Britain, and more suits have become more marked and percepgenerally fashionable than any other breed. tible. Tomkins began with the Herefords in It may be remarked in passing, that two a small way about the year 1766, alid at his modes of improvement were open to the decease in 1819, his whole herd, consisting farmer and breeder, either of which, apparof fifty-two animals, including twenty-two ently, promised good results. The first steers, and varying in age fiom calves to was to select from among our native cattle two-year-olds and upward, was sold at auc- the most perfect animals not known or sustion, and brought an aggregate of $23,368, pected to belong or to be related to any of or over $445 a head; one bull sold to Lord the well-established breeds, and to use them Talbot for $2,943, while several cows brought as breeders. This mode of improvement is from $1,000 to $1,200 a head. simple enough if adopted and carried on Both these breeds are celebrated for early with animals of any known race or breed, maturity. Either of them may be prepared and, indeed, it is the only course of improvefor market at two or three years of age, far ment which preserves the purity of blood. better than the old style of cattle could be This was chiefly the course adopted in Engat five, six, and seven years, and be of nearly land by Bakewell with the long-horns, by equal weights. I have mentioned these facts the Collings and others with the short-horns, to show how it was that the average weight by Tomkins, Price, and others, with the o. cattle sold in the Smithfield market in- 1lerefords, and by the Duke of Bedford and creased from 370 pounds in 1710, to over others with the Devons. Had they resorted 800 pounds at the present time. A select to any other, they would have run the risk committee of the House of Commons, in a of a total failure and ruin of those valuable report printed in 1795, after a full investiga- races. Their object was not to build up a tion, stated that since the year 1732, their new breed by crossing, so much as to imneat cattle had, on an average, increased in prove and perfect the races, already valuable, weight and size at least one-fourth, or which were to be found in particular localities twenty-five per cent., which would fix the or counties, which gave them their name. average weight in 1795 at about 462 pounds. But our circumstances were entirely difThe average age had formerly been over five ferent. We had no race and no breed of AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 41 cattle among us. The term race, properly produced by the most skilful breeding, notunderstood, applies only to animals of the withstanding the fact that they have sprung same species, possessing, besides the general from a great variety of cattle procured at characteristics of that species, other charac- different times on the continent of Europe, teristics, which they owe to the influence of in England, and in the Spanish West Indies, soil, climate, nourishment, and habits of life brought together without any regard to fixed to which they have long been subjected by principles of breeding, but from individual man, and which they transmit with certainty convenience, and by accident; but it is true to their progeny, and it is essential that they that our native cattle possess neither the size, should have possessed these characteristics the symmetry, nor the early maturity of the from a time to which " the memory of man short-horns; they do not, as a general thing, runneth not to the contrary.".The term possess the fineness of bone, the beauty of breed, on the other hand, applies to a family form and color, nor the activity of the Devof animals built up by a long series of care- ons or the HIerefords; nor do they possess ful breeding, till certain desire'd character- that uniform goodness and quantity of milk istics become fixed, capable, and sure of of the Ayrshires, nor the surpassing richness being transmitted. As might be supposed, of milk of the Jerseys; but above all they do the characteristics and peculiarities of races not possess the power of transmitting the are more inherent, more fixed and strongly many good qualities, which they often posmarked than those of families, or breeds sess in an extraordinary degree, to their offbuilt up artificially. But in general the spring, which is a characteristic of all wellcharacteristics of both races and breeds established breeds. are so permanent, and so well marked, that Now, to build up a breed, or family, on if an individual supposed to belong to any such a foundation, in the mode already indione of them were to produce an offspring cated, requires great experience in selection, not possessing them or possessing them only a quick and sure eye, and judgment of the in part, with others not belonging to the true points in stock, a mind eminently unrace or breed, it would be just ground for prejudiced, and a patience and perseverance suspecting a want of purity of blood. perfectly indefatigable and untiring. It is This being the acknowledged, and only absolutely necessary, also, to pay special atproper sense and use of these terms, it fol- tention to the calves thus produced-to furlows that no grade animals, and no animals nish them at all times, summer and winter, not possessing fixed peculiarities or charac- with an abundant supply of nutritious food, teristics which they share with all other ani- and to regulate it according to their growth. mals of the class of which they are a type, Few men could be found either capable or and which they are capable of transmitting willing to undertake the herculean task of with certainty to their descendants, can be building up a new breed in that way from recognized by breeders as belonging to any grade stock. A prominent and almost insuone distinct race, breed, or family. perable objection would meet them at the The term " native," or " scrub," is applied very outset, that it would require a long seto a vast majority of our American cattle, ries of years-longer than the natural life which, though born on the soil, and thus in of most men-to arrive at any very satisfacone sense natives, do not constitute a breed, tory results, from the fact that no two anirace, or family. They do not possess char- mals, made up, as our "native" cattle are, of acteristics peculiar to them all, which they such a variety of elements and crosses, could transmit with any certainty to their off- be found sufficiently alike to produce their spring, either of form, size, color, milking, or kind. The principle that like produces like working properties. It does not follow, to is perfectly true, and in the well-known be sure, that because an animal is made up breeds it is not difficult to find two animals of a mixture of blood, almost to infinity, he that will be sure to transmit their own charmay not be, as an individual animal, and for acteristics to their offspring; but with two specific purposes, one of the best of the spe- animals which cannot be classed with any cies; and for particular purposes individual breed, the defects of an ill-bred ancestry will animals might be selected from among those be liable to appear through several generacommonly called "natives" in New England, tions to thwart and disappoint the expectaand "scrubs" at the south and west,equal, and tions of the breeder. perhaps superior, to any among the families The second method is more feasible, and 42 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. that is, to select animals from races already would be hard to beat by any pure bred animproved and well-nigh perfected, to cross imals. As working oxen, the native cattle with our cattle, selecting such animals from of New England are unsurpassed by any in the well-established breeds as are best calcu- the known world, and they have the reputalated for the special purposes for which we tion of being so, both in other parts of this want them. If our object is to improve country and in Europe, where their qualities stock for the dairy, taking such only as be- are known. But they have their defects, long to a race distinguished for dairy qual- and it is useless to blind our eyes to them. ities; or, if resort must be had to other I expect, therefore, to be able to show breeds less remarkable for such qualities, that some actual progress has been effected such only as have descended from large and upon the common stock of the country. generous milkers. We ought to be able to But to what is this progress'owing? Is it rely with some confidence upon getting the merely that which is due to better keeping, qualities which we seek. IMilking or dairy both summer and winter I have already qualities do not belong to any one breed or intimated that the treatment the cattle of race exclusively, though, as they depend the country received during, the most of the mainly on structure and temperament, which last century was far from being calculated are hereditary to a considerable extent, they to improve them, scarcely, even, to keep are, themselves, transmissible. In almost them on foot. Even so late as 1S41, Mr. every breed we can find individual milkers Colman asserted that the general treatment which greatly surpass the average of the of cows at that time, in New England, would cows of the same family, and from such, not be an inapt subject of presentment by a many suppose good crosses may be expected grand jury. I was cognizant of the manner without much regard to other circumstances. in which the stock was kept in many a counIt is not accidental good qualities that we try town at that time, and I am strongly inwant, so much as those which are surely dined to agree with him; and, judging from transmissible. WTe do not want to breed the well-known anxiety of those who enter from an animal-*a cow for instance-that is milch cows now for premiums at the fairs, to an exception to the rule of her race or fam- show that their yield has been enormous, ily. A good calf from her would be, to a and that they have lived upon little or nothgreat extent, the result of chance. We ing, one would suppose their keeping was cannot expect nature to go out of her course, not much improved, even yet. to give us a good animal, if we violate her But, as compared with the last century known laws as developed by our knowledge and the earlier part of this, there has been a of physiological structure. vast improvement in the shelter, mode of Such are a few of the considerations feeding, and the general treatment, and this which, no doubt, led the early importers of has, of course, had its effect in increasing the modern improved foreign stock to make their milking qualities and their appearance. an effort on our native and grade cattle. But, apart from this, there can be little What has been the result? It can be clearly doubt, I think, that there has been a positive shown that there has been a large increase improvement in our stock as a whole; that in the number of the cattle of the country. is, the general average of the stock of New Of that there could, of course, be no ques- England is better than it was forty or fifty fion, since this increase would naturally fol- years ago. There were individual animals low from an addition of new territory and then, among the native or common stock of the more perfect development of the agricul- the country, whose yield of milk was quite tural resources of the country. But I think remarkable, and would be, at the present it can be clearly shown, also, that there has day, and among the best stock of the present been a positive improvement in the intrinsic time; but we cannot, and ought not to reaqualities of the common stock of the coun- son from individuals, but from the general try as a whole. I am far from detracting average stock of the country. from the merits of our native cattle. They These remarks have special reference to are far better than could have been expected the stock kept in the eastern and older from the loose manner in which they were sections of the country-those parts where "made up." Many of them have great the herds are small, and kept not so much merit, and individual animals are to be found for raising for beef as for their other prodamong them, as already remarked, which ucts, as milk, butter, cheese, and labor. MILCH COW.'-=7 --— = —7- - ~ -~r~u~~;ir~rp~s r~~ SI-IORT-FQRN BULL. DOUBLIE] DUKE. JENNY. _L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 DEVON BULL. TECUMSEH. iI -=-~I I1 III` ~ ~ I\ \\ il~~\~/~Z( l~~l ~ ll~l~d Y. A Y 1I l//,SN IRE BU LLF l~ll ll c -~ —; AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 47 In the great west, where the cattle are, and modern improved stock from abroad for the have for some years, been kept to supply specific purpose of improving the stock of the stalls in our eastern markets, and where, this country. In the year 1783, three genafter all, as compared with other sections tlemen of Baltimore-Messrs. Goff, Ringold, and other objects, early maturity and a ten- and Patton-sent to England for superior dency to fatten are of transcendant impor- cattle; and, in 1785, a bull fiomn this importance, no one could be so blind to the facts tation was taken to Kentucky, followed, not as to deny that there has been a vast and long after, by another lot of the same immost gratifying progress even in the intrinsic portation. A half-breed bull was tiken to qualities of the stock. Every car-load of the same section about the year 1804, and those splendid Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and is said to have greatly improved.the stock Illinois cattle shows this in a manner not to of that state. Some of the cattle of that be mistaken. Compare them with the class early importation were commonly called the of animals formerly, and even now in some "milk breed," and others the "beef breed." sections, to be found at the west, and more For a long time they went by the name of commonly at the east, and mark the con- the " Patton stock." The beef breed were, trast. The one is thrifty, grows rapidly, fats probably, long-horns- large, coarse, and easy, and is ready at a very early age for the rough animals, but slow in maturing. The market, while from an eighth to a quarter others are said to have been short-horns. part of the cost of labor and of keeping, Others were also taken from Virginia to which must be incurred every year in rais- Kentucky, but none of them were, probably, ing such a class of animals as the other, is pure bloods, although the Patton stock wholly lost from misapplication. gained a wide and deserved reputation. In 1868, there were 21,433,099 head of In 1817, Colonel Sanders, of Kentucky, cattle in the United States, of which over sent for twelve head of the best that. could nine millions, (9,247,714,) were milch cows, be found in England. Six of them were nearly two millions (1,910,185) were work- short-horns, or Teeswaters. Two of these ing oxen, and ten millions (10,275,200) short-horns were also imported for Kentucky other cattle, not including horses, sheep, in 1818. These various importations, comor swine; and the value of animals slaugli- mencing with the first high-bred animals tered amounted to the vast sum of more than taken to the west in 1785, were the pioneers; three hundred and eighteen millions of dollars and though the pedigree of some of them (318,721,895:) Now if by the keeping could not be given, they not only infused of better' stock we add to their value and superior blood into the stock of that region, the profit, derived from them, without in- but excited a spirit of emulation among the creasing the cost, we make, of course an farmers there which had an exceedingly absolute gain on the receipts from the same salutary effect. There is little doubt that amount of capital invested. A distinguished some of the best cattle in southern Ohio breeder places this in a clear light as fol- owe their origin to the early imported anilows: "Suppose that the twenty-one millions mals of Kentucky. of neat cattle now in the United States, by A few short-horns were brought into the infusion of better breeds among them Westchester county, New York, as early as generally, should, in their earlier maturity 1792 and 1796. They were kept pure for some and increased product of milk and flesh, years, but finally became scattered, leaving with an equal consumption of food, and by their descendants in that section to this day. a moderately increased amount of care, pro- Other importations into New York were duce an additional profit of one-fifth, or only made as early as 1816 and 1822. In July, twenty per cent.-certainly a moderate es- 1818, a short-horn bull, widely known as timate-the annual value of such improve- "Ccelebs," and a heifer, " Flora," were imment will be that which is derived from an ported into Massachusetts by Mr. Coolidge, additional invested capital of thirty millions and sold, in 1820, to Colonel Samuel Jaqucs, of dollars; a vast sum in the aggregate of of Somerville. From " Coelebs," by selectour agricultural wealth." This is a true ing superior native cows, Colonel Jaques statement now, and it applied with still succeeded in raising a fine milking stock, greater force when the spirit of improvement long known as the "Creampots." "Flora " began. had fourteen calves between 1819 and 1833, But to return to the importation of ten of which were by "Ccelebs." The same 48 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. year (1818), also, Gorham Parsons, of per share was immediately declared on the Brighton, Massachusetts, imported a pure ninety-two shares, amounting to $25,760. breed short-horn bull, called "Fortunatus," The following year they made another exor " HIolderness," and his descendants were tensive importation, which sold rapidly and widely disseminated through New England. well. Immense benefits have resulted from Another short-horn bull was brought into these efforts. Massachusetts by Theodore Lyman, of Bos- The sketch given above of some of the ton, from whence he was shortly after sent earlier importations of short-horns, has been to Maine; and, in 1825, Air. W. Pierce, of somewhat extended for the purpose of showPortsmouth, New Hampshire, imported a ing the gradually increasing and extending celebrated short-horn, " Nelson," and the interest and enterprise in breeding, but since cow " Symmetry," the parents of the great 1840, importations of this magnificent breed ox "Americus," so large as to be taken about have so far multiplied, that it would be out on exhibition, for which purpose he was of place to attempt to follow them. The afterward taken to England. cream of the finest and most celebrated It was also in 1818 that Stephen Wil- herds in England has been taken to this liams, of Northboro', Mass., imported the country, without regard to cost. Fabulous famous bull " Young Denton," the sire of prices have been asked, and five and six many very excellent grade animals, the thousand dollars for a single animal have, in heifers proving fine milkers. Many other some cases, been paid, to which was added fine short-horns were taken into Massachu- the cost of transportation. So successful, setts after the year 1820, but though they indeed, have the more recent efforts been, left some superior grades, they were not ap- that England has sent over here to buy preciated by the farmers generally, and at- short-horns from us; and so admirably adapted tention was gradually directed to other to stock raising is the climate of Kentucky, breeds. New England, as a whole, is not that this fine breed has been improved there the place for short-horns. They do better to such an extent, that very few of the last on more luxuriant pastures. Besides, they 150 cows selected from among the best in are not well adapted to the wants of the England, could win the prizes from those small dairy farmer, especially since the born and bred on our native soil. modern improvements of this justly cele- These superior animals are not all held in brated breed have taken all the milk out of the hands of a few. They are within them. For a regiou better adapted to rais- the reach of thrifty farmers, who are now ing beef, and on naturally rich feed, they awake to the profit of raising cattle that are unsurpassed for beauty and symmetry of will make as much beef at two or three form, for size and early maturity, and con- years old, as a native at double that age. sequently for the profits they yield to the It is proper to refer very briefly to the breeder and the grazier. efforts made at various times to introduce In 1824, Mr. Powell, of Philadelphia, com- and experiment with the other well-estabmenced the importation of short-horns, and lished English breeds, and the success which continued to breed them with great enter- has attended these efforts. prise and success for many years. He had In 1817, the Hon. Henry Clay, of Kenfrequent sales, some of his stock going into tucky, made an attempt to introduce the Kentucky, others to Ohio, and elsewhere. Herefords into that state, by the purchase But the great impulse given to the im- of two bulls and. two heifers,. at a cost of portation of short-horns, was the formation ~105, or about $500. This was the first of the Ohio Company for Importing English well authenticated importation of this breed Cattle, in 1834. The sum of $9,200 was of any note. The Herefords belong to the subscribed in shares of $100 each, and agents class of middle-horned cattle, and were insent abroad, who returned with nineteen digenous to certain districts of England, head, selected from the herds of celebrated where they were known as far back as trabreeders, arriving in October of that year. dition extends. They have undergone conThey were kept together under the care of siderable changes within the last hundred an agent, and the number was increased by years, commencing with the efforts of Tomother importations till 1836, when they kins, already alluded to-not however, by were sold at public auction and scattered means of crosses with other races, but by extensively over Ohio. A dividend of $280 careful and judicious selections. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 49 In point of symmetry and beauty of form, well known to have been shipped on the the well-bred Herefords may be classed Devonshire coast. But that they were any with the improved short-horns, arriving, per- thing like the modern Devons there is little haps, a little slower at maturity, though re- evidence; they certainly have very few of markably inclined to take on fat. They the highest characteristics of that race left. never attain to such weights, but they gen- The general impression has arisen mainly erally arrive at the Smithfield market at from the fact that many of the native cattle two or three years old, and so highly is of New England are red, and that is the their beautifully marbled beef esteemed, that favorite color. it is eagerly sought by the butchers at a However this maybe, the improved North small advance, pound for pound, over the Devon is a very different animal from any short-horn. Weighing less than the short- that could, at that day, have been procured horns, they yield a larger weight of tallow, on the coast of Devonshire, or, in fact, anywhich is one reason of the preference for where else. This race dates further back them. The short-horn produces more beef than its history goes. It has long been at the same age than the Hereford, but con- bred for beef, and for the working qualities sumes more food in proportion. of its oxen, which, perhaps, excel all other They have never been bred for milking races in quickness, docility, and beauty, and or dairy qualities, and no farmer would think the ease with which they are matched. But of resorting to them for that purpose. as milkers the North Dev m cows do not exIn 1824, Admiral Coffin, of the royal eel, nor indeed do they equal, some of the navy, presented the Massachusetts Society other breeds. for Promoting Agriculture, a Hereford bull Some years ago a valuable importation and heifer, bred by Sir J. G. Cottrel from was made by Mr. Patterson, of Baltimore, the Tomkins stock. The bull was kept by Md., who has bred them with special referthe Hon. J. C. Bates, of Northampton, Mass., ence to developing their milking qualities, and left a numerous progeny,which was very and now they would be remarkable as dairy highly esteemed in that neighborhood. The stock as compared with any other pure largest importation into this country was breed, but they are very different animals that of Messrs. Corning and Sotham, of Al- from the common modern improved Devons, bany, N. Y., in 1840, consisting of five bulls the dairy qualities of which have been very *and seventeen cows and heifers. Other im- much disregarded. portations of the same breed were added to The North Devons were also imported by this herd in subsequent years. The Hon. the Massachusetts Society for Promoting L. A. Dowley,. of Boston, imported several Agriculture, and were kept together for some animals of the same breed in 1852, a part of time, and then disposed of. So far as size which were kept for some time on the State is concerned, they are better adapted to New Farm at WVestboro', Mass., and were after- England farms, than either the short-horns or ward sold to Mr. John Merryman, of Bal- the Herefords, while the form and color are timlore Co., Md., who has one of the largest so beautiful as to make them admired by and finest herds of Herefords in the country. many. But the milking qualities having It will be readily seen from the character- been to a considerable extent bred out of istics of the race, as stated above, that they them, especially those more recently imwould be ill adapted to the wants of New ported, we have little to gain by preferring England farmers as a general thing. They them over our native stock. They are good are profitable for the grazier; though, in a for beef, for which purpose they are chiefly country of extreme fertility, like many parts raised in their native country, but the proof the west, and capable of bringing the duction of beef throughout most of the older short-horns to their highest development and sections of the country is an entirely seconperfection, they might not, on the whole, be dary object. They are good for labor, on acable to compete successfully with them. count of their quickness and ease of motion, The importation of Devons into this but New England has equally good working country has been more numerous. Indeed, oxen in its natives. They give rich milk, there are some who assert that the native but the Jerseys give richer. cattle of New England owe their origin The Ayrshires and the Jerseys are, and chiefly to the Devons, since the cattle first have for a long time been bred with special brought into the Plymouth colony are pretty reference to the dairy. The former, though 50 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. a comparatively recent breed, were early im- been confined to their own intrinsic merits, ported into this country, and, I think, have, nor to the actual improvement which they as a whole, proved very satisfactory, partic- have effected by means of crossing upon the ularly as giving valuable crosses with our common stock of the country. It has led common stock. Grade Ayrshires are among to better treatment of native stock, partly the best animals for the use of small and by increasing, to some extent, the interest dairy farms, and the cross-breds are, for all in cattle and the knowledge of their wants practical purposes, equal to the pure breds. and requirements, and partly from the fact One of the cows originally imported by that there was a general disposition among John P. Cushing, of Massachusetts, gave in the mass of farmers to say that if the natives one year 3,864 quarts of milk, beer measure, were kept as well, they would outstrip the being anl average of over ten quarts a day fancy stock. for the year; and the first Ayrshire cow im- But still the improvement in the common ported by the Massachusetts Society for stock of the eastern and middle states, or Promoting Agriculture, in 1837, yielded those portions devoted to the dairy and sixteen pounds of butter a week for several other stock interests than the raising of weeks in succession on grass-feed only. Our beef, over and above what can be ascribed to climate is not so favorable to the production better treatment, has been small compared of milk as that of England and Scotland. with what it has been in those states deNo cow, imported after having arrived at voted more exclusively to grazing. During maturity, could be expected to yield as much the past ten or twelve years, for example, the under the same circumstances, as one bred live stock of Ohio has increased in valuation on the spot where the trial is made, and per- -according to the official returns made to the fectly acclimated. The Ayrshire cow gen- state auditor-more than two hundred per erally gives a larger return of milk for the cent., while, in the same time, no class of food consumed than a cow of any other stock has increased in numbers one hundred breed. per cent. A part of this, to be sure, may Within the last 25 years the Jerseys be fairly ascribed to an increased demand have been extensively imported into this for stock, and a consequent higher value, but country by the Massachusetts Society for there can be no question that intrinsically Promoting Agriculture, and by many in- better animals have superseded the inferior dividuals in New England, New York, and native stock to a considerable extent. The Miaryland. They have their place among number of horned cattle in that state, in us, but it is not on the majority of our 1836, was 372,866, valued at $2,982,928. farms. They give richer milk, and that In 1846 the number had increased to 920,with greater uniformity, than any other 995 head, and the valuation to $7,527,123. known breed, but the quantity is usually In 1850 the number was 1,103,811, and the small, which would not do for the milk valuation $11,315,560. In 1868 the number dairyman. They are usually small in body, was 1,496,7 50, and thevaluationwas $57,644,and rather large consumers. On a dairy 730. The ratio of increase in value has been farm devoted exclusively to the making of greatly accelerated since the means of commubutter, an infusion of Jersey blood is highly nication by railway have so greatly increased desirable. One or two Jerseys in a herd of the facilities for information. Whenthe first twenty will often make a perceptible differ- great importation and sale was made, in ence in the quantity and richness of butter. 1834-6-7, it was not accessible to the mass of For gentlemen in the vicinity of cities, who cattle breeders, and acquired more of a local keep but one or two cows to supply their than ageneralreputation. What istrue of Ohio own table, they are also especially adapted. is true to nearly an equal, if not even greater They have consequently multiplied rapid- extent of most of the other western states. ly in the vicinity of cities on the Atlantic While speaking of the different objects seaboard. In 1853 there were, for instance, for which cattle are kept in various parts of but about seventy-five pure-bred Jerseys in the country, it may be interesting to comMassachusetts; now they number more than pute the actual products, per cow, in butter one thousand, while the grades are innumer- and cheese in the several sections. Accordable, many of them proving to be very fine. ing to the census of 1850, the average numThe influence which the introduction of ber of pounds of butterproduced per cow, per superior foreign stock has exerted, has not annum, in the various states, was as follows: AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 51 lbs.percow. lbs.percow. New York, 21,618,893 in Ohio, 8,215,030 Florida......... 4.4 Illinois......... 53.7 po,nds in Vermont, 5,294,090 in Massachus. TeCalif.ia....1 3.4 Mdriylad....... 527 etts, 3,898,411 in Connecticut, 2,508,556 in California........ 15.1 Indiana......... 50.4 Oregon....... 18.8 Iowa...........62.9 Pennsylvania, and 2,232,092 in New HIampGeorgia.........18.0 Delaware......63.3 shire. The other twenty-nine states and Soutl Carolina... 19.0 Winconsin.....67.0 territories only made about fifteen million North Carolina...20.8 Massachusetts...57.5 pounds in all. Tis production was equivaAlabama........26 2 Olio............ 71.9 Ark:ansas...::23.8 Minnesota.: 373 lent to about three and one-third pounds to Mississippi...... 24.2 Maine..........79.4 each inhabitant. The export in 1860 was Tennessee....... 58.2 Michigan.......86.2 23,252,000 pounds. The manufacture of Missouri.........36.8 New Hampshire..73.3 both butter and cheese has greatly increased Kansas........38.3 Connecticut.....77.0 within the decade 1860-1870. There are Virgini.........40.7 Pennsylvania....89.9 S o 1, Rhode Island....51.9 New Jersey......77.1 l n tle United States over 1,200 factories for Kentucky.......43.4 Vermont........91.0 making butter and cheese, using the milk of Louisiana.......11.1 New York.......91.7 about 700,000 cows. We have no reliable statistics of the quantity of either butter or Some of the states, like New York, for in- cleese made since 1860, as these statistics stance, sell vast quantities of milk in its can only be obtained (and not very accunatural state, and yet the quantity of butter rately even then) by the machinery of a per cow will be found to be large compared general census. The exports of cheese in with those states where cattle are kept more 1868 were 51,097,203 pounds of an invoiced especially for beef. To conclude that the value of $7,010,424. The price of both butstock of Kentucky, Illinois, or Ohio is infe- ter and cheese has greatly advanced within ior to that of New York because the yield twenty years. The estimated average value of butter per cow is inferior, would be pre- of both in 1850, was ten cents per pound. mature. The objects for which the stock of In 1860 this had increased to about twentythose states is kept are different, and for five cents for the butter and fifteen for the the purposes of grazing, the cattle of the cheese. The present average is not less than western states may be far better adapted thirty cents for butter and about seventeen than any other would be. for cheese. Let us now consider the proporLet us now see what is the amount of tion of cows kept in the various states to the cheese annually produced per cow in the population. We give the proportion of milch several states. In some of them it appears cows in 1868, and the estimated population to be infinitesimally small. The list stands of that year, as the latest available, and have as follows, beginning with a hundredth part added the average value of cows in each state of a pound: the same year. The proportion to the poplbs. per cow. ibs. per cow. ulation is stated in decimals:South Carolina...01 Nebraska...... 2.08 No. Cows Avr'ge -No. Cows Avr'ge Mississippi..... 02 Oregon......... 211 STATE. oper ld value STATE. er head value topopla. ofeows opop _a ofeows Georgia.........05 Illinois........ 3.65 -- - -'- --- ppao Louisiana..05 Pennsylvania... 400 Maine........ 0.19 $51.38 Louisiana..... O.C6 $20.28 Louisiana. 0...... ensylvania 4.00 NewHamrpshire 0.21 55.00 Texas...... 0.70 9.12 Florida..........06 Utah........... 4.83 Vermont...... 0.57 50.071Arkansns..... 21 75 Alabama........07 Iowa........... 4.90 Massachusetts. 0.11 67.50iTennessee..... 0.17 28.04 ~Mlaryland.....rl.08 PMI~inn~esotali... 5. 01 Rhode Island.. 0.10 60.00West Virginia. 0.17 34.23'Maryland.....0.8 MiConnecticut.... 0.23 66.66 Kentucky...... 0.11 36.46 Arkansas.......09 Wisconsin...... 5.40 New York... 0:32 54.14Missouri...... 0 22 31.21 North Carolina...22 California....... 6 49 New Jersey... 0.15 0.501uinois........ 0.20 38.11 Delaware.....26 Rhode Island,.. 9.12 Pennsylvania.. 0.16 47 11 Indiana....... 0.24 36.48 T~exase...... 45 M Ichigand... 9.13 Deluware...... 0.13 40.00Ohio......... 026 43.00 Texas...........45 Michigan........ 9.13 Maryland.... 0.11 45.44:Michigln..... 0.24 44.62 Tennessee.......55 Maine.........12.24 Virginia...... 0.20 28.76jWisconsin..... 0.31 37.25 Kentucky.......76 New Hampshire.23.67 North Caro!inn 0.19 20.711Meinnesota... 0.31 3853 77-*'^ p r~ i- a Q South Carolina 0.18 23.85]owa......... 0.35 36.13 Missouri.......77 Connecticut.....30.95 Georgia...... 0.22 22.36; ss........ 0.36 30.67 Virginia........87 Olio..........32.00 Florida....... 0.43 15.001Nelhrska...... 0.42 41.00 Kansas......... 1.14 Massachusetts..36.68 Alabnma..... 0.17 21.33 Califoria..... 0.34 50.31 New Jersey..... 132 New York......43.21 Mississiplpi. 0.18 22.91_ Indiana........ 1.67 Vermont.......47.08 The products from stock might be stated The total number of pounds, of cheese in another interesting point of view as folproduced in the United States in 1860, was lows: The northern states, comprising New 103,548,868, of which 48,548,289 pounds,- England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennalmost one-half-was made in the state of sylvania, with 166,358 sq. miles, and a popu 52 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. lation of 10,594,168, keeping 2,615,929 milch seen in our previous sketch of the condition cows, produced, according to the census of of things during the last century, which con1860, 295,230,136 pounds of butter and tinued with slight local modifications even cheese, valued at $73,807,514. They kept, into the present century, the chief means also, 460,101 oxen, and 2,128,107 other cat- of carrying on our inland business, inoluding tie, not, of course, including horses, sheep, or a vast amount of heavy transportation, was swine. At the same time the western states, the horse. The roads were in a most and the territories, with an area of 1,918,216 wretched condition, compared with the adsq. miles and a population of 8,535,538, had mirable roads of the present day, except, of 2,526,81 3 milch cows, and manufactured course, those in the more thickly settled por179,051,294 pounds of butter and cheese, tions around the larger centres of populavalued at $44,762,823. They had also 566,- tion. They were seldom built of any thing 039 oxen, and 4,348,086 other cattle. The but the natural soil thrown up from the sides, southern states, with 851,448 sq. miles, and a and often not this. The forest was felled, population of 12,240,294, had 3,040,914 and the ground left for many a thousand milch cows, and manufactured 80,925,845 miles without the precaution of making any pounds of butter and cheese, valued at $16,- side ditches at all, and over such a pathway 185,169. They also had 1,011,112 working the freight of a great part of the country oxen, and 7,450,290 other cattle. The aggre- was to be moved, in wagons made so as to gate number of neat cattle was given in 1840 be capable of the hardest usage. Over such at 14,971,586, and in 1850 at 17,778,907. roads light carriages would have been comThe amount of butter produced in 1850 was paratively useless, and a speed now seen 313,266,962 pounds, and that of cheese 105,- every day, would have been unsafe for them. 535,219 pounds; neither of which were given The mail contracts over a very large part of in 1840 as separate items. We had, in 1850, the country were made at a speed lower than 1,700,744 working oxen; and of other cattle, four. and five miles an hour, and heavily 16,078,163. The entire number ofmilch cows loaded teams, and heavy mail and passenin 1860 was 8,581,735; of working oxen, ger coaches, kept the roads for a considera2,254,911, and of other neat cattle, 14,779,- ble part of the year in a state not calculated 373, making a total of 25,618;019. The to encourage fast driving. The farmer had amount of butter produced in 1860 was to haulhis produce often long distances to 459,681,372 pounds, and of cheese 103,663,- market, and needed a heavy kind of horse. 927 pounds. These results, should be supple- Now he has a market almost at his very mernted by the statistics of 1868 inasmuch door. The long line of lumbering teams as the need of provisions for the great war of is rarely seen. The old mail coach has little 1861-5, and the prevalence of cattle disease, left to do. As many horses are now rea part of the time materially lessened the quired, and even more than before, but their rate of increase of this class of live stock, work is very different. The vast improveThere were in February, 1869, in the ments in agricultural implements have also country, 9,247,714 milch cows, valued at lightened the labors of the horse. Our $361,752,676, and 12,185,385 oxen and wagons are of lighter construction, our other neat cattle, valued at $306,211,473, ploughs run easier, our lands are freer from making a total of 21,433,099 neat cattle, rocks and stumps, and quick, hardy horses valued at $667,964,149; a falling off of often take the place of oxen, and of the nearly 4,200,000 in the number of cattle, larger, heavier, and much slower horses of the diminution, falling wholly on working half a century ago. oxen and cattle for slaughter, since the milch The farmer or the country gentleman who cows had increased by about 666,000. is accustomed to ride in the cars at the rate HiORSES. of thirty or forty miles an hour, would not That the horses in this country have un- be satisfied to step out of them and have to dergone a vast change and improvement dur- travel at the rate of five or six miles an hour. ing the last century-or, rather, during the So that the purposes for which horses are last half century-there can be no doubt. A now wanted are, as a general thing, very difsimple change in the uses to which horses are ferent from what they used to be. Speed, put, would naturally have produced a change which was formerly little required, is now in the horses themselves, without any well- considered an indispensable requisite in a directed effort at breeding, For, as we have good horse, and though our horses are made AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 53 up, as we shall see, of almost, if not quite which it became mixed. The horses of as great a variety of blood, and with as little New England, especially of Vermont and regard to the true principles of breeding, as Massachusetts, have been used chiefly as our native cattle, yet they are, in many re- roadsters and for general utility. They posspects, distinct from all other horses. They sess the most admirable qualities of power, possess, in many sections of the country, a speed, and endurance, and, for quick work surpassing degree of speed and power of and travel on the road, they are unsurpassed endurance, the result, in part, of the altered by any horses in the world. Low, in his condition of things, and greatly, also, of "History of Domestic Animals," says of the more attention to breeding and training. people of this country: "They prefer the The first horses taken from Europe to the trot to the paces more admired in the old western continent, were brought over by continent, and, having directed attention to Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493, the conformation which consists with this and the first introduced into any part of the character, the fastest trotting horses in the territory now comprised within the United world are to be found in the United States." States, were brought over and landed in Among the changes which have been Florida by Cabeca de Vaca, in 1527. These effected within the last fifty years in the numbered forty-two, but all perished for horses of New England, on which the high some cause or other soon after their arrival. encomium giv.en by Prof. Low is chiefly The horses found wild on the plains of -based, none, certainly, have been more markTexas and the western prairies are, probably, ed than the increase of speed. Fast trotting descendants of the fine Spanish horses aban- was scarcely known in the time of the old doned by De Soto on the failure of his expe- "Justin Morgan," nor was the speed of the dition and the return of his disheartened ad- horse considered of any special money value venturers. In 1604, a French lawyer, M. till the invention of the modern light buggy L'Escarbot, brought over horses to Acadia, and the improvement of the roads, already and from there the French, who extended alluded to. This quality has now become their settlements into Canada in 1608, took essential to the convenience and comfort of the horses which, probably, laid the founda- nearly all classes of society. Most people tion of what are now known as Canadian want a horse to go off easily at the rate of ponies, having, no doubt, lost much of their eight, ten, or twelve miles an hour, and the original size by the severity of the climate horses that do it are now very common, and limited summer forage. Though degen- whereas formerly, they were only the very erated in size, they still show traces of Nor- rare exception to the general rate of speed. man blood, from which they probably sprang. A demand very soon creates a supply, and In 1609 six mares and a horse were taken the farmer who breeds horses knows his to the settlement at Jamestown, in Virginia, own interest well enough to study the tastes and in 1657 the exportation of horses from of the community, and to breed accordingly. that colony was strictly prohibited. In In point of speed, therefore, there can be no 1629-30 horses were introduced into the question that a very great increase has been colony of the Massachusetts Bay by Higgin- attained by careful breeding, particularly son. These were brought from Leicester- within the last twenty years. In other shire, in England. The Dutch West India points some improvement has been made, Company had imported horses from Flan- such as general good qualities of style, acders, probably, into New York, in 1625, and tion, temper, form, constitution, and endurit is thought by some that the Conestogas ance. The aggregate money value has been derive their origin from this source. The greatly increased, because the number of French, who settled in Illinois in 1682, had fast horses and the general average of inmany Canadian horses, which were allowed trinsic good qualities in horses has been into run on the extensive "ranges" in their creased, and these command their value. vicinity. But, perhaps, the tendency has been to conThus we see, in part, the varied sources gregate the best horses in the cities and from which the native horses of this country large towns, and to draw them from the came. To these were added, from time to country. Few farmers want to keep a horse time, in the middle and southern states, more for farm and general purposes, that will or less of thorough-bred, or racing stock, bring from two or three to five hundred dolwhich essentially modified the stock with lars. 54 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Two distinct varieties of horses are now, imported and bred in the southern states, and have for the last few years been favorites especially in Maryland and Virginia, is quite for the road. Neither of these can have any different. The cavaliers cultivated and enpretensions to the claim of being a distinct couraged the sports of the turf, and the race, though they have both become distinct thorough-bred was early introduced, and families, well known under their respective bred with much enterprise. Good saddle names. The peculiarities of both are so horses, which in New England are comparawell marked, as not to deceive the practised tively rare, are very common at the south, eye. Of these, the Morgan has been alluded where the manly and healthful exercise of to, as deriving its name from the owner of horseback-riding has for a long time been the founder of the family, or the old "Justin almost universally practised, both as a pasMorgan," foaled in West Springfield, Mass., time and a common mode of travelling. in 1793. The sire of this remarkable stal- The interest in breeding thorough-bred lion is supposed to have been "True Briton," horses has been kept up in Kentucky, also, a half thorough-bred. The old "Justin and some of the most renowned rlinning Morgan" soon went to Vermont, 1795, and horses of this country hail from that state. there laid the foundation of the Morgans of Tiere is a difference of opinion among that state, producing the celebrated "Bul- good judges of horses, as to whether the rush," "Woodbury," and "Sherman" Mor- cross of the thorough-bred horse on the gans, all of which added vastly to the wealth common horse of the country would effect of the breeders and farmers of that section. any improvement when viewed from the The descendants of these horses have been stand-point of general utility. For special spread far and wide. The "' Justin Morgan " purposes, as for the production of good sadwas a small horse, only about fourteen hands die horses, the value of this cross would, no high, and weighing only about nine hundred doubt, be conceded. But the gait most and fifty pounds. The Morgan horse of the highly prized and most desirable for genpresent day is of somewhat larger size, and eral utility is the trot, and the mechanical usually varies fiom nine hundred and fifty structure best adapted to trotting and runto ten hundred and fifty pounds. He is re- ning is quite different. At the same time markable for compactness of form, strength, it must be admitted, I think, that some of and docility; and for the infinite variety of our best trotters have had strong infusions purposes for which the New England horses of thorough-bred blood. Some say, howare wanted, is probably unsurpassed. He is ever, that the form of the thorough-bred has much sought after for use on the road, and been changed, and so far as compactness, in omnibuses, hacks, and lighter carriages. muscle, and endurance are concerned, degenThe other family, also widely known, not erated. This is an opinion merely, which only in New England, but throughout the would apply with greater force to the gencountry, is the Black Hawk. The foun- eral average of thorough-breds or racers in der of this family was a horse of that name, England than in this country. The expericelebrated for transmitting his qualities to ment is undergoing full and fair trial in New his offspring, as well as for his great speed England at the present time. as a trotter. He was kept in Vermont till The Conestoga is a large and very heavy his death in 1856, at the age of twenty-three breed of horses, often met with in the midyears. As roadsters, the Black Hawks are die states, and used mostly for the purposes often very excellent, possessing a high. and of slow draught in the drays of our large nervous style of action, an elastic step, and towns and cities. a symmetrical and muscular form. It is not But while it is evident that the intrinsic too much to say that those two classes of value of our American horses has been vasthorses have added many millions of dollars ly improved, their aggregate number has to the value of the horses of this country. also been greatly increased during the last They infused a new spirit into the business fifty years. Unfortunately, the census of of breeding in New England, and had an 1840 did not take an account of horses by effect on the enterprise of the farming com- themselves, and we cannot tell, with exactmunity, similar to that which the introduc- ness, the ratio of increase from that time tion of short-horns had on the general im- to 1850, when the number of horses, excluprovement of the stock of the western states. sive of those of large cities and large towns, The-style of horse which has been most which were not returned, was 4,336,719. PETERSHAM MORGAN.: F~- P ------— = — r(p --- -- c= —-c— IiSCC. —* —~Y-': -: —- —---- ---— -: —- —-= — II —~ —= I- — ------- ~ry-, —-- -- - —-'~CIILc s;c4, — i —-LYt,G r- —— 's- Lf-T. L r TROTTING CHILDERS. i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M, Vt ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-: — ~?, ~ —-= COTSWOLDfSHEEP. COTSWOLD S 4 4P.:j' ~ ~ K BY' _ _ _ __ __ _ a C 1 I ~ if~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ _ _ Zii~K COTSWOLD ~; SHEEP ,'S~fiO([ HT, IOS _,DI. CN~dI,~.~ (IitlO}/~l i,: i ""i~~~xuoaiiiio &oaxa aAZR.:....... - ~ ~.........,........'- ~~J,~'~ ~''4~i''E:i~'r-' ~ — ~............................. --- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —~-.... ~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~`~~'',, 1~e'Rr c _.~'._ --.. 1 \~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\~ r"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~h s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -.~~~~~~~~~ __~ I ~ ~'~ _~ V~ I =_ ~~ s6, —........ AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 59 The number of horses, mules, and asses, in Sheep husbandry, in the earlier history of 1840, was 4,335,669, while the aggregate the country, was carried on very differently, number of these classes in 1850 was 4,896,- for the most part, from what it has been 050, that of mules and asses being 559,331. more recently. There were few extensive The number of horses in the United States flocks, but in the days of homespun it was in 1860, including those in cities and towns, very common for the farmer to keep a numwas 7,434,688, and excluding these, as in ber sufficient for home consumption. In 1840 and 1850, 6,249,174. The number of fact, it was almost a matter of necessity. asses and mules was 1,317,934, or excluding But the old native sheep was a coarse, longthose in cities and towns, 1,151,148. The legged, and unprofitable animal. The first war made sad havoc with these animals, con- fine-woolled sheep introduced into the counsiderable numbers being killed on the battle- try were those brought from Spain by Mr. fields, but vastly more by overwork, expos- Wm. Foster, of Boston, in 1793. He ure, and malignant epidemics. In 1869, the speaks of them as follows:number of horses was 6,332,793, (a falling "In April, 1793, on returning fiom Cadiz, off of over a million from 1860;) their aver- where I had been passing several years, I age value was $84.16, and their aggregate brought out an original painting, by Muvalue $533,024,787. The same year the rillo, and three merino sheep-two ewes number of mules (number of asses not given) and a ram-the export of which, at that was 921,662; their average value $106,74, time, was severely prohibited, and attended and their aggregate value $98,386,359. The with much difficulty and risk. We had a present number of horses is about one to long passage-seventy-five days-and the every six and a half inhabitants. sheep were in a dying condition. FortuThe south, by the census of 1860, had nately, there was on board a Frenchman, 2,571,243 horses; the west had 2,179,802; that had been with the Spanish shepherds, and the north had 1,280,719. who cured them by administering injections. Being about to leave this country for France, SHEEP r soon after my arrival in Boston, I presented Another branch of farming which has these sheep to Mr. Andrew Craigie, of Cambeen subject to more or less vicissitude, is bridge, who, not knowing their value at that that of sheep husbandry. The first sheep time,'simply ate them,' as he told me years imported into this country were, probably, after, when I met him at an auction, buying those taken into Virginia in 1609. They a merino ram for $1,000." came from England, and thrived so well Another small importation of merinos was that in 1648 they had increased to three made in 1802, and again in 1809 or 1810, thousand. about which time a complete merino fever About the year i625, some sheep were ran through the whole farming community, introduced into New York by the Dutch which had its day, and then subsided. West India Company. These came from The embargo of 1808 led many to turn Holland, and, together with others which ar- their attention to wool growing, and fine rived in 1630, proved to be too much of a wool soon rose to the high price of $1.50 temptation to dogs and wolves, for it is and $2.00 a pound. In 1809-10, no less stated that in 1643 there were not more than 3,650 merinos were imported and disthan sixteen sheep in the whole colony. tributed throughout the United States. The Sheep were brought into the Plymouth importance of these early importations can colony, and that of the Massachusetts Bay, hardly be overestimated. They furnished very soon after the settlement. They were our woollen manufactories with the raw makept on the islands in Boston harbor as terial at a time when it would have been exearly as 1633, and in 1635 the number of tremely difficult to obtain it from abroad. sheep in the New Hampshire settlement, In the ten years from 1840 to 1850, the near Portsmouth, was ninety-two. In 1652 sheep of the United States increasedtwo and a the number of sheep in and around Boston half millions, and numbered about twenty-two had'largely increased, since there were four millions, or more accurately, 21,723,220. hundred in Charlestown. In 1660 they were But in New England there was a remarkintroduced upon the island of Nantucket, and able falling off from 3,811,307 in 1840, to the raising of wool grew up to be of some 2,164,452 in 1850, making a loss of fortyimportance there. five per cent., while in the five sea-board 4 60 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- law designed for the protection of sheep vania, Delaware and Maryland, the decrease against dogs, which offers great inducements was twenty-two per cent. The increase was for entering again upon the business of sheep chiefly in the southern and western states. raising, and many are now availing themThe production of wool steadily increased, selves of it. Growing mutton and lamb for for in 1840 we raised 35,802,114 pounds, the market at even the present moderate valued at $11,345,318; in 1850 we raised prices of those articles in the eastern mar52,516,959 pounds, worth $15,755,088; and kets, is not an unprofitable branch of farmin 1855 we raised 61,560,379 pounds, worth ing; the early spring lambs, especially, bring$23,392,944, being a gain of forty-six per ing a good remuneration to the grower. cent. But as some evidence of improve- The great supply of mutton for the eastern ment, it may be stated that the average markets comes from the prairie states, where weight of fleece increased from 1.84 pounds it can be grown much dheaper than is possiin 1840, to 2.43 in 1850. In 1860, the ble on the Atlantic coast. number of sheep had increased to 23,977,- In the meantime the capacities and the 085, a gain of about 2,200,000. There was adaptation of the climate of the south for again a heavy falling off in the New England the raising of wool are being more and more states, which had only 1,880,767, about appreciated, and that section is growing 367,000 less than in 1850. The Middle more wool. It has been shown by the expeStates had 4,629,285, a loss of a little more rience of the last ten years, that by proper than a million. The South had 5,674,000, a attention to breeding, the hilly portions gain of a little more than 1,100,000, of even of the extreme south may be profitawhich fully nine-tenths was in Texas. The bly devoted to the production of wool. At west, including the territories, had11,750,877, the World's Fair, at London, in 1851, the an increase of nearly 2,250,000; mainly in fleece that commanded the highest premium California, New Mexico, Michigan, Missouri, for the fineness and beauty of staple, was and Minnesota. The amount of wool produc- grown in Tennessee. Germany, Spain, Saxed in 1860 was 60,264,913 pounds, about ony, and Silesia were there in strong and 1,300,000 pounds less than in 1855, thoughl hoorable competition. "Nature," says the the price being a little higher, it brough.t owner of the premium fleece, "gave me the about the same amount. During the decade advantage in climate, but the noble lords and 1860-70 great attention has been paid to wealthy princes of Europe did not know it, wool-growing and sheep-raising. For several neither did my own countrymen know it, years the high price of wool and of mutton until we met in the Crystal Palace of Loustimulated this to an unhealthy degree; for don, before a million of spectators. While the last three years the price of wool has their flocks were housed six months in the been less and the markets over-glutted with year, to shelter them from the snow of a mutton, and there are not probably so many high latitude, and were fed from the granasheep in the country now as in 1865 or ries and stock-yards, mine were roaming 1866. The Agricultural Report gives the over the green pastures of Tennessee, warmed number in February, 1869, as 37,724,279 by the genial influence of a summer sun; the (an increase of nearly fourteen millions since fleece thus softened and rendered oily by the 1860, or about sixty per cent.;) their aver- warmth and green food, producing a fine, age value as $2.17, and their aggregate value even fibre." at $82,139,979. The wool product of 1868 The American Commissioner of the Paris was about one hundred and five million Exhibition of 1867, states that our woolen pounds, an advance of about seventy per manufactures, in the quality of the wool, and cent. on that of 1860. - in efficiency of system, processes and maThe profits of sheep raising have been chinery of fabrication, are on an equality greatly reduced by the ravages of mean, sheep with the most advanced nations. The total -tealing dogs, especially in the Atlantic states. product of wool in the United States in 1867, We are not, therefore, surprised to find that was one hundred fifteen million pounds, a thenumber ofsheepin Massachusetts declined little more than double that of 1850, and from 378,226 in 1840, to 188,651 in 1850, fifty-five million pounds more than the yield and to 23,445 in 1860. This great evil has of 1860. The import of wool the previous now been remedied in some of the eastern year (1866,) had been 67,917,031 pounds, states, Massachusetts taking the lead, by a but the tariff of 1867 raising the duty on ~SOUTHIERN PINE WOODS.1O0Q. W~E.STERNI BEECH NUT H0(O. "I "~ l~j~i~~ "~~' II~' ~. N IMrPROVED SUF~FOLK. IMPROVED ESSEX. titlltftl!1 ~EEKSHLRE tt0~. 33BRXSflIRfl RO00 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 63 foreign wool, the importation dropped at breeder as the hog. This animal comes to once to 36,318,299 pounds. The export of maturity in so much less time than the wool the same year was 307,418 pounds. horse or the cow, and increases with so much The value of the imported wool was $5,915,- greater rapidity, as to offer larger induce178, and of the exported $130,857, leaving a ments to improve and perfect it. balance against us of $5,784,321. The im- Ferdinand de Soto probably brought the ports of woolen manufactures the same year first swine into this country, in 1538. These amounted to $45,813,212, and on exports of came from Cuba, and were landed in Florwoolen goods of our own manufacture were ida. They were probably descended from less than $100,000. The consumption of some brought over by Columbus in 1493. raw wool for the years 1862, 1863, 1864, The Portuguese, it is well known, brought 1865, and 1866, averaged one hundred and swine into Nova Scotia and Newfoundland forty-five million pounds per annum. It fell as early as 1553, where they rapidly multioff slightly in the last four years, 1867-70. plied. We have no later statistics of the quantity The London Company imported swine inof wool actually grown in the different sec- to Virginia in 1609. They increased so tions of the country than those of the census fast, that in 1627 the colony was in danger of 1860, though the number of sheep in each of being overrun with them, while the Insection in 1868 and 1869, may enable us to dians fed on pork from the hogs that had approximate the quantities of these years. become wild from running at large in the In 1860 there were 6,578,064 pounds of woods. wool produced in the New England States, a Meantime, they were introduced into the falling off of 500,000 pounds from 1850. In Plymouth colony in 1624, by Gov. Winslow, 1868 the number of sheep in that section had and into New Netherlands-now New York increased about 830,000, and there must have -in 1625, by the Dutch West India Combeen, therefore, about 2,900,000 pounds more pany. In all the colonies, as well as in the of wool produced there than in 1860, or French settlements in Illinois, they were alabout 9,400,000 pounds in all. The Middle lowed to run at large with considerable freeStates, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- dom, and fed on mast, though it was soon nia, Delaware, Maryland, and the District of found that pork fed on Indian corn was much Columbia, in 1860 produced 15,098,058 sweeter than that mast-fed. pounds of wool, about 375,000 pounds less It is not probable that any special attenthan in 1850. The number of sheep in those tion was paid to breeding, with reference to states had increased in 1868 about 4,300,- improving this animal, till near the close of 000, being 8,905,462, and, consequently, the last century. The first improvements their wool production in that year should effected that excited any considerable interhave been about 25,800,000 pounds. The est, seem to have been produced by a pair Southern states grew 9,867,271 pounds in of pigs sent from Woburn Abbey by the 1860, an advance of 1,530,000 pounds on Duke of Bedford to General Washington. the yield of 1850. Between 1860 and 1868 Parkinson; the Englishman to whom they -the number of sheep in that section had de- were entrusted for delivery to the general, creased 700,000, so that their production of was dishonest enough to sell them on his arwool was hardly more than 8,650,000 pounds rival in this country. They were long known in 1868. The western states and territories as the Woburn, and, in some sections, as the produced in 1860, 28,721,160 pounds, and Bedford hog, and were'originated by a forthis when they had but 11,750,877 sheep. tunate cross of the Chinese and the large In 1868 they had 26,599,416 sheep, and English hog. There is no doubt they were should have produced, as they probably did, splendid animals, with many fine points, small not less than 60,000,000 pounds, or the en- bones, deep, round barrel, short legs, feeding tire product of the whole country in 1860. easily, and maturing early, and often weighing To conclude, therefore, we have made at a year or a year and a half old, from four most decided progress, especially in the last to seven hundred pounds, with light offal, and forty years, both in the numbers and in the the first quality of flesh. They were mostly intrinsic value of our flocks. white-somewhat spotted. They were very SWINE, AND THE PORK BUSINESS. common at one time in Maryland, Delaware, Few animals are so susceptible of change and Virginia, and were bred somewhat extenand improvement in the hands of the skillful ely by Gen. Ridgeley, of Hampton-a fine 64 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. country seat in Baltimore county, Md.-who nor the middle states can compete successsent a pair of them to Col. Timothy Pick- fully with the west in the raising of swine ering, of Hamilton, Mass., who bred them and the production of pork on a large scale. till they became quite noted over a wide ex- The cost of grain in those sections of the tent of country. They are now extinct. It country would prevent it. A limited'numis worthy of remark that the Byfield breed her of hogs can be kept to advantage in a originated in the same way, by a cross of section of small farms, sufficient to consume the Chinese and the common hog, bred by and thus economize the refuse of the dairy Gorham Parsons, in Byfield, Mass. This and other farm products, that would otherbreed became famous, and was very much wise be liable to waste, but beyond this, the sought after for many years, and is even now keeping of swine is'not only not profitable, found in Ohio. but an absolute bill of expense. Previous to the introduction of the Wo- But in Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, burn hog, the classes of swine that had pre- and other states where corn can be raised vailed in the eastern and middle states were with little labor, and in unlimited quantities, coarse, long-legged, large-boned, slab-sided, the cost of pork is trifling compared with and flab-eared, an unprofitable and an un- the keeping of swine in the eastern states. sightly beast, better calculated for subsoiling The raising and packing of pork has, therethan for filling a pork barrel. An effort had fore, very naturally grown up in the western been made to improve them, about fifty states, and vast quantities are exported from years ago, and before the valuable breeds there every year, including pigs on foot, by above alluded to had become generally railway, slaughtered and sent off in the known, by the introduction of an animal whole carcass, and in hams, shoulders, and commonly called, at that time, the grass-fed sides, smoked, and in the shape of barrelled hog, which appeared about the time of the pickled pork. introduction of merino sheep, and were The native hogs of the west-that is, the often sneered at as the "merino hog." descendants of those taken there by the Chancellor Livingston took very great pains earlier settlers, and common there till within a to disseminate them, if, indeed, he did not very recent period-were admirably calculaoriginally import them. They are said to ted for the primitive condition of civilizahave been an exceedingly well-formed beast, tion in which they were placed. They were with small heads, round bodies, compact well calculated to shirk for themselves, as and well made, legs short and small-boned, they had to do, and became as fleet as the spotted in color, with a kind of dusky white deer, while their strength of head, neck, and on a black ground. As they were looked tusks enabled them to fight any wild beast of upon as an innovation, they had to encoun- the forest, and withstand any extent of exter the force of public sentiment, but their posure to the weather. They were diametintrinsic good qualities finally prevailed, and rically opposite in every prominent good they became popular. quality to the improved swine of the present Since that. period the introduction of many day. Instead of speed and fleetness of foot, varieties of superior hogs, both from Europe the farmer wants sluggishness in his hogs; and Asia, has effected a very marked im- instead of coarse, rawny bones, he wants provement in the common hog of the present fine, small-boned animals; and instead of a day, though it has been a too frequent prac- thick, hard coat, he wants a fine head, thin tice to breed indiscriminately. A pure coat, ready fattening qualities, and general breed, like the Suffolk, the Berkshire, or the thriftiness. And so the Suffolks became the Essex, may be used to cross for a specific favorites, and produced many most excellent purpose, but the pure breed ought again crosses with the old natives. In other parts and constantly to be resorted to, or the re- of Ohio, where improvement has taken suit will be likely to be unsatisfactory. It place, the Byfield, the Chester County, the requires great skill and judgment to breed Berkshire, the China, the Irish Grazier, or judiciously, and it ought to be made a spe- some other of the many excellent improved cial branch of farming to a greater extent breeds have been introduced, and effected a than it usually is, in order to insure the great and perceptible change. The western preservation and perpetuation of purity of farmer wants greater size than he finds in blood. the pure Suffolk or the pure bred Essex, It is well settled that neither the eastern but he also wants most of the excellent ~ ~ l?~~I.I II I —- L / ~,~~'~ i-L1 11 ~ ~ I}J!A',!1_ _/'__-_'_ —— __ ~'" SLAUGHTERING HOGS. We do not illustrate the process of knocking down and sticking of hogs, supposing it would not produce any pleasing emotions.. ~ ~ ~ ir i ~il'iII IiI r~l ~' CLI,I f-'VI=;';l\\\\\\\\\\\\B\\\\\L\\\\VI\\ \\\\,, m s T o W X n X 5;> D d m Iii' i i\ I AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 65 qualities which a cross of these breeds on million hogs. It is now very much the largthe larger and coarser natives produces. est pork market in the world. About sixty From 1840 to 1860, and perhaps a year or firms are engaged in the business, affording two later, the number of swine in the United employment to fiom twenty to twenty-five States largely exceeded the number of sheep. thousand men and boys. A description of In 1850 the excess was nearly ten millions; one of their great packing establishments in 1860 it was about twelve millions, the may be interesting. It is that of Messrs. number of sheep being 23,977,185, and of Jones & Culbertson. The main building is swine, 36,980,772. The great demand for 180 by 156 feet and three stories high with pork during the war, the difficulty of rearing a lard-house, 35 by 156, adjoining, well large droves of hogs when men were so built and supplied with abundant steam. scarce, and the prevalence of hog cholera The hogs are drawn up an incline to the top and the trichine disease then and since, have of the building where they have pure air and reversed the proportion of the two domestic good ventilation, and are kept quiet two animals, the number of swine, in 1869, being nights and a day before being killed. When 24,317,258, and of sheep 38,991,912, and in all is ready the hogs are driven, some twenty 1869, the swine numbering 23,316,476, and at once, into a small pen with a fine grated the sheep 37,724,279. Indiana has, for the floor. A man then enters, and, with a long last ten years, taken the lead in the number handled hammuer, deals each hog a heavy of swine, having, in 1860, 3,245,144, and blow on the forehead between the eyes, only 620,156 sheep. In 1869, while still which instantly drops him on'the flooir. retaining the preeminence in swine, having After he has lain a few moments, another 2,194,163 of these, she had more than four- man enters the pen with a sharp knife and -fold the number of sheep she had in 1860, sticks each hog, the blood flowing through the viz., 2,622,780. Missouri and Illinois have floor, and being conducted by spouts to large followed close in her wake, the former hav- tanks outside' the building. While this is ing, in 1860, 2,766,893, and the latter, being done another lot is let into an adjoin2,756;688. In 1869 their relative position ing pen and served in the same manner. was very nearly the same, Missouri having The first lot, by this time, having bled suf2,042,938 and Illinois 2,007,195. In 1.860, ficiently, is slid down an inclined plane diOhio and Kentucky came next, the former rectly into the scalding tub or vat, made of having 2,568,769 swine, and the latter, 2,564,- wood, some six feet wide, twenty feet long, 850, and Tennessee and Georgia were sixth and three feet deep, the water in which is and seventh on the list, the former having lieated by steam-pipes, and kept at a regu2,455,898, and the latter, 2,411,466. TNorth lar temperature; here they are floated along Carolina was then the only other state hav- and turned by men at the sides until they ing over two millions of swine, though Vir- reach the furthler end, where they are taken ginia and Alabama had each nearly 1,800,- out of the tub by a simple contrivance, oper000, and Texas 1,569,793. In 1869 the ated by a single man, and deposited upon order is materially changed; after the first the end of a long inclined table. Two men three states named, comes Iowa with 1,748,- stand ready and take from the back in an in853, then entucky, 1,560,186, Ohio, 1,500,- stant all the bristles that are suitable for the 000, Tennessee, 1,475,387, Georgia, 1,362,- brush-maker and cobbler, depositing them in 802, Texas, 1,014,343, Virginia, 922,895, boxes or barrels for removal. Other pairs of North Carolina, 858,074, Arkansas, 768,900, men, standing -on opposite sides of'the table, and Alabama, 707,810. divest another part of the hog of its coat and Pork-packing has been for the last twenty- so on through some eight or ten pairs of men, five years a very large and constantly in- who each have a different part to perform in creasing business in the west. Cincinnati cleaning the hog, until it reaches the last for many years took the lead in this enter- pair; who put in the gambrel stick and prise, packing, in favorable years, nearly swing it on a hook on an overhead railway, 500,000 hogs in a single season. St. Louis there it receives a shower bath of clean cold and Chicago both became rivals for this water, washing it clean fromn any particles of trade as early as 1857 or 1858, but in 1862, dirt that may remain, giving it, at the same Chicago at one bound distanced Cincinnati time, a parting scrape with knives. It then and St. Louis, and taking the lead has kept passes along to a man who opens it and reit ever since, packing in 1862-3 nearly a moves the large intestines. It then passes 66 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. to the second man, who takes out the small tank is supplied with a safety valve, so that intestines, heart, lights, &c.; the hog then on reaching the maximum pressure allowed, receives a thorough drench of clean water, it passes off; causing a continuous flow of and passes to another man who splits the steam through the whole mass. By this backbone down. They are then taken fiom process every particle of lard is set fiee from the hooks and borne away by overhead road- the mass. ways, and hung up to cool, one man being One of the tanks is reserved for making enough to handle the largest hogs with ease. white grease, into which the intestines, At this point a man loosens up the leaf lard paunches, and all refuse fiom the slaughter ready to be removed when cooled, which, house are placed, and subjected to the same together.with the splitting of the backbone steam process. before mentioned, helps very much to thor- Another tank is used for trying out dead oughly cool the meat. The hogs are allowed hogs that are killed by accident, suffocation, to hang in this cooling-room, before being &c., into which they are dumped whole, with cut up, two days, when all animal heat is the "pizzles" from the slaughter house. gone. The product of this is called yellow grease. After the small intestines, &c., are re- After the mass in the lard tanks has had moved from the hog, they are taken by men steam on the necessary length of time, a fanand boys, and all the fat separated from cet is opened midway of the tank, or about them and placed in large vats of water to where the lard and water would meet, and wash it clean, going through two waters, the lard drawn off into an immense open when it is ready to go into the lard tank, iron tank, called a clarifier, with a concave which will be described hereafter. bottom, provided with a steam-jacket on the Having now got the hog ready for cutting bottom; here it is heated up to 300~ F., up, he is taken from the cooling-room and sending all foul matters in a thick scum at carried to the room for this purpose, each the top, when it is skimmed off, all heavy hog being weighed as he is brought up, and matters of dirt, &c., settling on the bottom, its weight entered in a book kept for that this process thoroughly clarifying the lard. purpose. Having been rolled on to the A faucet is then opened at the bottom, and block, one blow froin an immense cleaver the sediment allowed to run out until clear severs the head from the body; another blow lard appears, when it is shut off, and the balsevers the saddle, that is, the hind parts, ance drawn into the coolers, thence into barcontaining the hams; another lays it open rels, where it is weighed and branded pura at the back; another one for each leg; the lard, and the product is the purest article we leaf lard having already been loosened is now have ever seen manufactured by any process, taken hold of with the hands, and instantly it being perfectly free from any unpleasant stripped out of the carcass. The remainder odor, and as pleasant to taste as new unof the hog is then cut up according to the salted butter. kind of meat it is most suitable for, the After the lard has been drawn from the whole cutting-up process occupying but a tanks a large man-hole is opened at the botfew.seconds of time, two smart men having tom, and the whole mass is drawn out in cut over two thousand in less than eight large wooden tanks set even with the floor. hours. The usual day's woik, however, is Here the mass is again subjected to a boilfrom 1,100 to 1,200 head. ing heat, by steam-pipes laid around the inThe lard-house is 35 by 156 feetand three side; any remaining grease is thus set free, stories high. In the second story are ar- and rises to the top and is skimmed off. A ranged seven iron tanks, made of heavy plug is drawn and the water disappears into boiler iron, twelve feet high, and six feet in the sewer. A gate is opened at the side, diameter, capable of sustaining a high pres- and the mass is turned out doors, ready to sure. These extend up through the floor be carried off. Here you will find every above into the third story, where each one bone that entered the tank whole and sound is provided with a large man-hole into which a bleached mass, so soft that even the teeth the leaf lard, head, gut lard, and pork trim- of the hog may be easily mashed between mings are emptied, until the tank is full, the fingers. The bristles and hair are readily when it is closed and the whole mass sub- purchased by those who prepare hair for jeeted to a jet of steam from the boilers, of a mattresses, "finding" dealers, &c. pressure of fifteen pounds per inch; each The Curing room. This occupies the AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 67 lower floor. The first process is to dress all powerful pressure, the residuum being stearthe meats, except the shoulders, with a solu- ien, which is extensively manufactured into tion of saltpetre, which is applied with a candles of excellent quality. swab to the green meat, and while wet with The quality of smoked meat depends very it is covered and rubbed with salt, and then much upon the curing of it previous td packed in tiers to cure. In three weeks it smoking. is all handled over and treated to a second The process of curing varies with different dressing of salt, and again in seven days houses, some applying the saltpetre and salt, more, when it is pronounced cured. After and packing in bulk to cure; while others lying a few days, the English meats are taken prepare a pickle (sweet pickle generally) by and carefully scraped and smoothed off pre- the use of three ounces of saltpetre, and one paratoryto packing. These meats are usually to two quarts of molasses for a tierce, the packed in square boxes containing 500 pounds. brine being made to show thirty degrees of The barrel meat is packed in the second saltness by the meter. story. Enough pieces of the various kinds After tie meat has lain sufficient time in are weighed out for a barrel, (200 pounds.) the pickle, it is taken out and packed in bulk It is then packed in the barrels, a layer of for curing, or, which is better, hung up in meat, then salt, until filled, the whole headed the smoke-house, remaining at least four up and branded. Each barrel is then filled weeks before it is thoroughly cured. with as much brine as the barrel will take, If the meat is designed for shipment to and allowed to stand with a small bung open foreign ports, it is seldom smoked, but shipa short time. ped packed in tierces, with salt, like other Description of meats. Mess pork is made barrel meat, and the cask filled with the of the sides of the thickest and fattest hogs, sweet pickle. cut in strips six to seven inches wide, run- The following table shows the number of ning from back to belly. hogs packed in Cincinnati, each year, for Mess 0. pork (mess ordinary) is cut from twenty-one years: the sides of a lighter class of hogs, ranging 1848...75,0001855...356,7861862..474,46 from 170 to 200 pounds, cut up in the same 1849.... 410,000 1856....405,3961863....608,457 manner. 1850... 393,000 1857....344,512.1864.... 370,623 Prime mess is cut from a still lighter class, 1851... 234,000 1858....446,6771865....350,600 ranging from 100 to 150 pounds weight, the 18. 300....38,8261866... 354079 1853....361,000/1860....434,499 1867....462,600 shoulder being included. While on the 1854... 4210001861.. 433 799l186... 366,481 block this class, after being divested of the head, saddle, and lard, is cut lengthwise The number packed in Chicago each year, about mid-way of the ribs, and then cut up from 1853 to 1869, was, cross-ways into 4 pound pieces, so that it 1853-4.. 52,8491859-60.167,9681864-5........ takes just fifty of them to make a barrel. 1854-5. 72,694 1860-1..231,335 1865-6..463;450 The hams and shoulders are taken by the 1855-6.. 80,380 1861-2..511,118 1866-7..635,732 trimnmers-the hams nicely rounded off and 1856-7.. 74,600 1862-3..970,264 1867-8..800,000 shaped; the shoulders the same-when they 1857-8. 99262 1863-4..904,159 1868-9..719,000 1858-9..1857000 are dropped through a spout to the lower floor, as is all the other meat cut for curing. St. Louis, Louisville; Toledo, Dubuque, The heads, trimmings, leaf lard, gut lard, &c., Cleveland, Terre Haute, and 144 other cities are all gathered and taken to the lard-house. and towns in the western states, are engaged The feet generally go to the glue makers. in pork-packing, and the entire number Quantities, however, are prepared for eating packed range from 2,400,000 to 3,000,000 by thoroughly cleaning and freeing from the per annum. The business is not increasing toe nails; then thoroughly cooking and pick- and can not until there is a very considerable ling in vinegar. increase in the number of swine. The tongues are packed in barrels, the We have thus alluded briefly to the varisame as mess pork, and always in demand, ous classes of live stock in the United States, large quantities finding a foreign market. and have given some idea of its progressively For home consumption they are prepared increasing value. Let us now recapitulate and pickled the same as the feet. the aggregate of the census of 1860, and of Lard oil is made by placing the lard in the estimates of the Agricultural Departheavy duck bagging, and subjecting it to ment for 1869, in such a shape as to show y 0 68 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. the growth of the country in this branch of golden corn, rearing its imperial form and agriculture. In 1860 the statistics of live tasselled banner high over all its compeers, stock in the United States were as follows; and founding its claim to royalty, as the orses........,435,688Other n'tcattle 18,126,382 prince of cereals, by the universality of its Assesand Mules 1.317,934 Sheep........23,977,185 uses and its intrinsic importance to mankind. Milch cows..... 8,581,7 35Swine.......36,980,772 Its flexibility of organization is truly Working oxen.. 2,254,911| wonderful; for while it grows best on moist, The valuation of live stock at that time rich soils, and with great heats, there are vawas $1,089,329,915, just double that of 1850. rieties of it which can be raised at the height In 1869, the number and value of live of more than eight thousand feet above the stock of the United States were as follows: level of the sea. The warmest regions of Number. Ve. the torrid zone produce it in abundance, Number. Value. while the short summers of Canada have Horses.............. 6,332,793 $533,024,787 while the short summers of Canada have * Mules.............. 921,662 98,386,359 varieties adapted to them which arrive at Milch cows.......... 9,247,714 361,752,676 maturity with almost the same certainty as Oxen ad other cattle....12,185,385 306,211,473 those under a hotter sun and a longer season. Swineep.. 37,724,279 82,139,97 INDIAN CORN, therefore, as being the great Swine..'............. 23,316,476 146.188,755 Tota vauatio..... $1,5,04,02 staple crop of the country, demands our first Total'valuation..... $1,52'i,704,029.ention. attention. These estimates are incomplete, including This plant is of American origin. It was none of the territories, and none of the Paci- found in cultivation among the aborigines fic States except California, but they will of the country at the time of its discovery serve as some indication of the greatly in- by Columbus. It is referred to by the oldcreased values of our live stock since 1850. est historians of Peru. It has been found The value of slaughtered animals for the year growing wild in various parts of Central 1860 was $213,618,692. As this value has America, and Humboldt, who must be reincreased faster than that of. the -live stock, garded as the most eminent authority, says: it is safe to estimate it for the year 1869 at "It is no longer doubted among botanists that 320 million dollars. Adding to these the Maize, or Turkish corn, is a true American value of the farms in 1860, $6,645,045,007, grain, and that the old continent received it and making the advance only 50 per cent. from the new." to 1870.we have $9,967,567,511 as the value It is well known that Indian corn entered, of the farms now. The farming implements in some form or other, into the mythology in 1860 were valued at $246,118,141 and and the religious ceremonies of the Indians, are worth in 1870 not less than 400 millions, both of North and South America, long Our grand aggregate then, of agricultural before they were disturbed by the appearproperty in 1869-70, farms, farming ma- ance and approach of civilization. Schoolchinery, live stock and slaughtered animals, craft mentions an interesting allegory of the is $12,217,567,000. Let us next inquire Ojibwas, which has since been clothed with what is the annual income of this vast capi- an unusual fascination by the graceful lantal invested in farming and labor? guage of Longfellow. Let us refer to the leading products for a A young man went out into the woods to satisfactory reply fast, at the period of life when youth is exPRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. changed for manhood. He built a lodge of boughs in a secluded place, and painted his In a range of latitude extending almost face of a sombre hue. By day he amused from the tropics to the regions of frost and himself in walking about, looking at the vasnow, we should naturally expect to find a rious shrubs and wild plants, and at night he great variety of climate, and the products lay down in his bower, from which, being open, more especially adapted to it. And such is he could look up into the sky. He sought a the case. The products of our agriculture are gift from the Master of Life, and he hoped it infinitely varied, and all the great staples would be something to benefit his race. On form a most important part in promoting the the third day he became too weak to leave national prosperity. But if, among them all, the lodge, and as he lay gazing upward he one can be said to hold pre-eminence over saw a spirit come down in the shape of a the rest, the palm must be yielded to the beautiful young man, dressed in green, and *Asses not enumerated. having green plumes on his head, who told AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 69 him to arise and wrestle with him, as this gregate product, down to the present time. was the only way in which he could obtain It is a remarkable fact shown by a comparihis wishes. He did so, and found his son of the censuses of 1840 and 1850, that the strength renewed by the effort. This visit product largely increased during the ten and the trial of wrestling were repeated for years, in nearly every state of the Union, four days, the youth feeling at each trial and in no state did it retrograde. In New that, although his bodily strength declined, England it increased 50 per cent. in that a moral and supernatural energy was impart- time, and its increase since has been quite as ed, which promised him the final victory. great, if not even greater, than previous to On the third day his celestial visitor spoke 1850. to him. " To-morrow," said he, " will be the Among the earlier exports of the country seventh day of your fast, and the last time I we find frequent mention of the number of shall wrestle with you. You will triumph bushels of Indian corn, showing that a conover me and gain your wishes. As soon as siderable surplus was produced in many loyou have thrown me down, strip off' my calities a century ago. Thus, the amount exclothes and bury me on the spot, in soft, ported from South Carolina in 1748 was fresh earth. When you have done this, 39,308 bushels, and in 1754, 16,428 bushleave me, but come occasionally to visit the els. The amount shipped from Savannah in place, to keep the weeds from growing. 1655 was 600 bushels, and in 1770, 13,598 Once or twice cover me with fresh earth." bushels. And so North Carolina exported He then departed, but returned the next no less than 61,580 bushels as early as 1753. day, and, as he had predicted, was thrown Virginia for several years previous to the Revdown. The young man punctually obeyed olution exported 600,000 bushels a year, his instructions in every particular, and soon and from the port of Norfolk alone, 341,had the pleasure of seeing the green plumes 984 bushels in the year 1791; while in 1795 of his sky visitor shooting up through the the amount from that port reached 442,075 ground. He carefully weeded the earth, bushels. At the same time the amount sent and kept it fresh and soft, and in due time from City Point, Virginia, in 1791 was 21,was gratified at beholding the mature plant, 180 bushels, including meal, and in 1795, bending with its golden fruit, and gracefully 33,358 bushels. waving its green leaves and yellow tassels in The amount shipped from Philadelphia in the wind. He then invited his parents to 1752 was 90,740 bushels, and in 1767 there the spot to behold the new plant. "It is were exported from there 60,206 bushels. Mondamin," replied his father, "it is the In 1771 it reached 259,441 bushels, and in spirits' grain." Tradition says they imme- 1796 it amounted to 179,094 bushels, in addiately prepared a feast, and invited their dition to 223,064 barrels of Indian meal. friends to partake of it; and that this is the There were 2,510 bushels shipped from origin of Indian corn. Portsmouth, N. H., in 1776; and in 1777, However this may be, we know that the 1,915 bushels; which amount increased in first attempt by the English to cultivate it 1778 to 5,306 bushels; while in 1779, the within the present limits of the United export amounted to 3,097. The export of States, was made on James river, in Virginia, this grain from the same place was 6,71il 1608 or 1609. They adopted the mode of bushels in 1780, and 5,587 bushels in culture in practice by the Indians, as given 1781. on a preceding page. A year or two after, But previous to the first-mentioned date it is said they cultivated in all as many as (1776), this grain was on several occasions thirty acres. The pilgrims found it in culti- imported into Portsmouth, and up the Pisvation by the Indians around Plymouth, and cataqua river, to the extent, in 1765, of immediately began its cultivation, manuring 6,498 bushels, owing, probably, to a severe it with alewives. As early as 1621, Gov. drought in the year previous, and the spring Winslow visited the Nemasket Indians, at of 1765, which seriously affected the corn Middleboro', Mass., who fed him on mazium. crop. And again, in 1769 the import to that The cultivation of this important grain section amounted to 4,097 bushels, followed was, then, fairlybegun at the very first settle- in 1770 by 16,587 bushels. During that ment of the country, and it has been con- year there was a "very melancholy dry time," tinued with slight modification, but con- in July and August; a drought of such sesantly extending and increasing in its ag- verity that there was little prospect of corn. 70 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. The worms had done much injury in the 31,000,000 of acres. The value of this spring, and a " very uncommon sort of worm, enormous crop was $296,034,552. This called the canker worm, ate the corn and was a gain of 57 per cent., or 214,539,grass all as they went, above ground, which 229 bushels, while the increase of populacut short the crops in many places." And tion during the same period was only 35 again, in 1772 the pastures all dried up, and per cent. According to the estimate of there was very little corn, and all kinds of the secretary of the treasury, the crop of grain suffered very much; so that the amount Indian corn in 1855 was between seven and of corn imported: into Portsmouth and vi- eight hundred millions, or nearly double that cinity was 4,096 bushels in that year. of 1840. But this estimate was entirely too But the total amount of Indian corn ex- low, the crop being the largest and best that ported fiom the colonies in 1770 was 578,- year that had ever been raised in the coun349 bushels. In 1791 it amounted to 2,064,- try, and amounting, at least, to 1,060,000,000 936 bushels, including 351,695 bushels of bushels, and its value, at a low estimate, was Indian meal. In 1800 the aggregate num- $400,000,000. ber of bushels exported was 2,032,435, in- We see, therefore, on reference to the eluding 338,108 bushels of meal; while in census, that this crop formed about three1810 the export of this grain was only 140,- sixteenths of the whole agricultural product 996 bushels, of which 86,744 bushels were of the country in 1850, and that the proporin the form of Indian meal. tion of improved land devoted to corn was The product of Indian corn, as may be.333, while the number of bushels to each gathered from the amount exported, had person in the country was 25.53.* never reached any thing like the figures From the amounts of corn stated above, as which it has attained within the last thirty raised in 1840 and in 1850, it will be seen years. This was not owing merely to the that we had a very large surplus over and fact that the avenues to the great west were above what we needed for home consumpnot then opened-though, of course, they tion; though it must be evident that vast have vastly multiplied the market facilities quantities are, and must be required to feed for this and other products-but chiefly to( to the large number of cattle and swine, the fact that the real advantages of cultiva- which we have seen are annually prepared ting this as a staple or reliable crop, were for the shambles. * It appears from official not then appreciated as they are now. Add statistics that the exportation of Indian to this the fact that it was comparatively corn has rapidly increased since 1820, when little used as human food in any part of it amounted to only 607,277 bushels, valued Europe, and we have a reason sufficient to at $261,099, and 131,669 barrels of Indian account for the fact that the product was meal, valued at $345,180, making an aggrecomparatively small. The inland farmer had gate of $616,'279. In 1830-1 the number no market for it, the cost of transportation of bushels of corn exported from the counof so bulky a product prevented him from try was 571,312, valued at $396,617, and teaming it to any great distance, and the lo- 207,604 barrels of Indian meal, valued at cal demand was so limited that there was no $595,434. In 1840-1 the number of bushobject in raising much more than was abso- els of corn exported was 535,727, valued at lutely needed for home consumption. $312,954, with 232,284 barrels of meal, In the year 1816 the crop of Indian corn was worth $682,457. very generally cut off throughout the north- But in 1845-6 the amount rose to 1,826,ern states by frequent and severe frosts, so 068 bushels, valued at $1,186,663; and from that as a cultivated crop it fell into disrepute that in 1846-7 to 16,326,050 bushels of corn, in many sections, and was cultivated less for worth $14,395,212. The next year, 1847-8, some years, by individual farmers, till its in- it reached nearly six millions of bushels; and trinsic importance as a sure and reliable crop in 1848-9 to upward of thirteen millions, brought it gradually into favor. At the time valued at $7,966,369. it was first included in the United States census, in 1840, the aggregate yield of the country was 377,531,875, or nearly four hundred * France produced in 1820 but 17,280,000 bushm iions bushels. In 1850 it had reached1 els, while in 1847 she produced 33,400,000 bushs bh. In 180 i h r els-being an increase of nearly 100 per cent. within a fraction of six hundred millions, in twenty years. Russia produced 16,000,000 of m;ng returned as 592,071,104, occupying bushels in 1850. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 71 The exports of Indian corn and meal in not fully supply its overgrown population. different years from 1851 to 1868, were as The famine in Ireland in 1847, causing the follows: loss of half a million of lives by starvation, Year. Bush. of corn. Value. Bbls. Ind.meal. Value. and the political revolution which soon fol1851 3,426,811 $1,762,549 203,622 $622,866 lowed on the continent in 1848, growing out, 1854 7,768,816 6,074,277 257,403 1,002,976 to a great extent, of a short supply of food, 1856 10,292,280 7,622,565 293,607 1,175,688 refreshinthemindsof everyone. 1858 4,766,145 3,259,039 237,637 877,692 are fresh in the mids of every one. 1860 3,726,786 2,399,808 289,570 912,075 Now this surplus of population and the 1862 18,904,898 10,387,383 253,570 778,344 consequent permanent demand for the pro1864.4,096,684 3,353,280 262,357 1,349,765 ductions of our soil are of comparatively 1866-7 14,889,823 14,871,092 284,281 1,555,585 date, and we have hadly, even yet 1867-8 11,147,490 13,094,036 336,508 2,068,430 begun to re e he ance ald the ien begun to realize their importance and the inThe amount of exports is, of course, reg- fluence which they are hereafter to exert in ulated very much by foreign demand. If developing the resources of our soil. It was breadstuffs are scarce in Europe and prices only a century ago (1756) when D'Anquehigh, they are immediately shipped from ville, a political economist of France, said: this country to take advantage of the mar- "England could grow corn enough in one ket.'If the reverse is the case, and prices year to supply herself for four." Now, are low, our surplus is kept at home. It is though she has, at least, three times as much but a few years since the foreign demand for land under cultivation as then, and though breadstuffs began to any extent. Now and the yield of her products to the acre has then would occur a year of unusual scarcity, been more than doubled, yet she imports to be sure, but it was rare to find any exten- food in the shape of corn, wheat, oats, meal, sive demand year after year for our surplus and flour to the extent of more than ~45,products. The increase of population be- 000,000, or $225,000,000. And, though yond the point of capacity to produce, in western Europe has been supplied, to a large Great Britain and the continent of Europe, extent, from Russia and other parts of the now gives the bread question an importance world, it is becoming more and more evident paramount to all others with the European that it must look more and more to this statesman, and it is having and will have a country for its supplies, and this fact is powerful influence on our agriculture. Con- recognized by many of the leading journals sumption has overtaken production-got be- and statesmen of Europe, as, for instance, yond it, in fact, in some of the countries of the nMark Lane Gazette, which says: " One Europe-and henceforth importation must fact is clear, that it is to western America supply an ever increasing demand, since, that we must, in future, look for the largest however much the agricultural production amount of cereal produce." of western Europe may increase by the im- It was fortunate, therefore, for the pros. proving condition of its agriculture, it can- perity of the country, and especially for the not hereafter keep up with the natural in- prosperity of its agriculture, constituting by crease of population, which, at the present far the largest and most important interest, time, in Great Britain, is at the rate of a that just about the time when a more extenthousand per day. This crowding popula- sive demand for its surplus products grew up tion will appear in its true light, in an agri- in Europe, the means were provided for cultural point of view, when it is considered throwing this surplus into good markets. that if the United States and its territories After the' triumphant termination of the were as thickly populated as Great Britain, war of the Revolution, the importance of they would contain about 1,250,000,000 of developing the material resources of the people, a number about equal to the whole country impressed itself upon the minds of population of the globe, far-seeing statesmen. W~ashington himself The year 1824, it is asserted by some, was projected a canal, extending up the Potomac, the turning point at which consumption to connect the great west-then coinpara overtook and exceeded production in Eng- tively uninhabited-with the Atlantic coast, land. Since that time the agricultural pro- and though the enterprise was premature, duction of Great Britain has been vastly in- and the requisite capital could not, at that creased by the improvement of agriculture time, be procured, it shows the grand conand live stock; but great and perceptible as ception of his noble mind, and that he foreimprovement has been, it has not, and can-. saw the vast importance which the agricul, 72 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. ture of that great country was destined to But Indian corn, while it is the most imassume. But that state of things could not portant product in its money value, is not always remain in a country rapidly recover- the, only great staple production of the ing from the stagnation of a long protracted country, and we turn our attention to struggle for independence, and the events of a second war showed most clearly the ne-HEAT. cessity of increased facilities of intercommu- The wheat crop of the country is of about nication. Then we had no canals to speak three-fifths the value of Indian corn, and, of, and no good roads. The great extent of in some respects is quite as important. sea coast, the magnificent bays, and the This, like the other grains, was cultivated in mighty rivers which intersected the country this country at a very early date, having were the chief means of industrial inter- been sown by Gosnold, on the Elizabeth course, and these could be blockaded, crush- Islands, on the southern coast of Massachuing our commerce and bankrupting individ- setts, as early as 1602, at the time he first uals, to the serious injury of the whole coun- explored that. coast. In 1611 it seems to try. Then DeWitt Clinton conceived the have been first cultivated in Virginia, and so project of connecting the waters of the much did it commend itself to the early setHudson with those of Lake Erie, by a canal tiers, that in 1648, if history.is to be relied so vast in extent as to strike everybody with on, there were several hundred acres in that astonishment. President Madison went so colony. It soon fell into disrepute, howevfar as to express the opinion that it could er, as a staple crop, for the cultivation of not be accomplished, even with the treasures tobacco was found to pay better, and for of the whole federal government. But Clin- more than a hundred years it was comparaton persisted, and in 1825, eight years from tively little cultivated. Premiums were the time it was begun, a canal of three hun- offered to encourage its culture, but they dred and fifty miles in extent, costing at that were not sufficient to check the growing attime over $9,000,000, bore the produce of tention to tobacco. the west to the New York market. It is certain that wheat had been cultivaThe success of this grand enterprise stim- ted by the Dutch colony of the New Nethulated other improvements of a similar char- erlands, for it is recorded that samples of acter, and opened up sources of wealth, the this grain were taken to Holland in 1626, to mere enumeration of which would appear to show what could be done in the new counbe fabulous. Railroads soon followed, anni- try. hilating distance, as it were, and bringing It is not certain that it was cultivated in the growing centres of trade into close com- the Plymouth colony immediately upon its munication. We now have nearly 30,000 settlement, though it is highly probable that miles of railroads, forming a complete net- not more than a year or two would have work all over the country. At the time of been allowed to pass before so important a the Revolution, the great state of Ohio was plant would have received its due attention. a wild forest that had rarely been penetrated In 1629, wheat and other grains for seed by any white man, except, perhaps, the ad- were ordered from England, and in 1631 venturous hunter. In 1800 she had but lit- there arrived a vessel with thirty-four hogstie over 40,000 inhabitants. Now railroads heads of wheat flour. connect her many large and prosperous The culture of wheat was undoubtedly cities and her innumerable villages, and take commenced almost simultaneously with the the produce of her fertile farms to the sea- settlement of the country, but it seems never board markets. to have attracted any very great attention These means of communication are of so for more than a century, Indian corn and recent date, that any prediction of their ulti- potatoes being more relied upon for subsistmate results in developing the agricultural ence. It was never raised in New England, resources of these states would be prema- in early times, with so much success as it ture. Indeed, the capacity for the produc- has been during the present century. As tion of human food, which is still compara- early as 1663, it was found to be very subtively undeveloped in that section, can hard- ject to blast and mildew. Early in July of ly be estimated. The progress within the last that year, " the best wheat," says an old twenty years has been so rapid and unprec- manuscript diary that I have consulted, "as edented, as to appear altogether marvellous, also some other grain, was blasted in many AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 73 places, so that whole acres were not worth other years, the weevil. When the former, reaping. We have had much drought the the wheat fly, makes its appearance, there is last summer (1662), and excess of wet sev- no known remedy but to discontinue the eral other springs, but this of blasting is the culture of wheat in that locality till it disfirst so general and remarkable that I yet appears. After a time, the culture of wheat heard of in New England." may be resumed with a reasonable hope of But this blasting is frequently " heard of" freedom from this pest. This is one reason afterward, for the very next year (1664) the of the little attention, comparatively, paid wheat was very generally blasted, "and in to the culture of this crop in New England sundry towns scarce any left." And the for the last few years. The farmers in many blast returned again in 1665 and 1666 with localities are resuming its culture again. I great severity. This explains why it never know many and many a magnificent field became a prominent crop in New England. of wheat in Massachusetts this year (1869), There never was a time in the history of this that will average twenty-five, thirty, and section of the country when it was a sure thirty-five bushels to the acre, of as full and and reliable crop, unless it be the present, fair a kernel as ever grew; and many an with our improved modes of culture, our acre in Massachusetts has averaged over forty. better knowledge of proper modes of tillage, bushels this year. It is the opinion of many deep ploughing, and thorough drainage. I practical farmers that they can raise thirtyhave no patience to read the cant which is five bushels of wheat as easy as fifty bushels constantly paraded in the papers of this and of corn to the acre. But the census of other countries about the exhausted soils of 1860 did not return the full crop. New England. How often do we see it There were other reasons for the falling off stated that they are "run out," that they won't than the impoverishment of the soil. A bear wheat, and the return of the census of part of these have been alluded to, and are 1860 is compared with that of 1850 to show to be found in the comparative uncertainty an enormous falling off, as if it were owing of the crop; but a more direct and important to the fact that it is impossible to grow cause was the opening of direct railroad wheat. It is not so. As good crops can be communication, and the cheap freight sysand are grown in Massachusetts now as tem, with the west. The farmer could prothere ever were. It is as safe a crop now as duce other crops for the market which paid it ever was, and as profitable. But "the well, and it was better for him to buy flour census shows a falling off," is constantly than to raise it. He could not compete sounded over the country, till people are led with the west in raising wheat, but he could to believe it cannot be raised on account of in raising milk for the market, in raising the impoverished condition of the soil. The fruit-which finds a ready sale at his doorcensus does show a decline of this crop in in raising vegetables, which the multiplicaNew England between 1840 and 1850, and tion of manufacturing villages in his neigha large one. But the wheat crop was injured borhood created a demand for. And so his in 1849-that being the year oil which the industry was merely turned into another statistics of the crops of 1850 are returned channel for a time, and very wisely too. -to a degree wholly unprecedented, not During the last century considerable only in New England, but in several of the quantities of wheat were raised along the largest wheat-growing states. The returns, Hudson and the Mohawk, and in New Jertherefore, made in June, 1850, do not cor- sey and Pennsylvania; and, as we have seen rectly indicate the usual quantity of grain in the case of Indian corn, the exports were grown in the United States. Nor did the somewhat respectable in years of scarcity in census of 1860 give anything like an ade- Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and quate idea of the magnificent crop of wheat the West Indies, even previous to 1723. In produced in that year (1860) throughout the 1750 New Jersey took the lead of all the northern, middle, and western states. colonies in growing wheat. But wheat is subject to many losses by in- The amount of flour exported from New sects, rust, smut, frost, drought, storms, and York in 1749;50, was 6,721 tons, besides other casualties, as well as poverty of the many bushels of grain; in 1756 it was 80,000 soil. In some recent years it has been very barrels. The amount exported' from New greatly damaged in central and western New Jersey in 1751 was 6,424 barrels. The York, and, in Ohio, by the wheat fly; in. amount shipped from Philadelphia in 1752 74 AGRICULTURVE IN THE UNITED STATES. was 125,960 barrels, and 86,500 bushels of most prosperous states of the Union, and is wheat. In 1771 the export of flour fiom destined to rank as the granary of the that place was 252,744 barrels, and in 1772, world. 284,827 barrels; in 1784, 201,305 barrels; The first foothold that modern agriculture in 1787, 193,720 barrels; in 1791, 315,785 got in this vast field was secured in the same barrels. Virginia, for some years prior to year of the founding of Philadelphia, 1682, the Revolution, exported about 800,000 when white settlements were made in the bushels of wheat. The aggregate amount southern part of what is known asthe "Amerof flour exported from the United States in ican bottom," a tract of country extending 1791 was 619,681 barrels, and 1,018,339 for about a hundred miles in length-friom bushels of wheat. Jn 1800 the export Alton, twenty miles above St. Louis, down to amnounted to 653,052 barrels, and 26,853 Chester, at the mouth of the Kaskaskia bushels of wheat. In 1810 the export was river-by five miles in width. This region 798,431 barrels of flour, and 325,024 bush- lies in Illinois, and forms the eastern border els of wheat. In 1862 it was 4,882,033 bar- of the Mississippi river. Here, far removed rels of flour, and 37,289,572 bushels of from eastern civilization, a bold and hardy, wheat. but honest and peaceable company of French, Considering the unfavorable season of fiom Canada, and from France itself, estab1849, it is not surprising that the increase of lished the old villages of Kaskaskia, Prairie the wheat crop during the ten years from du Rocher, St. Philip, Cahokia, etc., chiefly 1840 to 1850 was but 15 per cent. In the for the purpose of opening a fur trade with next decade (1850 to 1860) the increase was the Indians. A part, probably at least half, 73 per cent. New England and the Middle of the settlers, however, finding the soil exStates again fell off, but the west more than ceedingly rich, devoted themselves to the doubled, and the south nearly doubled its cultivation of land, and the-country for a conproduction. The aggregate number of bush- siderable extent around these villages soon els in 1840 was 84,823,272; in 1850 it was became productive of wheat and other nec100,485,944; in 1860, 173,104,924; and in essaries of life. 1869, about 260 million bushels. This was the first settlement beyond the It is quite probable that changes have Alleghany mountains, and preceded by a taken place in the soils and productiveness of whole century the first settlements of Kensome sections of the older states, owing to tucky and Tennessee. For a hundred and careless and ignorant management. It is fifty years those farmers lived in peace and evident, however, that a revolution is in pro- harmony with the natives. They were not, gress in these matters, and that a higher in- to be sure, very skilful in the art of agricultelligence and skill are brought to bear lupon ture. It was but rudely pursued at that agriculture, and especially upon the cultiva- time in the mother country. The impletion of this cereal. In 1869 the average ments used in farming, even in the best culyield of wheat per acre in New England was tivated regions of Europe, were then ex17.3 and in Massachusetts and Vermont 18 tremely rude as compared with those of the bushels. This is a higher average than West- present day; but here, in this remote outern N. Y., once the granary of the country. skirt of civilization, they were far more rude But by far the most extensive and aston- and uncouth than those used by farmers who ishing changes, in an agricultural point of had greater facilities for making them. view, are those presented to us in the rise But notwithstanding this rude and imperand development of the west, whose almost feet culture, so great was the fertility of the illimitable fields are the wonder and admira- virgin soil to which it was entrusted, the tion of modern times. The " west" is, in- wheat grew luxuriantly, and they often had deed, an imaginary and movable line. Fifty a surplus, useless and comparatively worthor sixty years ago it was understood, in the less to them, since the expense of getting it eastern states, to be somewhere in central or to market exceeded its value when it had western New York, and the difficulty of arrived there. Who would be expected to reaching it greatly exceeded in magnitude make improvements in farming under such that of visiting the Pacific States now. circumstances? With the demand for home This line has been moving west with consumption supplied with but trifling labor, the advance of civilization ever since. It with no inducements beyond a supply of now comprises several of the largest and their own limited wants, they could not be AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 75 expected to exhibit the enterprise and thrift That section of country being conquered of farmers having greater interests at stake. and taken from England in the Revolution, But they went further, and entertained the not a few of the American soldiers, finding same prejudice against any new notion, and the country so fertile, remained and settled repugnance to any change, as that cherished there; and it is said, that at least threeat the same time in the older colonies. The fourths of the Americans who had settled in old-established practice was good enough Illinois previous to the war of 1812, had for them, and they clung to it with a tenac- served as soldiers in the Revolution. ity worthy of a better cause. After the Revolution, in fact, numerous The cultivation of Indian corn was not settlements were made, till, in 1817, the introduced among these early western far- state was admitted into the Union. After mers tilllong after they established themselves that period, farms and farmers increased in that region-not, indeed, till after Louisi- more rapidly than they had hitherto done, ana had become a part of our national ter- and the production of wheat and Indian ritory; but then, it took the place of wheat corn rapidly increased. The cradle soon to a considerable extent, it being thought a took the place of the sickle. In 1830 the more reliable crop, while the stalks furnished first successful steam flour mill was erecta more valuable winter fodder for cattle. ed, and gave a new impulse to the raising When once introduced, it was cultivated on of wheat. Up to this time, comparatively the same land year after year, for many few cultivated meadows were to be found, years in succession, a practice which was and the wild, coarse grasses of the prairies continued in that section till a very recent and river bottoms were chiefly relied upon date. Instead of linens and woollens, which for winter fodder for horses and cattle. Of were mostly worn at the same period among course, when cattle are running at large, but the country people at the sea-board, these little improvement can take place in the farmers usually raised a small patch of cot- breed, and but little had actually been atton, and made their own garments, often tempted in this direction. But now the using, also, the skins and furs of wild beasts. spirit of improvement began with renewed These latter became so important, as to be vigor, and we shall see how rapidly the agriused as the currency in business negotiations, cultural resources of that great state have a deer-skin being of the highest kind, and been developed within the last quarter of a serving as the unit. century. Thus lived these quiet colonists, without What applies to this particular state, change, and with slight improvements, from will apply with nearly equal truth to almost one generation to another, poor but inde- the whole of the great north-west. The progpendent, with food enough, cattle and hogs ress of agriculture in Illinois and the adenough, few wants to supply, clinging with joining states cannot be better illustrated inveterate tenacity to old customs, and re- than by referring to the rise and growth of sisting innovations, till the time of the ces- the city of Chicago, which has now become sion of the country east of the Mississippi the greatest primary grain depot in the by France to England, in 1763, at which world, its exports being nearly twice as great time the colony was at the height of its as those of St. Petersburg, and exceeding prosperity. The horses they raised were those of Galatz and Ibrail combined, by upthe small Canadians, said by some to have ward of five millions of bushels a year. been derived from the pure Arabian, and In 1829, Chicago may be said to have had obtained originally through Spain. They no existence. It was then laid out, and the were very hardy, more so than the American sale of lots took place in the autumn of that horses of that time, and were rarely crossed year. In 1840 it contained but 4,853 inhabwith any other race; but little or no care itants. In 1845 its population had grown to was taken of them for more than a hundred 12,088, and in 1850 that number had doubyears, and they were allowed to run on the led, and the population amounted to 28,269. range without grain. Their cattle were In 1855 it had increased to 88,509, in 1860 small, with black horns, derived also from to 109,263, and in 1870 to about 250,000. Canada. The French kept large numbers The prc-emineince of Chicago as a grain deof fowls, usually had excellent gardens, and pot is due in part to its geographical position, cultivated some fruit, among which were but to a great extent, also, to the great facilisome valuable varieties of pears and apples. tics for receiving, warehousing, and shipping 5 76 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. grain. Her immense warehouses are erected ped; in 1857, 489,934 barrels; in 1864, on the river and its branches, and railroad 1,170,274 barrels; in 1867, 1,859,995, and tracks run in the rear of them, so that a in 1868, 2,239,497 barrels. The receipts of train of loaded cars may be standing at one grain each year were generally fiomn 15 to end of a large elevating warehouse, and 25 per cent. beyond the shipments, large while its load is being raised by elevators quantities of wheat and corn being converted at the rate of from 7,000 to 8,000 bushels into flour and meal in the city. Reducing per hour, at the other end the same grain the flour to grain, the shipments of cereals, may be running into vessels, and be on of all sorts, were, in 1854, 12,902,320 bushits way to Buffalo, Montreal, or Liverpool els; in 1857, 18,032,678 bushels; in 1862, within six hours' time. The Illinois Central 56,484,110 bushels; in 1867, 57,875,927 railroad grain warehouses can discharge bushels, and in 1868, 66,998,274 bushels. twelve cars loaded with grain, and at the It is to be considered that the agriculture same time load two vessels with it, at of the region which feeds the warehouses of the rate of 24,000 bushels per hour. They Chicago is but yet in its infancy. The recan receive grain from twenty-four cars sources and the capacity for production are at once, at the rate of 8,000 bushels per still to a very great extent undeveloped. The hour. And numerous other immense grain country is still sparsely settled, compared houses can do the same thing. Grain can, with the older states, and the operations of therefore, be handled with wonderful dis- agriculture are carried on under great disadpatch as well as with cheapness. The vantages, with a great scarcity of labor, and warehouse alluded to, that of the Illinois in many cases a want of capital. Central railroad, is capable of storing 1,500,- The reader will now be able to appreciate, 000 bushels of grain. It can receive and to some extent, the vast importance of the ship 65,000 bushels in a single day, or improvements in agricultural implements and it can ship alone 225,000 a day! But this machinery, which have already been deis only one of the magnificent grain ware- scribed on a preceding page as having been houses, and there are many others, some of made within the last twenty-five years. which are of nearly equal capacity, and in With the implements and processes in use the aggregate they are capable of storing within the memory of most men, it would be 3,395,000 bushels. They can receive and impossible to attain such magnificent results ship 430,000 bushels in ten hours, or they in the way of agricultural produce. There can ship alone 1,340,000 bushels in ten are at the present time, in the city of Chihours, and follow it up the year round. In -cago, some ten or twelve large manufactories busy seasons these figures are often doubled engaged in making and selling agricultural by running nights. implements and machinery, each employing The amount of capital in grain warehouses fiom one hundred to three hundred hands, alone exceeds eight millions of dollars, to besides other large establishments at Rocksay nothing of a large amount of capital in- ford, Freeport, Alton, and many other places, vested in other incidental means of conduct- employing throughout the state more than ing this immense business. ten thousand persons. There are at least The first shipment of wheat from Chicago fifty reaper and mower manufactories, and was made in 1838, and consisted of 78 bush- other establishments devoted to making els. In 1853 the shipments were, of wheat, threshers, cultivators, ploughs, drills, lawn 1,680,999 bushels; Indian corn, 2,780,253 mowers, etc., and the demand for these bushels; oats, 1,748,493 bushels. In 1857 improved machines is rapidly increasing. they had risen to, wheat, 10,783,292 bushels; But Chicago is only one of the great cenIndian corn, 6,814,615; oats, 416,778 bush- tres for the receipt of agricultural produce els. In 1867 they were, wheat, 10,360,458 directly from the farmer, and St. Louis, Cinbushels; Indian corn, 20,213,790; oats, cinnati, Cleveland, Buffalo, Rochester, and 9,732,146; rye, 1,008,623; and barley, many other large points might bementioned, 1,680,950 bushels. In 1868 they were, of nearly equal importance, to say nothing wheat, 10,367,880 bushels; Indian corn, 23,- of many of the large grain-dealing cities of 771,330; oats, 13,019,757; rye, 1,134,571; the south, like Richmond, for instance. barley, 788,760 bushels. The shipments of In view of these facts we can realize that flour had been increasing in an equally rapid agriculture produces, as was estimated in ratio. In 1853 131,130 barrels were ship- 1864 by the superintendent of the census, AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.'77 more than twenty hundred millions of dol- year it fell off to 9,435,204 bushels. In 1857 lars a year; and that in the state of New it was 44,266,755 bushels, and in 1859 had York, where "the assessed value of the real fallen to 22,506,608 bushels, the lowest point estate is thirteen hundred millions (1,327,- it reached till 1867. In 1862, under the 403,886) of dollars, notwithstanding the English famine, the export reached 76,345,enormous wealth of the metropolis, the agri- 836 bushels, or about one-third of the crop cultural interest pays three-fourths of the of that year, and in 1863 it was 71,280,854 taxes." bushels. In 1867 it had fallen off to 16,Of the aggregate number of bushels of 547,259 bushels, rising in 1868 to 32,552,wheat returned by the census of 1850, and 283 bushels. The fluctation, it will be seen, which, as has been intimated, gives an ex- correspond exactly with the European deceedingly inadequate idea of the ordinary mand. Within the past twelve or fifteen produce of this grain, the south, embracing years, the states and territories on the Pacific, the states mentioned on a preceding page, and especially California, have yielded large produced 27,878,815 bushels, valued at $25,- crops of cereals. In 1850 the wheat crop of 090,933; the west produced 41,394,545 California was 17,228 bushels, the Indian bushels, valued at $37,255,08S; and the corn crop 12,236. In 1859 the wheat crop north produced 30,761,941 bushels, valued was 5,928,000 bushels; in 1867 a little over at $27,865,746. 15 million bushels; in 1868, 21 million The crop Qf wheat of 1860, the largest bushels, and in 1869 over 30 millions. Inraised in this country up to that time, did dian corn does not succeed so well, but not probably fall short of 230,000,000 of 1,220,000 bushels were raised in 1868, while bushels. It was exceeded, however, subse- the yield of barley that year was over 10,quently by the crop of 1869 which was more 500,000 bushels, or about one-half the entire than 260 million bushels, and probably barley crop of the United States. There equaled by the crop of 1868 which was not were, in 1869, about three million acres unfar from 230 million bushels. der cultivation, and over six millions inclosWhat has been said in speaking of the ed. The agricultural products of the year exports of Indian corn, may be said, also, of exceeded sixty-five million dollars in value. wheat, that the amount sent abroad is reg- Oregon is, also, producing largely of the ceulated very much by the extent of the de- reals. The exports of wheat from San Franmand there. The surplus of this grain-that cisco, in 1869, were over eight million bushis, the amount that can be spared for ship els, the greater part of which went directly ment to foreign ports, over and above what to England. The exports of wheat and is required forbhome consumption-is as elas- flour from July 1, 1869, to March 31, 1870, tic as India-rubber. If Europe wants our were valued at $54, 122,442. wheat, or our flour, and is compelled to pay good prices, either from a short crop, a dis- PRODUCTION OF OTHER GRAINS. turbed state of political affairs, or any other RYE is not, at the present time, so extencause, it is impossible to set bounds to our sively used for food as formerly. The amount surplus, because the more she wants, the grown is, therefore, comparatively small. more we have to spare, and the less Europe, Rye was introduced and cultivated in all the or any foreign country wants, the less we colonies at the earliest periods of their sethave to export. (If little wheat is wanted tlement, and its meal was mixed with Indian abroad, it is used more freely at home, and meal for the making of bread, in New Engthe balance is stored for future use. If large land, as early, certainly, as 1648, and perquantities of it are required abroad, less will haps even as early as 1630, and that custom be used at home, the people resorting to In- became very common. The export of this dian corn and meal to a large extent.) The grain has never been very extensive, and amount of export is, therefore, regulated by since the demand for wheat has been so the price. Thus, the export in 1846 was much increased, its extent of cultivation has 13,268,175 bushels; in 1848, (the year of diminished rapidly. the Irish famine,) 26,312,431 bushels; in In 1796, no less than 50,614 barrels of 1850 it was 608,661 bushels of wheat, and rye meal were exported from Philadelphia, 1,385,448 barrels of flour, in all equal to and in 1801 the United States exported 11,692,245; in 1854 it had risen, including 392,276 bushels of rye. In 1812 the export the flour, to 40,215,753 bushels; the next was only 82,705 bushels. 78 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. The variation in the amount of the rye ony at New York, in 1626. Good crops of crop from one decade to another is not very it were raised in the colony of the Massagreat. It is less used for distillation now chusetts Bay as early as 1630; and in 1796 than it was thirty or thirty-five year since, the principal agricultural product of the state but it is more in demand for breadstuffs. In of Rhode Island was barley. 1840, there were 18,645,567 bushels return- For many years, barley was not a favorite ed; in 1850, only 14,188,813 bushels; in crop in any part of the country; and was 1860, 21,101,380, and in 1868, 22,504,800 raised only for malting and distillation, and bushels. Pennsylvania, New York, New even for this purpose the supply was mateJersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin are the largest rially below the demand. On the Pacific producers of this crop, about three-fourth of coast, however, it succeeds better than oats, it being grown in those five states. The and is preferred for feeding horses, and also straw is very valuable and in great demand. for distillations. In 1840 the barley crop OATS.-The culture of the oat is more ex- was returned as 4,161,504 bushels; in 1850 tensive than that of rye. It was introduced as 5,167,015 bushels; in 1860, as 15,825,into the colonies inmmediately after their set- 898 or three fold what it was in 1850. Caltlement by Europeans, having been sown by ifornia already took the lead, in 1860, reGosnold, on the Elizabeth Islands, as early turning 4,415,426 bushels, while New York as 1602, and cultivated to greater or less ex- returned only 4,186,668, Ohio 1,663,868, tent from that time to the present. But and Illinois 1,036,338bushelse In 1867, the though much more extensively produced barley crop was 25,727,000 bushels of which than rye, its consumption as food for ani- the Pacific states and territories raised 13 meals is so great in this country, that it has millions, or more than one-half. In 1868, never formed any considerable article of ex- the yield was estimated at 23,500,000 bushport, though an average of about 70,000 els, of which the Pacific coast furnished 11,bushels was shipped for some years previous 500,000. The crop of 1869 was not less to 1820, than 28 million bushels. The oat crop in 1840 was returned as BucKwHEAT.-This grain has never been 123,071,341 bushels; that of 1850 as 146,- cultivated to any great extent in this coun584,179 bushels; that of 1860 as 172,643,- try, though it was introduced into the col185 bushels; that of 1867 as 278,698,000 ony at Manhattan Island by the Dutch bushels, and that of 1868 as 254,960,800 West India Company, and raised there as bushels. The geographical distribution of early as 1625 or 1626. Its culture was conthe crop of 1867 was as follows: The New tinned by the Dutch to some extent, and England states raised 12,485,000 bushels; they used it as provender for horses. It the Middle states, 107,239,000 bushels; the was also cultivated by the Swedes, who setsouthern and south-western states, 43,914,- tled along the Delaware, in New Jersey and 000; the western states and territories, i33,- Pennsylvania. 917,000 bushels. Pennsylvania takes the None of the southern or south-western lead in this crop, producing nearly 60,000,- states, except Virginia and West Virginia, 000 bushels; New York comes.next with 38 have ever made much account of this crop. millions, and Illinois was third with 32,158,- A few acres were sown with it in North Car000. In 1868 and 1869 Illinois stood sec- olina, Kentucky, and Tennessee, but Pennond, surpassing New York by 7 or 8 million sylvania, New York, Michigan, and Ohio are bushels. The other states which yielded the the principal states for buckwheat. In 1840, largest crop of this grain were Ohio, Wis- the number of bushels of buckwheat returned cousin, Iowa, and Indiana. None of the was 7,291,743; in 1850, 8,596,912; in 1860, other states produced 10 million bushels. 17,571,818; in 1867, 21,359,000; in 1868 BARLEY, like the other grains already there was a falling off, only 19,863,700 bushmentioned, was sown on the first settlement els being reported. The value of the crop of the colonies, having been first -cultivated in 1867 was $23,469,650, and in 1868, $t20,by Gosnold as early as 1602, on the Eliza- 814,315. The great corn and wheat growbeth Islands, on the Massachusetts coast, and ing belt, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylby the settlers at Jamestown, in Virginia, in vania, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, Illinois, and 1611, where, however, it soon gave way to Indiana produced in 1867, 19,436,000 bushthe more lucrative production of tobacco. els of the 21,359,000 yielded that year. Samples of it were sent from the Dutch col- The cultivation of buckwheat has the P~ l~?~liilll~ iliI i~?!~~~~!~!I ~i!~!~ ~!?~llrl~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ii~~~~li~ ~ ~ w!~i,i!11~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4!i~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 79 effect to cleanse the land, which has been 896 bushels; in 1860, it was 111,848,817 one reason for its increase, while the price it bushels, and in 1868, 106,090,000 bushels. commands makes it a profitable crop. In 1850 there were 38,268,148 bushels of CLOVER AND GRASS SEED. In connection sweet potatoes, and in 1860, 42,095,026~ with the smaller grains should be mentioned bushels. the production of clover seed, and that of PEAS AND BEANS.-Though not entering the various grasses, which, in some sections, extensively into the commercial interests of has become an item of some importance. the country, the product of peas and beans The census of 1860 returned the amount is still important, both from its extent and of clover seed produced as 956,188 bushels. value for home consumption. Of this, Pennsylvania raised the largest quan- Beans are said to have been first cultivated tity of any one state, and Ohio came next, by Capt. Gosnold, on the Elizabeth Islands, followed by New York and Indiana. as early as 1602. They appear to have been The amount of grass seed raised was 900,- cultivated by the- Dutch, at Manhattan, in 040 bushels, and in this product Illinois took 1644, and about the same time in Virginia; the lead of all the states, exceeding the next but are said to have been previously raised highest producer, New Jersey, by more than by the natives. one hundred thousand bushels. In the year 1755, the amount of peas exOf the clover and grass seeds together, ported from Savannah was 400 bushels, and amounting to 1,856,328 bushels, the northern in 1770, 601 bushels. The amount exported states produced, in 1860, over 1,600,000 from Charlestown in 1754 was 9,162 bushels. bushels, valued at $6,400,000, and the south- North Carolina exported 10,000 bushels in ern states about 250,000 bushels, valued at 1753. $1,000,000. The total amount exported annually from the ~THE POTATO.~ United States for 20 years previous to 1817, was 90,000 bushels, while the beans annually The potato is more universally cultivated exported during the same period amounted in this country than any other crop, except- to fiom thirty to forty thousand bushels. ing, perhaps, Indian corn. At what time The census of 1850 returned the amount it was first introduced, as a cultivated plant, of peas and beans as 9,219,901 bushels. Tile into the American colonies, is not known, value of these crops exceeded $16,000,000; but it was, no doubt, soon after the settle- that of 1860, as 15,061,995 bushels, valued ment. It is mentioned among the seed or- at about $45,000,000. dered for the Plymouth colony, as early, certainly, as 1629, but it was not recognized, T GRASS AND HAY CROP. probably, as an indispensable crop, till near. Owing to the necessity that exists throughthe middle of the last century, when it ap- out all the northern portion of the United pears to have been very widely known and States to stall-feed the stock from three to six esteemed. As many as 700 bushels were months of the year, the grass and hay crop asexportec fiom South Carolina in 1747, and sumes there an importance which it has not in 1796 no less than 9,004 bushels were in the more southern portions of the country. shipped fiom Philadelphia. I have alluded, briefly, on a preceding It is well known that the sweet potato was page, to the fact that, at the time of the first introduced, and came to be regarded as early settlement of the colonies, no attention a delicacy in England, and the allusions to had been paid in the mother country to the the potato by the earlier English writers who cultivation of either the natural or the artimention this plant, refer to the sweet, and ficial grasses. Attention to this branch of not to the common potato. farming was gradually forced upon the setIt has formed a somewhat important arti- tiers of the more northern portions of the cle of export, though by no means to be country. For want of sufficient and suitacompared, in this respect, with wheat and ble winter nourishment, the cattle, which Indian corn. We exported in 1821-2 about were scarce and expensive, were often found 129,814 bushels, valued at $45,758. In dying of starvation, notwithstanding the 1844-5 the export amounted to 274,21.6 efforts made to secure a supply of salt hay bushels, valued at $122,926. The number from the many marshes in the vicinity of of bushels of potatoes returned by the census the Plymouth and the Massachusetts, as well of 1840 was 108,298,060. In 1850, 65,787,- as the Dutch and Swedish colonies. 80 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. It was, no doubt, many years before it tons. In 1850 it was 13,838,642 tons, an became possible, in the nature of things, to increase of 3,590,533 tons. In 1860 it was provide full supplies for their cattle, and it 19,083,896 tolls with a value of not less than was not unfrequently the case, even after the 209 million dollars; in 1868 it was 26,141,culture of grasses was introduced, that the 900 tons, of the estimated value of $351,cattle were obliged to browse in the woods 941,930; a greater amount than any other in a long and hard struggle for life, owing to agricultural product, except Indian corn. If the loss of crops by drought and imperfect we add to this, the value of the grass crop. cultivation. (pasturage and soiling feed,) which is more The cultivation of timothy, the most im- than equal to that of the hay, we have an portant and valuable of the forage grasses, amount nearly equal to that of Indian corn was not introduced, according to, Jared and wheat combined. Eliot, who wrote in 1750, till a few years The production of hay is, to a certain exprevious to that date, having been found by tent, a tax upon the farmer imposed by the one Herd, in a swamp near Piscataqua. He severity of climate. In a mild climate and propagated it till it was taken to Maryland short winters, the necessity for curing hay and Virginia by Timothy Hanson, after in any considerable quantities is avoided. whom it is most frequently called. The Less hay is made, of course, at the south well-known orchard grass was cultivated as than at the north. The same number and early as the middle of the last century, for size of cattle would require less artificially we know it was introduced from Virginia prepared fodder in a mild climate than in a into England in 1764, or thereabout. The severe one. Maine, for instance, in 1868, June, or Kentucky blue grass, was probably raised 1,228,000 tons of hay, and kept 349,indigenous, and sprung up in the pathway 454 head of cattle and horses, about oneof the settlers, as it does now, wherever the third of her hay crop being exported. lllifootstcp of civilization penetrates. But it nois, with 1,905,000 tons of hay kept 2,076,was not till a recent date that the general 000 head of cattle and horses, using about culture and improvement of the grasses re- nineteen-twentieths of a ton per head; while ceived the attention it deserved. Alabama, which made only 85,000 tons of The grasses spring up almost spontane- hay, kept 590,612 head of cattle, the proporously in many localities, it is true, other- tion being but one ton of hay to seven head erwise the settlers would have suffered far of cattle. There is, it is true, some compensamore severely than they did. From the tion in this, as in most other things, and that time when the great mandate went forth, is the extreme difficulty of growing the ordieven before the creation of man, " Let the nary natural grasses in a southern latitude, earth bring forth grass," it has been a law on account of the severe droughts. It is of nature to clothe the earth with verdure as almost impossible to produce a fine, close, soon as the advance of civilization lets in permanent turf south of 39~ N. latitude, and the light upon the soil by the first clearings considerable quantities of cured hay are taken of the pioneer settler. from the north to southern ports every year. The progress made in the cultivation of There is, also, another most important grasses and the production of hay has been compensation in the greater facility afforded greater within the last half century than by the wintering of cattle for economizing ever before. This will appear, especially manure, and thus keeping up the fertility of when we consider the improvement in the the soil. For example, tobacco culture is means of cultivating and harvesting the said to have impoverished the soil of Vircrop. The culture of clover had been cor- ginia. One reason for it was, that keeping menced, in some parts of the country, pre- comparatively few cattle, and never housing vious to that time, but it had not established them, but rather " browsing" them from one itself in the farmer's favor to any very great year's end to another. there was no posextent, and the indigenous grasses were chiefly sibility of saving and making a great quanrelied on, while the seed used in many parts tity of manure. Till the introduction of of the country was that which had fallen guano, it was extremely difficult to get mafrom the hay-mow, foul, of course, and full nure for the tobacco field, and exhaustion of weeds. was inevitable. In Massachusetts, on the According to the census of 1840, the hay other hand, there is no crop that a wheat or crop of the United States was 10,248,108 corn crop will follow so well as that of to - ~ ~ ~? -, ~ ~ //-'IVW I -i M -MAKING READY FOR CULTIVATION. 7/! - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~, -,'! CULTIVATIO OF SMALL FUITS. nAI RB F CULTIVATION O MLLFLT AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 81 bacco, for the reason that the grower, know- cultivated at all, as a part of the produce of ing the requirements of the plant, manures the farm, till a comparatively recent date. it very highly, as he easily can, and the soil, At the close of the Revolution, and, in fact, instead of being exhausted from year to at the end of the last century, it would have year, is actually growing richer. Increasing been impossible to have found in the whole the hay crop, therefore, notwithstanding its country the number and varieties of good. cost, enables the farmer to keep more stock fruits which might now be found in a single in such a manner as to make more manure, good farming town. There were orchards and more manure enables him to keep up of seedling apples, and many of them were the fertility of the land. far better than none, but that is nearly all We are not surprised, therefore, to find that can be said for them. They were the geographical distribution of the crop as raised chiefly for the making of cider. returned in 1868 as follows:- Most of the favorite varieties of the present The Eastern and Middle states produced day had then no existence; and if any very 12,778,000 tons, valued at $172,991,880; the superior apple had existed in any isolated westproduced 11,309,700 tons,valued at $148- locality, it could not, from the very nature 228,562; and the south and south-west pro- of things, have become generally known and duced 2,054,200 tons, valued at $30,721,488. appreciated, for, as we have seen, the barThere can be no reasonable doubt that riers which separated the rural population the quality of hay made now, over that of that day were so great as often to leave usually made in former times in this country, them in ignorance of what was passing, has been improved, to say nothing of the even in a neighboring town. A seedling very greatly increased facilities for harvesting equal to the Baldwin apple might have reit. More correct ideas are entertained of the mained unknown twenty miles off from the extent and mode of curing it, and the quality beginning to the end of the last century. is improved in proportion as ahigher knowl- Apples were apples, and all apples were fit edge is brought to bear upon it. to make cider, and that was enough. It was regarded as absurd for any but a young man to set out trees; and when a The establishment of state and county man of seventy began to plant an orchard, agricultural societies, and of stated exhibi- the idea was so ludicrous as to subject him tions, in which the products of the orchard to the ridicule of the whole neighborhood. and the garden had a prominent place, in- But, during the first quarter of the prestroduced a new era in the culture of fruit. ent century, many large orchards were The early settlers made some attempts to planted in different parts of the country, introduce apples and pears, some bringing still with. particular reference to the prowith them the seeds of these fruits, with the duction of cider. The fruit crop of the counsupposition, no doubt, that they should have try was of so little importance as not to have the like again. been thought worthy of a place in the collecThe first apples raised in this country tibn of our national statistics, even so late were, probably, from trees planted on Gov- as 1830; now it amounts to considerably ernors Island, in the harbor of Boston, over thirty millions of dollars a year, and is from which, on the 10th of October, 1639, fast growing to be one of the most important ten fair pippins were brought, " there being products of the country, the annual sales not one apple or pear tree planted in any numbering hundreds of thousands of barpart of the country, but upon that island." rels. Governor Endicott had on his farm in Salem, The oldest horticultural society in the now in Danvers, in 1640, the first nursery United States was founded only about thirty of young fruit trees that was ever planted in years ago (1829). For some years such assothis country; and it is related that he sold ciations were few and feeble, on account of five hundred apple trees for two hundred the want of sufficient public interest in the and fifty acres of land, or at the rate of two subject. Fruit of the choice varieties was trees for an acre-a good bargain for the a luxury which could be enjoyed only by purchaser, if he took good care of his trees. the wealthy. Now there is scarcely a cotBut the cultivation of fruit was extremely tage in a country town or village which has rare in the early history of the country. not its grape vines, or its apple or pear trees. Indeed, it could hardly be said to have been The public no longer ridicule the man who 82 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. plants choice trees, with the hope of enjoy- fruit for 1860 was larger, by 200 per cent., ing their fruit. Modern science, in this probably, than it ever was before. The direction, secures speedy returns. two or three preceding years were coinThe American Pomological Society was paratively bad fruit years, and in the meanestablished in 1848, and since then kindred time thousands of young trees have come societies have been established in several of into bearing which never bore before. the states, and are exerting no small degree The crop of 1860 was. therefore, wonderfully of influence. It is scarcely thirty-five years large, and of unsurpassed excellence. since two or three small nurseries in the The climate of the southern states has vicinity of our large cities, occupying not often been stated to be unfavorable to the over five hundred acres in the whole coun- growth of our common staple fruits, except try, supplied the wants of the United States peaches, figs, oranges, and the like; but exaad the Canadas. Now there exist more perience has shown that it is not so. There than two thousand nurseries; and in one is one orchard in Mississippi of 15,000 pear county of New York alone-that of Mon- trees, another in Georgia of 9,500; and in roe —there are between five and six thou- other sections, where the effort has been sand acres, producing every year more than made, success has almost invariably attended $1,500,000 worth of trees; while there are it. It is true, the pomology of the south is sold every year, in the whole country, fiom in many respects peculiar. The mistake fifty to sixty millions of trees, with a has been in selecting northern varieties, invalue of $25,000,000. It is estimated that stead of seedlings of the south and other the nurseries of Onondaga, and the neigh- native varieties, many of which are found to boring counties of New York, contain at exist, and to be superior in size, flavor, and this moment at least eighty millions of trees beauty, while in keeping qualities they are for sale. These figures give but an inade- not inferior to good northern varieties. quate idea of the actual present extent of The south can, therefore, raise apples in this great business of the country, but they large quantities, and of a very high quality, are sufficient to indicate the wide-spread in- by the selection and- proper cultivation of terest in the cultivation of fruit among the varieties adapted to its soil and climate. people. The few earnest and intelligent pomologists It is a gratifying fact that our native fruits who have had long experience there, rank are appreciated as they deserve. Of the the apple as the surest and most reliable of thirty-six varieties of apples recommended all fruits except the grape. So far, comparby the American Pomological Society for atively little attention has been given to the cultivation, thirty are natives; of the culture of the apple and the pear by the fourteen varieties of plums, ten are natives; mass of southern planters; partly, no doubt, and so are more than half the pears and all from an impression that such fruits were not of the strawberries. It is not many years suited to that locality; but the experience since all the strawberries in our markets of the most intelligent horticulturists in grew wild and were brought from the fields, that part of the country has, I think, fully when not a single variety had been produced established its practicability, especially for by hybridization in America. Last year a the native southern winter varieties. And single cultivator in Massachusetts grew them so of the pear. Very many of the favorite at the rate of 160 bushels per acre, and sold varieties at the north grow and'bear well at them at the rate of $1,300 per acre; while the south, either as standards or dwarfs, in others, in Connecticut and other states, did a deep, mellow, well tilled soil, care being even better than that, from seedling varieties. taken to train the top of the tree low and The fruit crop of Massachusetts was officially spreading, so as to shield the trunk and the returned in 1845 at $744,000; while in root from the too fierce rays of the sun. 1855 it amounted to $1,300,000; and in And as to the peach, it is at home at the 1865 to upward of $2,000,000; and the in- south, and grows in the highest degree of crease in many other parts of the country perfection. One grower in that part of the has been in a similar or even greater propor- country sends north from seven to ten tion. In the fall and winter of 1858-59, thousand dollars worth of peaches every there were exported from the port of Bos- year before they are ripe in the middle ton alone no less than 120,000 barrels of states. apples, mostly Baldwins. The product of Now if such are known to be the results AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 83 of only ten, fifteen, and twenty years of en- California cellars? At the rate we are going terprise in this branch of rural economy, on, somebody has got a great deal of winewhat may we not anticipate when the vast drinking to do, to use up the California pronumber of young trees planted in the mid- duction of ten years hence. But people die and eastern states within the last five must make up their minds, or their palates, years, come into bearing? If any one is to like still wines that are at once fiery and disposed to feel disheartened at the prospect sweet, if they intend to patronize California of sales, or fear the market will be glutted, vineyards, and rejoice in the plenty and let him take courage in the fact that the de- cheapness of our products; for our grapes mald is ever on the increase, not only from insist on being sweeter than the best grapes the multiplication of consumers, but fron of which foreign wines are made. They the fact that there is a growing conviction contain 20 per cent. of sugar against 13 that fruit is the most healthful food. The 11-100 per cent. in foreign-grown specimens, exportation of fruits, particularly of apples, while the proportion of free acid is much is rapidly increasing. But that the present less. As a consequence, there is 15 per comparative abundance has not diminished cent. of alcohol in our light wine, which is the profits of fruit-growing, the Fruit-Grow- double what is detected in the European ers' Society of Western New York state light wines, and nearly as much as is conthroulh a committee that three white Do- tained in the stronger ports, sherries, and yenne pear-trees, owned by Mr. Phinney, of Madeiras." The value of the grape crop Canandaigua, one of them small, produce two years ago (1868), amounted to $5,500,annually from $50 to $60 worth of fine 000, and it amounts now, probably, to over fruit, while another of the same variety, $10,000,000. in the same place, seventy years old, has not The culture of the vine in California is very failed of a good crop for forty years, and has simple, and gives astonishing profits. An acre averaged twenty bushels a year for twenty in ordinary calculation is enough for a thouyears, which have been sold on the tree sand vines; and each vine in full bearing will for 860 a year. This one tree has pro- produce a gallon of wine. The average duced for the New York market $3,750 of well-managed vineyards is often much worth of pears. Three large trees of the greater, and two or three gallons to a vine is same kind, owned by another individual, no uncommon product. A good man, with yielded in 1854 eleven barrels, which sold a horse and plough, and at work only about for 8137. eight days in the year, can tend from eight Then, too, we are to include the luxuriant to ten acres of vines. The grape flourishes growth of fruits in California, now becoming in all parts of California, but the counties celebrated as a fruit-growing region. Fifteen of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San years ago the apple-trees in that state scarcely Diego are, perhaps, the most noted, though nuimbered a hundred thousand; now, in the Napa valley, and many other localities, 1870, there are more than two million trees are about equally suited to it. The capabiliin bearing. Peach-trees then numbered only ties of the three counties above namled, for a hundred and seventy thousand; now, there the production of the grape, are ascertained are more than a million and a half. Pear- to be equal to 100,000,000 vines, or more trees have increased in fifteen years from twen- than 100,000,000 gallons of wine a year! ty thousand to four hundred thousand; apri- About 1,250 vessels leave the Mediterranean cots from four thousand to a hundred and for this country every year, loaded with fi's, fifty thousand trees; plums, from ten thou- lemons, oranges, limes, almonds, and the sand to two hundred and thirty thousand; products of the vine, the whole amounting and grape vines, fiom three hundred thousand to about seven and a quarter millions of in 1855, to forty millions in 1870! Thenun- dollars. Time will show that California can ber of vines increased four-fold in ten years easily produce all these products of an tqual from 1860 to 1870. A popular writer says quality, and in abundance sufficient to supthe growth on the grape vines the last year ply the whole country, and still have a surwould make one long green creeper that plus for her own consumption. That this would reach from San Francisco clear across statement is by no means extravagant, is the continent, and then over the sea to Eng- evident from the fact that the growth of the land. "Who knows," says he, "but what grape during the last three years surpasses Englishmen will yet suck their wines from any thing ever known in the most highly 84 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. favored regions of the Rhine, Italy, or the wine product of California alone, in 1868, France. was 7 million gallons, and of the whole counA pear-grower of Roxbury, Mass., has one try 12 millions. acre devoted to this fruit, the oldest trees It is perfectly proper to ascribe a large being about twenty years old, but more than proportion of the increase of orchards and half of them young. From two trees, the fruits, and of the interest manifested in them, Dix and Beurre Diel, he has taken more which for the last ten years has been wholly than one hundred dollars worth a year, and without a precedent in this country, to the from the whole acre more than a thousand influence of the agricultural exhibitions, and dollars a year. Another prominent pear-or- to the multiplication of the valuable treatises chardist in Brighton, Mass., commenced and periodicals on the subject, calling the operations in 1841 with eight trees on the attention of the people to the vast amounts ground. HIe had, in 1860, 1,200 trees, set of money which had been spent yearly in out in different years, more than half of them importing grapes, wines, figs, prunes, raisins, since 1854. Since that time he has received currants, and even pears,* fiom foreign from five to six hundred dollars a year for countries, all of which might be raised here his crop, and says that if he had confined equally well, and to the inexhaustible treashimself to a judicious selection of varieties, ures which were within the rieach of every his crop would then have brought him over landholder; all that was wanting being the $2,000 a year. proper exertion to develop them. For several These are, of course, special cases, but in- years Hovey's icezgazinze of Horticulture was stances of a similar kind might be multiplied the only periodical exclusively devoted to almost indefinitely, showing that where good the garden and the orchard, and that was judgment and skill are used, success is com- confined chiefly to the few who gave their paratively sure. No other country offers attention especially to fiuit culture. Previous such opportunities to the scientific pomol- to the appearance, in 1845, of Downing's ogist or to the farmer, for the growth of "Fruit and Fruit Trees of America," Manapples and pears, and it is not probable that ning's "Book of Fruits," and Renwick's the supply will reach the demand for many "American Orchardist" were. the only popuyears to come. lar works which had any considerable circuNor has the culture of the cranberry, and lation, the admirable treatises of Coxe, Prince, other shlaller fruits, been neglected. The and a very few others, being confined chiefly practical cultivation of the cranberry is of to professed horticulturists and nurserymen. very recent date, having commenced on Cape Downing's work was, in fact, the first that had Cod, where several hundred acres of culti- a quick and extensive circulation among the vated plants are now in profitable bearing people. It appeared just at the time when condition. Its culture is rapidly extending I the want of such a work began to be widely to other parts of the country, where suitable felt; while he had the immense advantage of lands exist. the information which had been industriously The census of 1840, the first to take note accumulated by the Massachusetts and the of the extent and value of the orchard and London horticultural societies, and by the garden products of the country, made the labors of some of the most noted horticulturfiruit crop of that year, or rather of 1839, to ists in the country, who had been constantbe $7,256,904, in addition to 124,734 gallons ly experimenting and importing new fruits, of domestic wine. The census of 1850 stated multiplying seedlings, and improving the the amount of orchard products at $7,723,- nomenclature of varieties. 186, and 221,249 gallons of domestic wine; Then appeared Thomas' "American Fruit showing an increase of only $466,282 in the Culturist," a valuable popular ^vork after value of fruit, and 96,515 gallons of wine. Downing's plan, and Cole's "American Fruit The census of 1860 reported the value of Book," a storehouse of valuable information. orchard products at $19,991,885, and 1,627,- These were followed, somewhat later, by 242 gallons of wine. Since 1860 the growth Elliott's "Western Fruit Growers' Guide," of fiuits of all kinds, and especially of the F. W. Field's "Pea Culture," A. S. Fuller's grape, strawberry, raspberry and blackberry, excellent little treatises, the "Grape," the have received a wonderful impulse. There " Small Fruit," and the " Strawberry Cultuare not less than 150 million grape vines e 1 Thl' 160 nI',, * * So recently an 1851 a considerable quantity of pears were growing in the United States in 1870, and actually imported from Frnce by the New York confectioners. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 85 rist," Fulton's "Peach Culture," Mohr on of every opposition which ridicule, prejudice, the "Grape Vine," Warden's " American Po- legislative prohibition, threats of excommumology," and Du Breuil's "Vineyard Cul- nication, and every conceivable persecution ture," Flagg's "European Vineyard," Haraz- could bring against it, simply because nature thy's "Grape Culture aud Wine Making," demanded its use in some form or other. Htlsmann's "Grape and Wine," Strong's The celebrated Locke took a more rational " Cultivation of the Grape," and the Ameri- view, and said, " Bread or tobacco may be can "Journal of Horticulture." neglected, but reason at first recommends From the progress in the cultivation of their trial, and custom makes them pleasant." fruits, which has been styled by some the But, on the other hand, "the most high and poetry of farming, let us turn to the mightie prince," James I., by the grace of God king of Great Britain, " a slave to vices CULTURE OF TOBACCO. which could not fail to nmake him an object No sooner had Columbus landed on the of disgust," took a different view of the previsland of Cuba, in 1492, than a gentlemanly alent practice, and wrote a "Counterblaste to chief very politely offered him a cigar. From Tobacco," stigmatizing its use as " A custom that day to this the plant has grown rapidly loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, in favor, and from being the solace of the harmful to the brain, dangerous to the lungs, roaming savage of America, it has become a and in the black, stinking fume thereof luxury, universal as the habitation of the nearest resembling the horrible Stygian smoke globe. It has been truly remarked that of the pit that is bottomless." Every thing every country or tribe of human beings has which is really and truly founded in nature had,from tine immemorial, its own peculiar and reason, however mysteriously, will narcotic, either aboriginal or imported, and ultimately prevail, whoever sets himself up that the universal instinct of the human race to oppose it; and the progress of the culture has led, somehow or other, to the universal and use of this plant is an instance of it. supply of this want or craving; as, for in- King James wrote in 1616, and in 1624 stance, tobacco in America and its islands; Pope Urban VIII. published a decree of exthe thorn apple, cocoa, tobacco, and hemp communication against all in the church in South America; hops and tobacco in who took snuff; andin 1634 smoking tobacco Europe; hemp in Africa; aminita, opium, was prohibited in Russia under penalty of betel-nut, and tobacco in Asia; showing that having the nose cut off; and in Transylvania it is natural for man, after supplying the ne- the penalty for growing this plant was a concessities of life by food, to desire to multiply fiscation of the farmer's whole property; and his enjoyments, intellectual and animal, and even so recently as 1719 the senate of Strasfor the time to exalt them; and we cannot burg forbade the cultivation of it, from ascribe so universal a habit, increasing with the fear of its diminishing the culture of the growth of population, to mere whim or corn. But "they manage things better in fancy for self-indulgence. It is, perhaps, a France," and the far-sighted Richelieu imnecessity imposed by nature, and second posed upon it a duty, very small at first, only to that greater necessity, the satisfaction which continued till 1674, when the governof the craving of hunger. ment of Louis XIV. increased the duty, and Certainly, the extent to which it is culti- made the culture and trade in tobacco a vated, occupying so large a proportion of the monopoly, and granted it to an individual best arable lands of some countries, which for six years, in consideration of the payment are equally adapted to wheat; its great im- to the government of the large sum of $145,portance in a commercial point of view, and 000. Inl720 the consideration was increased the variety of ways in which it is em- morethan lOpercent.,andin 1771 itamountployed to gratify the senses, present a strik- ed to $5,500,000 a year. In 1844 the reving feature in the history of the human race. enue from tobacco alone yielded the French Thy quiet spirit lulls the lab'ring brain, government the enormous sum of 20,000,Lures back to thought the flights of vacant mirth, 000, and it has since constantly increased on Consoles the mourner, soothes the couch of pain, an average from half a million to a million And breathes contentment round the humble hearth; dollars a year. So much for Richelieu; and While savage warriors, soften'd by thy breath, it must be admitted even by te most prejUnbind the captive hate had doom'd to death i. a, e b t m udiced opponents of tobacco, that this policy It has steadily pushed its way in the face was more sensible than that of his neighbors 86 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. who mutilated, and some of whom cut off of 1860 returned 434,209,461 pounds, or the heads of all smokers. nearly double that of 1850, which was, it is The English first saw it cultivated, and true, based on the crop of a very bad year. smoked in clay pipes, by the Indians of Vir- No crop since 1859 has equaled that in ginia, in 1585, and it was probably intro- quantity, the yield of 1868 being estimated duced into England by Raleigh, as early as at 320,982,000. pounds, and that of 1869 at 1586. In 1615, the gardens, fields, and not much over 260 million pounds. The streets of Jamestown, Virginia, were planted crop is liable to many casualties-to damage with tobacco, and it became not only the by insects, hail, drought, frosts, or an othergreat staple, but, according to Bancroft, the wise bad season at harvesting. So great is chief currency of the colony, and in 1622 the demand for home consumption and for the product was 60,000 pounds. During foreign exportation, that the profits of tobacthe next twenty years it doubled, and co are usually very great, operating as a amounted to 120,000 pounds, and since constant stimulusto a more extended culture. 1689 the produce of Virginia alone has in- Of the amount returned by the census of creased to twice as many millions of pounds. 1860, Virginia raised 123,968,312 pounds, The introduction of tobacco culture into and Kentucky 108,126,840 pounds, making, the Dutch colony of New York took place together, more than half of all that was raised as early-as 1646, and it sold then at forty in the United States. But for some years cents a pound. The "Company of the past the use of guano has become more exWest" introduced it into Louisiana in 1718. tensive than it was previously, and the yield Previous to the revolutionary war its culture of this ravenous crop on lands said to have behad extended into Maryland, the Carolinas, come exhausted from long-continued culture, Georgia, and Louisiana, and nearly all Europe has been greatly enlarged in consequence. was, at that time, supplied from the Ameri- Its cultivation has, also, been extending northcan colonies. Since that time the cultiva- ward, and the produce of Connecticut and tion has greatly extended in this country, Massachusetts, in 1860, was over nine million not only into new states and territories, but pounds. Tennessee, North Carolina, Misin the aggregate amount raised. The quan- souri, Maryland, and Ohio were the other imtity exported has also very largely increased. portant tobacco states, in 1860 producing The amount consumed in Great Britain alone 165 million of pounds. exceeds 35,000,000pounds, and that, too,with Tobacco is usually called an exhausting a duty of about seventy-five cents a pound. crop. This depends very much upon the The annual export from the colonies for kind and quantity of manure used. If the ten years previous to 1709 was 28,868,666 mineral constituents taken from the soil, and pounds. From 1744 to 1776 the exports represented in the ash of the plant, are supof tobacco averaged 40,000,000 pounds plied by judicious cultivation, there is little a year. The tobacco exported from Vir- difficulty in cultivating and producing large ginia in 1758 is said to have been no less crops, and it is a common remark of the than 75,000 hogsheads, and from that time best farmers along the Connecticut river, that till the Revolution, the amount averaged wheat or any other crop will follow tobacco, 55,000 hogsheads a year. About 30,000 even better, than most other crops, for the hogsheads were shipped from City Point, in reason that the high manuring for tobacco Virginia, in 1791, and in 1795 the amount keeps the land in good heart. But the fell to 9,475 hogsheads. There were export- planters in Virginia cultivated it for many ed from North Carolina 100 hogsheads in years in succession on the same lands, with1753, while from Georgia, in 1722, there out supplying a sufficiency of manure. The were shipped 176,732 hogsheads. South land, of course, must feel the loss in time, Carolina exported 2,680 hogsheads in 1783, and the yield, previous to the introduction of and 4,294 in 1795. The quantity exported guano, had dwindled down in many localifrom Philadelphia in 1796 was 3,437 hogs- ties so as not to pay the producer. Every heads. ton of tobacco, perfectly dried, carries off According to the census of 1840, the some three or four hundred weight of these amount raised in the United States was 219,- most important mineral substances, and it 163,319 pounds. The census of 1850 re- should be the aim of the farmer to supply turned but 199,752,655 pounds, showing a them liberally, if he expects a liberal reward decrease of 19,410,664 pounds. The census in an abundant harvest. AGRICULTURE I' THE UNITED STATES. 87 The geographical distribution of the But as it is estimated that the earth is product, the amount of which has already capable of supporting a thousand times been stated, was nearly as follows: The more people than at present exist, the large south raised 242,077,957 pounds, valued at consumption of this plant need not alarm $36,311,693. The west raised 173,758,- those who eschew it, especially as the con787 pounds, valued at $25,952,718 The sumption of tea and coffee, thought by some north raised 18,362,098 pounds valued at to be equally deleterious, is even greater and $2,754,314. more universal. In this connection, it would be a matter That the lands of Virginia should have of no small interest to ascertain, if possible, become impoverished from long-continued the number of hands the cultivation, curing, cropping, without a supply of manure, is not and the various processes of manufacture a matter of surprise, when we consider the give employment to. It is, unquestionably, length of time in which that process was very large in this country, but the census going on, and that, instead of consuming does not appear to state it. In the city of the product on the ground, or in the neighHamburg (Germany) alone, this manufac- borhood, it was mostly exported for conture gives employment to upward of 10,- sumption to foreign countries; but it is not 000 persons, and it supplies 150,000,000 the fact that the soils, now said to be imcigars a year, with a value of $2,000,000 poverished, were ever so rich as the prairies -a matter of no small importance. Ham- and river bottoms of many sections of the burg imports from Havana and Manilla west, with which they are so often compared. about 18,000,000 cigars a year; and, Still, the tendency of farming in a sparse with its own production, the aggregate population is to deterioration, from the very number is 168,000,000 cigars. 153,000,- fact that the bulk of farm produce must be 000 of these are exported, and the re- sent off the farm in exchange for other commainder, or 15,000,000, are consumed in modities. The most profitable farming, in that city; giving 40,000 as the daily con- the long run, is that which combines various sumption, in a population of 45,000 male kinds of produce, a considerable proporadults. The consumption of tobacco in tion of which must of necessity be conEng'land in 1821, with a population of 21,- sumed on the farm itself, or at least near 282,960, was no less than 15,598,152 pounds, home. Where the population is sparse, or 12 ounces per head of the entire popula- and there is no demand at home for farm tion. In 1831, with a population of 24,- produce, the farmer is compelled to raise 410,439, the consumption reached 19,533,- such articles as will bear distant transporta841 pounds, or 13 ounces per head. In tion, and follow this course year after year. 1841, with a population of 27,019,672, the He cannot, if he would, grow the articles consumption was 22,309,360 pounds, or 132 which would be the least exhausting to his ounces per head. And in 1851, popula- land. The Virginia tobacco planter of the tion 27,452,692,the consumption of tobacco last century and the early part of the was 28,062,S41 pounds, or 17 ounces per present, had no means of restoring the ferhead, showing a steady increase. In France tility of his soils by supplying the vast the consumption amnounts to 18 ounces per amount of mineral constituents which the head, nearly half of which is in the form constant cropping and removal by transporof snuff. The consumption of Denmark, in tation took'away from his farm. He could 1848, amounted to 70 ounces per head, or not, or would not keep much stock to sup44 pounds. In Belgium, it averages at the ply sufficient manure; and if he kept stock, present time about 73A ounces per head. the winters were mild, and they were never The average consumption of tobacco by the housed and so managed as to produce much whole human race of 1,250,000,000, is 70 manure. Cattle allowed constantly to run ounces a head, the quantity consumed being at large, and browse in the woods summer 2,734,375 tons, or 5,468,750,000 pounds. and winter, would do little to prevent the " The annual production of tobacco weighs deterioration of the soil. It would have as much," says a popular writer on this sub- been better for the land if the planter had jeet, "as the wheat consumed by ten mil- been obliged to cultivate and cut grasses lions of Englishmen; and its money value for winter fodder, and then keep up Iris is as great as that of allthe wheat consumed stock to consume it. The Belgian proverb in Great Britain." is everywhere true: No grass, no cattle; 88 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. no cattle, no manure; no manure, no crops." it enters more or less into the consumption The worst effect of a system of exchange of almost every family in the country. of agricultural products with other nations, This plant, like many others, dates its inby which we receive their manufactured troduction to this country almost back to its goods, which possess great value in propor- first settlement; for we read in the records tion to their bulk and the raw material con- of the colony of the Massachusetts Bay, that sumed in them, is thatwe send off annually to "hop rootes" were ordered by the governor them thousands of tons of the highest fer- and company as early as 1628 or 1629, and tilizing elements, which nature requires though it was for many years cultivated only should be again returned to the land in the on a very limited scale for family consumpform of manure. But we are sending off tion, yet no doubt it has continued as one of $35,000,000 worth of breadstuffs, and other the cultivated plants of the country fiom products, like tobacco, in addition, which in that day to this. It was introduced and culthemselves must of necessity draw largely tivated by the Dutch colony of New York upon the fertility of the soil, while we do as early as 1646, and it is known to have not pretend to make an adequate return of been brought into Virginia previous to 1648. fertilizing substances to it. In 1657 its culture was encouraged by legisOther nations, like England, for instance, lative enactments. importing thirty millions worth of bread- At the beginning of the present century, stuffs, have the benefit of their consump- the amount cultivated in New England was tion, in addition to which they are constantly extremely limited. Thirty thousand pounds, importing manures of every description. perhaps, comprised the entire crop of that While we are constantly, and without stint, section, increasing some years to fifty thoushipping off a continual stream of the most sand. The mode of picking and drying was valuable manures concentrated in the form of objectionable and defective. The hops; ere our cotton, our tobacco, our wheat, and In- picked in clusters, with the stems and leaves dian corn, they, with ceaseless care, are hus- often thrown in; while the drying was unibancing the fertility which these naturally vcrsally done with wood, and when taken carry along with them, and adding vast from the kiln they were "brown as a leg of quantities of guano, bones, phosphates, etc. bacon and about as much smoked." They reap the harvest in soils growing richer The first use of charcoal for drying hops and richer. We may make individual profits, in this country was probably in 1791, when which go, for the most part, into the hands it was tried, only on a very limited scale, at of middle men, and leave our farms to reap the suggestion of a Scotch brewer, and prothe shadow. duced the most beautiful kiln of hops that The inevitable tendency of exchanging the had ever been dried in America. It was produce of the soil for manufactured articles owing to this improvement in the picking has always been, and always will be, to im- and drying that the demand for the article poverish the nation that does it, unless there rapidly increased, soon doubled and tripled, is care and forethought enough to import an and slips or cuttings to form new plantations amount of fertilizing substances equal to soon rose to exorbitant prices. It had been what we send away; and this cannot be. the universal custom, previous to that time, The farmer himself does not want it so. If to pack the hops in round bags, without any he sends wheat enough to half feed a foreign uniformity in length or size, and they were mechanic or operative in the city of Sheffield trodden down with the feet in a rude manor Manchester, he would infinitely rather ner. The consequence was that the tops sell him enough to feed him in full nearer were bruised and broken, causing great loss home; and it would be better for him and in the strength and value of the hops by for the nation to have it so. evaporation of the essential juices of the plant, its most valuable properties, to say CULTURE OF HOPS. nothing of the impossibility of packing closely Of the crops which still remain to be men- for transportation. The use of square bales tioned, and which help make up the ag- was introduced in 1797, or the year after, gregate of the products of American agricul- and the use of screws in packing was then ture, that of the hop forms no unimportant commenced. The superiority of this mode item, since, besides the quantity required for soon became so apparent, that it was gonerexport, which, to be sure, is not very large, ally adopted not long after. Previous to this !/1~,~1l,/~~l Ijll.... ~~~~I~ *.......II Pi I;i ji~~~~i i ~, 1 / Ii~/ 1/ I, t -~ i~ * i i ~ ~~, ~ 1~I I ~' ~/'11 Illill/ t/I 1\'1 1 I I l, ~,/ Jl ~'; l l/ i t!/t,1t~~~~~~nt~~l,/~/, t/lbh I l,~,tX/tl,,~,,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~iii AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 89 time, also, difficulties not unfrequently arose tion had risen to 10,991,996 pounds, of between merchants, from the fact that old which 9,671,931 pounds were grown in New and refuse hops were found mixed in with York, mostly in six central counties, and the good ones, while no proper distinction 983,395 pounds in the New England district, was made between the different grades or leaving only 336,670 pounds for the other qualities. Vexatious lawsuits sometimes re- states, of which, Wisconsin had 135,587 lbs. suited from these circumstances, and the In 1862, the crop exceeded 16 million pounds, price of good hops was naturally lower than and 1863, was about 18,000,000 pounds. it otherwise would have been. The legisla- Since then the blight and aphis or, hop-louse ture of Massachusetts, to remedy these evils have reduced it. In 1866-67 andl'68 the Wisso far as they existed in that section of the cousin hop-growers sent large quantities to country, created the office of inspector- market. The entire failure of the English general of hops in the year 1806. It was crop is the only thing which would make a the first movement of the kind in the coun- crop of twenty million pounds profitable. try, and, so far as I am informed, the first of the kind in the world. CULTURE OF FLAX AND HEMP. But there were no precedents for classify- Like most of the crops already mentioned, ing hops, and some system was to be adopt- both flax and hemp were introduced into the ed. Some hop dealers and many hop grow- colonies very soon after the settlement of the ers were opposed to a high standard of in- country. Flax was taken to Holland from spection. Many difficulties of a personal the Dutch settlement of Manhattan Island, nature had to be encountered; but, owing to or New York, as early as 1626. The govthe conscientious use of the "first-sort" ernor and company of the Massachusetts brand, the hops raised in that part of the Bay, in New England, also ordered both country soon became noted as the best by flax and hemp seed in 1628, if not, indeed, far in the United States. By adopting a as was probably the case, at an earlier date. high standard of inspection, the growers Hemp was very soon abandoned, as the land were soon brought to improve their hops, in was not found strong enough for it. order to bring them up to the "first sort," Hemp and flax were raised in Virginia and this becoming known in Europe, those prior to the year 1648, as we read of their bewho sent orders from there required hops of ing woven and spun there; and bounties Massachusetts inspection, which consequently were offered for the culture of hemp in 1651, brought a cent or two on a pound more than and of flax in 1657; but the culture fell off those of any other state. The price ofhops va- as soon as the bounties were discontinued. ries with the English demand, which depends But flax was pretty generally cultivated in entirely on the crop there. This has led to a small quantities for home consumption, in remarkable fluctuationin prices. Theaverage most parts of the country. It was not only prices per pound for 20 years-1849-69- raised, but manufactured at home, and formwere, in gold, 41 cents, 32, 28, 34, 20, 7, ed a most important article in the domestic 8, 7, 13, 15, 19, 25, 20, 17, 22, 22, 42, economyofthe days of homespun. In 1745, 45, 45, 15 cents. The export of hops have some Irish emigrants arrived in Massachubeen equally irregular. In 1850, 1,275,455 setts, and established an improved mode of pounds were exported; in 1851, 110,360; manufacturing linen and other "spinning in 1854, 260,026; in 1855, 4,021,816, in work," and they met with some success. 1860, 273,257.; in 1861, 8,835,837; in 1863. Manufactories were established in Salem, 8,864,081; in 1864, 5,851,165; in 1865, Mass., for making sail-cloth, as early, as 3,662,734; in 1867, 1,001,603; in 1868, 1790. 532,038. The value of the export of 1863, In 1751 no less than 14,000 pounds of the largest ever made, was $1,733,265.- In hemp were exported from New Jersey, and 1840 the entire hop crop was 1,238,502 the next year, 1752, the amount of flaxpounds; in 1850, 3,497,029 pounds, of which seed exported from Philadelphia was 70,2,536,299 pounds were raised in New York, 000 bushels. This amount rose, in 1767, and 705,912 pounds in the New England to 84,658 bushels; and in 1771 to 110,hop district which comprised parts of Ver- 412 bushels. New York exported 12,528 mont, New Hampshire, Maine, and Massa- hogsheads of this seed in the year 1755. chusetts, leaving but 253,000 pounds for the The total amount exported from the Amerirest of the country. In 1860, the produc- can colonies in 1770 was 312,612 bushels. 90 AGRICULTURE IN TIHE UNITED STATES. In 1791 the United States exported 292,- state passed an act, granting a bounty on 460 bushels of flax-seed; in 1800 the ex- mulberry trees and the production of silk. port was 289,684 bushels, and 240,579 bush- Even under the encouragement of the govels in 1810. The culture of these crops eminent, all the raw silk Georgia could exgrew up more rapidly at the west, and ex- port in 1750 was 118 pounds; in 1765 it tensive factories were established for the was only 138 pounds; in 1770, 290 pounds. manufacture of cordaege, bagging, etc., in The census of 1840 returned the amount of Louisville, Lexington, Frankfort, and other silk cocoons at 61,552 pounds; and this places -in Kentucky, as early as 1810. quantity had fallen'off in 1850 to 10,843 According to the census of 1840, about 97,- pounds. In 1860 only 11,944 pounds of 251 tons of flax and hemp were raised. In cocoons were reported; but since that time 1850 the two products were returned separa- California as well as some of the southern tely as 34,871 tons of hemp, 7,709,676 states, have become interested in silk-growpounds of flax, and 562,312 bushels of flax- ing. The production of silk cocoons in Callseed. In 1860 the production of hemp had fornia in 1870 is estimated at' 40 nillion more than doubled, 73,493 tons being report- cocoons, or about 35,000 pounds, beside silk ed; but flax had fallen off nearly one half, only worm's eggs of the value of nearly 8 million 4,720,145 pounds being produced, and flax- dollars. seed had remained nearly stationary, 566,867 BEE CULTURE. bushels being reported. The great obstacle The production of honey and the manto flax culture was the want of some simple agement of bees receives comparatively litand effective machinery for scutching and tle attention in this country. So little, inbrealking it. Early in the war the demand deed, as hardly to be worthy of mention for flax-tow, and for linseed oil and cakes, among the products of our national agriculand the invention of several flax-brakes, led ture; and yet they form an important item to a great increase in this crop, and for two in the domestic economy of many a houseor three years the production of flax and flax- hold, and ought to receive all the attention tow was over ten million pounds, and of they deserve. flax-seed over 2,500 million bushels. The The amount of beeswax and honey reflax-seed has remained at that point, but turned by the census of 1850 was 14,853,both flax and hemp have gone back, in con- 790 pounds. In 1860, 1,322,787 pounds of sequence of the large importations of jute. wax and 23,366,357 pounds of honey were New York produces nearly one-third of the produced, an increase of 70 per cent. In flax grown in the country. Ohio, Kentucky, 1868 a careful inquiry made by the agricul — Virginia, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and tural department indicated the production of Tennessee are the other principal flax states. about 44 million pounds of honey, worth not THE CULTURE OF SILK. less than 11 million dollars, and about 2,20'0,000 pounds of wax, worth $660,000. The cultivation and manufacture of silk Ohio and New York take the lead and North has never been extensively carried on in Carolina, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Georgia, this country, though introduced at a very Iowa, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri early date-asearlya, in fact, as the first set- are largely engaged in bee-keeping. tlement of Virginia. James I. showed a desire to favor this branch of industry, equaled POULTRY AND EGGS. only by his antipathy to the growth of to- The value of the poultry kept in the Unitbacco. It did not succeed at first, however, ed States, and the production of eggs, conand in 1651 another spasmodic effort was stitutes a much larger item of our agriculmade to revive it, but it was to little effect, tural economy than is generally supposed. and it never prospered there. The value of poultry, according to the census Silk culture was commenced in Louisiana of 1840, was no less than $12,176,170. This by the Company of the West, in 1718. It sum, great as it appears, has been increased was introduced into Georgia in 1732. A to over sixty millions of dollars. The city of special act of Parliament was required to New York alone, pays about four millions keep up the interest in it, in 1749, exempt- of dollars a year for eggs. And so the other ing the producer from paying duties, etc. large cities require a supply in proportion. Connecticut began the raising of silk in The keeping of poultry, therefore, is by 1760, and in 1783 the legislature of that no means an insignificant item in the prod .;~,;,:~,;,~:. ~ ~~.~.. ~"'?,:;'',i'?0: ":~'' Wft~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.-,;::~,:.... ~?~,~.~. g~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~??i.?~~,...,.:.A.,. It's~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ii?~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4abeitd, O~~~~~~~~~~~~~ a::~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~"~~'~~~~~~~ 004~~~~~~~~~ii AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 91 ucts of our agriculture, though fo,. some It was stated by Michaux that there were reason or other the censuses of 1-850 and in the United States one hundred and forty 1860 failed to take cognizance of it. species of forest trees which attain a greater It is doubtful whether the introduction of height than thirty feet, while in France foreign varieties of fowls effected an im- there were only eighteen of the same deprovement in the common stock of the scription. An English traveller, writing of country. The number of fowls was increased, this country, says: "I was never tired of but the product of eggs, was not, materially. the forest scenery of America, although I Within the decade 1860-1870, great at- passed through it from day to day. The tention has been paid to poultry farming on endless diversity of foliage always prevents a large scale. The fowls, including hens, it from being monotonous." But the surturkeys, geese, ducks, and guinea fowls, are passing beauty which the forests add to our kept in large numbers, hatched artificially, natural scenery is not to be compared with stimulated to lay by suitable food, and fat- the solid advantages which are derived from tened scientifically for market, to which they the immense variety, as well as the quantity are sent at the proper season, carefully of their timber. packed. Ohio and New York have many of The forest scenery of this country bethese chicken factories. yond the Alleghany mountains, and from them to the Mississippi river, has been THE LUMBER BUSINESS. invaded to a less extent than in the older The growth and preparation of lumber settled portions, and there are still vast does not, perhaps, come strictly within the tracts remaining uncleared. Trees of giganrange of what is understood by agricultural tic height and dimensions, standing in the products. But the primary operations in- richest mould, which has been accumulating volved are to a large extent undertaken by for ages, and surrounded with a luxuriance farmers, as a part Of winter's work, and of vegetation very rarely seen in the eastern lumber forms no unimportant item in the states, carry the mind back to a period long clearing up and the preparation of land for anterior to the discovery of the country, tillage. It is, therefore, proper enough to and fill the beholder with awe by their allude to it in connection with the progress grandeur. of our agriculture. To these forests, as they once stood, over Volney represented the surface of this a large portion of the country, we have been country as one vast forest, diversified, oc- indebted for much of our growth and proscasionally, by cultivated intervals. Since his perity as a nation! How much do we not time the woodman's axe, guided by a ruth- owe to one species of these majestic treesless hand, has reversed the picture to some the white pine? Michaux observed that extent, but still the number and variety throughout the northern states, except in of our forest trees abundantly testify the the large capitals, seven-tenths of the houses bounty of nature. are of wood, of which seven-tenths, threeOriginally, indeed, an almost unbroken quarters are of white pine. He might have forest covered a large proportion, not only said nine-tenths were built of wood, -ai.d of this country, but of the whole continent. come within the truth, though at the time The Indian tribes were far less populous he visited this country, fifty years ago, many than is generally supposed; and if we except houses had been constructed, to a great exthe prairie lands of the valley of the Missis- tent, of hard wood. sippi, but a small portion of the surface The new settlers had to enter and fell the of our present territory was destitute of forests, and burn and clear their lands as a timber trees. preliminary preparation, and thousands of acres were thus brought under culture, the'Then anl this youthful paradise around, timber being of too little value to pay for And all the broad and boundless mainland, lay. i Cooled by the interminable wood, that frowned saving. It was in vai that statutes were O'er mount and vale, where never summer ray passed a hundred years ago and more, to Glanced till the strong tornado broke its way prevent the cutting of trees suitable for ship Through the gray giants of the sylvan wild; timber. Private rights could not be invaded Yet many a sheltered glade, with blossoms gay, in the colonies, and down the forests came. Beieath the showering sky and sunshine mild, Within the shaggy arms of that dark forest The value of the forests for timber during smiled." the time of limited and scattered population 6 92 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. was but little, and it could not be transport- notions sometimes carry it up two or three ed to great distances. feet higher. It is obvious from the conThe lumber business, therefore, did not struction that nothing but the greenness of grow up to any great magnitude and im- the timber prevents the camp from being portance till a comparatively recent period burned up immediately; yet the great fires in any part of the country. Not, in fact, that are kept up make but little impression till the great centres of population began to in the course of the winter upon the back feel new life from our growing commerce, or sides of the chimney. A case, however, creating a more extensive demand for build- happened within a year or two, where a ing purposes, and for ship-building. When camp took fire in the night and was conthis period arrived, after the war of 1812 sumed, and the lumberers in it burned to and the conclusion of peace, the lumber death. Probably the shingle roof had bebusiness began to extend itself into Maine come dry, in which case a spark would and other regions then comparatively un- kindle it, and the flames would spread over settled, especially in the vicinity of large it in a moment. Parallel to the lower side streams giving easy access to the sea-board of the building, and about six feet from it, or to lake navigation. The mode of pro- a stick of timber runs on the ground across ceeding will be more clearly understood the camp. The space between this and the from the following description of the de- lower wall is appropriated to the bedding, tails of operations, prepared by a gentleman the stick of timber serving to confine it in residing in the lumber regions of Maine. its place. The bedding consists of a layer The logging camp is very much the same in of hemlock boughs spread upon the ground, all the more northern sections of the United and covered with such old quilts and blankStates, from the timber regions of the St. ets as the tenants can bring away fiom Johns to the pineries of Wisconsin, and a their homes. The men camp down todetail of the winter operations of one will gether, with their heads to the wall and apply, with slight modification, to them all. their feet toward the fire. Before going to I may remark, in passing, that I have my- bed they replenish their fire-some two or self lived some winters in the immediate more of them being employed in putting on vicinity of extensive logging operations in such logs as with their handspikes they can Maine, and, in fact, been engaged in them manage to pile into the chimney. As the to some extent, and am familiar with them. walls of the building are not very tight, the cool air plays freely around the head of the When a lumberer has concluded to log sleeper, making a difference of temperature on a particular tract, the first step is- to go between the head and the feet not altogether with a part of his hands and select suitable agreeable to one unused to sleep in camps. situations for building his camps. In mak- A rough bench and table complete the furniing this selection, his object is to be near ture of the establishment. A camp very as possible to the best clumps of timber he similar, though not so large in dimensions, intends to haul, and to the streams into is built near for the oxen; on the top of which he intends to haul it. He then pro- this the hay is piled up, giving warmth ceeds to build his camps and to cut out and while it is convenient for feeding. clear out his principal roads The camps A large logging concern will require a are built of logs, being a kind of log-houses. number of camps, which will be distributed They are made about three feet high on one over the tracts, so as best to accommodate side, and eight or nine on the other, with the timber. One camp serves generally for.a roof slanting one way. The roof is made one or two teams. A team, in ordinary of shingles split out of green wood and laid logging parlance, expresses, not only the set upon rafters. The door is made of such of four or six oxen that draw the logs, but boards as can be manufactured out of a log likewise a gang of men employed to tend with an axe. Against the tallest side of the them. It takes from three or four to seven camp is built the chimney-the back being or eight men to keep one team employedformed by the wall of the camp, and the one man being employed in driving the catsides made of green logs, piled up for jams, tie, and the others in cutting down the trees, about eight feet apart. The chimney seldom. shaping them into logs, barking them, and rises above the roof of the camp; though cutting and clearing the way to each tree. some who are nice in their architectural The number of hands required is inversely HAULING LOGS. Fig. 2. SAWING OFF LOGS. Fig. 3. FLOATING LOGS. -Fi g. 4. THE JAM. is~~ LD KI~ PIMP _ —___ ____- ~, ~~ Fig. 5. LOADING THE SHIP. Fig. 6. LUMBERMAN'S CABIN. N-~~ ( ~ ~ ~ ~ r / AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 93 to the distance the logs are to be hauled; pointed to the office of cook. Salt pork and that is, most hands are required when the flour bread constitute the regular routine of distance is shortest, because the oxen, re- the meals, varied sometimes with salt fish turning more frequently, require their loads or salt beef. Potatoes are used when they to be prepared more expeditiously. Having can be obtained. Now and then, perhaps, built their camps, or while building them, when the snow is deep, they catch a deer, the main roads are to be cut out. These run and live on venison. The men are employed from the camps to the landing places, or through the day in cutting the timber and some stream of sufficient size to float down driving the teams. In the evening some the logs on the spring freshet. Other roads take care of the oxen; some cut wood for are cut to other clumps of timber. They are the fire; then they amuse themselves with made by cutting and clearing away the un- stories and singing, or in other ways, until derbrush, and such trees and old logs as may they feel inclined to turn in upon the unibe in the way, to a sufficient width for the versal bed. On Sundays the employer claims team of oxen, with the bob-sled and timber no control over their time, beyond the takon it, to pass conveniently. The bob-sled is ing care of the cattle, the fire, and the cookmade to carry one end of the timber only, the ing. On this day they do their washing and other drags upon the ground, and the bark mending; some employ themselves, besides, is chipped off, that the log may slip along in seeking timber, and some in hunting more easily. The teams proceed to the partridges, while some remain in the camp woods, when. the first snows come, with the and read the Bible. They remain in the hands who are not already there, and the woods from the commencement of sledding, supplies. The supplies consist principally some time in December, until some time in of pork and flour for the men, and Indian March, in the course of which month their meal for the oxen; some beans, tea, and labors are usually brought to a close by the molasses are added. Formerly hogsheads snow, it becoming too shallow or too deep. of rum were considered indispensable, and I If there are heavy thaws the snow runs off, have before me a bill of supplies for a log- not leaving enough to make good hauling. ging concern of three teams in 1827-28, in If, on the other hand, it gets to be four which I find one hundred and eighty gallons or five feet deep, the oxen cannot break of ruin charged; but of late very few re- through it to make the path which it is necspectable lumberers take any spirits with essary to form in order to get at each inthem, and the logging business is conse- dividual tree. The men and teams then quently carried on with much more method, leave the woods. Sometimes one or two economy, and profit. The pork and flour remain to be at hand when the streams open. must be of the first quality. Lumberers are I know one who last winter staid by himself seldom content to take any of an inferior in the woods, fifteen or twenty miles from the sort; and even now, when flour is twelve nearest habitation, for the space of twentydollars a barrel, they are not to be satisfied eight days, during which time he earned $203 with the coarser breadstufts. Hay is pro- by getting in timber with his axe alone, becured as near to the camps as possible; but ing allowed for it at the same rate per thouas most of the timber lands are remote from sand that the lumberers were in getting it in settlements, it is generally necessary to haul with their teams. He found some berths in it a considerable distance; and as it must the banks of the stream, where all that was be purchased of the nearest settlers, they necessary was to fell the tree so that it should are enabled to obtain very high prices. fall directly upon the water, and there cut it From twelve to twenty dollars per ton is into logs to be ready for running. When the usually paid. When the expense of haul- streams are opened, and there is sufficient ing it to the camp is added, the whole cost freshet to float the timber, another gang, is frequently as high as thirty dollars a ton, called "river drivers," takes charge of it. and sometimes much higher. Owners of It is their business to start it from the banks, timber lands at a distance from settlements and follow it down the river, clearing off rmay make a great saving by clearing up a what lodges against rocks, pursuing and piece of their land, and raising their own bringing back the sticks that run wild among hay. Some one of the hands, who has not the bushes and trees that cover the low so much efficiency in getting timber as skill lands adjoining the river, and breaking up in kneading bread and frying pork, is ap- jams that form in narrow or shallow places. 94 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. A jam is caused by obstacles in the river certained by the marks which have been catching some of the sticks, which in their chopped into each log before it left the turn catch others coming down; and so the woods, each owner having a mark, or combimass increases until a solid dam is formed, nation of marks, of his own. When the which entirely stops up the river, and pre- boom is full, only the logs lowest down can vents the further passage of any logs. These be got at; and the proprietors of other logs jams are most frequently formed at the top must wait weeks, sometimes months, before of some fall; and it is often a service that they can get them out, to their great inconrequires much skill and boldness, and is at- venience and damage. After the logs are tended with much danger, to break them rafted and out of the boom, a great part of up. The persons who undertake it must them are lodged for convenience in a place go on the mass of logs, work some out with called Pen Cove, which is a large and secure their pick poles, cut some to pieces, attach basin in the river, about two miles below the ropes to others to be hauled out by the boom. From this cove they can be taken hands on shore, and they must be on the out as they are wanted for the mills below. alert to watch the moment of the starting of While in the boom and at other places on the timber, and exercise all their activity to the river, they are liable to great loss from get clear of it before they are carried off in plunderers. The owners or drivers of logs its tumultuous rush. Some weeks, more or will frequently smuggle all that come in their less, according to the distance, spent in this way, without regard to marks. The owners way, bring the timber to the neighborhood or conductors of some of the mills on the of the saw-mills. A short distance from river are said to be not above encouraging Oldtown, on the Penobscot, there is a boom and practising this species of piracy. Inestablished, extending across the river, for deed, timber in all its stages seems to be a the purpose of stopping all the logs that fair object for plunderers, from the petty come down. It is made by a floating chain pilferer who steals into the woods, fells a of logs, connected by iron links, and sup- tree, cuts it into shingles, and carries it out ported at suitable distances by solid piers, on his back, to the comparatively rich owner built in the river; without this it would be of thousands of dollars. impossible to stop a large part of the logs, When the logs have been sawn at the and they would be carried on the freshet mills, there is another rafting of the boards, down the river, and out to sea. The boom which are floated down the river to Bangor, is owned by an individual, who derives a to be embarked on board the coasters for large profit from the boomage, which is Boston. In this process they are subject to thirty-five cents per thousand on all logs much injury,: first, by the mode of catchcoming into it. The boom cost the present ing them as they come from the mill sluices, owner about $40,000. He has offered it the rafters making use of a picaroon, or pole, for sale for $45,000. It is said the net in- with a spike in the end of it, which is recome from it some years is t15,000. Here peatedly and unmercifully driven into the all the logs that come down the Penobscot boards, taking out, perhaps, a piece at each are collected in one immense mass, covering time; secondly, by the holes made by the many acres, where is intermingled the prop- pins driven into the boards in rafting; and, erty of all the owners of timber lands in all thirdly, by the rocks, and rapids, and shalthe broad region that is watered by the lows in the river, breaking the rafts to pieces Penobscot and its branches, from the east and splitting up the boards as they deline of Canada, above Moosehead Lake, on scend. These inconveniences will be partly the one side, to the west line of New Bruns- remedied by the railroad now in operation, wick on the other. Here the timber remains unless other inconveniences in the use of it till the logs can be sorted out for each owner, should be found to overbalance them. The rafted together, and floated to the mills or kinds of timber brought down our rivers are other places below. pine, spruce, hemlock, ash, birch, maple, Rafting is the connecting the logs togeth- cedar, and hackmatack. Far the greater er by cordage, which is secured by pins part of it is pine. The lumberers make driven into each log, forming them into about six kinds of pine, though they do not bands, like the ranks of a regiment. This agree exactly in the classification, or in the operation is performed by the owner of the use of some of the names. The most cornboom. The ownership of the timber is as- mon division is into pumpkin-pine, timber PRODUCTS OF THE PINE FORESTS* Turpentine, rosin, tar, and. pitch, are largely used in various trades, as well as for many domestic purposes. One of our artists has sent us a ---- series of sketches from the pine regions, and a friend, familiar with the processes of manufacturing the products, has furnished us tin account of them. The Long- leaved Pine grows from the __ northeastern boundary of North Carolina, along the At[antic coast to Florida, across'' ~ that State to the Gulf, and thence to Louisiana, in a belt averaging 100 miles in width. The manufacture was first commenced in North Caro- lina, and that State still sup- plies by far the largest proportion of the product. The first step is to obtain tilhe Crude Turpentine. This is the natural juice of the pine tree, and is sometimes called White Turpentine, and Gum Turpentine. It is a mixture of the volatile oil known as Spirits of Turpentine, and of L__________ ________ Rosin'. A half-moon-shaped _ box is cut in the tree, as near...,'_ as possihle to the surface of the ground. The shape of this "hox' will he seen it figs. 2, 3, and 4. The hox. cutting commences about the 1st of December, and continnes until March-perhaps _ -- a few weeks longer, if the spring is late. A hand can cut from 100 to 150 boxes per day, from one quart to half a gallon in capacity. After cutting, the boxes are K. "cornered" by taking out a.' triangular piece at each end of the half-moon. This is the commencement of the regular season, and the boxes are now all tasked off. A "task" is usuallv 10,000 boxes, but I have known hands to tend 18,0)0. These must be cornered once, and "hacked" about six times, from the first of spring until _ into November. The dipping (shown in fig. 3) is done by ____ task-work, too, so many barrels or boxes per day being a task. Two dippers genterally attend one hacker. Hacking is tse making a groove-shapee cut oni each side, downward, __ to the centre of the halfmoon. These grooves can be seen in all the cuts. The harrels for fillitg are placed at intervals through the woods; tie dipper gatthers his gum in a rude bucket, -' and empties it into thle hirrels, which, when full, are taoled off. A frequent mode of hauling is seen in fi,. 1;. the sorie cult sthows a prirni-mi ~-~- ~ ~' -- ~ tire but cheap mode of rolling" tar to market. Both articles are frequently rafted to a seaport hetween sticks of hewn timber. The first year's operstion produces "virgin dip," the second "vellow dip," the third some common yellow ___-_dip iand scrape; theta the fur- - i ther product of the trees is - *Copied from the American Agriculturist. —.. -' ~....'"-:-'- all "scrape." The virgin dip "-~,,. ___~~_ _ __ ~_is, when carefully gathered, a honey-like gum, of whitish aippearance. From it are produced No. 1, pale, extra, and window glass rosins. It ___________F~~~~~~ 55.yields about 7 gallons of spirI its and not quite three-fourths of a barrel of rosii to the barrel (280 hbs.) Yellow dip yields over three-fourths of _____= —-~- c~l~ /I rosin, and about 6 gallons of __________~ _ ___spirits to the 280 lbs. of gum. i:~~ 1' ~~~Scrape yields about the same. "Scrape" is the gumni which J:iP~~~~~~.... ______~ gathers on the face of the tree __~~~~~~~~~~ or box when worked up three, four, or mnore feet. It is a white, cheesy-like substance. The operation of chipping the box-lrce and gathering the scrape is seen in figs. 3 and 4. With care a very light mrosin csa be made from it. ____ —-— ~~~~~~~ ~ The operation of distillinig thile gum is carried on in copi MA ~ _-~q~_]_-~~~~~~~~ p~~1er stills of a capacity from ten barrels up to sixty. They are bricked up at the sides, and the fire strikes directly on the bottom. Thile top has a large hole for the "cap," _: _____ which' connects with the -worin for condensing the -_____ _ _ spirits, and a small hole, —'=' - - through which the "stiller" examines the state of' his.-______~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~charge, and lets in water as it may hbe needed. The rosin, ____ _____t~~: __ being a residuum, is let off on one side iiito vats, from which ________ __-___faal l, ____ it is dipped into barrels to ________ ___________ cool. T'te roiir of the stills ~ ~ r,~ d, ~,a' ~~and the rosin vats are shown in fig. 5. A task of 10,000 1ioxes may siifoly be' cilcu]ited to yield teeo hundred aniid fifty barrels of virgin or yellow dlip in a seison. In trees deadened by fire, stunml's of trees cut down when tile suil is up, and old boxed trees left stlding, a pieculiar transfirmnation of the woodl takes place; all its pores become filled with pitchiy matter, it increases grireatly in weight, aiid will take fire alnmost as readily as gunpowder. This wood is the source of tar. The wood is split into billets ______________ -- ~3 or 4 feet long, and nhout 3 inches in diameter. To form a tar kiln the wood is piled conceiitrically, each layer projecting over the lower a,:._______~ ___;__ — _-_- ~little until a desired height is _~V~~___~ ~ ~ ~ ___~ ~reached, this encircled with _____-=7='~~ _____? logs, and covered with clogs, as shuowiu iil fig. 6. A kiln yields fifty, one hundred, or ~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~ more barrels of tar, according to its size. Pitch is tar boiled down until all its volatile - ~ - ~ ~ ______ ~matter is driven off. The imanufacture of tar is chiefly carried on by the poor whites and negroes. Large quantities of valuable timber are produced from the pine forests, known ia t the North as Southern pine lumber. The engravings accompaiying this article are from sketches drawn from life by our slpecial artist, Mr. C.. C. Burr, of,Vilmington, I,. C. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 95 pine, sapling, bull-sapling, Norway, and yel- berers that are river-drivers. A great part low, or pitch-pine. The pumpkin-pine stands of the lumberers are farmers, who must be pre-eminent in the estimation of the lumber- on their farms at the season of driving, and, ers, because it is the largest tree, and makes therefore, cannot undertake any thing but fine, large, clear boards. They are soft, the cutting and hauling. They are paid for and of a yellowish cast. - The timber-pine the number of thousand feet they deposit at and saplings are the most common. The the landing-places; and the logs being surformer is generally preferred, as being larger veyed, or scaled, as they are hauled, their and more likely to be sound; yet the sap- object is to get as many thousand feet as lings are said to make the harder and possible on the landing-places; while the more durable boards. The common sapling river-drivers may be very careless about getgrows in low lands, generally very thick, but ting them all down, and the owner may nevmuch of it is apt to be rotten. The bull- er receive the whole quantity he has paid for sapling is larger and sounder, grows on high cutting and hauling. In operating in this land, and is mixed with hard wood. The mode, the owner usually furnishes the supNorway pine is a much harder kind of tim- plies, provisions, etc., and the lumberer prober than the others. It is seldom sawn into cures the teams and hires the men. The boards,'though it makes excellent floor- owner, commonly, does not bind himself to boards; but it is generally hewn into square pay before the logs go to market, and he timber. frequently makes a contract for his supplies 1 will conclude with some remarks upon on the same condition, in which case he has the different modes of operating made use to pay from twenty-five to thirty-three per of by owners of timber. There are three. cent. more for his goods than he would dealOne is for the owner to hire his men by the ing on cash or common credit. Sometimes, month, procure teams, and furnish them with when there is no freshet, the logs do not go equipments and supplies. A second is to down until the second year; and then the agree with some one or more individuals to trader and lumberer both suffer for want of cut and haul the timber, or cut, haul, and their pay. run it, at a certain price per thousand feet. The third mode is by far the simplest The third way is to sell the stumpage out- and easiest for the owner. He avoids all right: that is, to sell the timber standing. trouble of furnishing supplies, of watching The first mode is seldom adopted, unless the the timber on the river, and of looking out owner of the timber is likewise a lumberer, for a market. But he must have a man of and intends to superintend the business him- some capital to deal with, as he furnishes self. The second mode is very common. It his own teams and supplies, and pays the is considered the most saving to the owners, men, receiving very heavy advances. The because the lumberer has no inducement to purchaser of it has no interest to cut the select the best timber, and leave all that is timber savingly, and he sometimes makes not of the first quality; to cut down trees dreadful havoc among the trees, leaving a and take, and leave others to rot that are great deal of valuable stuff on the ground to not quite so good, but may be worth haul- rot. And if he selects only the best trees in ing. Its inconveniences are, that, as the a berth; much of the timber left standing object of the lumberer is to get as large may be lost, because no one will afterward a quantity as possible, he will take trees want to go into that berth from which all that are not worth so much as the cost of the best trees have been called. It is comgetting them to market, and which, besides mon now to employ a man to pass the winbeing of little value themselves, render the ter in the camps, living alternately at one or whole lot less saleable by the bad appearance another, for the purpose of scaling the logs, they give it. The owner, too, is subject to keeping a correct account of them, and seeall the losses that may happen in running ing that the timber is cut according to the the logs down the river. Very frequently contract. he is obliged to make a contract to have the But, after all, there is almost always found timber cut and hauled to the landing-places, to be a considerable difference between timand another to have it run down; for the ber cut by the thousand and that which river-drivers are a distinct class from the is cut on stumpage. Each mode has its troublumberers. Most of them, indeed, are lum- les; but I think that owners at a distance berers; yet it is but a small part of the lum- will manage their concerns with least vexa 96 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. tion by selling the stumpage, provided that with a practised eye here and there, until he they have honest men to deal with. discovers one log which is the key to the whole problem. Prying cautiously, he loosIt might be mentioned in connection with ens it, and then makes his way as quick as the above interesting statement, that the pri- possible to the shore again. The confused mary object in the settlement of Maine was mass begins to settle, the head logs start; to engage in the lumber business. Agricul- and then, all at once, down stream they go ture was originally secondary to that busi- once more, with the old speed; like a herd ness, and grew up of necessity, in connection of countless buffaloes stamping along the with it. The same may be said of some prairie. The logs reach the mill in April or parts of New Hampshire. Mason and Gorges May, and the sawing commences on the procured their grant, embracing a large tract arrival of the' head of the drive.' " above Portsmouth, Dover, etc., for the pur- In the absence of accurate statistics, which poses of lumbering and the manufacture of ought to have been furnished by the last potash. It was common in Maine for a census, it is not possible to give a detailed lumberman to work at farming in summer, statement of the full extent of the lumber and cut and haul lumber in the winter. business of the country; and hence, any A brief description of lumbering at Green information on the subject must necessarily Bay, in the northern part of Wisconsin, will come far short of giving an adequate idea of be interesting in this connection. its vastness, and of the progress which the "A logging camp in the winter," says a last few years have witnessed in its develop resident of Green Bay, "is an exhilarating nment. But we know that the export of scene. The great trees falling here and lumber from the United States has risen there, with a thundering sound; the fine, from i$,822,0'77 in 1821 to $12,500,000 in strong teams moving off to the river with 1868; we know that during the four years their loads, and hurrying back with empty from 1857 to 1861 the value of the lumber sleds; the songs and shouts of the jolly, red- exported was nearly fifty-two millions of dolshirted lumbermen; the majestic forest see- lars; we know that the amount of lumber nery, standing out so handsomely in the received at Chicago alone in one year (1868) clear air of northern winter, make up a pan- was no less than 999,229,860 feet, besides orama that is worth going a day's journey one hundred and forty-five millions of laths. to see. Finally, the snow fades out before Chicago, indeed, as a lumber market, stands the spring sun. It goes first from the log- pre-eminent, and its rise and progress as such ging road, because there it has been most is little less remarkable than its growth as a worn; and te thethe lumbermen make ready grain market. The banks of the rivers are for the'running,' and wait impatiently for loaded for several miles with vast piles- of the breaking up of the stream and the lumber, shipped to that city from the extenconing of the freshet. If they are a long sive pine forests of Michigan, Wisconsin, and way up the stream, this is a matter of great Canada; while the capital-invested in this anxiety, for, perhaps, the rise will not be trade is immense. The vessels alone which sufficient, and their logs will lie over till are engaged in carrying the lumber which another year. One firm on the Oconto got finds its market there, did not cost less than logs as high up as ninety miles from the four millions and a half; and the number of mouth. If the water is high, the logs come hands employed in one way and another is down by thousands upon thousands, rushing, not less than forty thousand. clogging up, breaking away again, piling Here are some of the receipts of lumber upon each other, and requiring the constant in that city:eiforts of the drivers to keep them on the go. 184 ber-Feet. Shingles. Laths. efforts 32,11.8,225 12,148,500 5,665,700 Sometimes, when an obstruction occurs, a 14,232 7 00 759670 1852 1477816,232 77,080,500 19,759,760 few logs form a'jam,' and those coming after 1857 444,396,300 130,463;000 79,650,000 them, with terrific force, are piled up in rude 1861 249,308;000 9,336,000 32,667,000 masses, till one not familiar with it would 1862 299,365,000 131,225,000 23,880,000 think the whole enterprise hopelessly ended 1863 393,074,882 152,485,000 41,665,000 t t1864 480,165,000 133.360,000 63,805,000 for there seems no possibility of ever extri- 5 658,214,406 197,159,000 64,255,000 er 1865 658,214,476 197,159,000 64,255,000 cating the mass, perhaps, of a thousand logs. 1866 729,469,911 392,286,250 123,219,500 But a single man, with an iron-shod hand- 1867 813,526,956 472,324,250 149,482,300 spike, goes upon the jam carefully, looking 186 999,229,866 560,817,000 145,331,600 AGRICULTURE IN TIHE UNITED STATES. 97 This, it must be borne in mind, is the mand for information incident to the genbusiness, in this particular trade, of only one eral spirit of inquiry which the association city. Many other cities and large towns of effort produced in the public mind, and might be named, which, for extent of opera- especially since it has, for the most part, tions, would compare favorably with it. grown up within the last twenty years, or The city of Boston receives from the long subsequent to the formation of many southern states lumber to the value of 2 of the agricultural societies. millions of dollars a year, to say nothing of If we except the "Essays on Field -Tusthe immense quantities which she receives, bandry," by the Rev. Jared Eliot, of Connectalso, from the north and east, and from icut, prepared as early as the middle of the Nova Scotia. last century, and the valuable papers subIn what has been said above, reference mitted to the Massachusetts, the New York, has been had exclusively to the procuring of and the Pennsylvania Agricultural Societies, lumber for the purposes of building. The and published by them about the beginning vast amount required for fuel has not been of the present century, we cannot be said considered, but if that could be taken into to have had any agricultural literaoture, till account it would form an item of amazing within the memory of many men still living. importance, not only as ministering to the None, in fact, till within the last twenty or comfort of millions of people, but in a com- thirty years. The " Essays on Field Husbandmercial and business point of view. There ry," considering the time when they were was a time, and that quite recently, when written, were certainly a remarkable contriserious apprehensions were felt on account bution to the agricultural literature of the of the rapid disappearance of the woodlands country, filled with the most judicious adof New England and the older northern vice, and worthy of republication, both as a states, lest they should, at no distant day, part of the history of our agriculture and fail altogether to furnish a sufficient supply. for their own intrinsic merits. But, as alThe multiplication of railroads, and their ready remarked on a former page, the book great consumption of wood, had raised the was far in advance of the farming comnmuprices to such an extent that the farmer nity of that time, and it is not probable that could not wait for his young woodlands to it had many readers. The papers published grow, and thousands of acres were every by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting year cut off to meet this demand. The in- Agriculture, commenced as early as 1796, troduction of coal into general use in the were among the most valuable that have cities and large towns, and the resort to it ever appeared in this country. They are by many of the leading lines of railway, embraced in a series of ten octavo volumes, has now relieved usfrommuch causefor alarm, called the "Agricultural Repository," and and the forests, even of Massachusetts, are extend over a period of thirty years, disnow, it is believed, on the increase. cussing many questions which agricultural To this is to be added an increasing taste chemistry and other kindred sciences have for the cultivation of forest trees, which in since definitively settled and explained, but time will make a very perceptible improve- containing much useful information on a ment in the natural scenery of the country. great variety of subjects connected with practical agriculture. The agricultural liPROGRESS OF AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE. brary connected with my office is one of the most valuable and extensive in the The improvement and increase of the country, but I regard the "Agricultural agricultural literature of the country might Repository" as among the most valuable very properly have been treated of in the series in it. early part of this chapter, as among the The farming community gradually "took means or the causes of the progress which to reading." The American Farmer was has been made in the development of our commenced in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1819, agricultural wealth, to which it has contrib- and is believed to have been the first strictly uted nearly as much, perhaps, as the agri- agricultural periodical started in the councultural societies themselves. I have, how- try. It was sold in 1829 for twenty thouever, preferred to reserve it for this position, sand dollars, which, at that time, was a very for the reason that it may with equal pro- large price for an agricultural paper. It has priety be said to have grown out of a de- been regularly published up to this time, 98 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES'. and is still in a flourishing condition, with a years, and have received a generous patrongood circulation. age from the farming community, among The Agricultural Intelligencer was estab- which ought to be mentioned the Rural lished in Boston in 1820, but for some rea- New Yorker, with a very wide circulation; son or other, probably for want of sufficient the Country Gentleman, published in consupport, was discontinued, and the New nection with the Cultivator, at Albany; the England Farmer was begun in 1822 by Ohio Farmer, of very wide influence and Thomas G. Fessenden. This journal, an large circulation; the Michigan Farmer, at eight page quarto, was continued with a Detroit; the Valley Farmer, at St. Louis; varying fortune till 1846, when it died, but the Wisconsin Farmer, at Madison; the another of the same name, an octavo monthly Vorth-Western Farmer, at Dubuque; the and folio weekly, sprang up, and is still in the Southern Planter,? at Richmond; the Califull tide of success. The New York Farmer fornia Farmer, at:Sacramento; the Homewas established soon after the New England stead, at Hartford, Connecticut-all exceed. Farmer, and wa- continued for several years ingly valuable and well conducted papers; by Mr. Samuel Fleet, then sold to Mr. D. K. the Working Farmer, in New York city; Miner, who engaged the services of Mr. and many others with which I am less familHenry Colman as editor, till the journal iar. There are in the northern and western died, and is no more. In 1831, Mr. Luther states more than sixty journals, weekly, Tucker, one of the oldest agricultural editors semi-monthly, and monthly, devoted almost of the country, established the Genesee Far- exclusively to agriculture, and horticulture, mer, at Rochester, N. Y. At the end of the and the aggregate circulation of these is not first year it had but six hundred subscribers. less than 600,000 copies. There are, also, But Mr. Tucker persevered, until, in 1839, in the southern states, about twenty similar the subscription reached 19,000. publications devoted to agriculture, whose In the meantime, Judge Buel had estab- aggregate circulation is not less than sixtylished the Cultivator, at Albany, in 1833, and five thousand copies. These facts are exat his death, in 1839, Mr. Tucker purchased ceedingly important with reference to the that journal of his heirs, and removed to present condition of our agriculture, since Albany, uniting the Genesee Farmer and they indicate a wide-spread spirit of inquiry the Cultivator which is still in a very and intelligence among farmers, which must flourishing condition, having exerted a long- necessarily have an important influence on continued and wide-spread influence. The the future development of this great inplace made vacant by the removal of the terest. Genesee Farmer from Rochester was soon Besides the large number and wide circus filled by the New Genesee Farmer, soon lation of the journals devoted to agriculture, after which the first word of the title was there is a good demand for agricultural dropped, and as the Genesee Farmer, was pub- books, and many of the standard works lished till 1867 when it was united with the published in Europe have been republished Agriculturist. The American Agriculturist, in this country, including Stephens' "Book established about the year 1842, was con- of the Farm," Thaer's "Principles of Agritinued with some success for some years, till culture," Johnston's " Agricultural Chemisits subscription list became reduced to a few try," and many other European works of hundreds, when it passed into new hands, felt established reputation. These foreign works the infusion of younger blood, and in less were soon followed by American treatises than fifteen years the subscription has risen on landscape gardening, fruits, animals, to 180,000. The Farmers' Cabinet was pub- draining, dairy farming, and, in fact, on sublished some years in New York city, under jects covering the whole ground of farm the editorship of J. S. Skinner, who first economy, more or less perfectly. Many of established the American Farmer, at Balti- these treatises and republications have had a more. Mr. Skinner, in 1848, started the wide circulation. The "Modern Horse Plough, Loom, and Anvil, which was con- Doctor" has sold to the extent of more tinued till about 1858. The Maline Farmer than fifty thousand copies, "Youatt and was established about the year 1832, and Martin on Cattle," over twenty thousand, has exerted a good influence. "Youatt on the Horse" over sixty thou, Many other agricultural journals have sand, and many others in a similar probeen started within fifteen or twenty years portion. i I I it1~i~ ill i I,,,,,. ~7 1 iiI~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i i~~ H l M II II'' AGRIC.ULTURAL DEPARTMENT BUILDING,~ WASHINGTON, D. C. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 99 In addition to these facilities for informa- twenty years, and justify the hope and extion, many of the states have established pectation of the most splendid results in the township and district libraries, by means of future. which the choicest works on all subjects are It ought not to be overlooked, in this brought within the reach of all, the poor as connection, that there has been a most dewell as the rich. In these libraries are gen- cided progress within the last twenty years erally included a fair proportion of agricul- in agricultural chemistry and kindred scitural works. ences. This progress has been made not This system was initiated by New York wholly and strictly by scientific men in our in 1837, by making an appropriation of two own country, but scientific discoveries in hundred thousand dollars a year for three agriculture are the property of the intelliyears, and subsequent annual grants of over gent farmer everywhere, and those made fifty thousand dollars. Massachusetts fol- abroad have had a material and important lowed the example of New York in 1839, influence in promoting the advancement of and more recently Michigan passed a law practical agriculture among us. giving each township the sum of fifty dol- The labors of Arthur Young and Sir lars annually for this purpose. Indiana Humphry Davy were exceedingly valuable, adopted the same policy in 1854, and Ohio but they bear the same relation to more rein 1857, the former appropriating $300,000 cent investigations that the labors of the for two years, and the latter $80,000 an- pioneer in the western forest do to those of nually. Illinois and other western states the sons who till the soil and reap the barhave also adopted a similar course. vests for which the father had prepared the These measures are properly regarded as way. The former did more than any other well calculated to diffuse information, and man to stir up the agricultural mind of his promote not only agricultural improvement, country. The latter was the first to give but the general welfare of the community. principles to practice, and he announced the To this should be added the fact that most new philosophy in these words: " Vegetables states publish annually an abstract of the derive their component principles-which proceedings of the county agricultural so- are, for the most part, hydrogen, carbon, cieties for general gratuitous distribution. oxygen, and nitrogen-either from the atMany of the states produce volumes of great mosphere by which they are surrounded, or value. Ohio distributes from twenty to from the soil in which they grow. The procthirty thousand copies. Massachusetts pub- ess of vegetation appears to depend upon lishes ten thousand copies, and Maine as the perpetual assimilation of various substanmany more. These various instrumentalities ces to the organs of the plant, in conseare now in constant activity, and are exerting quence of the exertion of their living and an immense influence. of their chemical affinities." Allusion should also be made to the The conversion of inorganic bodies into establishment, in some of the states, of agri- gases, and the assimilation of gases by orcultural colleges, where special attention is ganic structures, formed the basis for a new to be given to the various. sciences which starting point, and had never before been anbear directly or indirectly upon practical fiounced. Carbonic acid had been discovagriculture. Michigan was the first to lead ered by Black in 1752. Dr. Rutherford off in this direction; a liberal endowment called attention to nitrogen in 1772, and was granted by the state. New York, Mary- Priestley discovered oxygen in 1774, and obland, and other states soon followed; but the tained it from the leaves of plants; and results of these institutions are not yet at- when Davy appeared with a series of investained, nor can they at present be fully tigations more intimately connected with appreciated, since time only can prove their agriculture, the properties of air and water value and their efficiency. had not long been known. But little progThis brief survey of the growth of the ress had been made in vegetable anatomy. facilities for information.upon agricultural Most of all that is known with regard to the subjects and the appliances brought to bear organs of plants-their mode of growth by upon the instruction of-the young farmer, food taken from the air, from water, from will sufficiently indicate the rapidity of the manure, and from the soil by transmuting progress which has been made in this par- processes of wonderful delicacy-has been ticular direction within the last ten or discovered within the last fifty years.. Since 100 AGRIOULTUVR IN THit UNITED STATES. Davy's time, the processes of chemical anal- scientific men soon discovered the most apysis have been vastly improved, and abstract proved formulas for the manufacture of suchemistry itself has grown up to a science perphosphate of lime, and other concentraof inestimable importance, which it had not ted artificial manures. The best methods in his day. The accumulation of scientific of preparing these substances were thus made facts is the work of time, and it was not till known both by scientific and practical men. 1840 that Liebig prepared his report on' the The advantage of these discoveries cannot progress of agriculture for the British Asso- be disputed, for though the farmer may be ciation for the Advancement of Science, and liable to be deceived in the purchase of a opened a new world of thought and study, particular kind of superphosphate, yet there awakened the attention of practical farmers is no longer any doubt of its great value as to the importance of applying the results of a fertilizer, when properly made; while its chemical investigations, and, in some re- introduction rendered substances previously spects, essentially modified the practice of of little worth, easily and quickly available all civilized countries. for the nourishment of plants, and hence Liebig said, in his "Organic Chemistry," that very valuable. "to manure an acre of land with forty pounds It was these investigations that made of bone dust, is sufficient to supply three known the value of guano as a fertilizer. crops of wheat, clover, potatoes, turnips, etc., This substance has come into use since the vith phosphates, but the form in which they year 1840, when twenty casks were landed are restored to the soil does not appear to be in England, where it was soon found to be a a matter of indifference. For the more finely most valuable manure. So great was the the bones are reduced to powder, and the confidence immediately inspired in its value more intimately they are mixed with the soil, as a means of increasing the products and the more easily they are assimilated. The renovating the soil of the country, that the most easy and practical mode of effecting very next year, 1841, seven vessels were emtheir division is to pour over the bones, in ployed to convey 1,733 tons from the Chinthe state of fine powder, half of their weight cha Islands to England, and the number inof sulphuric acid, diluted with three or four creased in 1842 to forty-one British and parts of water." The leading idea in this three foreign vessels, and the amount imand other propositions of Liebig opened the ported to 13,094 tons. Before the close of way for the whole system of artificial manur- 1844, no less than 29,000 tons were importing, which has extended so far in modern ed into that country from the coast of Peru, times. Previous to that time, the farmer to say nothing of the many thousand tons had confined himself to the use either of a which came from the Ichaboe and other compost of animal and vegetable materials, guano islands at that time discovered. In or of other simple substitutes, as ashes, salt, 1 855, no less than 210,000 tons were sold in soot, or something of the kind; but not in England, being an increase of twenty per accordance with any fixed principles derived cent. on the consumption of 1854, which from reasoning or the results of observation, was at least twenty per cent. over that of but simply because experience had shown 1853. From 1841,the date of the extraction them to be beneficial. Liebig's idea was of guano, to any extent, from the Chincha that sulphuric acid, the vitriol of commerce, Islands, to the end of 1856, the quantity would make the neutral phosphate of lime removed from those islands alone reached soluble, and give it a powerful action in the the enormous figure of two millions of tons, soil. For the subsequent discovery and use and the aggregate amount of sales in that of mineral phosphates we are indebted to time was $100,263,519. From the comthe same'source, the development and appli- mencement of 1851 to the end of 1868, cation of the views first advanced by Liebig. there were imported into the United States Immediately after the announcement of and used, no less than 823,412 tons. Since his propositions, experiments were instituted 1858, large quantities of guano from Alta with such satisfactory results that manufac- Vela and other islands claimed by the United tories were established in England, and the States has been used, and with good success. importation of bones from Germany, the Artificial manures, such as raw bone, superUnited States, and South America, became of phosphate of lime, ground and crushed bone, great importance to commerce as well as to the fish guano made by the menhaden on agriculture; while the earnest researches of Long Island and elsewhere for oil, the ma AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 101 nures of the rendering and offal companies, pansion of our population, the mind itself is etc., etc., find an abundant market. In 1867 incapable of fixing limits to the increase of or 1868 immense deposits of coprolites (the this grand interest, already involving a dung of fossil animals) were discovered near greater amount of the wealth of the country Charlestown, S. C., and great quantities have than any other, producing annually to the come into market. value of more than twenty-five hundred millTHE PROSPECTS OF AGRICULTURE IN THIS ions of dollars,and capable of a hunred-fold COUNTRY. greater development than that which it has already attained. Having given some of the features of ag- The original area of the country was but ricultural progress in the preceding pages, it 815,615 sq. miles, till the purchase of Louis proper to say, in conclusion, that the pres- isiana, in 1803, brought an addition of 930,eat is but the dawn of a new era-an era 928 more, and the acquisition of Florida, in of improvements of which we cannot yet 1819, an addition of 59,268 square miles. form an adequate conception. The scientific The annexation of Texas gave us 237,504, discoveries, the mechanical inventions, the and that of Oregon 280,425, to which is to general spirit of inquiry, and the wide-spread be added the territory acquired by the intelligence which have been alluded to, in- treaties with Mexico, of 677,262 square miles, dicate that.a greater application of the mind and Alaska, purchased from Russia, in 1867, to the labors of the hand distinguishes the 577,390 square miles, making our entire area present generation over all preceding times in May, 1870, 3,578,392 square miles. in a manner which those only can appre- It is expected that the census of 1870 ciate who will look back and consider the will show that the population is somewhat past-the slow growth of new ideas and over forty millions; possibly it may be new practices, the struggles with prejudice, forty-two millions. The annual increase ignorance, the want of markets, and the since 1790 has been four times as great as want of means, all of which contributed to that of Russia, six times as great as that of depress American agriculture fifty years Great Britain, nine times as great as that of ago, and to keep it at a point wretchedly Austria, and ten times as great as that of low, compared even with what it is at the France; and if the ratio of increase in our present time. We have seen not only the population from 1840 to 1850 should concalling, but the men who live by it gradu- tinue to 1900, we shall have a population ally rising in dignity, in self-respect, and the of one hundred and seven millions, The respect of mankind. It is an imperative law density of population in 1860 was about ten of society that educated mind and educated persons to the square mile, or, more aclabor will take its position above uneducated; curately, 10.11. That of the New England in proportion as the farmer of to-day is bet- states was less than fifty-one (50.47) to the ter educated and more intelligent than the square mile. That of the middle states was farmer of half a century ago, the former about seventy (69.83,) while Texas and Caliwould naturally stand above the latter in the fornia had less than three to the square mile. general estimation of the community. But If we had the density of population to be in many other respects the farmer of the pres- found in Spain, it would give us two hunent day is far in advance of his forefathers. dred millions; if that of France, it would His labor is easier, and his mental activity is give us five hundred millions; if that of consequently greater. The same amount of Belgium (402,) it would give us eleven hunmanual labor produces more, and the farmer dred and eighty millions. has time for the culture of the mind and the The area of the Pacific slope of this social virtues, as well as the farm, and agri- country is 1,449,616 square miles, or 40.51 culture holds a position of pre-eminence un- per cent. of the whole territory of the Unitknown at any former period. ed States. The area of the Atlantic slope, These changes we have seen in our own proper, is 514,416 square miles, a ratio of day, and we know that a higher develop- only 14.37 to the whole. The area of the ment of our agricultural wealth must go gulf region is 325,537 square miles, or harid in hand with an increase of population, 9.09 per cent. of the whole; that of the if there were no other stimulus toits growth. northern lake region is 112,649 square Now, if we consider the immense area of the miles, or only 3,15 per cent., while that of United States, and the facilities for the ex- the Mississippi valley and the region water 102 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. ed and drained by its tributaries is 1,217,- in 1863, 8955,764,322; in 1864, $1,504,562 square miles, or 34.02 per cent. of the 543,690; and in 1865, 81,047,360,167. whole, or more than one-third of our na- During these years the crops of the southern tional territory. states were greatly disturbed by the war, The number of farms and plantations in and comparatively little of their great stathe United States in 1850 was 1,449,075, pies-cotton, rice, and sugar-were planted. and the number of acres of improved land The aggregate value of the ten largest crops, in farms, 113,032,614. In 1860 there were in 1868, viz.: Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, 2,044,077 of farms, and the number of acres barley, buckwheat, potatoes, tobacco, hay of improved land was 163,261,389. The and cotton, (omitting rice, sugar, wool, butunimproved land in farms, in 1850, was 180,- ter, cheese, hemp, flax, silk, wine, honey, 528,800 acres, and this had increased, by orchard, market, garden and small fruits, and the taking up of new lands in 1860, to 244,- slaughtered animals,) no returns being given 101,818 acres. The cash value of farms, in fromn the territories, or any part of the Pacific 1850 amounting to $3,271,575,420, had slope, except California, was $1,811,674,495 risen in 1860 to $6,645,045,007; or, in and this when most of the crops were below other words, while the farming lands had the average. The census return of the crops increased fifty per cent. in average, their of 1869, will be considerably more than value, from the greater density of popula- $2,500,000,000. tion, and improved methods of cultivation, The agricultural productions of the Pacific had doubled. slope, though differing somewhat from those The domestic animals of the farm num- of the Atlantic states, are fast rivaling them bered as follows at the dates specified; the in proportionate value. The long dry sealast column being estimated by the Agricul- son, while it prohibits some crops, is favoratural Department:- ble to others, and, by the very general introduction of irrigation, the production of wheat, June, 1850, June, 1860. Jan., 1869. of a peculiar but highly nutritious character, Horses.............. 4,336,719 6,115,458 6.332,793 Asses and Mules...... 559,331 1,129,553 1,121662 of the grape and other fruits, and of immense Milch C.ows.......... 6.385,094 8,728,862 9,247,714 r oot is already surpassing that of the Working Oxen....... 1,700,694 2,240,075 root Cops, is already supssing that of the Other Cuttle......... 10,293,069 14,671,400 I12,15,3 5 farming lands of the east. The vintage of Sheep............... 21,723,220 23,317,756 3774,27 California alreadfy supplies a large portion of Swillne............... 30,354,213 32,555,267 23,316,476 a ria a ea y supplies a age poion o the wine consumed in the United States, and The value of all the live stock, in 1850, its wheat is largely exported. The state is was reckoned at $544,180,516. In 1860 it also devoting great attention to silk culture. had a little more than doubled, being $1,- Texas and the western portion of the Gulf 089,329,915. In January, 1869, their value region, on the other hand, proves to be the. had increased about 50 per cent., though, finest grazing country in the world, and its owing to the extraordinary demand of the millions of cattle and sheep will ere long war, their numbers had not greatly increased, supply the markets of the continent. With except sheep which had risen from twenty- a variety of climate which enables its agrithree millions to thirty-eight millions. The culturists to cultivate all the productions estimated value of the live stock of the of the temperate, and most of those of the country, in January, 1869, according to data semi-tropical zone, there is a boundless fufurnished by the Agricultural Department, ture of prosperity for the agriculturist of the was $1,527,704,029. United States to look forward to, and he The value of the crops of any particular may well hope and expect that his country year are ascertained with difficulty and only will, at no distant day, furnish to the world approximately. In 1866, those of twelity- in rich profusion whatever of the products two of the northern states were reported by of agriculture they may need. the Agricultural Department as having been, COTTON CULTURE. CHAPTER- I. kept up by the abundance and cheapness of good land. ABUNDANCE OF LAND-HIGH WAGES OF As capital is an aid to labor, by enlarging LABOR DEPENDENT ON COTTON AND its products, the rate of interest is high where labor is productive. The distrust of THE high prices of labor in our country, capitalists who were separated from us by and the large profits of capital, have been re- the wide Atlantic, and their ignorance of our marked from the earliest period of our his- pursuits, and means, and credit, prevented tory. Adam Smith, in his "Wealth of Na- them from entering into competition with tions," proposed an explanation of these two the capitalists here, so that they easily obpeculiarities, and there is no doubt that tained all the borrower was able to pay. his keen insight discovered their true cause This was a very high rate, because the in the abundance and cheapness of good money was of great advantage. Whether the land. The large products of our rich virgin farmer borrowed it to buy more lands, or soil, purchased from the Indians at a mere ploughs, or stock, or the mechanic to ennominal price, enabled the farmer to offer large his powers of production by new mahil-h wages to the laborer, and large interest chines, or tools, or materials, both were able to the capitalist. The owner of the land, to pay a large per-centage, on account of the who was generally a laborer himself, paid no profits of their increased business. Thus rent, and had made but a small outlay to cheap, rich lands not only advanced the rate purchase his farm, so that nearly. the whole of wages, but of interest also. of his product was the reward of labor. If This explanation was satisfactory during he could find a poor man who had not means all the period of our colonial history. It enough to purchase and stock a farm, he was still plausible after the war of Indepencould afford to offer him high wages, because dence, for, although our population had adhe' would be himself more than paid by his vanced into the interior, and the price of increased products. These high wages soon lands alongthe sea-board had risen so that the enabled the hired laborer to become a land- products of the soil were charged, before proprietor himself, and both were then com- they could be exported, with rent or with petitors in the market for all the labor that the cost of inland transportation, leaving a could be hired. This competition forced the smaller portion of the proceeds for the share rate of wages as high as their abundant of the laborer, the wars in Europe concrops authorized them to pay. The artisans nected with the French Revolution increased of the towns were tempted from their shops the demand for breadstuffs, and maintained by the large reward offered for their labor in them at high prices. Our neutral position the country; and the few who remained at gave us the carrying trade between the beltheir trades asked high prices for their work. ligerents, and this required a large number These they readily obtained, for their only of American ships. These being built of competitors were across the sea. three thou- timber procured from our abundant forests, sand miles distant, with slow and irregular brought large returns to the laborer. The communication, so that the foreign mechanics trees that were felled and converted into could not force those who were here to ship-timber cost nothing, or but a trifle; so reduce their prices to the standard of that the whole value of the timber consisted the old world. Thus, in the town and of wages only, and the cost of transportathe country, in mechanical as well as agri- tion to the sea-port. As this distance was cultural labor, a high rate of wages was short, nearly the whole was wages. NOTE.' Professor McCay is one of the most able writers of the South; is not a politician, so far ns we know, and has produced a very instructive and val'able Article, it being written before the wsr, will ever remain one of tire most im!iartiril and faithliul descriiptions of the ('Cotoi interest, and exposition of the views of the people of the Fo:ith, on the system of labor under which the great staple was cultivated. to be foiaud on record. We think it will be perused with much interest by the general reader.-Publisher. 104 COTTON CULTURE. Thus, even to the war of 1812, our rich, rates of wages? In colonial times the prodcheap lands were the source of our pros- uct was made along the Atlantic, and nearly perity, and the explanation proposed by Dr. the whole price at Philadelphia went to the Smith for the high rate of wages and of in- laborer. Now, a large per-centage must be terest prevailing here was still satisfactory. deducted for the two thousand miles' carriage But when peace was restored, in 1815, and by land, lake, canal, and river, and the lathe immense armies of the different states borer's share is small. ~ The truth is, the of Europe were returned to theirhomes to pioneer is poorly paid; he is struggling hard become producers instead of consumers; for a mere pittance. His receipts are small, when the several countries encouraged their and he can give but a small price for the own shipping and their own farmers by re- hireling he employs to assist him on his storing their usual prohibitions and restric- farm. He is no longer the cause of high tions, the advantages we possessed before wages through the whole breadth of the the war were very much lessened. Our land. His influence and empire have ceased. country had by this time become more popu- Besides, our country has increased in lous. Lands along the sea-board had risen in population so largely, that the foreign deprice; the people had penetrated the inte- mand for flour and other products of our rior; the distant transportation had become lands will not pay for a tithe of our necesa heavy burden to the producer; and thus, sary'wants, which must be supplied from at the very same time that the European de- abroad. Our people have increased in wealth, mand was lessened, and the price depressed, and their wants for wines, and silks, and other our ability to supply the demand with profit luxuries, cannot be paid for by the export of was decreased. The money value of our flour and grain, and the products of our forproducts was diminished, and the laborer's ests. If, besides agricultural productions, we share in this value was at the same time less- are forced to export manufactures to pay for ened. The usefulness of our cheap lands our foreign supplies, the price of labor, was decreased, and their advantages were which is the main element in the cost of less and less experienced. manufactures, must at once fall to the EuroIf we come down to recent times, our ad- pean standard. vantages have not improved. Our country If, then, we had cheap lands even on the has become larger. The region of cheap Atlantic, we could not pay for our present land is beyond the Alleghanies. We must large supplies of foreign goods, so that these take a journey of a thousand miles from New could not maintain our high rates for wages York, crossing the Ohio and the Wabash, and interest; much less are they able to do passing Indiana and Illinois, before we reach it when they are thousands of miles from the the country of cheap lands. The grain that coast. is brought down the Hudson from Albany A reference to the history of our foreign has been carried more than three hundred commerce will illustrate the principles we miles, in the Erie canal, from Buffalo, and have been referring to. When our general more than a thousand, by vessels on the lakes, government was first formed, our population from Chicago, and thitherfirom theinterior of was less than four millions; of these ninetyIllinois by railroad. There the land on five per cent. were along the Atlantic slope, which it was produced is worth ten, twenty, their average distance from the coast being fifty dollars per acre. Now, however cheap less than a hundred miles. Our average dothe transportation by railroad and on the mrestic exports for the five years from 1790 lakes, the canal, and the river, the freight to 1794, were less than twenty-two millions of must be a large per-centage of the sales at dollars. Of these, flour alone averaged more New York. The rent of land in Illinois is than 800,000 barrels, and wheat more than also to be deducted, leaving but a small bal- 1,200,000 bushels; making a value of more ance to be finally paid the laborer who has than six millions of dollars. Other products produced it. We must go hundreds of miles of the farm and the forest made up nearly the further to reach the region of cheap land, whole of the balance. Now when lands and then the increased cost of transportation were cheap, and near to the seaports; when will neutralize the advantage of procuring the forests bordering on the coast were not land at a dollar and a quarter per acre. yet thinned or cut down, the laborer had a Now, will the cheap lands of Iowa, and rich and abundant harvest, and high wages Wisconsin, alnd Nebraska, explain our high could be maintained by our cheap lands. ABUNDANCE OF LAND-WAGES OF LABOR DEPENDENT ON COTTON AND GOLD. 105 Ten years later, our population had risen by the surplus of the empire state. The to five millions, of which ninety per cent. yet coal and iron districts of Pennsylvania had occupied the Atlantic slope. Our domestic become better markets for grain and flour exports had risen to forty millions for the five than Philadelphia. Populous cities had years after 1800; and of these, flour alone risen in the west, and all these intercepted amounted to eight millions and a half, its the supplies of food that were to be sent average price being $8.40, and the number abroad for the purchase of our imports. of barrels exceeding a million. The demand The only flour that could be exported had for our agricultural products was now large to be carried from five to fifteen hundred and the price high; so that the imports miles. The foreign demand was no greater could yet be paid for by the products of our than it had been fifty years before, and our lands and our forests. These were still near exports only reached 1,000,000 of barrels, the coast, and nearly all their proceeds be- while $163,000,000 were needed to pay for longed to the labor that produced them. our imports. The other products of the In 1810 our population had increased to west were small, and so were those of the 7,000,000, of which 80 per cent. were on forest. It is evident, therefore, that cheap this side of the Alleghanies. For the next lands could no longer furnish the supplies two years which preceded the war, our ex- to pay for our imports, much less could they ports of domestic produce reached $43,- keep up the price of labor above the foreign 000,000, of which flour constituted one- standard. The advantages furnished by fourth, the number of barrels exceeding nature in the early history cf our country 1,100,000, and the average price being $9.66. had ceased, and we were thrown on other Other products of our lands, yet cheap and resources, to keep up the prosperity and aeai the coast, miade up a large portion of progress of our people. the means we used to pay for our foreign But this prosperity has not ceased. supplies, and up to this time it may be justly There has been no step backward in our said that high wages were sustained by the career. The high prices of labor and of abundance of our fertile lands. capital have been sustained, and the onward But what a change in 1820. The people progress of our country, in power, wealth, had increased to 10,000,000, 40 per cent. of and greatness, has never received the slightwhom had their homes across the mountains, est check. Our exports of domestic produce were over That labor is still higher than in Europe, $50,000,000, and the whole demand for flour is abundantly evident. We import a large did not average, for the five years after 1820, amount of cotton goods; the importer pays 1,000,000 barrels, and that at only $5.68 the expenses of transportation across the per barrel. While the products of our sea, and a duty of 24 per cent. at the customlands had to be brought much further to house, and yet sells his goods at the same market, the amount demanded for foreign price with the American manufacturer who countries, and the prices they gave for them, has bought his raw material at a lower price had declined. It was the same with the than the foreign producer. There is no exproducts of the forest. For the ten years planation of this possible, except that labor after the war they were less than for the ten and capital are higher in. this country than years before. The first were much nearer in Europe. The iron ore of Pennsylvania the sea, and for the last we gave more labor is as good and abundant as in England; and received less money. The efficiency of fuel and limestone are as cheap, and as near cheap lands to pay for our imports was to the beds of ore; but the English iron is gone, and their power to keep up prices de- not only imported under heavy duties, but parted also. carried into the interior, and sold in the very If we come downto1850, ourpopulationhad neighborhood of the American furnaces. reached 23,000,000, of whom only 54 percent. These two manufactures have long been were along the Atlantic. The centre of the ag — favored by the protection of government. riculturalpopulation had receded from the sea- Under the device of specific duties and board and crossed the mountains. The grain minimums, the tariff for a while amountproduced along the coast was all wanted at ed to a prohibition on many of these home. N-ew England did not produce her own goods. On all it was very large and bursupplies. The city of New York contained a densome. The manufacturers have had half million of people, who could not be fed time and opportunity to learn and introduce 106 -COTTON CULTURE. all the improvements, and skill, and knowl- have we? the gift of nature or our own edge that would facilitate and cheapen their arrangement, by which we are able to have production; they have had enterprise, and an active commerce with all the world, and a capital, and'energy to manage and direct free interchange of commodities with every them; and there is no possible explanation country, and yet to sustain a higher price for of the continued import of these articles to labor and capital than the other nations with the amount of millions and tens of millions whom we trade? of dollars every year, unless labor and capi- The only way to keep up the rates of wages tal were dearer here than in England. and of money higher than in Europe, is to Perhaps a more striking proof that wages produce some articles here that are in large are higher here than in Europe may be found demand abroad, for which we have peculiar in the immense emigration into the United advantages, so that we can make them States from foreign countries. The principal cheaper than other countries, in spite of our motive of these emigrants is to improve their high price for labor and our high interest for condition. The Irish laborers who rejoiced money. in the old country at having meat once a Such an article we have in cotton. It is week, are here able to place it on their tables of prime necessity, and in large demand three times a day; to whet their appetites abroad, because it furnishes the cheapest mawith as much whiskey as they may wish; to terial for clothing, and for other purposes of enjoy comforts and luxuries they never civilized life; it is produced here under such dreamed of abroad; and to send back to favorable circumstances that we can supply the parents, and brothers, and sisters they this demand at a fair profit to ourselves; this left behind, millions of dollars every year, profitable production being sustained by the that they also may come here and partici- favorable circumstances of our soil and clipate in the same prosperity. The Germans mate, and by the use of cheap labor in the bid adieu to their homes and fatherland that midst of a country where labor is dear. they love so well, and come over by tens of The large demand for cotton in other counthousands to buy land, and build fine barns, tries enables us to pay for the imports that and lay up treasures for old age or for their we must have, and also for others that w'^ children; while in their own country.they ourselves might supply, were it not that our would have been poor and humble peasants high rates for labor and capital permit the all their lives. foreign producers to undersell us in our own This high price of wages is of the utmost market, after paying heavy duties at the seaimportance. It is the source of our rapid ports, and the cost of transportation across increase in wealth and greatness, and the the Atlantic. exact measure of our prosperity. It belongs It is easy to follow out the course of not merely to the day laborer who works operations by which these effects are prowith his hands, but to the artisan who has duced: the planter produces the cotton skill, and to the man of talent who has which is sold abroad, and buys the foreign brains. The superintendent and the master supplies of the north, the south, and the manufacturer, as well as the weaver, receive west. The north carries the cotton to the high wages; the captain of the ship as well foreign country, and brings back the returns. as the sailor; the merchant as well ashis She delivers to the south her share, and porter; and as industry, enterprise, and tal- pays for the balance in manufactures. After ent earn higher rewards here than in any supplying herself, she buys food from the other country, the workman is inspired west with the remainder. with new zeal, his aims and aspirations are The manufactures of Europe being loaded raised, wealth accumulates with greater with the expenses of transport across the rapidity, and every thing that makes a coun- seas, and with duties paid to the general try prosperous and powerful is developed government, the northern manufacturer can with a quicker growth. keep the prices for his goods up to the imIf, then, it is a fact that wages are higher porting limit, and these the south is able to here than in Europe; if this is a fact of the pay, because of the profit on her great staple, utmost importance to the prosperity and and the monopoly she has of the European greatness of our country, the question recurs, market. IIow is this high rate of wages sustained? Thus are the high prices of labor sustainIf not by cheap lands, what other advantage ed, and the foreign supplies of the country -—' —-— I_` —. --— = —---------— —--2 -- —;.. -::-; --- i -_T-__-__-=;__= —--i ; ~ —T;_T:---_ —. —-- —=5 —TL= —-T-__lll____l__r_ _I_____ —~-1= —= —---— ='1'-;- -— = ——; —- —--:7~7-T--7_= : :___I___-_-1I:----_=_:i_ ______,_-=__---'''__-'-I_ -_71--;L=_'=-;_:_=__==______I-=I_ _:_ —- --— == —====-;;;- ~-= —;, —--: _.__ --— -7- -- ---— -I —-; —r- : - ~-;--L-=---_-_;-- —= —_1-:- _7;1__=;TT_:__: —:;L1 — I- —:I-_ —--: —_-r_-: -Z-. —= —-- —:r — —-_.L L_-::__::_ILIL —-. —__I_1__I_____ ----- — —---------— ~r-._i'i=--=L=_;=__I__ ____ZIi-;-ITi -- ------------ ---—:: —z--IL- -— E —-==_=_. —-— _==__==___-T-;_;__- —== —=_2_--- —-= —-- -------—:- —-; —-- --- ----- ----— L1_= —=l-_F_:Z-:I-_-I.I — —--- -------- --—' i-_l'-_--L---------i-- _ __-I-_;-__._=;=_iZ_ ---— =- —-— L-_ _C--. --_- --= — ---- -. —— =-=I==;- —-----— __ _. —-;=-;=. —z-.,-"T-`_~:-_---___,_T___;__ -- ----—; I:_.__ —Z_;1-L._-~-__-.--_L-_ _r,:,-_;-; —— =l — ~~L —-r==-== —-~- —----— ~r; —-=_ —— = —— ;;L-;?ri=_--1;==r-= —---— .---__:: ::i::__ r 1-- --— —-- 1__---- —;=-: ---— ^; —-=- —.= —-.-=;_i=, r 2:--;=;-:--_L=2 —_L-I —L= ----- ---- -- _zI:'==-;-'= —-= —— -- —-'I~;- —===i —---t--c---:. -I-- — —, --- ---- ----— ; — — —== —i; —= —= —-=;-==-,-:__-I~__T------- =,-I-==;,-_,-_ —— --___rc - —---—:' T._ ---— —--— I--. ----— _ —— _ — —- --- ~--=_=L- ::-==; — ---— - — - -— =C;C —_ — --5_1-; -— —-s-.- —--.,7,,,-,-;-;- —-- — I- s JX -— =r;lrj,-r.-= —-— _ — -—; —— =- —------ = —------— =-= —--- _ —-- -_;==-: —-— T-;= _-^-i` —------,- = — — ---—'-;=I-__==-- 3L=1_ —== —-;=-,-; - —--— = ~-=-- i —---— 2 =- ——;cJl-= - — —-- - —--- _ — =z-=-I'- —---;' -—; — —--— = — —___L-— i — -—;==F==ii=T:.i ~,u;;;;;;;;;;:1;I 9.\\ —-----— s=-;= —-= — —-- --— --I~I-~=-~=-i~ —---— _--_-I-- —- -— —=-L- LL ---— j —----------------- s —- --~ —-= —-=-== -------- -I —-------- %-s — —=';-l —= —= —-- ------ — ------ --~I —= —-- -------— —------------- ------ -- it j -- - -- —- = —-;-=- —-; —-------- c- -I — c= —= —---- - =- =-L —__ -------------— =-2~ -- --- =-=2=-,,T_-; —====-,-= —--— — ------ ----— —----— I —------ \:~~~~ —- —- —, — ----— _- z, —— —- —= —-i —- ----— = —-= —--— — iV: ar:`~ —-r —-- c i —-i_ z I~ — — —-=lw,lnrrsrl,,nuanumre (I IalY iii, I ij I -_q;F_S l/i C;IBagqLZSr_)? 9B Lci 1 iji r'"E -;="" L-; IZ-3 —-—' —-,,-=i, j7~ 1 —-— - rjTc5s sc- ---— -ii —------- RA*CJLING1 COTTON TO MAR.I(ET. "7 Cotton, after reaching the shipping port, is re-bailed, being compressed into as small a compass as possible, in order to stow away to the best advantage in the hold of the ship. ABUNDANCE OF LAND-WAGES OF LABOR DEPENDENT ON COTTON AND GOLD. 107 paid for by the export of cotton, whose cost abroad, or of new inventions, or discoveries, of production does not depend on the high or patents. The whole amount of these being paid labor of the country, but on the cheap small, and due to real advantages we have labor of the negro slave. here, or to accident, or fashion, or taste, or During the last ten years the gold of Cal- prejudice, do not form any objection to the ifornia has had precisely the same effect, and explanation we have proposed, that high its operations have been in every respect prices are maintained in our country chiefly similar. The demand abroad for gold is of by cotton. course unlimited; the cheap and profitable So also with agricultural products; we exproduction of it here depends on the abun- port some of these to the markets on our dant gifts of nature. The eastern manu- own continent, where we have many advanfacturers sell their high-priced products to tages over the European producer. In some the miners, who are prevented from obtain- of these, as in the flour to Brazil, these are ing them cheaper by the distance from very considerable. Our import of coffee is Europe, and the duties of the custom-house, large, and our exports in return are very and are able to pay for them by the abundant small, and consequently freights are low. rewards they receive from their own labor. We produce a kind of wheat in our southern In this case nature, without any aid, makes climate manufactured into flour, which will the production profitable; in the other nature not readily sour in the voyage across the is aided by the domestic institutions of the equator. These two reasons secure a large south. But the effects are in both cases demand for the brand of southern mills. identical. And there are many other circumstances These two articles are assisted by rice and that induce a few shipments without refertobacco, which are in almost every respect ence to price, so that even the small influence similar to cotton. The demand abroad is of our agricultural exports in sustaining not so great, and our advantages in their prices is not due entirely to cheap lands, but cultivation over the other producersfor the to position, accident, advantages of climate, European market are not so marked and de- and other things of this kind. cided. They are, however, real, and they If we refer to our commercial statistics, it may properly be regarded as aids to cotton will be seen how small a ratio our manufacand gold in producing the effect. tures and the products of our cheap lands The propriety and correctness of this ex- bear to the whole exports. In 1850 the planation of our high prices is not affected cotton, rice, and tobacco exported were by the fact that we also export some manu- worth eighty-five millions of dollars, and factures. This is done in spite of their high formed sixty-three per cent. of the whole prices, because they are carried, not to Eng- value; the flour, grain, cheese, butter, lard, land and France, but to Mexico, South tallow, beef, pork, naval stores, and many America, and the West Indies, where our other animal and agricultural products were proximity and trade give us some advantages less than twenty-four millions, and constitutover the European manufacturer. A few ed only eighteen per cent. of the domestic cotton goods are carried to China; these are exports; while the manufactures of every coarse, so that the superior cheapness of the kind, including those of cotton, were only raw material here partly compensates for the fifteen millions, forming but eleven per cent. superior cost of manufacturing. This ad- of the exports. For 1859, the year on which vantage is aided by the influence of fashion, the eighth census (1860) returns are based, habit, and accident; by the superior adapted- the value of cotton, rice, tobacco, and gold, ness of our goods to their wants at the com- was $245,000,000, or 73 per cent. of the mencement of the export, and the good will whole; all the products of animals and of the and good name that were then secured; and field, forty-two millions, or thirteen per cent. by various other inducements which often of all; and manufactures of every kind (inlead to the purchase of higher-priced com- eluding eight millions of cotton goods) thirty modities even in a free and open market. millions of dollars, or nine per cent. of the Some few manufactures are even carried whole exports. Of cotton alone the exports to England, France, and Germany, on ac- were $161,000,000. count of the temporary superiority of our We repeat, then, that it is cotton almost workmen, or of new improvements in the entirely that keeps up the price of labor mode of manufacture not yet introduced and capital in this country above the rates 7 108 COTTON CULTURE. of every other part of the world: that it ton by machinery. But so complex and is aided in this by the gold of California imperfect were the details of this machinery and the rice and tobacco of the Southern of Wyatt and Paul that these projects failed. states, and, to a very small and insignificant The principle was discovered, but important extent, by our cheap lands and abundant practical improvements were wanting before forests; that cotton brings about this result it could be made successful. because it is in large demand in foreign coun- In 1769, Arkwright took out a patent for tries, being the cheapest article of clothing; his water-frame and throstle, and in 1770, because our planters produce it in large IHargreaves invented his spinning-jenny, both amounts, and at great profit to themselves; of which were on the same principle as and because we have almost a monopoly of Wyatt's machine, but led to a very differthe foreign market, on account of our ability ent result. Between 1770 and 1780 these to produce a cheaper and better article than machines were fairly tested, and in the next any other country in either of the four quar- ten years they were rapidly introduced. ters of the globe. This cheapness is secured The patent of Arkwright was broken down by the advantage of our soil and climate, in the courts of law in 1785, by the perseand by the aid of cheap labor, which does vering opposition of those who had wrongnot come into competition with the other fully appropriated his discoveries; and the labor of the country so as to depress the expiration of the other patents in a short general standard of wages. time opened the whole manufacture to the To establish the first of these propositions, free use of the people. In 1800 the imports we have only to refer to the history of the of cotton had risen to fifty-six millions, an cotton manufacture of Europe and America, increase of eleven fold in twenty years. In and especially of England, as found in an- the first eighty years of the eighteenth cenother chapter. tury the increase had been one hundred and fifty per cent.; in the last twenty years it had been a thousand. These improvements of Arkwright and CHAPTER II. Hargreaves were not the end and perfection PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON. of the inventions for spinning. These machines were not adapted for the finer numCOTTON has been employed as a material bers, and in 1779 Samuel Crompton inventfor clothing from the earliest times, and ed the mule, which combined the excellenat the beginning of the eighteenth century ces of the two former inventions. No patnearly two millions of pounds were imported ent was taken out for it, and it was worked into England to supply their spinning wheels for a while in secret. But the high prices and looms, and to be used for the other pur- Crompton obtained for his yarn soon attractposes to which it was applied. In 1751 the ed such attention that he could no longer imports rose to 2,976,610 pounds, in 1764 keep it concealed. For number forty, he they were 3,870,392 pounds, and in 1781 they received three dollars and a half a pound; had increased to 5,198,778. At this period and for number sixty, six dollars. These they took a sudden rise, and in the next five prices were commanded by the superiority years increased to nineteen millions, and in of his yarn, and the mule was, therefore, a the next five to twenty-nine millions of great improvement on the old machines. pounds; thus making a more rapid progress At first the invention was quite imperfect, in five years than in the preceding hun- but it was soon improved and brought dred. nearly to its present perfection. In the The cause of this rapid advance was the course of ten years it was everywhere introintroduction of machinery for the spinning duced. Under its influence the demand for of cotton. This reduced the price and in- labor rapidly increased. creased the demand, and led to the exclu- The next important invention was the sion of linen, silk, and wool, and the substi- power-loom, first proposed and patented by tution of cotton in their place. Cartwright. The patent was issued in 1787, As early as 1738 Wyatt had. taken out a but all efforts failed to introduce it successpatent for the spinning of cotton by machin- fully until after the beginning of the present ery. He was assisted by Paul, who after- century. The improvements in dressing the ward took out a patent for carding the cot- warp, which were indispensable to the sue PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON. 109 cess of the power-loom, were made in 1803. 1800 were not less important than those In 1813 there were twenty-four hundred of which preceded it. The importations into these in use in England. In 1820 these had England increased from 1800 to 1810 more increased to fifty-five thousand, and in 1833 than a hundred per cent., being from fiftyto a hundred thousand. six to one hundred and thirty-two millions The steam engine of Watt was not less of pounds. The American war interrupted important to the manufacture of cotton than the progress in the next decade, but in 182-0 these improvements in spinning and weav- it had risen to one hundred and fifty-two ing. The water power of England was lim- millions. For the next ten years the rate ited, irregular, and entirely insufficient for of progress was nearly a hundred per cent., the numerous machines that were soon in- the amount in 1830 being two hundred and troduced, and the new motive power was sixty-four millions. In 1840 the amount especially adapted to their work. Being was five hundred and seventeen millions,. cheap on account of the abundance of coal, the increase being nearly a hundred per regular in its operations so as to give a uni- cent. In 1850 the imports were six hunform stroke to the loom, not-liable to in- dred and sixty-nine millions; and in 1859 terruptions and strikes as human labor had they were eleven hundred and eighty-one been, it has contributed very much to the millions. In 1860 the amount received progress of the cotton manufacture. Watt's from the United States alone reached the first patent was taken out in 1769, but it enormous sum of eleven hundred millions, was not until 1785 that steam was applied to which the East Indies have made an addito the driving of a cotton mill. In 1800 tion of two hundred more, and other counthere were thirty engines employed at Man- tries nearly a hundred, making a total of chester, and in 1859 the number in the fourteen hundred millions of pounds. whole kingdom had risen to twenty-two This increase since 1780, when machinery hundred. was first successfully applied to the spinning'Under the influence of these improve- of cotton, has been two hundred and eighty ments, the progress in the manufacture of fold. Since 1800 the increase has been cotton has been of the most rapid descrip- twenty-five times; since 1820 twelve times; tion. and since 1840, three times. During the It was under the influence of those great year 1858 the value of England's manufacinventions that the importations of cotton tured cottons was four hundred and thirty rose in twenty years-from 1781 to 1801- millions, and in 1859 four hundred and from five to fifty-six millions of pounds, and eighty millions of dollars. the English exports of cottons from two mill- At the same time the manufacture has been ions of dollars to twenty-seven millions. growing rapidly in every other country. The In all this time the price of the raw material abundance of coal in England, the cheaprather advanced than decreased. Accord- ness of iron and machinery, and the low rate ing to Tooke's "History of Prices," the of interest on capital, as well as the enterrange for different qualities of West India prise, industry, and skill of her people, have and Surinam from 1780 to 1785 was from placed her before other countries; but their 13 pence per pound to 40; while from 1795 progress has been rapid, and their demand to 1800 it was from 15 to 55 pence. But for cotton large and increasing. the' cost of yarns was very different. In From 1820 to 1840 the French imports of 1786 and 1787 the price of No. 100 was cotton rose from forty-four to onehundredand nine and a half dollars a pound; in 1790, four millions of pounds, and in 1855 to one seven and a half dollars; in 1795, four dol- hundred and sixty-eight millions. And the lars and three quarters; and in 1800, two recent abolition of the duty on raw cottons dollars and thirty-five cents. has made the increase still more rapid. In We thus see that the effect of the intro- some other countries of Europe, the progress duction of machinery was to give an im- has been greater than in France. The mense increase to the consumption of cot- comparative magnitude of the manufactures ton, a large reduction in the price of cotton of other countries than England may be seen goods, and a substitution of cotton for wool, by our exports in 1860. To England, we silk, and fax, and an increase in the demand sent 2,669,000 bales; to France, 589,000; for labor. and to the rest of Europe, 515,000. The The improvements which were made after average of 1839 and 1840, when compared 110 COTTON CULTURE. with the average of 1859 and 1860, is as fol- The former may therefore be regarded as lows:- representing quantities, and the latter values. 1889-40. 1859-60. Increase Now the official and declared values of all Bales. Bales, per cent. kinds of goods for Great Britain......1,022,000 2,344,000 130 The Continent..... 453,000 1,069,000 136 1814 were $88,000,000 and $100,000,000 The United States. 336,000 953,000 154 1824 151,000,000 92,000,000 - - ---—. - 1833 232,000,000 " 92,000,000 Total.........1,811,000 4,366,000 140 1840 366,000,000 " 123,000,000 1850 " 569,000,000 " 141,000,000 As England exports much of the cotton 1858 846,000,000 14,000,000 she receives, and all obtain more or less from other countries than the United States, These numbers show that while the amount the comparative importance of other coun- has increased nearly tenfold, the value has tries will be best seen by the consumption of only doubled, and that therefore the goods all kinds of cotton. The weekly consump- are five times cheaper now than in 1814. tion for the years 1855 and 1856 was as fol- We have now followed the cotton manulows:- facture from its rise, a century since, down to 1855. 1856. the year 1860. Its immense magnitude Bales. Bales. in every country of Europe, its rapid progGreat Britain....... 37,384 43,518 ress, its exclusion of other materials for clothOn the Continent.... 26,554 27,524 The United States... 14,822 15,768 ing, and the great decrease in the price of manufactured goods, are established facts In the United States, the increase in the which show how large and how intense is consumption has been more rapid than in any the foreign demand for our cotton, This is other country:the first proposition we proposed to consider Average from 1826 to 1830, 127,000 bales. in our explanation of the high prices of labor 1831 1835, 195,000 and capital in our country, and we now pass 1836 1840, 275,000 " on to the second, that the production of cot1841 1845,363,000 " ton is very profitable to the American 1846 "1850, 539,000 planters.' 1851 1855, 686,000 p 1856 1860, 818,In000 In proof of this, we shall show that the cultivation of cotton has attracted labor and This large increase in the manufacture of capital from other pursuits in the cotton cotton has been accompanied with a decline states, until it has concentrated almost their in the cost of the raw material, and a still whole productive power upon this single argreater decline in the cost of manufactured tilde; that it has drawn wealth and labor goods. The price of American cotton, from from other sections of the country to be de-! 800 to 1820, averaged twenty-two cents per voted to it, when other employments were pound; from 1820 to 1840, thirteen cents; inviting their attention; and that these and and from 1840 to 1860, only ten cents. In other facts demonstrate the profitableness of the same time the improvements in machin- this culture. ery, and in the art of manufacturing, and in The cotton plant of Europe is a native of the skill of the workmen, have reduced the India, whence it spread very slowly into price of yarns, and prints, and muslins, and China and Persia, Africa and Europe. But every product of the loom in a much greater cotton is a native of this continent, and was ratio. For number 100, the price of yarn diffused here everywhere before the arrival in 1786 was nine dollars and a half; in 1796, of the Europeans. It was found by Columfour dollars and three quarters; in 1806, one bus in Cuba, on his first voyage, in 1492, dollar and seventy-two cents; in 1812, one and by Cortes in Mexico, and Magellan in dollar and twenty-seven cents; in 1830, Brazil, on their first visit to those countries eighty cents; and in 1854, fifty-eight cents. in 1519. Pizarro saw it in Peru in 1532, In the lower numbers the decrease has been and Cabega de Vaca in California in 1536. nearly as large. In all kinds of cotton goods In both divisions of the continent it had the decrease in price is made manifest by spread as far north and as far south as the the change in the official and declared values climate would permit. All the three kinds of the exports of Great Britain. The offi- of cotton were growing here: the herbaceous, 4cial is a fixed nominal price for every article or annual; the shrub, which lives three or exported, and the declared is the real value. four years; and the tree, which lasts for PRODUcTIOR AND PRITdS O0 COTt0N. Ill twenty years. It is only the annual which years preceding, 43,000 bales. The variety is now cultivated in the United States. Dur- of cotton that is planted in the interior is ing our colonial history, it was introduced the native Mexican species. It adheres here from the West Indies and from the closely to the seed, and cannot be separated Mediterranean, and was extensively culti- by the common roller gin. When first culvated in gardens and small patches for do- tivated it was separated by hand, but this mestic use from New Jersey to Georgia, A operation was slow and tedious, and limited few bags were exported before the Revolu- the cultivation for the purposes of comtion; but so little was produced5 that a ship- merce. In 1791 the whole exports of the ment of eight bales from Charleston, in 1784, United States of all kinds of cotton were was seized by the custom-house authorities only 189,316 pounds-which is less than in England, on the ground that so large an the product of many of otr single plantaamount could not have been grown in the tions at the present time. In 1792 it was United States. As it was cultivated to ad- four hundred and nineteen bags, weighing vantage in the West Indies, near to our 138,328 pounds; and in 1793 it was 487,coast, many attempts were made to extend 600 pounds. At this period it took a sudits culture here. Some seeds were brought den start upward, and rose in 1794 to 1,601,from the Bahamas, and successfully culti- 000, and in 1795 to more than six millions of vated along the coast of South Carolina and pounds. The cause of this sudden increase Georgia, soon after the war of independence, was the invention, by Whitney, of the saw This was carefully improved from year to gin. year, by selecting the seed of the finest This ingenious gentleman was a native of plants, by the application of the most suit- Massachusetts, and had come to Georgia as able manures, and by choosing the best lo- a private tutor in 1792. While residing as calities for its cultivation, until the fine, silky a guest in the family of Mrs. General Greene, variety, known as the sea island cotton, was near Savannah, he was informed by some of naturalized in our country, and brought to her visitors from the upper country, where the greatest perfection of staple. The seed the short-staple cotton was cultivated, of the is easily separated from the lint by passing great desirableness of a machine for separatit between rollers, which push back the seed ing the cotton from the seed. To his inand permit the cotton to pass through. This ventive turn of mind, this suggestion was is a tedious work, but the length and fine- enough to attract his attention. He obtained ness of the fibre secured so high a price for some of the seed cotton from Savannah, and the product, that the cultivation has con- soon devised the saw gin. At first he used tinued profitable from its first introduction bent wires or teeth, like those of the comto the present time. It is mixed with the mon card, but much larger and stronger, best wool or with silk, or is used by itself and these were placed in rows on a revolvfor the manufacture of the finest fabrics, and ing cylinder. The cotton was separated commands a very high price in the market, from this cylinder by a frame of parallel two, three, or four times more than the short wires. As the cylinder revolved, the teeth staple cotton. Our country has a monopoly extending through the wire frame caught of it; for neither in Egypt, Pernambuco, or the the cotton and drew it through the grating, Isle of Bourbon, where the best cottons are but the seeds being too large to pass begrown, can they produce a staple of the same tween the wires, were separated from the length and fineness. Sometimes a dollar a lint. The teeth being found too weak to pound is paid for it; and even higher prices pull the cotton from the seed without being have been offered for favorite crops. bent or broken, he substituted a circular The cultivation of this variety is limited saw in their place. The teeth of the saws to the islands along the coast and a narrow being large, and shaped like the beak of a belt near the sea, though in Florida it may bird, had more strength and were equally be grown in any part of the peninsula, efficient. Behind the saw-cylinder,brushes When planted in the uplands it degenerates were arranged to remove the cotton from quickly and is less productive. The whole the saws, and thus the object was accomvalde of this crop is now from eight to ten mill- plished. When he had completed his gin, ions of dollars, and varies but little from year entirely by the labor of his own hands, he to year. From 1857 to 1860 inclusive, the invited some farmers to see it tried, and all crop has averaged 47,000 bales, and for three were satisfied with its work. It differed es 1 ii' I~' K j/ 2.? IT ON~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ P4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 ANNv Hills II I~~~~~~~ PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON. 113 sentially from the roller gin introduced from were engaged in long, vexatious, and expenthe Bahamas, and invented there by Joseph sive litigation, so that the courts became an Eve, the son of a Pennsylvania loyalist, and expense to them instead of a protection. afterward a resident of Georgia. The roller The gins were everywhere introduced, with gin had also teeth and a wire frame, and or without the patent-right. This was the the revolving teeth caught the cotton through case both in Georgia and South Carolina; the wire frame, but they only delivered it but the delay and failure of the suits in to the rollers which separated the cotton Georgia induced the patentees to propose to from the seed. In the saw gin the teeth the legislature of South Carolina to sell the and the wire did the work of separation. right for that state for $100,000. An offer Though Eve's was like Whitney's, and may of $50,000 was made them and accepted, have suggested it, they were on different and this was nearly all that was ever reprinciples. The one was suited for the sea ceived by the inventors. Whitney, unlike island, and the other for the upland. Arkwright, only received barren honors for Before Whitney could take. out his patent, his great invention;- for even the purchase many of his gins were constructed by the money of South Carolina was expended in farmers and put to work. Iis patent was the prosecution of the suits he had instiissued in 1793, and having obtained the co- tuted against the trespassers on his rights. operation of Miller, who furnished the capi- The introduction of Whitney's gin acted tal, they undertook the manufacture of the like magic on the planting of cotton. In gins for sale, and the ginning of cotton by eight years, from 1792 to 1800, the exports the pound for the planters, and the purchase of the United States increased more than a of the seed cotton, that they might clean it hundred-fold. The value rose from $30,000 themselves. Although these plans required to $3,000,000, and the amount from 138,000 large capital, Whitney was poor, and Miller lbs. to 18,000,000. The whole of this was had but small means when this project was wanted in England, and the rapid increase in undertaken. In 1794, when they were pre- the demand there that followed the general paring several machines for sale, Whitney introduction of Arkwright's inventions prewas taken sick, and his workmen were pros- vented any decline in price. The population trated by the fevers of the climate. These of South Carolina and Georgia, where all difficulties prevented the construction of of this cotton was raised, was only 507,000 many gins by the patentees; and as the in 1800; so that the amount was $6 to each want of them was great, and the machinery individual, including the young and the old. very simple, many were built by common This was not enough to purchase the manumechanics, and thus extensively introduced. factures and the foreign supplies they needed; In 1795 Whitney's shop and all his machines rice and tobacco being both added to cotton were destroyed by fire, and this was another in the exports of Charleston and Savannah. hindrance to the sale of the patented gin, Those of rice alone were larger than cotton, and- another incentive to those who were tres- and the production of tobacco was considerapassing on his rights. To put a stop to ble. The immigrants from Virginia and North these infringements of their patent, suits Carolina brought this cultivation with them, were instituted by Miller and Whitney. and it formed a large part of the trade at the But the patent law had just been passed by sea-port towns at this early period. But it Congress, and the general government was was soon to disappear, under the progress of little known or respected. The juries were cotton. In the next ten years, from 1801 to composed of men who were all interested in 1810, the production increased more than fivebreaking the patent. The gin makers had fold, from 18,000,000 to 93,000,000 of pounds strong interests prompting them to resist andthe value from $3,000,000 to $15,000,000. the suits. Witnesses were found who testi- As the population had only increased 30 per fied that they had seen the gin in Europe, cent. in these ten years, and as the exports where it was used for making lint! The of rice had risen from 94,000 to 119,000 suits were postponed and delayed by the in- tierces, the great change was in the transfer genuity of lawyers, and as the United States of labor from tobacco to cotton. The excourts only met at long intervals, these ports of cotton and rice in 1810 were more delays were the more serious. Under these than $30 to each person, white and black, difficulties, the patentees often failed in their young and old, male and female; an amount suits, or obtained but small damages, or which sufficiently indicates that nearly the 114 COTTON CULTURE. whole available labor was devoted to these merchant who wished to retire from the pertwo staples. plexities of business, and take his ease in the In the next decade the cultivation was in- country, passed his old age in watching the terrupted by the war of 1812, and the ex- cotton plant spring up fromthe fresh-ploughed ports only rose to 128,000,000 in 1820. But ground, spread its leaves to the gentle showthe high prices that followed the war stimu- ers of spring, stretch its long branches to the lated the production to the utmost possible summer's sun, open its red blossoms, to be follimit. Tobacco was no longer cultivated as lowed by the abundant fruit which showed an article of export. Rice was still planted their white treasures to the autumn sky, in the swamp lands'along the coast, because gladdening his heart with the abundant rethey were not well suited for cotton and be- wards of his labor. All the labor, all the cause rice was itself a very profitable crop. capital, all the increase of population and Emigrants flocked from Virginia to engage wealth by immigration from more northern in the culture of cotton; new lands were climates, all the accumulations of every purchased from the Indians; more laborers trade, or business, or pursuit were devoted to were brought from Virginia to work in the this one cultivation; and though it had cotton fields; and every hand that could be seemed impossible in 1830 to increase the spared from other employments, white or cultivation to any considerable degree, the colored, was appropriated to this one culture. production rose in 1840 to 744,000,000 In consequence of this transfer of labor, the pounds, or six times the product of 1820. exports rose in the next decade, from 1820 to During the next decade this favorite cul1830, more than 100 per cent., from 128,000,- ture received a slight check. The increase 000 to 298,000,000 pounds. in the demand, though outrunning every For the next ten years the impulse to the other business, had been overtaken by the cultivation of cotton was greater than ever. still more rapid increase in the supply. It was impossible for the cotton states to Prices declined, and the capital of the transfer any more of their labor to the cul- country had an opportunity to look around ture. Some of their population was needed for other employments. It readily found in thetowns and cities to attend to the sale and them in the construction of railroads, the shipment of their cotton, some to provide erection of cotton factories for coarse supplies for the planters, and a few were en- goods, the production of the corn, and meat, gaged in those mechanical pursuits which and flour for the towns and cities, the culare absolutely indispensable, even in an agri- tivation of the sugar cane, and in those other cultural country receiving its manufactures mechanical and manufacturing pursuits which from distant places; but all the rest were are the first enterprises of an agricultural engaged in the production of cotton. The people. planter raised enough corn to feed his stock, The south had other employments to and provide bread for his family; he sup- which she might have turned her attention plied generally his own meat, but for the with advantage. She had fine shipping most part his flour was brought from the timber, and in great abundance, but she did north or west, and the towns were supplied not increase her shipping, because high as with pork and flour from the same source. wages and interest are at the north, they are All his labor was appropriated to cotton, still higher at the south, and the competition because it was more profitable than any other between the two sections is so easy in shipcrop. All his profits from year to year were ping, that she could not engage in shipping devoted to buying more negroes, that he even her own products, as long as other more might enlarge his cultivation of the one great profitable pursuits keep up the rate of labor staple of the south. The emigrants from and capital to their present high limits. The Virginia, and North Carolina, and Tennessee, low prices of cotton from 1840 to 1850 did though at their first arrival they might pre- not, therefore, divert capital to shipping. The fer to plant tobacco or wheat, soon transferred tonnage of Charleston averaged 50,000 tons all their hands to cotton. The lawyer, and from 1800 to 1810, nearly 40,000 from 1810 the doctor, and the school-master, as soon as to 1820; 22,000 from 1832 to 1840, and they earned any money, bought land and 23,000 from 1840 to 1848. negroes, and became planters. The preacher The culture of rice was susceptible of very who married an heiress or a rich widow, be- slight increase, because the only land suitcame the owner of a plantation. The able for its cultivation is the low, swampy ~A-6 a-,,-, by R CL~,, —~ yi c E "j, L7 L E F ~~ —~~~-~~~- ~ ~ IW -)-C- T E 0 T-N:-N TAT 0'\\ PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON. 115 district along the sea, where the crop can be because it is mainly consumed at home, and covered with water. From early times this the price is usually the cost of flour in New valuable grain had been raised in all favorable York added to the cost of transportation. localities, and, though a very profitable crop, Even when fine seasons and a large crop enno increase was practicable. From 1789 to able the farmer to export some of his 1798 the exports of the United States flour, the early harvest permits him to send averaged 107,000 tierces; from 1799 to it to New York before the new wheat 1808 they were 82,000; and from 1809 to of the north and west can be offered in the 18 18 the average was 87,000. From 1 820 to market, and thus secureto himself a high price. 1829 the whole crop, including the shipments The cotton factories have, also, usually been to the north and the exports, averaged 120,- profitable. All that have been managed skil000 tierces; from 1830 to 1839 they were fully and faithfully have paid good dividends, 148,000; and from 1840 to 1848 the average and several have made fortunes for their was 162,000. These figures show little or owners. The oldest mill in the southern no transfer of capital to this production, and states, near Athens, Georgia, has been profitthe reason is that the lands suited to its cul- able from the start, more than thirty years tivation are limited. For the year 1858 they since. Those at Graniteville and lRoswell, were 173,000 tierces, showing the same favored with water power and wise managesteady, unchangeable condition of this culture ment, have paid large and regular dividends. down to the present time. The one at Macon, though driven by steam, But although the cultivation of rice could has been alike successful. Many of the not be increased, and the northern shipping others have done well, though the machinery was too easy a competitor with the southern, has to be brought from the north, and the there were many employments in which the expense of labor and superintendence is south could engage, before she would reduce high. A few have failed from frauds and the wages and profits down to the northern dishonesty in the projectors or managers, standard. Tanneries, forges, foundries, the some from carelessness and neglect of their making of shoes, buckets, hardware, furni- duties by those to whom they were entrustture, clothing, machinery, and every manu- ed, and some from ignorance and imprufacture where the bulk or the weight is con- dence. But always when well managed they siderable, can be profitably pursued. The have succeeded. They make the coarse osnegroes make good carpenters, shoemakers, naburgs and heavy shirting for the negroes, tanners, workers in iron, and there is no cm- and the coarser numbers of yarn for the ployment pursued at the north to which country looms of the planters. Many of their labor cannot be profitably devoted. them send their yarns to Philadelphia and Of all these employments thus attracting New York, and dispose in this way of their her attention, the principal of those which surplus production. A few are working on she selected in the depression of 1840 were finer unbleached cloth, and they are also the construction of railroads, the culture of doing well. wheat, the manufacture of coarse cottons, and So, also, has some capital been devoted to the planting of the sugar cane. sugar. The beautiful lands along the lower'These railroads have nearly all been profit- Mississippi have been appropriated to this able. It may seem strange to those who crop. Under the protection of the tariffs have only heard of Harlem, and Erie, and of 1824 and 1828 the culture was started, New Haven, and Hudson River railroads, to and from 1835 to 1840 the production be told that every railway of the cotton averaged seventy millions of pounds, worth states has been profitable. The country is over four millions of dollars. The low prices sparsely settled, and it cannot be from pas- of cotton about this time encouraged the sengers. They have but little through producers, and the amount for the next five freight to Tennessee and North Carolina, and years averaged one hundred and twenty-five it cannot be from the transit of goods. millions of pounds, worth six millions of Their only product is cotton, and it is this that dollars. In the next five years the product pays. Not only does the great staple enrich rose to two hundred and eleven millions, those who make it, but all who handle it and valued at ten millions of dollars. From carry it. It is like the fabled Midas, and 1850 to 1855 the production still further turns all things into gold. increased, the amount being three hundred Wheat, also, has been a profitable culture, and forty-seven millions, and the value fifteen t116 COTTON CULTURE. millions. In the last five years-partly from of cultivation, and greater facilities of reachthe disastrous season of 1856, which not ing the market, their real earnings were only ruined the crop for that year, but de- much greater than ever. Higher prices were stroyed the plants for the next, and partly to given for land and for negroes than even in the high price of cotton, which has diverted 1836. The wages of hired servants were some of the lands to this culture-the average larger than ever before; and the planters has only been two hundred and sixty-three throughout the south were rich, prosperous, millions; but the value of this decreased and happy. crop has been higher than ever, having The immigration into the cotton states, reached seventeen millions of dollars. and the purchase of negroes from Missouri, To these and a few other new enterprises, Kentucky, and Virginia were made manifest the accumulating labor and capital of the by the changes of population. The natural cotton states have been diverted since the increase of the people of the whole country disastrous fall of prices in 1837. But the is less than thirty per cent. for ten years, culture of cotton still went on, and with after deducting the emigrants from Europe giant strides, too. The planters were more and the inhabitants of our purchased territoeconomical at home, raised more corn and ries. Before 1820 it exceeded a little this bacon, so as to lessen their purchases from ratio; but from 1830 to 1840 it was less, the west and from North Carolina; but, as and from 1840 to 1850 not over twenty-five the price of lands and negroes declined, the per cent. But the population of the eight inducements to raise cotton were nearly as cotton states, from South Carolina to Texas, great as before. The average exports for increased in the first decade of the present the five years from 1836 to 1840 were five century fifty per cent., in the second decade hundred and twenty-four millions; for the fifty-five per cent., in the third fifty per cent., next five, the average was six hundred and in the fourth fifty-one per cent., and in the eighty-eight millions; and for the next five, fifth forty-one per cent. Thus, in all this seven hundred and eleven millions. Here period of fifty years, the real increase was was an average increase much faster than very nearly double that of the natural; or, the natural increase of the population, show- more exactly, in every ten years twenty per ing that, in spite of the diversion of labor cent. of the existing population was added and capital to new pursuits, emigrants were from the more northern states. still arriving from North Carolina and Virginia, and transfers were still being made from the tobacco and wheat fields of Virginia to the cotton lands of the south. CHAPTER 1II. After 1850 prices improved, and in the next five years the average exports rose to MONOPOLY OF THE MARKET-SLAVE LABOR one billion and twenty-five millions of pounds, -COTTON EXCHANGED FOR IANUFACTURES. making an increase in the average production of nearly fifty per cent. in five years. THE history,that has now been given of For the five succeeding years the exports the great increase in the production of cothave not been completed at the treasury de- ton; of the entire devotion of the labor of partment, and the number of bales may be the cotton states to this single culture, even taken to measure the increase of production. to the neglect in some places of the corn, From 1850 to 1855 the average crop was flour, and meat necessary for the wants of 2,882,000 bales,: and from 1855 to 1860 it their immediate neighborhood; of the large was 3,628,000, an increase which is twice as increase of the population in these states; of great as the natural increase of the popu- the increasing prices of land and negroes; of lation, indicating the continuance of the the investment of nearly the whole of the transfers of laborers to the cotton planta- annual accumulations of the people in enlargtions. ing this one production, when others that And never before was the planting more are really profitable, for which they have profitable than in these last few years. The advantages in soil, or in climate, or in posiprice was not, indeed, so high as in 1819, tion, are rejected-is an irresistible accumuor 1825, or 1836, when the planters were lation of proof of the second proposition that almost bewildered at the rates offered them we proposed to consider: that the American for their crops;' but by improved methods planters are able to produce large amounts MONOPOLY -SLAVE LABOR-EXCHANGE FOR MANUFACTURES. 117 of cotton at great profit to themselves; and ton similar to ours, had already begun, and we will pass now to the third proposition: from 1826 to 1830 the decline continued. that we have almost a monopoly of the for- The average consumption of American was eign market, on account of our ability to pro- 9,200 bales, 2,400 from Brazil, 700 from duce a better and cheaper article than any Egypt, 700 from India, and only 400 from other country in the world. the West Indies, so that ours was more than We have already adverted to the superi- two-thirds of the whole. In the next five ority of our sea island variety. It is the best years the American rose to 13,000, the West cotton in the Liverpool market, and corn- Indian declined to 200, and the others had mands the highest price. It has not been but a slight increase; ours being three-fourths produced in larger quantities, because the of the whole. From this time forward the localities Where it can be cultivated are few. United States supplied about eighty per cent. But for the amount we make there is no of the whole consumption of England, and competition. The average value of our ex- also of the rest of Europe. In the last year ports of this kind was $6,000,000 from 1805 (1859) the number of bales consumed in to 1815, including the years of the war and Great Britain and on the continent was the embargo; $10,000,000 in the next ten 700,000, of which the American was eighty years; $10)000,000 in the next; $7,000,000 per cent., the West Indian one, the Brazilian in the next; and $9,000,000 in the last, from three, the Egyptian four, and the East Indian 1845 to 1855. For 1859 the amount was twelve. And this ratio has been nearly the 13,713,900 pounds. It is evident from these same for the last twenty years. The ratio of figures, that the production of sea-island cot- the supply from Egypt has increased a little ton is not increasing. faster than from America; while that from When we began the production of cotton, the West Indies has almost disappeared. the supplies of Great Britain were furnished by Since the rise in the price of coffee, on acthe Levant and by America. Of the twenty- count of the stoppage of the slave trade in three millions received in 1787, seven were Brazil, her exports have been stationary or from the West Indies, six from Turkey, and ten declining. The imports from the East Indies from the Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese col- have increased, but their comparative gain onies of South America. None was received on American has been very small. In the from the United States or Egypt, which are eight years from 1840 to 1847, the average now the principal sources of supply. The first importation into England of American cotimportsfromtheEastlndies were in 1798, and ton was 468,000,000 pounds, and of East from Egypt in 1823. When the demand in- Indian 75,000,000; while for the next eight creased, bythe application of machinery to the years, from 1848 to 1855, the former averaged manufacture, we very soon assumed the first 644,000,000 and the latter 115,000,000. The rank in the production and supply of cotton. first ratio was 16 and the last 18. Since By the year 1800 the receipts from our coun- 1855 the ratio has slightly increased. In try equalled those of any other, and in some 1859 and 1860 it slightly declined. of the years before the war of 1812 we sur- The supplies furnished by the several passed all other countries taken together. countries are not, however, rivals of each After the war of 1812 we immediately re- other. Our sea island is the finest and sumed the chief place as producers for the dearest. The Egyptian and Brazilian are European market. In the five years from next, and are used for the finer fabrics. 1816 to 1820 the average weekly consump- Ours is suited for all the common yarns, tion in Great Britain of the different kinds uniting strength of fibre with smoothness of cotton was 3,800 bales of American, 2,200 and length of staple. The Indian comes from Brazil, 1,100 from the East Indies, last in price, is coarse, short stapled, and and 700 from the West Indies; and as our badly cleaned. It is mixed with American bags were the heaviest, the 3,800 American in the factories, and used for the coarser were more than the 4,000 from other coun- goods. tries. In the next five years Egyptian made Thus there is little or no competition beits appearance in the market, and the aver- tween the different cottons. They are each age was 6,400 bales of American, 2,600 from used for their particular class of manufacBrazil, 200 from Egypt, 1,000 from India, tures. The Indian would be of little use and 600 from the West Indies. The decline without ours to mix with it, so that an inof the West Indies, which was the only cot- crease in the supply would require an in 11g o0T0oN CULTItx, crease of American to be worked with it. numbers. We need and consume nine bags The dearness of the Egyptian and South of this cotton for one bag of all others put American, which are about fifty per cent. together, higher than ours, prevents them from being 3, It is the insufficient supply, or the highsubstituted in its place. er price of this cotton, that has driven our In a paper read before the Society of manufacturers upon the short-stapled native Arts, J. B. Smith, Esq., member for Stock- article of India, commonly called Surat, If port, says:- the price of the two were equal, scarcely a bag "It will be seen, therefore, that while we of Surat would be employed. When the require for the purposes of our manufacture price of American cotton rises, owing to an a limited quantity of the sea island and inadequate supply, that of East India cotton short-staple qualities of raw cotton, we need follows it at a considerable interval-the and can consume an almost unlimited supply usual ratio being two to three-and the imof the medium-staple,orUnited States quality. port of the latter is greatly stimulated. It In this fact lies our real difficulty; for while is always grown in India in large quantities, several quarters of the world supply the first and, with improved means of communication sort, and India could supply enormous and more careful preparation, might be supquantities of the short-staple sort, the United plied in time, in indefinite and probably States of America alone have hitherto pro- ample quantities. But it is its quality that duced the second and most necessary is in fault; and, as far as the past is a guide, kind." it would seem incurably in fault. Many at" The finest long cotton in the world is tempts to amend the character of this cotton called the'sea island.' It is grown on the have been made. American planters and low-lying lands and small islands on the American'saw gins' have been sent over, coast of Georgia. The quantity is small, and American seed has been planted; and and the price very high. It is used mostly the result has been a sensible amelioration for muslin thread, and the very finest num- in cleanliness and color, and some slight inbers of yarn-say 100's and upward; and crease in length of fibre, but scarcely any price, in fact, is of little moment to the change in specific character. The dry, fuzzy, manufacturers who purchase it. It usually woolly characteristics remain. Sometimes sells at about two shillings per pound. A the first year's samples nearly resemble the quality much resembling it, and almost, if American article, but the resemblance never not quite as good, has been grown, as a becomes permanent. Hitherto (we believe sample article, in Australia. But of this dc- we are correct in stating), either from the nomination of cotton the consumption is peculiarity of the soil or of the climate, or, very small. Another species-long, strong, as some say, from adulteration by the airfine, and yellowish-is grown in Egypt, and borne pollen of the inferior native plant, the imported in considerable quantities. An in- improved and altered character of the cotton ferior quality-coarse, harsh, bright in color, has never been kept up." but strong-is imported from Brazil, and a " The point we have to bear in mind, then, very small quantity from the West Indies. is this: our desideratum is not simply more Doubtless, if the price were adequate, and cotton, but more cotton of the same character the demand here very great and steady, the and price as that now imported from the supply from many of these quarters might States. If India were to send us two millbe largely augmented. But it is not of this ions of bales of Surat cotton per annum, sort that we need any considerable increase, the desideratum would not be supplied, and nor could we afford the price which probably our perilous problem would still be unsolved. alone would remunerate the grower. We shouldbe almost as dependent on America "2. Our great consumption and demand as ever." is for the soft, white, silky, moderately long These observations of a practical manucotton of America-the quality usually call- facturer bring out conclusively this truth, ed' uplands,''bowed Georgia,' and'New that for the uses to which our cotton is apOrleans.' This used to be sold at prices plied we are without competition. The longvarying from 3d. to 6d. per pound (it is stapled is too dear, and the short too coarse, now from 6d. to 8d.). It can be consumed fuzzy, weak, and rough to be substituted for in any quantity; for it is available not only ours. for weft, but for warp, except for the finer It thus appears that we have a monopoly MONOPOLY-SLAVE LABOR-EXCHANGE FOR MANUFACTURES. 119 of the European market, because we furnish the proceeds in England will be consumed a cheaper and better article for the same in the transportation. price. And this excellence is due to our Probably, however, the greatest advantage soil and climate, and to the cheapness of the we have over the Indian producers is in the labor by which cotton is cultivated. cheapness of our labor. It is true that wages The soil is everywhere favorable for cotton are very low in India, but the labor is also in our. southern states. Where it is rich inefficient. We have the cheapest and most enough to produce any thing it will produce efficient labor in the world. cotton. The climate is our main peculiarity. The African slave in the southern states Although we are so near the equator that we is well fed with good and substantial food, have six months of the summer, and some- that gives him strength, endurance, and times more, without a frost that will kill so health. He is well clad in winter, and well tender a plant as cotton, we have in all that lodged, to protect him from the inclemencies time a succession of rain, and sunshine, and of the season. He is cheerful, able to work, dews, and clouds, such as belong to temperate and he works faithfully. As the whole cost latitudes. The weather is hot enough for of this labor to the state is made up of the cotton, and yet rainy and showery, so as to simplest necessaries of life, the support of keep the growth of the plant vigorous, and the young, and the old, and the feeble, it is bring to perfection a succession of fruit on evident that the south has the cheapest lathe stalks from July to November. The bor that is possible. It was the doctrine of first pickings begin as early as July at some Malthus, that in every country there is a places, everywhere in August, and during constant tendency to reduce the wages of the whole of September and October new labor down to the mere support of the lablossoms are appearing, new bolls forming, borer. That limit, however approximated to and new pods opening their silky product elsewhere, has never been reached but in the for the hands of the cultivator. Even after south. the frost has stopped the growth of the plant The slave is supplied with all he wants of and stripped it of its leaves, the bolls still meal, and with as much meat as is needed open, and the fields are whitened with a sue- for his health and strength. This meal is cession of fruit, until January arrives and prepared in many ways, and makes a most warns the planter to prepare for another palatable bread. His master generally feeds crop. on it in preference to flour. He has a garThis succession of rain and sunshine does den, where he can raise potatoes, cabbages, not occur in India, which, after the United collards, greens, turnips, beans, and such States, produces the principal part of the other vegetables as the taste and industry European supplies. And this is the reason of the family may desire. He has clothingthat the American variety of the cotton cheap, it is true, but warm and substantial. plant will not grow there, or soon degen- There is a separate dwelling for each famierates to the coarse, rough, short-stapled ly, and an unlimited supply of fuel for the article which is native to the country. winter. The old, who are unable to labor Another advantage we have over India is in the field, find some slight work about the the length and cost of the voyage. It is house-the men in the garden, the women worth two and a half or three cents a pound in the care of young children whose mothers to transport cotton from our sea-ports to Liv- are out on the usual plantation work. The erpool. The distance from India to England sick are carefully attended to by regular being twice as great, and the voyage more physicians and good nursing. than twice as long, freights and other ex- All this is essential to the health and penses must increase in a like ratio; and as strength of the laborer, and to his efficiency the best qualities of Bombay and Surat are on the plantation. The humanity and symworth, even now, when prices are high in pathy of the master, who has often been England, only eight or nine cents, it is evi- reared by some of his slaves, are sufficient dent that almost nothing is left for the interior to secure their comfort; but if these should producer, especially for the inferior qualities. be wanting, there is an inexorable law seWe can produce cotton with profit at much curing the necessary wants of the servant. lower rates than we now name. A decline With less meat, or with insufficient food, to the Indian planter is ruinous, because the slave is unfitted for regular work. With freights are stationary, and -all, or nearly all less clothing, he is liable to sickness and 120 COTTON CULTURE. disease. Without attention and nursing in his family times of want and suffering, with sickness, his life is endangered, and his ser- nothing laid up for sickness and old age. vices lost to his master. These demands, Now he is industrious and temperate, and united with the influences of humanity and receives the necessaries of life in return; sympathy, secure him the necessaries and then he would be lazy, and wasteful, and dessome of the comforts of life. titute. As industry and temperance are Another element of the cheapness of this great virtues, and the necessaries of life at labor is that nothing is wasted in vicious in- all seasons and times, in sickness and health, dulgences. In other countries, a large part in youth and old age are a great boon to the of the wages of labor is expended in strong laboring poor; and as want, and suffering, and drink; but the most stringent laws are every- neglect when sick or aged are great and where passed against selling spirits to slaves; real evils, philanthropy surely wastes its the Maine liquor law is enforced with the sympathy on the slave when it complains most severe penalties, and with the utmost that he is denied his wages. certainty of conviction for the guilty. The culture of cotton is specially suited for Much time is lost in free countries in holi- slave labor, because of its giving full employdays and shows; in idleness and neglect of mcnt for the whole year. January is devoted work; in seeking employment; in change to fittingup the fences, clearing off thedecayed from one place to another; but all this is trees that have fallen in the fields, and putsaved in the south, for there are no idle ting in order the cultivators andalltheimplehands about the plantation, and, excepting ments of the farm. The ploughs are also the week between Christmas and New Year's started, and some of the ground broken up for day, when there is a general holiday, there spring planting. February is the main time is no lost time, except from sickness, in any for ploughing, and in the more southern part part of the year. of the cotton country, corn is planted in The children are all put at work at eleven this.month. In latitude 31~ the time or twelve years of age, as soon as they are for corn is the 20th of February; above able to guide a plough or pick cotton in the this line it gradually becomes later. Aboutfields. The women and men are both ef- a month after the corn, cotton is planted. In ficient workers, and the division of labor is every locality it is desired to have the cotton so complete that the children of many moth- up as soon as the fear of frost is gone. The ers are watched over and cared for by one, season for planting begins as early as the and the cooking for many families attended 15th of March in the most southern latito by a single cook. tudes, is delayed to the 1st of April at the This system of labor is thus the cheapest parallel of 32~, to the 15th in latitude 34~, possible. The corn and the meat being, in and later still above this line. As the seed most cases, raised on the plantation, and not are planted close together in drills, the hands burdened with the cost of transportation, are pass along the rows and chop down the supplied at the cheapest prices; the work is weakest and smallest plants, leaving them in all light and easy, so that women and boys, bunches, fifteen to twenty inches apart. The as well as men, can engage in it efficiently. ploughs follow or precede the hoes, both beEvery thing is arranged so that labor is se- ing necessary to kill the grass and soften the cured at the lowest possible rate. ground about the plants. The hoes follow Some philanthropists, indeed, object to the again, and thin out the bunches to one or system on this account: that the slave ob- two stalks, and finally they are reduced to tains no wages. But he has food and cloth- one, the rest having perished from the cuting, a house and fire, proper attention when worm or insects, or the blows of the plough sick, and support in old age. His children and the hoe. For two or three months this are taken care of, and every necessary want hoeing and ploughing, to soften the ground supplied. For an idle and improvident race and destroy the grass, gives full employment like the negro, these are more than wages. to the hands. The corn has also to be treated They are more than his industry would se- in the same way, and the work is continued cure. He would not earn as much for him- on both until the summer has come and the self were he free, as he now receives from his fruit begins to appear on the cotton. There master; and these earnings would be wasted is a little leisure now to the hands before the in drink, or in excessive indulgences, or in picking is begun, and this gives time to hardress, or in luxuries, leaving for himself and vest the wheat that has been sown; to cut _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __________________________________________________ A ~ ~ ~ ~ — Z,- _________________~,T P N N- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~THE PLANTATION PREACHER. MONOPOLY-SLAVE LABOR-EXCHANGE FOR MANUFACTURES. 121 the oats, and gather the fodder from the would be more efficient in the cotton field corn. This work fills up the time until the than the slave. Certain it is that in the picking begins. At first, but few of the pods south, where the hot sun breeds disease, and are open. The hands pass between the rows the malarious air brings fevers, the white -which are from three to four feet wide on freeman could not produce as much as the the poor lands, and from six to seven on the slave, much less could he labor as cheaply. richest-and as the branches stretch out so His expenditures being more, his wife and as to reach each other, they each gather from children not working at all, or but little, his two rows as they passthrough the field. By waste of time and money in vicious pracSeptember the fields are white with the tices and holidays, would require larger opening cotton, and every hand, young and wages, and for these he has nothing more old, male and female, that can be of any ser- to give than the slave. vice, is busied in gathering the cotton, lest The slaves marry and are given in marthe rain should come and beat it out, and riage as regularly and religiously as the scatter it on the ground. In October this white peasants of any country; and though picking continues undiminished. At the close the marriage has not a legal sanction, it has of this month, frost usually appears, and the religious and moral. They are kept tostops the growth of the plant and kills the gether with their families far more than the leaves, but the pods keep opening, and new white people. On many plantations there cotton offering itself to the hands until De- are one or two hundred negroes, all december. The fields are picked over twice scended from three or four families; while or three times if the season is favorable and the children of the first master have been the crop large, and five or six times if the scattered fiom Maine to Texas. They have opening cotton does not hurry the planter. regularly improved since first introduced The gathered cotton has now to be sunned, from Africa, and are now improving, from and dried, and ginned, and packed, and de- year to year, in intelligence, in moral culture, livered at the nearest railway station or river in intellectual development, in appearance, landing, or sold in the neighboring town. in habits, in comfort; and they are as cheerThus is the year completed with unremitting ful and faithful, as devoted to the interests toil, from Christmas to Christmas. of their master, as attached to him and his The distribution of labor between the family, as if they were free hired servants, white and black races, so that the former receiving regular wages. There is no men, shall have the selection of the products and dicity, no need for poor-houses, asylums, of the place of labor, of the seeds and the hospitals; for the master's house is the mode of cultivation, and of all the plans asylum of the slaves; his wife and his and management of the plantation, is daughters their nurses, and his own doctor another great aid to the cheapness and the their physician. Such a set of laborers, able efficiency of the labor. and willing to work, contented and happy, Some political economists have supposed with every want supplied, and yet costing that free is cheaper than slave labor; but the master the least possible sum needed though there are pursuits where the watch- for their health and their strength, furfulness, foresight, intelligence, and energy of nish the cheapest and most efficient labor a free man will make his labor so much possible. more productive than that of a slave as to As the south sends nothing to the north pay the superior cost of his support, it is that can be produced there, there is no concertain that the want of these qualities in the flict between the labor of the north and the slave is but a slight drawback to the value of south. There is no competition, no tendency his labor in the production of cotton. The to equalization in wages, no interference the work is so regular, and simple, and easy, that one with the other. They are, in fact, mutual the free man performs it no better than the helps to each other, as town and country, as slave, and as the direction, and management, man and?wife, as the limbs, and the head, and skill are in the master, the work is well and the heart of the human body. The directed, and wisely managed. The slave high wages at the north cannot be reduced works enough, though he does not work as by the labor of the slave. Instead of rehard as some free men. In fact, it is very duction, it causes an increase. His cheap doubtful if a free white man, impelled by toil is for their advantage. His labors, under necessity or the desire of accumulation, the hot tropical. sun, are for the benefit of 122 COTTON CULTURE. every mechanic, and artisan, and workman, and the other closely correspond at all times that now fears the competition of the north- and in all countries. ern free black. As a slave he benefits them, Precisely the same set of operations has as a free man he would be in their way. been going on in California for the past ten We have one more point to mention to years. Nature there, as here, furnishes a complete the explanation we suggest of our product which pays well to those who obhigh prices, and this is the operation of the tain it; the gift of nature there being in the tariff. By a tax at the sea-ports on any mines, and here in the soil and climate. The article imported, its price is so raised that miner there and the cultivator here are well the American producer of the same kind of paid for their labor. Both productions are goods is enabled to raise his price. This in intense demand abroad; and both unite advance enables him to pay higher rates to in enabling us to pay for our foreign imporhis workmen, and to the capitalist, and to tations, without reducing to the foreign limit all concerned in the manufacture. But it the wages of labor and the interest of capital prevents, also, the exportation of his goods, that supply these products. because they are too high for the foreign It may, perhaps, be proper to confirm the market. Being thus unable to pay for the propositions we have been considering by supplies he must have from abroad, the inquiring into the course of our domestic cotton planter comes to his aid with a prod- trade. If the true explanation has been uct much wanted abroad, and raised here given of the anomaly of high prices prevailunder favorable circumstances of soil and ing in a country engaged in a large comclimate, and with a cheap kind of labor that merce with the rest of the world, we will does not compete with the labor of the man- find large transfers to the south of manufacufacturer. This will pay for the foreign sup- tures from the north, and of agricultural plies of both, and the planter buys them, products from the west; because cotton beand takes in return the high-priced manu- ing very profitable to the planter, and nearly factures. Thus high prices are sustained, at all the labor of the south being appropriated the expense, indeed, of the planter, but to to this culture, the northern manufacturer the great advantage and prosperity of the will supply all his wants of every kind in north and the west. which labor is the chief element, and the We have now considered the several points western farmer will supply him with all of the explanation we proposed for our high those articles of food that are of easy transprices, that in cotton we have an article of portation. In fact, we find in the south that great profit to the planters, produced by any article of necessity, comfort, or luxury cheap labor, although the other labor of the comes from the north. If we enter the country is dear; in large and intense de- dwellings, or the shops, or the stores of the mand in Europe and all parts of the world, cotton states, they tell all the same storybecause it furnishes the cheapest material for every thing comes from the north. clothing, for the production of which there As I rose from my bed this morning and is no competitor with us, as we have almost a surveyed the furniture of my chamber, I monopoly of the market; and that by means found nothing made at home. The bedof this export we pay for our foreign sup- stead, netting, and canopy; the coverlet, plies, and by our tariff raise the price of the sheets, and ticking; the bureau, wardrobe, imports to our own high limit, and thus sus- washstand, and crib; the tables, chairs, mirtain the rates of labor and capital, and secure rors, curtains, carpet, bell-wire, and tassel; the the prosperity of our country. medicine chest, and all its bottles, and mixHigh prices for labor on iron, on cotton tures, and quack preparations; all the perand woollen manufactures, and on all the fumery, and cosmetics, and jewelry, and articles we import from abroad, we could brushes, and powders; every article of dress, not have without a tariff; this tariff could or clothing, or ornament; even the whitenot be maintained without an export of some wash on the walls, and the paint on the product, furnished by nature or made with wood-work, and the glass in the windows cheap labor, in intense demand abroad; for were from the north. As I came from the otherwise it would be impossible to pay for chamber to the library, I found no change. our imports. Cotton furnishes the desired The book-case, curtains, carpet, pictures, article, and thus makes prices high both for tables, sofas, paper, ink-stand, pen, and ink labor and money, since the rates for the one were from the north. There was a northern MONOPOLY-SLAVE LABOR —EXCHANGE FOR MANUFACTURES. 123 grate for northern coal; a marble mantel and caster, and vinegar, and oil, and mustard from the north, with vases and photographs; were from the north, but the catsup was globe and statuary from the same source. made here; the fish were from Savannah, I opened the book-cases, and run my eye but they had been brought up by a northover the shelves, to see if any could be found ern locomotive, running on English rails; with a southern imprimatur; but though the walls and doors were covered with paint some had on them the names of southern manufactured at the north, but the floor was authors, it was a long while before I found of Georgia pine; the locks, and keys, and a southern publishing house. There was andirons, and shovel, and tongs, and hearth"Beulah," but it had not Mobile on its title- broom, and rug, and oil-cloth, and tablepage; Dr. Thornwell's "Truth," but it was linen, and napkins were not made here, but not published in Columbia; the " Laws of the morning newspaper was printed on paper Georgia," but they were printed in New made at home, out of southern rags, and by York; "Cobb on Slavery," but it claimed southern labor. to be from Philadelphia; Stevens' "History After breakfast Albert drove me down of Georgia," but it came from Appleton's, on town in a northern buggy, behind a northern Broadway; "White's Statistics" had Savan- horse, with northern harness, and reins, and nah on ifs title-page, but I suspected this whip. I stopped at a furniture shop, and was a counterfeit stamp, and that it had not asked how much of their stock was made been printed in the south; Judge O'Neall's here; and they said about fifty dollars in a " Historical Sketches of Carolina" claimed thousand,the southern work being principally to be from Charleston, and this was the first of pine; I asked at a book store the same genuine southern print I found in my library. question, and they told me, including law A more diligent search discovered others, books and the reports of our supreme court, but they were few and far between. As I perhaps one dollar in a hundred; I asked at went to the breakfast-room, the exclusion of a tin shop, and they said their stoves, and gas the south was not so complete. The side- fixtures, and lamps, and japanned work, and board, and its glass and silver were from the block tin were from the north, but that their north, but it had on it a handsome pitcher tin ware was made in their own shop, though from our own kaolin; the window-shades, out of English plate and with northern clock, tables, chairs, and crumb-cloth were solder; I enquired at a shoe shop, and they from the same source; but there was a told me they had several hands employed lounge manufactured here. Albert gave me on customers' work, but the great proportion my coffee in a northern cup, on a northern of their sales were from Boston; I stopped waiter, sweetened with Stuart's sugar, but at the paper warehouse, and was sure now the cream was from home; Ziney brought in that I had found a shop with home-made hot waffles on a northern plate, but the corn, products, but they told me they only manuand flour, and eggs of which they were made factured wrapping paper, and supplied the were produced here; the water was handed newspaper offices, but their card, and post, in a northern tumbler, and cooled with Bos- and letter paper was from the north; I drove ton ice, but the water-cooler had on it a do- to the cotton mills, and here found a genuine mestic stamp; the butter was southern, home manufacture, but their machinery, though hardened in a New England refriger- and looms, and spools, and oil were from the ator; the cantelopes were raised here, though same northern hive, whose products swarm the salt and pepper which seasoned them over every part of our country. were not; the hot biscuits were from south- The south are an agricultural people, deern flour, but the yeast-powders with which voted to the production of cotton, because they were raised were from New York; the it is more profitable than any other employbeef-steak was from our own market, but ment, and they are able and willing to buy the tongue had been brought a thousand their supplies from the north, because it is miles from home; the clabber was fresh from their interest to do so. Their labor is emour own dairy, but the cheese was from New ployed according to the irresistible laws of Jersey; the white, hot, smoking hominy was trade in the most remunerating pursuit, and a domestic product, but the dish in which it they can afford to buy the manufactures was served was not; the bread was from they want, because they can be furnished our town bakery, but the ham was from Cin- cheaper than they can make them. They cinnati; the knives, and forks, and spoons, might tan their own leather, make their 8 124 COTTON CULTURE. own shoes, weave their own cottons and 1864 the export was a trifle more, 11,992,woolens, put together their own clothing, 911, equal to 29,982 bales, and valued at brew their own ale, distil their own grain, $9,895,854. The crop of 1865 was very press their own wine, reduce, cast, and refine small, but about 1,200,000 bales of the crops their iron, mine their coal, build their car- of former years, which had been concealed, riages, print their books, polish their marble, were thrown upon the market, and immediand manufacture their own furniture, and ately taken up by our own manufacturers. china, and hardware, and carpets, and cloth- The export was but little more than that of ing; but they find it their interest to buy 1862, being 6,607,166 pounds, equal to 16,them, and appropriate their labor to the 518 bales, and valued at $5,720,549. The growing of cotton, and the raising of those crop of 1866 was large for the first crop heavy agricultural products that can not be raised by free labor and under such circumbrought here cheaply, and the manufacture stances, and the export was 650,572,829 of the coarser and cheaper goods on which pounds, equal to 1,626,432 bales, and brought the cost of transportation is large. more than any cotton export ever made from [We have thought it-advisable to let this this country, viz., $281,385,223. The subdescription of cotton culture by slave labor, sequent crops and exports have been still with its now exploded politico-economical larger in quantity but owing to the fall in theories, remain, as a part of the history of the price of cotton have not realized as large the past, and as exemplifying the arguments returns. The crop of 1867 was about 2,390,used to defend the agricultural policy and 000 bales, and the export 1,678,684 bales, the slave system of the south. It is, of realizing $201,470,423. The crop of 1868 course, now of no practiqal value, except as was, in round numbers, 2,700,000 bales of history, for a complete revolution has passed 400 pounds to each bale, and the export over the south, and though the time may 1,961,909, valued at $152,820,733. The and probably will come within five or ten crop of 1869 exceeded 3,000,000 bales of years, when larger crops of cotton will be 400 pounds, and the export was not far from gathered than were ever produced in the days 2,000,000 bales. More cotton will be raised of slavery, it will be under a very different as soon as there is a better supply of intelsystem, and without the waste and impover- ligent labor in the south; and very possibly ishment of the soil which was inevitable un- as soon as 1875 the production may reach der the old methods. It was at the epoch five million bales, but henceforth the land of its greatest production, that the blow fell will not be exhausted by this crop, deeper upon this department of agricultural indus- plowing, better tillage, ample manuring, and try, and demonstrated to the world that cot- a rotation of crops taking the place of the ton was no longer King. The export of the slovenly culture of the old slavery period; crop of the year 1860, is officially reported more cotton will be raised to the acre, and as having been, 15,598,698 pounds of Sea other crops will be cultivated largely in conIsland cotton, and 1,752,087,640 pounds of nection with it. It is doubtful whether for upland, equivalent to 4,419,216 bales of 400 many years to come the exports of this stapounds each, and of a reported value of $191,- pie will be as large as they were in 1860, for 806,555. The export of the crop of 1861, not only are the northern factories increaswith an imperfect blockade, was 307,516,- ing their consumption of it, but, in the south, 099 pounds, equal to 768,790 bales of 400 factories are springing up in all directions to pounds each. In 1862, the blockade was manufacture the cotton before it has accnmore stringent, and orders had been issued mulated the added costs of transportation. for the cultivation of corn instead of cotton, Cotton must continue to be for years to and the export fell to 5,064,564 pounds, come one of our great crops, but it is doubtequal to 12,661 bales of 400 pounds, and of ful whether it will surpass the Indian corn, a value of only $1,180,113. In 1863, the the hay, or, taking the years together, the export was 11,384,986 pounds, or 28,462 wheat crop.-EDITOR.] bales of 400 pounds, worth $6,652,405^ In PICKING COTTON. The season of cotton picking commences in the latter part of July, and continues without intermission to the Christmas holidays. The work is not heavy, but becomes tedious from its sameness. The field hands are each supplied with a basket and bag. The basket is left at the head of the "cottonrows;" the bag is suspended from the'"picker's" neck by a strap, and is used to hold the cotton as it is taken from the boll. When the bag is filled it is emptied into the basket, and this routine is continued through the day. Each hand picks from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds of "seed cotton" each day, though some negroes of extraordinary ability go beyond this amount. If the weather be very fine, the cotton is carried from the field direct to the packing-house; but generally it is first spread out on scaffolds, where it is left to dry, and picked clean of any " trash" that may be perceived mixed up with the cotton. Among the most characteristic scenes of plantation life ic the returning of the hands at nightfall from the field, with their well-filled baskets of cotton upon thei heads. Falling unconsciously "into line," the stoutest leading the way, they move along in the dim twi. light of a winter day, with the quietness of spirits rather than human beings.-Harper's Magazine. GATHERING THE CANE. And now may be seen the field-hands, armed with huge knives, entering the harvest field. The cane is in the perfection of its beauty, and snaps and rattles its wiry-textured leaves as if they were ribbons, and towers over the head of the overseer as he rides between the rows on his good-sized horse. Suddenly, you perceive an unusual motion among the foliage-a crackling noise, a blow-and the long rows of growing vegetation are broken, and every moment it disappears under the operation of the knife. The cane is stripped by the negroes of its leaves, decapitated of its unripe joints, and cut off from the root with a rapidity of execution that is almost marvellous. The stalks lie scattered along on the ground, soon to be gathered up and placed in the cane-wagons, which with their four gigantic mule-teams have just come rattling on to the scene of action with a noise and manner that would do honor to a park of flying artillery. We have already alluded to the fact that the sugar crop has to be gathered in Louisiana within ninety days, or else it will be destroyed by the cold; as a consequence, from the moment the first blow is struck, every thing is inspired with energy. The teams, the negroes, the vegetation, the very air, in fact, that has been for months dragging out a quiescent existence, as if the only object of life was to consume time, now start as if touched by fire. The negro becomes supple, the mules throw up their heads and paw the earth with impatience, the sluggish air frolics in swift currents and threatening storms, while the once silent sugar house is open, windows and doors. The carrier shed is full of children and women, the tall chimneys are belching out smoke, and the huge engine, as if waking from a benumbing nap, has stretched out its long arms, given one long-drawn respiration, and is alive.-Harper's Magazine. SUGAR -CTLTITATION AND CONSUMPTION, THE cultivation of cane sugar in the the Creole cane, a small yellow kind, which iUnited States has become of considerable only was then grown in the French islands. importance only in the last ten years. While About the same period the cane culture waa it has in that time occupied an increasing introduced into Georgia. There had been proportion of the attention of the planters there growing and flourishing from the time of Texas and Louisiana, it has rather de- of the first settlement of the country by dined in other portions of the Southern General Oglethorpe, luxurious orange trees. states. The cane itself is more nearly asso- As similar trees in Louisiana had been deciated with Indian corn in the general char- stroyed by the frost, while those in Georgia acter of its climatic requirements than any flourished uninjured, the idea was suggested other staple. It differs from corn in this re- to an enterprising planter that if under such spect only in degree, each condition, or the circumstances cane would grow in Louisiana principal condition of temperature, at least, it would also grow in Georgia. In 1805 he being required in similar, but greater tropi- procured 100. plants of the Otaheite cane cal excess for the period of its growth. In that had been sent by Lieutenant Bligh from the southern parts of the United States the Otaheite. These 100 canes multiplied to great heat of summer gives this plant a range 2000, and from these most of the plantations it attains in no other country of the same in Georgia and Florida were propagated. mean annual temperature; and it is restrained The question of labor in the English West only by the limit of its safe endurance of the Indies was then sufficiently discussed to inwinter. The cane may be cultivated east of duce many planters to leave Jamaica for the high plains and deserts of Texas, and new settlements, and many were attracted south of 34~ north latitude. The area now to Georgia by the luxuriant growth of the occupied by the cane is quite limited, a cane. The price of sugar was then, under part of Texas, the lower parishes of Louisi- the embargo, about ten cents per pound, and ana, a portion of Florida, in the latitude of many plantations were established. The Tallahassee to Cedar Keys, and the Atlantic canes spread up the Altamaha, the Oconee, coast of Georgia, comprising its extent. The and the Ocmulgee, and luxuriated in the considerable capital required to conduct the fine lands of Florida and Georgia to a disculture makes it a larger interest than might tance of 150 miles from sea. Nevertheless, be inferred from this limited extent of area. the manufacture was not many years after The' cane was first introduced into Louis- mostly abandoned in that region on a large iana in 1751, and the first plantation was scale or for export, but it is still conducted established by Mr. Dubreul in 1758, a little to a considerable extent for plantation and more than a century since. The progress home use. It did not there pay so well was not rapid, however, until 1794, when as rice or cotton, since the product per acre the revolution of St. Domingo drove some was less than half what it had risen to be in few Frenchmen to fly for refuge from their Louisiana. In the rich lands of that state burning houses and their frantic pursuers and Texas the product per acre is 2400 on board American vessels, with such of pounds against 1000 pounds even in the their faithful slaves as would follow them. richest river lands of Georgia. When there, they naturally turned their There are five kinds of cane in use by the hopes to Louisiana, where they might find planters of Louisiana, viz., the Bourbon, which a home for themselves and their servants has large eyes, a dark purple color, and is among kindred French. To these unhap- very hardy; the green ribbon is of a bright py men Louisiana owes the introduction of yellow color, with delicate green stripes; the ,128 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND CONSUMPTION. eye is small, elongated, and delicate in its on an embankment, with the buts on the structure; the red ribbon has purple stripes ground at an angle of about twenty degrees, of an inch or less in width, and can resist and leaving a mass of tops on the surface, a light frost; the Otaheite has large joints, foot deep and forming a perfect protection does not grow high, and has a comparative- from frost. ly thin skin, and is easily affected by the Next they commence taking off the crops. frost, yet its juice is rich and abundant; Every negro has at all times in his possesthe Creole cane yields a superior kind of sion a cane knife, like a butcher's cleaver, sugar, but it has been less used than the and kept very sharp. With the back of the Bourbon on account of its less hardy na- knife he knocks off the dry leaves, and cuts ture. It is now getting more into favor off the stalk as of no value where the leaves again. These are the varieties mostly used are green. Should a frost come whilst they in Louisiana. The mode of culture is simple are making sugar, the work is stopped, and and allied to that of Indian corn. The canes all hands are employed winnowing the cane are propagated by cuttings, and these are in the fields, as a fermentation commences planted in the fall, seldom as early as Octo- immediately, if it is allowed to stand. ber, since the planters have no time until The cane is as certain as any large crop the grinding season is over. The riper por- we have. When the cane is gathered it is tion of the stalk is generally used for cane prepared for the mill. These are some seed; others cut the cane in the middle and twelve feet from the ground, in order that use the green tops for planting. The land the juice may fow from the rollers into the is well ploughed, harrowed, and marked off juice boxes, and from them into the kettles. in rows three to five and even eight feet The mills are composed of three iron rollers apart. As the cane must reach its full from twenty-five to twenty-eight inches in growth in nine months, a good distance diameter, and from four to five and a half apart is thought necessary to promote ac- feet long. There are a great number of incess of the sun and the circulation of air. A ventions that have been patented within a double-mould-board plough follows the mark- few years. The cane carrier is an endless er, opening a clear furrow for planting. In the belt, fifty to ninety feet long, formed of furrow the canes are laid straight in such a chains, with slats inserted and placed at an manner that the eyes may freely throw out angle of thirty to thirty-five degrees to their shoots. They are covered from four the ground. The lower end is about two to six inches. The young plants are culti- feet from the ground. On this the canes vated much as Indian corn, in rows. The are spread evenly, and by its revolution planting is done in some parts of Louisiana they are carried up to the rollers which exonce in three years. The first year it is call- press their juice as they pass through. The ed "plant cane," and the subsequent growths juice thus obtained is collected in large resare called rattoons. But sometimes, as on ervoirs, to go through a process of boiling the prairies of Attakapas and Opelousas and which has been greatly varied by improvethe higher northern range of its cultiva- ments upon the old Creole plan. The juice, tion, it requires to be replanted every year. by boiling and evaporation, is reduced to the Within the tropics, as in the West Indies state of muscovado, which is placed in hogsand elsewhere, the rattoons frequently con- heads with holes bored in the bottom, to tinue to yield abundantly for twelve, fifteen, permit the molasses to pass off. In the and even twenty-four years from the same course of the boiling, lime is added in preroots. In Louisiana in the fourth year the pared portions to "defecate" the sugar, and land is put in corn and peas. After the corn the juice is bleached by passing through a is gathered the stalks and peas are ploughed filter of bone-black. Very many inventions in, and the land is ready for cane again. have been patented for kettles, vacuum pans, In Louisiana the cane never ripens, and etc., to facilitate the boiling process, and therefore is allowed to grow as long as it others to promote the discharge of the mocan be done with safety from frost. In the lasses. One of these is by centrifugal force. latter part of October, they commence by The sugar is placed in a cylinder of iron netsaving their seed, that is, by cutting the work, which, revolving with great rapidity, cane they need for planting, and securing it imparts to the molasses a centrifugal motion by placing it in mats, so called, on the that drains it from the sugar through the ground, say twenty feet by forty, resting it net, when it is collected in proper vessels. SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND CONSUMPTION. 129 The introduction of bisulphate of lime of These figures show that already in 1860 late years has added greatly to the quantity the manufacture of cane sugar had concenof sugar that may be obtained from a given trated in Louisiana, but had become imporquantity of cane, and also to its quality. tant in Texas. The production of sugar vaThe quantity of sugar produced on an acre ries greatly from year to year as affected by varies from 500 lbs. to 3000 lbs.; the average the season. In 1853, the product in Louismay be 1000 lbs. A well-cultivated planta- iana rose to 495,156,000 lbs., in 1856 it fell tion in Louisiana produces 2400 lbs. sugar to 81,373,000 lbs., and in 1858 it had recovand 2000 lbs. or 160 gallons molasses per ered to 414,796,000 lbs. This fluctuation acres Some mills will turn out 1000 gal- has an important influence upon the exIons juice per hour, twenty hours in a day, changes of the country, since when the giving ten hogsheads of sugar, or 12,000 lbs. Louisiana crop fails, the price of sugar rises and 20 bbls. molasses, or 800 gallons, 12 lbs. very high and the importation from abroad to the gallon. The expenses and products of becomes excessive. The following table will a plantation in Louisiana have been given as show the quantity of sugar consumed in the follows in official documents:- United States, and whence it is derived:Household expenses..................... $1000 CONSUMPTION OF SUGAR IN THE UNITED STATES. Overseer's salary....................... 400 Year. Impoted. Louisiana. i per Food and clothing-15 working hands at $30 450 1801, 21,376. -" - " 15 old hands and chil- 1811, 24,791 4,000 28,791 dren, $15........................ 225 1821, 26,672 14,000 40,672 6 Repairs, l1- per cent. on capital ($40,000)... 600 1831, 44,178 35,000 79,178 134 1841, 65,601 38,000 103,601 13 4-1 $2675 1848, 104,214 107,000 211,214 221 350 hhds. sugar at 4 cents per lb... $2500 1850, 160,210 144,600 304,810 291 34 25 " " " 3 " ".... 862 1851, 201,493 120,331 321,824 30 31 25 " " "2 ".... 515 1852, 196,558 118,659 315,217 29 34 4000 galls. molasses, 10 cents...... 400 -413 1853, 200,610 172,379 372,989 301 34 1854, 150,854 234,444 385.298 34 3 Balance........................ $1462 1855, 192,607 185,145 377,752 311 34 There are many other products raised by 1856, 255,292 123,468 378,760 331 44 the hands besides sugar. Thus there are in 1857, 241,765 39,000 280,765 234 54 Louisiana 200,000 hands, and these produced 1858, 244,734 1923,04 38,184 29 64 1859, 239,034 192,150 431,184 291 64 in 1859, 362,296 hhds. of sugar, worth with 1860, 296,950 118,331 415,281 30 it the molasses $31,399,241; and in addition 1861, 253,781 229,1709 483,490 314 1 they raised 6,327,882 bushels of corn, or 31 1862, 273,5G9.. bushels per head; and 4,911,680 lbs. of rice, 1863 259,297, lsG4, 316,115 3,534 31, 649 201 21' or 24A lbs. per head. There are in Louisiana 1864 304,428 7,550 312,178 20 22 1865, 30-1,428 7,750 312,178 20 22 1298 sugar houses, 987 worked by steam and 1866, 488,943 20,500 509,443 334 18 311 by horsepower. The hogshead of sugar 1867, 420,532 18,824 439,356 28 16 is a very variable meafsre, but the average 1868, 601,268 42,147 643,415 334 15 weight, by the best authorities, is 1150 lbs. The small crop of Louisiana in 1856, inWith the progress of the country, a great duced a rise in prices that brought a large dependence has been had upon Louisiana for quantity of foreign into the country. The a supply of sugar. In 1815, the banks of consumption per head seems to have been the Mississippi gave 10,000,000 lbs., and in sustained at the higher prices. The con1818, 25,000,000 lbs. In 1858, it had risen sumption per head is larger than in other to 414,796,000 lbs. The census of 1860 countries. The ratio for the same year has gave the quantity of cane sugar raised in the been as follows:-France, 9 lbs. per head; United States as follows:- Great Britain, 28. lbs. per head;, and in the STATES. Sugar, lbs. Molasses,gall. United States, 31 lbs. per head. This French Alabama..................... 175,000 85,115 consumption includes cane and beet-root suorida................... 1,669,000 43,357 gar. The United States figures embrace only Georgia....................... 1,167,000 546,749 Louisiana.................... 221,726,000 13,439,772 the cane. The maple sugar made would, with Mississippi............... 506,000 10,016 Missouri..................... 402,000 22305 molasses, swell the total figures for 1860 to North Carolina............... 38,000 12,494 464,673 tons; as thus-cane sugar, 415,281 South Carolina................ 198,000........ Tennessee..................... 2,000 2,830 tons; molasses refined, 60,000 hhds., giving Texas...................... 5,099,000 408,358 13,392 tons sugar; of maple sugar 28,000 Total.... 230,982,000- 4,963,996 tons. California consumption, 8000 tons, 130 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND CONSUMPTION. The weight of the Louisiana sugar hhds. is Illinois.............. 131,751 taken at 1,150 lbs. for the crop of 1860, and Indiana.....1..........,515,594 the total crop for that year, or that which Mihigan......... 2,988018 dommenced in 1860, was 302,205 hhds., Wisconsin....... 1,584,406 weighing 347,535,750 lbs. The number of Iowa........... 248,951 sugar houses worked by steam is 1,090, and Minnesota... 370,94 by horse power 283. The product of mo- Kansas and Nebraska.. 1,864 lasses was 25,516,699 gallons. Total........... 38,863,884 MAPLE SUGAR. Besides this amount of sugar, 1,944,594 gallons of maple molasses were reported in it is but a few years since the highest the census of 1860. In 1863, 1864, and Ieach of art in this manufacture produced 1865 the great advance in the price of cane only a fine muscovado-like sugar; but now, sugar led to a very considerable increase in by improved processes, specimens are annu- the production of maple sugar and syrup. ally exhibited at the fairs, vieing with the Probably not less than 30,000 tons were most beautiful loaf sugar. By the improved manufactured in 1864. mode the sap is boiled in a potash or caul- A great deal is made, as of cane sugar in dron kettle to a thick syrup, which is strain- Georgia, for home use; it does not come ed when.warm. It is then allowed to stand upon the market, but prevents, to a certain twenty-four hours, and is then poured off. extent, a demand that would exist without To clarify a quantity of 50 lbs., a mixture of it. one quart of milk, one ounce of saleratus, SORGHUM SYRUP AND SUGAR. and two whites of eogs well mixed, is boiled into the sugar until it has become thick. The production of a syrup from the juice For draining, a tube is employed fifteen of the stalks of the sorgho and imphee, two inches square at the top, and coming to a plants of the maize family, as a substitute point at the bottom. The sugar is put in for molasses, was first attempted to any concold and the bottom tapped, while the top siderable extent during the decade, 1850is covered with a wet flannel cloth of two or 1860. Efforts were also made to produce a three thicknesses. sugar from this syrup; but with only modeThe quantity of maple sugar made per rate success, as it did not crystallize readily, annum cannot be ascertained with as much being more analogous to grape sugar, or gluaccuracy as that of the cane, and the esti- cose, than to cane sugar in its character. mates of the dealers are founded upon the In 1860, the production reported was 7,235,returns of the census of 1860, which were as 025 gallons, and this was doubtless much follows:- below the actual production, as many farmers made from fifty to a hundred gallons, UNITED STATES MAPLE SUGAR PRODUCTIONS. which they did not report. During the war, the high price of sugar and molasses greatly Lbs. stimulated the pro;duction of this syrup, Maine............ 306,742 both at the north and at the south. The'ew Hampshire....... 2,255,012 Vermont........ 9,819,939 annual yield in 1863, 1864, and 1865, could Massachusetts........ 1,006,078 hardly have been less than fifty or sixty Rhode Island............ millions of gallons, but subsequently declined. 0onnecticut........... 44,259 New York............ 10,816,458 SUGAR FROM OTHER SOURCES. New Jersey.......... 3,455 Experiments on a large scale, and with Pennsylvania.......... 2,768,965 considerable success have been made for proMaryland............ 63,281 ducing sugar from the white sugar beet in District of Columbia.... Illinois, Wisconsin, California and Colorado. Virginia........... 937,643 North Carolina....... 30,845 The amount produced in the past two years, South Carolina........ 205 1868 and 1869, can not be definitely stated, Georgia........... 991 but is not less than three hundred tons, and labama.............. 543 will probably be as many thousand in 1870. Arkansas.......... 3,097 Sugar and molasses are also produced at BufTennessee........... 117,359 falo and some other points from corn, by a Kentucky......... 380.941 chemical process. This is probably glucose, Missouri.............. 142,430 or grape sugar. ~d-= -r;; --—;4-C —- t ---- -- _R - ~ -- --— ~C i7_ jg r- -- )I pt E —-— L —----------— _ JT=.;jit = —-I — —=~= —== — I':j U\E51;111111.~ il'\ --=-a- , :111;-Li ---— ~ —; -— - —— i —-,, ll=I —— --"_ ""';"==; ia ~~~-,Prs--iu*---!1/812_'-"- —iS' —-— "-= —rL-`-I-"-~"""""""`"""""""""""""""' Sfii ~L!1ITi~'lr""a —'T'~ Vi~; —--E-, _ —- —-_ — —_=y -— s-2-c_ L;no — COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. wantonly what was not exhausted in military expenses, and leaving the people deprived of COLONIAL TRADE - IMPERIAL RESTRIC- their all. On this continent comparatively TIONS —EMANCIPATION OF IlNHABITAlNTS. nothing has been wasted in strife, while countTHE history of the commerce and trade of less sums have been swallowed by Europe a people is a record of their industry and in offerings to the god of war. Thus, indusproductive powers, since all trade is but an trious and frugal habits, abundance of fertile interchange of the products of labor, and land, morality of character, and freedom of wealth but an accumulation of those products institutions, have combined, with fertility of beyond the necessary annual consumption, invention in machinery, and means of comand wear and tear from use. In the United munication, to build up a nation that attracts States, since the date of their settlement, the cream of the European people and their the development of trade and the accumula- capital-these elements, in fifty years of untion of property have been more rapid than disturbed peace, produce an example of the in any other country. This has been the highest national happiness. It is true that case, chiefly, for five leading reasons: 1. The some other nations have more aggregate ample supply of fertile land free to the culti- wealth, but that in the United States is vator. 2. The persevering and intelligent more equally divided among the people. industry of the people, combined with an These causes have operated to a greater or inventive genius that has constantly smooth- less extent since the settlement of the country, ed the way of labor by devising the means but with increasing force as the present cenof producing greater results with the same tury has advanced. We may illustrate by a manual force. 3. The rapid increase of the few figures, showing the general state of numbers of the people, not only by reason affairs at three periods, viz.: in 1700, eighty of the healthiness of the climate and the years after the time of first settlement; general morality of their habits, but also in secondly, the time of separation from the consequence of the great immigration from mother country; and thirdly, the dates of abroad, induced by the desire of the most the census of 1850 and 1860:enterprising Europeans to avail themselves of Annual Assessed Population. agricultural Manufactur es. the benefits of our institutions. The stream Popultio, ct Mnfacturs. ealt of natural births in excess of deaths has 1700, 26,000 1790, 3,929,872 $150,000,000 $479,o(33,i63 mingled with the broad current of immigra- 1Slo, 2,1s81,876 1,070,000,000 $1.019,00,000 7,135,,80,228 tion to swell the numbers in a surprising 1860' 31,429,891 2,500,000,000 1,88,ti000,i00 16,159,.16,068 ratio. 4. The accumulation of capital ap- In nearly two hundred years up to 1790, plicable to reproductive industries, as well the population had increased to less than through the frugal habits of the people, who 4,000,000, including the blacks; and the have consumed far less than they have pro- taxable valuation to $479,293,263, including duced, as by the influx of capital from the land. Inthe succeeding seventyyears the abroad, not only in the hands of immigrants, population rose eight-fold, and the taxable but for investments, that will yield larger property forty-fold. Of that population, over revenue to European holders than they can 5,000,000 immigrated into this country. there obtain. And, fifth, and perhaps more The white population, however, increased important than all, the control that the peo- by census 23,800,000 persons: of these, pie have kept of their own funds. They 19,660,000 were the native increase in sevenhave had no absolute rulers or dynasties to ty years; hence, nearly 20 per cent. of the involve them in devastating wars, destroying increase was from immigration. The great COLONIAL TRADE —IMPERIAL RESTRICTIONS-EMANCIPATION OF INHABITANTS. 133 increase in manufactures, of which none had England people to work up their own wool been allowed under the imperial govern- and flax into home-spun goods. They also ment, is very remarkable. It indicates only attempted to start banks, which parliament the force with which industry acted as soon prohibited; and they forbade the manufacas the inhibition of the mother country was ture of iron beyond the state of pig, and inremoved. The population for 1860 is the terdicted foreign-built vessels from the colocurrent estimate. The valuation is, how- nial trade. In spite of all these continually ever, the official state returns, and shows an multiplying vexations, the colonists contrived amazing result-nearly fourfold, in ten years! to find something to do, and the fact that The early settlers in all the colonies had they did so kept the home government conto depend mostly upon agricultural products, tinually upon the "anxious seat." A parfirst for their own maintenance, and then as liamentary committee was finally appointed a means of procuring, by a sale of the sur- to look into the manner in which those plus, those manufactured articles which, under colonists employed their time, and the colnthe rigorous rule of the mother country, they mittee of parliament reported as follows:were not allowed to produce themselves. "The governor of Massachusetts Bay inThe early policy of the imperial government formed us that in some parts of this province was to make the colonies a source of profit the inhabitants worked up their wool and to the mother country, and this was sought flax into an ordinary coarse cloth for their by restraining the colonists from any pur- own use, but did not export any. That the suit that came in conflict with the industry greatest part of the woollen and linen clothof the mother country, and to confine them ing worn in this province was imported from to the production of such articles as she Great Britain, and sometimes from Ireland; stood most in need of. Those articles they but, considering the excessive price of labor were allowed to sell only to the mother in New England, the merchants could afford country, and were to buy what they stood what was imported cheaper than what was in need of only of her. Under those gen- made in that country. That there were also eral restrictions the colonists, with little a few hat-makers in the maritime towns; capital, and a barren soil at the north, were and that the greater part of the leather used to prosper as they could. Their genius and in that country was manufactured among restless energy, however, stood them in stead. themselves. That there had been for many But they were compelled to encounter new years some iron works in that province, which restrictions at every turn. The provinces had afforded the people iron for some of their were in some cases grants to individuals, and necessary occasions; but that the iron imin others to companies. This involved, of ported from Great Britain was esteemed course, their own government. But soon much the best, and wholly used by the shipthe Crown claimed the right of confirming the ping. And that the iron works of that governor. They were forbidden to coin province were not able to supply the twenmoney, to selllands to anybut British subjects, tieth part of what was necessary for the use to cut down pine-trees on any pretence, to of the country. They had no manufactures send wool to any place out of the king's in the province of New York that deserved dominions, to export any produce except in mentioning; their trade consisted chiefly in English vessels, of which the master and furs, whalebone, oil, pitch, tar, and provithree-fourths of the crew were English. Thus sions. No manufactures in New Jersey that every new progress of the colonies, even in deserve mentioning, their trade being chiefly settling and working the land, was followed in provisions shipped from New York and by a new restraint. But when they began Pennsylvania. The chief trade of Pennsylto manufacture, new anxieties seized the vania lay in the exportation of provisions home government. Early in the eighteenth and lumber, no manufactures being estabcentury an act of parliament forbade the lished, and their clothing and utensils for manufacture of hats; and MassachusettsBay their houses being all imported from Great gave offence by undertaking the manufacture Britain. By further advices from New of paper. New York incurred displeasure Hampshire, the woollen manufacture appears by taxing slaves imported from Africa, five to have decreased, the common lands, on ounces of silver each; and the ire of the which the sheep used to feed, being now government was further aroused by the re- appropriated, and the people almost wholly bellious disposition that prompted the New clothed with woollen from Great Britain. 134 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. The manufacture of flax into linen, some selves, if they were prohibited from receivcoarser, some finer, daily increased by the ing from the foreign sugar colonies the great resort of people from Ireland thither, money, rum, sugar, molasses, cocoa, indigo, who are well skilled in that business; and cotton, wool, etc., which they at present the chief trade of this province continued, take in return for provisions, horses, and as for many years past, in the exportation of lumber, the produce of that province and of naval stores, lumber, and fish. By later ac- New Jersey, of which he affirms, the British counts from Massachusetts Bay, in New Eng- sugar colonies do not take off above one-half. land, the assembly have voted a bounty of But the company of hatters of London have 30s. for every piece of duck or canvas made since informed us, that hats are manufacin the province. Some other manufactures tured in great quantities in this province. are carried on there, as brown Hollands for By the last letters from the deputy-governor women's wear, which lessens the importation of Pennsylvahia, he does not know of any of calicos, and some other sorts of East India trade carried on in that province that can be goods. They also make some small quan- injurious to this kingdom. They do not extities of cloth made of linen and cotton, for port any woollen or linen manufactures, all ordinary shirting and sheeting. By a paper- that they make, which are of a coarser sort, mill set up three years ago, they make to being for their own use. We are further the value of ~200 sterling yearly. There informed that in this province are built many are also several forges for making bar-iron, brigantines and small sloops, which they sell and some furnaces for cast-iron or hollow to the West Indies. The governor of Rhode ware, and one sitting-mill, and a manufactory Island informs us, in answer to our queries, of nails. The governor writes concerning that there are iron mines there, but not a the woollen manufacture, that the country fourth part iron enough to serve their own people, who used formerly to make most of use; but he takes no notice of any sort of their clothing out of their own wool, do not manufacture set up there. No return from now make a third part of what they wear, the governor of Connecticut; but we find, by but are mostly clothed with British manu- some accounts, that the produce of this colfactures. The same governor (Belcher), by ony is timber, boards, all sorts of English some of his letters of an older date, in an- grain, hemp, flax, sheep, black cattle, swine, swer to our annual queries, writes, that there horses, goats, and tobacco; that they export are some few copper mines in this province, horses and lumber to the West Indies, and but so far distant from water-carriage, and receive in return sugar, salt, molasses, and the'ore so poor, that it is not worth the rum. WVe likewise find that their manufacdigging. The surveyor-general of his Ma.j- turcs are very inconsiderable, the people esty's woods writes, that they have in New there being generally employed in tillage, England six furnaces and nineteen forges for some few in tanning, shoemaking, and other making iron, and that in this province many. handicrafts; others in the building, and ships are built for the French and Spaniards joiners', tailors', and smiths' work, without in return for rum, molasses, wines, and silks, which they could not subsist." which they truck there by connivance. Great The old northern colonies in America had, quantities of hats are made in New England, it is well known, very few articles fit for the of which the company of hatters of London British market, and yet they every year took have likewise lately complained to us, that off large quantities of merchandise from Great great quantities of those hats are exported Britain, for which they made payments with to Spain, Portugal, and our West India tolerable regularity. Although they could islands. They also make all sorts of iron not, like the Spanish colonists, digthe money work for shipping. There are several still- out of their own soil, yet they found means houses and sugar-bakers established in New to make a great part of their remittances in England. By later advices from New York, gold and silver dug out of the Spanish mines. there are no manufactures there that can This they effected by being general carriers, affect those of Great Britain. There is yearly and by a circuitous commerce carried on in imported into New York a very large quan- small vessels, chiefly with the foreign West tity of the woollen manufactures of this king- India settlements, to which they carried lumdom for their clothing, which they would be her of all sorts, fish of an inferior quality, rendered incapable to pay for, and would be beef, pork, butter, horses, poultry and other reduced to the necessity of making for them- live stock, an inferior kind of tobacco, corn, COLONIAL TRADE-IMPERIAL RESTRICTIONS-EMANCIPATION OF INHABITANTS. 1 35 flour, bread, cider, and even apples, cab- chiefly directed to the sea-to fishing, navbages, onions, etc., and also vessels built at igation, and the various branches of business a small expense, the materials being almost subservient to them. The cod, salmon, mackall within themselves; for which they re- erel, sturgeon, and other species of fish which ceived in return silver and gold, some of frequented the coasts and rivers in prodigwhich remained as current coin among them- ious shoals, afforded employment to great selves, but the greatest part was remitted numbers in taking, curing, and packing them. home to Britain, and, together with bills of The New Englanders also frequented the exchange, generally remitted to London, for banks and coasts of Newfoundland, and the the proceeds of their best fish, sold in the fishing grounds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence Roman Catholic countries of Europe, served as far as the coasts of Labrador. Besides to pay for the goods they received from the their own fishing, they procured from the mother country. This trade united all the Newfoundland fishermen a part of the fish advantages which the wisest and most phil- taken by them in exchange for rum of their anthropic philosopher, or the most enlight- own manufacture, and other articles of Amercued legislator, could wish to derive from ican and West India produce. The iollowcommerce. It gave bread to the industrious ing record of rum exported from the colonies in North America by carrying off their lum- now forming the United States (chiefly from ber, which must otherwise rot on their hands, New England) to the provinces of Nova and their fish, great part of which without it Scotia, Quebec, and Newfoundland, affords would be absolutely unsaleable, together with a specimen of the extent of that trade during their spare produce, and stock of every kind. a fdw years preceding the revolution:It furnished the West India planters with 1770. 177. 1772, 773. those articles without which the operations West India rum, gallons 52,712 36,873 47,783 50,716 1 American rum, " 590,748 550),514 520,525 608,05' of their plantations must be at a stand, and Americn it produced a fund for employing a great 648,460 587,S87 568,261 658,741 number of industrious manufacturers in Great The fish, after' being sorted in the harbors, Britain: thus taking off the superfluities, were shipped off to the countries for which providing for the necessities, and promoting each quality was best adapted. The best the happiness of all concerned. This trade, were carried to the southern parts of Europe, however, was almost entirely ruined by the and the proceeds were generally remitted to rigorous execution of the orders against Great Britaininbills ofexchangetopayfor the smuggling and the collection of the duties goods they had occasion for. A small quanin hard silver, which soon drained the country tity of the best fish was also sent to Britain, of any little real money circulating in it. and the inferior sorts were destined to give And, as if government had intended to pre- a relish to the plantains and yams which vent the colonists fiom having even the constituted the principal part of the food of shadow of money, another act was passed in the negro slaves in the West Indies. After a few days after that for the new duties, de- the peace of 1763, the whale fishery increasclaring tlat no paper bills to be henceforth ed in the seas between the New England issued should be made a legal tender in pay- coasts and Labradoi, in consequence of the ment, and enjoining those in circulation to encouragement given to it by the great rebe sunk (that is, paid off in hard money) at duction of the duties on the oil and whale the limited time. That vast quantities of fins, so much, that instead of eighty or ninety goods were imported, in direct violation of sloops, which had gone upon the whale the letter and spirit of the law and of the fishery, they employed 160 in that business commercial system of the mother country, before the year 1775, and the other branches there is no doubt. But it could not well be of their fishery increased in the same prootherwise in a country so remote from the portion. In addition to the commerce supgovernment to which it professed allegiance, ported by the produce of their fisheries, they and possessing an extent of coast which no drove a very profitable circuitous carrying chain of revenue cruisers that could be sup- trade, which greatly enriched them, and ported by government would be sufficient to supplied most of the money in circulation. guard with any kind of effect. The soil of Besides building vessels for the service of the New England provinces scarcely furnish- their own commerce, they built great numed provisions sufficient to support the in- hers, but of no very good quality of wood habitants. Their industry had therefore been or workmanship, for sale; and from the [36 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. molasses, which they brought in great quan- all kinds of poultry in great numbers, flax tities from the West Indies (chiefly from the and hemp, boards, scantling, staves, shingles, French islands), they distilled rum, which, and wooden houses framed and ready to fit though much inferior to that of the West up, iron in pigs and bars, and vessels, supeIndies, was very acceptable to the Indians, rior in workmanship to those of New Engwho readily received it in exchange for their land. Their chief markets for these comfurs and peltry. They also found a great modities were the British and foreign West sale for it among the fishermen; consider- Indies, Spain, Portugal, the Western islands, able quantities of it were shipped to Africa, Madeira and the Canary islands, whence they and exchanged for slaves, or sold to the carried home the produce of each country resident European slave merchants for gold and bullion. Great Britain and Ireland redust, ivory, woods, wax, and gums. The ceived from them iron, hemp, flax, feed, candles made of spermaceti, furnished by the some lumber, and skins and furs, the prodwhale fishery, formed also an article of ex- uce of their trade with the Indians, together port Jo the amount of three or four hundred with some articles of their imports from other thousand pounds weight in a year, besides provinces and from foreign countries, which what were consumed upon the continent. were raw materials for British manufactures Their exports to Great Britain consisted and bullion. Maryland and Virginia almost chiefly of fish-oil, whalebone (or fins), masts from their first settlement made tobacco the and other spars, to which were added several principal object of their culture, and it long raw materials for manufactures collected in continued to constitute the most valuable their circuitous, trading voyages, and a bal- export of British America; but the quantity ance paid in foreign gold and silver coins. of tobacco was diminishing in these provinces In short, their earnest application to fisheries for many years before the revolution, owing and the carrying trade, together with their to the soil being exhausted by it, and the unremitting attention to the most minute planters had turned much of their tobacco article which could be made to yield a profit, land to the cultivation of wheat and other obtained them the appellation of the Dutch- grain. Their tobacco could by law be exmen of America. New York, New Jersey, ported only to Great Britain; but their corn, Pennsylvania, and Delaware have a much flour, lumber, etc., were carried to the West better soil than that of the New England Indies and elsewhere. North Carolina proprovinces, and they then, as now, produced duced also some tobacco, and it furnished corn and cattle of all kinds in great abun- pitch, tar, and turpentine, of which about dance, and also hemp, flax, and lumber; to 130,000 barrels were annually exported, which may be added iron, potashes, and pearl- whereof the greatest part came to Britain. ashes. Their exports were corn of all kinds, The following accounts, copied from those four and bread in great quantities, salted of the custom-house, for the year nearly provisions of all sorts, live stock, including preceding the revolution, show the exports horses, horned cattle, hogs and sheep, and of the then colonies of America:AN ACCOUNT OF THE.VALUE, IN STERLING MONEY, OF THE EXPORTS OF THE SEVERAL PROVINCES UNDERMENTIONED, IN THE YEAR 1770. To Great Britain. To South of Europe. To West Indies. To Africa. Total. ~. s.. sd. ~. d. s. d. ~. s.d.. s. d. ~. s. New Hampshire r 464 0 5 40,431 8 4 96 11 3 Massachusetts 142 17 12 9 76,702 0 4 123,394 0 6 9,801 9 10 508919 2 Rhode Island 1,440 11 0 65,206 13 2 7,81419 8 Connecticut 2,567 4 5 79,395 7 6 New York....... 113,382 8 8 50,885 13 0 66.32417 5 1,313 2 6 231,906 1 7 New Jersey...... 2,531 16 5 2,531 16 5 Pennsylvania..... 28,112 6 9 203,952 1111 178,331 7 8 560 9 9 410,75616 1 Maryland... 961 5 0 66,555 11 11 22,303 9 2 991,40118 6 Virginia 9 73,635 3 4 68,946 91 North Carolina ) 405,01413. 3,238 3 7 27,944 7 9 71 15 4 South Carolina 1 72,881 9 3 59,81411 6 61910 9 5694 1 Georgia........ 82,270 2 3 614 2 0 13,28515 1 96,16919 4 Total..... ~1,531,516 8 6 ~552,93711 2 ~747,910 3 7 ~20,277 19 1 ~2,852,441 8 4 The exports of North Carolina to the West corn, peas, etc. But its foreign trade was Indies consisted mostly of salt pork, Indian very trifling in proportion to its great extent, COLONIAL TRADE-IMPERIAL RESTRICTIONS-EMANCIPATION OF INHABITANTS. 137 and even to the quantity of its productions, of this pressure, and the stamp act was reand was mostly in the hands of the merchants pealed; but, at the same time, the moral of the adjacent provinces of Virginia and effect of the repeal was destroyed by the South Carolina, and of the New Englanders. declaration that the acts of parliament bound In South Carolina and Georgia rice and in- the colonies. Then followed more duties, digo were the staple articles. The former more regulations, more resistance, increasing grows on the marshy grounds near the coast, anger on both sides, until, in the year 1775, and the latter on the dr.y soil of the inland parliament prohibited all trade with Amercountry. The planters had for some time ica, and the united colonies opened their applied themselves to the culture of tobacco; ports to all nations. During the war which it was not until later that the cultivation of ensued, the business of the country of course cotton was introduced. They made then suffered; but a very extensive illegal trade considerable quantities of lumber. Their was carried on by some of the high officers exports consisted of these articles; and the of the English government, who, under limerchants of Charleston also shipped some censes granted to carry stores and provisions skins obtained by trade with the neighboring for the army, cleared vessels for Boston, Indians, and part of the produce of North Halifax, or Quebec, with liberty to go to any Carolina. other port, and sent cargoes of general merThe chief dependence of the colonies for chandise for sale at great profits. the means of turning their industry to ac- These events closed colonial trade. The count, was thus apparently the West India high profits to be derived from the sale of trade. Every interest in England had been goods and produce during the war were protected at the expense of the colonies, and too tempting to permit trade altogether to the united restrictions had resulted in a larger cease, notwithstanding the acts of Congress. West India trade. The government now Lord Sheffield states that one ship in parcame in to protect itself, and, to raise a rev- ticular cleared from London for New York, enue, laid a heavy tax upon the West India but went directly to Boston, where her cargo trade in 1764. sold at 270 per cent. profit. Many cargoes The burdens of the colonists were getting were paid for in cash before they left Engrather too many and heavy, and the people land, on account of the risk. The cities in more and more disposed to question the the United States in the power of the British utility of a connection which was enforced were crowded with the faithful; at the same avowedly that the colonists might be hewers time the surrounding back country did not of wood and drawers of water for the service sympathise with them, and, as a consequence, of the mother country. The first movement provisions were very scarce and high. This -an view of the fact that the cutting off of gave rise to a clandestine trade, by which a their trade would prevent them from buying vessel would be loaded with produce and of the mother country, was to enter into an sent to a particular spot, where, through conassociation to abstain from British goods, nivance, she would be " captured," and her and to manufacture for themselves. Then cargo sold as a prize, at very high prices, to commenced an active struggle. Surveyors- the profit of both captors and owners. Amergeneral were sent to America, stamp duties ican produce also found its way to Europe. levied, and all the stamped paper sent out With the year 1783 came peace, and with from England was burnt up by the colonists it a new era opened in the world's commerce. as soon as it arrived. The merchants enter- Britain had always treated the colonies as ed into an agreement to import no more having no rights, and she was now required goods from Great Britain, and a manufac- to treat with them as equals, not only in a turing society was established. Woollen political and commercial sense, but as rivals factoring became the rage, and so far was it on the ocean, which she had hitherto affected carried, that resolutions were passed not to to rule. The United States were then in by eat lamb, and not to patronise any butcher no means a prosperous condition. Their comwho killed lambs. They resolved to send merce had been ruined by the war; the few no more tobacco to England. These reso- manufactures which had been forced into lutions caused a great revulsion in England being during the difficulties had to encounamong those who could get no remittance ter ruinous competition from imports with and those who had made goods for the Amer- the return of peace; the country was flooded ican market. The government felt the force with depreciated paper Thoney, of which over 138 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. $360,000,000 had been issued. The states in Great Britain. American vessels generally were in debt $20,000,000, and the federal were placed upon the footing of colonial vesgovernment $42,000,375; specie had mostly sels. Although there were no United States disappeared from circulation, and the country official returns, the English custom-house was without a mint, or a regular system of returns show the trade between the two finance. Private credit was greatly impaired. countries for that period as follows:The collection of debts had been suspended Expotts to Imports from during the war, and with the return of peace Great Britain. Great Britain. the courts were filled with suits; while the 1184, 743,345 3,670,467 1785, 893,594 2,308,023 markets were flooded with goods beyond 1786, 843,119 1,603,465 the power of purchase. The several states 1787, 893,637 2,009,111 exercised the power of issuing paper money, 1788, 1,023,789 1,886,142 and making it a legal tender for debts, and 189, 1,050,198 5229 1790, 1, 91,071 3,431,77 8 each exercised the right of imposing duties upon imports and exports. All these evils The imports from Great Britain alone, in were producing the most disastrous results, the two first years of peace, must have been and in Massachusetts an open insurrection, nearly $30,000,000, or $10 per head of the known as Shays's rebellion, threatened not people against an export of $9,000,000, and only the peace of that state, but the exist- were sufficient cause for much distress. This ence of the Union, which, indeed, was very was, however, of a nature which would natufeeble under the confederation. In Septem- rally cure itself, since it involved a fall in her, 1787, the present constitution was finally prices that would promote exports and check adopted, and the work of construction imports, and these were more nearly equalcommenced. The leading measures adopted ized in 1788. did not come fully into operation until 1791, In that year, however, a new event gave a when the custom-houses, the mint, the bank, great impulse to American exports. The the post-office, commercial treaties, and du- French government had previously made a ties on importsewith the restrictions upon free trade treaty withEngland; and in.1787, the states as to levying duties, coining money, under the liberal sentiments which that govmaking paper a legal tender, and minor ernment espoused, they issued a decree, regulations, were put in force. placing American citizens commercially on The power granted to Congress by the the same footing as Frenchmen, and admitnew constitution, of levying duties upon ting American produce free of duty. Under goods imported into the country, met the this regulation, the United States exported exigencies of the case. The states had been in 1788, 246,480 tierces of rice, 140,959 repeatedly and vigorously called upon to pro- barrels of flour, 3,664,176 bushels of wheat, vide the means of meeting the public debt- 558,891 bushels of rye, 520,262 bushels of and expenses, and it was urged upon them barley. These figures represent very large that independent means granted to it was exports for the state of the country at that the only way by which the federal govern- time, when the population was small, and the ment could sustain its position. This power, farm produce drawn altogether from the with that to levy direct taxes, was finally Atlantic states of the country. The farms of obtained by Congress under the constitution the Hudson river and its milling powers were of 1787. In the meantime the exports of then in great requisition. The fisheries had the country were actively resumed with the large sales, and the south exported freely its cessation of hostilities. There were, how- rice.' The enjoyment of the French and Engever, no means of knowing the actual state lish trade gave a great impulse to the shipping of trade until the adoption of the regulations interest, and the United States were rapidunder the constitution of 1791. The trade ly growing into a power whose influence was was, however, very active. The desire to felt in all the commercial relations of Engtrade on both sides was great; and no sooner land. The political difficulties of Europe was peace declared, than the king by proc- were also taking a new shape. The failure lamation removed all legal restraints upon of the harvests hastened the march of affairs, intercourse with the United States, dispens- and a new war between France and England ing for a limited time with a manifest, certifi- left in the hands of the United States the carrycate, or other legal domment on the arrival ing trade of the world. While American shipof any vessel belonging to the United States ping was called upon to supply raw materials COLONIAL TRADE-IMPERIAL RESTRICTIONS-EMANCIPATION OF INIABITANTS. 139 and food for England and western Europe, merce of that city; and behind these leading it was also called upon to carrybetweenEuro- names came a crowd of great merchantspean countries and their colonies. French for the mercantile intellect seemed as active ships could no longer safely trade.with the in that day as was military, political, and West Indies, the Spanish merchants and literary genius both on this continent and government depended upon neutral flags throughout the world. to convey their merchandise and treasures, With the year 1791 the new government and even the English preferred the safety of of the United States, under the constitution third bottoms for the transport of their goods. adopted 1787, came into operation, and from The insurrection in St. Domingo, and the that date regular official figures of the anevents in other islands, drove great numbers nual progress of the national commerce have of persons to the United States, and many been published. The leading changes profortunes were founded. That of Stephen duced by that event were the abolishment Girard received a great accession from the of all state laws imposing duties upon imwealth placed on board his ships'by persons ports and exports; the creation of a tariff who were slaughtered in the attempt to fol- by Congress; the establishment of a mint, a low. The activity with which American national bank, a post-office; the funding of shipping was employed in those years did the government circulating paper, the with, not prevent them from seeking new trade in drawal of all state issues, and the enactment the east, and an American ship made its of a navigation law in retaliation of the appearance in the China seas, in a com- English law.. The general course of trade merce which has not ceased to grow to proceeded, however, much as before, until the present day. The period was marked it encountered the interruption that grew by the development of the most enter- out of the European war. A few years of prising genius in mercantile adventure. this prosperity excited the ire of the belThe fame of William Gray, of Boston, soon ligerents, and England could no longer rebecame world-wide, and was as honored in frain from treating the Americans still as the east as it was in the west. His ships colonists. In 1793 she issued an order to navigated every sea, and employed hundreds prevent food from being carried to any port of hardy men. The skilful and bold seamen occupied by French troops, and also to prewho commanded his ships were not of the vent American vessels from trading between later class of " dandy captains," who came in France and her colonies. She also exercised with the "liners," but it was his saying that the right of impressing American seamen to the best captains would sail with a load of man her navy. Under these and other or. fish to the West Indies, hang up a stocking ders, American merchants had been robbed in the cabin and put therein the hard dollars of large amounts of property. The comas they sold the fish, and pay out from it as plaints thus created threatened war; but it they bought the rum, or molasses, or sugar, was arrested by a treaty concluded by Mr. tie up the balance, and hand it into the Jay, under which $10,000,000 indemnity was counting-house on their arrival home, in lieu paid. This treaty gave umbrage to France, of all accounts. The honesty and judgment which also seized American vessels; but the of their proceedings were beyond question; first consul put an end to the complaints in and. the problem of profits between the fish 1800. England. had, however, in view of sent and the cargo and stocking returned, the apparently progressive difficulties in was for the clerks to solve. The genius for Europe, revived the principle she had laid plotting long and intricate voyages belonged down in 1756, viz.: that neutrals could carry to the head of the house. New York, in on no trade in time of war that they had not John Jacob Astor, had still a more extensive pursued in time of peace: in other words, operator. He first projected the enterprises that American ships should not do the French to the north-west coast, and laid out schemes carrying trade. Her next step, in May, 1806, which required ten years to ripen, with pro- was to promulgate the unheard-of and absurd found skill, and his name was known through- edict, that Europe was in a state of blockade out the world. Philadelphia had an exponent from the Elbe to Brest. The import of this of her commercial power in Stephen Girard, was, that American ships should visit none whose enterprises belonged to the same pe- of those ports. This monstrous pretension, riod of large operations and bold conduct. in addition to some minor orders, drew from The Patersons of Baltimore led the com- Napoleon, November, 1806, his Berlin de 140 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. cree in retaliation, prohibiting all intercourse of chicory-root as a substitute for coffee. with the British islands. This was replied It originated in Germany, but has since to, by Great Britain declaring France and spread to England and the United States. her colonies in a state of blockade. To Beet-root sugar, which has become so large these insane edicts on both sides succeeded an industry in France and Germany, being others, which so multiplied the difficulties of equal in consumption to cane, originated in commerce that the United States government, the same manner. Nevertheless, all cornto avoid war, laid an embargo upon corn- modities were very high, and when a cargo merce in 1808. It was not to be expected, could be got in, it realized a fortune. To however, that when the chief interests of the get them in was the problem; and this was country were commercial, that such a mea- usually done by fees, or pots de vin, which sure should be otherwise than very unpopu- were mostly appropriated by Talleyrand and lar, and the government changed it, in 1809, Fouche, and afterward rights were openly sold to non-intercourse with France and Great by the emperor to raise money. Jerome BonBritain. Notwithstanding all the troubles aparte, who died so recently, had married, in thrown in the way of commerce by the edicts 1803, Miss Paterson, of Baltimore, a direct deof France and England, the American mer- scendant of " Old Mortality," immortalized by chants contrived to carry on a large traffic. Scott in a novel. The Paterson interest Under Bonaparte's continental system, which with Jerome was the means of procuring sought to exclude colonial and British pro- admission for many a valuable cargo. Inductions, produce was very scarce and high terest and enterprise effected much, and few in Europe. The emperor, to remedy the merchants desired to lose all chance through matter, offered high premiums for the in- the intervention of their own government. vention of substitutes for many articles, such Nevertheless, the embargo took place in as indigo, cane sugar, coffee, etc. To those. 1808. The progress of trade from 1790 to premiums are due the large use now made 1808, was as follows:IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES, AND TONNAGE IN THE FOREIGN TRADE. Tonnage. Dom. exports. For. exports. Total exports. Imports. 1790, 474,374 $19,666,000 $539,156 $20,205,156 $23,000,000 1791, 502,146 18,500,000 512,041 19 012 041 29,200,000 1792, 564,457 19,000,000 1,753,098 20,753,098 31,500,000 1793, 520,764 24,000,000 2,109,572 26,109,572 31,100,000 1794, 628,618 26,500,000 6,526,233 33,026,233 34,600,000 1795, 747,965 39.500,000 8,489,472 47,989,472 69,756,268 1796, 831,899 40,764,097 26,300,000 67,064:097 81,436,164 1797, 876,913 29,850,026 27,000.000 56,850,206 75,379,406 1798, 898,328 28,527,097 33,000,000 61,527,097 68,551,700 1799, 939,400 33,142,522 45,523,000 78,665,522 79,069,148 1800, 972,492 31,840,903 39,130,877 70,971,780 91,252,768 1801, 947,577 47,473,204 46,642,721 94,115,925 111,363,511 1802, 892,104 36,708,189 35,774,971 72,483,160 76,333,333 1803, 949,172 42,205,961 13,594,072 55.800,033 64,666,666 1804, 1,042,404 41,467,477 36,231,597 77,699,074 85,000,000 1805, 1,140,368 42,387,002 53,179,019 95,566,021 120,600,000 1806, 1,208,716 41,253,727 60,283,236 101,536,963 129,410,000 1807, 1,268,548 48,699,592 59,643,558 108,343,150 138,500,000 In the period here embraced there oc- re-exported, forming the carrying trade becurred many events which had a very lasting tween the countries of Europe and their and important bearing upon the future of the colonies, that the war threw into the AmeriUnited States. The temporary free trade can bottoms, and which passed through with France had imparted a sudden impulse American ports. A large portion of this to the export of farm produce. The wars trade was paid in money in England, formthat succeeded greatly enlarged the sphere ing those credits which were transferred by of action for the shipping, and we find in the the Americans to the English, in payment table that the imports of goods rose year by of merchandise thence imported. Thus the year from 23,000,000 in 1790 to 138,000,- trade was generally in favor of England 000 in 1807. Of these large imports, how- with the United States, and in favor of the ever, it appears, from the column of exports latter with Europe. Now, as England could of foreign merchandise, a large portion was have no direct trade with Europe during the COLONIAL TRADE-IMPERIAL RESTRICTIONS-EMANCIPATION OF INHABITANTS. 141 war, and yet was compelled to send funds afford much encouragement for the future. thither for political purposes, the credits she The increase of blacks who were not earning received from the Americans were of vast their support was not regarded with favor service to her. It was in the conduct of that by southern statesmen under such circumtrade that the tonnage multiplied to the ex- stances: hence the incorporation into the tent seen in the column. The amount federal constitution of the inhibition of the increased from 474,374 tons in 1790, slave trade after 1808. That provision was to over 1,260,000 tons in 1807, or an resisted by the New England shipowners, increase in capital so employed from $15,- of whosebusiness the transportation of blacks, 000,000 to $50,000,000 The wealth of the as a return cargo, after carrying produce to country was thus rapidly increasing in a England, formed an important part. An foreign trade, which formed one-half of the event occurred in 1793, however, which whole commerce. The fisheries were very wrought an entire change in the business of active and flourishing; the agricultural in- the country and the prospects of the south. terest prospered under the large exports and Up to that time a little cotton had been high prices, and manufactures began to be raised, but the difficulty of freeing it from actively developed. The Secretary of the the seed was such that one hand could clean Treasury, Mr. Hamilton, in his celebrated but 1 lb. per day, and even at 30 cents per report upon manufactures in 1791, says: lb. it was not profitable, under such condi" It is certain that several important branches tions. The mode of carding and spinning have grown up and flourished with a rapidity it was also laborious and slow. At about that surprises, affording an encouraging assur- that period the steam-engine in England was ance of successive future attempts." Among introduced as a motive power, and such inthose enumerated as then flourishing are ventions were made in the process of carding leather, iron, wood, flax, bricks, paper, hats, and spinning cotton as to enable one man to carriages, etc. It was computed that four- do the work that required 2,200 by old fifths of all the clothing of the inhabitants methods. These were the conditions of an was made by themselves, and that great immense demand for the rawmaterial. Provquantities of coarse cloths for table and bed- identially, precisely at that juncture, 1793, ding were manufactured in households. All Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, invented these industries pertained mostly to the the cotton-gin, by which one hand, innorth, and their surplus formed at that time stead of only 1 lb., could clean 360 lbs. per most of the exports of the whole country. day. Thus the market for cotton, and the The southern states were possessed of 600,- means of preparing it, were both provided 000 blacks, for whom there was no adequate at once, and they were thenceforth to furnish employment. They were mostly engaged the chief employment for American ships. upon the production of tobacco and rice, but The items of domestic exports in the above the market for them was not such as to table were therefore varied as follows:Cotton. Tobacco. Flour & provisions. Rice. Manufactures. Total. 1700, $42,285 $4,349,567 $5,991,171 $1,753,796 $12,136,819 1803, 7,920,000 6,209,000 15,050,000 2,455,000 2,000,000 31,179,000 1807, 14,232,000 5,470,000 15,706,000 2,307,000 2,309,000 44,002,400 Thus cotton in a few years came to form 1807, in the case of a suit brought by Whitnearly one-third of the whole exports, there- ney to make good his claim to his patent. by supplying to the shipping in 1808 a com- "The whole of the interior," said Judge pensating freight for the blacks, who were Johnson, "was languishing, and its inhabitno longer to be imported. That cotton trade ants were emigrating, for want of some object has not ceased to grow to the present day, to engage their attention and employ their and with ever increasing importance. It industry, when the invention of this machine has supplied not only the manufacturers of (the gin) at once opened views to them Europe with raw material, but also those which set the whole country in active moof the northern states. The impulse thus tion. From childhood to age it has pregiven to the cotton culture produced a vital sented to us a lucrative employment. Indichange in the condition of the south, and viduals who were depressed with poverty this change is well indicated in the charge and sunk in idleness have suddenly rise to made by Judge Johnson, of Savannah, in wealth and respectability. Our debts have 9 142 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. been paid off, our capitals have increased, aggregate amount retained in the country and our lands doubled in value. We cannot for consumption did not materially increase express the weight of obligation which the in the ten years up to 1807. country owes to this invention. The extent All branches of industry were in a high of it cannot now be seen." state of prosperity, when the course of events In these words we have the proof of the brought on the embargo, which produced utter depression that then existed at the an immense change in the course of affairs. so'ath, affording a strong contrast to the im- All those interests that had thriven so well mense wealth that has since been developed. since the peace of 1783, became suddenly The kinds and quantities of goods import- depressed by the circumstances which gave ed into the country were adapted to the an impulse to manufacture. The raw matewants of the people at that time, when lux- rial and farm produce which had been so uries had by no means so large a share of actively exported now accumulated on hand the public taste as is now the case. The at falling prices, tempting the manufacturer homespun goods of the country were to be to employ the labor no longer occupied with gradually supplanted by machine goods as commercial interests, and a new order of inthese improved and cheapened, and they did dustry sprang into being. Trade was, howso rapidly under the influence of larger sup- ever, not entirely interrupted; many coastplies of raw material, operated upon by the ing vessels, with suitable cargoes, were by most astonishing inventions in new machines, pretended stress of weather driven into and the improved scientific processes applied foreign ports, and the United States courts to the manufacture. The American manu- were filled with suits brought for breaches of facturers were required to withstand not only the embargo acts. Under the non-interthe competition of the large capital and course act of 1809, business recovered to cheap labor of England, but the constant some extent, only to encounter those new effects of new inventions, of which the first- vexations which brought on the war of 1812. fruits were manifest in imported goods. They That event rather changed the course of therefore grew but slowly, and hardware, trade than interrupted it, and was succeeded dry goods, and other leading branches of by a greater degree of activity than ever. merchandise, continued to be imported. The The imports and exports were as follows:Tonnage. Domestic exports. Foreign exports. Total exports. Total imports. 1808, 1,247,596 $9,433,546 $12,997,414 $22,430,960 $56,990,000 1809, 1,350,281 31,405,700 20,797,531 52,203,231 59,400,000 1810, 1,424,784 42,366,679 24,391,295 66,757,974 85,400,000 1811, 1,232,502 45,294,041 16,022,790 61,316,831 83,400,000 1812, 1,269,997 30,032,109 8,495,127 38,527,236 77,030,000 1813, 1,166,629 25,008,152 2,847,845 27,855,997 22,005,000 1814, 1,159,210 6;782,272 145,169 6,927,441 12,965,000 1815, 1,368,127 45,974,403 6,583,350 52,557,753 113,041,274 1816, 1,372,218 64,781,896 17,138,556 81,920,452 147,103,700 1817, 1,399,911 68,313,500 19,358,069 87,671,569 99,250,373 1818, 1,225,184 73,854,437 19,426,096 93,280,533 121,750,000 1819, 1,260,751 50,976.838 19,165,683 70,142,521 87,125,000 1820, 1,280,166 51,683,640 18,008,029 69,691,669 74,450,000 $545,907,213 $185,376,954 $731,284,167 $1,039,910,347 The large carrying trade that had existed of Spain. The same men who had routed in foreign produce gradually perished on the the legions of Napoleon embarked at Borreturn of peace in Europe, throwingmuch ton- deaux for New Orleans, to fall before the nage out of employ; and domestic produce, cotton bags defended by Jackson and his although it found its way abroad to some ex- gallant band. tent, still fell in value, and accumulated in The course of events that had been proquantity in the home ports. Cotton in par- ductive of so much prosperity from 1783 to ticular felt the want of the foreign market, 1808, was followed in the next seven years although its presence in New Orleans be- by commercial disasters, it is true, but those came an instrument in the great triumph of disasters were relieved by the brilliant posiour American troops over the British vet- tion assumed by the United States among erans who had just driven the French out the nations of the earth as a naval power. COLONIAL TRADE-IMPERIAL RESTRICTIONS-EMANCIPATION OF INHABITANTS. 143 The American tonnage, which increased to since thought it worth while to provoke new over 1,000,000 in 1807, had given employ- hostilities, but have, on the other hand, from ment to large numbers of hardy and skilful time to time, settled up for the injuries they seamen, men whose professional skill and then committed upon American commerce. nautical daring had already made them fa- The intervention of war had paralyzed every mous, and had incited Great Britain to those industry. The farm products that had been impressments by which she sought to ob- raised for export ho longer had an outlet tain the services of such able men. When for the surplus; cotton, rice, and tobacco acher conduct drove the American government cumulated idly in warehouses. The ships to embargo commerce, the employment of were freightless at the docks, and all the ships and men became restrained, and their earnings of industry were at their minimum. daring manifested itself in infractions of the It was an advantage to manufacturers, indeed, law. Non-intercourse and war drove them to have no competition from abroad; but, on altogether out of employment, and they the other hand, the general depression of all crowded into the navy and privateers. Up other industries destroyed the home market to that time England was the admitted mis- for goods. The general depression of trade tress of the seas. Every nation in Europe and the depreciation of property undermined had been driven from the contest. The all credits. Those who had contracted oblibest fleets of Napoleon, invincible upon land, gations to pay when merchandise was salehad invariably struck to the British flag, and able and property convertible, could not pay the feeble nation upon this continent, just when all values were paralyzed. In order formed out of revolted colonies, was hardly to remedy this state of affairs to some exworth considering at all as a power. The tent, which was ascribed by certain parties to proof of the contempt in which it was held the want of a United States bank, new state was given in the conduct of the nations that banks were multiplied, under the erroneous forced non-intercourse and war upon the notion that these could supply capital. InUnited States. It came very hard for all asmuch, however, as the radical evil was the thriving interests here to face ruin in the inability to pay, increase of promises did not shape of war, but it became inevitable. So help the matter, and a general suspension of distrustful, however, was even Congress of the banks took place. The country was the ability of the country to resist England, filled with irredeemable paper; and the fedthat it was determined, on the declaration eral debt, which had been $75,463,476 on of war, to send the government ships up the the consolidation of the revolutionary debt; rivers, where they would be out of the reach in 1790, had risen to $127,334,934 when of the dreadful English cruisers. It was peace took place in 1815. In such a state only at the earnest solicitation of the leading of affairs the return of peace brought with it officers of the navy that permission was a flood of imported goods, which amounted finally given for the ships to go to sea. The to $147,000,000 in 1816, giving the governastonishment in Europe, the dismay in Eng- ment a customs revenue equal to $36,306,land, and delight in the United States, could 874 in the year. The new United States scarcely be equalled when the encounter on Bank went into operation at the same time, the seas resulted in the unprecedented spec- causing for the moment additional pressure; tacle of a series of triumphs over the tyrant but the sale of its stock, and of the federal of the ocean. In the short period of twenty government stock, subscribed to its capital, years a power had arisen that was thenceforth abroad, helped to correct the exchanges. to know no master upon the ocean, and sub- The produce that had accumulated during mit to no insults, and this power had been the war also went forward in great quanborn of commerce. The war closing with tities, giving a considerable impulse to the the defeat of the best trooFs of England, the aggregate of domestic exports, which rose to "liberators of Spain," before the lines of $73,854,000 in 1818. Of this amount 40 New Orleans, left the United States no longer per cent. was cotton. In some sort, the in the position of merely liberated colonies, trade which had lain dormant during the but in that of a victorious power among the war was forced into the first three years of nations of the earth. It had cost much to peace. In the five years that ended with win that position, but it was worth the 1820 there was, consequently, great activity struggle, since it ensured continued peace of trade, demanding greater banking facilithereafter. The nations of Europe have not ties, thus promoting a restoration of con 144 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. fidence, and aiding the United States Bank period great dependence upon foreign manuin restoring ordei to the currency. The factires had existed. It is no doubt true year 1820 brought with it new regulations that most of the common wearing apparel in regard to the taking of the census, and a and similar goods were made in families, law of Congress was enacted for correctly but iron ware, and most articles that enter keeping the import, export, and tonnage into the materials of daily avocations, came returns, which has since been done, and an- from abroad. With the war came great nually reported. The revenues of the gov- deprivation, and many necessary goods, that ernment, which depended upon duties on had been abundant, were no longer to be imports, suffered interruption during the had. Materials for the army and navy, of all war, and a resort to taxation became neces- sorts, particularly blankets for the men, were sary. This had been done in 1791 by a tax with difficulty obtained. This necessity on houses and lands. A new valuation took gave a great spur to individual enterprise, place in 1815; and this, compared with the and at the same time forced upon the govvaluation of 1791, gives the progress of real ernment the idea of fostering home industry. property in all the states during that period. This necessity was also apparent from the The census of 1820 comprised, in addition nature of the government. The federal to the population, some items of the industry Constitution had given to Congress the of the people. Comparing the leading aggre- power to levy duties upon imports, and also gates at the two periods, the results are as direct taxes for its support. The former follows: right was exercised up to the war, and the 1791. 1820. Increase. government finances were independent and Population Estimated. 4,049,600 9,618,181 5,588,531 flourishing. When, however, the war put Taxable land, acres.. 163,746,686 188,2S6,480 24,539,794 Valuation.......... 49.293,63 2,275,780,124 1,796,436,86i an end to commerce, the government revImports............ 23,000,000 4,450,000 51,45u,000 enues also ceased, since, there being no imExports............ 20,205,156 69,691,669 40,486,51 es also Tonnage........... 474,374 1,280,166 805,792 ports, there could be no duties. Resort to Bank capital....... 8,000,000 137, 10,611 184,110,611 Mnnufacatues....... 600000,76,0 47,17,530 taxation was then the alternative. The mode U, S. debt.......... 75,463,476 91,015,566 15,558,090 adopted by Congress was to apportion the revenue...... 4,399,470 16,779,031 12,379,85b Post offices, No..... 75 4,500 4,425 amount required upon each state, and let Post roads, miles.... 1,905 67,586 65,681 the respective governments collect it. It Postal receipts..... 46,294 1,111,927 1,064,733 wa e p s. was soon found that this was a very ineffiSuch was the progress of the country in cient mode of proceeding, since the states the first thirty years of its existence. Its c not e orce, and the federal governpopulation had increased 125 per cent. It could not be coerced, and the federal govern, population had increased 125 per cent. It ment was in danger of falling to pieces. The had added five states to the Union and ment was in dangerof falling to pieces. The had added fiv e states to the Un, ad statesmen of the day saw the necessity of 24,539,794 acres to its taxable property, the engtening the government on the return value of which had risen nearly fivefold. of peace, and this was done by the s Its tonnage had increased threefold, its es as i was h encourage home' manufactures tenfold, and the capital em- mancture, vi., by raising the duties upon ployed in banking had been increased 1 34,- manufacture, viz., by raising the duties upon p000,od in bkig heat prosperity had ma14 imported goods. A new tariff was therefore 000,000 This great prosperity had mani- enacted in 1816, increasing the duties, parfested itself in face of a war with the great- ticularly upon cotton goods, in taxing which e n w l.r ha vr s ticularly upon cotton goods, in taxing which est naval power the world had ever seen, the minimum principle was introduce —.. r. a,.i. *. L1T- the minimum principle was introducedand over which a decisive victory had been that is, that the goods should pay 20 per won. Commerce, under favorable circum- won. Commrce, under favorable ci eu - cent. duty, but that the cost on which it stances, had been the basis of this great was calculated should not be less than a fixed growth of wealth, minimum. Thus, cotton cloth was to pay 30 per cent., but the cost must not be under 20 cents per yard, or 6 cents per square CHAPTER II. yard duty. The new duties, falling upon CHANGED INTERES'TS-MAINUFACTURES- the large importations that followed the COURSE OF TRADE-SPECULATION-RE- peace, rapidly swelled the revenues beyond VULSION -BANKRUPT LAW —ENGLISH the current wants of the government; at the FREE TRADE-REVOLUTION IN FRANCE same time, notwithstanding that the navy ~-FARMERS-GOLD. had so well discharged its duties in time of THfEevents of the war of 1812 had brought war, and the merchant marine had so well with them much experience. Up to that vindicated its ability to furnish sailors, Con CHANGED INTERESTS —MANUFACTURES. 145 gress saw fit to pass a navigation act, by terprise were to grow up, under new appliwhich the officers and three-fourths of the ances. The capital of New England, that crews of American vessels should be Amer- before the war had been exclusively employican citizens. The act is of itself mostly a ed in navigation and agriculture, was, by the dead letter, since naturalization is carried on events of the war, diverted to banking and to an extent which makes the phrase " Am- manufactures, and was now growing in the erican citizen" a very ambiguous one. The last direction, banking having proved disobject is desirable, but the means hampers astrous. The tariff of 1816 had been meant trade, and does not effect the object. With to aid them, and in 1818 and 1819 additions the operation of the higher duties during were made to the protective character of the the four years that ended with 1820, the duties. Cotton manufacture grew, and the imports diminished; the currency was con- great staple culture of the south-cottontracted and restored to a' specie basis; the was developed, while Europe, no longer exports of the country, that accumulated wanting so much food, the agriculturists beduring the war, passed off; the proceeds came depressed. The manufacturing interest had cancelled obligations, bringing the was therefore the favoiite, and in 1824 anew country into a better condition; and the fed- tariff of higher duties was demanded and eral government had been enabled to pay off passed, to be succeeded by one of a higher a considerable amount of its debt. The grade of protection in 1828. The effect of countries of Europe had also become settled these changes, with the steady nature of the after the convulsion of war and the effects demand for produce abroad, was to keep of peace. The Bank of England, that had the imports and exports at moderate figures been suspended for a quarter of a century, up to 1831, when a reduction of duties took resumed payments, and trade generally be- place. In all that period, under the action of gan to resume its accustomed channels. theUnited States Bank, and the annual payMany currents of business had, as a matter ments of an average of some $7,000,000 by of course, been disturbed. The large foreign the government on its public debt, the currencarrying trade that had been enjoyed by cy was very steady, and commerce regular. American vessels was now resumed by the The exports and imports for the ten years nations of Europe, and new currents of en- under those rising tariffs, were as follows:Dom. exports. For. exports. Total exports. Imports. Ex. specie. Im. specie. 1821, 43671.894 21,302,488 64,974,382 62,585,724 10,478,059 8,064,89( 1822, 49,874,185 22,286,202 72,160,387 83,241,511 10,810,180 3,369.841 1823, 47,155,408 27.543,622 74,699,030 77,579,267 6,372,987 5,097,89( 1824, 50 649,500 25,337,157 75,986.657 80,549,007 7,014.552 8,379,831 1825, 66,944,745 32,590,643 99,535,388 96,340,075 8,932,034 6,150,765 1826, 53.055,710 24,539,(12 77,595,322 84,974,477 4,704,533 6,880,966 1827, 58,921,691 23,403.136 82,324,827 79.484,068 8,014,880 8,151,130 1828, 50,669,669 21,595,017 72,264,686 88,509,824 8,243,476 7,489,741 1829, 55,700,193 16,658,478 2,358,671 74,492,527 4,924,020 7,403,612 1830, 59,462,029 14,387,479 73,849,508 70,876,920 2,178,;773 8,155,964 $536,105,024 $229,643,834 $765,748,858 $798,633,400 $71,673,494 $69,144,645 If we compare this period of ten years article forming three-fifths of the whole with the ten years of comparative quiet im- value exported. The exports of flour and mediately preceding the war, we shall find provisions were limited, but manufactures the following aggregate results:- began to form an item in the exports. It is to be borne in mind that Great Britain had Imports. Re-exports of Domestic Total morts. foreign oods. exports. exports. made great efforts after the war, when her 1798-1s80, $956,470,000 $422,500.000 $393.700,000 $816,200,000 navigation laws were modified, to concen1821-1881, 79s,633,42'29,(i4,831 536,104,918 76,48,752 trate the trade of the world in her wareDecrease $157,836,573 $192,856,166 $50,451,248 houses. Inducements were held out by Increase........................ $142,404,918.., facilities of entry and advances on merchanThe decrease was altogether in the foreign dise to attract thither the produce of all goods, or colonial produce brought into the nations, because, under such circumstances, country during the European war for re- not only did the British manufacturers have shipment to Europe; while the increase in within their reach the raw materials of all domestic exports was mostly cotton, that manufactures, but trading vessels had, in 146 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. those ample warehouses, every variety of or raw cotton. By the latter it was remitgoods to make up an assorted cargo for any ted to London, where it was met by the funds voyage in the world, and make of them the already provided through the United States medium of selling British goods. Thus, all Bank, by sales of American produce. This the new countries of America, Africa, and centralization of trade in England became, Asia offered markets which would absorb however, inconvenient. The American ships small quantities of a great variety of articles, that now began to carry cotton, tobacco,'but a cargo of any one description would glut rice, and some breadstuffs to Europe, had them. To make a profitable voyage, there- thence no adequate return freights, because fore, the cargo should be composed of such those countries did not as yet offer a good a variety of wares as would all sell to ad- supply of merchandise. Soon, however, vantage. If Virginia was to. send a whole there sprang up an increasing migration to cargo of tobacco to Africa, a portion of it the United States from Germany across would sell, and the remainder be a dead France via Havre, and these passengers bestock, and the voyage a losing one. The came a desirable return freight, causing a same thing would happen to a cargo of rum, change in the model of the ships engaged in or calicoes, or gunpowder, or hardware, or the trade. By this means the freight was the infinite variety of articles that make up reduced, or rather the ship could carry cotthe wants of a small community. If a ves- ton out cheaper, since she was no longer sel's cargo should be composed, in proper compelled to return empty. The result was, proportions, of all these articles, the whole therefore, cheapened transportation, in the would sell well, and the voyage pay; but same manner that the modification of the for a vessel to go round to places where each navigation laws, enabling ships to carry carof these articles is to be had, and so collect goes both ways, had cheapened freight. The a cargo, is expensive, and would still result increasing exports, and the weight of the in loss. The English warehouse system tariff of 1828 upon imports, had so operated sought to supply a want here by attracting upon exchanges as to cause an excess of into them all possible descriptions of tropical specie to be imported to the extent of some and other produce. A ship might then $15,000,000 in the last few years. This inmake up her cargo for any part of the world flux accumulated in banks, and disposed at the smallest average expense, and every them to inflate the currency, thereby induccargo was sure to be completed with British ing imports at a moment when reductions in manufactures. Under such circumstances, duties were made by the tariff of 1831; and they could compete with any other nation. this inflation was aided by the conflict which The advantage was so manifest, that American then began between the United States Bank ships would go out in ballast to England, to and the government in relation to the refit them out for Asiatic markets. It resulted charter of the institution. These circumfrom this that England continued to be the stances laid the foundation for the great recipient of most American produce, not speculation which followed. The high tariff only for her own use, but for re-export else- of 1828 had produced much agitation, that where. With her large capital she advanced promised serious difficulties. The northern, on the produce, and so controlled it, becom- or New England states, whose interests were ing the banker for the Americans. The originally commercial, opposed the war, benations of the continent, slowly recovering cause it was destructive of those interests. from the effects of the long wars, began to Their capital was turned by it into manumanufacture such articles as found sale in the factures, and they demanded protection for lUnited States, while they did not purchase that interest. This was acceded to, because largely in return. China furnished teas and all parties had witnessed the evils of a desilks, and got its pay by bills drawn against pendence upon foreign nations for manufacAmerican credits in London. The new bank tures, and also because the federal governof the United States operated the credit, giv- ment needed strengthening by the support ing the China merchant a six months' bill on which high duties would give it. In 1830 London, which he took in preference to sil- the manufactures had enjoyed fifteen years ver, which he before remitted. These bills of protection, and should be firmly rooted. were paid out for the tea, and by the Hong The federal government, from being too merchant, who received them, were paid weak, had become too strong.. The public, to the British East India merchant for opium who consumed goods foreign and domestic, COURSE OF TRADE-SPECULATION-REVULSION. 14t were paying too high a tribute for the sup- farm produce, in face of the large developport of the manufacturers, and the states ment given to agriculture by the increasing felt their rights encroached upon by the immigration and settlement of the western growing power of centralization. A change lands. of policy in respect of the tariff was insisted The season of speculation which now upon, and a reduction took place in 1831, seized the public mind was one of the most many goods being made free. In 1832 Mr. remarkable in the history of commerce. Clay's compromise was passed, by which There is no doubt that it had its origin in biennial reductions were to take place, the great success which had hitherto been until, in 1842, all the duties should be re- manifest in the progress of the country. duced to a general level of 20 per cent. ad Those wh6 had seen but thirty years of valorem. These reductions in duties, at a active life had witnessed the most extraorditime of bank inflation and speculation, emi- nary growth of numbers and wealth in the nently promoted those imports which, under whole country, and in cities particularly. such circumstances, were carried to excess. The highest prizes had attended those who The manufactures of the country had had held land at the points favorable to largely increased during the ten years up to trade, which trade was the foundation of 1830. The capital employed in cotton cities. There seemed hardly any limit to manufacture at that date was $40,614,984. the rise that might take place in the value There were 795 mills, working 1,246,503 of property, and so liberal were bank accomspindles and 33,506 looms. They produced modations, there was very little difficulty in 230,461,000 yards of cloth, that weighed procuring the means to hold land. In almost 59,604,926 lbs., and was worth 826,000,000. all cities, the early settlers had become posThese mills employed 117,626 persons, sessed of land cheap. The rapid growth of whose wages were $10,294,944 per annum. trade, bringing in numbers to occupy those This was a large interest grown up in cotton. lands for stores and dwellings, caused a The progress of manufactures generally was competition that raised rents and values given by the census, as follows:- rapidly in price. The effort was then to s120. 1830. become possessed of land for speculation, Cotton............... 4,834,157 40,614,984 and this effort was attended with the wildest Wool............... 4,113,068 14,528,166 excitement; a few hours sufficed to place a Pig iron and castings... 2,230,276 4,757,403 Wrought iron........ 4,640,669 163,251moderate fortune in the hands of the buyer, Brewers and distillers.. 4,876,486 3,434,808 and prices rose to a fabulous extent in a Salt................. 1,852,258 935,173 short time. From the cities, the excitement Other articles......... 29,919,621 46,077,092 spread all over the Union, and productive Total. $52,466,535.$127,084,877 employments were neglected to trade in v,...., lands; at the same time, the fictitious forIn the considerable increase of interests, tunes made by these means stimulated here apparent, many of the factories suffered expense, and the wealth of the country was by home competition, when too much capi- diminished by a double process-by lessened tal had been induced, by hope of protection, production, and increased consumptionto go into the business. The operations of "the candle was burned at both ends," and these manufactures no doubt produced a there could be little surprise that it was local demand for materials and food; but speedily consumed. The course of the this did not suffice, however, in the absence trade for the ten years up to 1840 was as of a foreign demand, to support prices of follows:Dom. exports. For. exports. Total exports. Imports. Ex. specie. Im. specie. 1831, $61,277,057 $20,033,526 $81,310,583 $103,191,124 $9,014,971 $7,305,945 1832, 63,137,470 24,039,473 87,176,943 101,029,266 5,656,340 5,907,304 1833, 70,317.698 19,822,735 90,140,433 108,118,311 2,611,701 7,070,368 1834, 81,034,162 23,312,811 104,346,973 126,521,332 2,076,758 17,911,632 1835, 101,189,082 20,504,495 121,693,577 149,895,742 6,477,775 13,131,447 1836, 106,916,680 21,746,360 128,663,040 189,980,035 4,324,336 13,400,881 1837,. 95,564,414 21,854,962 117,419,376 140,989,217 5,976,249 10,516,414 1838, 96,033,821 12,452,795 108,486,616 113,717,404 3,508,046 17,747,116 1839, 103,533,891 17,494,525 121,028,416 162,092,132 8,776,743 5,595,176 1840, 113,895,634 18,190,312 132,085,946 107,141,519 8,417,014 8,882,813 $892,899,909 $199,451,994 $1,092,351,903 $1,302,676,082 $56,839,933 $107,469,096 148 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. This period of commerce shows remark- export value. On the other hand, the goods able results, since it illustrates the nature of imported were mostly ordered by importers the pure speculation that possessed the coun- here, and purchased on credits in the manutry. In the period up to 1830, the imports facturing districts. These credits were operhad exceeded the exports $32,884,675, or 5 ated through large London houses connected per cent. in the whole ten years, an amount with the American trade, and whose ability which was not more than healthy. In the to extend credits depended upon the indulsucceeding ten years, the excess of imports gence of the Bank of England, and that over the exports was $210,334,181, or 20 institution itself was subject to pressure per cent., and this took place although the whenever the harvests should fail. The exports were valued at inflated prices, which system of credits was open, however, up to were not realized abroad. The course of 1836, in England, under apparently favorable business at that period required shipments circumstances. The United States'and rival of American produce, mostly cotton, to banks here favored the extension of credits firms abroad, who made advances on the in every possible way; and the goods bought consignment at a certain ratio, less than the on credit in Europe were sold on credit face of the invoices. The produce was here, and consumed by those who held then afterward sold for the account of the fortunes based upon the apparent rise in owner, and not unfrequently did not bring lands bought on speculation, for promises. the amount of advances. Thus, if cotton The numbers so engaged diminished prowas shipped at 16 cts. per lb., and 12 cts. duction, while luxuries were imported more advanced, the amount realized might be only rapidly than ever. The returns of certain 11 cts. Hence, the real exports of the articles of domestic exports and imports, incountry were not always measured by the dicate the extent of this process as follows:Imports. Imports. Exports. Bilks. Wines. Spirits. Sugar. Flour. Provisions. 1831, $5,932,243 $1,673,058 $1,037,737 $4,910,877 $10;461,728 $17,538,227 1832, 9,248,907 2,397,479 1,365,018 2,933,688 4,974,121 12,424,703 1833, 9,498,366 2,601,455 1,537,226 4,755,856 5,642,602 14,209,128 1834, 10,998,064 2,944,388 1,319,245 5,538,097 4,560,379 11,524,024 1835, 16,677,547 3,750,608 1,632,681 6,806,425 4,394,777 12,009,399 1836, 22,980,212 4,332,034 1,917,381 12,514,718 3,572,599 10,614.130 1837, 14,352,823 4,105,741 1,470,802 7,203,206 2,987,269 9,588,359 1838, 9,812,338 2,318,282 1,476,918 7,586,825 3,603,299 9,636.650 1839, 21,752,369 9,929,502 14,147,779 1840, 9,835,757 5,580,950 19,067,535 Thus, while the import of silk rose from to the bank stock, and with state bonds issued less than $6,000,000 to nearly $23,000,000, in aid of the banks. Thus a stream of credit and the four articles, including wine, spirits, issued fiomn London, which, aided by cirand sugar, from $13,550,000 in 1831, to cumstances, poured over the Union, checking $41,850,000 in 1836, the export of provis- industry, exhausting capital, and raising ions, notwithstanding the high prices, fell prices. The harvests of England had been from $17,538,227 to $10,614,130. So great good for some years, and the importation of had been the decline in production, that in corn had ceased. As a consequence, exthe last-named year, 1836, wheat was actually changes were in favor of England, and the imported at $2 per bushel, from Russia, on bank disposed to be liberal. It was so to credit, to feed land speculators in the west. the American houses in London. These The mania for land speculation was fed by houses were thus enabled to grant credits to bank bubbles, and large sums were drawn United States importers of goods who made from the east as well as Europe, for the their purchases in Lancashire. The goods creation of banks west and south-west. arriving in the United States, were sold to The transmission of these sums was the jobbers and through the auction houses at means of credits by which goods were con- long credits, and these were payable at the sumed. There were created in the period local banks started all over the country. The from 1830 to 1840, 577 banks, having an quantity of goods thus sold was increased by aggregate capital of $218,000,000. These the large fire in New York in December, banks were mostly started west and south- 1835, by which it was estimated $18,000,000 west, with eastern capital paid in subscription worth of property was consumed. These -j~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~CLPE -— SHIP CLIPPER SHIP. 50 -—' 2 --— ^ —--- -- — 4- -r--c-c- ii - -' — I —----— ~ —- - ------------— -.-. r__. —------------ ~-------- --- ------ ---- I _-L —i -- -i - -- -- -— -;-= —----— rL-lr;P-=lls;:iP fl.-I:17-c\7X1.11EltE-=Jrn 6ilYZ-Z\=i--'-7~ll_'sris;l;PF - —- -- - ---; ----- I —-=f — - -- OUTWARD BOUND, LADEN WITII COTTON-RETURN TRP WITH EMIGRANTS. COURSE OF TRADE —SPECULATION-REVULSION. 151 goods were replaced on credit, and the city well as from shopkeepers who had trusted rapidly rebuilt by the same means, adding consumers. The shopkeepers had bought much to the accumulating liabilities. At of the merchants in eastern markets, and the same time, as we have seen, $200,000,000 had given notes payable at their local banks. were sent from the east to the west to start Those notes were generally sent for collection banks.' These banks were also authorized to through the city bank to its country corres. issue paper to circulate as money; and capi- ponding bank, and on their maturity were tal and circulation were loaned to those who met by a discount of the maker's note by the purchased and consumed goods. Thus, while local bank. This mode of payment only the city merchants were selling their goods transferred the debt from the merchants to to the dealers of the interior, on credit, the the bank, and was possible only as long as capitalists were sending money in the same the eastern bank did not claim the balance direction, with which to start banks; these due it. When that was done, failure took were to lend the dealers the means of taking place. A great struggle was made to restore up their notes. As long as this lasted, that inflation, particularly by the United business was brisk; but it soon came to an States Bank, which, with its southern and end. The federal government had also been western dependents, felt that unless the a party to the excitement, by selling its lands debts contracted all over the country in an on credits to speculators, and the amount of inflated currency, could be paid in a similar these sales became enormous, when suddenly currency, they could not be paid at all. the government issued its famous "specie Public opinion was, however, bent on recircular," by which the lands were to be sumption, and January, 1839, it took place. paid cash in specie. This was the first blow The United States Bank sought to create to the credits. The government, determined foreign credits by obtaining state stocks on to curtail all credits, had made peremptory credit, and, by selling them in Europe, aid demand upon France to pay the indemnity the exchanges. It also entered the cotton long since due. This payment took place, market as a monopolizing buyer. The instiand was received at this juncture very oppor- tution, on the expiration of its United States tunely in gold. The capital of England, charter, had obtained a new one from Pennwhich had been loaned so freely all over the sylvania. When it went into operation as a world, began to run short. The harvests, state institution, its old bills hnd been called also, which for so many years had sufficed in, and new ones issued. When it struggled for the national wants, suddenly failed, in to maintain its resumption in 1839, it had 1836, and it became necessary to import the boldness to exhume its old bills and pay corn for cash. This circumstance caused them out for cotton at almost any price, exchanges to run higher against England, which cotton was sent to its agents in Liverand the bank began to contract. Its first pool for sale, and against which to draw notice was in August, 1836, to the American sterling bills, which it sold in New York for houses to curtail their credits. This was cash; thus forming a kiting operation. At the signal for payment through the whole the same time, it had obtained some $15,line of credits from the Bank of England to 000,000 of state stocks from Mississippi, the western consumer of goods. The pres- Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and other states, sure became intense, and in May, 1837, every on similar terms, and these were sent to bank in the Union had suspended their pay- London for sale; but not selling readily, ments. The three large American houses in they were pledged to cover bills drawn by London, known as the "three W's," Wildes, the bank. All these plans were insufficient Wiggins, and Wilson, failed for many mil- to sustain the institution under its load of lions, and their assets consisted of the credits debt, and it became evident that nothing they had granted American importers. The short of a second general suspension of the latter stopped in great numbers, with assets banks could save it. This it undertook to due from dealers all over the country; and bring about by selling in the New York the latter stopped with large assets due from market its bills on France and England to speculators who held land at paper prices, any amount, and drawing the proceeds from and who insisted that a return of paper the New York banks in specie. This course inflation would enable them to pay. The was pursued through August, 1839; when, banks of the interior had large sums due early in October, the news came that the them from speculators who held land, as bills so sold in New York on France had 152 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. been protested. The bank then finally failed, actual settlement. All these lands were now and went into liquidation, when it was found pressing upon the market, and the distress that more than its whole capital had been in cities attending the subsidence of building lost. This event carried with it most of the and other employments, drove crowds upon banks in the country that had followed a farming lands, laying the foundation of similar policy. Liquidation then became future prosperity. During the speculative general, and went on up to 1843, when the years, the commercial cities increased most lowest point of credits was reached. The rapidly; and with the revulsion, the agriculshort harvests of England, that were the tural states took the lead. The cotton culimmediate cause of the explosion in 1837, ture had received a great impulse during were also the cause of a gradual restoration the same period, by means of the banking of sound prosperity in the United States, by credits. The old lands of the Atlantic states reviving a demand for the products of land. were capable of producing cotton at 6 cts. This was the more readily done that the per lb., but it was found that the new lands fictitious paper prices that prevented Ameri- of the Mississippi valley would produce it at can farmers from competing with those of a much less rate. The migration of planters Europe, had disappeared with the bank with their hands then took place to the stoppages. The farmers had nominally sold new lands of the west, and the imeans of so their produce well, but they had taken pay in doing were supplied to a great extent by the bank paper, which the revulsion left valueless state bonds issued in aid of banking capital. in their hands. The process of liquidation These institutions made loans to the planters swept several hundred banks out of existence, on security of the crops. Under this spur, but there remained an immense load of debt large tracts of land were got under cultivadue by individuals, to relieve whom Con- tion, disastrously to the banks, but favorable gress, in 1841, passed a bankrupt law. The to a large supply of cotton, of which the operation of the law relieved 39,000 persons, export became large. from debts to the amount of $441,000,000. The ten years, 1841 to 1850, thus opened The disasters involved the failure of several under great depression. The receipts of the states, with an aggregate debt of $100,000,- federal government, in consequence of the 000. The banks that were liquidated had revulsion of trade in 1837, had fallen far an aggregate capital of $200,000,000. Thus, behind its expenses, while the duties under the recorded losses were as follows: the biennial reductions of the compromise States..................$100,000,000 tariff were approaching their lowest grade of Bankrupt debts........... 441,000.000 20 per cent., and it became necessary to Bank capital............. 200,000,000 restore the duties, in order to procure revenue. The utter failure of the United States $41,000,000 Bank, of which a large portion of the stock The debts that were settled without the was sent abroad; the failure of so many intervention of the law, were supposed to states, some of which repudiated their debts be equal to those legally discharged, but the altogether; and the bankrupt law, which amount recorded is an enormous sum. In had expunged so large a volume of private consequence of those disasters, many states, debts, had produced so much discredit in revising their constitutions, forbade the abroad, that a 6 per cent. stock of the fedauthorization of more bank charters. eral government was utterly unsaleable, notWhile speculation had thus run riot, withstanding that in 1835 the last dollar of during the ten years up to 1840, consuming the old national debt had been paid in full. the available capital of the country, the Congress, therefore, in 1841, passed an act -population had not failed to increase and levying 20 per cent. duties on a long list of extend itself over the face of the country. articles before free, and in 1842 raised the Many of the states had projected large works, general level of duties. At this juncture for the construction of which they had con- there had been no plan of settling the state tracted debts; and the expenditure upon debts, and efforts to restore the national the works had attracted laborers, who ulti- bank failed. Amid these adverse circummately became settlers. The sales of public stances, however, industry revived from the lands had been very large, but these had to ruins of speculation, and the foreign coma great extent been taken up by speculators, merce was placed upon a more liberal footand this operation in some degree prevented ing. The English government, taught by BANKRUPT LAW — NGLISI FREE TRADE. 153 the experience of the past, had decided to uce was made, that has proved of a perrelieve commerce from many restrictions, manent nature. This circumstance gave an and in 1842 modified her corn laws, and ad- impulse to commerce, which was greatly acmitted provisions, which had previously been celerated by the failure of the potato crops prohibited, to entry, at comparatively low in 1845 and 1846. That event was of so duties. The first opening of the trade to grave a nature as to lead to the abrogation provisions-cheese, butter, etc.-was not at of the corn laws altogether, and also to a once successful; many attempts were re- suspension of the navigation laws inEngland, quired, and much perseverance, before the France, Holland, and Belgium, for the reason American articles became properly prepared that the shipping was inadequate to the for and appreciated in the English markets. transportation of food. The course of comSuccess, however, ultimately attended the merce during the ten years, 1841 to 1850, trade, and a large opening to western prod- was as follows:Of those amounts. Do t ports. n Total. Imports. Specie. u Exports. Imports. 1841, $106,382,723 $15,469,081 $121,851,804 $127,946,177 $10,034,332 $4,988,633 1842, 92,969,996 11,721,538 104,691,534 100,162,087 4,813,539 4,087,016 1843,.77,793,783 6,552,691 84,346,480 64,753,799 1,520,791 22,390,559 1844, 99,715,179 11,484,867 111,200,046 108,435,035 5,454,214 5,830,429 1845, 99,299,776 15,346,830 114,646,606 117,254,564 8,608,495 4,070,242 1846, 102,141,893 11,346,623 113,488,516 121,691,797 3,905,268 3,777,732 1847, 150,637,464 8,011,158 158,648,622 146,545,638 1,907,024 24,121,289 1848, 132,904,121 21,132,315 154,036,436 154,998,928 15,841,616 6,360,224 1849,. 132,666,955 15,088,865 147,755,820 147,857,439 5,404,648 6,651,240 1850, 136,946,912 14,951,806 151,898,718 178,138,318 7,522,994 4,628,792 $1,131,458,802 $131,105,780 $1,262,564,582 $1,267,783,782 $65,012,921 $86,906,156 In these aggregates we have the reverse highest. The condition of Ireland made it of the trade.during the ten years to 1840, necessary to introduce Indian corn as a subsince the imports scarcely exceeded the ex- stitute for potatoes. This was by great ports, including specie; and exclusive of efforts accomplished in a degree, and thereby specie, there was an excess of $14,677,036 a permanent market made for corn. That exports over imports. The exports of do- article of food is, however, very far from mestic produce hadbecome very considerable. being popular with the people. The effect The large breadth of land that had been of the famine, joined to the general influence brought under cotton, and the rapid settle- of the change of English policy, was to carry ment of farm lands after the revulsion, had up the domestic exports from $106,000,000 laid the foundation for an extended produc- in 1841 to $150,000,000 in 1847. This intion, while the means of transportation had crease was almost entirely due to breadstuffs been so much increased, as to equalize prices and provisions, which reached a value of at a lower level on the seaboard, and supply $68,761,921 in 1847, beingnearlyone-halfthe a far larger quantity for shipment than had whole domestic exports for that year. The been possible before. Nevertheless, the de- large sale of western produce so inaugurated mand became so urgent in the three years gave an unusual stimulus to the activity of ending with 1847, as to tax every means of internal trade, and to the value of western transportation to its utmost capacity, and to lands and credits; and the foundation was carry freights to an inordinate height, notwith- thus laid for the movement which so sinstanding the suspension of the navigation gularly culminated in 1857. laws in England. While the famine demand of 1846 caused The demand for food abroad had super- so large an export of American produce, in seded that for all others to a considerable return for which merchandise was necessarily extent. The necessity of carrying food to be received, the federal government reraised the freights so high, that other ma- covered from the embarrassments induced terials would not pay to carry; the more so, by the revulsion. It was, however, still emthat it is a well-known effect of dear food, barrassed, but this time with a surplus, to lessen the purchase of clothing and other rather than a revenue; and in 1846 the tariff articles. Hence, when the market for cloths was again revised, so as to reduce the genwas lowest, the freight on the materials was eral average of duties some 7 per cent. The 154 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. principle of protection was finally disavowed, of extended sales of foreign merchandise. and that of revenue only admitted as a rule The competition was now, however, far more of action. This reduction of duties naturally severe with the home manufactures, which gave a spur to importation, at a moment were so far advanced as not only to mainwhen the exports were very large. There tain themselves against new competition, but was at that time, however, no speculative to drive out those which had long held the action in this country, nor much inflation of field in particular goods. The balance of the credit, by which large quantities of goods ten years' business was, notwithstanding, very could be suddenly placed; and the sales of small. The period closed, however, with produce were so prompt, as to throw a large one of the most remarkable discoveries cash balance in favor of the country: hence, of modern times. We allude to the gold of the imports of 1847, $24,121,289 were in discoveries in California. The war, which specie-the largest amount ever imported carried Americans to California, gave them from abroad in one year-a fact which im- the opportunity to discover, and the "dust" parted much activity to trade; and in the was soon detected in the neighborhood of following year, when the exports of farm Captain Sutter's fort. The intelligence was produce declined, $15,841,616 of that specie received with great incredulity. The learned returned whence it came. That re-export said the location and character of the gold was, however, much stimulated by the ex- was contrary to all precedent; but soon the traordinary political convulsions that over- metal came, and was satisfactorily assayed. took Europe in February, 1848. The pecu- Each successive arrival brought stronger liar theories avowed by the successful rev- confirmation, and about $9,000,000 worth olutionists in relation to property, which was received in 1850. Since then, the.was declared to be " robbery," greatly alarm- amount received has been nearly $50,000,ed the public mind, and tended to make 000 worth per annum. French property utterly unsaleable for the The decade ending with 1860 was one of moment. The consequence was the most the most extraordinary in the history of active shipment of money, silver particularly, commerce. It commenced with a confirmawith which to purchase the cheap goods of tion of the astounding gold discoveries in France. The panic so6n passed, but de- California, followed by as important a dispression continued under the provisional covery of the same nature in Australia. government, which, in order to encourage These events deeply stirred the commercial industry and employ workpeople, gave the mind throughout the world, coming, as they manufacturers orders for goods, and allowed did, at the moment when the political difficula drawback of 10 per cent. on merchandise ties of Europe had settled down in a manner exported out of France. This state of affairs to win public confidence in continued peace caused the importation thence into the and security. The discovery of such large -United States to be larger. Among the supplies of gold induced the general belief goods so imported was a quantity of Lyons that the metal would depreciate, as compared silk, which had been ordered by the govern- with commodities and silver, and that the ment with the view to employ the operatives. depreciation would manifest itself in a rise As the government had given no directions in prices of all industrial products. Serias to colors, the whole was made up, to the ous apprehensions were entertained through extent of 10,000,000f., in tricolor. A large this superficial view of the case, particularly portion of this was bought by a New York in Europe, where a large class are rich on house, and gentlemen's coats for a long time fixed annuities, or in the receipt of a fixed had tricolor sleeve linings. With the in- amount of money per annum. If all property stitution of the new government in France, was to rise in value, leaving the amount of confidence returned, and new branches of rents the same in money, it would be equivatrade were opened with France, as. well as lent to ruining creditors for the benefit of other countries of the continent, which be- debtors. Thus, if a farmer had mortgaged gan to be rivals for the American trade. his farm for say $5,000, the annual interest The Germans and Belgians. had so far ad- at 6 per ct. would be $300; at an average vanced in the production of certain manu- price of $1 per bushel for wheat, it would factures, as to dispute the French and English require 300 bushels per annum to pay the pretensions to supply the United States, and interest, and ultimately 5,000 bushels to pay credits began once more to form the medium the principal. If the mortgage run five REVOLUTION IN FRANCE-FARMERS-GOLD. 155 years, he would be required to give, alto- states, in subscriptions to stocks and bonds. gether, 1,500 bushels for interest, and 5,000 These have not all turned out well, but the bushels for principal-together, 6,500 bush- capital expended remains in the shape of els. If, through the influx of gold, prices railroads that are now ready and efficient came permanently to be $2 for wheat, it means of developing future trade. The would at once reduce the quantity per annum speculative investments in lands and western that he would have to pay to 150 bushels, property also ran to an inordinate extent in and the ultimate amount for principal to the same period, and nearly $500,000,000, 2,500: in other words, he would save half ni the best estimates, took this direction, his grain, at the expense of his creditor, and tollowing the trail of American migration, the money value of his farm would be from the eastern to the western states, imdoubled. This would be of no benefit to pelled by the large immigration from Europe. him, beyond the discharge of his debt, be- As we have seen elsewhere, 2,518,054 percause the value of all that hehadto purchase sons arrived from abroad in the period here would rise in the same proportion. All mentioned. These persons brought with creditors would lose half that was due them. them, at the usual estimate of $100 per head, This was an important consideration for the $251,805,400 in capital, as money and goods. debt-covered countries of Europe, where so A large portion of this was expended in large a portion of the people are creditors transportation expenses and in settling new of the governments. In Holland, to avoid homes. We have, then, the following estithis, they passed a law doing away with mated items of extraordinary expenditures gold as a legal tender, and making silver the in the ten years, 1850 to 1860:only medium of payment, under the impressio tate Capitatl sent to California.......... i $600,000.000 sion that silver would rise in the same spent in 20,0)0 miles of riload.... 720,000,000 proportion as other commodities. In the;; expended in land operations........... 500000,000 Unite State, the, sa... i" wexpended by newly-arrived immigrants United States, the same impressions were at fifty dollars each.................. 15,900,000 entertained, but the event showed that the Total extraordinary expenditures...... $1,945,900,000 fears were groundless. But this view naturally stimulated the production of commodi- The 300,000 persons who went to Callties that were to rise in value, and industry fornia to consume the capital sent thither, became unusually active, since all classes returned $600,000,000 worth of gold, of wished to profit by the anticipated rise. which a large portion went to Europe,whence Above all, commercial enterprise and migra- goods came. The railroad expenditure retion tended strongly to the gold countries, suits in effective investments in trade. The the direct source of the anticipated benefits. land investments are not " active," for the A vast amount of capital was sent to both present, but are not entirely lost. The imCalifornia and Australia. The United States migrants are mostly at work, producing shipped to the latter country, in 1853, a large capital in new states. amount of goods; and to California the drain While these large expenditures took place continued on a very extensive scale, with in the United States, Europe incurred a small remuneration to the shippers. The heavy loss in the failure of her corn harvests, production of California gold has been that she was obliged to make good from $600,000,000, and it has cost an equal the corn crops of the United States. She amount of capital. In other words, there also incurred a heavy expense in the Russian has been no profit on the production. The war, which returned very little for the investcapital that it cost exists in the gold itself, ment, but which required a larger supply of and in the cities and property of California. American produce, particularly pork, whisFrom nearly all nations the capital that now key, but of gold, above all. The loss of her constitutes the wealth of California, flowed vine crops, also, brought American whiskey thither in exchange for the gold. While this in demand, as a substitute, and thereby, great enterprise of gold digging has been in possibly, cut off permanently a supply of direct prosecution, another equally as exten- genuine grape liquors for the United States. sive was undertaken, viz.: the construction Those events caused a larger demand for of 20,000 miles of railroads, at a cost of produce, at a time when the expenditures $720,000,000. The capital for the enter- for gold, rails, and land were so active. It prise was drawn from Europe, in the shape is not a matter of surprise, under all these of money and iron, and from the eastern circumstances, that the gold diggers, road 156 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. builders, speculators, and emigrants, so well in addition to war and short crops, demanded supplied with money, should require a larger more raw materials. The import and export quantity of goods, both manufactured and table, therefore, shows higher figures than imported, while similar activity in Europe, ever before, as follows:Of these amounts. Exports. Total. Imports. Specie. Domestic. Foreign. Exports. Imports. 1851, $196,689,718 $21,698,293 $218,388,011 $216,224,932 $29,472,752 $5,453,592 1852, 192,368,984 17,289,382 209,658,366 212,945,442 42,674,135 5,505,044 1853, 213,417,697 17,558,460 230,976,157 267,978,647 27,486,875 4,201,382 1854, 253,390,870 24,850,194 278,241,064 304,562,381 41,422,423 6,958,184 1855, 246,708,553 28,448,293 275,156,846 261,468,520 56,347,343 3,659,812 1856, 310,586,330 16,378,578 326,964,908 314,639,942 45,745,485 4,207,632 1857, 338,985,065 23,975,617 362,960,682 360,890,141 69,136,922 12,461,799 1858, 293,758,279 30,886,142 324,644,421 282,613,150 52,633,147 19,274,496 1859, 335,894,385 20,865.077 356,759,462 338,768.130 63,887,411 7,434,789 1860, 385,000,000 25,00'0,000 410,000,000 444,500,000 78,500,000 7,000,000 $2,766,799,881 $226,950,036 $2,993,749,917 $3,004,591,285 $507,306,493 $76,156,730 The imports rose steadily to over $300,- buyers of food. Thus the wheat crop of 000,000 in 1854, under the first Australian the United States in 1850, by census, was and Californian excitement, and took larger equal to 22,000,000 bbls of flour. The averdimensions as the railroad operations pro- age export price in that year was $5, giving gressed. Railroad iron figured largely in to the crop a value of $110,000,000. In the amount in exchange for bonds. The 1855, the average price was $10, giving a imports of silks rose from $13,731,000, in value of $110,000,000 greater. This sum 1850, to$30,636,000. The mostremarkable was taken out of the pockets of the food rise in the importation was, however, in buyers, to the profit of the food sellers, at sugar, which, from $11,000,000, rose to the moment when the latter were enjoying nearly $55,000,000, in 1857, in consequence so large an expenditure for other purposes. of the failure of the Louisiana crop, at a The export value of agriculture rose from moment of very active demand. So high a $24,309,210, in 1850, to $77,686,455, in figure to be paid for sugar at a critical mo- 1856. The great activity of the years ending ment went far to disturb the exchanges, and with 1857 was, then, due to heavy expenditure aid the panic of 1857. We find that the of capital at the west simultaneously with whole amount of importations for the ten profitable sales of its crops. The panic of years reached $3,004,591,285, exceeding, by that year caused not only a total cessation $1,736,807,503, the importations of the pre- of the expenditure, but an earnest desire to vious ten years. This excess of expenditure recover capital invested at the west. Railcorresponds with the estimated amount of road building stopped, migration ceased, capital expended for extraordinary purposes, speculation was at an end, and, at the same since a considerable portion of the expendi- moment, European crops being good, prices tures was applied to domestic manufactures. of produce fell in face of very poor western The operation of the treaty with Canada pro- harvests. With this combination of circumduced a somewhat larger receipt of foreign stances, the decade closed under a sort of goods. These also swelled proportionately paralysis..There was no exhaustion of capithe aggregate imports. The excitement man- tal, since it was apparently more abundant ifest in the United States in regard to gold and cheaper at the great eastern reservoirs and railroads, was also present in England than ever before; but the stimulus to its and Europe. The production of manufac- employment was gone, and it accumulated tured wares to send to the gold countries, in first hands. The broad lands of the west and to avail of the local demand for goods, are well settled; they are well supplied with required more raw material, at a moment means of communication, and are ready to when the short harvests and war enterprise throw out limitless supplies of capital, when enhanced general wants. The effect of these the wheel is once more in motion. was equivalent to a large transfer of capital If we bring together by recapitulation to the west, not only from Europe, but also the aggregates of the seven decades since from those eastern states that are usually the formation of the government, we shall FARMERS-GOLD, ETC. 157 have averyinteresting synopsis of the national agricultural products and manufacturing inprogress in respect of commerce. The trea- dustry at corresponding periods. If we add sury department has also caused to be pre- them to the table, it will be so much the nared, with great care, the annual value of more complete, as follows:Exports for periods of ten years. Im s Manufactures. Agriculture. Domestic. Foreign. Total mpo. Annual value. Annual value. 1800, $293,634,645 $191,344,293 $484,968,938 $591,845,454 1810, 383,401,077 372,536,294.755,937,371 927.663,500 $145,385,906 1820, 462,701,288 127,190,714 589,892,002 688.120,347 62,766,385 1830, 536,104,918 229,643,834 765,748,752 798,633,427 111,645,466 1840, 892,889,909 199,451,994 1,092,351,903 1,302,476,084 483,278,215 $621,163,977 1850, 1,131,458,801 129,105,782 1,260,564,583 1,267,783,782 1,055,595,899 994,093,842 1860, 2,766,799,881 226,950,036 2,993,149,917 3,004,591,285 2,500,000,000 1,886,000,000 $6,466,990,519 $1,476,222,947 $7,943,203,466 $8,581,113,879 This table, mostly official, gives the ex- cattle and provisions, and reduced the duty traordinary results of a nation's industry and on grain. This opened a market for Amercommerce in a period of seventy years. The ican produce, which grew rapidly. The cirgrowth has such an accumulative force, as to cumstances of the famine of 1846 justified be very surprising. In the item of re-exports the wisdom of the English government, and of foreign goods, the trade never recovered led to the entire removal of the corn duties the figures they touched at the period when in 1849. That example was followed by American vessels did the carrying trade for France and her neighbors. France, however, fighting Europe. In the period 1855-1860, restored the duties in 1859. The liberal however, under the warehouse system of the legislation of England, the famine, the wars, United States, and the reciprocity treaty with and speculations of Europe, have gradually the British provinces, some increase in that extended the demand for American produce, respect took place, the more so that steam at the time when a very broad field had been and extended relations opened to the United opened to supply that demand. This we may States a larger share of the South American illustrate. The area of Great Britain's intrade, tending ultimately to give the United dustry-hills, lakes, vales, and valleys-is States the preponderating influence. The 53,760,000 acres; and the population in exports of domestic goods grew rapidly 1812, when she made war on us, was 11,under the more extended demand for cotton 991,107. Now we find from the table of throughout the world, and of which the land sales, elsewhere given, that the federal United States was the only source of supply. government has sold in the last twenty years All other cotton countries, India particularly, selected farm lands to the extent of 68,655,required more cotton in the shape of goods 203 acres, and has given to railroads 42,than they supply in the raw state. The de- 000,000 acres more of selected lands, makmand for cotton clothing increase in the ing 110,000,000 acres that have mostly passed double ratio of greater numbers and greater into the hands of settlers. This is a surface wealth throughout the world. Cotton is, double the whole. area of Great Britain; and however, not the only article which increases the population on that area has increased, in in export value. The tables show us that the same time, 11,374,595, or a number gold has figured in ten years for $507,000,- nearly as large as that of Great Britain in 000 as an article of export, and will probably 1812. There were built on that area, benever be less. The agricultural resources of tween 1850 and 1860, and are now in operathis country have just begun to be developed. tion, 20,000 miles of railroads, crossing every Up to 1842 there was, under the restrictive part of it, and bringing every farm within systems of Europe, comparatively no market reach of a market. The speculators and road for American farm produce. In that year builders, who ate up the produce of that area, the statesmen of England recognized the fact during the process of road construction, have that the demands of English workpeople for vanished, and the whole was offered by a food had outgrown the ability of the British hundred channels to the best bidders of islands to supply it on terms as low as it Europe. We have said that corn is the could be bought elsewhere. They therefore settler's capital, and that corn, in the shape removed the prohibition uponthe import of of grain, pork, and whiskey, is the staple 158 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. export of a new country. The corn product of pork. In that year the weight of pork of 1855, per state reports, was 600,000,000 exported was 164,374,681 lbs. Of this bushels. The number of hogs packed that amount, 58,526,683 lbs. went to England, year was 2,489,050, averaging 200 lbs each, or 12 per cent. of the whole production, as and giving a total weight of 497,900,000 lbs. the result of her more liberal policy of 1842. QUANTITIES OF CORN AND PORK EXPORTED TO GREAT BRITAIN. Pork. Harns and bacon. Lard. Corn. Wheat. Flour. barrels. lbs. Ibs. bushels. bushels. barrels. 1840,.. 1,061.104,341 615,972 620.919 1841, 4,769 26,394 444,305 12,548 119,854 208,984 1842, 6,900 160,274 3,430,732 123,665 143,300 208,024 1849, 111,385 53,150,465 21,388,265 12,392,242 608.661 953,815 1858, 13,578 15,365,524 10,288,474 3,215,198 8,926,196 3,512,169 1860, 91,640 19,447,163 18,866,178 3,726,786 699,713 1,926,202 1862, 48,010 155,462,500 62,325,300 5,776,772 18,564,756 2,971,918 1868, 75,681 71,430,224 26,573,120 21,488,433 11,0'28.544 386,396 1869, 105,210 82,901,728 28,667,968 32,986,804 24,538,646 977,714 The cotton, tobacco, and rice of the south, The following table gives the proportions the farm produce of the west, and the gold in which the general heads of exports of California, each contributed an increasing have contributed from time to time to the proportion to the general exports; but man- result, since the formation of the governufactures have also come to figure largely in ment; and also the total exports, including the general aggregate. all articles:HEADS OF EXPORTS. Cotton. Tobacco Flour and Manufactures United States Total of all and rice. provisions. specie. domestic exports. 1790, $42,285 $6,103,363 $5,991,171... $19,666,000 1803, 7,920,000 8,664,000 15,050,000 $2,000,000.. 42,205,961 1807, 14,232,000 7,783,000 15,706,000 2,309,000.. 48,699,592 1816, 24,106,000 15,187,880 20,587,376 2,331,000.64,781,896 1831, 31,724,682 6,908,655 12,424,701 5,086,890 9,014,931 61,277,057 1836, 71,284,925 12,607,390 9,588,359 6,107,528 345,738 106,916,680 1847, 53,415,848 10,848,982 68,701,921 10,351,364 2,620 150,637,464 1851, 112,315,317 11,390,148 21,948,651 20,136,967 18,069,580 196,689,718 1859, 161,434,923 23,281,186 37,127,736 33,853,660 57,502,305 335,894,385 1860, 191,806,555 18,473,946 43,767,922 39,803,080 56,946,851 373,189,274 1864, 1,180,113 12,482,255 133,021,299 27,171,017 75,804,747 282,371,843 1868, 152,820,733 26,169,264 102,245,023.. 70,841,396 441,800,072 These general heads represent all parts of could only be made from American cotton. the Union-cotton and tobacco in the south, Our cotton growers, therefore, felt confident flour and provisions in the west, manufac- that their market for all the cotton they could tures in the east, and gold in the Pacific raise was a permanent one, and that the price states. For many years previous to 1861, would constantly advance. But the war of there had been a steady increase in the de- 1861-65 materially changed the face of affairs. mand for cotton and tobacco from Great As we have seen, ourexports of cottonfell off, Britain and France, and cotton, especially, and from approaching 200 million dollars in had come to be so important an item of our yearly value, in 1862 they were only $1,180,exports and of European import, that the 113. The cotton of India improved in qualistatesmen of Great Britain had become ty, and, though not so good as American, alarmed and had made great efforts to stim- took its place largely. In 1859, 192,330,880 ulate the production of cotton in India, pounds were imported from India into Great Egypt, and elsewhere, that they might be Britain, at a cost of about 15 million dollars. less dependent upon the United States for In 1866, the import from India was 654,106,so necessary a product. These efforts had 686 pounds, valued at about 88 million dolnot been attended with great success. A lars. The unceasing consumption of cotton considerable quantity of cotton was indeed goods will give a fair market value to this grown in India, but it was of so short a sta- crop at all times, but Europe will never pie that it would not make strong and dur- again be so wholly dependent upon the able goods; and the natives of India required United States for cotton as it was in 1861, a constantly increasing quantity of machine and it will not probably become again so made cotton goods, which it was thought exclusive a crop in the southern states. The R'M ~ ~ -— _- - - - - -- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~j —-------- ----- K1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7 / 7 lai 1~ PkisaI pi - " T tM> ~ _ FARMERS-GOLD, ETC. 159 productions of the west are more exposed to migration of skilled workmen from abroad, rivalry than those, of the south; but since however, a greater breadth has been given the formation of the present government, to all branches, and progress is very rapid, the England and western Europe, from being more so that the general prosperity enables.large food exporters, have come, by the growth consumers to extend the best possible enof manufactures, to be large food importers, couragement to producers, by buying their and their supplies are drawn more steadily wares. The chief consumers of these have from eastern Europe. Those resources are been the agriculturists, and the interchange coming to be narrowed, for the same reason. of manufactures for agriculture forms the The United States, on the other hand, with chief trade of the whole country. In 1840, their immense plains and growing means of per census reports, the value of manufaccommunication, are assuming a more regular tures was $483,278,215, and of agriculture, position as a source of supply, which will $621,163,977; the imports were $107,000; annually swell the exports. The column of 000. The interchange of these commodities, manufactures is a gratifying evidence that at first hands, would involve an aggregate the colonial position is at last overcome; that trade of $1,211,442,192. The same items the requisite skill and capital for manufac- for 1860 would give an aggregate of $4,830,turing against all rivalry are at last acquired, 000,000- four times the amount. But and that American industry now finds sale the raw material passes through many hands in the markets of the world. The South before it reaches the manufacturer, and his American countries offer the legitimate wares pass through a succession of meropening for that sale. The gold of California chants, jobbers, and retailers before they are is always a merchantable commodity, and finally consumed. Grain passes through must sell under all circumstances. many hands before it is finally eaten. The The internal production of wares has in- grinding of flour is one of the largest manucreased in a ratio more rapid than even the factures of the country, turning out in 1860, importation of them. The annual production $248,580,365 per annum. It is probable rose from 62,000,000 in 1820 to 1,055,000,- that each of the articles which form the ag000 in 1850, as manifest in the column gregate of the mining, manufactures, agriculof manufactures reported in the above ture, and imports, is sold four or five times table. In order to manufacture to advan- before it is finally consumed. This would tage, something besides a law is necessary. give an aggregate trade of $25,000,000,000 There must be capital and a supply of skilled per annum, in 1860, against $6,000,000; labor. Those, in the long race of a thou- 000 in 1840, or an average of $3,300 per sand years, grew up in England, where the annum for every effective man in the country., system of manufactures is mostly individual. This seems very large. If, however, we havy A man learns his trade, and devotes himself recourse to the circular of the leading imeir to the production of an article, or a part of cantile agency in New York, whose, Femi, an article, and by the constant exercise of fications extend over the Union, te findl intelligence and economy, he comes finally they report upon their books, 250,,.Qij. firms to perfect it in the cheapest manner. These in business in 1857-the panic year; of productions are combined by other parties these firms in business 4,932 fail iedl 1857, into merchantable commodities. In the for an aggregate of $291,750,000ot'Siabilities,, United States it was a consequence of the pro- or an average of $58,350 each, If'the averhibition under the imperial government, that age of all the persons doing business was these individual industries did not grow up. only $50,000, or $8,350 each less than those There were no factories in which young ar- who failed, then the aggregate amount of tisans were learning a business, and when sep- credits must have been $12,500,000,000 in aration took place there was no experienced 1857. The firms on the books do not inlabor. When, therefore, the capital that elude many retailers. Of course the credits of had been earned in commerce was suddenly the retailers added to these, and the greatly applied to manufactures, the only mode of larger volume of- trade in 1860, would more. proceeding was the corporate mode; the than double these figures. Again, the bank capital was subscribed by a company, and discounts for the year 1860 were $637,183,the works directed by persons often of little 8,99; these purport to represent bills not practical experience. Under such a system, more than sixty days to run. The average progress was difficult. With the large im- of some of the largest city banks is 54 days; 10 160 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. at 60 days the amount of discounts for a year ductions of industry; and the best data give would be in round numbers, $4,000,000,000; the same general results for the decade from and the exchanges at the New York clearing- 1850 to 1860. These large figures, astonishhouse, as we see in another chapter, were ing as they seem, are not out of proportion over $8,000,000,000 per annumn.* These to the immense growth of the country in figures gives some idea of the vastness of that breadth and numbers. immense traffic, which consists in the inter- The thirteen colonies that emerged from a change of the products of industry. In war, ninety years since, have grown to be 1840, the active bank loans were $278,000,- thirty-seven states, with a land value of, in 000, which, at the same average time, would round numbers, $16,160,000,000. All this give $1,668,000,000 of discounts for the year, vast territory is now productive, yielding its which holds about the same.' In 1850, the annual returns, and giving an amount of anloans were $413,756,759, which would give nual capital beyond any thing the world has an aggregate discount for the year of $2,484,- hitherto witnessed. 000,000. Comparing these aggregates for The following table gives the states and several years, we have results as follows:- territories in the order of their admission to Annual1 Ann...al Bank t roAnnual Ansnual Bank cin, dthe Union, or organization, their area in acres, productions. transactions. discounts.. c 1840, $1,211,442,192 $6,055,000,000 $1.668,oo,ooo000 population in 1790, and population and val1850, 2,305.343,446 11,525,000,000 2,484,000,003 1860, 4,830,500,000 24,152,500.000 3,943,003,c00 nation of each state in 1850 and 1860. The We have, then, the fact tlhat the national new states and territories have, of course, trade doubled in the ten years ending with made great strides in population and valua1850, as a consequence of the increased pro- tion since 1860. Date of Area in 1790. 1850. 1860. admission. acres. Population. Valuation. Population. Valuation. Population. Valuation. Delaware............. 1787 1,356.8,0 59,096 4,053,238 91,532 15,896,870 112,216 46,242181 Pennsylvania.......... 1787 30,080,000 434,373 72,824,252 2,311,786 500,275,851 2,906,115 1,416,501,818 New Jersey........... 1787 4,384,640 184,139 27,287,981 489.555 153,251,619 672.035 467,918,324 Georgia.............. 1788 37,120.000 82,548 10,26'3,506 906,185 121,619,729 1,057,286 645,895,237 Connecticut.......... 1788 3,040,000 238,141 40,163,955 370,792 119,C88,672 460,147 444,274,114 Massachutsetts........ 1788 4,640,000 378,717 59,441,642 994,514 551,100,824 1,231,066 815,237.433 Maryland............. 1788 7,040,000 319,728 21,634,C04 583,034 139,026,601 687,049 376,919,944 Smth Carolina........ 1788 17,920,000 249,073 12,450,720 668,507 105,737,492 703.708 548,138,754 Rhode Isand.......... 1788 763,000 69,110 8,082,355 147,545 77,758,974 174,620 135,337,588 Nsew Hamipshire....... 1788 5.139,200 141,899 19,028,108 317,976 92,251,596 326,073 156,310,860 Virginia.............. 1788 39,265,280 748,308 59,976,860 1,421.661 252,105,824 1,596,318 793,249,681 New York............ 1788 29,440,010 340,120 74,885,075 3,097,394 715,369.038 3,880,735 1,843,338,517 North Carolina........ 1789 29,120,000 393,751 27,909,479 869,0:19 71,702,740 992,622 358,7391,399 List ict ot'f Columbia... 1790 32,000.... 51,687 14,409,413 75,080 41,084,945 Vermont............. 1791 5,796,000 85,416 15,165,484 314,120 72,980,483 315,098 122,477,170 Kentucky............ 1792 24,115,200 73,077 20,268,325 982,405 177,013,407 1,155,684 666,043,112 Tennessee............. 1796 28,160,6000 35,791 5,847,662 1,002,717 107,981,793 1,109,801 493,903,892 Total old States.... 267,412,120 3,833,287 $479,282,646 14,620,449 $3,287,570,916 17,455,653 $9,371,612,969 Ohio................. 1802 25,576,960.... 1,980,329 433,872,632 2,339,511 1,193,898,422 Louisiana............ 1812 29,715.840.... 517,762 176,623,654 708,002 602,118,568 Indiana............... 1816 21,637,760.... 988,416 152,870,399 1,350,428 528,835,371 Mississippi............ 1817 30,174.080.... 606,526 85,901,204 791,305 607,324,911 Ilinois............... 1818 35,459,200.... 851,470 114,782,645 1,711,951 871,860,982 Alabama............. 1819 32,462,080.... 771,623 98,870,118 964,201 495,237,078 Maine................ 1820 22,400,0O0 96,540.. 583,169 96,790,513 628,279 190,211,600 Missouri............. 1821 43,123,200.... 682,044 86,802,101 1,182,012 501,214,298 Arkansas............. 1836 33,406,720.... 209,897 20,372,101 435,450 219,256,473 Michiga............. 1837 35,995,520.... 397,654 30,877,223 749,113 257,163,983 Florida............... 1846 37,931,520.... 87,445 10,924,107 140,425 73,101,500 Texas............... 1845 152,043,520.... 212,592 30,149,671 504,215 365,200,614 Iowa................ 1846 35,155,200.... 192,214 23,714,638 674,913 247,338,265 Wisco:sin............ 1848 34,511,360.... 305,391 26.715,525 775,881 273,671,668 Clifornia.. 1850 120,917,840.... 92.597 21,923,173 379,994 207,874.613 Minnesota............ 1857 90,774,960.... 6,077 262,088 172,123 52,294,413 Oregon............... 1859 60,695,360.... 13,294 5,063,474 52,468 28,930,6139 Kansas............... 1861 52,043,520........ 107,206 31,327,895 West Virginia......... 1862 Included in Virginia in census of 1860. Nevada.............. 1864 71,737,600........ 6,857 Nebraska............. 1866 48,636,800........ 28,841 9,131,056 TERRITORIES; Indian Territory....... 44.154,240.... 7,500.. 75.441 New Mexico.......... 1850 77,508.640.... 61,547 5,174,471 93,516 20,813,768 Utah................ 1850 54,065,043.... 11,380 986,083 40,273 5,596,118 Washington.......... 1853 44796,160........ 11,594 5,601,466 Colorrado............. 1861 66,880,000....... 34,277 IDakota............... 1861 96,596,18........... 4,837 Arizona.............. 1863 72.906.240......... Idaho....... 1863 55,228'160........ Msontana............. 18e4 92,016,640...... WvYoming............ 1868 62,645,069............ Alaskat.............. 1870 369,529.600.......... Total new States and Ter....2,051i062,90.0 8,646,427 $1,422.684.820 14,062.101 $6.788.233.099 Grand Total................2,318,475,080 3,929,827 $479,282,646 23,266,876 4,710,255,736 31,527,754 16,159,816,068 In 1869 these-exchanges exceed $40,000,000,0(00. t Made a county of Washington Territory in 1870. SHIPS-TONNAGE-NAVIGATION LAWS. 161 The statesmen of Europe ascribed it rather CHAPTER III. to the law than to the circumstances of the people, and they imitated its provisions. SHIPS-TONNAGE-NAVIGATION LAWS. The trade between England and her colonies THE appearance of the United States as a was large, but the vessels were all British. nation was fraught with the most extraordi- The development of this industry of the narX results in respect to the condition, pol- North American colonies, and their trade, icy, and governments of Europe, but in none was probably the first real opposition on the greater than in respect of navigation. From ocean that the Dutch received. So much the moment that the stars and stripes floated did it flourish in the seventeenth century, from the mast-head of a merchantman, a that Sir Joshua Childs, writing in 1670, revolution was commenced which has not states that " Our American plantations emyet ceased its influence upon the commerce ploy nearly two-thirds of our English shipof the world. Up to that time, England had ping, and thereby give constant subsistence gradually attained the supremacy of the to, it may be, 200,000 persons here at home." seas. The Dutch, who had fought a steady Ship-building had been pursued with great battle with the ocean, until they had driven success in the colonies; and the genius of it back and fortified their country by dykes the colonists had alreadv given their ships a from its invasion, had earned a right to rule; distinctive character. On the declaration of which, by their energy, they did for a time. peace, in 1783, that "bit of striped buntTheir country was small, however, and pro- ing" was found floating at the gaff of all the duced but little: hence, there was no room to best vessels. They, by the law, could now support commerce in the face of the power carry no goods to England. The large exof England. Great Britain is an island of ports of the United States were now to go great productive power, although but little in the worst vessels, because they were larger than New York. Its coast is indent- English. The United States -immediately ed on all sides with good harbors; and from passed a similar law, that forbade any goods which side soever the wind blows, it is fair to be imported, except in American vessels. for some of her vessels to arrive, and others The American vessel then went out in balto depart. A sea-girt population is neces- last to bring home English goods, and the sarily a nautical population. The English English vessel came out in ballast to carry were peculiarly fitted for sea adventuire; home American produce. Two sjhips were and with such advantages, added to their employed to do the work of one, and all imskill in building, they could not fail to ac- ports and exports were charged two freights. quire ascendancy upon the ocean, which This was too absurd, even for statesmen. their large population maintained and fed A treaty was consequently made, by which by planting colonies in all parts of the world. the vessels of both nations were placed upon When the commerce of England had well the same footing. The practical effect of grown, as a consequence of these advan- this was to double the quantity of tonnage tages, her government, in the hands of Cromn- employed, since the vessels of both nations well, sought to increase it by enacting the could now carry freights both ways. The famous "navigation law," which was popular, position of affairs was, however, entirely new. because it professed to give England the The United States-a young country, with supremacy of the ocean. The principle of few ships and less capital, distributed among the law was, that no goods should be im: a sparse population-presented itself to the ported into England from Asia, Africa, or old, wealthy, and aristocratic governments America, except in British vessels; that of Europe, and demanded of them that they goods imported from Europe in European should admit its ships to visit their popvessels should pay more than if imported in ulous and wealthy cities, in return for the British vessels. This was very plausible. privilege of their visiting the comparatively It would, it was supposed, give England the poor and unattractive towns of the states. world's commerce; but as there then exist- This kind of reciprocal intercourse had never ed none but British vessels in either of the existed; and the United States now came three continents out of Europe, there was no forward to propose it, and to lay down prinmore trade, in consequence of the law, than ciples for its guidance. Their moral influbefore. Thelawwasadeadletter. Thegrowth ence caused them to be adopted. These of English commerce was evidently great. principles were, "independence," " equal 162 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. favor," and " reciprocity." These principles Great Britain. The ship-building during were first laid down in the treaty made be- the colonial period had been in very different tween France and the United States in 1778, styles, so that every seaman, at a glance, and they became the basis of all subsequent could recognize the origin of the vessel. negotiations. The commercial sagacity of The Baltimore clipper, the Essex fishing the English prompted them to accede at schooner, the Chesapeake schooner, the once. The United States vessels were ac- down east lumber schooner, or brig, the cordingly placed upon the footing of the Hudson river sloop, the Long Island sloop, "most favored nation." From the moment the Newport boat, the Massachusetts Bay the United States entered that wedge, the dory, were distinct types, and still preserve (whole system of exclusiveness began to fall their styles to some extent, although the to pieces. There are now forty-eight treaties march of improvement has tended to assimibetween the United States and other coun- late all styles, by combining their good tries, most of them containing, the favored points. The changes of trade have varied nation clause. The benefits of this example the demand, and since California has brought have been so fruitful, that all the nations of clippers in demand, they are now by no Europe have eaten through their old restric- means a Baltimore peculiarity. The fishing tive systems, by similar treaties with each vessels were peculiarly adapted to their emother. Although England was forced into ployment. The fisheries were the chief this concession in her direct trade, she, for business of the northern colonists, and they a long time, refused it in respect of her col- had not only the benefit of the large sale to onies. It was reserved for a later period to the West Indies and to the Catholic countries force her into that movement. The vessels of Europe, but the eating of fish in England of the United States having thus gained an had, by the law of Elizabeth, in 1563, been international footing, events supervened to ordered on Wednesdays and Saturdays, for give a great impulse to their employment in the encouragement of seamen, thus affording the carrying trade. In colonial times, Mas- a large market, from which foreign fish were sachusetts Bay was the chief theatre for ship- excluded. The same law became a custom building, but Maryland was also noted for it. down to our day, it being still almost uniThe vessels built in 1771 were as follows:- versal in New England to eat fish on SaturAN ACCOUNT OF THE NUMBER AND TONNAGE OF VESSELS day. Indeed, so strictly was this custom BUILT IN THE SEVERAL PROVINCES IN. THE YEAR 1771. observed, that in the old slave days of Square-rigged and Tonnage. Massachusetts, it being ordered that slaves New Hampshire 15 ers. 991 should not be in the streets on Sunday, a New Hampshire..... 15 40 4,991l Massachusetts Bay... 42 83 1 704 black was arrested on the common. IHe Rhode Island........ 15 60 2,148 denied that it was Sunday, and proved his Connecticut......... 7 39 1,483 point by showing that "massa no eat salt New York...... 9 28 1,698 fish yesterday." The fisheries were thought -New Jersey......... 2 10 Pennsylvania........ 15 6 1,307 to be the nursery of seamen, and when the Maryland........... 10 8 1,645 Union was formed, a law of July 4, 1789, Virginia............ 10 9 1,678 allowed a drawback on fish exported equal North Carolina...... 8 241 to the supposed quantity of salt used. This Georgi a..... 2 4 543 law, in 1792, was changed to a bounty per - __ - ____ ton on the vessels engaged in the fisheries, Total......... 128 291 24,068 and has been continued down to the present The tonnage entered and cleared for the time. The number of tons now in the year 1771, to all ports, was as follows:- cod fisheries is 129,637, and the bounty paid Cleared from Entered to the interest from the origin of the grant colonies. colonies. to the close of the year 1859, amounts to Great Britain............ 98,025 82,934 $12,944,998, of which Maine, New HampSouthern Europe......... 31,231 37,717 shire, and Massachusetts received nearly the West Indies............. 108,150 106,713 reeveneary South and Central America. 107,552 104,578 whole. It is to be remarked that this' —-, — bounty-fed interest has prospered less than 350,964 331,942 any other. The whale fishery seemed pecuThis was before the war. After the war, liarly adapted to the skill and daring of the the trade received a great development from American seamen. The whale boats were of the French treaty of 1778, and from that with a peculiar build, and gradually, although they SHIPS —TONNAGE-NAVIGATION LAWS. 163 received no protection from the government, influence of the carrying enjoyed under the they drove away other nations from the seas. treaties with Europe, and the effect of the The interest is, however, depressed, from the wars between the great powers. The coastgrowing scarcity of whales, and the great ing trade did not increase in the same ratio, competition that its product receives from for the reason that the trade enjoyed by the other sources. The making of lard oil registered tonnage was not the carrying of brought "prairie whales" into effectual corn- American goods, but of foreign products petition with those of the ocean. from colonies to Europe. The comparaThe tonnage engaged in the foreign trade tive increase of the tonnage is seen as folincreased up to 1810 very rapidly under the lows:Registered Coasting. Whalers. Cod Mackerel Steam. Total. tons. tons. fishery. fishery. Ocean. Coasting. ota 1789, 123,893 68,607.. 9,062...... 201,562 1810, 984,269 405,347 1,227 35,168...... 1,424,789 1821, 619,896 559,435 27.994 51,351..... 1,298,958 1829, 650,143 508,858 57,278 101,797 35,973.. 54,036 1,260.797 1840, 899,764 1,176.694 136,926 76,035 28,269. 281,339 2,180,764 1850, 1,585,711 1,755,796 146,016 851646 58,111 44,942 481,004 3,535,454 1858, 2,499,742 2,210,750 198,593 110;896 29,593 78,027 651,363 5,049,808 1863, 1,892,899 2,660.712..... 133,215 439,755 5,126,081 1868, 1,343,793 1,808,550 70,342 74,763 9,065 221,939 977,476 4,351,758 This table gives a sort of chart of the languished up to 1829, since there was little whole progress of the tonnage. It is observ- carrying trade, and the cotton crop was only able that up to the close of the first period, one-fourth its present quantity. The British viz.: to the embargo and non-intercourse of government had refused to allow the West 1809, the registered tonnage, or that engaged India colonies to be open to American vesin the foreign trade, increased most rapidly; sels. The ~West Indies, however, were dependthere were then no large home productions ent upon the United States for supplies of to require much inland transportation, and produce, while they were required to send the carrying trade of Europe was very active. their own sugar, coffee, and rum to the With the growth of cotton, however, an mother country in British vessels. By reimmense freight was given as well to coasting fusing to let American vessels go thither, as to registered tonnage, and that was far she sought to secure three freights for British more valuable to the latter than the carrying ships. Thus, a. vessel left England with trade which had been lost. When the war goods for the United States, then loaded and non-intercourse stopped the growth of provisions for the West Indies, and took external tonnage, a great impulse was given home thence sugar, etc., to England, making to that of the interior. The lakes and rivers a round voyage. This the United States began to be covered with craft, which swelled refused to permit, unless American vessels the enrolled tonnage. In the south a good participated; and the trade was closed. The portion of this tonnage was employed in the English colonists, deprived of American suptransportation of; cotton to the seaboard, plies, set up a clamor which compelled the where it was freighted to Europe in regis- government to open certain ports to Ameritered vessels. The operation of the laws in can ships on the same terms as British ships; relation to the measuring of vessels had an and Congress, in return, authorized the Presinjurious influence upon the form. The ident, by proclamation, to open United' making the beam of the vessel an element States ports to colonial vessels, whenever he in the calculation of the tonnage she would should have proof of a reciprocal movement. carry, led to the construction of "kettle This took place in 1830, and the trade has bottoms," which swelled out in the form of rapidly increased since. a kettle, allowing her to carry much more The increase of registered tonnage, as of than her register showed. These vessels all'others, had been large up to 1840, under carried cotton mostly to European ports, the general animation that trade encountered whence there was little return cargo; but from the speculative action of those years. when, after the war, migration set in freely Two circumstances now, however, occurred from Havre, affording a return freight, the to enhance the demand for shipping. These form was altered to give accommodation to were the English-China war, and the Amerthe passengers, and an impulse was given to ican-Mexican war. The attempts of the ship-building. The latter branch of industry English to force the opium trade upon the 164 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Chinese, contrary to their laws, had induced cans, ended in a war in 1846. That event the Chinese, in 1841, to destroy a large caused a large demand for shipping on the quantity of opium. This brought on the part of the government, for transports. The war which resulted in the opening of five expedition fitted out under General Scott for Chinese ports to the commerce of the world, Vera Cruz, was the largest naval enterprise and by so doing increased the demand for ever undertaken by any nation up to that American ships-always favorites with the time-that is, a like number of troops had merchants in the trade between India and never before been transported so great a disChina. One result of the English war with tance by sea to open a campaign in an enethe Chinese was the negotiation of a treaty my's country The American expedition was of a very favorable nature between the promptly successful. Following these two United States and the Chinese government. events, that absorbed so much shipping, The Americans and English had long traded came the Irish famine. The same famine, together, and their nationality had long been which created the extended demand for a puzzle to John Chinaman. As far as he American produce, also stimulated a large could see, they both spoke the same lan- migration to the United States, furnishing guage, although they sailed under different ample freights to the homeward-bound flags; but, with his natural acuteness, he had shipping. observed that the "red-haired devils" had The increase of steam tonnage was the more capital than the Americans; he conse- most remarkable. The first arrival of a quently classified the latter as "second-chop steamer from England was the Sirius, April Englishmen." HI-e was now, however, not 23, 1838. That experiment was looked sorry to give them the advantage in the upon with distrust, but it has succeeded so treaty negotiated by Hon. Caleb Cushing, far, that twenty-five lines, running one hunor, as they styled him, Ku-ching. The re- dred and twenty-five ships, have since been turn of that minister to the United States started between theUnited States and Europe. across Mexico was attended with a new in- In July, 1840, the Britannia, the Cunard boat, suit from that people, who robbed him of arrived at Boston; and that line has conhis baggage. Subsequently, the long train tinned to be almost uniformly successful up of insults heaped upon Americans through to the present time. The lines since started the recklessness and arrogance of the Mexi- are as follows, mostly running from N. Y.: - Average passage Lines. Port. Style. Ownership. Vessels. Tons. out. days. hours. Cunard line, Liverpool, paddle-wheel, British, 4 10,360 11 3 " i Havre, screw, " 5 11,800.. Collins " Liverpool, paddle-wheel, American, 3 9,727 12 3 Scotch " Glasgow, screw, British, 3 6,612 13 0 Irish " Cork, " " 2 2,000 French" Havre, " French, 3 4,500 15 0 Old Havre line, " paddle-wheel, American, 3 7,200 13 6 Vanderbilt' " " 3 7,600 13 0 Independent line, " " " 1 1,800.. Belgian " Antwerp, screw, Belgian, 5 12,590 Bremen' Bremen, paddle-wheel, American, 2 4,000 14 12 Hamburg " Hamburg, screw, German, 2 2,400 16 0 Cunard " Boston to L'pool, paddle-wheel, British, 4 8,100 11 12 Philadelphia " Liverpool, screw, " 3 6,856.... Portland " " " " 2 3,000 North Atlantic Southampton, paddle-wheel, American, 5 16,000 10 8 L'pool and Great West'n Liverpool, screw, British, 0 30,600 10 8 Inman line, " " " 10 30,000 11 0 National line, " " " 10 31,000 13 0 Pereire " Havre, " French, 6 20,000 10 3 North German Lloyds, Bremen, " German, 12 36,000 12 0 Anchor line, Glasgow, "c Scotch, 12 26,000 11 0 Hamburg American, Hamburg, " German, 13 40, 000 10 0 123 337,145 Of these the Collins, the Irish, the Old ful, and been given up. The number of Havre, the Vanderbilt, the Independent, the steamers in the Cunard lines has been greatly Philadelphia, the North Atlantic, and one or increased, and they are now all screw steamtwo other small lines have proved unsuccess- ers, as are all the others. There are now about SHIPS-TONNAGE-NAVIGATION LAWS. 165 125 steamships in the different lines plying tile fields and magnificent water-courses, between New York and European ports, but attracted settlers, and these had produce for all of them are at present owned in Europe. sale, there was but one way to market, and Many disasters have attended the ocean flat-bottomed boats, launched upon the deservice of steam; but it has been estimated scending streams, bore the freights to New that since the first steamer arrived, in 1838, Orleans. At that point they were not un1,500,000 persons have crossed the Atlantic frequently broken up, the owners returning by steam. Of this number, perhaps 3,500 by land. In 1794, two keel boats sailed from have been lost. The first ocean steamer lost Cincinnati to Pittsburg, making the trip in was the President, in 1841, with 130 lives. four weels. Each boat was covered, so as Since then, the losses have been as follows:- to be rifle-proof; was loop-holed for muskets, and six guns, to carry pound balls. It was Ownership. Lives Value of ves- in this manner that persons and property 1 o. sel and cargo. were protected from Indian aggression. President, British, 130 $1,200,000 The other western rivers presented similar Arctic, American, 300 1,800,000 Pacific, " 240 2 000,000 means of travel. Even this was progress, San Francisco, " 160 400.000 however; and each year saw the numbers Central America, 387 2,500,000 and wealth of the dwellers increase. In Independence, " 140 100,000 1790 the first sea-going brig was built Yankee Blade, " I5 280,000 City of Glasgow, British, 420 850 000 at Marietta, Ohio. She was called the St. Uniion, American,.. 300.000 Clair, 120 tons, owned and commanded by Humboldt, ".. 1,600,000 Commodore Preble, who descended the Franklin, ".. 1,900.000 Ohio and Mississippi, and arrived, via HavCity of Phiadelphia, British, 150 300,000 aa, at Philadelphia, where she was sold. Tempest, " 150 300 000 Lyonnais French, 160 280,000 In 1802-4, four ships, three brigs, and three Austria, German, 456 850,000 schooners were built at Pittsburg for the Canadian, British,.. 400,000 Ohio navigation. Keel boats and sea-going Argo, ".. 1000 vessels rapidly multiplied; but the dangers Indian, " 27 125,000 of the navigation retarded commerce The Northerner, American, 32 75.000 Hungarian, Brit., (about) 120 270,000 dangerous falls of the Ohio were a drawback; Mississippi, American,.. 900,000 and the Kentucky legislature, in 1804, incorMexico, British,.... porated a company to cut a canal round Golden Age, American,.. 1,000,000 them. This was, however, not done until 1830. City of Boston, British, 160 900,0 000 the march of comm e and * After 1806, the march of commerce and civilization began to make itself felt, and Showing that a fleet of twenty-four steam- trade was carried on in keel boats, which, ers, many of them first-class, have been however comfortably theymight float with the totally lost within the period named. The stream,requiredthreemonthsforavoyagefrom President, Pacific, City of Glasgow, and New Orleans to Cincinnati. The first steamTempest, were never heard from; the Arctic, boat on the rivers was built by Fulton at PittsSan Francisco, Central America, and City burg, in 1811. She cost $20,000, and took of Boston, foundered; the Independence, her first freight and passengers at Natchez, Yankee Blade, Northerner, and Golden Age, arriving at New Orleans in December. She, were wrecked on the Pacific, and the Cana- continued to run three or four years between dian, Humboldt, Franklin, Argo, Hungarian, those points, eight days up and three days Mississippi, and Mexico, on the Atlantic down, clearing, the first year, $20,000. coast; the Lyonnais was sunk by collision, Steam tonnage then rapidly multiplied. and the Austria was burnt. The annexation of Louisiana, and the events The growth of steam service in the in- of the war, had greatly stimulated western terior of the country was more rapid than trade and river tonnage. From the period its external development. The amount of last named up to the year 1839-a period steam tonnage in ocean navigation, in 1850, of twenty-eight years, or thereabout-how do was 44,942, against none in 1840. The in- we find the aspect of matters altered? The land tonnage engaged on lakes, rivers, and surface of the "beautiful river," as the French coasting, was 481,004-an increase of 283,- call the Ohio, constantly agitated by the 000 in ten years, at a cost of $28,000,000. revolutions of paddle-wheels, and its shores When the western country, with its fer- decked with cities, towns, and villages, the 166 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. appearance of which sufficiently indicated were forty-eight boats on the lakes, and the vast stores of wealth which a thrifty, in- their value was $2,200,000. In 1859 the dustrious population was rapidly bringing to number of boats was 186, and the value $3,light. It is computed that the country 997,000, including propellers. The amount drained by the Ohio and its tributaries em- of tonnage upon the lakes, in 1868, was as braces one-third of Pennsylvania, one-third follows:of Virginia, two-thirds of Ohio, all of Kentucky, three-fourths of Indiana, and one- STATEMENT SHOWING THE NUMBER, KIND, AND TONNAGE tucky, trec-fourths of Indiana, and one- *OF VESSELS ENGAGED IN THE COMMERCE OF THE LAKES fourth of Illinois-making an aggregate of AND WESTERN RIVERS IN 1868. 142,000 square miles, or 91,000,000 of acres. LAKE VESSELS. The Ohio rises near the 42d degree of north Number. Class. Tonnage. 1855 Sailinog vessels, 293,977.85 latitude, and emApties itself into the Missis- 624 Steam vessels, 144,117.15 sippi, near the 37th degree, within which 232 Barges, 36,146.44 space all the tributaries, with the exception 2,654 Canal boats, 221,362.88 of the great bend of the Tennessee, are cir- Total, 5,365 695,604.32 cumscribed. The computation of those who WESTERN RIVER VESSELS. owned the first steamboat on this river, 1,263 Steam vessels, 351,671.39 made after her first trip, is said to have been, 34 Barges, 106,168.34 that if 6 cents freight could be obtained onal boats 23,377.88 each pound, and they could get enough to do, Total, 2 41,21.61 the investment would be a profitable one. Adding to these the 19,467 American vesThe result has shown that freight has been sels engaged in the traffic of the Atlantic and reduced to less than a cent, and that ample gulf coasts, with an aggregate measurement employment is afforded for hundreds of of 2,974,975.22 tons, and the 904 vessels of boats! The number of steamboats built the Pacific coast, with a tonnage of 1 66,previous to the year 1835 inclusive, was 512.35 tons, and we have a grand total of 588, of which 173 were built at Pittsburg, 28,118 vessels in the home trade with an and 164 at Cincinnati. The number of aggregate measurement of 4,318,309.50 tons. boats in active business in 1838 was 357, The losses of screw-propellers upon the measuring 65,000 tons, or 180 tons each; lakes by wreck and fire, rose firom $39,000 and, in 1858, the tonnage had increased to in 1848 to $1,159,957 in 1855, and have 124,941. since diminished to $91,830 last year. The The opening of the Erie canal, in 1825, number of vessels lost in ten years was 402, gave a new direction to western produce. and the value $3,752,131. The number of The great lakes, from forming a separation vessels built in 1858, was 113 on the rivers, from Canada, at once became a means of and 31 on the lakes. communication between the inhabitants of Broad canals and numerous railroads are the vast circle of their coast and Buffalo, always busy delivering upon the bosom of the gateway to the east. Those vast seas the lakes the wealth annually created by form a basin, into which pours from every 5,000,000 of people, and valued at hundreds quarter the produce of eight sovereign states, of millions of dollars. The borders of those not including the Canada side. On these lakes are dotted with cities, whose marvellakes a few craft had floated; and in Erie ous growth has been proportioned to the harbor, in 1812, was built, in seventy days rapid settlement of the surrounding country. from cutting the timber, that remarkable Oswego, Buffalo, Cleveland, Sandusky, Tofleet that bore Perry's flag to victory, and ledo, Monroe, Detroit, St. Joseph, Chicago, made the lakes American seas. Tonnage Milwaukee, Racine, and many smaller ports, multiplied as the produce increased, and the have, like nets, so to speak, accumulated a construction of the Ohio canals gave a north- portion of the vast wealth that has rushed ern direction to it. by them over the bosom of the lakes. Each Up to 1820 there was but one steamer on of these cities has a large tonnage employed the lakes, and not until 1827 did a steamer in the transportation of produce and merreach Lake Michigan. In 18:32 a steam- chandise; and that tonnage has in the last boat landed troops at Chicago. In 1833 twenty years received a new development by there were on the lakes eleven boats, which the introduction of the screw-propeller. The had cost $360,000. They carried 61,480 invention of Fulton consisted in the adaptapassengers in that year. In 1840 there tion of paddle-wheels to propel vessels. The SHIPS-TONNAGE-NAVIGATION LAWS. 167 idea of propelling by a screw in the stern some freight in lumber on the voyage was quite as old as that of the paddle-wheels; out. it was not, however, successfully constructed These circumstances of the increase of the until, in 1839, after many failures by others, western and lake tonnage, indicate the means Ericsson succeeded. A small iron screw- by which freights accumulated at the seasteamer was built and navigated to this ports to employ the ocean or registered country, in 1839, by Capt. Crane, and she tonnage, had increased in such rapid probecame a tug on the Raritan canal. From portions in the last nine years. The inthat time, screws vindicated their value for crease from 1850 to 1858 was, it appears, certain purposes, as superior to paddles. 637,410 tons, while the sail coasting tonnage They have lately performed so well as to actually declined. The discovery of Califorlead to the conviction that they will supplant nia gold led to the employment of clipper the paddles altogether. This is very certain ships for quick passages round the cape, and to be the case with inland navigation. The these, under the pressure of high freights, form of the screw has undergone continual rapidly multiplied. In 1855, the number changes, to obviate some of the difficulties of vessels built was 2,034, having a tonnage that presented themselves. The model until of 583,450, or a quantity equal to the whole recently in use upon the lakes, is the Loper coasting tonnage of the Union in 1830. The propeller, invented by Capt. Loper, of Phil- tonnage increased too fast, and reaction adelphia. The screw was cast in one piece, overtook it. The quantity built in 1859 and of a form that combines many advant- was only 870 vessels, of 156,602 tons. In ages, particularly that of hoisting out of ordinary years, cotton is the chief fieight water with a fair wind. Within the last of ships, and the ordinary proportion of three or four years, however, a Buffalo in- shipping is as one ton to a bale of cotton vention has been introduced, by which the produced. The progress of the registered engineer may regulate the "pitch," or angle tonnage during the eight years, from 1851 of the screw blades, according to the circum- to 1858, was as follows:stances, without taking up the screw. These REGISTERED TONNAGE. steam propellers are obviously of a nature Lost Sold to monopolize the trade of the lakes. They Built. at Condemned. to Increase. make their trips with regularity and prompt- 1851, 165,850 23,149 3,801 15,247 123,647 ness. There are now 600 on the lakes, with 1852, 193,021 28,083 2,060 17,612 145,265 a tonnage of 124,000; and 24 paddle-wheels, 1853, 209,898 33.850 6,400 10,035 159,613 tonnage 20,117. The great progress made 1854, 320,012 53,493 1,448 59,244 199,826..1 1 a. 1 18557 336,098 467149 5,696 65)887 218,366 in the last twenty years in railroads, which 185 6,076 56992 41,854 153,248 have come to rival canals and rivers through- 1857, 195,962 63,232 9,371 51,791 71,567 out the west and skirting the lakes, has 1858, 96,459 46,198 13,699 25,925 10,635 greatly affected the trade in vessels, as well steam as sail. The introduction of steam The building under the clipper fever more lessened the amount of tonnage, because than doubled from 1851 to 1852. The sales steam can perform more voyages. Railroads to foreigners have risen to. a large item. In have again reduced the quantity of tonnage the five years, 1854-58, it amounted to 244, required, because they run all winter, and at 700 tons, or 20 per cent. of the whole quanall times with greater speed. While this tity built. This, at an average of $100 per has been taking place, however, greater facil- ton, amounts to $24,470,000, or yearly averities for getting to sea have made ship-build- sales of $4,895,000, forming a consider ing on the lakes more active. Several ves- able manufacture. The cheapened cost of sels have been built at the lake ports for building on the lakes and western rivers will Liverpool, going down the St. Lawrence, and transfer to that region much of that trade. some schooners have recently been built at The enrolled tonnage has been as follows:Cleveland, to run between Boston and Alba- Built. Lost at Condemned. Sold. Increase. ny and Chesapeake bay. Those of about 1851, 132,353 7,675 2,047.. 122,631 200 tons cost $10,000. The advantage of 1853, 215,673 11,819 3,209.. 200,645 building on the lakes consists in the fact that 1855, 247,351 15,068 2,138.. 230,144 ship plank is much cheaper, say $20 in 1857, 182,841 19,257 1,887 858 160,848 Cleveland to $60 in Boston, spars $40 1858, 145,827 17,263 2,337 378 125,847 against $100; and the vessel makes a hand- The amount of shipping owned in the 168 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. United States, and engaged in either foreign remaining after the wants of the people are or domestic commerce, reached its highest supplied with the article exported. This is point in 1856, and after some remarkable particularly the case with all agricultural fluctuations, had attained nearly the same products, and the amount of these exported point in 1861; but the presence of rebel bears often a very small proportion to the privateers in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian whole crop. Of cotton, about one-third the oceans, during the war, led to the sale or yield is consumed at home; while of breadtransfer of great numbers of vessels to a stuffs, the export in 1865 was $53,502,511, foreign flag. Since the close of the war and the total yield of the year, in twentythere has been more activity in the building one states and one small territory only, was and purchase of ships, and a few years will $360,000,000, or about seven times the whole probably restore the supremacy of American export. With each year, too, the proportion shipping. The following table shows the of manufactured goods, the product of skill changes which have taken place, since 1850, bestowed upon the raw material, is increasin the amount of shipping engaged in our ing; though as yet we are not so far free as commerce. It has reference to the port of we should be from the use of foreign manuNew York alone, but gives the proportions factured products; and the many duties of foreign and American shipping very fairly. which it has been found necessary to impose upon foreign manufactures, so far from AMERICAN. FOREIGN diminishing their consumption, have seemed No. No. Date. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. to increase it. The importations of 1866, 1850, 1,832 807,581 1,451 446,756 at a gold valuation, were $437,640,354, 1851, 2,353 1,144,485 1,490 470.567 equal to over $650,000,000 -in currency, 1855, 2,487 1,340,251 904 220,000 larger than in any previous year of our his1856, 2,763 1,684,597 1,098 386.263 1856, 3,0 I634 1684597 1,094 8 386263 tory although almost every article imported 1861, 3,034 1,618,258 1,943 865,447 t a 1862, 2,693 1,472,989 2,113 1,079,492 pays a duty of from thirty-three to fifty per, 1864, 1,568 845,172 3,207 1,416,734 cent. on its prime cost. The imports of 1867 1865, 1,430 774,459 3,210 1,473,815 were $412,233,322 in gold value, equal to 1866, 1,084 9721,863 3,592 2,2480, 577,1 26,651 in currency; the imports of 186% 1,084 721 863 3, 592 2577912622,1 1868, 2095 1,064,263 2,166 1,800,989 1868 were $373,409,44.8, equal to $522,773,227 in currency. The importations of The commerce of the United States, both 1869 and 1870 exceeded 400 millions in in the exportation and importation of goods gold value for each year; those of 1870 beand products, has advanced with great ing over 40 millions, but the exports of rapidity. The following table shows the that year were correspondingly large, while extraordinary rapidity of its increase, as the price of gold for the greater part of the compared with that of Great Britain and year was much lower. The wealth of the France, the two greatest commercial nations country, notwithstanding the war, has inof the world - gcreased more rapidly than at any previous period of our history, and any valuation NATIONAL EXPORTS. which approximates to the truth, in 1870, Date. United States. Great Britain. France. must show the anmount of real and personal 1800, $31,480,903 $118.413,084 $53,750,816 estate of the country in that year as exceed1819, 64,974,382 176,051,005 83,095 ing twenty-five thousand million dollars, 1839, 121,028,416 26,167,900 188101, 24637 while, from causes which are not far to seek, 1849, 145,755,820 317,980,125 207,281,108 its future progress must be still more rapid, 1860, 400,122,296 664,782,635 424,950,000 and its accumulation of national wealth more 1863, 331,809,459 709,010,477 420,506,250 goigantic. One of the railroad lines to the 1865, 336,697,123 1,054,157,880 760,000,000 Pacific has been in operation since May 1866, 565,426,394 1,191,528,410 817,400,000 Pacfic as een n operation since May, 1867, 462.069,814 1,129,012,645 782,600,000 1869; two more are stretching rapidly to1868, 476,384,028 1,137,943,315 695,746,930 wards the shores of the great ocean; and swift lines of steamships already connect us The exports from the United States, with China and Japan, and the western coast in 1869, probably considerably exceeded of South America, and other lines will, with$500,000,000. in one or two years, bring to our shores the The exports of a nation it should be re- Australian and Malaysian trade, and connect membered, are but a part of the surplus us by a Pacific cable with the whole Orient. CENSUS, 1860. THE FOLLOWING TABLE GIVES THE TOTAL POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1860, DISTINGUISHING FREE FROM SLAVE, SHOWING ALSO THE NUMBER OF STATES, THE RANK OF EACH STATE ACCORDING TO ITS POPULATION AND THE NUMBER OF REPRESENTATIVES TO WHICH IT IS ENTITLED IN CONGRESS, THE TAXABLE VALUATION ACCORDING TO THE LATEST RETURNS, AND THE NUMBER OF MILITIA IN EACH STATE. Represen- Rank States. Total free Slaves. tation in as per Valuation. Militia. population. Congress, population. M aine........................................ 619,958.. 5 22 $162,472,914 73,552 New Hampshire................................. 326,072 3 27 103,804,326 33,538 Vermont..................................... 315.877.. 3 28 86,775,213 23,915 Massachusetts.................................. 1,231.494.. 10 7 597,936,995 161,192 P.hodo Island................................... 14,621.. 1 29 111,175,174 17,826 Connecticut.................. 460,670.. 4 24 211,187,6S3 51.630 New York..................... 3,851,563.. 80 1 1,404,907,679 418,846 New Jersey.......................... 676,084.. 5 20 281.333349 81.984 Pennsylvania.............................. 2,924,501.. 23 2 568,770,234 850,000 Ohio.................................. 2,377,917.. 19 3 840,800,031 279,809 Michisan....................................... 754,291.. 6 16 120.3862,474 109,570 Illinois....................................... 1,6,404.. 13 4 407,477,367 257,420 Indiana...................................... 1,370,802.. 11 6 318,204,964 53,913 W'isconsin..................................... 768,485 6 15 152,531.700 51,321 Iowa.......................................... 682,002.. 5 19 197,223,350 110,000 Minnesota...................................... 172193.. 1 30 781,100 24,990 Kansas........................................ 143,642.. 1 32 679,240 21,000 California................................... 384,70.. 3 26 131.306,269 207,730 Oregon......................................... 52566.. 1 36 1,981,101 9,000 Maryland...................................... 646,183 85,382 6 17 255,47,588 46,864 Delaware...................................... 110,548 1,805 1 83 30,466,924 9,229 Virginia....................................... 1,097,33 495,826 11 5 730,817,653 14,155 via ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~,9,8 49,8 [,: 11 0, S17,653 148,155 District of Columbia............................ 72,093 8,234.. 85 20.271,000 8,201 Noith Carolina................................ 679,965 828,377 7 12 271,781,101 79,448 South Carolina.................................. 808,186 407,185 4 18 214.101,201 86, J72 Georaia....................................... 615,336 467,461 7 11 837,969.471 78,699 Florida...................................... 81,885 63,809 1 31 22,216,915 12,122 Alabama....................................... 520,444 435,473 6 13 201,100,100 76,662 Louisiana...................................... 854.245 812,186 4 21 818,911,905 91,324 Miississippi..................................... 407551 479,607 5 14 161,747,536 86,084 Missouri....................................... 1,085,590 115,619 9 8 274,965,164 118,047 Kentucky...................................... 933,707 225.902 8 9 384,770,701 88,979 Tennessee...................................... 859,528 287,112 8 10 266,249,384 71.252 Arkansas....................................... 831,710 109,065 8 25 53,255,711 47,450 Texas........................................ 415,999 184,956 4 23 138,722,633 19,766 Nebraska.............................. 28,893... 38 New M exico................................... 82,060 4... 84 U tah.......................................... 50,000 8... 3 Washington................................... 11,624 9.... Dakotah...................................... 4,839 40... 40 Total.................................... 27,673,271 4,002,996 234.. $9,312,404,850 3,303,811 It will be observed that the figures for the total population do not quite agree with those on page 160, for the year 1860. This arises from the fiact that after that table was printed a revision took place in the official tables. The column of valuations, here given, is that of the several States, each for its own taxation purposes, and each on its own peculiar basis. The figures do not, therefore, give relative values between the States, and are very far below the actual values, while large amounts of real and personal estates are, for one cause or another, exempted from taxation. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES, INCLUDING ONLY THOSE WITH A POPULATION OF OVER 50,000 IN 1860. Name. 1790. 1800. 1810. 1820. 1830. 1840. 1850. 1860. New York...................3..,131 60,489 96,373 123,706 203,007 312,710 515,547 821,113 Brooklyn............. 8,298 4,402 7,175 12,042 86,233 96,838 2732 Williamsburg................... 1,620 5,680 380,780 8,2 Boston...03...................... 8 24,027 8i2,250 43,298 61,372 93,383 186,881 177,902 Baltimore...................... 13,503 26,614 46,555 62,738 80,625 102,313 169,054 218,412 Philadelphia..................... 42,520 70,28 96,64 108,116 167,188 258,087 408,762 568,034 Cincinnati.......... 750 2,540 9,644 24,831 46,338 115,436 158,851 Chicago.................. 4,479 29,963 109,420 Louisville...................... 1,357 4,0612 10,852 21,210 43,194 70,226 Newark.......................... 6,507 10,953 117,290 88.894 72,055 New Orleans................... 1,242 27,196 46,810 102,193 116,375 170,766 St. Louis...................... 4,893 5,852 16,469 77,860 160,577 Buffalo......................... 1,508 2,095 8,653 18,213 42,261 81,541 Washington.....................,210 8,208 13,247 18,821 23,361 41,000 61,400 SLAVE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1790 TO 1860. WITH THERATIO OF SLAVES TO THE WHOLE POPULATION IN THE PRESENT SLAVE STATES, BY EACH DECENNIAL CENSUS BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT SINCE ITS FORMATION. Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio 1840 Ratio 1850. Ratio Ratio 1790. 1800.. ^ g - ^1880. 18. 1840. to pop. to pop.to o. to pop. to pop. to pop. to pop. to pop. to pop. to pop. to pop. Maine..................2..2 New Hampshire.... 158.. 8.......... Vermont........... 17... - *.......... Massachusetts.............!...... Rhode Island....... 952.. 381.. 108.. 48,. 17. 5.. Connecticut.. 2,759.. 951.. 310.. 97.. 25.. 17.... New York...... 21,324.. 20,343.. 15,017.. 10,088.. 75. 4.... New Jersey... 11,423.. 12,422.. 10,851.. 7,557.. 2,254.. 674.. 119.. Pennsylvania.. 3,737.. 1,706.. 795.. 211.. 403. 64 40,370 35,811 27,081 18,0012,779765 119 Delaware..... 8,887 15.0 6,153 9.5 4,177 5.7 4,509 6.2 3,292 4.2 2,605 3.3 2,289 2.5 1,805 1.6 Maryland.......... 103,036 32.2 105,635 30.9 111,502 29.3 107,398 26.3 102,994 23.0 89,737 19.0 89,800 15.5 85,382 12.7 District of Columbia. 3,244.. 5,395.. 6,377.. 6,119.. 4,694.. 3,687.. 3,234 Virginia......... 293,427 39.2 345,796 39.2 392,518 40.2 425,153 39.9 469,757 38.7 448,987 36.2 473,026 33.2 495,826 30.8 North Carolina..... 100,572 25.5 133,296 27.8 168,824 30.3 205,017 32.0 245,601 33.2 245,817 32.6 288,412 33.2 328,377 33.9 South Carolina......107,014 43.0 146,151 42.2 196,365 47.3 258,475 51.4 315,401 54.2 327,038 55.0 384,925 57.6 407,185 57.2 Georgia. 29,264 35.4 59,504 36.6 105,218 41.6 149,656 43.8 217,531 42.0 280,944 40.6 362,996 42.1 467,461 43.7 Florida................ 15,011 44.6 25,717 47.2 39,341 44.9 63,809 44.0 Alabama..... 47439 32.7 117,549 37.9 253,532 42.9 342,894 42.4 435,473 45.1 Mississippi..... 3,489 39.4 17,088 42.3 32,814 43.4 65,659 48.0 195,211 51.9 300,419 51.0 479,607 55.1 Louisiana............... 34,660 45.2 69,064 45.0 109,588 50.8 168,452 47.8 230,807 47.2 312,186 46.9 Texas....................... 53,346 27.3 184,956 30.0 Arkansas...........1,617 11.3 4,576 15.0 19,935 20.4 46,983 22.4 109,065 25.5 Tennessee.......... 3,417 9.5 13,584 12.8 44,535 17.0 80,107 18.9 141,603 20.7 183,059 22.0 249,519 23.8 287,112 24.8 Kentucky......... 11,830 16.1 40,343 18.2 80,561 19.8 126,732 22.4 165,213 24.0 182,258 23.3 221,768 21.4 225,902 19.5 Missouri....... 3,011 14.4 10,222 15.3 25,091 17.8 58,240 15.1 89,289 12.8 115,619 9.8 Indiana............ 135.. 237.. 190.. 3.. 3...... Ohio.................. 63 Illinois............ 168.. 917.. 74:7 331. Wisconsin......... 1.....* ~..... Iowa.............. 16......... Michigan................. 24......32............ Total.... 658,527 857,230 1,164,283 1,525,667 2,096,264 2,486,590 3,179,470 General total... 697.897 893,041 1,191,364 1,543,668 2,099.043 12,487,355 3,179,589 4,002,996 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, STEAM ENGINES, MANUFACTURES, MACHINERY, &c. ;-S ~ \~ yIMPROVEMENTS IN TRAVEL AD TRANSPORTATIO S 1P -I _ _ _ _ _ _ - _-s' I~~~~~~~~UMI l ii Il iI Iii ltli;I_______ 7-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P IMR~fAEtS IN~ TRAVEL= AN)TASOTTINI SRTD TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. CHAPTER I. tant. In such a state of affairs the roads are very imperfect, and the carriages of the EARLY ROADS-POST ROADS-MACADAM lrudest description. It is conceivable that NATIONAL. the first step from the pack-horse and its OF all the marvels that have marked the pathway, to the two-wheeled cart and a road present century, those which manifest them- was a very great advance-nearly as much selves in the development of the means of as from the road to the railway. And this locomotion and transportation are among improvement has by no means been of so the most wonderful. With the emancipation distant a date as at first we might imagine. of the states from their colonial condition, Not only is the construction of good roads and the formation of a federal government, of very recent date, but up to the present a most extraordinary activity seems to have moment a very large portion of the world been imparted to the inventive faculties called civilized is without them. Certain of the American people, and to which side parts of Europe, the French colony of Algiers, soever we direct our attention, we find and the United States. alone possess them. that all the great and useful creations of In other words, but little more than onegenius take date from that auspicious event. quarter of the inhabited part of the globe The art of transportation has, as it were, is provided with roads. In China a large part been created. Not that our fathers were not of the internal land transportation is upon possessed of the means of transportation by human backs. With the exception of one or land or water, but those means were so im- two important communities, the extensive measurably below those now in use, thatitmay empire of Russia, with 60,000,000 inhabibe fairly claimed that a new art has been tants, is without roads; communication is created. When our fathers landed on these kept up only in the winter, when the ground is shores, it is easily understood that they frozen, by sledges. Spain is little better off found no roads, or carriages, or other means than Russia, and Italy has few of such imof moving from one place to another. In- provements. deed, the countries they had left were at The condition of affairs in this country that time but poorly provided with such before the construction of roads is evident means, as compared with what they have at to the hardy pioneers of the western fronpresent. tier, and has been at times common to every The first attempts to exchange the prod- part of the country. The first settlers on nets of labor, which mark the nascent com- arriving here, it is certain, found no roads, merce of a people emerging from barba- and were not skilled in following an Indian rism, are developed through manual labor, trail. They built their houses upon the and the application of the strength of ani- summits of hills, as well to avoid the miasmals in a rude and imperfect way. The mata of swamps as to get notice of the appeddler with his.pack, and progressively his proach of hostile savages. The connection pack-horse, are the instruments of intercourse between these houses was by foot-paths that in an infant society. From village to vil- became horse tracks, and with the progress lage, pathways are formed, wheel-carriages of events were enlarged into wagon roads. are invented to gather the fruits of harvests, These, ultimately-fenced in, became the highand they wear their own paths upon the sur- ways, running irregularly over the face of face of the soil, and finally the road is con- the country, as they were prolonged by settlestructed, more or less perfect, as a means of ments. The science of road making never transport between places more or less dis- guided their direction, nor would farmers EARLY ROADS-POST ROADS-MACADAM-NATIONAL. 173 permit the squareness of their fields to give river. At a subsequent period he received place to the straightness of roads. These the thanks of the Virginia House for his highways are made in the general idea of report on the results of his examination of making the passage of a vehicle between the valley of the Ohio. And the war had no any two given points possible, and various sooner closed than we find him, in 1784, preexpedients are resorted to, to overcome ob- siding at a commission sitting at Annapolis, stacles at the smallest expense. The plough on behalf of Maryland and Virginia, to conturns up the sides, and the scraper draws the sider the improvement of the navigation of earth to the summit, which is levelled off to the Potomac, which improvement ultimate-) be hardened by travel. The reduction of ly, in after years, became a canal to Pittsburg. hills or the filling in of swamps is not resorted General Washington, as an engineer, always to in new settlements, but the latter are took an active interest in works of internal mostly made passable by laying down logs improvement. When the Dismal Swamp across the track, and parallel with each canal, connecting the Chesapeake, at Norother. This (cordutroy) road is better than a folk, Va., with Edenton, Albemarle Sound, swamp, but offers so great resistance that a North Carolina, a distance of 28 miles, far less load can be drawn over it than over throughthe vast Dismal Swamp, was projecta smooth, level road. The roads of the ed and executed at the expense of individuals whole country, encountering these natural with some government aid, he took some difficulties, took their character from their of the stock. One certificate of this stock, location, and transportation in each district originally issued to him for ~300, or $1,000, was more or less difficult, according to cir- was sold in 1825, at auction, in Alexandria, cumstances. The best roads of the day for $12,100, to Judge Washington. Pennwere such as would now nowhere be tol- sylvania, nearly at the same time, appointed erated; as a general thing, the water-courses, commissioners to explore routes for connectso abundant in the country, were the main ing the Delaware with the lakes. They arteries, and most roads were directed toward reported in.favor of the Juniata, partly by these, or in the neighborhood of a large city canal and partly by river. The result was a they converged upon it as a common centre. charter of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna The number of even these roads at the Company, in 1789, and the Delaware and date of the formation of the government Schuylkill in the following year, with $400,was not large, nor was their quality to be 000 capital. In New York the active mind admired. The streams and water-courses of Gouverneur Morris had already projected were well supplied with small craft, that the Erie canal. In Massachusetts, the Middelivered goods and produce between distant dlesex canal, 30 miles, was authorized in points, but where the route left the water, the 1789, and navigated in 1804. In South transportation became difficult and expen- Carolina the Santee canal was finished in sive. The war and its success had deeply 1802. These, with many other events, show stirred the public mind, and imparted full the activity of the public mind at the date activity to the independent genius and en- of the birth of the Union, in relation to terprise of the people. Those 3,000,000 means of transportation. It will be reof souls occupied, as it were, but a foothold membered, however, that the people were on this immense continent, to the ultimate then few in number. They were heavily in possession of the whole of which they al- debt. Their productions were small and ready looked forward. The means of trans- trade limited. There was no surplus capital portation were the first object and desire to carry out those magnificent ideas, which that presented themselves to thinking men. were in advance of the times. The natural Steam, as a power of locomotion, was un- water-courses of the country ran through known, and the science of road making the finest farms and delivered most of the little developed. Canals, therefore, pre- produce upon noble bays, which were well sented themselves almost simultaneously to provided with ships to transport it abroad leading men in various sections. General for sale. This natural traffic absorbed all Washington had, before he attained his the commercial capital of the country, but twenty-first year, crossed the mountains and it was so profitable that in the course of a given his careful attention as an engineer to few years,it supplied accumulations for the subject of canals, more particularly the other objects, and it was left for a few years connection of the Chesapeake with the Ohio later to witness the prosecution of great en11 174 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. terprises. The roads of the country were in A systematic connection of every town in the a, terrible state, however, and since the new whole thirteen states, by state routes under constitution had empowered Congress to one organization, completed the means of establish post-offices and post-roads for the communication and established passenger conveyance of the mails, it became its duty routes. The statistics of the post-office to look to the roads, and this was the first afford a very good indication of the progress practical bond of union between the states. of that kind of transportation:MAIL SERVICE. No. of Miles By stages. Sulkies and horses. Steam. Rail. Annual. post offices. post roads. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. 1791.... 89 1,905 89,650'756,818.... 846,468 1811... 2,403 37,031 2,534,102 3,058,960.. 5,592,652 1833.... 8,450 115,176 17,693,839 8,531,909 628,737.. 26,854,485 1859..... 27,977 260,052 23,448,398 27,021,658 4,569.962 27,268,384 86,308,402 1868.. 26,481 216.928 45,540,587 3,797,560 34,886,178 84,224,325 This table gives the transportation of the ton to New Orleans; and in the frontier mail in the first year of its operation; in states, numerous roads were constructed by 1811, when steamboats began to run; in the troops under the direction of the war 1833, when railroads began to claim a share; department. and in the past year, when all these means It was thus that the federal government have been more fully developed in all sec- imitated imperial Rome, which in the days tions of the country. There are thus three of its power clearly understood that that distinct periods of transportation: 1790 to power was to be maintained only by the rap1810 were 20 years of common roads and id march of its legions. From the "eternal sail vessels; from 1810 to 1830 were 20 city," noble causeways ran to the remotest years of canals and steamboat progress; and corners of the then world. These were milisince 1830 there have been 30 years of rail- tary routes simply, and intelligence was conroad progress, which has produced immense veyed upon them from station to station with results, throwing an entire net-work over the great rapidity. On the fall of the empire, surface of the country between the Atlantic those noble works, instead of being preservand the Mississippi, and superseding other ed for the uses of commerce, were in a great means of transportation. It is to be ob- measure demolished by small states, as a served that in the first year of the opera- means ofpreventing invasion. Nevertheless, tions of the post-office department, there those Roman roads remained the best roads were but 1,905 miles of post-roads, and in England down to the present century. that on these, nine-tenths of the service was What is called Ermine street connected Lonon horseback the stage service being very don with Carlisle, in Cumberland. Another is small; but as the roads were improved up known as Watling street. Apart from to 1811, the stage service came nearly to those old works, the roads of England were equal the horse service. From that date no better than those of this country up to steam began to take the mails that ran on or the present century. In this respect there near water-courses, and subsequently to is great difference between the works of the 1830 the railroads began to compete with Romans and those of the United States. the stages on land; since that time the stage Those old Roman roads had no competitors. service has increased but six millions, while During 1,400 years they continued the in the previous 20 years it had increased best means of conveyance. The United over fifteen millions of miles. The extension States roads, on the other hand, were hardly of post routes has been in 70 years, it done before the inventive spirit of the age appears, over 258,000 miles in the whole set up a successful rival in the giant railway, country, and the federal government has which has become the trunk road. The taken an active part in the extension' of French government, under the empire, saw roads. The most important work of this the necessity of roads, and began a system kind undertaken was the Cumberland or for Europe. The noble way over the Simnational route across Ohio, Indiana, and plon was the first of these. With the fall Illinois to St. Louis. For this purpose, of the empire that system became confined large annual appropriations were made by to France, but has since been vigorously Congress. Other roads in many directions pushed —$20,000,000 per annum was exwere projected, particularly from Washing- pended for many years in their construction. EARLY ROADS-POST ROADS-MACADAM-NATIONAL. 175 There were in 1815, 3,000 leagues of "roy- and at the same time allow the largest loads al" roads, and these had increased to 10,000 to be drawn by horses. The better the road in 1850. 2,000 leagues of departmental, or the larger will be the load that a team, or two county roads had, in the same time, increas- horses, can draw at a given speed, and of ed to 12,100, and town roads were extended course, the cheaper the transportation. It is by 15,000 leagues. These extended means to be understood, however, that the road of communication have imparted to French must be equally good for the whole distance prosperity much of its strength. that a load is to be drawn, since if there is a In the United States the impulse given to space where great difficulties are to be enroad building by the federal government was countered, the load must be gauged to meet taken up by the several states, if not direct- that difficulty, no matter how good may be ly at the public expense, yet by laws which the remainder of the road. If a highroad compel inhabitants to work on the local leading through one township is not kept up, roads. These regulations are different in it neutralizes the public spirit of those addifferent states. The essential features of all joining; hence the necessity of a general the laws are nearly the same as in the state system to insure continuous cheap transporof New York, where the directing power is tation. To effect this, science has devoted its in " commissioners of highways," who are attention, but with little effect in the manchosen in each town. Under these over- ner that country roads are made and kept in seers are also chosen. The commissioners repair. The requisites of a road are: 1st, direct as to the grade of the road, general straightness, because straight lines are the shape, drainage, etc. The overseers sum- shortest; 2d, it should be as level as mon the persons who are to work, see that possible, because every ascent causes a loss they do actually work, collect fines and com- of power. Thus, if a horse draws on an ormutation money. Every person owning land, dinary level road two tons, and comes to an and every male over twenty-one years, is as- ascent of one foot in every twenty, he cansessed to work. The whole number of days' not ascend, because, in addition to the work shall be at least three times the num- draught, he must lift up 200 pounds, or oneber of inhabitants in each town. Under this twentieth of the whole weight through the system the roads are never very good. The whole height. To make the road level, and commissioners work gratuitously, and skill, save this labor and expense, the road must labor, and time are never to be had for that wind round the hill. There is little lost by price. The overseers, being changed every this, because generally it is no further round year, are never experienced in the undertak- than over. To prove this, cut an egg in half ing. The men they summon go to it as a half longitudinally, and set it upon the table; the holiday, and the work the overseer sets them line which goes round the base is the same at is pretty sure to be that which most bene- as that which goes over the top. The half fits his own place. The money subscribed is of an apple or aiiy similar body will give the not expended in the best manner. These same result. Even if it were longer, it is are all circumstances which do not favor the better to go round, since the horse can do construction of such roads as will greatly the last and not the other. The road should reduce the cost of transportation. In the never be less than a rod wide, to allow two laying out of the road in this way, a passa- vehicles to pass. The surface of the road ble track is the most aimed at. must be as smooth and hard as possible, in To admit vehicles, the track must be order to overcome as much as possible the cleared of wood by the ax-men, swamps must resistance offered by sinking in, which is be overlaid with materials, rivers bridged, very serious, because the depression creates and the route laid around hills in order little hills before the wheels. Thus, if a to avoid the difficulties of ascent. These wheel four feet in diameter sinks in one are the main points to make a road practica- inch, to overcome the resistance thus offered ble. It is very soon discovered that trans- one-seventh of the load would require to be portation on a bad road is much more ex- lifted up over it. The harder the road, the pensive than on a good, and efforts are ac- less the resistance from this source. The cordingly made by the most enterprising to greater the number of stones, hard substanimprove the bad roads. The first step is to ces, and inequalities there are to be encounmake the roads in such a manner as to ac- tered, the greater the resistance from collicommodate the greatest number of people, sion. The resistance of friction is propor 76 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. tional to the roughness of the road, and the enactments were designed to encourage the extremes of this may be illustrated by a car- use of broad tires, as being less destructive riage wheel on gravel and a rail wheel. The to roads, but where the road is well made, as loss of power on a road, or in other words, on the Macadam plan, the breadth of the the cost of transportation, is increased in tire has no effect; on the other hand, the proportion to the increase of these resist- horses' feet do the most damage. It has ances, and inversely as they are diminished. been calculated that a set of tires will, in To overcome them many improvements have average weather, on a macadamized road, been gradually adopted, such as earth, gravel, run 2,700 miles, but that a set of shoes will broken stone, stone pavements, wood, and bear only 200 miles travel. railroads. The Macadam road, invented by a Scotch In marshy forests charcoal roads are gentleman of that name, was introduced in made. Timber from 6 to 18 inches thick is 1-820. The principle is simply that stones cut, 24 feet long, and piled up lengthwise in broken into angular fragments not over a the centre of the road in such a manner that certain size, say that of a pigeon's egg, will, the pile will be about 12 feet high. This is cov- under the pressure of wheels, combine into ered with earth, taken from ditches on either a compact mass, excluding all water, and, side. When the wood is charred, the coal therefore, not subject to the action of frost, is raked down to the widthof 10 feet, with a and be as solid as the original stone. These depth of two feet in the centre and one at the have proved to be the best roads, anside. Such a road becomes very compact, swering most of the conditions, and, thereand free from dust. Such a one in Michigan fore, allowing of transportation at the smallcost $660 per mile. est cost. Good, well-made pavements, as In the older states mostly plank roads used in cities, are better, since they give litwere at one time favorites, and many hun- tie resistance, and afford a foothold to the dreds of miles were constructed at a cost of horses. In order to understand the differ$1,250 per mile. This plan has been gen- ence in value of these roads, it may be reerally abandoned. The roads not kept up marked that a machine has been invented are a nuisance, and many have been com- called a dynamometer. It resembles a spring plained of, and removed as such. balance; one end is connected with the carGravel roads have sometimes been made riage, and the other with thehorses, and the with the gravel from the shores of rivers, but power they exert is shown by the index. the resistance offered by these roads is con- By such an instrument it was determined siderable. that, on a gravel and earth road, the resistThe modes of road making here alluded ance to draught of one ton was 147 lbs.; on a to, are those which are prevalent mostly in Macadam road, 65 lbs.; on a good pavethe country districts, and where the work is ment, 33 lbs.; and on a rail track, 8 lbs. performed as a tax. These answer for cross Whence it appears that a horse can draw roads; but the great thoroughfares were three times as much on a Macadam road as taken in hand either by the state or by au- on an earth road; on a pavement, four and a thorized companies. half times as much; on a railway, eighteen Turnpike companies were chartered by times as much. most of the states, with the intention that These figures indicate the gradual advance they should construct roads having all the made in the power of transportation, since requisites of the best routes, and they were the roads, under the action of the state and authorized to make a charge to those who use federal government, and of the enterprising them. These, like most corporations, were towns and cities, gradually improved from subject to abuse; and the people were corn- mere wagon ways to well-constructed roads pelled to pay tolls when they had gained noth- in those sections where land carriage was ing in the way of easier transportation. New most used. While individuals, companies, and England, New York, Pennsylvania, and other states thus contributed to the improvement states, authorized a number of companies of roads, the federal government entered which answered a purpose before railroads. the field with greater vigor. The New York turnpike laws enact that ve- There were two motives for the construchicles having tires six inches wide shall pay tion of roads and internal improvements by half tolls, those with nine inches, one quar- the federal government. The first was to ter, and those 12 inches, none at all. These facilitate the mails; and the second was to EARLY ROADS-POST ROADS-MACADAM NATIONAL. 177 facilitate communication. It was obvious was much enhanced. The city of Wheeling that the new and infant states had little was particularly influenced by it. In the year means to expend in the construction of 1828 it forwarded to Baltimore over that roads that were to be more or less for the road 3,500,000 lbs. or 1,750 tons of prodgeneral benefit. The government, therefore, uce, by over 1,000 wagons. Anticipations in organizing new states upon the national were then indulged that a small reduction territory, made provision for the construe- in the cost of transport would bring 100,000 tion of roads out of the proceeds of the pub- tons of Ohio produce over the road to Ballie lands sold within each state. The gov- timore. They did not then foresee that the ernment everywhere constructed numerous reduction in cost would be brought about roads, and after the war of 1812, when its only by rails to Baltimore. finances began to be easy, it employed the The Cumberland road by no means monopFrench General Bernard and a corps of en- olized the attention of Congress, but roads gineers in the construction of fortifications were constructed in most of the states under and roads. Among these engineers was Capt. the war department, and in the new states Poussin. This gentleman went back to the army was employed in making them. France, carrying with him the republican Some 800 miles were thus made in Arkansas. ideas here collected. He there propagated We may allude to a few of these roads, as them with such effect that he was, in 1848, that to Mars Hill, Maine; Detroit to Fort Gra-.when the Revolution chased the last Bourbon tiot, Michigan; do. to Saginaw bay; do. to from the throne, attached to the Paris Na- Chicago; Laplaisance bay to the Chicago tional, the republican newspaper, and be- road; Fort Howard and Fort Crawford; came, in consequence, ambassador of the road to Chattahoochee; canal surveys in provisional government to the United States Florida; road to Apalachicola; Pensacola bay in 1849. Thus, after the lapse of a quarter to Pittsburg, Miss.; road from Jackson to Fulof a century, returning to the scene of his ton, Mississippi; Memphis to Little Rock; early labors. Green bay to Winnebago. These few names When the state of Ohio was admitted into of roads spreading from Maine to Arkanthe Union, there were very few roads there, sas and Florida will give an idea of the exand the federal government was the chief pro- tended works of the government, which also prietor of the land. It was agreed, therefore, embraced removing obstructions of rivers that two per cent. of the proceeds of the land and improving river navigation. A grand sold should be applied to the making of a system of internal improvements was thus road leading to the state. The same condi- developed, until its growing magnitude made tion was made when Indiana, Illinois, Mis- it a political issue, and the whole system souri, Mississippi, and Alabama were ad- came to an end under the Maysville road mitted, and the road was commenced. A veto of General Jackson. The principle was turnpike road from Baltimore, 170 miles to adopted by one party, that the federal govWheeling, was laid out, and a similar road ernment had no power to construct any but from Washington, 150 miles to Cumberland strictly national works, or not any that were was constructed. From that point the Cum- entirely within a single state. The system berlandroad runs 135 miles to the east bank thus came to a violent end, after an expendiof the Ohio; of this distance, 85 miles are in ture of some $30,000,000, but not until railPennsylvania, 35 in Maryland, and 15 in Vir- roads had begun already to supersede canals ginia. This was extended west 80 miles to and roads. The federal government had Zanesville, and so through the states of Ohio, thus lent a powerful hand to the extension Indiana, and Illinois, to St. Louis. The of highways. The great thoroughfares that it road has cost the government over $3,500,- had laid open had facilitated migration and 000. Its effect upon transportation was settlement, and wherever these had taken very great. Before its construction it re- place, local roads multiplied, until we find quired, to go from Baltimore to Wheeling, that in the present year there are 260,052 8 days. This was reduced to 3 days. The miles of post-road in the Union. figures were the same for the length of The mails of the government were given travel from Washington to Wheeling. Its out by contract to the highest bidder for influence upon the country through which it four years' service. The whole mail service ran was great. Villages multiplied in its was divided into sections, north, east, west, neighborhood, and the value of property and south, each being let for four years, but 1.78 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. every year one of those fell due. The moderate distances, and travelling was mostcontractors agreed to deliver the mails on ly upon horses, unless water conveyances certain routes in a given time, for a certain could be availed of. This was the common amount of money. The mail money was mode for long journeys on all the rivers. generally depended upon for the expenses of The following advertisement, from a New running the vehicles, and such passengers as York paper early in the present century, could be carried by the same conveyance gives an idea of the style of travelling in the afforded a profit. Thus the system for the youth of men now not old. circulation of letters and newspapers became " SLOOP EXPERIMENT-FOR PASSENGERS the machinery for the circulation, of the peo- ONLY.-Elias Bunker informs his friends and pie. These accommodations were, however, the public, that he has commenced running far from being luxurious at a distance from a sloop of about 110 tons burthen, between the great cities. In these, indeed, the staging the cities of Hudson and New York, for the was conducted in a style approaching the purpose of carrying passengers only. The splendid. The eastern stages running into owners of this vessel, beiig desirous to renBoston, and penetrating into every part of der the passage as short, convenient, and New England, were celebrated for their agreeable as possible, have not only taken quality and style, as were those of New care to furnish her with the best Beds, Bed-.York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and ding, Liquors, Provisions, &c., but they have most other large cities that were the centres been at very great expense and trouble in of traffic, as well as post service. The dif- procuring materials, and building her on thb ferent "lines" ran such opposition, as re- best construction for sailing, and for the acduced the fare and promoted speed. The commodation of ladies and gentlemen traveldandy "turn-out" being ready at the hour, ling on business or for pleasure. well dressed, polite, smart drivers received " Merchants and others residing in the the "ribbons" with gloved hands, and the northern, eastern, or western counties, will " team" went through with a skill that could find a great convenience in being able to calget the best time out of the nature of the culate (at home) the precise time they can road. As the traveller receded from the great sail from Hudson and New York, without becentres, he found the "teams" worse, and ing under the necessity of taking their beds the roads to match. The mails ran fewer and bedding, and those in New York may times in the week, the vehicle dwindled from so calculate their business as to be certain the easy coach to the covered spring wagon, of comfortable accommodations up the rivto the open wagon without springs, ultimately er." to the horse, and finally perhaps to a man's This was evidently no common luxury that back, and the traveller's accommodation Capt. Bunker proffered to an admiring pubdiminished in proportion. lie. They were no longer required to "take up their beds and walk." Ladies and gentlemen travelling for pleasure could now be supplied with bedding, as well as other luxCHAPTER IL uries, on board a hundred ton sloop, and CO A OSTERS -STE AMB0 ATS —OANALtS. r depend upon the time of her leaving. The wary Elias did not commit himself to the IN the neighborhood of the water-courses time of her arrival, however. Long experithe traveller was better accommodated by ence had made him cautious on that point. the coasting vessels. The early settlements However, to be certain of leaving was someof the country had been, as a matter of thing, since the taking of a passage had course, upon the coast and on the numerous been only a preliminary step to a voyage. streams with which the country is supplied. The completing of the freight, the waiting The roads had extended back, more or less, for a wind, and the notification by means of into the country from these settlements, a black man to be on board at an appointed where the freights accumulated at the hour, were now to be dispensed with. This landings, whence they were carried by water was a great blessing, a good way in advance for interchange with other towns, or, as the of the navigation 150 years previous, when country grew, to be exported abroad. The permission was granted to a sloop to go from wagon charge for freight was always so high New Amsterdam (New York) to Fort Oras to absorb the value of the produce at ange (Albany), provided she did not carry COASTERS-STEAMBOATS-CANALS. 179 more than six passengers. This was the vy, "the country's right arm of defence," mode of reaching most of the large cities. by means of this great innovator. NeverFrom any point of the eastern coast the best theless, the spark of genius had kindled the mode of reaching Boston was by the lumber flame of invention, and the public were beor other coasters. In these the passengers, coming absorbed in it. Each new steamer exmale and female, were stowed away in a few ceeded the previous ones in build and style, berths in the cabin, or sprawled around upon and the machinery underwent as rapid imthe uncarpeted floor. Sometimes these ves- provement. As usual, however, the public sels, when the freight earnings were eked out were slow to be convinced. It was admitby a fair number of passengers, as from Ban- ted, when it could no longer be denied, that gor, Portland, or other cities, were raised to steam would answer for the river, but it was the dignity of a "packet," when a few ex- held to be idle to attempt the Sound navigatra berths were decorated with a red bomba- tion in those new-fangled concerns. This zette frill of rather a scanty style. In the problem was decided in the Fulton by Capt. rainy seasons, spring and fall, these were al- Bunker, possibly our enterprising friend of most the only modes of travelling. It may the sloop. The "Hell-gate" passage was, be suppossd that passengers were not very in those days, an object of terror. An Engabundant. The vessels, however, improved lish frigate had been lost there in the old in size and accommodation, and the number war, and there were not a few who still held of passengers still, even in these railroad the idea that "the devil only could beat days, conveyed by them is, perhaps, as large those English who had beat the Dutch." as ever. The speed of these vessels was not The East River rushing up the Sound at pargreat, and the uncertainty of arrival such as ticular times of tide pours a tremendous flood now would by no means suit ideas of busi- between Ward's and Long Islands. The ness. In those seasons of the year when the passage narrows to a few yards, and the tide roads were generally good, the stages would rushes past the "hog's back" arid the "gridmake four miles per hour and arrive in fair iron," turns at right angles, and forms a time. Such arrangements did not permit foaming whirlpool around the "pot-rock," frequent visits for the purchase of goods, which, even with the surface of the water,. and most business was done fall and spring, is fatal to any vessel that touches it. when the goods followed the water-courses Through that "gate of Hell" the steamer as far as possible, and then paid from 15 to was to pass, and the operation was described 30 cents per ton per mile, according to the by a passenger as follows:difficulties of the route. Even the mail "I remember the long-agitated question, charge was from 6 to 25 cents per single let- whether steamboats could be made capable ter, or a letter on one piece of paper, being of sea navigation, or so constructed as to trav18} cents for any distance between 150 and erse our sounds, bays, and coasts in safety. 400 miles-envelopes, of course, were not This question was put to rest by the enterused. Those charges were continued down prise and skill of Capt. Bunker. In the Fulton, to 1845, when the reduction took place. constructed, I am told, with a view to crossing The tonnage employed in the coasting the Atlantic, he undertook the navigation of trade had increased from 68,607 in 1789, to Long Island Sound, an arm of the sea in 420,362 in 1812. Inasmuch as but little which the most severe tempests are often change had taken place in the speed and encountered. During a season of no extrabuild of the vessels, the increase indicates ordinary moderation, including the two equithe progress of business. In 1807 the en- noctial gales, Capt. B. lost but a single trip. terprising sloop owners who, like Captain Another doubt remained to be removed. It Bunker, had conceived the idea of furnish- was supposed impossible to pass the celebrated berths for the accommodation of the pub- ed passage of Hell-gate against the tide, at lie, were struck aghast at the success of Ful- the strength of the current. This was reton's "Clermont"-named after the country served for Capt. Bunker to remove, and I seat of Chancellor Livingston-steaming up happened to be on board at the time of the the river at the rate of four miles an hour un- novel and interesting experiment, returning der all circumstances. The conservative inter- southward from New Hampshire. A numests were loud in demonstrating the utter ruin ber of respectable passengers witnessed the that was to overtake river craft, the occupa- performance. It was in the boat Connectition of boatmen, and, consequently, the na- cut, built with all the strength to be obtained 180 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. and careful workmanship. The machinist North River boats continued to improve, (McQueen) was accompanying his engine to and the time of the Clermont-36 hours to prove its powers, with careful and ingenious Albany-was, in 1820, reduced by the Parassistants, and some of the owners were on agon to 20 hours. In 1823, however, the board also. The first attempt to pass the time from New York to Providence, 200 point of greatest pressure of the contracted miles, was 20 hours, and the stage to Boston stream was unsuccessful, and the boat was completed the route, 40 miles, in 6 hours compelled to retreat into an eddy and in- more, making 26 hours. At that date steamcrease her steam. With renovated power ers were multiplying on all the Atlantic rivers the effort was repeated, every man fixed im- and bays, on the western rivers and the lakes. movable at his post, the passengers properly In 1819 the first steamer crossed the Atlantic stationed in different parts of the boat, the from Savannah, Ga., to England. In 1825 engineers employing their utmost diligence the Chief Justice Marshall reduced the time to force the passage. They were again de- to Albany to 14 h. 30 m. The progress in feated by the supposed resistless stream, and speed may be seen by the following:again retreated, racked, strained, and shivering, from the contest. After a short pause 1811, Clermont's time to Albany, 4 ms. per h., 36 bs. resolved by the 1820, Paragon, " " 20 and fresh preparation, it was resolved by the hie ticearshall, 14.30 1825, Chief Justice Marshall, 14.30 parties concerned to make a third endeavor, 1840, Knickerbocker. " 9 33 and test the strength of the machinery by 1860, average time 18 miles per hour, 8 the greatest trial it could ever be expected 1870, " " 21 " " " 7 to bear. After a severe struggle, in which With the opening of the Erie canal in a weaker vessel would have been disjointed 1825, the quantity of goods going and comand torn to pieces, the headstrong current ing much increased the demand for transyielded to the giant power of steam, and the portation, and barges in tow of steamers betriumph of art over nature was effected. A gan a new era in that business. That goods few moments of greater breathless anxiety could be carried west on the canal, and so I scarcely ever witnessed. Mechanical sci- by continuous water-courses on the lakes ence achieved a victory over elementary and their affluents, induced more passengers force, and overcame an obstacle heretofore by the same route. In 1841 the improved deemed in this manner altogether insur- method of propelling by screw was introdumountable. The courage and perseverance ced by thepatent of Capt. Ericsson. Theiron of Capt. B. were so conspicuous on this screw steamer R. F. Stockton, of 72 tons, occasion, that I can never forget the impres- came from Liverpool under the command of sion made on all present. We have since Capt. Crane, and became a tug on the Rarifound it as easy to traverse our sea-board, tan canal. Those steamers now gradually navigate the Mississippi, and cross the At- gained ground in public favor. The speed lantic, as it was to find America after Colum- was long not so great as that of the paddle bus had broken the egg." wheels. This has been gradually overcome To those who now so frequently make by improved models and forms of screw, that dire passage without knowing it, this until in the month of October, 1860, two animated description must afford surprise as propellers of 100 feet length were launched well as amusement. It is suggestive, not so for the North River trade, and made time much of the temerity of the "bold naviga- 18 miles per hour, being the fastest boats tors" of that day, as of the feeble nature for their length afloat. This class of vessels of the boats then built. The passage, to be may ultimately be exclusively used in the sure, has now been deprived of some of its European trade. "horrors" by the removal of the pot-rock, The settlers who had crossed the mounwhich has been broken by gunpowder tains in the early times of the government blasts to a depth which leaves it no longer had located mostly on the great streams, dangerous. The noble steamers of the pres- within easy reach of the means of conveying ent day pass through at all times of tide, the surplus to points of sale. They were without apparently feeling the current, in- not provided with vessels of a very expensive stead of butting at it three times "strained construction; and flat boats were the chief and shivering." The steamboat, after per- means of descending the streams. These forming this feat, passed up the Connecticut Vessels, designed only to go down stream, siver for the first time to Middletown. The were composed of such material as, after -M-' -.-' ~. " <'~}.............-. —:..... f~ zI ii'?~ ~'~' -i........ i:::':- i-: — ~_ 1:- lI; M E-!~6~~i:; c _::: i-ili-iiiii;';l-li:-' I:: ~:::1-:.: ----:::::i::.:: M ([..& _'I~ ~ t3'?.']Ti't1~]i'Lt ~':,,[...~).'!'tp ~?~, f..]~'I2a-~: ——::I:-:-~-:::~'!,_i_?]'[', 14 ~;.t.._{?]...'........... (CAPT, 5) (MIP)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;':: COASTERS —STEAMBOATS CANALS. 181 having served the purpose of transporting in freights. His sanguine nature would produce, could be broken up at the place of probably have been surprised could the veil destination, and sold as lumber. These of time have been so lifted as to permit him were improved into keel boats, for the pur- to see 35 years ahead-the boats of the prespose of ascending the streams, and in either ent day making money at 40 cts. per 100 case were propelled by long poles in the lbs., and carrying it in three days, instead hands of the boatmen. These, standing on of 25. The Monongahela and Ohio Steamthe gunwale at the extreme bow of the boat Company claimed patronage because boat, thrust the pole into the mud, and their new crack boats could go nine miles setting the shoulder against the top, push- an hour! But they were in advance of ed the boat forward with the feet in the times; that speed was thought to be walking toward the stern,which reached, they dangerous, even if possible. Those people drew up the pole, walked back, and repeated are now, however, not quite satisfied unless the movement. In this laborious mode of the speed is equal to 25 miles in still water. travel, all the merchandise sent from the The war had given a new impulse to settleeast, via New Orleans, reached its destina- ments west; the more so that steam now tion. It required four months to travel thus so much facilitated travel, and freights multifrom New Orleans to St. Louis-a distance of plied in proportion. Thus reciprocally the 1,500 miles, and the cost of the goods, it may improved means of travel induced more lowell be supposed, was enhanced by the proc- comotion, and increased traffic more deess; while, on the other hand, the produce mand for vessels. The multiplying boats sent down realized but little. Thus, between and more rapid passages still found a suffi the cheapness of the produce and the dear- ciency of business, and even the old river ness of merchandise received in exchange, craft were kept in requisition for tow boats. the settler realized but little for his labor. Cincinnati began to build barges of 100 tons It is easy to conceive how great a blessing to go to New Orleans in tow of steamers; was steam on those waters, to enable the and the Etna made the passage down in weary men to stem the ceaseless, downward fifteen days, reflecting great glory on the conflow of the mighty currents. In 1811 that mercial enterprise of that city, and its citizens blessing made its appearance at Pittsburg in became elated. A Cincinnati writer of 1817 the shape of a steamboat, built by Fulton, estimates the territory drained commercially and which had a considerable success. The by that city at 10,000 square miles, and regeneral progress was, however, slow, for the marks: "Supposing this settled by 40,000 reason, among others, that, as in all such families, and that each farm would give two cases, there was a large capital invested in tons annual surplus for exportation, there river craft, which would depreciate in value would be 80,000 tons to send to New Orleans, in face of the new power, and there was not or freight for 800 boats of 100 tons each." much capital to embark all at once in steam. The writer apologizes for the extravagance of It was also the case that ChancellorLiving- this estimate. Commercial enterprise began ston, the partner of Fulton, claimed a mo- to seek new routes. In 1823 three keel boats nopoly of the lower Mississippi trade, and in tow passed 450 miles up the Wabash put a restraint for some years upon steam in river. It was not until 1826 that the first that region. So great a power could not, how- steamer ran up the Alleghany river. In the ever, but force its way. With the construe- same year the ship Illinois reached St. tion of the Enterprise, in 1815, St. Louis was Louis from New York, via New Orleans, reached in 25 days from New Orleans, and 3,000 miles, in twenty-nine days and a half, public enthusiasm was aroused. There were, and the first steamer ran up the Susquehanna however, up to 1817, still but twelve boats to Tioga. The opening of the Erie canal, in upon the western waters, of an aggregate ton- 1825, caused a great change in travel. Thus nage of 2,335 tons. The time to Pittsburg was the journey from New York to Pittsburg was 54 days, of which 36 days was running time. accomplished by canal, with only eight days These passages caused much excitement, and staging, and thence down the river to New a bold merchant predicted that the rate of Orleans. In 1824 the passage up from New freight between New Orleans and St. Louis Orleans to New York, via Pittsburg, was would fall to $3.50 per 100 lbs., but he was made in 24 days, at an expense of $90. regarded as visionary, or what they would The passage from Natchez to Philadelphia, now call in Wall-street language a "bear" 2,000 miles, was equal to 17 days. In .....-.... FLATBOAT FROM ST. LOUIS TO NEWt ORLEANIS, TIME FOUR. MONTHS. WI~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —------- -- ------- -~L_~~T B~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ -~~ -- -- ---- ------ = - FLATBOAT ~ ~ ~ ----- FROM ST. LOUIS TO NE-t ORLEANS, TINGE FOUR MONTES STEAMBOAT FROM NEW ORLEANS TO ST. LOUIS, TIME THREE DAYS COASTERS-STEAMBOATS-CANALS. 183 the same year a remarkable voyage was pro- answer in narrow and shallow streams. The jected from Charleston to Green Bay. It regular steamers have their main decks was a sloop of six tons, with six passengers, within four or five feet of the water, and the and it reached Rochester in 15 days from guards overhanging the bow give them the Charleston. The passage of a gentleman appearance of a New York ferry-boat. The from Detroit to Washington and back in 16 paddle wheels are generally much further aft days was regarded as a miracle, than in the eastern steamers. The after The remarkable progress of steam upon part of the main deck is devoted to freight. the Mississippi may be estimated most Above the main deck from 10 to 18 feet is readily by a table of the passages at different the saloon deck, which extends nearly over periods, as follows:- the whole of the main deck. The saloon is NEW ORLEANS TO ST. LOUIS-1,300 MILES. surrounded with state-rooms, which open Prior to steam.................120 days. into it, as well as on to a promenade which 1815, Steamer Enterprise....... 25 " 1823, Steamerag Enterprises....... 12 " goes entirely round the outside of the boat. 1823, average passages.. 12 " 1826, " General Brown... 9 " 12 hours. The saloon is from 150 to 250 feet long. 1828, " "... 9 " 4 " Above this deck is a promenade deck, upon 1860, " running time..... 3 " which is a long tier of state-rooms, and this, The time between New Orleans and St. in its turn, is surmounted by another promeLouis was thus diminished under the various nade deck, which has the pilot-house at its improvements suggested by experience in front, and which is usually 50 feet from the the form and mode of running steamers. A water. But formerly, when there was no boat of 350 tons when fitted out will restraint upon reckless steam pressure, or now cost some $50,000, and will carry 500 the explosive qualities of the boiler, its tons down stream, or 1,500 bales of cotton height, as well as that of the decks, was on deck. Twenty years ago the freight of very uncertain. The "crack boats" are cotton down from Memphis was $2 per bale, now built from 300 to 400 feet, with 36 to and below Natchez $1 per bale. The charge 40 feet beam, eight feet hold, and draught of for freight up from New Orleans to Natchez water, light two feet, and loaded four feet. was 75 cts. per 100 Ibs. As the business These steamers are now free from those increased, larger boats were built. Of these reckless races which formerly so endangered the Eclipse was the type. She car- life, when the safety-valve was fastened ried 1,200 tons, but was too large to pay; down, the furnace stuffed with tar and pitch, and boats are now constructed of a less and the captain, rifle in hand, ready to dimension. The Mississippi boats are large shoot down the pilot of the opposing boat flat-bottomed boats, drawing from 15 to 50 at the critical moment when the least deviainches of water. The speed depends upon tion in steering would lose him the race. the circumnstances of the channel. That Those barbarous times have passed with the the Memphis, recently built for the frontier manners of the passengers. Their Louis and Memphis trade, is 18 miles in sporting, drinking, gambling, fighting, have still water per hour. With light draught and given place to business, temperance, prugreat pressure, a speed equal to 24 miles in dence, and refinement, while wealth rolls up still water has been attained. The Al- in the cities as a result of the speedy and toona ran between Alton and St. Louis, 25 cheapened transportation which the steammiles, in one hour and forty-five minutes, ers have effected. and in one hour down; average down and The increase of steam tonnage on those up, one hour and twenty-five minutes. waters, has been as follows:Eighteen miles is said to be the time of the 1842 1851 1860 1868 western boats. Those rivers flow with gen- New Orleans.....28,153 34,736 10,072 52,025 tle currents in mostly shallow water; and St. Louis........14,725 31,834 55,515 86,135 there have been various changes in the Cincinnati.......1025 249 23,136 69,31. Pittsburg........10,101 16,943 42,4174 53,162 fashion of the boats. The stern-wheel boat, Louisville....... 4,618 15,181 29,031 28,106 we believe, is peculiarto those rivers. Instead Nashville....... 3,810 3,578 5,268 of having two wheels paddling, one on each Wheeling..... 2,595 1,191 11,545 20,117 side, one wheel, 20 feet in diameter, is placed Vicksurg......938.. 2,396.. I Memphis........ 450 6,143 13,413 directly at the stern, athwart ships, and by Galena and above.... 5,849 25,198 its revolutions pushes the boat ahead. These: -- boats are not remarkable for their speed, but Total tons..16,033 135,560 249,039 351,671 184 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. It is a matter of course that when the Maine to Georgia, It was then that the speed of these vessels has increased in the enterprises to which the great minds of the manner indicated, their efficiency for traffic Revolution had given birth at the peace of has progressed in the same ratio. In the 1783 began to be realized, and two objects 25 days that were formerly required to go were sought, viz.: a safe inland water comfrom New Orleans to St. Louis, a steamer munication along the whole Atlantic border, of the present day will make eight passages, to operate in case of war, and another and will carry more freight. Hence, the was to connect the waters of the west with number of tons does not indicate the growth the east, and the public began to regard of the trade. If the number of tons is three with more favor the project of uniting the times greater, the business is 30 times lakes to the Hudson river. Mr. Morris, who larger. The effect of the great reduction in had suggested it at the close of the Revoluthe freight on goods may be illustrated by tion, wrote an able report in its favor in a single example. Thus, in 1815 cotton 1812, when the war gave new interest to it. cloth was 30 cts. per yard, and 100 yards The undertaking was formidable, and New weig(hei 25 Ibs., whirih would consequently York applied to the federal government be worth $30. The transportation of this and other states for aid, but her application at that time from New Orleans to St. Louis was met with jeers and ridicule. The result would cost $5, or 17 per cent. of the cost. The was the determination of the state to undersame quantity of cloth is now worth $9.00, take it alone, when the return of peace and the transportation from New Orleans to allowed of more facility for its execution; St. Louis 40 cts., or 4- per cent. of the accordingly, on the 4th of July, 1817, the cost. These figures speak of the greater Erie canal was commenced with great ceremoney value realized for products, and the mony, Governor De Witt Clinton turning increased quantities of merchandise pro- the first earth, and it was completed Octocured for that money value, ber, 1825. The event was celebrated with The war of 1812, by interrupting trade on the greatest pomp along the whole line, and the Atlantic, had induced a large migration in the city of New York. The canal is 363 to the west, when steam was opportunely miles long, 40 feet wide at top, 4 feet deep, developed to facilitate trade and traffic at and the capacity of boats, 80 tons. The the same time. The return of peace found construction cost $7,143,789, or $19,679 a large population west of the mountains in per mile. This immense work gave the longthe full tide of prosperity, and in the Atlan- wished-for communication between the great tic states great excitement in regard to lakes and the tide waters of theAtlantic. In steam, with multiplying manufactures, which the same year, viz., October, 1817, a canal sought a market in the growing west. Under connecting the waters of Lake Champlain such circumstances the old canal projects for with the Erie canal some miles from Albany opening up the communication were revived was commenced. This Erie and Lake Chainin full force, the more so that the war had plain or Northern canal is 63 miles long, and nearly destroyed the usual water communica- was completed at the close of 1823, at a cost tion. of $1,257,604, or $19,962 per mile. The Erie Instead of transporting merchandise in canal proved to be the most successful work sloops and schooners along the coast, now of the kind in the world, and within 10 no longer safe from the enemy, recourse was years discharged in full the debt created for had to wagons over roads not the best in its construction. The great success of the the world. This was necessarily very slow work not only gave an impulse to canal and costly. The traffic between New York building in other states, but induced the and Philadelphia, for instance, was carried state of New York to embark in new underon in a Conestoga wagon, drawn by four takings of the same nature, which have not horses, and that which covered the distance proved so successful. These were what are of 90 miles in three days was known as called the lateral canals, draining the coun"the flying machine," and the value of try on either side, into the grand canal. goods at either end of the round showed The Oswego canal runs 38 miles from Lake great fluctuations, enhanced by the expense. Ontario to the Erie canal, at Syracuse. It This extra expense for the whole coast alone, cost $55,437, and was finished in 1838. it was asserted, would have paid the whole The Cayuga and Seneca lake runs 23 miles cost of a system of internal navigation from from those lakes to the Erie canal at Mon COASTERS-STEAMBOATS-CANALS. 185 tezuma, and was finished in 1829, at a cost excavated on the level soil, carried over gaps of $237,000. The Chemung canal, connect- and rivers by embankments that will hold ing the Chemung river with Seneca lake, the water, and it must be fed by abundant 39 miles, was finished in 1838, at a cost of streams. $316,000. The Crooked Lake canal, 8 miles, The channel is excavated with the two sides was finished in 1836, for $120,000. The sloping at the same angle, which varies with Chenango connects the Susquehanna at the nature of the soil. The base of the Binghamton with the Erie canal at Utica, slope is commonly to the height as 5 to 4. 96 miles, and was finished in 1837, at a The bottom of the canal is generally the cost of $2,417,000. These canals never breadth of two boats upon the deck, in paid their expenses, and became a burden order that they may pass. The depth of upon the revenues of the Erie. There are water in the canal should be at least one foot also in New York, the Genesee Valley canal, more than the draught of the boats. The tow108 miles Black River and feeder, 87 miles; path is about two feet above the level of the the Delaware and Hudson, 83 miles; and water, and about ten feet wide. When the the Oneida, 8 miles. canal runs through a sandy soil, or one that The great success of the Erie, as we have does not easily retain water, the bottom is said, roused the emulation of other states, "puddled." This process is to mix clay and during the five years succeeding the well with gravel and put it on in successive opening of the Erie the air was filled with layers of two or three inches thick. When canal projects, only to name which would a new layer is put on, the old one is roughed occupy much space. We may mention some up to make both adhere well. When reof the most extraordinary, however: a canal pairs are needed, they are generally done at from Boston to Narragansett bay; Long the time the water is let out for the winter. Island to Canada, via the Connecticut river; The bed of the canal is so laid as to give a Boston to the Connecticut river; a canal gentle current to the water. The levels are over Cape Cod; Providence to Worcester; the distances between the locks, and each a ship canal across Central America. These level, proceeding downward, has a less projects only indicate the extraordinary ac- elevation than the preceding one. In a tivity that the Erie success had imparted to hilly country these locks are frequent, and in the public mind. Those which were evidently some cases are continued for a distance, like the most needed for present and future com- steps up and down a declivity. Thus the merce, were immediately undertaken. The Erie canal, on leaving Lake Erie at LockChesapeake and Ohio, to connect the waters port, descends 60 feet to the Genesee river. that the name designates; the Ohio canal, to To perform this, ten double locks built in connect Lake Erie with the Ohio river; the masonry are required, but the canal has Farmington canal, in Connecticut, afterward also one level of 63 miles without a lock. used for a railroad site; the Chesapeake and The lock is a chamber built of timber or Delaware, to connect those waters, were all masonry, as large as possible for the size of ready, and broke ground July 4, 1825, the canal. The boats must not exceed three months before the Erie was finally what can be admitted to the locks. The completed. These works, with many others, top of the lock is above the surface of the which we shall take up in their order, were water, and its bottom is level with that of pushed to completion, under various diffi- the next lower level. Each end of the culties, inasmuch as that they required a chamber is closed by heavy swinging doors, large amount of money, but they had an which open in the middle against the direcimmense influence upon traffic, and called tion of the current. The doors being a little into requisition an amount of engineering skill broader than the lock, they meet in the midwhich had never before been demanded in dle at an angle, and the weight of the water the country, and various success has attend- presses them together. When a boat going ed the construction. The object of a canal up the canal comes to a lock, it passes beis, of course, to float boats that contain tween the open gates, which close behind merchandise, between two points, in order it. The water is then let in from the upper to reduce the expense of the transportation. gates, until the lock being full, the boat The canal is therefore constructed with some floats to the upper level, generally about 10 regard to the amount of business that will feet rise, but sometimes 18 feet. It passes be required of it. The channel must be out, and another boat being ready to go 1 86 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. down takes its place, when, the upper capacity would be the time required to pass gates being closed, the water is let off below boats at the locks. It was calculated that and the boat lowers with it to the lower 26,000 boats can be locked each way in a level. A lock full of water is thus dis- season. The old canal boats were about charged. It follows that a large supply of 70 tons, hence the utmost capacity of the water must be had to replace what thus canal would be 3,640,000 tons; but by the passes off, in addition to leakage and evap- enlargement the boats were to be of 224 oration. The engineer of the Erie canal tons burden, hence the tonnage would be calculated the loss by leakage was 100 11,648,000 tons, if the quantity moving cubic feet per minute. For supply, reser- each way was the same, but the down voirs are often constructed. Canal branches, freight is as four to one of the up, which called feeders, are made to bring water from reduces the capacity to 7,230,000 tons. distant sources. Steam power is also used Before the canal was built, the expense of to raise water to the required level. This is transportation from Buffalo to New York the case with the Illinois and Michigan was $100 per ton! and the time 20 days. canal; the waters of Lake Michigan being A ton of wheat in New York was then worth pumped up to the summit level. In some about $33, hence the transportation was three cases inclined planes are substituted for times the value of the wheat, six times the locks. In these cases the boats run upon value of corn, and twelve times the value trucks, which are then, by the power of of oats. As a consequence, the wheat of steam, dragged up the plane to the higher western New York at that time went down level. In the Morris canal, of New Jersey, the Susquehanna to Baltimore as the cheapthese have a slope of one in 21. These are est and best market, as the lumber of the the general features of all the canals, but the head waters of that river now goes. When influence they have upon transportation de- the canal was opened, the freight down was pends, of course, in some degree, upon the about $14 per ton, more or less, according localities and the capacities of the work. to the character of the freight. This has Boats are commonly towed upon a canal by gradually been reduced, and in 1850, when horses. A single horse can draw upon a the railroads for the first time were allowed good road a ton at a speed of 2A or 3 to carry freight, it was $3 to $7 from Buffalo miles per hour, and can draw as easily 70 to New York. By the enlargement the tons upon a canal at the same speed. The rates have been reduced to $1.75 per ton difference in cost is immense. Instead of between Albany and Buffalo. Since the 24 cents a ton for one mile land carriage, permission of railroads to carry freight, the Erie canal charges 6 mills per ton per however, the business of canals is more conmile, or one-fortieth part of the expense. fined to those heavy freights furnished by The freights charged are distinct from the the raw produce of the country, lumber parstate tolls. It is obvious that where the ticularly. Those coarse and bulky articles boats are of greater capacity, allowing of a that are of low money value as compared larger quantity to be passed down at the with their weight will continue to move upsame passage, the cost. of transportation on canals, but the lighter and more costly, is much diminished. Thus the Delaware as well as those pressed for time, will be and Hudson canal had a capacity for 50 carried exclusively by rails. These latter ton boats, and coal was carried 108 miles have some disadvantages, however, as in the for $1. The enlargement of the canal so case of flour, the motion of the railroad as to admit boats of 100 tons reduced the causing it to waste, an objection not urged cost 65 cents, but some of the boats carry against canal travel. 148 tons at proportionate rates. When the The total length of the five great lakes is routes of the canals of other states threat- 1,555 miles, and the area 90,000 square ened to affect the business of the New York miles, and they are estimated to drain an area canal, the reduction of the cost by means of 335,515 square miles. That vast tract of of enlargement was the means resorted to waters was a waste as far as transportation to retain the trade, and the enlargement has went until the year 1797, when the first been prosecuted at great expense. The American schooner was launched. The principle of the enlargement was based upon craft increased to some extent for the small the fact that as the canal is abundantly commerce that engaged the settlers when supplied with water, the only limit to its there was no outlet either to the Atlantic COASTERS -STEAMBOATS-CANALS. 187 or to the south. In 1816, however, a in 1840, 3,800,000 bushels; and in 1851, steamer was built on Lake Ontario, and in 12,193,202 bushels, which paid $500,000 1819 the Walk-in-the-Water, 340 tons, was freight and charges. The railroads have launched at Buffalo. The most of the trade, since interfered to some extent, but the however, consisted in the operations of the wheat received across the lakes was, in 1860, Indian traders, carrying westward supplies as follows:and trinkets for the trade, and returning Fo o. r 4 From Ohio.................. 2,856,216 bushels. with furs and peltries. On the opening of the i.......219225 Erie canal, in 1825, a new state of things " Michigan... 2117,90 presented itself. Western New York threw " Illinois................ 12,195,195 off its frontier aspect, and put on an air of " Wisconsin............. 5,447,766 " civilization, since it became a receiver of New York......... 13066 western produce and exporter of goods. The Total...........25,967,039 " steam tonnage multiplied to transport the growing produce of the west. In 1822 the The successive opening of the Ohio canals Superior was launched, another steamer in in 1833, the Illinois canal in 1848, and the 1824, two in 1825, and three in 1826. One Indiana canal in 1851, all added constantly of these made the first voyage upon Lake to the amount of produce to be transported, Michigan, -in 1826, on a pleasure excursion. and since the last-mentioned date the railIt was not until 1832 that business called roads have opened new regions of country, them thither, and then one reached Chicago, and increased the lake trade. It is to be borne in the employ of the government, to carry in mind that the size of the vessels, their supplies for the Black Hawk war. From great speed when under way, and the greatthat time, tonnage has increased as follows:- er dispatch in loading and unloading by steam, not only for motion, but for labor at Buffalo Creek.... 6,773 25,990 42,640 56,273 the dock, enable the same quantity of tonPresque Isle.... 2,813 5,691 1,471 432 nage to do ten times the business that it Cuyahoga....... 1,855 6,418 22,579 formerly could do. In the lake trade the Sandusky...... 360 16,100 sailing vessels and the large canal boats.still Miami......... 887 1,745. largely exceed in tonnage the steamers, Detroit.......... 2,053 16,469 30 tMacktinaw... 1. 23 469 33611 46,264 there being 550,000 tons of the former to Chicago..... 652 8,151 10,849 141,000 of the latter. The side or paddle Milwaukee...... 2,026 10,939 wheel steamers have, since 1855, been giving 4,381 58,111 108,243 140,861 place to the propellers, and the latter are 14,381 58,1 108,243 140,861 now generally preferred. In 1843 the first The 11 boats running in 1833, carried to lake propeller, the Hercules, was launched and from Buffalo 61,485 passengers, and at Cleveland, 275 tons, the screw of Ericsthe fares with the freight amounted to $229,- son's patent. In 1851 the propellers had 212. Those were the years of the great increased to 52, with a tonnage amounting land speculations, and crowds of passengers to 15,729. In 1860 there were 118, tonnage went west on that errand. Three trips were 55,657. These boats had, at first, far less made a year to the upper lakes. The speed than the paddles, but they have gained trips to Chicago from Buffalo occupied 25 in public opinion, not only upon the lakes, days to go and return. In 1841 the time but in the Atlantic bays and rivers, until rerequired for a first-class steamer was 10 cent improvements have made them equal to days from Buffalo to Detroit and back. the paddle-wheels in speed. These vessels This was reduced in 1851 to 3 days, have already monopolized the European, as and 5 for propellers. In 1834 the lake well as the internal trade. commerce was controlled by an association, Previous to the opening of the Erie canal, owning 18 boats. This association was kept in 1825, the commerce of the lakes was necup to 1841, when the number of boats had essarily local, since there were no markets increased to 48. The opening of the Ohio east or west. The produce raised in the councanals had poured upon the lakes a large trybordering the lakes descended the streams amount of produce. The 500 miles of canal that ran into them, and found interchange then completed, opened up the grain coun- with other lake ports. The opening of the try to the lakes. In 1835, Ohio exported canal immediately gave an eastern current to by the lakes 543,815 bushels of wheat; produce of alldescriptions, and much had ac 188 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. cumulated in anticipation of the event, and Ohio determined to make the connection, goods returned in great quantities. In the by means of a canal from Portsmouth, on month of May, 1825, 837 boats, carrying the Ohio, to Cleveland, on Lake Erie. On 4,1 22 tons of goods, left Albany for Buffalo, the 4th July, 1825, the first spade was paying $22,000 tolls. put into the ground, and in 1833 the first The lumber from western New York and boat passed through from lake to river, 307 the lake borders being now marketable miles. The whole interior of Ohio was thus where before it was valueless, a motive for opened to either the northern or the southclearing land was imparted, and the new canal ern market; and the state authorized turnreceived on its bosom from all sections of the pikes and other roads to feed the canal, on lake shore the lumber brought by multiply- the borders of which trade grew rapidly. ing vessels. The lumber that found tide There are severalbranches of the Ohio canal; water before had been that which in south- one, the Hocking, goes to Athens, and anern New York and in Pennsylvania skirted other to Columbus. The highest level of the natural water-courses, and being cut and the Ohio canal is 305 feet above the lake, hauled, was rafted down to Philadelphia and and 499 feet above the Ohio river. Another Baltimore. The New England streams de- canal, the Miami, was also commenced in livered the lumber in the same manner. 1825 to connect Cincinnati with Lake Erie. The opening of the canal brought into com- In 1829 it had been opened to Dayton, 85 petition the vast and hitherto untouched miles, but it was not completed until 1843, resources of the west, and the same remark when it connected, 130 miles, with the applies to all farm produce. The farmers WTabash canal, which joins Lake Erie at of New England were undersold at their own Toledo, making 215 miles from Cincinnati doors, by produce from western New York. to Lake Erie. All the Ohio canals are as The potatoes that had been quick of sale at follows:75 cents, were supplanted by the best " che- Length. Cost. nangos" at 374 cents, and the competition iles. $4,695,202 69 Ohio canal................ 340 $4,695,202 69 was felt in corn, flour, and most articles. Miami................... 85 1,020,000 00 The effect of this was to turn the attention " extension..130 3,667,440 82 of that hard-working and thrifty race of Muskingum................92 1,628,028 29 men, the farmers of New England, to the Hockin.......... 56 95,481 01 western country, where the soil was so much Wabash and Erie...........91 300992 29 Walhonding............. -25 607 268 99 more profitable. At that date commenced the interchange of inhabitants, which has Total.............819 $15,603,345 09 drawn off so many New England farmers, replacing them with manufacturers from Subsequent additions and slackwater imabroad. In order to show the extent of this provements have made the whole number of operation, we take from the census of 1860 miles of canal 996, and the cost over 20 millthe figures showing the nativities of the ion dollars. By these canals and others in Inwhole people of the United States. Thus diana, Illinois, and Kentucky, the states east there were in the whole Union 10,205,902 of the Mississippi river have water communipersons who were born in the New Eng- cation with New York city. The enlargeland and middle states. Of these, 7,731,- mentof these canals to admit steamers of 630 lived in the states where they were 600 tons will greatly facilitate commerce. born. The remainder, 2,474,272, were liv- The state of Pennsylvania next undering mostly west, but in their place there took the great work of forming a connecwere living in the New England and middle tion between the Delaware and the Ohio. states 2,030,438 persons who were born in The project which had been formed at the foreign countries. These latter worked in close of the last century was now resumed; the mills and manufactories, while as many and in 1826 a law was passed to construct northern persons who had migrated west the work at the expense of the state, and, were agriculturists attracted thither by the July 4th, 1826, the first earth was turned at fertile lands made available by the means of Harrisburg, and in 1834 it was opened for transportation. The lakes were now con- use. The line consisted of a railroad, 82 nected with tide water, but the whole sys- miles, from Philadelphia to Columbia, cost tem of western rivers with a southern course $3,330,127; a canal from Columbia, 172 had no northern connection. The state of miles, to Hollidaysburg, cost $4,594,146; COASTERS-STEAMBOATS —CANALS. 189 a portage railroad across the mountain they were younger and weaker states. In from Hollidaysburg to Johnstown, 36 miles, 1836, under the spur of the speculative cost $1,634,357; and a canal from Johns- fever, Indiana enacted a bill authorizing town to Pittsburg, 105 miles, cost $2,823,- a system of internal improvements. This 192-making 395 miles, at a cost of $12,- embraced the Wabash and Erie canal, to run 381,822. Thus the Ohio atPittsburgwasnow from Evansville on the Ohio to the Ohio connected with Philadelphia, by a route much state line, where it was to follow down the less than from Buffalo to New York. There valley of the Maumee, taking up the Miami were seven branch canals made to feed this. canal in its course, and entering the Erie The aggregate length was 314 miles, and Lake at Toledo. Second, the White Water the cost $6,471,994. Every part of the canal, to connect the National or Cumberland state was now more or less in communica- road at Cambridge, with Lawrenceburg on tion with the great outlets east and west. the Ohio, 76 miles. Third, the White There were, besides, three private canals, River canal, to connect Indianapolis with viz.: the Schuylkill, 108 miles; the Lehigh, Evansville on the Ohio, 190 miles, and to 85 miles; and the Union, 82 miles, which prolong it from Indianapolis to Peru on the connected the great coal fields with tide Wabash canal. There were also to be some water. Macadam roads and turnpikes. These works We have shown that Washington pre- were to cost $10,000,000. The Wabash canal sided, at the close of the Revolution, at a was begun in 1835, and in 1840, 90 miles meeting for the improvement of the Poto- were finished. The great revulsion then mac. The ideas then suggested ripened brought all to a stand, and some ten years into a project for a canal. The cession of a elapsed before the work was completed portion of Maryland and of Virginia to form through the aid of a loan obtained on pledge the District of Columbia as a seat of gov- of lands granted by Congress in aid of this eminent led to the national desire to connect work. it with the west. This was done, as we The state of Illinois undertook a far more have seen, by the National or Cumberland extensive system of public improvements. road to Wheeling. But in 1820 the canal As early as 1810 a project was put forward, from Georgetown to Pittsburg was projected, under the excitement of Fulton's great sucCongress voting $1,000,000. Washington cess, to connect New Orleans with Buffalo City issued bonds for a like sum. George- in 32 days by steam, by way of Chicago. town and Alexandria each subscribed The waters of the Illinois and the lakes $250,000, Maryland $500,000, and Virginia were in high floods nearly blended. In 1823 $250,000, and 6,084 shares of $100 each a board of commissioners was appointed to were taken by individuals, making altogether report on the route and the cost. A grant $3,854,400. As the work was to run through of land was obtained from Congress in 1829 four territories, it required a charter from Con- in aid. This was every alternate section of gress, Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, land, 10 miles on each side of the canal, in and July 4th (Fourth of July is a great its whole length. Not until 1835 was an day for canals), 1828, John Q. Adams and act passed to authorize the canal, in common Charles Carroll turned the first earth. with many other works, railroads or others, In 1834, 104 miles had been completed. in a general system of internal improvements, The work was finally carried 191 miles which were to cost $12,000,000, and there to Cumberland in 1840, at an expense of had been sold of the lands granted by Consome $16,000,000. It will not probably be gress $1,395,911. carried further, never having answered ex- The canal was to connect Chicago, at the pectations, although of late it has had busi- foot of Lake Michigan, with the Illinois'river, ness from the Cumberland coal regions. 102 miles. It was prosecuted with more or Thus of the three great projects for con- less vigor until the finances and credit of the necting the eastern and western waters, only state were ruined by the revulsion of 1837-9. two were carried out. But, following the The work then lay unfinished until in 1843, example of Ohio, both Indiana and Illinois by means of a pledge of the unsold lands of determined to make a connection across the canal, a sum of $1,600,000 was borrowed, their respective states, between the rivers on and the work completed in 1852. The sales the south and the lakes on the north. But of the land sufficed to pay off the new loan they were some years later than Ohio, since and some of the arrears. 12 -190 -TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. We have thus sketched the great main tions, and may state their original cost as canal avenues that connect important sec- follows:Miles. Expenditure. Width. No. ko Feet. Locks. Erie canal........Hudson river to lakes.............363 $7,143,789 40 84 Pennsylvania canal.Delaware and Ohio.............395 12,381,822 40 200 Ohio "..Ohio river and Lake Erie......307 4,695,824 40 152 Miami.. " " "........178 3,150,000 40 102 Indiana ". " " L........379 7,101,000 60 102 Illinois..Lake Michigan with Illinois river...102 8,654,337 60 2 Total.............................., 1,724 $43,726,772 The financial results of the New York in improvements, particularly in the James canals may be thus stated in the aggregate river, which is navigable to Richmond for of receipts and revenues from the commence- vessels of 120 tons, the tide reaching there; ment of the works to Sept. 30, 1859:- above Richmond a series of short canals inReceipts. Expe s. tended to connect the river with the KanReceipts. Expenditures. Gross tolls...... $70,565,737 Construction..... $55,106.814 awha, where it is navigable 70 miles from its Loans............ 55,842,462 Repairs.......... 16,932.080 mouth on the Ohio. This project was unOther items...... 20,469,924 Loans and interest 57,028,943 Other items...... 17,90,286 dertaken by the James River and Kanawha Total......$146,858,123 Company, and was completed in the form of a canal, 147 miles, at a cost of $5,020,050. Notwithstanding material and repeated There are many other works of public utility reduction of tells on these canals, their rev- in Virginia, under the control of a board of enues have steadily increased, amounting in public works, chartered in 1816. There are 1869, to $4,161,280.10. With the contem- a number of other canals in several states, as plated enlargement and the use of steam to the Blackstone, of Massachusetts; the Ogeepropel and tug the canal boats, a new and chee, of South Carolina, connecting Charlespowerful impulse will be given to the trans- ton with the Santee, cost $650,667, and portation of heavy and bulky goods to and many other improvements in a number of from the West. By their construction a vast states. The Morris and Essex canal, of New capital was added to the national wealth, and Jersey, 101 miles, was completed in 1831. a great value bestowed upon land not before It had banking powers connected with it, very marketable. While this has been done and of all the public works in the country by state means, a great number of other was the basis of the most stupendous stock canals have been erected, jointly by public speculation. Its liabilities were at one time -aid and private enterprise. The most impor- near $10,000,000, and it was sold out in tant of these was the Delaware and Raritan 1845 for a sum less than $3,000,000; its canal, connecting those two rivers. The work business is at present prosperous. It is one was completed in 1827, shortening the dis- of the works that were erected to develop tance 16 miles between Philadelphia and New the great coal business of Pennsylvania. The York, and packet propellers run regularly discovery of that important mineral takes through it between the two cities. It is also date about the year 1820, and the canals that the main source of supply of coal for New were built to bring the coal down may be York. The state of Virginia early embarked enumerated as follows:Length..Mil's. Cost. Width. Locks. Schuylkill navigation...................Pennsylvania..........108 $2,500,196 36 120 Lehigh canal..................................... 85 4,455,099 60 81 Susquehanna................................... 41 897,160 40 12 Nort h Branch........... 73 1,590,379 40 8 " " upper......................... 94 4,500,000 40 Union......................... 82 5,000,000 36 90'Delaware and Hudson................. New York............ 108 9,100,000 15 18 orris canal......................New Jersey.102 3,612,000 32 29 planes, 22 Total canals................................... 693 $31,654,834 The expenditure of large sums of money struction promoted a local demand for prodalongtthe routes of these works for their con- uce, and aided in the settlement of the i -UCe, atemn o -h RAILROADS —LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 191 country through which they ran, and from -sold in Newbern, North Carolina, for $5.50 the improvement of which their future per barrel. This flour was transported from freightings were to be derived, and there the lake to Albany, through the Grand is little matter of surprise that the first canal; thence down the North River to New years of their operation should be of large York; and thence, by sea, to Newbern. The promise. The cost of transporting a ton of cost of transportation from the lakes to Newmerchandise from Buffalo to Albany, which bern was loss than $1.50 per barycl, while had been $100, and the time twenty days, that between Raleigh and Newbern (not more was at once reduced to $20, and the time to than 120 miles) is generally two dollars." eight days. While yet they were being con- In 1826. "The following, from the Pittsstructed, however, a new agent of transpor- burg Gazette, shows the importance of canals. tation had risen, which was to overshadow | Mr. Foster has published in the GreenshuryhA their importance, and reduce them to a Gazette a statement furnished him by a second rank. The rejoicing for the com- merchant of Meadville, showing the amount pletion of the Erie had hardly died away, be- which the merchant paid for the transporfore the locomotive began to throw its tation of his goods this fall from Philadelphia, shadow on the future. The " astonishing by way of. New York, the canal, and Erie, speed" of steamboats and stages was about to the town of Meadville. The whole cost to dwindle into an intolerable tedium. The per hundred pounds was $1.20-1! We are capacities of railroads had begun to be dis- now paying three dollars per huvdrcd for cussed, and the discussion rapidly elicited carriage in wagonsfrom Philadelphia to this action, which did not cease to extend itself, city I" until the whole country has become covered These extracts afford-in contrasting not with rails. When railroads'began to be con- only the routes, but the prices, with those structed, however, both vehicles, sailing before their useandthosewhich now existvessels, and steamers had made considerable much room for reflection. It may be reprogress in speed, and the connections of marked that the Caroline, burnt in the emtravel had come to be made with more ploy of the Canada rebels in 1839, at Schlosregard to dispatch. It is amusing to look ser, and sent over the falls of Niagara, was back at some of the accounts of the wonders built in South Carolina, and had passed up of the canals after the opening. Thus, in the canals to her destination. 1823 it is stated" CANALS! A sloop, called the Gleaner, has arrived at New York from St. Albans, in the state of Vermont, with a cargo consisting of CHAPTER III. 1,200 bushels of wheat and other articles. She will carry sixty tons of merchandise, and does RAILROADS-LND RANTS-EXTENT not appear to have had any difficulty in passing through the northern canal. It is THE excitement in relation to canals and supposed that she will safely navigate the steamboats was yet at its zenith, when the Hudson, and she is designed as a regular air began to be filled with rumors of the packet between St. Albans and the city of new application of steam to land carriages New York. Look at the map! An uninter-'and to railroads. There were many invenrupted sloop navigation from one place to tions and patents at home and abroad in rethe other! lation to carriages propelled upon common " When the Green Mountain vessel arrived roads by steam, but these seem never to have at New York, the veteran artillery were order- attained much success, although attempts to ed out, and she was saluted from the battery." perfect them are still made with great perseIn 1824. "INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT. It verance. On the other hand, the use of railis stated in one of the New York papers roads from small beginnings has reached a that abarrel of flour can be transported from magnitude which overshadows the wildest Albany to New York, a distance of 150 imaginings of the most sanguine. In 1825 miles, for 1 2 cents, and that one individual descriptions came across the water of the offers to do it for seven cents." great success of the Darlington railroad, In 1825. " MARCH OF INTELLECT WITH which was opened to supply London with POWER. —It is no fairy tale, that flour, man- coal, and which had passenger cars moved,ufactured;on Lake E.rie, has been profitably by steam at the rate of seven miles per hour. 192 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. The most animated controversy sprang up in alone costs $2,000, which sum the whole of relation to the possibility of such roads in our apparatus does not much exceed, as England, and was shared in to some extent figures will prove; for 700 good chestnut on this side of the Atlantic. With the nat- rails at $3, amounts to only $21, and it ional energy of character, the idea had no ought to be remembered that this is all the sooner become disseminated than it was expense we are at, and the inference is conacted upon. The construction of railroads elusive in our favor. We place our rails in America is usually ascribed to the emu- fifty to the mile by the side of the road, to lation excited by the success of the Liverpool pry out the wheels when they get stuck, and and Manchester railway. This appears not hoist behind when wanted." The public to have been the case, however, since some were, however, no longer to be satisfied of the most important works in this country with this kind of "rail" road. They emwere projected and commenced before the barked in the new enterprise with such Liverpool and Manchester road was built. vigor, that in 1836 two hundred companies The act of Parliament for the construction had been organized, and 1,003~ miles were of that road was passed in 1826, and the road opened in eleven states. These were highly itself was finished and opened in September, speculative years, however, and the revulsion 1830, 31 miles long; but the Massachusetts brought matters to a stand. Quincy road, three miles from Quincy to Ne- It was at once apparent to the commercial ponset, was opened in 1827, and a great mind that if railroads would perform what celebration was held in consequence. The was promised for them, geographical position celebrated Mauch Chunk railroad of Penn- was no longer important to a city. In other sylvania was begun in 1826, and finished in words, that railroads would bring Boston the following year. On that road the horses into as intimate connection with every part which draw up the empty coal wagons are of the interior as New York could be. The sent down on the cars which descend by large water communication that enabled New their own gravity. This contrivance was York by means of steamboats to concentrate borrowed by the Mauch Chunk road from trade from all quarters, could not now comthe Darlington road, similarly situated, in pete with the rails that would confer as England. It is to be remarked that both great advantages upon Boston. Indeed, Bosthe Quincy and the Mauch Chunk roads were ton had now availed herself of steam power. horse roads; the locomotive was not at first Up to 1828 she owned no steamers. The introduced. In 1828, twelve miles of the Benjamin Franklin, built in that year, was Baltimore and Ohio railroad were completed, the first, and her steam tonnage is now two years before the Manchester road was but 9,998 tons. When she bought her first opened. In the same year, 1828, the South steamboat, however, she was laying out those Carolina road, from Charleston to Hamburg, railroad connections that she has since pushwas surveyed, and in Massachusetts the city ed so vigorously, and they have paid an of Boston voted the construction of a road enormous interest, if not directly to the from that city to the Hudson at Albany. builders, at least to the general interests of The first portion of that road, however, the city. Boston to Worcester, 44 miles, was not It is to be remarked that the national opened until 1835. The second road finish- government expended, as we have seen, ed in the United States was the Richmond, largely in the construction of highways, the Va., road, thirteen miles to Chesterfield, in clearing out of rivers, and the improvement 1831, and in the same year that running of harbors. The people have by individual from New Orleans, five miles to Lake Pont- taxes mostly constructed the earth roads of chartrain, was opened. Thus roads were this country. The canals have, however, well adopted in public opinion here before with a few exceptions, been state works, the great success of the Manchester road built by the proceeds of state loans, with the was known, but which gave an undoubted aid of lands donated by the federal governimpulse to the fever. During the excitement ment. These lands were made marketable in relation to "rail" roads, a writer in a and valuable by the action of the canals in Providence paper thus satirized the condition aid of which they were granted. The railof the Connecticut roads. He claimed the roads of the country have been, as a whole, invention of the cheapest " rail" roads, and built on a different plan, viz., by corporations, proved it thus:- " Only one English engine, or chartered companies of individuals. These RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 193 associations have not, however, themselves The state of knowledge at that time maybe subscribed the whole of the money, probably seen in the following extract from "Wood not more than half, but they have found it to on Railroads" in 1825:their interest to borrow the money on mort- "Nothing can do more harm to the adopgage of the works. The great object of the tion of railroads than the promulgation of companies has not been so much to derive a such nonsense as that we shall see locomotive direct profit from the investment, as to cause engines travelling at the rate of twelve miles the construction of a highway, which should per hour." by its operation increase business, enhance Such was engineering knowledge at the the value of property, and swell the floating time Boston voted to build a connection 200 capital of the country by making available con- miles to Albany. Since that day much has siderable productions of industry,which before been learned in relation to the characteristics were not marketable, since the influence of a of roads. railroad in a new district is perhaps, if not The great, advantage of railroads is that they to create, at least to bring into the general practically diminish distances between places stock more capital than is absorbed in its in proportion to the speed attained. The construction. rapidity of motion and power of traction deThus in the last twenty-five years, a thou- pend upon the diminution of friction. This sand millions of dollars have been spent in the was sought in common roads, Macadam roads, construction of roads, and yet capital is pro- and canals, but has approached perfection in portionally more abundant now than before railroads. The essential attributes are two this vast expenditure, and land has, in railroad smooth surfaces for wheels to run on. localities, increased by a money value greater These being made of iron, are made as narrow than the cost of the roads! We have seen as possible to lessen the cost; and to keep that before the operation of canals, land the wheels upon the rails, flanges are placed transportation was, and is now remote from upon the inner rim of the wheel. The form these works, one cent per mile per hundred. of the iron rails has undergone many changes,. If a barrel of flour is then worth ini market as experience suggested improvements. five dollars, a transportation of 300 miles The mode of laying these has also varied. would cost more than its whole value; but The building of a railroad includes "the road by rail it may be carried from Cincinnati to bed," somewhat like a common road, and New York for one dollar. Thus railroads the superstructure, which embraces rails, supgive circulation to all the surplus capital that ports, ties, etc. The main operations in the is created by labor within their circle. It is construction of the road bed consist in the on this principle that miay be explained the "excavations, tunnels, embankments, ballastimmense prosperity that has been seen to at- ing, bridges, and viaducts." tend the enormous expenditure for railroads, These operations are required to give the particularly during the last ten years. necessary levelness and straightness to roads, The construction of the Massachusetts both of which are requisite, not only as eleWestern railway, from Boston to the Hudson ments of speed, but of economy., The river, was one of the most important and fi- straightest road is the shortest; but when nancially successful of all the railroads of the the road is done, the expense of keeping up country. New York had constructed her the earth-work is nearly nothing, while, on great canal, as it were making Albany basin the other hand, the annual expense required a part of Lake Erie. Boston now grasped to keep up the perishable superstructure is the idea of a railroad that should make Al- very great and proportionate to the length bany basin with its affluents a part of Boston of the road. Hence true economy requires harbor. It is to be borne in mind, however, a greater outlay to make the road straight, that when that road was undertaken, railroad in order to avoid permanent cause of exbuilding was a new art; the mode of laying pense. Common roads may be lengthened the track, the form, and even the model to advantage, in order to avoid an ascent. of rails were problems. The form of wheels In railroads this is avoided by tunnels to run on the rails, the mode of setting the through the obstacle when it is too high to car on the wheels, were all unknown com- excavate at what it would cost to tunnel. pared with the knowledge on the subject This is not, however, the only reason for which the construction of 30,000 miles of straightening, since the frequency of curves roads in this country has since accumulated. greatly increases the danger of railroads. ~.~ _~.. ~ _. -- — _~:~ ~, _. C:- /- ~_ ~ __ 7 e FIRST LOCOMOTIVE EVER RUN' ON THE MOHAWK VALLEY RAILROAD. MODERN A -:W I T A M O L A W H L LMA-N- ALACE — C-ARS MODERN TRAIN~ FROM NEW YORK, TO SACRAMENTO CALIFORNIA~ WITH PULLMAN'S PALACE C.ARS. RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 195 When a car in motion enters upon a curve, a convex surface like an ordinary road. it has a tendency to continue its straight This space of two feet is filled up with porcourse, and this is overcome by the resist- ous material, broken stones, gravel, etc. ance of the flanges of the wheel against the This is called " ballast," and through it the rail, and by the firmness of the outer rail. rains pass freely, and the frosts of winter do This resistance is always felt in the rocking not so much affect it. On this " ballast" the motion of the cars, and is increased by the sleepers are laid. Many roads are not propshortness of the curve. A pair of wheels is erly ballasted, and are, therefore, unsafe. fastened to an axle and turns with it, the Bridges are difficult of construction, and have outer wheel moving on a curve much faster sometimes been made of iron. This was the than the inner one, which would slide, under case with the Erie railroad, when an accident such circumstances, if both were of the same occurred, because the iron, resting upon diameter, sufficiently to make up the differ- stone piers, contracted by the cold so as to ence. This is obviated by making the drop off its support. wheels conical, or of a larger diameter next When the road bed is complete, the suto the flange than on the outside. The ef- perstructure is put on. This is now done by feet of this is that the wheels having some cross sleepers. The best of these are secondplay between the rails, the outer wheel, growth chestnut, 7 feet long, and 8 by 12 forced against the rail, runs on a larger di- inches. These are laid upon the ballast. ameter than the inner one, thus compensat- The iron rails are laid upon these, but in ing the speed. Further, to overcome the some cases longitudinal timbers are first laid centrifugal force, the outer rail is made down, and upon these the iron rails are laid. higher than the inner one, so that the weight The iron rails have undergone many imof the car gives it a tendency to slide toward provements. At first, a simple flat iron rail the inner one in opposition to the centrif- was spiked down to these timbers. These ugal force. The excavations in loose earth rails would often get loose, and the end risrequire to be supported at the sides by re- ing form a " snake head," and the wheel tailing walls, and to be drainedby ditches and catching under, throw it up with great force cross drains. In making a tunnel the centre of and danger to passengers. These roads were the road is set with great accuracy on the sur- ridiculed as " hoops tacked to a lath." Vaface of the ground by an instrument, and shafts rious forms and weights of rail were adopted are sunk at proper levels along this line. The as experience directed; that now the favorite excavations are then made by " drifts" from is called the T rail; the shape is like that shaft to shaft, and to the open ends of the letter inverted. There must be a certain tunnel. The material excavated is raised breadth of rail for the wheel to run on, and through the shafts, which serve for ventila- depth for strength. The smallest rails will tion when the tunnel is finished. The em- weigh 36 lbs. to the running yard. The bankments require great care to insure their Massachusetts roads use 60 lbs. to the yard; solidity. When the materials for filling are the New York roads, 70 to 75 lbs. to the at hand; they are usually made at their full yard. The rail is not fastened directly to height at one end, and then temporary rails the timber, but is held in chairs, which are permit the approach of wagons to be emptied spiked to the cross sleepers. The chair is over the head of the embankment. The of cast or wrought iron, and will weigh 20 progress of the work depends upon the to 30 lbs. They are made in one piece, so speed with which these succeed each other. as to receive the ends of two rails, which are When the track passes through a country fastened by wedges of iron or wood, driven like a wooded swamp, where the materials between them and the chair, without interfor filling are not at hand, resort is had to fering with the longitudinal expansion and trusses. Piles of a diameter of 15 inches are contraction of the rails. driven, so as to form lines of the width of The proper breadth of rails apart, or the the railroad; transverse ties are fastened width of the track, has been matter of much across the tops, and, with proper supports, discussion. There are many advocates of longitudinal timbers are laid across the piles the "broad gauge" and of the "narrow to carry the rails. The tops of embank- gauge." The latter is generally 4 ft. 8 in. ments and the bottoms of excavations are and the former.6 ft. The Erie railroad is made about two feet below the intended or of the broad gauge, and the convenience of "formation level" of the road, and have there the cars is superior to that of the narrow 196 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. roads. It is a more expensive road to build, stock. The cars and engines usually are to however. Both plans have their advantages. the paying freightas 10 to 6. Various means The majority of roads are, however, built on have been proposed to lessen the burden the narrow gauge. When gauges on long of this expense, but hitherto without much lines are uniform it facilitates the passage success. It is evident from this slight sketch of the cars, which would otherwise be inter- of the principles of railroad construction that rupted. the characteristics of a road, in relation to The power on railroads is mostly steam, curves, grades, etc., have much to do with the but horses, stationary engines, and atmos- economy with which it can be run, and its capheric pressure are sometimes used. The pacity to compete successfully with rival lines. first really successful locomotive was built in The city of Boston was, as we have said, 1814, which drew 30 tons 6 miles per hour; one of the earliest to understand the advanimprovements have since been made until 70 tages that were to be drawn from railroads miles per hour is attained. A Philadelphia in overcoming the disadvantages of its posiengine drew 158 cars, 2,020 feet long, with tion in relation to the west, and the Western 1,268 tons coal, 84 miles in 8 hours. The railroad has been the instrument by which engine weighed 153 tons. The power of she made the great states west of New York an engine depends upon the quantity of subservient to her interests. The charter of steam it can generate in a given time. Each that road is dated March 15, 1833. The revolution of the wheels corresponds to a road runs from Worcester, 44 miles west of double stroke of each piston, or four cylin- Boston, to the Massachusetts state line, and derfuls of steam. The utmost heating surface thence 381 miles over the Albany and West is therefore required, and this is obtained by Stockbridge railroad, leased and operated by tubular boilers. Wheels, 7 feet in diameter, the Western road, into Albany, 200 miles pass over 22 feet in each complete revolu- from Boston. The first train of passengers tion. To go 25 miles per hour, therefore, that left Boston was on April 7, 1834, for they must revolve five times in a second, Davis' Tavern, Newton, to which place the and each piston must make 10 strokes in the Worcester road was then opened. It was same time. This minute division of time is completed to Worcester July 3, 1835. The accurately made by this ponderous machine. Western road, in continuation, was opened to This rapid exhaustion of steam causes a Springfield Oct. 1, 18-39, ten days before greater demand for fuel in proportion to the the United States Bank finally failed, and it speed. The power of an engine to draw reached Greenbush Dec. 21, 1841, thus esloads depends upon the pressure of steam, tablishing the route from Boston to the Alwhich is usually 50 to 60 lbs. to the square bany basin in seven hours. It there coninch; but the adhesion of the engine to the nects with the New York Central road, rails must be great, otherwise the wheel which carries the line 229 miles to Rocheswould slip round. For this reason the ter, whence, by the Lockport division of wheels were first made with cogs to hold in the Central road, 77 miles, it connects at the rail, but it was found that the weight of Suspension bridge with the Great Western the engine was sufficient on level roads. Canada road, and thence with the Michigan The adhesion of iron upon iron is one-eighth Central, the Illinois Central, and the Ohio of the weight, but in wet and freezing weath- and Mississippi roads to New Orleans. By er it is greatly reduced, and it lessens with this route Boston and St. Louis, 1,365 miles the increase of the slope of the road, or distant, are connected in 64 hours. From ascending grade. Thus, if an engine will Buffalo the line connects south of the lakes draw 389 tons on a level, it will draw but with all the net-work of Ohio and other one-fourth of the amount up a grade 50 ft. roads. Every portion of the country is thus to the mile. The average cost of locomotive brought into connection with Boston. power is not far from 50 cents per mile run, The Boston and Albany road has a double which includes fuel, oil, wages, repairs, wear track for its entire length, of very heavy and tear, etc. These expenses are, of course, iron. Its length, including branches, is 241 lessened by levelness and straightness, since miles. It crosses the Connecticut at Springwhere these are perfect, more is carried for field by a fine bridge, 1,264 feet long, and the same money, than on common roads. A has run a track across the Hudson river great draw-back upon the cheapness of rail bridge at Albany, so passengers can go to transportation is the weight of the rolling Chicago or Omaha from Boston without RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 197 changing cars. The grades on this road in In New York the question of railroads western Massachusetts are very steep for had been very early discussed. A publicamore than 18 miles, ranging from 60 to 80 tion of Colonel -Stevens, of Hoboken, in feet to the mile. For some years after its 1812, advocated a railway instead of a canal completion no road in the United States, ex- to the lakes; but his proposition was opcept the Pennsylvania and Baltimore and posed by Chancellor Livingston on grounds Ohio, had such heavy grades; now they are which indicate very odd ideas of the nature surpassed by those of several roads. The of the works. The first regular application cost of the road and equipment was $15,750,- to the legislature for a railroad charter 960, but its property, including lands, is now seems to have been made by Stephen Van valued at $22,636,550, its shares, in 1870, Rensselaer and others in 1826, for power to being held above 140 dollars. Its capital construct one between the ludson and the stock outstanding is $14,934,100 at par Mohawk, and they received the grant for value, and its outstanding bonds $3,442,520. the reason that no railroads were then in the Its gross earnings, in 1869, were $6,074,605 country at all, and that, as the petitioners and the netearnings$1,918,432. The distance were willing to make the experiment at their between Boston and Albany in a direct line, own cost, it was a good opportunity to peris about 150 miles; and but for the passage mit it. The surveys for the road were not of the Hoosac mountains the railroad pas- made until 1830, and the road was opened sage between the two cities might be short- in September, 1831, and three cars, with ened to at least 160 miles by railroads now twenty passengers in each, were drawn to in progress. To accomplish this, the state Schenectady in 46 minutes by an American has long been engaged in boring a gigantic engine of 31 tons.'Meantime, the charters tunnel through these mountains. The work of the Harlem and the Saratoga and Schenhas cost about seven millions already, but will ectady had been granted. The opening of now probably be completed in 1872, and per- the Mohawk road caused much excitement. haps sooner, at a cost of not more than three A road from the Hudson to the lakes was millions -more. Boston is also constructing agitated, and applications were made to the two other routes westward: the Boston, Hart- legislature of 1832 for 49 roads, of which ford and Erie, running through Blackstone, 27 charters were granted, and of these six Willimantic, Hartford, Waterbury, and so have been constructed, viz.: the Brooklyn westward, crossing the Hudson by a bridge and Jamaica, Hudson and Berkshire, Erie, near Fishkill, and joining the Erie railway Rensselaer and Saratoga, Tonawanda, Waternear Newburgh; and what is known as the town and Rome. In 1833, six railroads Air Line route, pursuing the same route to were chartered; of these the Utica and Willimantic, and thence to New Haven, Schenectady, Whitehall and Rutland, and crossing the Connecticut at Middletown, and Buffalo and Black Rock were constructed. following the New York and New Haven In 1834, ten railroads were chartered, and road to N. Y. city. There were already three of these five were constructed: the Auburn lines of railroad communication with New and Syracuse, Buffalo and Niagara Falls, York, viz., the Hartford, New Haven and Long Island, Lockport and Niagara, and the Springfield, the Sound Shore, by way of Saratoga and Washington. In 1836, 43 Stonington and Providence, and the New railroads were chartered, seven of which London, Norwich and Worcester, but neither were built: the Albany and West Stockof these is as short as the Air Line, or as di- bridge, Attica and Buffalo, Auburn and Rochrect to the west as the Boston, Hartford and ester, Lewiston, Schenectady and Troy, SkanErie. Boston had in 1835 extended a rail- eateles, and Syracuse and Utica. In 1837, road to Providence, 41 miles, and in 1843 14 railroads were chartered, but none of them the Boston and Maine road, extending to have been constructed. In 1838, the state Portland, and subsequently to the eastern authorized a loan of its credit tohe extent line of Maine, was opened. Since that time of $3,000,000 to the Erie railroad, and of nearly all New England has been gridironed $100,000 to the Catskill and Canajoharie, with railroads till almost every township is and of $250,000 to the Ithaca and Owego; crossed in one or both directions by them. also, $200,000 to the Auburn and Syracuse. The 4,912 miles of railway have done much In 1839, the Oswego and Syracuse railroad to foster the industry and increase the ma- was chartered; and the city of Albany lent terial wealth of the eastern states. $400,000 to the Albany and West Stock IA- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~~ ~~~P~ I IIIIMAI 11111~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - IRON&e~I MIRTIGA TEPESN IM RM ONCTCTTOIW, ITAC 30 IES IE ASNMERO ASEGRS30 EMIGBATING FROM CONECOTICUT TO EASTERN OHIO IN 1805, DISTANCE 600 MILES, TIME 90 DAYS, NUMBER OF PASSENGERS 10. 200 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. bridge road. In 1840, acts were passed in the canal tolls, and in 1853 were all conthe legislature to loan the credit of the state solidated in a single company-the New to the extent of $3,478,000 to six roads, and York- Central. When this project of conprovision was made for a sinking fund to be solidating was unider consideration, the stocks paid into the treasury by the railroad corn- rose rapidly to high premiums, and the prinpanies, except the Erie. In 1841, the city ciple of consolidation was to create scrip of Albany was authorized to invest $350,- stock to the amount of the aggregate pre000 in the Albany and West Stockbridge miums, and divide this pro rata among the road. The Erie railroad, having defaulted stockholders of all the companies. That on its interest, was advertised for sale by the scrip, to the amount of about $8,100,000, comptroller, which did not take place, how- now figures as a part of the cost of the road. ever. This was not the case with the Ithaca The road has been straightened so that the and Owego, which was sold for $4,500, and direct line is only 298 miles from Albany to the Catskill and Canajoharie for $11,600. Buffalo, but the other lines and routes added The loss to the state was $1,026,327. In to it make the whole 594 miles. The capital 1844, the several railroads from Albany to stock of the company, Sept. 30,1868, was$28,Buffalo were, for the first time, permitted to 780,000 and there was an indebtedness of transport freight on the closing of the canal,:11,526,000, mostly in bonds. The total earnby paying the state the same toll as the ings of the road in 1854, the year of the concanal would have paid. In 1846, the I-ud- solidation, were $5,918,332. From this sum son River and the New York and New Ha- they had risen, in 1857, to $8,027,259, butreven were chartered. In 1847, the seven ceded to $6,200,000 in 1859. From 1865 to roads making the line from Albany to the 1868 inclusive, they averaged $14,350,0.00 lakes were required to lay down an iron per annum. In 1869, a stock dividend of rail of 56 lbs. to the yard. They were like- 84 per cent., amounting to nearly $24,000,wise authorized to carry freight all the year 000, was declared, under the plea that the by paying canal tolls; and all the railroads surplus earnings had accumulated and the were made liable for damages in case of stock then almounted to nearly 53 million death by neglect of the companies' agents. dollars, and was consolidated with the IIudIn 1848, the general railroad law was passed. son river railroad, the united capital of the The law provides, however, that the legisla- two being called 75 million dollars, though ture shall decide whether the "public utility " the actual cost never exceeded 45 millions. of the road justifies the taking of private prop- The net earnings of the consolidated roads erty. This was removed in 1849. Thus, for 1869, were about $7,000,000. from 1826 to 1850, 151 charters were grant- Whoever glances at the map of New York ed, and of these 30 have been carried into will observe that the Erie canal runs mostly effect. We observe that the line from through the northern counties, skirting, as it Albany to Buffalo was composed of seven were, Lake Ontario for a considerable disdistinct companies, finished at different tance; that the lateral canals extend from times. Most of these were restricted as to this toward the southern portion of the state. fares. The Mohawk and Hudson-or Al- The Chenango canal connects the Mohawk bany and Schenectady-was not restrained. with the Susquehanna, and the Genesee ValThe others were, as in the following table ley canal extends from the Alleghany river to composing the line now known as the Cen- Lake Ontario. The great southern tier of tral railroad:- counties bordering on northern Pennsylvania, Maxi- after having taken great interest in the conChar-Open- re G Cost. structibn of the canal, were without means ChrOpe fare ~ Cost. tered. ed. per; of communication with markets, other than Albany and Schenectady... 1826 1831 17 $1,711,412 by common roads. The face of the country Utica and Schenectady... 1833 1836.4 78 4,14,918 was too rugged to permit of a canal, but in Syracuse and Utica........ 1836 1839.4 53 2,490,081: r Auburn and Syracuse......1884 1839.5 26 1,011,000 1825 the state legislature ordered the survey Auburn and Rochester.... 1336 184.4 48 1,210.101 of a state road from Lake Erie to the HudTonawanda...............1882 1842.4 434 1,216,820 Attica and Buffalo....... 1886 1842.8 a31 901,,95 son river. Several conventions were held Total................................27 $15,690,249 during the four years ending with 1830 in relation to the road. The railroad fever had These companies were in 1850 allowed gained ground meantime, and finally, in to carry freight without the imposition of 1832, a charter for a railroad was granted, RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 201 with a capital of $10,000,000. The survey at great expense, and then abandoned. From was made by De Witt Clinton, Jr., but the the year 1845 the road began to grow. Startlegislature required that $1,000,000 of the ing from Piermont, on the North River, 20 capital should be subscribed before the work miles above the city, it reached Otisville, was commenced. This was subscribed, and 62 miles, in October, 1846. The route was E. Lord chosen president in 1833. Anew altered, and reached Binghamton, 139 survey was made at the expense of the state, miles, in December, 1848, at a cost of $9,and the report made on it in 1835, when a 802,433, allowing $1,458,000 for half the reorganization of the company took place, old stock, after the release of the state lien. with J. G. King president. The subscrip- In June, 1849, 22 miles more to Owego tion of capital now reached $2,362,100. were opened; in October 36- miles were The work was commenced by putting 40 added to Elmira; and it finally reached the miles along the Delaware river under con- lake at Dunkirk, May, 1851. This was a tract. The great fire of December, 1835, single track, and it was found almost imposincapacitated many of the subscribers from sible to work it; consequently they put a paying up, and work was suspended. In second track under contract on portions of January, 1836, the legislature loaned its the road. It was now found that the locacredit for $3,000,000, but the stock could tion of the road at Piermont, to be reached not then be negotiated. Some work was by steamboat, would not answer. The comdone along the line, however, by local sub- pany then made an arrangement with the scription. In 1840-Mr. Lord again presi- Paterson and Ramapo road to allow the dent-the loan act was amended so as to be Erie to come into Jersey City. The Erie available, and the company purchased its railroad being a wide gauge, 6 feet, and the iron. The terms of the loan permitted Paterson road 4 feet 8 inches, it became the state officer to deliver to the com- necessary to lay another rail outside the pany $100,000 of state stock whenever he track, to permit the Erie cars to come over should have evidence that the company had that road, and the Erie cars reached Jerexpended an equal amount; the state stock sey City in November, 1853. It is remarknot to be sold under par. The company able in relation to this road, that it has dethen paid its contractors with time drafts. pended upon the telegraph to such an extent The receipts for these trafts furnished the that it could scarcely be operated without it. evidence of the company's expenditure, on It gives constant information of the wherewhich the state officer issued the stock to abouts of the trains and the condition of the the company, which then borrowed on it track, so that the superintendent, wherever the money to take up the drafts, and the he may be, keeps up a constant commuriicalenders of the money sold the state stock in tion with all the stations. The whole length the state for what it would bring-some lots of the road is 460 miles; 486 miles double as low as 80. The work thus done was in track and sidings. The maximum grade of detached lots, as the interest of certain par- the road is 60 feet to the mile for 8 miles, ties prompted the expenditure. As soon as and there is one.of 57 feet to the mile. The the last issue was made by the state the cost of the road was greatly enhanced by the company stopped, and the state assumed mode of raising money for its construction, the interest on the $3,000,000 issued to it. by a constant series of loans, for which were In 1842 the company assigned, and its af- issued first mortgage bonds, second mortfairs fluctuated until 1844, when Mr. Loder gage bonds, bonds convertible in stock in was elected president. In 1845 the state 1862, bonds convertible in 1871, income surrendered its lien of $3,000,000 upon the bonds, unsecured bonds, and other debts, road, and authorized the individual stock to for very few of which the face was obtained, be cut down one-half by holders giving up many of them being disposed of at a large two shares and taking one new one. A discount. By these means the debts of the new subscription of $3,000,000 was obtained, company ran up to $25,260,000, and the cap. and the work commenced anew. Much of ital, $10,000,000, was in February, 1857, by the old work was useless; and at this day, a dividend of 10 per cent. in stock, money when the passenger approaches Dunkirk, he alleged to have been earned and sunk in the sees, stretching out far away to the right, Long Dock, raised to the sum of $11,000,000. like an immense army of grim warriors, the This load of debt exceeded the ability of the piles that were driven originally for the road, company, and it went finally into the hands 202 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. of a receiver. The length of the road is 446 companies; fares not to exceed $3 between miles, and it has a branch of 19 miles fron New York and Philadelphia. In the followChester Junction to Newburgh, making 460 ing year 1,000 shares more were conveyed miles. It leases of other companies, 95 to the state. In 1837 the road was permitmiles, consequently operates 560 miles. It ted to extend to New Brunswick; fares limhad in 1868, 371 locomotives, 187 passenger ited to 5 cents per mile. In 1842 the transit cars, 300 emigrant and baggage cars, and duties on the road were fixed at ten cents 5,856 freight cars. per ton for freight, and one-half of all above The management of the road was never 83 charged for passengers. In 1843 a quasi characterized by any marked financial abil- union was effected between this road and ity, and in August, 1857, in consequence of the New Jersey railroad, extending from the great cost of constructing the Bergen New York to New Brunswick, by which a tunnel, and other financial blunders, it de- through line was established. Both roads faulted on its interest, and its stock was have been very profitable. The Camden wiped out. The unsecured bonds and the and Amboy is said to have cost $5,563,580, later mortgages were capitalized into a stock but January 1, 1869, its capital stock was known thenceforth as the Erie railway, and $9,999,969, and its bonded debt $9,865,the coupons of the first, second, and third 645. The railroad, which is said to have cost mortgages were extended. Meantime itwas $4,719,076, reports $6,250,000 stock, and doing a fair business, and seemed likely to $850,000 bonds. Each make ten per cent. attain prosperity under its new managers. annual dividends. But it has been its misfortune to be managed The New Jersey Central road extends by speculators who sought only their own from the foot of Liberty street, New York profit, and not the advantage of the stock- city, to Easton, on the Delaware; at Elizaholders. For years its chief director gam- beth it crosses the New Jersey railroad, and bled with its stock in Wall street. Its by its close connections with the Pennsylvaoriginal stock sold down to $5 or less per nia Central,nand the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne share before its reorganization, and the stock and Chicago roads, forms one of the shortest of the new organization, which was for some and best through routes to the West. It time nearly par, ($100,) is now, (1870,) sold also connects through the Lehigh Valley and at 23 or 24 dollars a share. Its'cost, Jan- other roads, with the Wyoming' coal region. uary 1, 1870, is stated at $42,000,000, much It cost $18,034,675, represented by $15,000,of which was squandered. Its capital in 000 and $3,034,675 bonds. September, 1868, was $46,302,210; its The great Pennsylvania line of improvebonded indebtedness, $23,398,800, and its ments, from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, cornfloating debt, $6,745,809. In 1870, its menced 4th July, 1826, and finished in Treasurer, James Fisk, jr., stated that its March, 1830, comprised 82 miles of railroad stocks and bonds were $75,000,000, but its from Philadelphia to Columbia, and 36 management has been of such a character miles of portage road fromn Hollidayburg to that but little is known of it. Its gross earn- Johnstown; this consisted of a series of inings, which, from 1842 to 1859, were not dined planes, which were worked by stationmore than $2,500,000 annually, have, from ary engines. This 118 miles of railroad was 1865 to 1870, averaged $14,000,000 per prolonged by 278 miles of canal, and the annum. Its net earnings in 1868 were cost of the whole to the state was over $12,$3,244,583. It has paid no dividend of late. 000,000. This broken line was not very The Camden and Amboy railroad and well calculated to compete, either with the Delaware and Raritan Canal Co., of New continuous water service of the Erie canal Jersey, is one of the oldest passenger roads, or the uninterrupted passage of freight on having been chartered in February, 1830, the New York railways. The citizens of with the canal privilege. The last is 43 Philadelphia felt the need of works better miles from Bordentown to New Brunswick; adapted to the growing wants of that great and the former, South Amboy to Camden, city; and a new railroad was proposed from New Jersey, 63 miles. The Camden and HarrisburgtoPittsburg, 250 miles. The route Amboy road was opened to Camden in is favorable, except for the mountain division, 1834. In 1831 the company gave the state where the summit is crossed, 2,200 feet above 1,000 shares of stock, and a new act was tide water, requiring gradients 95 feet to the passed, consolidating the canal and railroad mile. These are but little in excess of'those RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 203 of the Massachusetts lines, which are worked Baltimore and Ohio railroad was finished two to advantage. This work was opened through, years before the opening of the Manchester November 15,1832, at a cost of $7,978,000, road in England. The company received It proved very successful, and up to Novem- two charters: one from the state of Maryber, 1855, its profits, over interest on capital, land, February, 1827, and the other from the were, in accordance with its charter, credited state of Virginia in the following March, to construction account, and it has since paid with authority to construct a road from Bal6 per cent The state line of public works timore to the Ohio river. The capital audid not succeed financially, and the state de- thorized was $5,00,000, and the company termined to sell it. After repeated offerings entitled to organize on the payment of it was finally purchased by and transferred $1,000,000. The company was so organized to the Pennsylvania railroad in 1857 for in April of the same year, and with the aid $7,500,000, which was met by an issue of of several officers of the United States topthe 5 per cent. bonds of the company to the ographical corps, the road was partly located state, payable, $100,000 perannumuntil 1890, in the same summer. July 4th, ground was and the balance, $4,300,000, in four equal broken by Charles Carroll, of Carrollton, and instalments annually thereafter. When the the portion of the road to Ellicott's Mills road took possession of the state works, was put under contract. The capital of the the canals were found to be in a dilapidated company, at the close of 1828, reached condition, and the railroad needed repairs, $4,000,000, of which three-fourths was taken which required assessments. The route then by individuals, $500,000 by the city of Balbecame continuous by rail from Philadelphia timore, and $500,000 by the state of Maryto Pittsburg, 366 miles. It has 486 miles land. The road was gradually extended to of double track and sidings. The cost of the Point of Rocks in 1832. Here arose an the road was $29,761,533, but aid granted obstacle of right of way. The Chesapeake to other lines which are subsidiary to it, canal had appropriated the narrow gorge makes its capital, Jan., 1869, $27,040,762, through the mountain, and several years of its bonds, $21,266,132, and its floating debt, negotiation elapsed before the difficulty was $3,361,368. A part of the cost is com- finally settled by the legislature. In 1833 posed of $816,050 advanced to the Pitts- the Washington branch was chartered, on -burg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroad, the condition that at least 25 cents per paswhich prolongs the Pennsylvania road to the senger should be paid to the state. The latter city. That road was composed of Baltimore and Ohio Company contributed three roads, viz: the Ohio and Pennsylva- $1,016,800 toward the construction, and it nia, the Ohio and Indiana, and the Fort was opened 30 miles to Washington, August Wayne and Chicago roads. These were con- 25, 1835. The road had then no locomotives, solidated into one company in 1856, and the horse power being used. The company ofline completed from Pittsburg to Chicago in fered $4,000 for a locomotive of American 1859, 468 miles, at a cost of $23,400,985, of manufacture to burn coal. One was invented which $11,500,000 is capital, and $12,562,- by Phineas Davis and accepted. It ran 15 000 bonds. To assist the completion of this miles per hour on short curves and 30 miles road, the Pennsylvania Railroad Company on a straight line. The rails were flat bars.took up the rails on the 36 miles of portage laid on stone foundations, which soon gave road, which it had bought of the state, and way to longitudinal timbers with improved which was of no use, as it run parallel to its rails. The road reached Harper's Ferry in own road, and gave them to the Pittsburg 1834, and the state subscribed $3,200,000 road to complete its extension fiom Ply- for the extension to Wheeling. In 1838 the mouth into Chicago. For this iron and the state of Virginia extended the time for conexpense of taking up and moving, the Pitts- struction through its territory and subscribed burg road gave its first mortgage bonds for $1,058,420. The road was then completed to $650,000. The business of the Pennsylva- Cumberland in 1842, but nothing further nia road, connecting as it does, Philadelphia was done until 1847. Virginia again exwith Chicago and the whole net-work of rail- tended the time, and in 1849 state bonds roads between and beyond these cities, is very granted to the company furnished means for profitable. Its gross earnings, in 1868, were pushing the road to completion in 1853. The $17,233,497, and its net earnings$5,372,513. city of Baltimore then furnished $5,000,000, We have stated that a portion of the great which was expended in protecting tunnels, 204 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. double track, etc. There is one tunnel of at a cost of $5,362,910, of which $3,4,137 feet, and the length of all the tunnels 132,445 was paid up stock, $1,878,493 state is 12,804 feet. aid, and $351,972 floating debt. It was one A charter for the Parkersburg branch was of the best built roads in the state, and for granted in 1851. The work began Decern- three years did a good business. During ber, 1852, and was completed May 1, 1857. the war it was greatly injured, but in 1866 was The road was built jointly by the city of thoroughly repaired and put in good running Baltimore and the Baltimore and Ohio Cor- order at a heavy expense. In 1868 the facilpany. The former gave $1,500,000 first ities which it offered for becoming a trunk mortgage bonds, and the latter $1,000,000 road from Norfolk to the west, attracted atof its second mortgage bonds, and has since tention, its name was changed to the "Chesadvanced $1,795,326. The road is operated apeake and Ohio Railroad," and northern by the Baltimore Company under a contract capital interested in it. Guyandotte, on the for five years, at a rent. of 40 per cent. of Ohio, 347 miles fiom Richmond, is to be its the gross earnings. terminus. By this route Norfolk is but 600 The capital of the Baltimore Company is miles from Cincinnati. The road is now $17,802,000, and the funded debt $9,543,- running to White Sulphur Springs, 227 miles 681. There are three sinking funds opera- friom Richmond (330 from Norfolk,) and will ting to redeem these debts, and all amountto be completed to Guyandotte, 450 miles from about $1,200,000. The total earnings of Norfolk, by May, 1871, except a short tract the main road for 30 years, (1828-58,) were east of the Gauley, where there is a difficult $9,744,351 from passengers, $29,604,970 tunnel. The cost to White Sulphur Springs from freight; total, $39,349,321; the amount has been about $7,000,000. It is destined less expenses, was $17,421,250, and the total to be one of the most important of the railamount of dividends, $4,589,866. The divi- roads crossing the Alleghanies. dends of late have been 8 per cent. per annum. In casting the eye upon a railroad map, This road has been, from the beginning, the line from Bangor, Maine, to New Orleans, largely engaged in the coal traffic. From 1,996 miles, is found to be composed of 1840 to 1869 it has delivered in Baltimore eighteen grand links; one of the largest of 10,501,595 tons of coal. In 1850 it brought these is that which connects Lynchburg, Va., 192,806 tons, in 1869, 1,499,676 tons, and with Bristol, Tenn., 204 miles. This was if it has the capacity it will doubtless bring called the Virginia and Tennessee. It was more than 2,000,000 tons in 1870. Its pas- opened in 1854. By this route the mails of senger and general goods transit have, also, the government are conveyed from Washbeen large, and it has not only built up Bal- ington to New Orleans in seventy-five hours. tirnore but proved a formidable rival for the This commanding position of the road is western traffic of the Pennsylvania, Erie, and not, however, more advantageous than its New York Central roads. local business, which is derived from one of The Virginia Central railroad, (195 miles,) the most fertile districts of Virginia, as well was originally chartered, in 1836, as the as rich in minerals. The road opened what Louisa railroad, with a capital of $300,000, had been one of the most secluded portions and in 1837 the board of public works of the central states, and vast resources are was authorized to subscribe on behalf of the there to be developed. The cost of the road state $120,000. In December, 1837, twenty- is $7,570,627, of which $3,506,300 is capital three miles of the road were opened. It was and $2,452,852 bonded debt. The future of further extended in the following year, and the road is full of promise. in 1840 the road reached Gordonsville. The next most important link in this great Under new privileges, granted in 1848, the line is the Orange and Alexandria road, conwork was resumed, and reached Charlottes- necting Alexandria and Lynchburg, 178 ville in May, 1850, but in that year the miles. This road was completed in 1859; name of the road was changed to the Virginia but after the war was repaired and put in Central railroad. There were then seventy excellent order. The cost of railroad miles in operation, and extensions at both branches (149 miles) and equipment was ends were proceeded with; of these, in 1851, $9,120,000; its stock being only $7,144,057, twenty-three miles were completed, bringing and its bonds and indebtedness from state the road into Richmond. In 1857 the road aid, $4,916,685. was opened to Jackson's river, 195 miles, The South Carolina road was one of the RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 205 first projected in the country. The city of tic, 138 miles in length, from Atlanta to Charleston early saw the advantage and im- Chattanooga, costing $4,500,000, and the portance of the work, which was commenced South-western and its branches, 257 miles in 1830, and opened in 1833. Its main in length, extending from Macon in different trunk extends from Charleston to Hamburg, directions south-westward, and costing $4,on the Savannah river, opposite Augusta, 591,548. Several of the unfinished railways Georgia, 136 miles. The track was origin- are also of considerable importance, espcally a trestle-work, on which was laid a thin cially the Georgia Air Line, from Atlanta flat rail. Some of the swamps and rivers toward Richmond, the Brunswick and Albawere crossed at an elevation of fifty feet. ny, and the Athens and Clayton, intended On this road the first successful American to connect Savannah with Cincinnati. The locomotive was run. It was called the entire cost of railroads already built in Geor"Best Friend," and was built under the gia, up to Jan. 1, 1870, was $36,875,553. supervision of E. L. Miller, of South Caro- In Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas, their lina. It was introduced by Horatio Allen, fine rivers, navigable for steamboats, have and ran in 1830, when there were but eight made railroads almost unnecessary. But miles of road out of Charleston. The South whe'never they are built, and can obtain a Carolina road cost $7,701,338, of which freight of cotton, they are sure to pay. This $4,1 79,475 is capital, and $2,730,463 bond- product is not like corn, or wheat, or even ed debt. The road owes most of its busi- flour, worth one, two, or three cents a pound, ness to the transportation of cotton, and it but eight, ten, or twelve cents, and can therepays ten per cent. regularly. Its stock is fore afford to pay the cost of transportation. abovepar. The project of connecting Charles- Up to the period of the completion of the ton with Cincinnati was early entertained, Union and Central Pacific railroad, the Illiand in 1836 a grant was obtained from nois Central railway was the most remarkaSouth Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, ble of American roads in the extent of and Kentucky, for the purpose of construct- its line, and its mode of construction, ing a road through Columbia, Knoxville, and under a single corporation. In 1837, Danville to Covington, opposite Cincinnati. when the population of the state of Illinois This enterprise was swamped in 1837 by the was less than 200,000 souls, and these agricrisis, when the road was partially construct- culturists scattered over the great state, they ed to Columbia. There is now a prospect undertook with singular boldness a system of the consummation of this project, as only of internal improvement by canal and railroads three short gaps of not over 150 miles in all which would involve an expenditure of at least remain to be filled, of which two will be built $15,000,000. Among these was the Central within a year. A more circuitous route by railroad, which was to extend from Cairo, at way of Augusta, Atlanta, Dalton, and Nash- thejunction of theOhio and Mississippi rivers, ville, has existed for some years. longitudinally through the state, to Galena, at Georgia has more miles of railroad com- its northern extremity on the Mississippi river, pleted, and more in progress, than any other making a line of 457- miles, which should be southern state. Atlanta, Macon, Augusta, the base of a triangle of which the great river Savannah, and Millen, are all important rail- formed the other two sides. This road was to road centers. There were, in Jan., 1870, cross the Illinois river at the commencement of 1,695 miles of completed railway in the navigation, orwhere it meets the canal coming state, and 400 miles more in progress. The from Chicago. Other roads were projected most important roads are: The Georgia, ex- to cross the state, intersecting the Central tending from Atlanta to Augusta, having a road. The Central road was undertaken, length, with its three branches, of 232 miles, and about $3,500,000 spent upon it, when and costing $4,156,000; the Georgia Central, bankruptcy overtook the state, and the road from Macon to Savannah, 190 miles, costing rapidly deteriorated. The progress of the $4,472,000; the Macon and Augusta, Macon work on the canal, with the funds borrowand Brunswick, and Macon and Western, ed on pledge of the land granted by the which are severally 62 miles, 174 miles, and federal government, had been of great benefit 102 miles in length, and together, cost $5,- to the state, and had enabled the federal gov079,000; the Atlantic and Gulf, with the ernment to sell most of its lands on the Florida branch, 283 miles in length, and canal and great water-courses, in fact, all costing $5,117,910; the Western and Atlan- within reach of market. There remained, 13 206 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. however, some 15,000,000 acres of the rich- $18,150,000, as a security for $17,000,000 est land in the heart of the state, for which of construction bonds; 250,000 acres were there was no sale, because it was not acces- added to the interest fund to meet any desible to market. Experiencing, however, the ficiency of means from other sources apgreat results from the canal grant, which not propriated to interest on the construction only laid open great tracts to market, but bonds; and 345,000 acres were held in by local expenditure in construction, brought reserve, but were finally the basis of$3,000,settlers and money upon the vacant lands, 000 " free land bonds," issued and redeemed it decided upon a similar grant to the by conversion into company stock. The state in aid of the Central railroad. Accord- 2,000,000 acres were placed in the hands of ingly, in September, 1850, Congress made a trustees, who alone have power to give title grant-of lands to the state of Illinois of every to purchasers, and who are required, whenalternate section, six sections in width, on ever the funds accumulate to the amount of each side of the road and its branches, and a bond, to buy and cancel it. No land can if any land so situated should be taken up, be sold, unless bonds to the same amount then any vacant land elsewhere might be are cancelled. It was estimated that the selected in room of it, within fifteen miles of bonds thus issued would build the road, and the line of the road. The same law con- leave the entire work free of cost to the ferred upon the states of Alabama and Mis- stockholders. It was found requisite, howsissippi similar grants for the extension of ever, to create 170,000 shares, representing the road from Cairo to Mobile city. In $17,000,000 capital. On this instalments' the following February the state of Illinois have from time to time been called in. The incorporated the Illinois Central Railroad $200,000 deposited with the state was asCompany, with a capital of $1,000,000, to sessed $20 on 10,000 shares, and the amount be extended to an amount not exceeding the has since been increased to $25,277,270, on cost of the road. The company on its which 80 per cent. has been called, making organization was to pay over to the state $20,800,000. In April, 1852, $4,000,000 of treasury $200,000, and receive from the state the 7 per cent. construction bonds were isthe entire grant of lands made by the federal sued at par, and the subscribers to this loan government, together with all that remained had the privilege of subscribing ten shares of of the old Central road, right of way, etc. stock for each $1,000 bond. The company The company was to have fifty miles com- purchased their iron, 72,000 tons, in 1852, pleted within two years, under forfeit of the when it was very low, or less than half the $200,000 deposited, and which was to be re- price to which it rose soon after, when the turned to the company on the completion of railroad fever developed itself. In October, the fifty miles within the time. The road was 1852, the whole line was put under contract, to run from Cairo to the western end of in divisions, and 10,000 men were employed the Illinois canal, and thence branch to at an expense of $3,700,000 per annum, at Galena on the river, and to Chicago on the work along the line, twelve hours per day, lake. The company was to pay to the state stretching a great highway through fertile annually five per cent. on the gross income plains never before opened, conferring value of the road. These were the leading items on them, wealth to the farmers, and strength of the grant, and the conditions were all to the state. As the work progressed, it encarried out. The location and survey of the countered difficulties from cholera, and the route showed the company entitled to demand for laborwhichthe growing railroad 2,595,000 acres of land to be selected by the mania caused. The road was opened in company. This vast tract of land, amount- 1854, and its earnings for its first year, 1855, ing to an area larger than the whole state of were $1,532,118. It sold of its lands 528,Connecticut, was all to be selected from 863 acres for $5,598,577, and the sales have good farming lands, not an acre of waste in since reached 1,745,000 acres for over $20,the whole, but all of the richest prairie soil, 000,000, leaving on hand 850,000 acres, of the same character as that in the neigh- much of it very choice land. The railway borhood of St. Louis, which for two hundred extends 707 miles, of double track, which years had given to fresh settlers annual crops, has cost for road and equipment, $.32,219,without in any degree deteriorating appar- 457. Itsfinancial condition is excellent. In ently. These lands of the company were January, 1869, after paying ten per cent. appropriated, 2,000,000 acres, valued at dividends, it had a surplus ofover 12 millions. RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 207 It is now building, at an expense of about the completion of the road, it realized over $10,000,000, a railroad to Sioux city on the $9,000,000. This was the effect of transporMissouri, intended to connect with the Un- tation upon those lands. ion Pacific, with Yankton, the capital of The first land grants of the government Dakota, and other points. It had, in Jan- were in aid of canals (included below in the uary, 1869, 170 locomotives, 96 passenger, grants for internal improvements.) We give, 39 baggage, mail, and express cars, and 3,817 also, the grants to railroads up to July, freight cars. The number of all has since 1868:been greatly increased. It has extensive Grants for internal Railroad workshops at Chicago, Centralia, Amboy, State or Corporation. improvement includ- Grants. ing State canals. and other points. It crosses and connects Ohio...........$. ~, Oh io.......,....... p j$1,243,001. 77 with more than 40 lines of railroads, as well Indiana............ 1609,861.61 as with steamers on the lakes, and the Mis- Illinois............ 533,283.73 $2,595,053.00 sissippi, and has elevators and warehouses Missouri........... 500,000.00 3,745,060.21 at Chicago and Dunleith to facilitate the Alabama.......... 500,00.00 3,729,120.00 shipmnt of produce. Mississippi......... 500,000.00 2,0.62,240.00 shiprent Lof produce.~Louisiana.......... 500,000.00 1,578,720.00 At Cairo, the southern terminus of the Michigan.......... 1,250,000.00 5,327,930.99 road, the cars make direct connections (by Arkansas......... 500,000.00 4,744,271.63 steamer to Columbus, Ky.,) with the Mobile Florida............ 500,000.00 2,360,114.00 and Ohio railroad for Memphis, Natchez, Wisonsw..... 1,333,09.90,331,207.98 Vacksburg Newo O rle, ai n o r s r Wisconsin......... 1,183,728.42 5,378,360.50 Vicksburg, New Orleans, and other southern California........ 500,000.00 2,060,000.00 cities. In Chicago the company's facilities Minnesota......... 500,000.00 7,783,403.09 for receiving and forwarding freight are un- Oregon........... 500,000.00 1,660,000.00 surpassed. Sleeping cars are run on all its Kansas.5........ 500,000.00 7,753,000.00' 1. ~ tais 5Nevada............ 500,000.00 night passenger trains. Nebraska.......... 500,000.00 The land department is the most interest- Pacific Railroad.... 124000,000.00 ing branch of the company. It is divided Wagon Roads. into three bureaus-the cashier's office, the Wisconsin......... 250.000.0 sales-room, and the contract-room. The Oregon........... 121,613. Oregon............ 1,813,600.00 whole force employed in it comprises about Tota1.... 3153155.43 1859094 forty clerks. But to return to the lands of the Illinois Central railroad: they comprise -The railroad grants to July 1, 1868, it an area covering 4,055 square miles, nearly will be seen, amounted to 185,390,795 acres; as large as the territory of the state of Con- a territory nearly equal to the whole of necticut, twice as large as Delaware, more Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, and than half as large as Massachusetts, about Wisconsin, a vast domain, which, though it the same size as the electorate of Hesse-Cas- puts too large a land monopoly into the sel, three-fourths as large as the grand duchy hands of these railroad companies, compels of Baden, and half as large as the grand them to stimulate immigration, and thus duchy of Tuscany. make their lands as well as those of the governThe most marvelous result of this great ment valuable. National land grants have been work was manifest in the report of the more successful thanthose made bythe states. United States land commissioner. The lands The land grant of the federal government through which the road ran had been offered to'Alabama for the Mobile and Ohio road on an average of 15 years at $1,25 per acre, was to the extent of 1,120,000 acres, and it without finding a buyer. All those lands became the basis of a sinking fund for the were withdrawn while the company made aid granted to the states of Tennessee, Missisits selections. When that was done, the sippi, and Alabama. The road extends lands were again brought into market, in from Mobile bay, in a line nearly due north, June, 1852, and these in the next twelve to the mouth of the Ohio river, opposite months sold in Illinois 298,861 acres for Cairo, a distance of 504 miles. Thence by cash, at $2.50 per acre, and $2,509,120 for the Illinois Central it will connect with Dunland warrants. The sales were double the leith, on the upper Mississippi, 928 miles, quantity sold in all the states in the previous and also with Chicago and the eastern lines. year. The whole interest of the government The road was commenced in 1851, and was in Illinois was speedily closed out. For nearly completed before the war. It now lands which had been valueless to it before wants only the 15 or 20 miles between 208 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Cairo and Columbus, Ky., connected by a Knoxville to Bristol, Tenn., by the East Tenferry on the Mississippi river. This is to be nessee and Virginia railway............. 130 built by the Illinois Central by 1871. The Bristol to Lynchburg, Va., by the Virginia and Tennessee railway...................... 204 cost of the road and equipment was $17,- Lynchburg to Alexandria, by the Orange and 150,167, of which a considerable portion Alexandria railway..................... 169 was furnished by state bonds. Alexandria to Washington, D. C., by the WashThe Memphis and Charleston railroad ington and Alexandria railway..... 6 connects Memphis, on the M p. Washington to Baltimore, Md., by the Balticonnects Memphis, on the Mississipp, with more and Ohio railway................... 39 Charleston, by the way of the Nashville Baltimore to Philadelphia, by the Philadelphia, and Chattanooga road. This road connects Wilmington, and Baltimore railway........ 98 Charleston and Savannah with the leading Philadelphia to New York, by the Philadelphia cities of the Mississippi river. It is 271 and New York railroad line.............. 87 ities of the Mississippi river. It is 271 New York to New Haven, Conn., by the New miles long, and forms part of the great through York and New Haven railway............' line from Washington to New Orleans. Its New Haven to Springfield.................. 62 cost was $9,661,618, of which $5,312,725 Springfield to Boston, bythe Western railway. 100 is capital, and $3,888,530 bonded debt. Boston to Portland, Maine, by the Eastern and TheNew Orleans, Jcks and Gret Portland, Saco, and Portsmouth railway.... 107 The - New Orleans, Jackson, and Great Portland to Bangor, Me., by the Penobscot and Northern road forms the southernmost link Kennebec, and Androscoggin and Kennebec of the great chain which stretches 2,000 railways....................... 137 miles on the Atlantic coast to Bangor, thus connecting cod-fish with sugar, the Maine law Total..,93 with New Orleans rum. The road runs from This vast chain of railways is composed of New Orleans to Canton, Mississippi, 206 eighteen independent roads, costing in the miles. It has, as a matter of course, an imn- aggregate, for 2,394 miles of road, $92,784,mense through business as well as a large 084, or nearly one-tenth of the whole raillocal traffic. Its cost has been $7,912,607, way system of the United States, of which of which $4,742,158 is capital, and $3,897,- 1,953 miles are used in this continuous line. 000 bonded debt. The roads from Washington city to New There were completed in January, 1860, Orleans, embracing a distance of 1,249 miles, the last two links in the great chain of rail- had the contract for the great through mail to ways from Maine to Louisiana-the first, the New Orleans once a day for several years. It last twenty-five miles on the Mississippi Cen- is now divided between the south-western tral, and the second, of sixty-one miles be- and the western routes. tween Lynchburg and Charlottesville, on the The state of Michigan, in 1836, conOrange and Alexandria railroad, popularly templated the construction of three railroads known as the Lynchburg Extension. This to cross the state: the Southern, from route, as will be seen by the following table Monroe to New Buffalo; the Central, from of distances, is within a fraction of 2,000 Detroit to St. Joseph; and the Northern, miles in length, from Bangor to New Or- from Huron toGrand River. For these roads leanis, of a continuous rail track, with the a state debt of $5,000,000 was contracted; exception of four short ferries, viz.: the Hud- and, in 1838, 28 miles of the Central road son river, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, had been put in operation, which was.exand the James river at Lynchburg, the last tended to 146 miles, at a cost of $2,238,289, two of which will soon be supplied with and the Southern road, 68 miles, at a cost bridges. of $1,125,590, when the state failed and repudiated its debt. As a step toward reFrom New Orleans to Canton, Miss., by the covery, a bill was passed, at the suggestion New Orleans, Jackson, and Great Northern of Mr. Charles Butler, of New York, called railway............................... 206 the "Butler act," by which the state sold Canton to Grand Junction, Miss., by the Mis- the Central road to a Boston company for sissippi Central railway................. 165 Grand Junction to Stephenson, Ala., by the $2,000,000 of its own bonds, and the SouthMemphis and Charleston railway.......... 219 ern road for $5,000,000 to another company. Stephenson to Chattanooga, Tenn., by the Nash- Little was done, however, until 1849, when ville and Chattanooga railway..... 38 r. Butler and others reorganized the SothChattanooga to Cleveland, Tenn., by the Cleve- rn ompany, and the road was pushed to land and Chattanooga railway.29 er company, and the road was pushed to Cleveland to Knoxville, Tenn., by the East completion. As it approached the Indiana Tennessee and Georgia railway............ 83 line, an old Indiana state charter was pur RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 209 chased, enabling the company to carry their charges of construction. The state retains work through that state to the Illinois line, a lien upon the whole property. The roads whence, under the general law of that state, have been well built. it was pushed on to Chicago. The dis- The state of Missouri had done little tance from Monroe, on Lake Michigan, to toward the construction of roads until the Chicago, is 246 miles, and the work was session of 1851, when it agreed to lend its completed for $50,000,000, or $20,000 per aid to two great lines; the Pacific road, mile in running order, the level nature of commencing at St. Louis and running across the country being very favorable to the the state, on the south side.of the Missouri construction of railroads. The work was river, and the Hannibal and St. Joseph road, eminently successful, but became involved extending 206 miles across the state from through its connection with lateral jobs, river to river, connecting the two cities which covered it with liabilities greater than named. This last had also a land grant of its business, large as it was, could carry. In 600,000 acres, made the basis for $5,000,1857 it became so much embarrassed, as to 000 of the company's bonds. The state be obliged to reorganize, and was subse- subsequently enlarged its plan, and agreed quently consolidated with the Lake Shore to issue $24,000,000 of its bonds in aid of railroad. It has now a length, including one the railroads. The panic of 1857 and the branch, of 519 miles; its cost for road and war troubles prevented the payment of inequipment is set down at $20,900,000, of terest on these bonds, either by the railroads which $12,125,600 is represented by stock, or the state, for some years. In 1867, the and $8,876,580 by bonds. Its gross earn- state resumed payment and the railroads beings for the year ending February, 1869, gan a new career of prosperity. The most were $5,024,108, and the net earnings $2,- important roads are the Hannibal and St. 046,036. It is now run in close connection Joseph, and branches, 278 miles long; the with the N. Y. Central railroad, and its Pacific of Missouri, 283 miles long, and the stock is about par. It has, for two or three Southwest Pacific, 327 miles in length. The years past, made 8 per cent. dividends. state has 1,827 miles of completed road, and The Michigan Central reached the lake 1,450 more in progress. Over $88,000,in May, 1849, and was also pushed to com- 000 have been expended on these roads pletion, going round the foot of Lake Michi- thus far. The Pacific road has cost $13,gan, where the Illinois Central put out a 906,000, of which $7,550,375 is bonded hand to meet it. The connection is thus debt. The great railroad bridge over the 284 miles, Detroit to Chicago. The cost of Mississippi at St. Louis will materially benthis road was $15,951,936. The road was efit the railroad lines. laid with T rail, and was very prosperous. In the following table of the leading railThe capital of the company is $11,197,348, roads of all the states, giving the length of and the debt $5,153,489. The road is an roads completed and in progress, and cost of important link in the line of connection road and equipment, there are many roads between Boston and the western country. that run through several states. These are The state of Tennessee has an important distributed as far as possible pro rata to the system of railroads extending to all sec- states through which they pass. The titles tions of the state. The state guarantees of roads in italics show the land-grant $8,000 per mile for the purchase of iron and roads. The figures are from returns nearest equipment, upon the condition that the com- to January, 1870. panies prepare the road-bed and defray the 210 RAILROAD S —LENGTH — C O ST. RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES. A Tabular Statement showing the Length and Cost of each Work at the close of the financial year ending nearest to January 1, 1870. (Not including City Passenger Railroads.) STATE OF MAINE. s. asE Corporate Titles of iLesgt n Miles.. Cost of Rood Companieso et. oMite. Co ltoRd Companies. Totcl. Cmltdand tEquip fompoeiet. Total. aom peted. Mdest. Tta.Completed. met. 4. Boston, Hartford, and Erie,..107.50 10.00 1. And.....ggin..... 6.50 26.50I... 1. Androocoggin......... 026:50 26.50 Woossocket Divisios. 38.50 38.50 7,000,000 Le iston B3ranch,..... 5.00 5"' $ 9860,000 Wosce ison 85.026:00,ooo Lewiston Branch.....05.00 $0,0 Meclhanicsville to Willimantic (Ct.) 26.00 2.00 2. Atlantic and St. Lawrence (N.H.&Vt.) 79.00 9.00,59,763 5. Boston and Lowell,...... 26.76 26.,57,00 3,259,763:"6 2~~~~~~~~~~~~~,657,500 Branch,......... 1.50 1.50 Woburs Branch, 1.86 1.86 3. Bangor, Oldtown, and Milford,. 13.00 13.00 331,845 6. Boston and Maine (N. H. & Maine) 32.83 32 83 4. Bangor and Piscataquis,.. 40.00 40.00 800,000 Medford Branch..... 2.33 2.33 4,926,211 5. Belfast and Moosehead Lake,.. 34.50 15.00 300,000 Methuen Br. (leased toM. &Law.) 3.61 3.61.Boston and Maine (N. H. & Mass.) 1.86 1.26 71,987.7. Boston and Providence.... 47.00 47.00 3,360,000 6. Calais and Bariing....... 6.00 6.00 226160 Branches,..07 7.07 Brancheo..... 50.50 5.50 8. Cape Cod,..46.01 46.01 I4 7. Dexter and Newport, 16.00 16.00 320,000 Wareham Branch...... 1.04 1.04 7. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ aea Branch.. 1.04n.. 0. European and North American, ~ 9.0.72 58.00 3,500,000 Cape Cod Central (consol. with C. Cod) 18.80 18.80 369,708 9. Knox and Lincoln....... 46.50 Cheshire (N. H.)...... 10.00 10.00 501,270 10. Leeds & Farm'gton (leased to Androsc.) 36.50 36.50 915,000 9. Connecticut River.. 50.00 50.00 180143 15. Lewy's Island.........16.50 16.50 385,000 Chicopee Branch...... 3.35 3.35 10. Machiasport, 7.50 7.50 120,000 10. Danvers,..... 9.20 9.20 244,456 13. Maine Central,. 137.81 109.81 4,212,401 11. Dorchesterand Milton... 3.26 3.26 136,373 14. Portland and Kennebeck,... 63. 3 063.00 020770 12. Eastern........ 44.10 44.101 Bath Branch,....... 9.50 950 arhlehead Branch,... 3.50 3.50 15. Portland and Ogdensburg (project) 48.00 Gloucester Branch,..... 16.56 16.:56 61059 16. Portland and Oxford Central, 28.50 21,50 430,000 Salisbury Branch..... 3.41 3.41 6,10,23 17. Portland and Rochester,. 52.00 52.00 1,200,000 Saugus Branch... 10.10 10.10 I 18. Portland and Rutland (project) ~. 48.00 Lawrence Branch, 19.87 19.87j 19. Portland, Saco, and Portsmouth,. 53.50 53,50 1,360,184 13. Easton Branch.. 3.78 3.78 56,144 Portsmouth,Gt. Falls & Conway (N.H.) 3.50 3.50 70,000 14. Fall River, Warren & Providence(R. I.) 3.66 3.66 206,680 20R Somerset (project).: 34.00 15. Fitchburg......... 50.93 50.931 21. Somerset and Kennebec, 37.08 37.00 800,000 Watertown Branch... 7.85 7.85 Sterling Branch..... 9.00 9.00 1 3,540,000 Total..... 940.79 672.07 $21,183,110 Marlboro' Branch. 3.90 3.90 Mason Branch (N. 1I.) 1.2.39 12.39 STATE OF NEW HAMPSHiRE. 16. Fitchburg and Worcester,... 13.99 13.99 333.800 17. Hanover Branch.7.00 7.00 150.000. 1. Ashelot.. 23.76 23.76 $506,000 Hartford and New Haven (Cormn 5.87 5.87 265.028 Atlantic & St. Lawrence (Maine & Vt.) 54.00 54.00 2,218,792 18. Horn Pond Branch.. 0.66 0.66 15,248 2. Boston, Concord, and MIontreal,. ~ 93,54 93.54 2,850,000 Lebanon Springs (N. Y. & Vt.). 20.00 20.00 600,00 Boston and Maine (Mass. and Maine) 37.22 37.22 2,92,716 19. Lexinto d rington6. 6.4 58,708.95 2292,716 19. Lexington and Arlington,...6.4 664 258,708 Great Falls Brauch,. 2.95 0.05 20. Lowell and Lawrence. 12.35 12.35 363,158 S. Cheshire (Mass.).. 43.65 43.65 2,488,037 21. MIiddleboro' and Taunton,... 8.54 8.54 152,839 4. Concord,.. 34.53 34.53 1,500,000 22. MIilfbrd and Woonsocket,. 3.88 3.88 110,062 5. Concord and Claramont, 27.16 27.16 698,058 23. Nashua and Lowell (N. H.).... 8.35 8.35 443,923 6.. Contoocook River,.. 14.64 14.64 257,000 24. New Bedford and Taunton,. 0.13 20.13 7. Dover asd Winnipiseogee,..28.50 28.50 855,200 Harbdr Branchs..1.46 1.46 500,00 8. Eastern,..16.55 16.55 525,205 Fairhaven Branch,..... 15.11 15.11 234,660 Fitchhburg (Mason Branch, Mass.).9.36 9.36 93,600 25. Newburyport........ 14.58 14.58 9. ibanachester ansd Lawrence,...23.28 23.28 1,000,000 Danvers and Georgetown Line,. 12.39 12.39 57,386 1O. Manchester and North Weare, 19.43 19.43 600,000 New Haven and Northampton (Ct.). 24.96 24.96 577,505 11. Mount Washington... 2.75 2.75 100,000 Williamsburg Extension,. 8.00 8.00 335,932 Nashua and Lowell(Mass.), 6.22 6,22 330,680 New London Northern (Ct.). 44.91 44.91 687,319 18. Nashua and Rochester (project). 42.00 Norwich and Worcester (Ct.). 17.7 17.75 701,481 13. New Hampshire Central (project) 38.00 26. Old Colony and Newport (R. I.). 113.18 11318 14. Nrtheri New Hampshire,.. 69.20 69.0 3,068,400 Branches.... 10.50 10.50 6,676, Bristol Branch,.. 13.40 13.40 3068400 7. Pittsfield and North Adams ~. 18.65 18.65 443,678 15. Portland and Ogdeinsburg (project) 5.0 3,00 28. Providence and Worcester (Rt. I.).'25.41 25.41 1,071,140 16. Portcsuth and Concord,..59.00 5 0 50,000 Branch. 1.00 1.00 17.. Pooossouth, Gt. Falls 8 Conway (Me.) 22.50 22.50 370,000 29. Rockford, 3.60 3.60 91,667 18. Sugar River (project). 2 0.00 30. Salem and Lowell.... 16.88 16.88 468,969 19. Sulliva........ 24.70 24.70 1,622,250 31. Sheffield,.... 5.38 5.38 100,000 20. Suscook Valley,. 10.20 16.20 325,000 32. South Reading,. 8.15 8.15 21. White Mountains... 2078 2070 200,000 Branch, 08.22.2 99846 22. Wilton,... 15.43 15.43 233,000 33. South Shore,. 11.50 11.50 501,592 Worcester and Nashua (Mass.) 6.57 6.57 188,492 34. Stockbridge and Pittsfield, 21.93 1.93 448,700 - 35. Stoneham, 2.38 2.38 66,375 Total,.~.. 78532 685.32 $22,642,630 36. Stony Brook..... 13.16 13.16 267,383 37. Stoughton Branch 4.04 4.04 110,253 Atani 8.aw STATEc OF VERN1ONT. 38. Taunton Branch,. 11.10 11.10 20,000 Atlantic' St. Lawrence (Me. & N.H.) 16.00 16.00 $642,717 Taunton River Branch, 0.68 0.68 1. Bennington and Rutland,. 54.00 54.00 39. Troy and Greenfield (tunnel).. 42.55 37.50 3,750,000 Bennington Branch, 5.00 5.00 1,125,000 40. Vermont and Massachusetts (Vt.). 58.83 58.83 2,574,784 2. Connecticut and Passusipsic Rliivers, 110.30 110.30 9,996,410 Greenfield Branch,. 8.00 8.00 248.495 Grand Trunlk of Canada,... 16.50 16.50 1,000,000 Turner's Falls Branch (project) 5.50 3. Lamoille Valley Junction (project). 41. West Stockbridge, 2.75 2.75 39,600 Lebanon Springs(gMass. & N. Y.). 10.00 10.00 500,000 42. Williamsburg and N. Adams (building) 38.00 80,000 4. Missisquoi and Clyde River (project) 43. Worcester and Nashua (N. H.) 3 9.12 39.12 1,582,516 5. Montpelier and Wiells River (building) 40.00 6. Northern Vt. & L. Champlain (project) Tota l,....... 1,569,5 1,48370 $74,699,443 7. Portland and Ogdensburg (project). Rensselaer and Saratoga (New York) 35.00,85.0 1,00 000 STATE OF RHODE ISLAND. Rutland Brainch.7...00 7.00 1,8000,800 STATEOF$R12,I8AN8. Rutland Branchd& Brlington) 11.60 119.00 Fall River, Warren and Bristol (Mass.) 2.13 2.11 $121,108 9. Southerte Rtland & B.rling 119.0 119.60 6,500,000 Hartford, Providence & Fishkill (Ct.) 26.40 26.42 934,617 t. Souther ~.. ot 8.00 8V.00 r t00a000 1. New York, Providence & Boston (Ct.) 44.00 44.00 1,849,310 10. Vermont and Canada, 47.00 47.00 d Colony and Newport (Mass.). 17.32 17.32 1,011,319 Burlngton Branch.. 8.50 8.50 2500,000. Providence, Warren and Bristol,..13.60 13.60 484,729 Swanton Branchl. 10.00 1.0100 0 Providence and Worcester (Mass.). 18.00 18.00 731,389 11. Vermont Central,..117.00 1117% 0 10,500,000 Montpelier Branch.2..170 11~0~0 Vmontpelier Branchu, sett (.00 9.00 Total....... 121.47 121.47 $5,132,672 Vermont and Massachusetts i(Mass.) 10.50 10.50 481,913 12. Vermont Valley, 2 3.69 23.69 1,221,886 STATE OF CONNECTICUT. 13. Woodstock,.......... 13.00 13.00 120,000 ~~13.;~ Woodo~ock, 13.00 1-80- 120,008 Boston, Hartford and Erie (Mass.) 20.00 26.00 $1,000,000 Total,....... 653.09 613.09 $28,787,926 1. Connecticut Western (project). 65.87 65,870 2. Danbury and Norwalk.2.. 4.00 24.00 435,538 ~STATE OF M~a~sAc~HuE~Tr Erie and New England (N. Y.) 23.00 STATI OF MASSACHUSETTS. 3. Fairhaven and Westville... 6.00 6.00 150.000 1. Berkshire, 21.14 81.14 $600,000 4. Hartford and New Haven (Mass.) 55.51 55.51 2. Boston and Albany (New York).. 162.64 162.641 Middletown Branch). 10.75 10.75 Brookline Branch,...5 55.51~ Brookline Branch..: 1.55 1.55 New Britain and Middletown, 2.47 24 3,765.929 Newton Lower Falls Branch,.. 1.25 1.25 Hartford Branch,.. 0.87 0.87) Saxonville Branch. 3.85 3.85 15,750,910 5. Hartfd, Prov. & Fishkill (R.I., N.Y.,) 133.00 113.50 5,675,000 Milford Branch, 11.97 11.97 6. Connecticut Valley,(project) ~. 43.75 Framingham Branch, 2.06 9.06 7. Housatonic...... 74.00 74.00 2,105,558 Millbury Branch, 3.07 3.07 8. Naugatuck,.57.00 57.00 2,0206,700 3. Boston, Clinton, and Fitchburg, 28.97 28.97 1,027,004 9. New Haven and Derby,. 13.33 13.33 420.650 RAILROADS-LENGTH-COST. 211 Corporate Titles of Length in Miles. Cost of Road Corpaorate dites of Lengt inMiles. Cost of R Companies. Total. Completed. menu. Companies. Total. Completed. and i10. New Haven and Northampton (Mass.) 68.04 68.04 61. Waverly and State Line, 0.25 0.25 24,974 Collinsville Branch,..... 8.00 8.00 1,737,272 62. West Shore Hudson River,. 150.00 150,000 Tariffville Branch,..... 1.75 1.75 63. Whitehall and Plattsburg (building) 91.00 28.00 800,000 11. New London Northern (Mass.).' 55.09 55.09 780,150 12. New York and New Haven (N.Y.). 48.11 48.11 66448 Total,... 4,735.91 3,636.22 $209,00,671 Branch connection at New Haven, 3.00 3.00 5,66,448. 5 $ 13. New York, Providence & Boston (R.I.) 18.00 18.00 751,983 STATE OF NEW JERSEY. 14. Norwich and Worcester (Mass.). 41.5 41.05 Allyn'swic Pai~~~~~~~~nt Worcs s2,001,719 I. Belvidere and Delaware,..... 67.00 67.00 $3,914,896 1...5.8 55Allyn's 175,008h 02. CaPmnBaden and Amboy, 61.08 61.28' 15. Rockville,........ 5.50 5.50 175,000 Trenllton Branch...... 6.19 16. Shore Line (New Haven & N. Lond.) 50.00 50.00 691,200 Trenton Bnd Deanc s Pn,: 1700 11,221,696 Trenton and Dean's Pond, ~. 17.00 1-7.00 Total,. -- QAI oa ftoo ni9. oT i A a New Brunswick Line,.... 26.11 6.11 Total, 841.28.57 $27,149,017 3. Camdcn and Atlantic,..... 60.23 60.23 2,062,102 4. Camden and Burlington County, 53.08 23.00 710,962 STATE OF NEW YOR Burlington County. 7.13 7.13 710, 1. tAdirondac,.........182.00 25.080 $t2,079,058 B. Cape May and Millville,. 41.25 41.25 701,034 2. Adirondan u.s.q..h.n. 182.00 15.00 $2H079,058 2. Albany and Susquehanna,. 140. 6. Central o New Jersey, 74.00 74.00 18 034 6 Atlantic & Gt. Western (Penn. & Ohio) 49.14 4.14 6,903718 Extra (wide) Track...'.. 60.00 6000 18034, 3. Avon, Geneseo and Mount Morris,. 15.50 15.50 216,664 7. Deckertown and State Line (building) 10.00 4. Blossburg and Corning,.... 15.64 15.64 582,346 8. F lemingtond,..... 1.00 1 2.00 375(00e Boston & Albany (Alb. &West St'ckbr.) 38.00 38.00 2 9. Freehold and Farmingdale (project) Hudson City Branch.... 17.33 7.33 2,411,056 10. Freehold and Janesburg Agricultural, 17.00 17.00 329,305 Hudson City Branch...... 17.33 171.33 216,036 5. Buffalo, Bradford & Pittsburg (Pa.). 9.00 9.00 99029 11. Freehold and Squankum (projected) 6. Buffalo, Corry and Pittsburg (Pa.) 36.70 3670 21100 12. Hackensack and New Yor,.. 14.88 4.88 191,040 7. Buffalo and Erie (part in Pa.). 68.34 68.34 504463408 Lodi Branch (private).... 0.78 0.78 20,o00 8 Buffalo, New York and Erie,..142.00 142.00 8396088 13. Hibernia Mine....... 3.50 3.50 40,250 9. Buffalo and Southern (Pa.).. 90.00 14. Jersey City and Bergen Point, 10.00 10.00 300,000 10. Buffalo and Washington (Pa.).. 85.00 500 1,250 000 15. Long Branch and Sea Shore,. 9.00 9.00 23,440 11. Cayuga and Susquehanna,. 34.61 34.61 589,110 16 Long Dock and Tunnel (Erie). 2.88 2.88 2,880,000 12. Chenung (3 rails),..... 17.36 17.36 400,00017. Millstone and New Brunswick,. 6.63 6.63 109,918 13. Cooperstown & Susque. Valley R. R. 16.00 16.0 320,000 18 Morris and Essex,... 84 84.00 9,, 14. Dutchess and Columbia Counties, 58.00 43.00 1,7000. Boonton Branch,...... 5.00.0,576,875 Branch to Hillsdale,.... 1700 19. Newark and Bloomield,.00.0.00 118,031 15. Elmira, Jefferson and Canandaigua,. 46.84 46.84 500)000 0. Newark and New Ysrk, 6.00 6.00 1,200,000 Elmira and Williamsport (Pa.). 9.0 9.00 305198 21. New Jersey...... 3.80 33.80 7,341,278 16. Erie Railway (Pa.)..... 403.75 403.75) 22. Northern New Jersey,... 21.25 21.25 524,226 Union (Ramapo).... 25 25 23. Ogden.Mine,.. 10.00 10.00 450,000 Newburg Branch,.. 19.00 19 008 42,000,000 24. Orange and Newark.... 9.0 9.00 680,000 Buffalo Branch i 60.00 600025. Paterson and Hudson(Erie) 14.50 14.50 630,000 17. Erie and Genesee Valley (project) 25.00 26. Paterson and Newark (Erie). 12.00 12.00 1,000,000 18. Erie and New England (Conn.). 37.00 27. Paterson and Ramapo (Erie). 15.12 15.12 350,000 19. Goshen and Deckertown (project). 14.77 14.77 39250 28. Pemberton and Hightstown,...00 2 2 2.00 533,786 Hart., Prov. & Fishkill (in progress) 41.00 41.00 1,000000 29 Pequest and Wallkill (building) 12.00 12.00 250,000 20. Hicksville and Cold Spring,..* 4.00 4.00 5'6230. Perth Amboy and Woodbridge,. 1.81 16.81 1,674,723 21. Hudson River (N. Y. Central)..144.00 144.00 19,185,989 31.. Raritan and Delaware Bay,. 73.80 73.80 22. Lake Ontario Shore (projected). 14.80 Lon Branch,...... 5.00 5.00 4,098,592 Rochester Branch,.... 6.o00 Tom's River Branch......3.50 3.60 23. Lebanon Springs (Mass. & Vt.). 22i50 2.50 675,000 32. Rocky Hill,. 3.60 3.60 45,069 24. Long sland, 94.00 94.001 33. Salemn,...... 16.00 16.00 278,320 Jamaica to East New York,.. 6.50 634. South Branh,..... 16.00 16.00 438,300 Hempstead Branch.,.. 2.50 50 495 814 35. Sussex... 6.00 12.00 474,400 Glen Cove, Roslyn and Mineola,. 6.50 6.50 36. Vincentown, 4.50 4.50 45,257 Northport Branch,.. 4.0 4.50 0 37. Warren,......25 18.25 2,059,050 25. Middleburg and Schoharie,.. 5.30 5.30 100,000 38. West Jersey,...... 3736 37. 1,840,34. 26. Middletown, Unioniville& Water Gap, 13.00 13.00 344,870 Millville and Glassboro,... 22.30 230 1 27. Montgosmery and Erie,..... 10.26 10.26 287,200 74 28. Monticello and Port Jervis(project) 23.00 Total.. 1,03.65 89.65 $74,602,735 29. New York Central, 297.75 297.75) Troy and Schenectady,.... 21.00 21.00 STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. Scheuectady and Athens,.. 37.87 37.87 1. Allegheny Valley,. 176.41 132.00 $8,042,793 Syracuse, Auburn and Rochester, 104.00 104.00 2. Atla n. & GiWestn (part inN.Y.&O.) 92. 16 92.16 Batavia and Attica,... 11.00 11.00 36,607,697 Oil City Branch.... 33.30 33.20 17,277,918 Rochester and Suspension Bridge, 74.75 74.75 3. Bald Ead le Creek...... 51.19 51.1 1,050,000 Lockport and Tonawonda,. 12.25 12.25 Bellente Branch...00.00 1,00,000 Rochester and Charlotte,..6.88 6.88 4. Barclay Coal, a. E16.08 16.0 1,134,000 Buffalo and Lewiston, 2o8.55 28.25j 5. Bellefonte and Snow Shoe, 21.00 21.00 80. New York and Flushing,. 8. 8.00045,000 Branch, 1.5 0 44,059 Hart., P orov. &d Fish kll (in progres s ) 4 1.0041 0, 184.5,00 Bn 1.00 950 31. New York aind Harlem.....130.75 130.75 13,6 098 050 Buffalo, Bradford & Pittsburg (N. Y.) 17.00 17.00 1,873.971 Port Morins Branch, _... 2.12 2.11 1 095 Buffalo, Corry and Pittsburg (N. Y.) 6.50 6.50 219,966 32.'N.York, Housato. & Northern (build'g) 39.75 5.11 248,304 Buffalo and Erie (N. Y.).... 19.66 19.66 1,272,460 New York and New Haven (Conn.). 14.14 14.14 1,872,260 Buffalo and Southern (N. Y.)... 35.00 33. N. York & Oswego Midland (building) 240.00 150.00 6,000,000 Buffalo and Washington (N. Y.) 25.00 34. Niagara Bridge and Canandaigua,. 98.46 9.46 1000,000 6. Catasaqua and Fogelsvile, 36.00220.006,Qq Tonawonda Branch,.... 1 4 4.63 0 1000Farmington Branch,. 4.00 4.00 r29,22 85. North Shore (L. 1.).... 12.00 10.00 300,000 7. Catawissa,... 65.00 5.00 4,0,..50 36. North Side (L. 2.) 20.00 Sumn it Branch,......50.50,744,00 37. Ogdensburg and Lake Chasplain,. 118.00 118.00 0 8. Chartiers Valley,..... 6.00 11.00 1,250,000 Branches,.....4.00 4.00,,85 8. Chenango& Allegheny Valley (progressing).50 1,1,900 38. Oswego and Rome,.... 28.58 28.58 925,999 9. Chester Valley........ 21.50 21.50 1,371,900 39. Oswego and Syracuse (3 rails). 36.29 36.29 1,398,754 10. Chestnut Hill,..4.13 4.13 120,650 40. Plattsburg and Montreal.... 23.00 23.00 500,000 Clevel'd, Painesville & Ashtabula (0.) 25.53 25.53 1,419,517 41. Rensselaer and Saratoga,.. 25.02 25.221 Cleveland and Pittsburg (0.). 15.00 15.00 701,812 Saratoga and Schenectady,.. 21.00 21.00 11. Colebroolkdale,.. 14.50 14.50 350,000 Albany and Vermaont. _.. 12.0200 1. 12. Colunmbia and Port Deposit building) 45.00 10.00 400,000 Saratoa & Whitehalld branch, 47.52 47.52 13. Connecting (Phila.)...... 6.78 6.78,178,300 Rutland & Whitehall & branch (Vt.) 14. Connell.viTle and Southern (project) Troy, Sale and Rutland (Vt.) 27.00 2700. Cuberland Valley (Md.) 8.00 68.00 1,554,171 42. Rochester City and Brighton,... 9.50 9.50 268,060 16. Danville, Hazletn Wilkesb're (b'dg) 38.00 43. Rochester and Genesee Valley,. 18.45 18.45 656,026 17. Delaware & Hudson Canal Co.'s R. R. 32.00 32.00 2,387,578'44. Rome, Watertown and Ogdoensburg, 141.11 141.11 18. Delaware, Lackawanna a Western, 113.00 113.00 13,98,7 Cape Vineotsdm Branch,. 2.4.28 4.248 4,362,525 Keyser Valley Branch,... 2.80 2.80 7 Cape Vincent Branch,... 24.24 24.24' 19. East Brandywine and Waynesburg,. 17.50 400,000 45. Rondout and Oswego (project).. 85.0 26.00 1,000,000 20. East Mahanoy. 7.54 7.54 391,604 46. Schoharie Valley, 4.38 4.38 82,102 21. East Pennsylvaa.. 36.5 6.5 1,912,050 47. Skaneat,..5.00 5.00 100,846 Temple Branch 1.67 1.67 49. South Side (L. I.) 57.08 57.00 2 20. Ellira and Williamport (N. Y.). 69.00 9.00 9,387,519 Broch.. 0.75 0.75 1 00 24. Enterprise (building).... 22.00 6.50 600,000 6g. Staten Iland... 13.00 13.00 356,301 Branheas 3.19 3.19 51. Sterling Mountain,.... 7.60 7.60 501,122 Erie Railway (N. Y.)... 42.00 42.00 4,200,000 52. Syracuse, Binghamton and N. York, 81.00 81.00 3,468,115 25. Erie and Pittsburg. 81.60 81.60 2,908,0 53. Troy and Bennington... 5.38 5.38 247,350 Erie Harbor Branch,..... 00 2.CO 1,9 64. Troy and Boston,.. 4.91 4.91 2,285,981 26. Fayette County,. 12.66 12.66 130,000 55. Troy and Greenbush (double)... 6.00 6.00 294,908 7. Gettysburg.. 17.12 17.12 313,000 56. Troy Union and Depot,.. 2.14 2.14 762,238 28. Hanover Branch,.. 12.20 12.20 253,815 57. Utica and Black River,.....25 59.00 29 Harrisburg and Lancaster, 36.00 36.00 1, Trenton Falls Branch,.... 2.14 2.14 1180BColombia Branch, 1..0 18.00 1,882,50 58. Utica, Chenaugo and Susque. Valley, 82.00 40.00 2,00,000 30. Hempfield (W. Va.).67.00 23.00 1,477,79 59. Walkill Valley 20.00 20.00 400,000 31. Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain, 44.00 44.00 1,0 60. Warwick Valley,.... 10.33 10.33 172,576 Branches, 14.75 14.75 2,201,675 212 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Corporate Titles of Length in Miles Cost of Road Cost Ro Companies Total.Completed. and Equip- Corporate Titles of Length in Mites. Companies. aod.Cm~td and %q %p..Companement. Companies. Total. Completed. and Eqvipment.ontn, 960.60 268,00 00, esten Pnasyvani,, 42.5 42:i;O i 3,049ent. 32. Ironton........9.....60 9 26.60 5 19. Westchester and Philadelphia,. 26.38 26.38 $1,599,633 Branch, 1...... 2,0 Branch..........5 1.01 1.00 0t. Western Pennsylvania,.. 2..0 42.0 33. Ironton and Hamburg~~~~~~~~~~~~~project ).. 4 2.5~~~~~~~~0 } 3,049.,56 33. Iroston and Hamburg (project). 18.05 Allegheny Extension. 21.30 21.30 34. Jamestown and Franklin,... 43.25 15 1,6430 101. West Reading........ 1.74 1.4 54,800 Coal Branch,...... 1.50 1.50 102. Wilmington and Reading (building) 63.75 11.50 607,000 135. Junction (Phila.)...... 4.62 ~4.62 892,751 103. Wrightsville, York and Gettysburg, 13.00 13.00 293,230 36. Lackawanna and Bloomsburg,. 80.00 80.00 3,753 130 14 Wyosing Gravity (sroject).. 104. Wyoming Gravity (project)... Pittston Branch,... 2.08 00 5' Sundry railroads not specifically ac37. Lawrence (part in Ohio).... 10.00 10.00'235,94 counted for........ 00.00 700.00 14,000,000 38. Lebanon and Pinegrove..... 2.00 92.00 1,000,000 - - 39. Lehigh and Lackawanna,... 36.00 15.00 675,100 Total....... 6,878.36 5,014.45 $300,556,508 40. Lehigh and Susquehanna.. 105.00 105.00 NatoeBrnh.... 50 500| WNasticoloc Branch,. 05.00 0.0STATE OF DELAWARE AND EASTERN MARYLAND. Nescopec Branch...9.00 9.00 130 5 Coplaye Branch.......1.00 1.00 13,570,595 1. Baltimore and Raritan Shore (project) 62.50, Back Track.... 13.00 13.00 I2. Delaware,......... 84.50 84.50 1,610,001 Mine Laterals.. 40.00 40.00 j 3. Delaware and Pennsylvania (project) 41. Lehigh Valley, 101.00 101.00] 4. Dorchester & Delaware (Del. 8 Md.) 34.50 34.50 700,00o BlOck Creek asd Alt. Carnmel,. 4s.62 42.62 1 5. Easters Shore (Odd.)..~.. 38.50 38.50 850,000 Penn Haven anl Audcried,. 17.56 17.56 20o000,000 6. Junctiot and Breakwater (Del.). 40.00 26.50 550,000 Penin Haven and IHazelton. 14.67 14.67 7. Kent County (Del. and Md.). 320. 008.00 Short branches in all.. 4'2.00 42.00j Chesertown Branch,.. 4.00 Chestertown Branch ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 32, 000 42. Little Saw Mill Risn, s.. 3.00 3.00 91,011 9. Maryland & Delaware (Del. and Md.) 54.00 54.00 1,000,000 43. Little Schuylkill........5 2 9. Newcastle and Frenchtown (Del.) 6.00 6.00 744,425'Branches (Panther and Wabash). 3.60 3.0 1,466,200 10. Newcastle and Wilmington (Del.) 5.50 5.50 150,600 44. Littlestown,........ 7. 7.25 76,003 11. Phil., Wilisington & Bait. (Pa. & Md.) 23.00 23.00 2,409,212 45. Lorberry Creek,.0 5.5 5.5 0 12. Pocomoke and Wicoosico (Md.); 0.00 20.00 400,000 Panther Head Branch,. 1.00 1.00 82050 13. Queen Anne County (Md.) (progress) 30.00 46. Locust Gap,.. 4.88 4.88 100,01)0 14. Queenstown and Harrington,... 25.00 47. McCauley /iountain,. 5.25 5.25 160,500 15. Worcester (project)...... 48. Mahanoy and Broad Mountain, 12..50 12.50 Branches..... 5.10 25:.10 2,088,244 Total,........455.50 92.50 $8,773,637 Short branches and sidings, 29.90 29.90 49. Middle Creek (building).... 50.00 26.00 1,000,000 STATE OF MARYLAND (other than above.) 50. Mifflin and Centre Counties,. 12.00 12.50 252,491 51. Mill Creek......... 15.03 15.03 300,000 1. Annapolis and Elkridge, 20.0 0.50 $442,00 52. Mill Creek and Msine HIill, 4.09 409 2. Baltiosore and Ohio (W. Virginia) 138.60 138.601 Extension and Branches,. 12.70 12.0 323,375 Braches and.extensions, 8.20 820 11,592,621 Washington Line,...... 30.00 ~3. Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven,. 4.50 E3. ioc i aod SchylilOGaest, 6.50.8 04.50' Washing toss Line,.~. 0.0 30.00 11,092,6~21 73:75,000 Metropolitan Branch,. 40.00 20.003 Extension and Branches,. 118.83 118.8302, 0 Baltre an Brasach, (pr 4.0ct) ~4 onongaheloa Valley (project).,. 04. Monou gahcla Valley (project).. 3. Baltimsore and Pikesville (project) 55. Mount Carbosa.. 6.26 6294. Baltimore and Potonmac.... 1,000,000 Branches,.,6.80:6.80 203,260 Washington Branch, 13.00. Mount Carbon and Port Carbon, 4.76 4.70 5. Baltimore and Swann Lake (project) 5 BraMutchesaro.04 ot aro, 6 0.26 282,350 Columbia and Port Deposit (Pa.) ~. 13.50 0 ahe.7. Nesqu.hos.isg.. 1.02 19.02 a 6. Cumberland Coal & Iron and branches, 11.97 11.7 000,000 57. Nesquehoning Valley (building) 1160 000 Astor Miae Branch.. 0.03 54 1,000,000 16.00 16.00 500,000 Astor bline Branch,...2i 2.' 23 Mine branches. 12.00 1.00 7. Cumberland and Pennsylvania, 34.00 4. 58. Newcastle and Beaver Valley,. 14.92 14.92 425,007 Brahec. 10.00 330,000 7. Cumberland and Pennsylvania, 34.00 84.00 1 59. N.Y. & Riddle Coal Fields (projected) C d (3 138,410 Northern Central (Md.)... 98.00 98.00 8,756,319 8 Enminttsburg buildisg. 60. North Lebanon.. 8.00 8.00 3 60, North Lebanon, ~~~~~~8. Emmittsburg (building).. Branches.. 0.20.. 0.20 319,632 9. Frederick & Penn. Line (progress) 24.00 24,000 Branches........... 0.20 0.20 10. Maryiand Central (surv Y'd 11.0. 61. North Pennsylvania,......55.26 55.26 10 Maryland Central (surveyed) 11.0 Doylestown Branch,.10.10 10.10 6,069,991 11. Mount Savage (iron).. 4.00 4.00 100,000 Shimerville Brsach,.... 1.89 1.89 19. Northern Central (Pa.). 44.00 44.00,618,21 96.00 ~~~13. Cakington Braneh,.... 2.59 2.59 75,000 62. Oil Creek and Allegheny River,. 96.00 96.00 740 Oakisgton Branch, 2.52 0.02 70,000 Cherry Run Branch.... 3.50 3.50 7,549,.87 I4 Philadelphia and Baltimore Central, 41.50 32.50 1,500,000 63. Panther Creek,. 6.50. 6.00 100,000 Phila., Wilm. & Bait. (Del. & Pa.) 54.00 54.00 5,912,9 Port Deposit Branch,...4.00 4.00 64. Peachbottom (projected) Prt Deposit Branch.. 4.00 65. Pennsylvania,.. 300.90,3 00.9 0 15. Southern Maryland (project) 65. Pei Ivania, 300.90 ~~~~300.90'). n Holidaysburg Branch....7.60 7.60 16. Uion (project). Indiana Brach, 9,63.. 19.00 19.000 Indiana Branch,, 19.00 19.0017. Washing~tonl County,.... 93.00 93.00 ~600,000 Steubenville Extension,. 1.30 1.30 29,61,533. Western Maryland 57.00 2,500,009 Point Breeze Br. & Del. Extension, 5.50 6.0 Haerstow tension, 27.00 Tyrone coannectihg link,..10 3.30 19. WorthingtsnValley & Mianch. (project) 20.50 66. Penn. and New York Canal R. R. 105.00 105.00 4,000,000 -- 67. Pennsylvania Cannel Coal,.. 12.00 12.00 300,000 Total.730.0 493. $31,814,69 68. Pennsylvania Coal,.. 47.00 47.0 2 000 000 Lankawaxen Branch~.. 15.87~ Lackawaxen Brasach. 15.87 15.87 STATE OF WEST VIRGINIA. 69. Perkiomnen.. 36.50 36.50 1,500,000 Baltimore and Ohio (Md.).... 41.00 241.00 $16,189,315 70. Philadelphia and Baltismore Central, 57.50 57.50 2,000,000 1. Chesapeale aid Ohio (building).. 224.00,000,000 1;l Phila., Germantown and Norristown, 17.08 17.0 1,809,441 Hempfield (Pa.)....... 9.00 9.00 180,000 Germantown Branch, 3.14 3014 2. Iron Valley (B. & 0O. R. R.)....3.25 3.25 300,000 72. Philadelphia aud Reading,..93.00 93.00 3. Northwest. Virginia (Parlkersb'g Br.) 103.50 103.50 6,000,000 Richmonod Branch,.6.00 6.00 I 29,822,799 Pittsburg and Steubenville (Pa.).. 8.00 8.00 400,000 Lebanon Valley5,4.00 0. 5.. 0 54.00 4. West Virginia Central (project). 135.00 54.0 04 es i~ 73. Philadelphia and Erie,.. 287.51 287.51 20,000,000 74i Philadelphia and New Hope (project) 37.50 Total,....723.75 364.75 $27,869,315 75. Philadelphia and Trenton,... 26.50 26.50 1,708,227 76. Phil.,Wilmingt'sLt&Balt.(Del.&Md.)100.00 00.00 10,311,197 STATE ON VIRGINIA. Port Deposit Braiich., 3.81 3.81 77. Pittsburg and Connellsville,.. 149.00 59.50 4,103,728 1. Alexand. & Fredericksburg (sspended) 40.00 $1,000,000 78. Pittsb.,Ft.Wayne&Chic.(O.,Ind.&Ill.) 40.50 40.50 2,592,000 2. Alexandria, Loudoun & Hampshire, 170.00 59.00 2,500,000 79. Pittsburg and Steubenville (W. Va.) 35.00 35.00 1,750,000 3. Alex. & Georgetown (vica Aqueduct). 4.00 80. Plymouth, 10.25 10.25 250,000 4. Alexand., Georgetown & Washiilgtbn, 7.00 7.00 250,000 81. Port Clinton & Topton (buildinag) 5. Blue Ridge (State Road)..... 16.81 16.81 1,674,723 82. Port Kennedy........ 0.78 0.78 15,000 6. Chesapea. & Ohio (Virginia Central) 347.00 219.63 7,00(,000 63. Reading and Columbia.... 40.00 40.00 2 13475. Clover Hill..2...... 1.50 21.50 430,000 Lancaster Bran1ch,.... 8.00 8.0,14752',5 Lancaster BraShch u a S suhn.8.00 8.00 8. Fred'ksb'g & Gordonsville (suspended) 45.00 072,165 94. Schuylkill asd Susquehanna,.4. 54.00 04.0 1 9S 19. Georgetown and Leesburg (projectl) Branch,. 1.00 1.00 10. Lynchburg and Danville (project). 80.00 85. Schuylkill Valley.. 9.23 9.23 } 16,050 11. Norfolk & Great Western (project) Branches, 20.65 20.65 0 12. Norfolk and Petersburg.81.00 81.00 2,399,175 86. Shamokin Valley and Pottsville,. 00.0 28.00 1569450 13. Orange, Alex. &Manassas Gap, viz.: Colliery Branch.... 6.00 6.00 Alexandria to Gordonsville,.. 83.30 83.30 897. South Mountain,, 16.00 16.00 200,000 Charlottesville to Lynchburg,. 59.50 59.50 I 88. Southern Pennsylvania (project).. Manassas Junction to Harrisonb'g, 139.30 112.00 9,120,000 89. Southwark (P. W. & B. R. R.) 2.19 2.19 58,368 Warrenton Branch,..... 8.90 8.80 90. Strashburg,...... 4.28 4.08 100,000 Front Royal Branch,. 1.00 1.00 91. Swatara (Cold Spring).....6.00 6.00 41,780 14. Petersburg (N. Carolina).... 61.00 61.00,337 92. Summit Branch (Lykens Valley) 21.00 21.00 97586 Gaston Branch (N. Carolina) 21.30 21.30 Bran.ch,...0.50 0.50 8 9868 15. Richmond and Danville (N. Car.).135.50 135.50 93. Tioga,......... 36.60 36.60 1,085,175 Midlothian Branch.... 1.14 1.14 4,929,000 64. Trevorton......... 15.30 15.30 1,890,000 Manchester Branch,.....1.56 1.56 95. Tyrone and Clearfield,.. 37.5 370 13008000 16. Richmond, Frederick & Potomac,. 75.5 7 2,07,92 -Branches, 8.83~I. i''S~;^:'Feu;td"8 odmc 1.... 3.50i;"~ ~&9,5 Branches.........8.83 8.83 Springfield Branch.3.5 3.50 96. Union Canal Company's Railroad,..50.50 130,000 1.icmndan Petersburg,. 2.75 5.75 977,073 17. Richmnond and Petersburg, 22.14 ~2.14 Branches, 2.2 5. thall Branch75 97. Union Coal Company's Railroad, 19.00 19.00 500,000 18. Richmond and York River, 59.30 38.30 1,250,000 98. Westchester,. 9.00 9.00 19. Roanoke Valley (N. Carolina).. 6.00 6.00 175,494 Branchp. 1.25 1.205 a Saor n onk N a169,100,421,39 Branch~,.... 1.25 1.~20. Seaboard and oanoke (N. Carolina) 53.25 53.25 1,421,398 RAILROADS —-LENGTH-COST. 213 C a Cost of Road cool of Road Croa ea ECorporate eitles of Length it Miles. Cotanda C e f g.Total. Completed. me Companies. Total. Completed. an. Ment. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~merit~ 21. South Side (Petersburg & Lynchburg) 123.00 123.00 $3,796,150 STATE ALBAMA City Paint Branch. 0.20 25~00 $3,791,150 STATE OF ALABAMA. City Point Branch,..... 9.50 9.50 21. Virginia and Kentucky (project). 95.00 172,391 1. Ala. & Chattanoga (Merid. to Chatt.) 300.00 63.50 $3,000,000 23. Virgioia and Tesnessee. 204.34 204.24 2. Marion and Cahawba,.. 32.00 32.00 1,000,000 Salt Works Branch,.. 9.42 9.40 7,270,047 3. Memphis, Holly Springs and Selma, 43.00 10.00 700,000 Other Braaches... 1.20 3.20 Memiphis & Charleston (Ten.& Miss.) 146.80 140 4,19,318 24. Winchester & Potomac (B. & Ohio). 32.00 32.00 600,000 Florence Branch. 6.00 6.00 25, Winchester and Strasburg...19.00 19.00 500,000 4. Memphis and Savannah (project). — ~ 2~. Miss., Gainesville & Tuscaloosa (Miss.) 84.00 22.00 440,000 Total...... 2,049.11 1,482.94 $49,886,481 6. Mobile and Girard,. 228.00 63.00 1,000,98 7. Mobile & Montionmery (consolidation) 186.00 164.00 4,737,000 STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA. 8. Mobile & Ohio (Miss., Teun. & Ky.) 63.00 63.00 1,890,118 STATE OF I~ORTH CAROLINA~ ~00 00 1,9 9. Montgomery and Eufala,. 80.00 40.00 714,990 1. Air Line of North Carolina (project). 22.00 $ 10. Montgomery and West Point,... 8.0 08.50 2944724 2. Atlantic and North Carolina,.. 94.92 94.92 2,000,000 Opelika Branch,.2 8.40 28.40 Charlotte & South Carolina (S. C.) 6.00 6.00 120,000 Nashville and Decatur (Tenn.).. 26.00 26.00 940,113 3. Chatham (Raleigh to Gulf).. 53.00 53.00 2,500,000 11. North Western, 11.50 11.50 250,000 4. French Broad,.. 0 80.00 30.00 1,000,000 Savan., Griffin & N. Alabama (progress) 5. North Carolina,....223.00 223.00 4,950,609 12. Selma and Gulf (project). 58.80 588,000 Petersburg (Va.)....... 8.50 8.50 377,410 13. Senlma and Meridian,.. 81.30 81.30 2,163,922 Gaston Branch (Va.).... 9.00 9.00 14. Southern Ala. (Columbia to Pollard) 120.00 6. Piedmont....... 48.50 48.50 1,891,002 15. Selna, Rome and Dalton (Ga.).. 176.00 176.00 7,500,000 7. Raleigh and Gaston.. 07. 97.00 97.00 2,00,000 16. South and North Alabama,... 183.00 60.00 1,800,000 Richmond and Danville (Va.).. 5.00 5.00 174,918 17. Tennessee and Coosa (project)... 36.50 Roanoke Valley (Va.)..... 37.00 14.00 311,219 18. Western (Montgomery to Selma) 44.00 44.00 2,000,000 Seaboard arid Roanoke (Va.). 26.75 26.75 570,912 19. Winchester & Huntsville (project) 18.00 8. Western (Coal).. 43.00 43.08 1,029,018 9. Western North Caroina. 81.00 01.0 3,000,000 Total.... 2,039.80 1,036.05 $30,421,163 Newton Branch,. 3.50 3.50 Western Division (progressing) 190.00 2,008,000 STATE OF MSSSSP. 10. Wilmaington, Charlotte & Rutherford, 117.00 117.00 1 W estern Division. 15 1 uhr l.00 25..117.00I 5,000,000 Alabama and Chattanooga,. 12.00 12.00 $300,000;Western D vision.......151.00 25.00 11. Wilhnington & Manchester (S. C.) 63.50 63.50 1,522,712 1. Grand Gulf and Port Gibson, 8.00 8.00 200,000 {2. Wilmilngton and Weldon,, ~ 162.00'16%.00 12. Wilmington and Weldon 12.00 1.00 Mephis & Charlestos (Tens. &' Ala.) 38.50 38.10 1,086,899 T c 3,061,431 2. Memphis, Holly Springs & Selma(prog.) TarborG' Branch,....~ 19.00 19.00 11. Willianiston & Tarboro' (buildilng) 3. Mississippi Central (Tenn.)... 189.00 189.00 5,511,059 Mississippi and Tennessee (Tenn.). 89.20 89.20 1,976,623 Total........1,592.97 1,129.07 $29,585,425 Miss. Gainesville/ Tuscaloosa(Ala.) 6.00 6.00 135,000 Mobile and Ohio (Ky., Tenn. & Ala.) 270.00 70.00 8,491,11 14~~~~~~~7.30 143 8,401,911 Columbus Branch,...... 14.50 14.50 STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA. N. Orl., Jackson & Gt.Northern(La.) 117.00 117.00 3,879,514 1, Air Line (Atlanta and Rich.mond).. 160.00 $160,000 4. New Orleans and Mobile(progress) 2. Blue Ridge 3.53.50 37.30 4,000,000: Rayamond Branch.7.00 7.00 100,000 BrncansA,.1.50 1.0. Vicksburg and Meridian...... 140.00 140.00 3,049,268 3. Charlotte and Sotth Carolina (N. C.) 109.60 109.60 2,000,000 West Felaciana (La.).... 9.00 9.00 180,000 4. Cheraw and Darlington,... 40.30 40.30 600,000 5. Cheraw and Salisbury (project) 63.00 Total,........900.20 900.20 $24,919,504 6. Col. & Angus. (now con. with C.&S.C.) 82.00 82.00 2,000,000 1. Greenville and Columbia,....143.25 143.325 STATE OF LOUISIANA~ Abbeville Braschs.11.50 11.50 3,099,715 Absderson Branch.9.90 90 1. Baton-Rouge, Gros-Tete & Opelousas, 46.00 17.00 $327,000 8. King's Mountain....50 92.58 243,000 2. Berwick Bay and Texas (project). 100.00 8. King's Mountain,...... 992.50 29.50 40 9. Laurens,...... 32.00 32.00 640,000 3. Clinton and Port Hudson, 22.00 22.00 750,00 10. North ERostern,...102.00 102.00 2,148,131 4. Mexican Gulf..27.00 27.08 600,00 ~. Port Royv~al ~(project). ~110.00 o5,000 5. Milnburg and Lake Pontchartrain, 6.00 6.00 2120,000 12. Savannah and Charleston (Ga.) 80.52 88.52 1,500,000 6. New Orleans and Carrollton, 0. 6.50 6 13. South Carolina,.. 137.00 137.00 Branches,.9.00 9.00 Colunibia Branch.0..... 68.00 68.0 7,5617,4~44 7. N. O., Jackson & Gt. Northern (Miss.) 89.00 89.00 2,988,712 Carsden Branch.......38.00 38.00 5 8. New Orleans & Mobile (progressing) 14. Spartanbarg asd Union.0.... 8.6800 68.00 1,300,000 9. N. Orleans, Opelousas & Gt. Western, 258.00 80.201 15. Wilmington & Mlanchester iN: Car.) 09.00 99.00 2,'278,527 Laprusche Branch 2.80 2 80 Southern Texas Branch.. 100.00 Total...... 1,439.17 1,089.97 $37,848,817 edRiverBranch.3. 0:600 10. North Louisiana and Texas,.190.00 390.00 Western Extension (Pacific) 18.08 18.00 5,00,000 STATE OF GEOROIA. 11. West Feliciana (Miss.). 18.00 18.00 30,000 1. Atlanta and West Point..... 86.74 86.74 $1,200,035 - 2. Atlantic and Gulf,. 254.00 237.00 I,910 Total.........98.30 414.50 $17,385,223 Florida Branch (Fla.).... 29.00 19.00 3. Augusta and Savannah, 53.25 53.25 1,187,919 STATE o0 TEXAS~ 4. BarneSiville and Thomaston, 16.00 16.00 200,000 S T O E 5. Brunswick and Albany...... 1600.00 60.00 1,200,000 1. Buffalo Bayou, Brazos & Colorado,. 165.00 85.50 $2,500,000 6. Cestral of Georgiaa..... 190.46 190.46 4,472,0l ) 2. Colunmbus and San Antonio (project) East Tennessee and Georgia (Tenn.) 14.08 14.08 852,729 3. Eastern Texas,140.00 31.00 1,800,00. 7. Etowah,.. 8.87 8.87 120,000 4. Galveston, Houston & Henderson, 50.00 50.00 I,000,000 8, Georgia,........17.001 7.0 Sr. Georgia. 171.-00 171.00 Connecting Branch at Houston, 1.75 1.75 Athens Branch,........ 39.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0800 39.0001. Athens Branch,39800 39 oo1 4 %5. Houston and New Orleans, 108.00 108.00 3,500,000 Warrentons Branch, 4.00 4.00 4,156,000 6. Houston Tap and Brazoria. 8.09 80.80 2,408,000 Washington Branch, 18.80 18.00) 7. Houston and Texas Central,. 356.00 130.00 2,70,000 9. Georgia Air Line (Atlanta &Richm'd) 150.00 20.00 1,000,000 Austin Branch,..100.00 25.00 00,000 10. iMacons and Augusta, 82.00 42.00 1,479,005 8. Indianola (progress) 11. Macon and Brunswick,. 174.00 70.29 1,600,000 9. ephis, El Paso & Pacific (projec) 0000 12. Macon and Western,.. 102.50 102.50 2,000,000 10 Sabine and Rio Grasde project) 13. Milledgeville and Eatonton,... 38.31 38.31 766,200 1l. San Antonio and Mexican Gul;. 135.00 28.00 700.000 13. Milledgeville and atonton, 38-31 38-31 12 Southern Pacific,188.00 278500 1700.000 14. North Eastern (Athens to Clayton). 1.788.00 27.50 1,500,00 12. Southel, Pacific tidn788.00 97.50 1,00,000 15. Rome and Kingston..... 20.00 20.00 250,000 13 TexasTransportaion. 5.5 200,000 16. Savan., Griffin N. Alabama (project) 17. Savannah and Charleston (S. C.).. 15.00 15.00 389,007 Total, 2,529.25 572.25 $17,00,000 18. Savannah, Skidaway and Seaboard,. 8.50 8.50 200,000 STATE ARANSAS. Selma, Rome and Dalton (Ala.).. 55.00 55 00 1,500,0100 19. South Georgia and Florida,. 58.00 24.00 600,000 1. Cairo and Fulton,.301.00 $1,000,000 20. Southwestern,....107.50 107.500 2. Little Rock and Fort Smith,.. 155.00 310,000 Butler Branch,.0..91.800 1.00 3. Little Rock and Helena. 98.00 Muscogee,. 50.00 50.00 4,591,548 4. Little Rock, Pine Bluff 4 Ni. Orleans, 115.00 500,000 Eufala Branch,59.50 59.50. Memphis and Little Rock,... 131.00 00 2,5,0 Eufala ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~595 Bran ~ 86.00 2,500,000 Fort Gaines Branch, 19.50 19.50 6. Mississippi, Ouachita and Red River, 100.00 21. Western and Atlantic (Tenn.).. 124.20 124.20 4,500,000 -Total.........897.00 86.00 $4,310,000 Total....... 2,095.41 1,694.70 $36,875,553 STATE OF TENNESSEE. STATE OF FLORIDA. SAtEantic OFd FGfla.)'~1.. Cincinnati, Cumber. Gap & Charleston, 94.00 $940,000 Atlantic and Golf (Ga.).. 290.00 50.00 $371,219 2. East Tennessee and Georgia (Ga.) 96.7 96.7 9 3,759,764 1 Florida,.154.00 154.00 3,000,000 Chattanooga Branch,... 30.00 30.00 2. Florida and Alabama,..... 45.20 45.20 1,300,000 1. East Tensessee and Virginia, 130.98 130.28 3,415,921 3. Florida, Atlantic and Gulf,.... 60.00 60.00 1,500,000 4.Edgefield and Kentucky,.. 47.00 47.00 1,175,000 4. Pensacola and Georgia,. 297.00 130.00.5. Knoxville and Charleston (progress) 53.00 16.00 800,000 Monticello Branch,.... 4.00 4.00 3,652,762 6. Knoxville and Kentucky (progress).65.00 31.00 1,200,000 Tallahassee Branch.... 7.00 21.00 Louisville and Nashville (Ky.. 45.00 45.00 1,662,913 5. Perdido and Junction.... 6.00 6.00 60,000 7. Memphis & Charleston (Miss. & Ala.) 86.26 86.06 I,515,619 - - - ~Somerville Branch..... 16.00 16.00 Total,........613.20 440.20 $9,883,981 8. Memphis, Clarksville & Louisville,. 82.50 82.50 3,037,068 2ff ~14 ~TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOfT. Corporate Titles of Lengthl Miles Cost of Road Coporate tles of Le th i e Cost of Road Total. Completed, and'qand Equp Companies. Total. Completed met. Companes. Total. Completed. ". 9. Memphis and Ohio,...130.60 130.60 $3,880,692 10. McMinnville and Manchester, 3.20 34.20 85,000 F MIC AN. Mississippi Central (Miss.). 47.40 47.40 1,410,922 1. Bay City and Saginaw,.....00 12.00 $360,000 I1. Mississippi River(Miemphis to Cairo) 101.00?00 2. Bay de Noquet and Marquette,.. 130.00 45.00 1,095,397 Brancsh to Tray........ 6.00 1,000,000 Chicago, Detroit & Can. Grand Junc'n, 59.00 59.00 2,500,000 12. Mississippi and Tennessee (Miss.). 10.00 10.00 023,112 4. Chicago & Mich. Lake Shore(progress)45.00 Mobile & Ohio (Ky., Miss.& Ala.). 118.50 118.50,522,721 5. Detroit, Howell and Lansing,... 84.00 199,471 MobNshille an httnoa,19 13. Nashville and Chattanooga,... 149.75 149.75 820 6. Flint and Pere Marquette,... 189.50 98.00 3,619,600 Shelbyvil Branch ~..099.00 9.0,0 7. Grand Rapids and Indiana,50 00 45.00 1,200,000 Jasper Branch,.. 14.00 14.00 080,000 8. Grand River Valley,.... ~. 91.00 91.00 2,730,000 14. Nashville and Decatur (Ale.).~94.00 14. Nashville and Decatur (Ala.)..94-.00 94.00? 912716 09. Jackson, Lansing and Saginaw,. 116.00 116.00 2,598,023 Mount Pleasant Branch,.. 12.50 12.50 10. Kalamazoo, Allegan & Grand Rapids, 49.50 49.50 1,500,000 i5. Nashville and Northwestern(Ky.). 167.40 167.40 4,495,178 11. Kalamazoo and South Haven,... 40.00 20.00 400,000 16. Kogersville and Jefferson,... 15.50 95.50 376,250 12. Lake Shore & Mich. South. (N. s., 115.06 15.001 17. Southwestern (project) Pa., 0., Ind. & Ill.,). Western and Atlantic (Ga.) ~...13.80 13.80 500,000 Branch from Adrian to Monroe,. 33.60 33.60 1 928 8. Tessnessee and Pacific (project).160.00 160,000 Jackson Br. (Palmvra to Jackson) 44.40 44.40 1 19. Winchester and Alabama,.. 38.12 38.12 1,000,000 Constantine Branch, I. 4.18 4.18 ~~~~~ — ~ ~Detroit, Monroe & Toledo (Ohio) 51.82 51.8J Total,....... 1,876.53 1,435.53 $46,918,448 Michigan Air Line,;... 80.00 20.00 500,000 13. Michigan Central (Ind. and Ill.).. 221.00 621.00 11,600,000 14. Northern Central (Lansinzr tosInd. line) 56.00 STATE OF KENTtUCKY. 15. Peninsula (Chicago & N. W. R. R.). 65.30 05.3 4,881,620 Branches and Extensions... 0 5.9 0 1. Breckenridge Coal,... 8.50 8.20 $370,000 16. Peninsula of Michigan (progressing) 108.00 40.00 9,200,000 2. Cincinnati Southern (project). 17. Port Huron & Chi. Air Line(progress) 110.00 30.00 1,600,000 3. Covington end Big Sas~1y (project). 10.00 18. St. Joseph Valley,...... 32.00 32.00 640,000 4. Elizabethtown & Paducah (project) 140.00 20.00 500,000 5. Evansville, Henderson & Nashville,. 98.00 98.00 3,500,000 Total.2,293.26 1,198.76 $48793,418 6. Kentucky Central(Covington& Lex.) 80.00 80.00 4,500,000 7. Lexington and Big Sandy, 1.00 12.00 30,000 STATE OF INDIANA. Coaltoss Branch. 0.72 0.72 ~~~~Chiago Cincinnati & Louisville, 103.00 Coalton Branch,. ~ 0.75 0.75 8. Lexington and Southern Kentucky,. 35.00 13.00 756,500 1. Chicgo, Cincinnati & Loisvi 10300 97.00 $3,000,000 9. Louisville, Cincinn. & Lexington, viz.: 2. Cinc. & Indianapolis Junction (.Ohio) 78.00 78.00 3, Lexinssgton and Frankfort,... 29.00 29.00 654,716 Louisville Branch () of 24 miles) 12.00:00 Louisville and Frankfort,... 65.00 65.00 1,372,114 3. Cincinnati and Martislville,. 40.00 40.00 800,000 Cincinnati Branch,.... 81.00 81.00 4,576,986 Cinc., Richmond & Chicago (Ohio)..00 0.00 133,474 10. Louisville, tarrodsburg & Va. (project) CloveI'd, Columbus, Ciscis. & Ind. (0.)84.00 84.00 1,170,820:1. Louisville and Nashville (Tenn.)..140.00 140.00) Colun., Chic.& Indianap. Central (0.) 211.50 211.50 Bardstown Branch,. 17.30 1730 10 Indianapolis Line,..... 72.50 72 50 23,19,380 Lebanon Branch,. 37.30 37 10,3960965 Logansport and State Line,.. 169.50 16950 3,179,380 Memphis Branch. 40.00 46.00J Louisvile Branch (12of 24 miles). 12.00 1.00J,Lehasson Brasch k tenoino,.135.00 54.00 2,870,474 4. Columbus and Shelbyville,.. 24.00 24.00 480,000 Richmond Branch,. 33.00 33.00 786,645 2. Evansville and Crawfordsville,.109.00 100.00 2,771,698 12. Maysville and Lexington,. 89.00 18.80 601,298 Rockvill Extension,. 23.00 2300 Mississippi River (Tenn.) 41.00 6. Grand Rapids & Indiana (Michigan) 48.00 480,000 Mobile and Ohio(Tess., Miss. & Ale.) 20.50 20.50 609,137 7. Indiana and Illinois (I11.).71.00. 71.00 2,000,000 Nashville and Northwestern (Tenn.) 7.50 1.50 210,911 8. Indianapolis, Cincinnati & Lafayette, 159.00 159.00 6,500,o00 13. New Orleans and Ohio..... 2.00 62.00 1,550,000 9. Indianap., Crawfdv. &Danville (111.) 78.00 78.00 3,000,00 14. Portlasd and Louisville.... 2.500 5.00 100,000 10. Indianapolis, Peru and Chicago,. 75.00 75.1)0 2,500,000 11. Indtianapolis and Vincennes,.. 74.00 74.00 3,000,000 Total..... 1,402.85 849.55 $33,511,746 12. Jeffersonville, Madison & Ind'napolis, 108.00 108.00 Madison Division,... 46.00 46.00 6,318,719 Jefferson-Madison Junction, 4.00 4.00' STATE OF OHIO. Joliet and Indiana (Ill.). 15.00 15.00 433,333 13. Kniightstown and Shelbyville,.. 27.00 27.00 540,008 1. Ashtahbula and New Lisbon, 84.62 10.00 $846,200 L. Shore & M. Sot.(N.Y.Pa.O.M.&II.) 101.00 101 7,108, 1.Asta la nt e icbn, &Vi. Gr":9 86399 1. Weustile ern (ba. & ~q.~ro.''24.0'2 101.00 },108, i i q~ Atlaotic & Gt. Western (Pa. & N.Y.) 240.02 246.02 Goshen Air Line (Olio).... 66.70 66070 Silver Creek Branch,... 4.98 4.98 34,693,979 14. Louisville, New Atlbany & Chicago,. 288.00 288.00 10,000,000 Cleveland Brasc h (wide track) ~ 48.92 48.92 Michigan Central (Mich. & Ill.).. 51.00 21.00 2,620,o0 2. Carrollton and Oneida, 11.50 11.50 103,500 Ohio and Mississippi (Ohio & Ill.).. 173.00 173.00 14,201,719 3. Central Ohio (Baltiore and Ohio). 137.08 137.08 5,511,209 Pittsb.,Ft.Wayne&Chic. (Pa.,O.&Ill.) 151.00 151.00.,719,551 4. Ciseinsati, Htamislton and Dayton,.60.30 60.30 4,295,394 Ricshm. & Miami (Dayton & Western) 6:00'. 6.00 78,571 Atlantic and Great Western track, 60.30 60.30 1. Shelby and Rush,..t.,0.00 00.00 320,000 1. Cincinnati and Indiana,. 20.50 20.0 2,500,000 16. Terre Hautee and Indianapolis,... 73.00 73.00 2,003,541 l-arrison Brasnch, k ~~. ~ 6.70 6.70 Toledo, Wabash & Western(O. & Ill.) 166.90 166.90 7,051,750 6-Cs. and Isndianapolis Junction (Ind.) 90.00 90.00 561,300 17. Union Track (Indianapolis)... 5.00 5.00 350,00 7. Cincinu., Richmond & Chicago (Ind.) 36.00 36.00 1,009,689 18. White Water Valley,.. 80.00 80.00 2,500,000 8. Cincinnati, Sandusky and Cleveland, 155.00 155.00,700,000 Roads not otherwise accounted for, 7,500.00 000.00 5,000,000 Findlay Branch,.... 16.00 16.00 9. Cincinnati and Zanesville....162.80 132.13 2,969,361 Total.........5,331.10 2,977.10 $121,102,301 10. Clcvel'd,Colum., Cin. & Indianapolis, 256.48 25.48 91380,432'Springfield Branch, 49.89 498OF ILLINOIS. 11. Cleveland and Pittsburg,.. 101.00 101.00 STT O]ss Tuscarawas xteusion,... 32.00 32.00 1. American Central, 180.00 50.00 $1,500,000 Hanover Branch, 1.50 1.50 9,563,410 2. Belleville and Southers Illissois,. ~ 140.00 14.00 500,000 Beaver Extension (Pa.)... 7.00 7.00 3. Cairo, M'dCity&Vincennes (progress) 10.00 0.001 2,000,000 Ws~eelin, xtenssioa 47.00' 47.00 Paducah Br. (Raleigh to Liberty). 50.00 12. Cleveland,.tVternon and Delaware, 60.75 60.75 1,568,234 4. Chicago,Blue Island & Ind. (project) 27.00 13. Col.. Chic, & Indianap. Central (Ind.) 115.00 115.00 6,774,902. Chicago, Burlington and Quincy,. 204.00 204.00] Untion City Brsanseh. 19.50 19.50 Aurora Branch, 13.00 13.00 14. Columbus and Flocking Valley,. 75.28 60.00 1,800,000 Peoria Line,. 53.00 3.00 15. Columbus and Xenia,.... 54.654.9 4.69 1,840,633 Lewiston Branch and Extension, 0.00 0.00 16. Dayton and Michigan,... 141.37 141.37 6,481,899 Quincy Line.... 100.00 100.00 ) 17. Dayton and Union,. 31.81 31;81 599,684 Carthage Brasch (Bushnell) 30.00 30.00 18. Dayton and Western.. 3.00 3.00 1,087,719 6. Chicago and Alton,....243.00 243,00 11,553,995 19. Daytos, Xenia and Belpre,. 15.26 15.26 415,000 7. Chicago & Milwaukee (Wisconsin). 45.00 45.00 2,103,750 20. Iron,.... 24.00 13.00 314,878 8. Chicago & Northwestern (Wis.).. 74.00 74.007 21. Lake Erie and Louisville,. 175.00 38.50 1,730,700 Freeport Line, 91.00 91.00 22. Lake Shore & Mich. South. (IV. Y., Clinton Line.... 138.00 138.00 P. I. M. & Ill.)..485.39 485.39 19,113,400 Richmond Line,.... 3.00 33.00 24,116,19 Lawrence (Penn.).. 7.40 7.40 164,116 Madison Line (Wis.).... 19.60 19.60 23. Little Miami,. 84.19 84.19 4,518,309 Rockford-Kenosha Line (Wis.) 32.40 32.40 24. Mahoning (Cleveland & Mahoning). 67.81 7.81 3,320,326 j eninsula Line (Mich.) Hubbard Branch,.... 12.373,039 Hssbbard Brasseh,. 12.37 1237 9. Chic., Rock Island & Pacific (Iowa) 182.00 182.00 1 25. Marietta and Cincinnati,. 190.80 190.80 Port Byron Branch, 11.00 1100 Hillsboro' Branch, 1.09. 2110 0'. 0 10. Illinois Central,... 308.75 308.75 Union Branch, 9.00 19,303,11 Galena Branc, 252.20 25220 32,319,457 Portsmouth Branch,. 56.00 56.00J Chicago Branch,.. 146.50 146.50 26. Ohio and Mississippi (Ind. & Ill.). 19.00 19.00 1,620,000 11. Illinois Coal,.....4.00 4.00 100,000 27. Pittshurg, Cincinnati and St. Louis, 117.00 117.00 12. Illinois Southeastern, 10.00 25.00 1,000,000 Newark to Col. (undiv. halfof33m. Cent. O.R. R.) 9,432,117 Indiana and Illinois (Id.) 73.00 730,00 t~ ~ ~ ~~~~Inin a n d Illinois ( Itlesen d,2.)0 73.00 7300,900 Cadiz Brach,........ 8.00 8.00 13. Ind., Bloomington & Western (Ind.) 118.00 118.00 5,000,000 28. Pittsb'g, Ft.Wayne & Chic. (P.,.&I.) 9251.00 21.00 14,08,709 Joliet & Chicago (Chicago & Alton) 37.00 37.00 2,600,000 29. Pittsburg, Maysville and Cincinnati, 225.00 1,000,000 Joliet and Northern Indiana (I11.). 30.00 30.00 866,668 30. Sandusky, Mansfield and Newark,. 116.25 116.25 3,050,235 L. Sh. S. Mi. Sou. (N.Y. P. O. M.&Ind.) 12.00 12.00 480,922 31. Sprio'field and Columbus,. 19.50 19.50 346,000 Michigan Central (Mich. & Ind.).. 13.00 13.00 702,123 uded i aove 200.00 000000 14. Mound City 3.50 3.50 100,000 Road'not incl being 6 ~ ~ ~ ~~5,00, 000 roads recently coapleted, c... Ohio asdMisssip (Ohio and lad.) 148.00 148.00 12,410,2 15. Peoria and Busreau Valley, 46.60 46.60 2,106,000 Total. 1..... 2,13.96 i723.89 $190,424,507 16. Peoria, Pekin & Jacksonvlle,. 161.50 86.00 3,000,000 RAILROADS —LENGTH —COST. 15 Cost of Road o e Tit les Cost of Road Corporate Titles of Length in Mies Coto a Corpoate sitles of Legt i Mies. R C~o~mpape~e~C o mpanies. Total. Completed. anomp s.ol ome d E'uipCompanies. Total. sent. Companies. To Completed. met. 17. Peo.& Rock Island (incl.CoalVal.R.R.) 90.00 41.00 $1,600,000 11., St. Joseph and Council Bluffs,... 80.00 80.00 $2,800,000 Pittsb., Ft. Wayne& Chic. (Pa.,O.&Ia.) 18.00 18.00 991,815 12. St.Louis, Chilicothe&Omaha'project) 140.00 140,000 18. Rockford, Rock Island & St. Louis,. 400.00 165.00 1,000,000 13. St. Louis and Iron Mountain,.. 195.00 195.00 19. St. Louis, Alton and Terre Haute,. 175.00 175.00 Pilot Knob Branch..... 11.00 11.00 10,000,000 St. Louis Branch...... 20.00 0.00 11,940,000 Potosi Branch...... 4.00 4.00 Belleville Branch,.14.80 14.80 14. South West Pacic......327.00 l10.0 7,500,000 20. St.Louis, Jacksonvileand Chicago, 151.00 151.00 4,000,000 15. Tebo and Neosho (project)... 120.00 150,000 Hopedale to Peoria,.. 23.00 Roads not included in above, probably 800.00 900.00 6,000,000 21. St. Louis, Vand. & 7erre Haute (prog.) 163.00 68.00 2,500,000 - 22. Sycamore and Cortlandt,... 5.00 5.00 100,000 Total,..,261.79 1,827.00 $8,372,121 23. Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw,. 230.00 130.00 9,500,000 Burl'nton Branch.. 19.00 19.00 5 9 000 STATE OF KANSAS. T oledo, ab. & Western (Ohio&Ind.) 212.40 812.401 1. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (prog.) 250.00 60.00 $1,000,000 Naples Branch...... 4.00 4.00 2. Central Branch, Union Pacific,,. 230.00 15.00 6,500,000 Keokuk Branch.... 41.20 41.20 2 6,000,000 3. Kansas City and Santa Fe,. Naplca to lantibai,. 43.00 43.00 4. Kansas City& Neosho Valley (prog.) 200.00 200,000 Decatur to East St. Louis,. 105.00 105.00 5. Kansas Pacific....... 405.00 405.00 21 800 000 24Western Union (Wis.).....112.00 112.00 4,419,222 Leavenworth Branch,.... 31.00 31.00 Roads not naued above, estimated at 2,000.00 600.00 20,000,000 6. Lawrence, Olanthe & Kansas City,. ~ — _____ ~ 7. Leavenworth, Atchison& N. Western, 91.50 21.50 533,500 Totl....... 7,186.45 4,707.95 $217,559,542 8. Leavenworth, Lawrence& Gaulvest'n, 160.00 28.00 840,000 9. St. Joseph and Denver City,... 100.00 40.00 1,50,000 STATE OF WIseONSIN. 10. Missouri River...... 2.. 6.00 26.00 1,000,000 Chicago aid Milwaukee (Ill.).. 40.00 40.00 $1,870,000 11. Missouri River, Fort Scott & Gulf,. 152.00 100.00 4,000,000 Chicago and Northwestern (Ill.).. 170 40 174.00 12. South Branch, Union Pacific,... 60.00 75.00 2,500,000 Madison Line.. 48.00 48.00 18,50,62 Tota1,601.0 930.50 $39,6623,200 Kenosha Line,::::: ~~~Total......... 101:56 930.50 $962,0 Kenosha Line,....40.00 40.00 1. Dubuque, Platteville & Monroe (prog.) 56.50 21.00 500,000 2. LaCrosse, Treaspeleau & Presc't (prog.) 27.00 27.00 1,000,000 STATE OF COLORADO. 3. Manitowoc & Mississippa (progress) 220.00 7.50 200,000 Union Pacific, East.Division (Kansas) 300.00 100.00 $4,000,000 4. Milwaukee aud St. Paul,.196.00 196.00] Union Pacific, Denver City Br. (Dak.) 50.00 50.00 2,000;000 Portage Lind,. i.. 95.00 5.00 422,12 Berlin, Osinro &Winnecon Line, 58.00 580 0,5,72Total.......350.00. 150.00 $6,000,000 Watertown & Madison Line,. 38.00 38.00J 5. Prairie du Chien Division,... 193.00 193.00 769,21 STATE o NEBRAKA. Monroe Branch,.. 42.00 45.00 6. Mineral Poiss. l....... 32.90 35.00 1,520,000 1. Union Pacific (Dakota and Utah). 450.00 420.00 $22,000,000 Belmont Branch,.. 10.00 10.00 2. Sioux City and Pacific (Iowa). 29.00 29.00 1,450,000 7. Platteville and Calamine (progress) 2 21.00 210,000 8. St. Croix & Lake Superior (project) 133.00 40.00 1,200,000 Total......... 449.00 449.00 $26,450,000 Bayfield Branch,...... 90.00 9. Sheboygan and Fond do Lac,. 43.00 43.00 985,200 TERRITORY OF UTA. Western Union (Ill.).. 69.00 69.00 2,742,908 10. West Wisconsin (progress).... 153.00 66.00 2,500,000 CentralPacific(Cal. & Nevada).. 100.00 100.00 $5,000,000 Roads being constructed and par- Union Pacific (Neb. & Dakota).205.00 205.00 10,000,000 oially colplete, not included in 1,000.00 150.00 5,000,000 1. Utah Central........ 60.00 60.00 3,000,000 above, estimate...... av eta- - Total..Total,.......365.00 365.00 $18,000,000 Total,........2,779.60 1,490.60 $60,358,723 TERRITORY OF WYOMING. STATE OF MInNEsOTA.'Union Pacific (Nebraska & Utah).. 510.00 510.00 $40,800,000 I. Hastings and Dakota,. 200.00 30.00 $1,000,000 Denver City Branch (Colorado). 50.00 50.00 2,500,000 9. Lake Superior and Mississippi,.. 145.00 77.00 2,500,000 — ~ 3. Milwaukee and St. Paul (Iowa).. 131.00 131.00 5,000,000 Total,.60.00 000 $43,300,00 4. St. Paul and Chicago......100.00 10.00 1,000,000 5. St. Paul and Pacific, 220.00 143.00 STATE OF NEVADA. Watab Branch,. 81.00 81.00 8,000,000 Central Pacific (California and Utah).. 390.00 390.00 $15,500,000 Penmbina Extension (project). 305.00 6. St. Paul & Sioux City (Minn. Valley) 200.00 107.00 2,750,000 Total..... 390.00 350.00 $15,500,000 7. Southern 2Misnesota,...250.00 90.00 3,000,000 0. Stillwater and St. Paul,. 18.00 18.00 360,000 STATE OF CALIFORNIA. 9. Superior and State Line (project) ~ 10. Wibnona and St. Peter.....150.00 126.00 4,250,000 1. California Central,.. 21.80 21.80 $1,000,000 ___ - _ - 2. California asd Oregon (progressing) 274.00 100.00 5,000,000 Total........,1,800.00 823.00 $27,860,000 3. California Pacific,.100.00 62.00 3,000,000 Marysville Branch (progress).. 45.00 5. Headsburg (project)...... STATE OF OnwA. 4.~~~i Censtrat Pacific/Nevada and Utah). 138.00 13.0 3,000 1. Burlington, Cedar Rapids & Minn., 300.00 67.00 $3,500,000 6. FeatherRiv. & Beckwourth Pass (project) 2. Burlington and Missouri River,.279.14 279.14 12,500,000 7. Los Angeles atd San Ptdro. 5.1.00 21.00 1,000,000 3. Cedar Falls and Minnesota,.. 81.00 81.00 3,402,000 8.NapaValley... 40.00 40.00 1,600,00 4. Cedar Rapids & StMiss.Riv. (C.&N.W.) 271.60 271.60 11,500,000 9. North Beach and Mission, 3.50 3.0 000,000 5. Central Railroad of Iowa,. 200.00 43.00 1,750,000 10. Northern California, 26.00 26.00 1,00,00 6. Chicago, Iowa & Nebraska (C.&N.W.) 81.30 81.30 4,858,900 11. Oninibus (San Francisco) 3.80 3.08 021,000 7. Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific,. 310.50 310.50 12. Placerville and Sacranmento,. 37.00 26.00 1,500,000 Oskaloosa Branch.......113.00 50.00 15000,000 3Sacramento Valley, 22.50 25.50 1,800,000 8. Council Bluffs and St. Joseph,... 52.00 52.00 14. San Francisco anid Alameda,. 6.00 14.00 500,000 9. Des Miloines Valley,... 162.50 162.50 6,000,000 15. San Fran. & Humboldt's Bay (project) 210.00 Extension to Fort Dodge,. 81.50 81.50 4,000,000 16. San Francisco and Oakland,.. 4.00 4.00 100,00 10. Dubuque and Sioux City,.142.88 142.88 5,057,043 17. San Francisco and San Jose,.. 0.00 20.00 2,000,000 11. Dubuque South Western,.. 54.76 54.76 1,700,000 Southern Extension (project). 600.00 30.00 1,500,000 12. Iowa Falls and Sioux City,..183.00 119.50 4,000,000 18. San Francisco and Washoe (project). 92.00 13. Keokuk and St. Paul,...61.50 44.00 1,300,000 San Rafael & San Quenton (progresing) 14. McGregor and Missouri River,... 280.00 93.30 4,000,000 19. South San Francisco,.. ~ 4.00 4.00 100,000 15. Milwaukee and St..Paul (Minn.). 84.60 84.60 2,375,000 20. Stockton and Copperopolis,... 35.00 350,000 16. Sioux City and Pacific (Nebraska,) 80.00 80.00 3,000,000 Stockton & Tulare Valley (project) 17, St. Louis and Cedar Rapids,.. 200.00 42.25 1,600,000 21. Western Pacific.120.00 120.00 6,000,000 -- -- - - 2~2. Tuba Valley..........24.00 04.00 1,000,000 Total,........3,219.28 2,140.83 $85,762,943 Roads not included in above state- 500.00 100.00 5,000,000 ment, estimate, STATE OF MISSOURI. Total,.... 2,397.60 810.60 $46,650,000 I. Cairo & Fulton (owned by St. L. & Iron Mountain)....... 76.79 57.00 $897,168 STATE OF OREGON. 2. Chariton and Randolph (progress). 40.00 400,000 1. Cascades Transit...... 6.00 6.00 $200,000 3. Chilicothe and Brunswick,... 6.00 36.00 1,000,000 2 Dalles and Deschutes.... 13.50 13.50 500,000 4. Chilicothe, Leon & D. Mo'ns (project) 133.00 133,000 3 Oregon r. of Cntra Pacific (project) - - - 5. Hannibal& Cent. Missouri (Moberly) 70.00 700,000 4. Oregon Central, East side (project) 6. Hannibal and St. Joseph. 20.00 20600 5. Oregon Central, West side (project). Quincy Branch and Bridge,.. 15.00 15:00 16,760,000 6. St. Helen's & Hillsboro' (progress) - Cameron & Kansas City Branch, 54.00 5400 7 Salem & McMinnville (progress). 7. Missouri Valley....130.00 100.00 1,200,000 8. Salt Lake & ColumbiaRiver(project) - - - 8. North M~issouri233.25 233.25 Roads including above in progress 100.00 0,oo Western Extension,. 125.75 125.75. 17,500,000 d completed, estimate, Columbia Beasach. 20.00 12.00 o~ooo. and completed, estiniate,.. Columbia Branch,....... 9,00 22.00) 9. Osage Valley & Southern Kansas,. 150.00 25.00 600,000 Total.... 2.,019.50 119.50 $5,700,000 10. Pacific of Missouri,...283.00 183.00 16,621,953 216 RAILROADS-LENTGTH-COST. RECAPITULATION OF RAILROADS, CoSECI. Mies of Roa. oad fd Projected. Opened..Equipment Built and Building, with Cost of Roads and Equip- Gulf & S. West,.. 1,527.45 223.45 22,659,653 mebt, by States, to Jan. 1, 1870.nterior,..... 8,656.60 3,976.55 89,00,8 N. Interior'..... 8,656.60 3,976.55 189,4 0 0,824 Cost of Pacific and West 366.10 922.10 29,664,000 LSTA'~TE9, &C. Miles of Road. Road and Total. Open. Equipment. Maine.......... 940.79 672.07 $21,183,110 Av. toeachsec'n, 13,446.28 6,588.37 $358,707,678 New Hampshire,. 785.32 685.32 22,642,630 Vermont.... 653.09 613.09 28,787,926 The annual progress of railroad building since, in Massachusetts,. 1,569.75 1,483.70 74,699,443 1827, the commencement was made in the construcRhode Island, 121.47 121.47 5,132,672 tion of the Granite Railroad at Quincy, Mass., to the Connecticut,.... 806.94 698.57 27,359,017 present time, is shown in the following table: New York,..... 4,735.91 3,636.22 209,001,671 Year Miles. Year Mies 7 1828 3 18490.....9.... 6,350 New Jersey,.... 1,023.65 989.65 74602735 828.*** * *18 075 Pennsylvania,.. 6,878.36 5,014.45 300,556508 18 30 4 1850.4 8,59 Delaware and E. 1830............ 41 18510........... 8,589 Delaware and E. ^A -1^9 -1109 Maryland,.... 455.50 292.50 8,773,637............. 54 1852,...........11027 Maryland, other 1832............ 131 1853...........13,497 than above,... 730.02 493.52 31,814,659 833 1854....... * 15, West Virginia,... 723.75 364.75 27,869,315 1834....... 185.. 1835........... 918 1856,..........19,251 Virginia,..... 2,049.11 1,482.94 49,886481 1836102 185722625 1836,............1,1 02 1857,...........22,625 North Carolina,.. 1,552.97 1,129.67 29,505,425 1837,..........1 431 1858......25,090 South Carolina,,.. 1,439.17 1,089.97 27,348,817 1838...........1843 1859,...........26.755 Georgia,........ 2,095.41 1,694.70 36,875,552 1839... 1,920 1860..........28,771 Florida,....... 613.20 440.20 9,883,981 1840,...........2,197 1861...........30,593 Alabama,....... 2,039.80 1,036.00 36,421,163 1841,............3,319 1862,..........31,769 IMississippi,..... 920.00 920.00 24,919,504 1842,............ 3,877 1863,......... 32,471 Louisiana,...... 928.30 414.50 17,385,223 1843............ 4,174 1864,...........33,860 Texas,......... 2,529.25 572.25 17,006,000 1844,............4,311 1865,...........34.442 Arkansas,...... 897.00 86.00 4,310,000 1845,............4,522 1866.......... 35.351 Tennessee,...... 1,876.53 1,435.53 46,918,448 1846,............4.870 1867,...........36,896 Kentucky,...... 1,402.85 849.55 33,511,746 1847,............5,336 1868,..........38,822 Ohio,......... 4,613.96 3,723.89 190,424,507 1848,...........5,682 1869...........42,272 Michigan,...... 2,293.26 1,198.76 48,793,418 1870.... 48860 Indiana,....... 5,331.10 2,977.10 121,162,301 Illinois,....... 7,186.45 4,707.95 217,559,542 City Passenger Railroads are not included Wisconsin,..... 2,779.60 1,490.60 60,358,723 in the above summary. These are now in Minnesota,...... 1,800.00 823.00 27,860,000 general use in all considerable cities, and in Iowa,.......... 3,219 28 2,140.83 85,762,943 n er ina places wee p la Nebraska,...... 449.00 449.00 26,450,000 numerous instances in places where populaWyoming Terr'y, 560.00 560.00 43,300,000 tion s less dense. Their economical bearMissouri,....... 3,261.79 1,827.00 88,372,121 ings are fully recognized, and their popularity Kansas........ 1,601.50 930.50 39,623,500 is increasing. Boston, New York, Brooklyn Colorado,........ 350.00 150.00 6,000,000 and Philadelphia count their street railroad Utah Territory,.. 365.00 365.00 18,000,000 tacks by hundreds of miles. Probably the Nevada....... 390.00 390.00 19,500,000 NCalifrnia,... 2,397.60 810.60 46.650,000 total is not less than 3,500 to 4,000 miles. California,...... 2,397,60 810.60 46,650,000 Oregon,........ 2,019.50 119.50 5,700,000 Nor have we included in our statement any account of the second tracks with which Av. to each State, 5,522.10 1,835.10 $95,850,000 most of the leading lines are supplied, nor RECAPITULATION BY SECTIONS. the sidings and turnouts on all the lines. North East,.... 4,877.36 4,274.22 $179,804,798 These may be estimated at 25 per cent. of Middle East,....14,547.19 10,791.09 652,618,525 the length of road, and are being added to South East,.... 7,749.86 5,837.48 154,000,257 yearly. Adding these supplementary tracks GulfandS.West, 10,573.93 5,294.03 180,472,084 to the tabulated mileage, we find that the North Interior,..33,095.94 20,828.63 949,667,055 total length of equivalent single track in use Pacific and West, 5,522.10 1,835.10 95,850,000 toal lent eqvalent sngle tack n se Pacific and Wes, 5 0 1 0 is about 60,000 miles, and if we add to this Total, Jan. 1,'70, 76,366.38 48,860.55 2,212,412,719 the equivalent for the city passenger tracks, to nearly 65,000 miles. It is now about In the following statement is shown the increase to n early 65,000 miles. It is now aout in railroad development in the several sections dur- forty years since we began to build railroads, ing the year 1869: and in that time, as before intimated, we Cost of have built a greater length than is to be SECTiONS. Miles of Road. Road and North ast....Projected. Opened. Equipment. found in the whole of Europe. Progress Middle East,.... 3,538.54 1,02659 85,129,307 leads but to new demands and new enterSouth East,..... 293.22 185.57 14,978,130 prises. RAILROADS-LENGTH-COST. 217 The following list of City Passenger or sufficient to show what progress has been Horse Railroads, as they are generally called, made in the last ten years in this department is incomplete, giving generally only those of transportation. The railroads in this list which were running at the beginning of have a length of about 1,025 miles, and have 1869, and perhaps not all of these, but no cost for roads and equipment about $41,later statistics can be obtained. But this is 000,000. CITY PASSENGER RAILROADS. a9;~~~~.~~~d~~~ ~~ Value of a ^ 1^ Indebtedness. Earnings. P..o a Shares.o No.$ $p.c $ $ nai $s. m. No........ $ $. $.. $ p.c..$.$ 7.37 91 12 Albany.......................N.Y. 139,414 98,900 40,000 5,000 57,580 Loss...100 100. Albany st. Freight (Boston,).. us.. 150,000........ 100 100 3.25 12 35 Allentown,...................... Pa 72,74 31,500 29,814 12,191 6,771 3,093....100!100... 1600....... Atlan. av. & Greenw'd (Brooklyn) N.Y. 500,000...................................... 100 ]100 31.00 480 80 Baltimore City,..18.... Md.........................:.....1 00 l00 184 22.00 401 50 Bleecker st. & F. F. (N.Y. C.)..N.Y. 1,747,127 900,000 694,000 40,713 302,566 51.760....100 100 3.53. Boston and Chelsea............ Mass. 110,000 110,00........8,800 1,193 6.8100 100.... 10.76 2 40Brodwy (Brooklyn,)..........NY. 302,050 200,000 35,000 29,0971 126,662 28,F`8'2 8.0 100 100... 16.00 791 106 Broadway & 7th Av,. (N. Y. C.).N.Y. 522,895'2,100,000 1,600,000. 664,652 184,914 100 100 8.00 101 30 Brooklyn, Bath & Coney Island,..N.Y. 156,838 99,850 80,000 7,538 24.517 Loss.....1100 100.... 74.00 1420 291 Brooklyn City.. N.Y. 1,164,204 1,500,000 300,000..... 1,197,309 283,938 12.0 100 100.... 11.00 201 43 Brooklyn City and Newtown,.NY. 569,620 496,000 200,000 14,372 134,614 38,422....100 100. 21.00....... Brooklyn and Jamaica,..... N.Y............................................................. 12.08....... Brooklyn, Hunter's Pt. & Prospect Park.............................. I.......................... R. R. Co...................... 537,944 278,000 278,000 2,093 70,020 3,018....100 100.... 6.50 40 12 Brooklyn, Prosp. P. & Flatbush,..N.Y. 434,600 254,600 300,000 1,487.... 100 100 4.28 4 30 Brooklyn & Rockaway Beach,...N.Y. 214,489 144,600 45,000 2,500 20,621 9,021 00 100.... 1521 197 53 Buffalo street.................. N.Y. 318,909 50,000 186,000 109,500 99,734 17,427.... 50 50.... 7.85..... Bushwick (Brooklyn,). N.Y. 264,982 262,200 2,000 5,040 20,508 72... 100 100.... 28.52.... Cambridge (Boston,)........... Mass. 731,671 727,800 150,100 94....... 89.058 9.0 100 100 994 1.76.... 39 Central City (Syracuse,)........ N.Y. 29,758 21,130 6,000. 18,645 4,097 10 10 36.00 561 149 Cen. P., N. & E. R. (N.Y.C.)...N.Y. 1,627,021 1,065,200 626,000 33,644 512,962 18,812. 100 100.... 9.20....... Cincinnati street,............... 100 100.... 7.25 2001 37 Citizens' (10th & 11th sts.) (Phila.,) Pa. 179,635 192,750............227,369 95,876 32.1 50 19.... 9.00 146 30 Citizens' (Pittsburg,).............Pa. 234,045 176,000 56,300 7,700 139,864 31,708 24,5 50 44.... 6.50....... City Passenger (Cincinnati.).................................. 100 100 1483 236 18IConey Island (Brooklyn,).... N.Y 645,25 500,000 218,000 19,587 131,637 Loss..... 100 100 22.89 792]116 Dry Dock, E. B. & B. (N.Y.C.)...N.Y. 772,303 1,200,000 700,000. 669,174 135,905 100 100.. 3.50...... Dunkirk and Fredonia......... Y 42,605 34,815........ 2,448 8,721 3,443................ 1.63 10 3Easton and Suth Eston......... Pa 24,275 26,000 50...... 10,444 3,732.... 25 25 18.00 872i160Eighth Avenue (N. Y. City,).....N.Y. 1,455,161 1,000,000 203,000 804,791 190,391 12.0 100 100.... 8.00 52 9 Fair Haven and Westville..Conn. 152,917 150,000.........100 100.... 1.74.... Fifth Ward (Syracuse.)........N.Y. 27,533 26,170 761 2,468 100 100.... 15.38 387 50C 42d st. & Grand st. F. (N.Y.C.)...N.Y. 1,041,204 748,000 260,000 341,781 85,664 10.0 100 100.... 16.37 298 40 Frankford & Southwark (Phila.).Pa. Pa. 762,491 491,750 200,000...... 299,228 56,713 5.0 50 50.... 3.25 16 5 Genesee & Water st. (Syracuse,).N.Y. 54,200 42,500 9,000 400 8,653 159........ 34.25 356 81 Germantown (Phila.,)............Pa 562,270 112,245 350,000...... 322,439 85,644 37.4 50 15 28 5.40 125 25 Girard College (Phila.,)..........Pa. 171,712 170,000.............. 117,342 25,111 8.5 50 17.... 5.50 92 15 Grand st. & Newtown (Brooklyn,) N.Y. 200,000 170,000 30,000..... 72,870 5,321....100 100 5.09 224 42 Green and Coates st. (Phila).....Pa. 236,220 150,000 100,000...... 187,103 22.88 7.5 50 15 38.... Greenpoint & W'msbg (Brook'n,) N.Y....... 10.00 122 23 Harlem Br., Morrisa. & Fordham, N.Y. 239,063 113,230 130,000 2,500 63,45 Loss.....100 100.... 2 14 18 6 rrisburg City.................. Pa. 60,120 41,995 9,350 2,063 9,272 Loss.... 25 24.... 9.00 19 6 HUllartfsord and Wethersfield...... Conn. 180,000 180,000.......................... 100 100 13.17 345 78 Hest., Mant. & Fairmount (Phila.,).Pa. 472,687 306,390 165,700 3,292 262,829 40,431.... 50 50 114 Hoboken and Hudson City.......N.J....... Hoboken and Weehawkcn.. N.J............................................. 2.50 Hudson Av. (Brooklyn,)......... N.Y. 161,535 200,500 74,00 9272 724 1,055.... 00 100.... 10.47....... Jersey City and Bergen Point,.....N.J............... 3.56 28 9Kingston and Rondout.....N.Y. 78,989 75,000.20,971 2,170 34 100 100.... 5.20 113 21 Lombard and South st., (Phila.,)...Pa. 165,627 90,000 62,500 10,560 70,353 9,702.... 25 9.... 4.03 48 9 Lowell Horse,.......... Mass. 69,416 55,830........ 2,080 29,240 3,411.... 100 100.... 12.50 201 321Lynn and Boston.............. Mass. 207,587 200,000 50,000 48,048 153,658 Loss.....100 100 3.60... Maiden and Melrose (Boston,)....Mass. 60,246........ 52,600..... 24,472.................. 1.00... Marginal Freight (Boston,)......Mass. 177,624 177,700 100 100 3.08....... Medford & Charlestown (Boston,) Mass. 27,500 21,000 6,500.............. 2,2401... 100 100.... 5.11 37 6 Merrimac Valley............... Mass. 50,241 50,000........12,810 18,014 2,249.... 100 100.... 6.00 58 13 Metropolitan (Brooklyn.)........N.Y. 361,500 194.000 191,900 7,000 34,108 6,299....100 100.... 42.86 791 156 Metropolitan (Bostons,)........Mass. 1,543,729 1,250,000. 177,164 765,981 135,284 10.0 100 100 6 7.42 254 47 Middlesex (Boston,)............ Mass. 52'2,834 400,000 91,902 38,917 206,640 16,6590....100 100 67 1220 180 52 Ninth Avenue (N. Y. City,).....N.Y. 468,322 797,320 167,000...... 95,848 595.... 100 100.... 3.39 17 4 Northampton &W'mburg,......Mass. 300,000 300,000.. 13,884 562.... 100 100.. 2.16 6 2l North Woburn (Boston,)........ Mass. 27,657 20,950 8,000 4,429 4,174 808.... 100 100.... 7.25 73 13 Oakland & E. Liberty (Pbg.)......Pa. 105,457 59,500 17,000 43,04 49,929.50 50.... 17.05 167 28 Orange and Newark............N.J. 682,438 289,550 380,000 26,500 147,327 24,47....50 50.... 3.81.......Passenger (Cincinnati,)............0. 100,000 100,000............................... 100 100.... 9.17 30 81People's street (Scranton,).........Pa. 110,90 104,028.............. 16,003 Loss. 15. 100 100.... 2 1,8 RAILROADS —LENGTH-COST. CITY PASSENGER RAILROADS. 1 ~.1.. Indebtedness. Earnings. of.... Shares. ^ | COMP~AN. |* ~. r. I _ ________I 1s e A I I_ in. NoNu.o$ $ $ P. $ p $ $ 7.07 271 48 Philadelphia City (C. & W.).. Pa. 446,265 225,000 200,000 21,265 250,557 45,270 20. 50 15 45k 5.89 50 14 Philadelphia and Darby..........Pa. 250,419 160,000 89,000...... 40,374 11,622 4. 20 20 12 8 50 140 281Philtadelphia and Gray's Ferry,.....Pa. 293,548 285,307 5,500...... 87,643 1d,274 7. 50 25 20. 8.25 153 28 Pittsburg, Allegheny & Manclester,.Pa. 143,123 124,0001 23,000 16,950 133,266 15,798 7.s 50 31 5.20 80 12 Pittsburg and Birmingham.........Pa. 108,488 82,000 10,600 30,082 70,706 8,481 7.3s 50 41.... 6.88 92 16 Portland,.......................Me. 160,300 160,300........ 6.00 45,007 12,809 7. 100. 100.... 569 55 9 Quincy (Boston,)............... Mass. 77,640 71,600 66,434 57,592.............. 100 100.... 8.00 48 ]2 Ridge Av. & Mannyunk (Phila.,)..Pa. 179,635 120,500 63,300...... 36,111 Loss..... 50 25 9 10.50 96 22 Rochester and Brighton,...... N.Y. 74,000 59,000 15,000...... 31,490 11,290.... 100 100.... 7.87 47 15 Salem and Danvers............ Mass. 182,845 150,000 32,100 11,561 32,912 Loss. 100 100..,. 3.96. Schuylkill River (Phila.,).........Pa. 47,4644 50,000............................... 50 10.... 16.00 597 91 Secoid Avenue (N.Y. City,)....N.Y. 1,452,393 800,000 700,0001170,962 512,666 71,706....100 100.... 33.00 485 76 2d and 3d street (Phila.)...........Pa. 628,843 573,387 109,300...... 524,611 177,857 1 1l 50 30 41 5.62 110 17 17th and 19th street (Phila.,).......Pa. 116,918 130,000........ 37,408 79,754 11,569.... 50 13.... 8.37 657 74 Sixth Avenue (N. Y. City,)...... N Y. 1,786,977 750,000 250,000...... 625,341 140,808 10. 100 100 3.61.... Somerville (Boston,)............ Mass. 75,000 75,000...................... 4,500 6. 100 100'.... 6.43 265 39 South Boston.................Mass. 401,030 400,000...... 12,047 209,164 20,976 9A {j00 100 60 o250 13 4 Stoneham street (Boston,)....... Mass. 39,344 33,000........ 1,500 10,201 Loss. 100 100 6.74. Sub-Urban (Boston,)... Mass. 95,000 5,000........... 100 100.... 2.07 20 6 Syracuse and Geddes,..........N.Y. 25,978 25,000 25,000...... 14,381 4,781 4. 1(00 100.... 4.38 10 3 Syracuse and Onondaga........N.Y. 31,000 31,000... 7,884 2,199 5. 100 100.... 7.25 200 37 10th & 1ith sts., (Citizen's Ph.).... Pa.179,635 192,750.............. 227,369 95,876 32.1 50 194 90 18.00 1422 187 Third Avenue (N. Y. City,)......1.Y12,745,277 1,170,000 1,500,000 5,000 1,257,476 274,584 12. 100 100 197k o......... 13th and 15th streets (Phila.,).. Pa.................................. ~3.47 32 5 Troy and Albany............... N.Y. 72,463 44,700.. 13,978 16,844 Loss.....100 100.... 12.30 49 21 Troy and Lansingburg.....N.Y. 363,967 250,000 100,000 81,095 154,582 Loss. 100 100... 4.50...Tro and Cohoes,............. N.Y. 70,000 70,000............................... 100 100.... 44974 ion (Boston,)..............Mass. 311,879 200,000 30,200 1132,265 373,103 Loss..... 100 100 103 15.50 85 20 Utica, Clinton and Bingham,.....N.Y. 305,828 121,400 200,000 1,200 80,268 14,148.... 100 100.. 2.50 20 6 Van Brunt st. (Brooklyn,).....N.Y. 87,000 75,000 12,000 1,612 17,925 3,201 4 100 100.... 15.50 162 29 Watervliet (Albany,)......... N.Y. 297,145 240,000 131,000 4,000 117,593 31,390 4 100 100.... 5.80.. West Hoboken,............... N.J. 100,000 40,000 60,000.......................100 100 13.50 380 70 West Philadelphia...............Pa. 571,055 375,000 100,000 15,000 321,374 43,748 10 50 50 61 4.38.- 14 4 Wilkesbarre and Kingston,........Pa. 92,333 50,000.. 8,500 13,883 5,882.... 50 50.... 1.02 10' 4 Williamsport.....Pa. 20,867 15,600 5,000 1,127 3,565 1,319 25 25.... 2.76....... Winnisimmet (Boston,)...... Mass. 62,152 57,250............. 4,200 3,740 4 100 100.... 4.06 44 Worcester.....................ass 89,573 75,800 72,000 26,000................. 100 100 RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 219 The expenditure of this vast sum for rail- Pacific, Union Pacific, Central Pacific, the ways within a period of little more than forty leading Southern roads, and some others, are years, and more than half of it within the very largely held in Europe, and some of last ten-an expenditure amounting to over them are entirely controlled by foreign influone hundred dollars for each inhabitant of ences. It is partly on this account that hiththe average population of the United States, erto foreign and especially English rails have during that period-is without a precedent been so largely used for their construction) in the world's history. Had this been accom- often to the very great detriment of the roads. plished in a country as old and rich as En- From 1840 to 1857, 3,004,130 tons of rails gland, and where capital had accumulated and were imported from Great Britain, at a cost was constantly seeking avenues of invest- of about $150,000,000, paid for, to a considment, it would still have been wonderful, but erable extent, in railroad bonds, at prices it has been done in a country whose whole considerably below par. From 1857 to 1869, valuation of real and personal estate in 1860 (both inclusive,) 1,717,222 tolls more were was, by the most liberal tables, only $16,- imported, at a cost of somewhat more than 519,616,068, and less than half this was per- $75,000,000. Within a few years past, it sonal property, so that the cost of the rail- has been found that steel rails possess great roads of the United States up to 1870, is advantages over iron, and they are beginning about three-sevenths of the entire personal to be extensively adopted, the great roads property of the United States in 1860. That laying them as fast as they can without disthere has been a vast increase in our national turbing their traffic. Over 50,000 tons of wealth within the past ten years, no one can these rails were laid in 1869, of which 35,000 doubt, and this increase undoubtedly makes tons were foreign, and between 15,000 and the present valuation of personal property 16,000 tons American. It is estimated that sixteen or seventeen thousand millions of dol- not far from 90,000 tons will be laid in 1870, lars, but even this is only five or six times of which probably two-thirds will be Amerthe cost of the railroads. That many of them ican steel, the best qualities of which are are not worth to-day what they cost, perhaps worth from $100 to $120 perton. The most not the half of it, is undoubtedly true, but, on important single article of freight transported the other hand, a considerable number are by the railroads is coal; several very extenworth nearly double their cost, and will con- sive railroads, particularly the Philadelphia tinue to increase in value. and Reading, the Philadelphia and Erie, the We might be led to suppose, reasoning Delaware and Lackawanna, the Lehigh Valfrom analogy, that so great an absorption of lep, the Lehigh and Susquehanna, Lackacapital in the construction and equipment of wanna and Bloomsburg, the Morris and Essex, railroads would have rendered it scarce for the New Jersey Central, and the Baltimore other purposes; but, owing to the fact that and Ohio, are almost wholly supported by the railroads in this country have -for the this traffic, while manyothers do a very large most part been the pioneer influences in de- coal business. The employment of coal as veloping the settlement, and stimulating the fuel, though known some years before, was production of crops, manufactures, and min- not attempted to any great extent prior to ing products, capital has not only not been 1820. The following table shows how greatrendered more scarce by their construction, ly it has been developed since that time, and but has been greatly increased, and is con- particularly within the past ten years. There stantly becoming more plentiful. Prior to has been, it will be noticed, an increase of 1860, there were but seven railroads in the more than three hundred per cent. in each United States with a capital stock of ten successive decade. Though there will be no million dollars or more, and not one with such increase in the future in the anthracite twenty millions; now there are fifty which coal production, the bituminous and semihave cost more than ten millions, and fifteen bituminous coals will develop even more rapranging between twenty and one hundred idly for many years to come. millions. Our railroad indebtedness, like our Coal of all descriptions sent to market Tons. national bonds, is, much of it, held in Europe. from 1820 to 1830,.............. 636,903 The stock and bonds of the Boston and Al- From 1830 to 1840,.......5......... 5,377540 bany, the Erie, Atlantic and Great Western, From 1840 to 1850.......... 15,09132 bany,7~~~~~'From 1850 to 1860,............. 46,139,090 Lake Shore, Ohio and Mississippi, Illinois From 1860 to 1810,................ 161,050,91,6 Central, Chicago and Northwestern, Kansas Total to.......... 228299,256 220 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. This, at an average value of $5, gives year. The annual sale of coal from all these $1,141,496,280. The investment in rail- fields is, in round numbers, $140,000,000, roads and canals to transport to market the and this sum is added to the floating capital 18,308,316 tons of coal forwarded in 1869, of the country as a consequence of the $450,is not less than $300,000,000. It is true that 000,000 invested in these railroads and canals. only about three-fourths of the traffic of these In other words, the cost of construction is railroads and canals is coal, but nine-tenths repaid in three years nearly, and a perpetuof the remaining one-fourth has grown out ally. increasing fund flows down for the proof the coal development and transportation. motion of trade, since coal is as much a purUnder the supposition that the coal trans- chasing power for goods as gold. What ported pays the interest on this investment, those roads have done for coal, have the which is (at six per cent.) $18,000,000, then southern roads done for cotton. Formerly the 18,308,316 tons transported in 1869, at the water-courses were the only means of a value of $91,500,000, paid 98 cents per ton, transportation; and when they were dry or.or 19.5 per ct., thus making the clear value shallow, cotton accumulated at the landings of the coal sent to market from those fields, until the next flood. The iron arms now $73,500,000. This includes the product of stretch out in all directions, and not only is all the coal fields east of the Alleghanies, and all the cotton grown added to the marketalso the coal products of the upper Ohio able value, but new lands are brought into Valley. action. The effect of railroads upon cotton It is estimated that there were 10,000,000 is seen in the following table, which shows tons of bituminous and semi-anthracite coals the miles of railroad open in ten cotton states, sent to market from the lIississippi Valley and the quantity of cotton produced:and Rocky Mountain coal fields the same Miles of Cotton crop. Miles of Cotton crop. road. Bales, road. Bales. 1841.............. 662 1,634,945 1851............. 1,560 2,355,257 1842.............. 791 1,683,574 1852.............. 2,010 3,015,029 1843.............. 848 2,318,85 1853.............. 2,515 3,262,882. 1844............. 932 2,030,401 1854.............. 3,040 2,930,027 1845.............. 1,109 2,394,503 1855.......... 3,362 2,841,339 1846............. 1,169 2,100,537 1856............. 3,809 3,527,845 1847.............. 1,303 1,778,651 1857........... 4,165 2,939.519 1848.............. 1,319 2,347,634 1858.......... 4,51 3,113,962 1849.............. 1,415 2,728,596 1859............. 5,552 3,851,481 1850.............. 1,415 2,096,706 1860............. 5,914 4,675,170 Total..............21,114,422 32,519,111 The value of the 5,914 miles of roads built in each year, and the bushels of grain rewas not far from $150,000,000, but the value ceived in Chicago for corresponding years:of the cotton produced and brought to market was in the twenty years $2,900,000,- Illinois. iscnsin. GrBushreceipts. 000. The increase in the value during the 1841.............. 22.. 40,000 last ten years over the',former decade was 1852.............. 148 20 5,83,141 $800,000,000. The war so far changed the 1853..............50 612,181 current of affairs that the 10,000 miles of 1855.............1,884 240 16,633,100 completed railways in the south are now, 1856..............2,241 285 21,583,221 and will be for years to come, engaged in a 1857..............2,511 559 18,032,618 more general but not less profitable traffic, 858..............2,68 93 20035166 1859...........2,714 838 21,736,147 in which, however, cotton and sugar will be 1860.............2,811 951 40,000,000 very heavy items. 1868........ 4,708 1,451 72,356,982 In the western country the results are still more marked, since a country which was a The cost of the Illinois and Wisconsin wilderness has, under the influence of rail- railroads (to which should be added 823 roads opening the way, become the source miles of Minnesota roads, as tributary to of immense wealth. This influence upon Chicago as the others,) to July, 1868, had the grain business of Chicago is seen in the been $305,778,265. Since its settlement following table, which shows the number of the government has sold over 20 millions of miles in operation in Illinois and Wisconsin, acres of land in Illinois, and the canals, rail RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST. 221 roads and state, about 4 millions more.THROUGH TONNAGE. Aside from the large quantities of grain sent Going East. West. onage directly to St. Louis, New Orleans, Louis- New York canals...............,121,672 317,459 3,781,g84 ville and Cincinnati and the live stock ship- New York Central............. 2:4,241 113,33 3437 New York and Erie........... 200,000 60,000 869,072 ments over these roads, the cut meats, but- Pennsylvania railroad........... 129,767 103,839 1,170.240 ter, lard, and lumber, &c., &c., the grain re- Baltimore and Ohio railroad..... 35,27 66,470 897,46 ceipts alone, in 1868, amounted to over 150 Total......3,820,807 667,601 7,552,871 million dollars. The other receipts were RECEIPTS. certainly more than as much more, so that Total one year's production pays the whole cost of Freight Passengers. receipts. the roads. What is true of these roads is New York canals(tolls).... $1,723,94508 New York Central.......... 3,337,148 $2,566.369 $6,'00848 equally true of those of Olio, Indiana, &c. New York and Erie...... 3,108,248 1,154,083 4,394,527 Pennsylvania railroad...... 3,419,494 1,412,603 5,362,355 As an illustration take Chicago as a great Baltimore and Ohio....... 2,928,411 690,207 3,613,618 railroad centre. The gross earnings of the Tota.....$14,517,246 $5,823,262$19,571,48 principal railroads centering there, were, in 1868, as follows:- Thus these five routes collected, in 1859, $14,517,246 in tolls and freights, and $5,188Gross gs. 823,262 fiom passenger traffic. Chicago and Northwestern railroad... $13,941,343 Nine years later (in the autumn of 1868) Chicago and Alton................ 4,508,643 the annual receipts of these five routes were: Chicago, Burlington and Quincy...... 6,812,809 Chicago, Iowa and Nebraska........ 631,782 New York canals (tolls)........................ $5,681.226 Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific..... 5,231,980New York Central railroad.14,381,103 C c, c I dc.... Erie Railway.................................. 14,376,872 Cincinnati, Richmond and Chicago.... 183,305 Baltimore and Ohio railroad.................... 7,702,229 Illinois Central................... 7,817,629 Pennsylvania Central railroad................... 17,233,497 Milwaukee and St. Paul............ 6,547,646 Total$5,37,127 M;ne iral Poinit......................2,oj, Mueral Point.. 102,119 Ohio and Mississippit..... 2...... 21 1 Adding to these as being also engaged in the east Ohio and Mississippi................ 2,964,041 tand west transportation, Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago... 8,041,181 Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago............. 8.04,181 St. Louis, Alton and Terre Haute.... 517,941 Atlantic and Great Western..................... 4,846,048 St. Louis, Jacksonville and Chicago... 240,000 Michigan Central.................. 4,716,293 And we have a total of.... $72,262,356 Michigan Southern................ 5,124,108 Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw......... 750,625 Thus the five routes had increased their Toledo, Wabash and Western........ 4,013,207 business three-fold in nine years, and the Western Union.................... 58,785 whole travel and freight was almost four Dubuque and Sioux City............ 963,186 in 1859 Dubuque and Southwestern......... 116,217 Dubuque and Southwestern.... 176,217 times as much as iln 1859. This ilmmense length of continued rail now $73,952,838 enables an individual to travel from one extremity of the Union to the other without In 1860, only eight years previous, the fatigue; not only are the distances shortgross earnings of such of these roads as were ened, but every appliance for comfort then in existence were $15,297,155, or but makes the journey, even to invalids, coma trifle more than one-fifth of their receipts moodious. For this purpose there have been in 18G8. We think no more rapid growth recently introduced on the long lines, sleepof business has ever been chronicled in any ing-cars, wherein the passenger takes his natcountry. ural rest while the iron horse is whirling While all these rivers, canals, and roads him toward his destination at the rate of 30 have been busy bringing down produce fiom miles an hour. This isan improvement upon swelling numbers of settlers, the traffic of the invention introduced by Captain Bun. the great outlets has been equally as active. ker, as we have seen on the Hudson river We are to bear in mind that, in 1825, when sloops in the early part of the century, the Erie canal opened, there was no trans- whereby gentlemen and ladies could be acportation of produce from west to east of the commodated with beds. They were probmiuntains. Bearing that in mind, we shall ably more necessary in that day, however, inspect the following table with interest. when it might have been necessary to while It shlows the tonnage and revenues of the away the time in their berths. The rail cars five great outlets, for the year 1859, as fol- do not go the less rapidly that the passengers lows:- are well accommodated. There have been 14 222 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. many instances not only of berths provided " with the same expedition as above," that but of births taking place in the cars. Such is, it appears, from Monday morning to an event happened on the Long Island cars, Tuesday night, if Ruben Fitzrandolph's which were going at the speed of 40 miles boat did not get aground or becalmed, or per hour, and a grave difficulty sprang up weather-bound, or driven off, in either of as to where the young gentleman was born, which cases the time of arrival was dubious. a problem not easily solved, when towns But honest John "with his waggon," was were passed at the rate of amile in 90 seconds. soon "cut out." Those "Yankees," immorWe have seen that the passenger of the talized by Knickerbocker, came down from present day does not occupy much time in the north and innovated even upon so adperforming long distances, and that these mirable an arrangement as was here devised passages are by no means costly as compared in the tap-room of the "Death of the Fox," with the inconvenient mode of locomotion in Strawberry-ally, under the administration of the olden time. Twenty years since it was Jefferson. Ruben's boat with its vicissitudes recorded as a marvel that a gentleman made was abandoned, notwithstanding the attracthe distance from Chicago to Albany in 154 tions of the " Kill van Kull" passage, and a hours, or 6 days and 10 hours, and 24 days land route through adopted. The attractions from New Orleans to Baltimore was recorded of this route were set forth as follows: as a matter of wonder. Now, 80 hours from "FoR PHILADELPHIA AND BALTIMORENew York to New Orleans is the usual mail SWIFTSURE MAIL STAGE.-A new line has time, and Chicago and New York are but removed from No 2 Courtlandt street to No. 29 hours apart. A passenger now goes from 116 Broadway, and is now running between Bangor to New Orleans in less time than New York and Philadelphia, through a was allowed, forty years ago, from Boston beautiful country, and on the short and to New York. Since the completion of the pleasant road through Newark, Springfield, Pacific railway, the time between New York Scotch Plains, Bound Brook, Somerset, and San Francisco has been reduced (in Arnwell, Coryell's Ferry, Cross Road, 1870) to six days and 12 hours; distance Crooket Billet, and Jenkintown to Phila3,344 miles, delphia. It is instructive to look back at the "To start from New York every day at 10 changes the means of locomotion have o'clock, A. M. (Sundays excepted,) lodge at wrought in the views of passengers. At the Somerset, and arrive at Philadelphia next close of the last century enterprising con- day afternoon. The Swiftsure is the only tractors advertised as follows:- opposition stage from this city to Philadelb "PIHILADELPHIA STAGE-WAGGONI nd NEW phia and Baltimore." YORK' STAGE-BOAT, peiforms their Stages There does not appear to have been much twice a WTeek. John Butler, with his wag- time saved by this new plan, any further gon, sets out on Mondays from his House, than that the vicissitudes of the boats were at the Sign of the Death of the Fox, in exchanged for those of muddy roads. Spring Strawberry-ally, and drives the same day to coaches had, however, supplanted honest Trenton Ferry, when Francis Holman meets John Butler's wagon, since travellers had him, and proceeds on Tuesday to Bruns- become more dainty. A few years more wick, and the passengers and goods being brought steam into competition for the use shifted into the waggon of Isaac Fitzran- of travellers, and the number multiplied to dolph's the same day, where Ruben Fitz- such an extent, that, on the occasion of the randolph, with a boat well suited, will great semi-centennial jubilee anniversary receive them, and take them to New York of the National Independence, held July 4, that night. John Butler returning to Phil- 1825, it was recorded in The Philadelphia adelphia on Tuesday with the passengers Gazette,'that 300 New Yorkers were said to and goods delivered to him by Francis have been in Philadelphia. There were Holman, will again set out for Trenton passengers enough to fill 35 coaches! Great Ferry on Thursday, and Francis Holman, &c., doings, that, in the travelling way! What will carry his passengers and goods, with the would Francis Holman have done with tie same expedition as above to New York." crowd between Brunswick and Trenton? By this remarkably ingenious plan and Travelling had clearly outgrown his arrangediction of John Butler, everybody got to ments. Well, 35 years more passed on, and his jpurney's end in the course of time; railroad connections being constructed, the RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST,'23 papers of the day contained a new adver- the producer will get 75 cents only. If the tisement of a trip to Philadelphia. It was no cost of transportation be reduced to 10 cents, longer "John Butler with his wagon," but then there is 15 cents to be divided between that "John Brdugham with his company" the city consumer and the producer. would perform as usual in the evening at Another very important development of the New York theatre, then proceed by the railroads has been for city service. It is cars to Philadelphia, and perform at the now nearly 40 years since, the city of New theatre there in the same evening, and re- York having spread over a greater surface turn to New York to sleep. Thus two per- of ground than it was convenient to walk formances were had in two cities.90 miles over, lines of omnibusses were started to runi distant, and the passage made both ways in on the great thoroughfares, to carry passenthe same evening by rail. The ordinary gers. The price was, at first, 12- cents for speed between New York and Philadelphia, a ride any distance on the line. This was however, is much below this. Usually four gradually reduced to 6 cents. The small hours are consumed in traveling 87 to 90 cars of the Harlem railroad, which then exmiles. tended only up to Westchester county, beThe influence of these great improve- gan to carry passengers up as far as Fortyments in travel has been in an eminent de- Second street, and in that vicinity, about gree to consolidate population in cities, and 1838, but for twelve years after, that was the these grow the more readily that the dis- only road, perhaps, in the United States, cartance.within which perishable food can rying passengers from one partof the city to be brought to market is so much increased another in small cars drawn by horses. From by rapidity of travel. The elements of 1850 to 1852 there began to be considerable growth of a city are supplies of food, fuel, interest in this node of transit, and the Sixth and water. Unless these are abundant and Avenue, and soon after the Third Avenue cheap, the disadvantages thence arising will line was established. There are now (1870) counterbalance the geographical and commer- twelty lines of these city passenger railroads cial advantages of a city. To supply food the in New York city, employing nearly 8,000 circle of country about the city which supplies horses, and their gross earnings are not far market-gardens, dairies, etc., must be fertile from 88,000,000 per annum. Brooklyn has and accessible. The width of this ring, 17 lines, some of these occupying several -or, in other words, the area thus devoted, is routes, and employs fiom 4,500 to 5,000 determined by the speed with which the horses. The gross earnings are in about the produce can be transported. The distance same proportion. Boston and Philadelphia of its extreme limits must not be greater have from 18 to 20 lines each. Cincinnati than will permit the products to reach the and Chicago not quite so many, and all the centre in time for use; any improvement other cities of 20,000 inhabitants or more that enables a larger space to be gone over have their lines more or less numerous, acin the same time increases the area of dwell- cording to their needs. These roads have ings and market-lands. The area thus an aggregate extent of nearly 2,000 miles, commanded increases as the square of the and carry more than 800 million passengers distances. Thus, if the speed is doubled, the in a year. area is four times as large, if it is tripled, the Recently, in our largest cities, there is area adapted to city supplies is nine times as complaint that this mode of transportation great, consequently there will be nine times is not sufficiently rapid, and the use of dumas much milk, butter, vegetables, food, and my engines, underground tunnel, or arcade produce as before. Now, by railroads and railroads, or steam driven roads not crossing steamships, the supplies of early vegetables the streets. on their level, elevated railways and small fruits are brought from Bermuda, in which the'cars should.be drawn by staSt. Augustine, Savannah, Charleston, Nor- tionarv engines, &c. &cc., have been tried, to folk, the whole 9astern shore region, southern remedy the difficulty. These are all, as yet, New Jersey, Pittsburg, central and western experiments. New York, New Emngland, and even from Thus while the railroads favor the settleCalifornia. The effect of this on distant but ment of cities,.y concentrating in them a *accessible farms is important. If wheat is large manufacturing and commercial popworth $1.00 in the city, and it cost 25 cents ulation, which can draw cheap food from to get it there from a certain farming district, every section of -the Union, they distribute 224 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. that city population cheaply and speedily, It is difficult to arrive with any considera. enabling them to occupy a much greater ter- ble exactness at the cost of railroads in forritory, and at the same time concentrate the eign countries. The following table is an manufacturing operations in a manner to facil- approximation, except in the United States, itate the greatest production of commodities Great Britain, and a few other European which are required by the producers of food. states where the figures are official, for the Railroads here serve a very different pur- beginning of 1869:pose, and exert a much greater influence in the development of a country, than they do Inited States............ 48,860 $2,212,413,000 $45,280 in the densely populated countries of Europe. Great Britain...... 14247 2,511,314,435 176.250 France................ 9,515 1,173,400,000 188,690 In Europe, by facilitating travel, they yield Prussia and N. Germany... 5,764 380,424,000 66,00 a fair though not generally a large profit as Austria and S. Germany... 7,388 499.000,00 71,000 Belgium................. 1,301 118,911,400 91,400 investments. Their average cost per mile is British America.......... 2,385 119,950,000 56,000 much greater than here, but they do, to a C ba................; 431 19,395,000 415000 Colombia.......... 49 7.350,000 110,000 limited degree, increase traffic and promote South America........... 888 62,160,000 70,000 Russia................. 3,167 285,030,000 90,000 more constant intercourse of the people. Sweden and Norway...... 800 72,000,000 90,0010 Here the railroad is the pioneer of civiliza- Switzerland............. 820 73800000 90.000 Italy..................... 3,153 315,30(.000 100,000 tion. It plows its way through the dense Spain................... 4,372 304,488, 85 70,000 forest, the unbroken prairie, or the waterless Turkey............... 0,400000 120000 Africa.................. 670 80,400,000 120,000 and almost desert lands, and at every mile India................... 5,000 371,730,220 75,000 Australia................ 850 63,750,000 75.000 of its onward progress, a village springs up, Other small States..... 880 61,600,000 70,000 farms are laid out, orchards planted, the 430,116840 fields wave with the golden grain, and presently mines, manufactories, schools, colleges, The estimated amount of these items in and churches, are called into existence, all 1851 was: Miles of railroad, 48,114, cost, along the line. These enterprises all pay $3,823,200,814, cost per mile, $79,000. The from the start, and increase the national greatest extension of the railroad system has wealth in an almost incredible degree. In in all cases been in the countries to which September, 1859, the gross income of 257 there is the greatest immigration. British railroads (all or nearly all then in existence) America, South America, India, Australia, in the United States, was $111,203,245 for Russia, Italy, Spain, and Egypt, are the freight and passengers, or about $4.00 per foreign countries which have increased their head for each inhabitant. In January, 1868, railroads most rapidly. With most of these a little more than eight years later, 373 rail- countries (we may perhaps except Australia, roads reported a gross income of $327,547,- India and Russia) there is a limit which 725, or more than $8,50 to each inhabitant. must, in a few years, be reached beyond The reports of 1870 would undoubtedly add which the construction of railroads will not not less than twenty-five per cent. to this be profitable. With the United States, on great aggregate. The number of miles of the contrary, there is no conceivable limit railroad completed in the United States, up (unless some better method of locomotion to June, 1869, was almost half the length of should be devised,) to the construction of railroads in the world. In 1859, the United railroads. Our vast territory, with its rapidStates had 28,789 miles of railroad, and the ly increasing population, is constantly reentire globe (including the U. S.) 57,653. quiring new routes to bring produce, coal, In January, 1869, the railroads of the world metals, or manufactures to market, and to in operation were as follows:- transport the tens of millions of passengers Miles. Miles. and immigrants who must rely on them for United States..........48,860 Belgium................ 1,301 transportation to their homes or their busiCanada.............. 2,375 Holland............... 659 Cuba.................. 431 Denmark.............. 220 ness. We are already adding 7,745 miles a Jtmaica............... 10 Norway and Sweden.... 800 year to our railroads, and shall soon increase Argentine Republic ^ L'S ":; year to our railroads, and shall soon increase Argentine Republic..... 427 Russia and Poland...... 3,167 Columbia........... 49 Prussia and N. Germany. 5,764 to 10,000 miles a year. Brazil................. 410 South Germany........ 2,861 Peru............. 128 Austria and Hungary... 4,517 We have purposely delayed the considerChili.................. 350 Switzerland........... 820 ation of our railroad routes to the Pacific E.gland and Wales..... 10,037 [itly................. 3,153 Scotandd............... 2,282, Turkey................ 220 coast to the close of this article, both beIreland................1,928 Egypt................ 670 cause we regard them as in some measure ain................ 4,372 British India......... 5,000 causeweregard them as in some measure France................ 9,515 Austraia8............. 850 dissevered from the more local railroad Total railroads of the world........111,18}6 routes, and because their vastness will be 'd 4 j ii. Tji d:~ i;i~i~ --,,:i j \\\?:I "!)IMf:'mciSIIII1!i,llllllilllll nl e?i lIl,,! iii e cLn L f rta I ia r I rir J J ii' n VIEWS ON THE CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD. To those unacquainted with the locality it is impossible to convey by description any adequate idea of the irregularities of surface which occur in the Sierra Nevada mountains, which are traversed by this line. NO. I.-TRESTLE OPPOSITE AUBURN. The tunneling required has been of small extent. The peculiarity of the line is the very extensive employment of trestle bridging, and it is with the view of illustrating this that our engravings have been chosen, Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, being examples of trestle bridging, and No. 3 showing a cutting 63 feet deep and 800 feet long through cemented gravel and sand, of the consistency of solid rock, and which is -_. =- _- _ _ — _ NO. II.-TRESTLE AND TRUSS BRIDGE, CLIPPER RAVINE, (100 feet high.) NO. III.-BLOOMER CUT, (63 feet deep, 800 feet long.) only to be moved by blasting. The trestle bridging has been all constructed as strongly as possible, and of the best obtainable material. The ties, stringers and caps are of the best quality pine (that from Puget's Sound, nearly equal to oak,) and the posts, braces, sills and piles of red-wood. The main posts. 1'2 inches square, are placed perpendicularly, let into a sill of the same dimensions with mortice and tenon. immediately under the bearing of the track stringers. Outside the main posts, two posts, 12 in. by 12 in., extend down, with a run of 1 foot in 3 inches, to the sill to which they are tenoned, beside beiln bolted at the top to the main posts with inch bolts and cast-iron washers. The sills rest on piles on stone foundations. Piles, when used, are driven so as to come directly under the main posts and braces. The posts are capped with a timber 12 inches square and 9 feet long, into which the posts are tenoned and pinned. Upon the caps rest corbels 12 inches square and 9 feet long, and upon them are laid the string_ _,_ _ _ NO. IV.-LONG RAVINE, HOWE TRUSS BRIDGE AND TRESTLE, (115 feet high.) NO. V.-TRESTLE AT SECRETTOWN, (1,000 feet long, 50 feet to 90 feet high.) ers, 12 in. by 15 in., secured by iron bolts passing down through them to the corbels. The caps are notched 1 inch to receive the corbels. The cross ties, or sleepers, are securely fastened to the stringers, and upon the sleepers are laid the rails in the ordinary manner. The "bents" or frames are placed at intervals of 15 feet from center to center. Trestling thus constructed is said to last from eight to fifteen years. When necessary it can be renewed at small cost, or filled with earthen embankment by transporting material on cars at far less cost and trouble than would have been incurred in constructing an embankment at first. It now takes three weeks or more to reach San Francisco via Panama, from New York. By railroad, the journey can be made in about five days. NO. VI.-FIRST TRESTLE IN CLIPPER RAVINE. RAILROADS-LAND GRANTS-EXTENT AND COST-SHIP CANALS. 225 more easily comprehended if they stand by mortgage) on the road. With these ample themselves. resources the two companies began at their The accession of California to our territo- respective ends to build the road in 1865; ry and the speedily following discovery of the Union Pacific commencing at Omaha, gold there, led necessarily to the improve- Nebraska, and the Central Pacific, at Sacrament of the routes for reaching there. The mento, California. The Central Pacific built long and perilous journey around Cape Horn 742 miles, much of it through the mountains, was too tedious for our enterprising, impa- and the Union Pacific 1,032 miles The tient gold-hunters. The' Panama railroad junction of the two roads was effected May across the isthmus of that name, was com- 15, 1869, and regular daily passenger trains menced in 1850 and completed in 1855, at are run each way, as well as numerous a cost of $7,500,000, which subsequent ad- freight trains. It is difficult to ascertain ditions and purchases have increased to $8,- what has been the cost of these roads. The 000,000. It is about 49 miles in length, bonds issued for the Union Pacific were and its gross earnings have ranged fiom $1,- $58,656,000, aside fiom its land grant bonds, 300,000 to $2,000,000. This shortened the and its entire cost is put down by the comvoyage to San Francisco, to about three pany for road and equipment as $82,445,012. weeks. But other routes were demanded, That full payments on subscribed stock have which should abridge the time of transit still not been called for is evident. The Central more. The Nicaragua and the Tehuantepec Pacific has issued $45,578,000 of bonds, routes were tried with but partial success; and computes the cost of its road at about repeated explorations were made to ascer- 62 million dollars; while the Western tain the practicability of a ship canal across Pacific, extending from Sacramento to San some portion of the isthmus, which connect Francisco, has also received its bonds, and North and South America, but thus far, has cost about 15 millions more, making the without practical result. Between 1852 and aggregate cost of these lines, aside fiom their 1861 several exploring expeditions were sent lands, about $160,000,000. This is too out to ascertain the best route across the much, even for the grandest enterprise ever continent within the bounds of our own ter- undertaken by human hands, but it is to be ritory, and their costly reports were publish- remembered that it was begun in the midst ed by the government. The feeling that it of a great war and driven to its completion was indispensable'that the Pacific states under the pressure of great difficulties. should be bound to.the east by a continuous But three routes across the continent are railroad, which had been gaining strength, as much required as one; and the Northern was quickened into greater activity by the Pacific, extending from St. Paul, Minnesota, war; and while in the midst of the desperate to Puget's Sound, Washington territory, struggle, in July, 1862, Congress passed an with branches to southern Idaho and Monact chartering the Pacific railroad. There tana, is already under contract, under the were some defects in the charter, and no energetic management of Messrs. Jay Cooke company was formed till October, 1863, & Co.; while there are two southern routes, when the Union Pacific and soon after the one the Kansas Pacific, and the other, a Central Pacific was organized. By the road from Memphis along the 32d parallel; charter the capital stock of the entire route but both, terminating in San Diego, Califorwas to be $100,000,000, and the government nia, are pushing westward. If a ship canal, granted them a roadway of 200 feet on each either across the isthmus of Darien, the isthside of the track, and alternate sections of mus of Panama, or that of Tehuantepec, land for twenty miles on each side of the shall be found practicable, the construction road; and in addition its bonds, maturing of that also is in the near future, and by in 30 years, bearing six per cent. payable these various routes the great trade of eastin gold, for $16,000 per mile for the plain, ern Asia is destined to find its way through $32,000 per mile for the steeper grades, and our continent, as the most direct route, both $48,000 per mile for the deep cuttings and to America and Europe. The northwest tunneling. Tley were, moreover, authorized passage, of which Columbus dreamed so to issue their own bonds to an equal amount long, has been at last discovered in a way of with these government bonds, at the same which Columbus never dreamed, and the rate, and these lands were to be a first mort- continent he discovered will be the market gage (the government bonds being a second for the vast commerce of Cathay. THE SECOND EXPERIMENTAL BOAT OF JOHN F1TCH. Finished in May, 1i78, and run at the rate of four miles per hour on the Delaware. Cylindrer twelve inches in diameter, stroke three feet. THE FIRST STEAMBOAT EVER BUILT TO CARRY PASSENGERS. Constructed by John Fitch, and finished April 16th, 1798. Cylinder eighteen inches in diameter, speed eight miles per hour in smooth water. The following year this boat was run to Burlington regularly as a passenger boat. STEA1M. BY JOHIN C. MVERRIAM. CHAPTER I. What greater praise could be awarded to him than this? How could his unrivalled MNTRODUCTOrY. genius be more concisely expressed, or HISTORY OF STEAM ENGINE. clearly acknowledged? and yet, at that time, they had but begun to see the stupendous ONE hundred years ago, a harmless vapor results of his inventions. To realize the inarose with the morning sun, and floated o'er ventive mind of James Watt, it requires. our heads, remarked by the artist, poet, careful study, and thorou'gh mechanical or philosopher, but almost unheeded by the knowledge, even at this late day; and when mechanic, and only regarded by the mariner *we consider that with him all was compara-, as a prognosticator of the wind. tively novel, we pause in astonishment at a Hbw is it to-day? From myriad towering mind so fertile in mechanical devices. columns, o'er which the fierce fire-king his England, ever true and grateful to her own sombre mantle flings, gushes, in mimic genius, has fitly honored her greatest inclouds, the quick breath of our new-born ventor, while America has suffered genius as Titan. The ancient rocks echo to his shrill great to die, unrewarded in life, and forgotvoice, and tremble as he rushes by. He ten in the grave; but she has not neglected troubles the waters, and rides on their to profit by their inventions; and it is our crest defiant. O'er hill and dale, and lake purpose to show, in this article, how great and river, is his white flag unfurled, pro- have been the results. claiming peace to all nations. From the The first steam engine of which we have pine of the frozen north, to the palmetto of any knowledge in America was at the the sunny south, his twin track tunnels the Schuyler copper mine, Passaic, N. J. It mountain, belts the prairie, and spans the was, more properly speaking, an atmosflood. Mightiest of kings is this son of fire! pheric engine, and was imported from Engproudest of monarchs is this genius of the land in 1736, and put up by a Mr. Hornlamp and the fountain! blower. The first engine that was conIn an article like this, it is not neces- structed in America was built by Christopher sary that we should dwell upon the ge- Colles for a distillery in Philadelphia; the nius of James Watt- abler pens have machine was, however, very defective. It awarded him the fame he so richly deserves, was built in October, 1772, and was, like and a proud monument in Westminster Ab- the other, an engine upon Newcomen's plan. bey tells the passing stranger that it was Thus it will be seen that it is less than a hundred years since America took her first NOT TO PERPETUATE A NAME, lessons in a science that was destined to WHICH MUST ENDURE WHILE THE PEACEFUL ARTS FLOURISH; s i i BUT TO SHOW work such a revolution in the whole world; TIAT MANKIND HAVE LEARNED TO HONOR THIOSE and her birth, as a nation, may be considered WHO BEST DESERVE THEIR GRATITUDE, THAT THE KING, as cotemporary with that of the steam en. INITERS, AND O MMONERS OF THE REALM ine. In 1787, John Fitch, of Connecticut, AND COMMONERS OF THE REEALM 1 oh RAISED THIS MONUMENT TO built, in Phladelphia, the first condensing JAMES WATT, and this without the aid of Watt's WIO, DIRECTING THE FORCE OF AN ORIGINAL GENIUS, engine, and this without the aid of Watt's EARLY EXERCISED IN PHILOSOPHIC RESEARCH, experiments- r it was in the TOTHE IMPROVEMENT OF e l TIE STEAM-ENGINE, 1786 that the latter patented, and made ENLARGED THE RESOURCES OF HIS COUNTRY, i impr ENLCREASED1 THE POWER OF MAN, public, his most important improvements; AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE and we have every reason to believe that AMONG THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE, AND THE REAL BENEFATORS OF THE WORLD. Fitch was at first ignorant of them. With AtND TILE REAL MEEhFAC`BTORS OF THE WCORLD.wa 228 STEAM. the assistance of common blacksmiths, he pound of force (or pressure) and motion. constructed a low-pressure engine, and, more Work is said to be performed when a presthan this, applied the motor to a steam- sure is exerted upon a body, and the body boat. Then came the experiments and sue- is thereby moved through space. The unit cess of Robert Fulton, a man whom we have of a pressure is one pound, the unit of space not forgotten to honor; the improvements one foot, and work is measured by a'footof Stevens, to whom we owe our great suc- pound' as a unit. Thus, if a pressure of so cess in river navigation, and the energy and many pounds be exerted through a space of perseverance of Oliver Evans, the first to so many feet, the number of pounds is mulapply the principles of the high-pres.sure, or tiplied into the number of feet, and the prodnon-condensing engine, to common use, and uct is the number of foot-pounds of work; to demonstrate its advantages not only for hence, if the stroke of a steam engine be the stationary engine, but also its adapta- seven feet, and the pressure on each square bility to carriages on common roads; from inch of the piston be 22 pounds, the work which we may date the invention of the lo- done at each single stroke, for each square comotive engine, for it was only the experi- inch of the piston, will be 7 multiplied by ence of Stephenson in tram-roads that led 22, equal to 154 foot-pounds. Power conhim, at a much later day, to the invention tains another element in addition to those of the latter, and Watt's engines would never contained in work. It implies the ability to have become applicable thereto, on account do so much work in a certain period of time; of their great size. and, in order to have a proper idea of it, a In spite of the difficulties under which a unit of measure is also employed. This young nation labored, from the want of an unit is called a'horse-power,' and is equal accumulated capital, we took a start from to 33,000 pounds raised through a space of the first introduction of the locomotive en- one foot in one minute; it is the execution gine, that has astonished the world; and of 33,000 foot-pounds of work in one minute. have grown a race of civil engineers that, To find the horse-power of a steam engine is with a limited amount of money, have pro- to find the number of pounds pressure on the duced effects wonderful even to themselves. piston in square inches, and to multiply this by Well may Americans be proud of the results the number of feet travelled by the piston per of their inventive genius. To the general minute, which gives the work; then this is reader these events have come to be a mat- divided by 33,000 pounds, and the quotient is ter of course, and steam, with its thousands the horse-power, which is usually abbreviated of detailed improvements, is looked upon as H. P. As the pressure is always indicated something wonderful, but inexplicable; the by the square inch, the number of square mass of people understanding little or nothing inches in the area of the piston has to be of its nature. We propose, then, to explain, found. This is done by squaring the diamas simply as possible, the cause of this great eter of the piston, and multiplying this by effect, and, dropping technicalities, to give the decimal,'7854." the great public a concise idea of steam, and The horse-power of an engine is always the steam engine, before prdceeding to the calculated with the steam in the boiler at a results of its use. moderate pressure, and, consequently, if the When Watt constructed his first engines, steam is kept at a higher pressure, it will be he used them to replace horses in the mines, capable of more work, and the engine will and, in order to give some idea of their be of a greater effectual horse-power than value, he reckoned his engines as at so many the one given. Hence the terms real and horses' power; and the power of a horse was nominal horse-power. The term horsecomputed from the effect produced by a power is, in reality, of itself nominal, as horse raising a weight to a certain height Watt, in order to have his engines give in a given time: this he computed as 33,000 satisfaction, added some twenty-five per cent. lbs., raised, in one minute, to the height of to the real work of the best horses in Cornone foot. The following description, from wall. Having thus given an explanation S. Holland, chief engineer of the English of this term concisely, that it may be renavy, concisely shows the manner of obtain- membered, we will endeavor to instruct the ing the horse-power of a steam engine:- general reader as to. some other terms not "Work is a term in mechanics of recent always understood, although constantly made origin, but of great utility; it means a com- use of in conversation. STEAM. 229 Engines are divided into two kinds: low vented to keep the water at the true level; and high-pressure, or condensing and non- but their liability to get out of order has precondensing. The low-pressure engine was, vented their use, and engineers unite in the in the main, invented by James Watt; and opinion that man's judgment alone is comits peculiarity consists in the fact that, while parative security. To assist the competent the steam is entering upon one side of the engineer, there are several devices. The piston, the steam upon the other side is con- most common are the three gauge-cocks, densed, and forms a vacuum that adds to placed, the one above the other, at some the power of the engine from twelve to four- three inches apart-the centre one being the teen pounds to the square inch. Thus, with desired level; by trying these cocks, the exsteam at the pressure of twenty-five pounds act height can be readily seen. Other water only, we have an effective force of nearly gauges have been in use, some of them since forty. The low-pressure engine has the ad- the earliest engines were constructed, upon vantage of not carrying so much steam, and, the principle that a float upon the water will consequently, is less dangerous. From the indicate, by means of a rod, its exact height. fact, however, that it is much more compli- A glass tube, connected above and below the cated and expensive, it is not often used on water line, is much used in our steamers. land, unless for large engines, and its size In order to determine the steam pressure prevents its adaptation to locomotion. at any point below that at which it raises the The high-pressure engine was invented by safety valve, various steam gauges have been Leopold and Trevithick,' subsequent to the in use from time to time; the most common other. Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia, was in steamboats is called the syphon gauge, the first to advocate its use, and, in fact, to and works upon the principle of balancing a practically apply it. Engines of this descrip- column of mercury in a syphon tube. Withtion discharge the steam, after using it, into in the last ten years the spring gauge has the air, and have, consequently, the resist- come into general use in locomotive and ance of the atmosphere to contend with; other engines; they occupy but little room, they are, however, much cheaper, and with and, if occasionally tested, answer every purproperly built boilers are not necessarily pose of the more cumbersome syphon. With more dangerous. All our locomotives are the exception of the Bourdon (French) and upon this principle, and the draft of the fur- Schaeffer (Prussian), all the spring gauges in naces is accelerated by the rush of the waste use in the United States, some thirty in or exhaust steam, as it passes into the chim- number, are American inventions, and both ney. The pressure of steam used in our high- of the foreign gauges have been improved pressure engines, averages more than in any upon, and are made in a superior manner other country; from eighty to one hundred here. pounds per square inch being the common The passage between the boiler and the average. In order to prevent an amount of cylinder was at first opened and closed by steam from accumulating to a higher pres- means of a cock; the slide valve, modificasure than this, the safety valve is placed tions of which are now universally used, was upon the boiler, so constructed that, when the invention of Murray, of Leeds, England, the pressure rises above the point desired, it in 1810. The piston was at first packed will open the valve, and allow the surplus to with hemp, saturated with grease; the brass escape. Over-weighting this valve, or not rings, now used, were invented by Murdock taking proper care of it, and allowing it to & Aiken, of Glasgow, in the year 1813. rust into its seat, are fruitful sources of The paddle-wheel between two boats was boiler explosions. No engineer should run first used by William Symington, in Scotan engine without trying his valve at least land; but the side wheel, as now used, toonce a day. gether with the screw propeller, were both It is important that the water in the made use of in the models by John Fitch. boiler should always be at about the same His first steamboat, however, was worked by height; not full, as in that case water is apt oars, or paddles, after the same manner as an to pass over into the cylinders, and the en- Indian uses them. The first boat that cargine is said to be flooded; nor too low, for ried passengers, built by John Fitch in 1789, the heat of the furnace would melt the flues, was propelled by a set of paddles at the if they were not covered with water. Vari- stern. The North River, of Clermont-Fulous automatic contrivances have been in- ton's first passenger boat-was driven by the 2N0 STEAM. present form of side wheel; she made a it so rises, and trusts to its own gigantic successful trip in the year 1807. plans, that the true power of American charOne of the greatest improvements of acter shows itself. The stolid English ensteamboats with regard to speed was made gineer imitates the Egyptians and the Roby Robert L. Stevens, who added the false mans, and piles stone upon stone, and iron bow to a boat constructed by him in 1815. upon iron. The American imitates nature, She attained the speed of 15 miles per hour, with whose great works he is in constant a great improvement over the North River communion, and, like the spider, constructs (which only made four miles per hour), but a bridge light in appearance, but sufficiently seeming very slow at the present date, as strong to withstand the tempest and the contrasted with the time made at a trial trip storm, and bear with an easy vibration, of the Daniel Drew, in 1860, which was 22 double, nay, triple, the load put upon it. miles per hour against the tide. Only an appreciation of the grandeur of such It is quite curious to follow the various a fall as that of Niagara, could fit a man to improvements that have been made upon the construct the bridge that spans its river. steam engine, and to see how the present But to return to the improvements in the simple apparatus was settled upon. It re- steam'engine itself. When we look at the quired years of experiment before the crank combination of them, as at present in use, was adopted, notwithstanding that the same we cannot but feel the wonderful genius device had been in use in the common foot- therein displayed. It is but a few years lathe for several centuries. It was finally since the steam engine, although vastly suadopted by Picard; but, after his invention, perior to horse power, was a cumbersome Watt patented a much more complicated and expensive machine both to construct method of transmitting the reciprocating and repair; and although it is at present far into the rotary motion. This was called the from being perfect, yet the difference in its sun and planet motion, and went out of use first cost, and the amount of fuel it uses for only after repeated trials with the crank. the same effect, is astonishing. Stand and It is true that the latter was patented; and look at some of our immense stationary enthe fact that Mr. Watt wished to avoid gines, and see how noiselessly and steadily another patent, had much to do with this they turn the ponderous wheel! One would persistenttrial of an inferior device. In the think a child's power could stop it. Then use of the locomotive engine, also, it was pass on, and on, through the groaning mill, only after years of experiment that it was and see the labor of thousands of men perrealized that the traction of the wheel upon formed by this untiring giant. It is only the rail was sufficient to propel the carriage after seeing the work he accomplishes, you not only upon a level, but also up a very can realize his strength. Stand upon the steep grade. western prairie at night. The moon silvers On the line of the Pennsylvania railroad, a twin track that glistens far into the darkbeyond the town of Altoona, the track has ness; soon you hear a distant hum that an ascending grade over the mountains of grows upon the ear, and detect a faint spark over 100 feet to the mile, yet a passenger that brightens as you gaze; anon the sound train of six or seven cars, with the assistance increases, and the eye of the iron horse overof two locomotives, surmounts the grade at powers the moon's pale gleam; he sees you, a speed of nearly thirty miles per hour, and and screams his shrill warning. Who can this, too, upon a road that lies coiled upon help starting as he rushes by, or not feel as the side of the mountain like a huge serpent. though steam itself were personified. Mark So short are its curves, that the locomotive the groaning train, with its living freight, is quite visible from the fourth car during tearing madly through the darkness, bearing many parts of the ascent. No other nation absent friends to the loved at home, or perin the world can show so great a triumph of haps good news from the beloved afar. civil engineering as this. The first road Again, stand upon the Battery, at New that was constructed at this place was work- York, and watch the almost countless fleet ed by stationary engines, and the cars were of steamships, steamboats, propellers, and drawn up by ropes and chains. This was a tugs; some moving steadily toward the copy of European engineering; but Amer- Narrows, as though conscious and proud of ican genius is destined always to rise supe- a power that can span the ocean in so short tior to imitation, and it is, in fact, only when a time; others plashing and dashing madly STEAM. 23} about, or clinging to some gigantic ship, and turned the attention of our mechanics, we tugging manfully at its side, when old are far ahead of our rivals. The Yangtsze Boreas has left it helpless; others, again, in and Peiho, built for the Chinese coast, have holiday attire, bearing a happy throng over never been equalled by England, as is suffithe glad waters, and tuning the voice of this ciently plain from the following China overgiant slave into fitting melody for the joyous land trade report, written by one of their hour. Here comes the Sound steamer, a own countrymen: floating palace fitted up in almost regal ele- "Steamboat builders in England, and Scotgance, drawing but little water, and yet land, too, are certainly the most adroit a staunch sea-boat, large, and, to the foreign'shavers' living. They turn out so many ship-builder, apparently top-heavy, yet fast miserable botches, that really we think a as the racehorse, and frequently tried by the very great majority of the community would, stoutest gales. Up and down both rivers were they'going into steam,' resort to the ply the ever busy ferry-boats - movable United States. As far as river navigabridges, ever crowded with passengers. Did tion is concerned, our attempts to comFulton's wildest dreams ever picture a scene pete with Jonathan are simply absurd, as like this? Did John Fitch ever imagine a those who own English river steamers here triumph so wonderful? Yet it is all the at present, must, ere this, have discoverwork of steam; and to them we owe, in ed to their cost. But, even in sea-going part, the bands by which we hold this half- steamers,'if the proof of the pudding be in tamed Titan. Not only are these steamers the eating,' we should wish to know where propelled by steam, but his aid is called in the British steamers are, which are as swift, both to load and unload them, and, in the as safe, as commodious, as serviceable, or as hour of danger, steam works at the pumps economical in expenditure of fuel, as the with untiring hands. Not alone in the large Yangtsze or the Peiho? We maintain that manufactory, the gallant steamer, and the every boat sent out here from England or rushing car, does the vapor of water show Scotland, on China account, whether for its strength and usefulness, but thickly strewn coast or the river, has either been a miiseraabout our cities and villages, delving in the ble failure, or a glutton for fuel. We do mines, driving the rattling press, it helps not make one exception. We do not like to all trades, and multiplies the power of man mention names, as we are averse to deprea thousand fold. Cities have sprungup under ciate people's property, but we confidently its magic touch, and everywhere we see traces leave it to every unfortunate sufferer to say of the king of motors-steam. whether or not we are correct in our stateAnd to whom are we indebted for all this ment. improvement, this immense power? Mainly "iWe, of course, except the P. & 0. to the American inventor, and our patent Company, as they seem to have a secret laws. It is not too much to say that one- plan of constructing boilers, which makes third of the patents issued at the United them last as long as the boat; that is, for an States Patent Office for the last thirty years indefinite period. We declare ole never related either directly to the steam engine, hears of any thing occurring to one of the or to machines intended to be driven by it; company's boilers, nor any of their boats nearly all of them patented by citizens of being laid up to have a new one, or the old the United States. The use of steam ex- one mended. pansively was an English invention, but it is "We will take, for instance, the Chevy doubtful whether it was profitably used until Chase, which vessel, we believe, cost on the improved upon in America. American loco- Clyde about three times the sum that the motives have borne off the palm wherever Yangtsze cost at New York. Now the they have been brought into contact with Yangtsze has been running nearly three years those of other nations. In ocean steamers hard upon the coast, making unprecedentedly we may be second, but the reason is plain: swift passages, and never was docked until. foreign builders have the assistance of rich the other day. The Chevy Chase will not and powerful governments, while our own carry so much as the Yangtsze, nor has she success is entirely due to private enterprise, as good accommodation; but she burns with a limited amount of capital. twice as much coal, and, in a race between. As for steamboats for rivers and lakes, to this and Shanghai, would be sparingly backed. which our immense inland navigation has She is about as strong again and as heavy: 232 STEAAt. again as there is the slightest occasion for; the expansion of the steam would continue and has clearly twice as much power as she the stroke of the piston until the pressure can bear, for the weight of it sinks her. She became the same as that of the external air, is a very shallow craft, and her deck is so or until the piston had reached the end of near the bottom, which contains an enor- its stroke. Thus, if the pressure of the steam mous mass of iron, that compasses will not was eighty pounds per square inch in the act, and it becomes dangerous to run her boiler, and the valve was closed after the in thick weather. She will bring grief to piston had made one quarter of its stroke, the hearth, but never grist to the mill; and it is evident that the pressure would conthe sooner she is altered the better. She stantly decrease up to the end of that should be made into a screw propeller, and stroke, and that the average pressure would a suitable vessel built for the valuable and be less than the pressure in the boiler, but powerful machinery now fitted in her. at the end of the stroke there would be Having spoken thus, in general terms, of but very little waste steam; in other words, the steam-engine, it may not be amiss to the pressure remaining in the cylinder would give a description of the simplest form not be in so great an excess over the atmosthereof, by describing its component parts in pheric pressure as if the steam had followed terms easyto be understood and remembered. the piston throughout its entire stroke. To A steam-engine consists, then, of a cylinder, show this more plainly, it must not be forclosed at both ends, having fitted to it a pis- gotten that steam at eighty pounds pressure ton, whose rod passes out at one end through is, in reality, steam at ninety-five pounds to a steam-tight hole, called a stuffing-box. the square inch, working against fifteen The piston consists of a skeleton, technically pounds (the atmospheric pressure,) or a called a spider, having three brass rings di'ference of pressure of eighty pounds; theremade thin enough to yield to the inequali- fore, at the end of the stroke, the ninety-five ties of the cylinder as it wears, and forced pounds would have become twenty-three against it by springs resting upon the spider, and, three-quarters of pressure working and held in place by a plate commonly against fifteen pounds atmospheric, or a called afollower. The steam is admitted to difference of eight and three-quarters of the cylinder on the side, at each end, through pressure; so that, when the cylinder was what are called the ports; the two ends of opened bv its exhaust to the air, there would the ports are brought near each other at the be only eight and three-quarters of a pound point where they enter the steam-chest-a to the square inch thrown out into the air, small box near the centre of the cylinder. and thus wasted, while you have had an averThese ports are alternately opened to the age of sixty-seven pounds to the square inch. boiler and the atmosphere, by a sliding throughout the stroke of the piston, working valve that obtains its motion from what is against fifteen pounds of atmospheric, or an called the eccentric, which is placed upon actual difference of pressure - of fifty-two the main shaft. The piston-rod is fastened, pounds. Had you used fifty-two pounds of at the external end, to a cross-head, which indicated pressure, following the full stroke communicates its motion to the crank-rod, of the piston, it is evident you would have and through it to the main shaft. In sta- thrown into the air the contents of the cylintionary engines, working by a single cylin- der at that pressure, instead of at eight and der, it is evident there will be two points at three-quarters, as by the cut-off. This is, in which the rod has no power over the crank; brief, the theory of the cut-off; but, like these points are called dead centres, and many other improvements, it has been carto overcome them the momentum of the ried to an extreme, and has thus become a balance-wheel is used. In the locomotive, positive evil. In order to realize this, notice two cylinders being used, they are set carefully the following; If steam, at thirty quartering (at right angles with each other,) pounds per inch, as indicated, be used in a and the one overcomes the dead centre of cylinder, cutting off at one-quarter stroke, the other. In the marine engine the motion what will be the pressure at the end of the of the wheel is continued by the action of stroke? Thirty is, as before shown, fortythe water, as the boat advances, and, conse- five against fifteen: at the end of the stroke quently, no balance is required. it will then be eleven and one-quarter against If, after a part of the steam has entered fifteen, or a back pressure of three and threethe cylinder, the induction valve be closed, quarter pounds. Many people, who have STEAM. 233 found fault with cut-offs, have overlooked gines, vary the cut-off thus controlling the this. speed of the engine, and keeping it always In explaining the cut-off, we have not at nearly the same velocity. taken into consideration the condensation of In order to keep the boiler filled with the steam from its expansion; and this is, water to the requisite level, one or more of itself, a very important item of loss, as is pumps are placed in connection with it, of a also its increased friction; so that the actual capacity to supply it, if only working part gain from the use of a cut-off is not as great of the time. These pumps should always be as it would theoretically appear. provided with a pet-cock, which, when openThe whole subject of cut-offs and the use of ed, will show whether the pump is doing its steam expansively, was, in 1862-1865, put to duty, as the valves of any pump are liable to the test of careful experiment both in England become clogged and useless. On the locoand the United States, and the theory of Mr. motive engine the casual observer will notice B. F. Isherwood, at that time chief engineer that the engineer frequently tries these cocks, of the U. S. Navy, "That the maximum gain which are placed upon the side of the enwith any possible cut-off; in the saving of fuel, gine, and, in fact, that he sometimes tries or the increase of work, could not exceed 18 them to the detriment of dandified-looking per cent.," was completely exploded. Mr. individuals, who approach too close to the Isherwood claimed this as his discovery, and iron steed. The pet-cocks are not, howduring the whole war had been constructing ever, as much used as they should be, and, the marine engines of the Navy without any in fact, are very frequently left out altogether regard to the carrying out of the principles in the construction of the stationary engine. of expansion. A series of careful experi- The safety valve, as at present in use, has a ments, with different engines, and under the great many faults: it was originally the insupervision of experienced engineers, es- vention of Denis Papin, of France, and was tablished the fact that with engines of pro- constructed by him in his experiments with per construction, the increase of work was in what was called Papin's steam digester-a the ratio of not less than 27 revolutions by machine for dissolving bones, etc. It conusing the cut-off, and working the steam ex- sisted, as at first constructed, of a small pansively, to 20 revolutions without it, and round plate covering a hole, and held in its that the saving of fuel was at least in the place by a weight suspended from a lever, ratio of six tons with the cut-off, to seven whose fulcrum rested upon the plate. But without it. Some engines and some forms little improvement has been made upon this of cut-off did much better than this, one or simple device; it is now tapered, to fit a two increasing the speed over 100 per cent. counter-sunk hole, and possesses the advanand saving more than 30 per cent. of the tage of being more difficult to calculate. But fuel; but with average marine engines the one of its chief faults is in the fact that the lowest result attained was that stated above. point of contact between the lever and valve Having thus stated some of the most im- is so large, that its wear creates a constantly portant parts of a steam engine, we will now varying leverage. This could be obviated speak of some of its accessories. In order by making the point of contact a knife-edge to give a uniformity of speed to the machin- instead of a half-inch pin. Another disadery driven by a steam engine, no matter vantage in the common safety valve is the how much' the work it has to do may vary, fact that the engineer has the power of the governor was invented: it consists, in weighting it to an unlimited extent. We its simplest form, of two balls revolving have seen this difficulty obviated by an around an upright shaft, and suspended from American invention. The weight is susits top by rods; if revolved with great rapid- pended in the boiler directly from the valve, ity, these balls are carried by their centrif- and consists of the greatest weight the boiler ugal motion to the greatest circumference should ever be allowed to carry. The lever that their rods will allow them; if moved is now so applied, that its tendency is slowly, they will assume their smallest cir- to always lighten the valve, so that the cumference, and, by these motions, close or more it is weighted the less steam can be open the throttle, or, in the improved en- carried. 234 STEAM. most. The Hudson river, from the first CHAPTER II. voyage of the North River, Fulton's steamboat, up to the present time, has reSTEAMBOATS. mnained at the head of all competitors in IN looking over English works upon steam, river navigation. We had then two trips we cannot help noticing the truth of Dr. per week, each consuming from thirty to Lardner's remarks: "England has been so thirty-six hours; we have now four passendazzled by the splendor of her own achieve- ger boats per day over the entire route, and ments in the creation of a new art of trans- many making short trips, besides those used port by land and water within the last thirty for towing barges and canal boats; the pasyears, as to become in a measure insensible senger boats making the entire trip of one to all that has been accomplished in the hundred and fifty miles in from ten to twelve same interval and in the same department hours. The increased prosperity of New of the arts elsewhere." Not content with York, growing out of this immense traffic the praise other nations have ever been by steamboats alone, is very great, but willing to give her for the invention of the even this is small when compared with the steam engine, she also wishes to rob John navigation of the Mississippi and the other Fitch of the only reward we can now give western rivers. In 1856 there were over him for a life devoted to the steamboat. It one thousand steamboats and propellers on is true that her arguments are aided to this the western waters, costing not less than end by the writings of some Americans who nineteen millions of dollars, and of a carryhave endeavored to prove Fulton as the first ing capacity of four hundred and forty-three practical steam navigator, thereby putting thousand tons. Of these boats, the smallest the date of this invention some twenty years was the Major Darien, of ten tons, built at later. But the time is fast approaching Freedom in 1852; and the largest was the when the true inventor will be acknowledged Eclipse, of one thousand one hundred and by his countrymen, and the man who proph- -seventeen tons, built at New Albany the esied so truly that "this will be the mode same year. Thus, on the western waters, in of crossing the Atlantic in time, whether I the short space of forty-five years, steam shall bring it to perfection or not; steam- created a business that absorbed nineteen boats will be preferred to all other convey- millions of dollars in steamboats alone. ances, and they will be particularly useful Up to the year 1811, the only regular methin the navigation of the Ohio' and the Mis- od of transportation had been by means of sissippi. The day will come when some more flat boats, which consumed three or four potent man will get fame and riches for my months in the passage from New Orleans to invention " -when this man, we say, will be Pittsburg. The price of passage was then one honored as he should be by the millions who hundred and sixty dollars; freight, six dolenjoy the fruits of his genius; when our lars and seventy-five cents per hundred school-books will place his name in connec- pounds. The introduction of steam has retion with that of Fulton, andi his biography duced the price of passage between these will be found in every library; when his two cities to thirty dollars, and merchandise grave and the tomb of Washington will not is carried the whole distance for a price bring a blush to the American cheek. which may be regarded as merely nominal. And are you not to blame, reader? Have Besides this great saving of time and money you ever read the life of John Fitch, the effected by steam navigation on these waters, American Watt-a life that remained sealed the comparative safety of steam conveyance for thirty years by his own request, and now is an item which especially deserves our teaches a lesson of perseverance, under trials notice. Before the steam dispensation bethat few ever have to encounter? If not, it gan, travellers and merchants were obliged is a duty you owe your country and yourself to trust their lives and property to the bargeto read it at once, and thus add another men, many of whom were suspected, with name to the tablets of your memory, already very good reason, to be in confederacy with inscribed with those of Franklin, Fulton, the land robbers who infested the shores of and Morse. the Ohio, and the pirates who resorted to The extent to which steam navigation has the islands of the Mississippi. These particimproved our country, is scarcely realized ulars being understood, we are prepared to even by those who have travelled over it the estimate the value and importance of the THE FIRST PROPELLER EVER BUILT. Constructed by John Fitch, and experimented with by him on the Collect pond, New York city. The boiler was a twelve gallon pot, with a bit of truck-plank fastened by an iron bar placed transversely. This was in the year 1796. OLIVER EVANS' ORUKTER AMPHIBOLOS. Thirty feet long and twelve broad. Cylinder five inches in diameter with a nineteen inch stroke. Constructed by Oliver Evans about the year 1804. THE MACHINERY OF FULTON'S FIRST STEAMBOAT. Imported from England where it was constructed in 1805. Wheels fifteen feet in diameter, cylinder twenty-four inches in diameter, four feet stroke. THE NORTH RIVER, OF CLERMONT. Robert Fulton's first steamboat as she appeared after being lengthened in 1808. She was launched In 1807, and was run as a regular packet between New York and Albany. Speed four miles per hour, length 133 feet, beam 18 feet, depth 8 feet, tonnage 160. - __ _ -- L —-- _-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —-- - --------- ----------- ---------- 1 -- --— ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —----------- NOSTEAMER ADRIATIC. STEAMBOATS. 239 services which the steam engine has rendered Vesuvius was the next; she was built by to the commerce and prosperity of the west- Mr. Fulton, at Pittsburg, for a company, ern states. the several members of which resided at In 1811, Messrs. Fulton and Livingston, New York, Philadelphia, and New Orleans. having established a ship-yard at Pittsburg She sailed under the command of Captain for the purpose of introducing steam navi- Frank Ogden, for New Orleans, in the spring gation on the western waters, built an exper- of 1814. From New Oileans, she started imental boat for this service-and this was for Louisville, in July of the same year, but the first steamboat that ever floated on the was grounded on a sand-bar, seven hundred western rivers. It was furnished with a stern miles up the Mississippi, wher, she remainwheel and two masts-for Mr. Fulton be- ed until the 3d of December following, lieved, at that time, that the occasional use when, being floated off by the tide, she reof sails would be indispensable. This first turnedtoNewOrleans. In.1815-16, shemade western steamboat was called the Orleans; regular trips for several months, from New her capacity was one hundred tons. In the Orleans to Natchez, under the command of winter of 1812, she made her first trip from Captain Clement. This gentleman was soon Pittsburg to New Orleans in fourteen days. after succeeded by Captain John D. Hart, The first appearance of this vessel on the and while approaching New Orleans, with a Ohio river produced, as the reader may sup- valuable cargo on board, she took fire and pose, not a little excitement and admiration. burned to the water's edge. After being A steamboat at that day was, to common submerged for several months, her hulk observers, as great a wonder as a navigable was raised and re-fitted. She was afterward balloon would be at the present. The banks in the Louisville trade, and was condemned of the river, in some places, were thronged in 1819. with spectators, gazing in speechless aston- In 1818, the first steamboat was built for ishment at the puffing and smoking phe- Lake Erie and the upper, lakes, at Black nomenon. The average speed of this boat Rock, on the Niagara river, for the late Dr. was only about three miles per hour. Be- I. B. Stuart, of Albany, N. Y., by Noah fore her ability to move through the water Brown, of New York city. She was a very without the assistance of sails or oars had handsome vessel, 360 tons burden, brig rigbeen fully exemplified, comparatively few ged, and her engine, on the plan of a Boulton persons believed that she could possibly be and Watt square engine, was made by Robmade to answer any purpose of'real utility. ert McQueen, at the corner of Centre and In fact, she had made several voyages before Duane streets, New York city; her cylinder the general prejudice began to subside, and was 40 inches diameter, 4 feet stroke. The for some months, many of the river mer- materials for making the boiler were sent chants preferred the old mode of transporta- from New York, and the boiler was made at tion, with all its risks, delays, and extra ex- Black Rock-9 feet diameter, 24 feet long pense, rather than make use of such a con- -a circular boiler, with one return flue, trivance as a steamboat, which, to their ap- called a kidney flue, seldom, if ever, carryprehensions, appeared too marvellous and ing more than nine inches of steam. This miraculous for the business of every-day steamer was called the Walk-in-the-Watcr, life. How slow are the masses of mankind after a celebrated Indian chief in Michto adopt improvements, even when they ap- igan. Her engines were transported from pear to be most obvious and unquestionable! New York to Albany by sloops, and from The second steamboat of the west, was Albany to Buffalo' by large six and eight a diminutive vessel called the Comet. horse Pennsylvania teams. Some of the She was rated at twenty-five tons. Daniel engine was delivered in fifteen days time, D. Smith was the owner, and D. French the and some was on the road about twenty-five builder of this boat. Her machinery was days. on a plan for which French had obtained a The trip from Black Rock, or Buffalo, to patent in 1809. She went to Louisville in Detroit, consumed about forty hours in good the summer of 1813, and descended to New weather, using thirty-six to forty cords of Orleans in the spring of 1814. She after- wood the trip. The price of passage in the ward made two voyages to Natchez, and main cabin was eighteen dollars; from Bufwas then sold, taken to pieces, and the en- falo to Erie (Penn.), six:dollars; to Clevegine was put tup in a cotton factory. The land, twelve dollars; to' Sandusky (Ohio), 15 240 STEAM. fifteen dollars; to Detroit, eighteen dollars. as a means of propulsion, by the Romans, The strength of the rapids at the head of in their war galleys. It was first partially the Niagara river, between Buffalo and applied to steam navigation by Robert FulBlack Rock, was so great, that besides the ton, but since his day it has undergone vast power of the engine, the steamer had to improvement. As at first constructed, it have the aid of eight yoke of oxen to get consisted of a double-spoked water-wheel, her up on to the lake, a distance of about two suspended by a shaft with no outside bearand one-half miles. In those days, the pas- ing, which shaft, being of cast iron, was senger and freighting business was so small, very liable to break. The outside bearing that one dividend only was made to the and guard were subsequently invented by owners for the first three years from the Fulton, as appears from his specification of earnings of the steamer. In 1821, in the patent. The wheels being totally uncovered, fall, the steamer was totally lost in a terrible were found to throw water upon deck, and gale. On the coming winter, a new steamer a dash-board was put up to prevent it, which ~was built'at Buffalo, by Mr. Noah Brown of was in time replaced by the present wheelNew York-a very strong, brig-rigged vessel. house. The paddle was next surrounded She was called the Superior, flush decks fore with a circular brace, or rim, as at present in and aft; the first steamer, the Walk-in-the-Wa- use. In Fulton's first boat, the wheels ter, having had a high quarter or poop deck. could, at will, be disconnected from the enCompare the time and expense of travel- gine, but this plan went out of use in order ling in those days with the present time! to simplify the machinery, after the crank Mr. Calhoun (now living), the engineer of shaft was adopted, connected directly with the Walk-in-the-Water, says, "Every two the engine. Various side wheels have been years I used to return to New York from patented, that are so constructed as to prevent Buffalo in the fall, and in the spring from the lift of water as the bucket rises thereNew York to Buffalo. I have been three from. One on the Richard Stockton apand four days, by stage, to Albany; never pears to work well, but their complication, less than three days, and sometimes near cost, and liability to get out of repair, have five days; the stage fare was ten dollars to prevented their general introduction. Albany. From Albany to Buffalo, I have The stern wheel was first thought of by been ten days in getting through; the short- Jonathan Hull, of England, in 1736, as sufest time was eight days; the stage fare ficiently appears from drawings thereof pubthrough, was twenty-one dollars. How is it lished by him; but it certainly was first now? My usual expense in going to Buf- practically applied by Robert Fulton, in the falo from Albany was thirty dollars, includ- steamboat Orleans, of which we have aling meals and sleeping." Such facts show ready spoken. This wheel is now in almost the advantages we have obtained from the universal use on our western rivers, as it is use of steam in our river navigation. peculiarly adapted to boats drawing but litThe boats that then plied upon the Hud- tle water. The wheel is suspended at the son river, would not be sufficient to carry stern, and is sometimes covered with a the passengers' baggage of the present day. wheel-house, but more frequently entirely The first boat was only 160 tons, while the exposed. New World, built in 1847, was of 1400. The propeller was first applied to a small The latter has made the trip from New York steamboat built by John Fitch, and experito Albany in seven hours and fifteen rin- mented with by him under the patronage of utes, including nine landings of say five Chancellor Livingston, on the Collect Pond minutes each; the' actual running time in New York. The propeller was a screw being six hours and twenty minutes; dis- or worm. Great improvements have, howtance, one hundred and fifty miles-per- ever, been made in the screw, and to the formed by the North River in thirty-six English we are indebted for some of the hours. most important. Captain Ericsson deserves The.application of the steam engine to great credit for his improvements in this navigation, has been successful by three respect. The improvements in the screw methods only: the side wheel, the stern propellers since 1860, have secured its almost wheel, and the propeller. The side wheel universal use in all sea-going ships, and parwas known to the ancients, and was used in ticularly in war steamers. The new vessels, connection with a windlass, turned by men, both armed and unprotected, of the British MCHINERS OF A STEAM-SHIP-PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. 00, f ~TrmllIL:~ ~( III IIII~\\=~~~-\~,,~~: MARINE ENGINE. RIVETING THE'BOILERS. BENDING ANI) CUTTING ENGINES. ASNGTECgDES CASTING THE CYLINDERS. CASTING THE CYTLINDERS. STEAMBOATS. 241 and American navies, are all propelled by which the blades can be turned into a line the screw,.and'so universal has its use be- with the ship's keel, is an improvement in come in the merchant service, that of the auxiliary propellers where the ship depends ocean steamers now (1870) sailing from the upon her sails in favorable winds; but these port of New York, somewhat more than 200 vessels are less numerous now than formerly. in number, but one or two have paddle- The insertion.of three or more blades of the wheels. The Pacific mail steamers, the Liv- screw around the periphery of a hollow erpool and Great Western Steamship Corn- sphere, attached to the shaft instead of dipany's ships, and those of-the Hamburg and rectly to that shaft itself, (Griffith's screw,) Bremen lines, are fine specimens of the screw or of the insertion of numerous short blades steamship, in their roominess, comfort and around the periphery of a ring of metal, elegance. It was at first objected to the (Ericsson's screw,) or of having the blades propellers that they rolled more than the within the periphery, (Carlsrund and Sorenpaddle-wheel steamers, and that there was sen's,) or of applying a large proportion of an unpleasant vibration from the rapid revo- the power nearly parallel to the shaft, by inlution of-the heavy screw on a shaft extend- serting behind the moving screw a fixed ing half the ship's length. They were, also, screw having the blades turned in the oppoat first considerably slower than the paddle- site direction, (Rig's,) have each their advantwheels. These objections have been almost ages, and their advocates. wholly obviated; the speed of a screw In the so-called cigar steamers of Ross steamer of fine lines is fully equal if not sn- Winans, and some other similar inventions, perior to that of the best paddle-wheel. one part of the design was the operating of They have repeatedly crossed the Atlantic two or three propellers in a line with the in a little more than eight days, and by some steamer's keel, one near the bow, another, improvements in construction, both of the amidships, and still a third at the stern. The ships and the screws, the rolling and the vi- theory was that the first would overcome the bration is greatly diminished. The advant- resistance, and the others could propel the ages of the propeller were, that in a heavy vessel at much higher speed than ordinary. sea it was always submerged, whatever the The use of the donkey engine or auxiliary condition of the ship's lading, while the pad- pump, has been adopted in nearly all of our die-wheels would be out of water on one steam vessels, and is a decided improvement side or too deep on the other; the paddles over the old method of filling the boilers by were, also, more exposed to danger of break- the main engine, as it obviates the difficulty age, and when the wind was ahead greatly of working the wheels while lying at the impeded the speed of the ship. The paddle- wharf, or stopping'from any cause. The wheel steamers, also, consumed on an aver- Great Eastern'was not, at first, supplied with age nearly double the fuel required for the them, but the experience of the great storm propellers. In war-ships the propeller had in which the monster ship came so near the advantage of having its motive power foundering, led to their being introduced at out of harm's way, and of having an unob- the earliest opportunity. The builder of a structed broadside for firing upon the enemy. steamship who slhould neglect to furnish donThe monitors devised by Captain Ericsson, key engines would now be considered insane. which were propelled by screws, though for The use of coal in our steamers is now the most part.intended for coast and harbor universal upon the Atlantic coast and rivers. defense and offensive warfare only upon forts, John E. Mowatt, the first to establish the &c., demonstrated in the case of the Dicta- tow-boat business, was also among the first to tor, Monadnock, and. Miantonomoh, that a burn coal. His boat, the Henry Eckford, steamer might be very low in the water, was fitted up for that purpose, but the want having in fact no appreciable bulwarks, and of a sufficient draft was the cause of its yet be perfectly sea-worthy, and possess high. abandonment after several trials; this was in qualites of speed and ready management in 1825. A few years after, Robert L. Stevens all weathers. The plan of having twin tried a blower on his crank boat, the North screws, one under each quarter, has been America. His first blower was of rude contiied in London, by the Messrs. Dudgeon; struction, being made of planks, and placed the steamers turn more readily and in smaller directly in front of the furnace, under the space, but are not materially faster. The doors. After his success, the blower came adoption of a feathering screw, or one in into general use both for coal and wood; but 242 STEAM. improvements in furnaces have now, in a of loss of life, than the old methods of locomeasure, superseded its use. Mr. Stevens motion, by stage, wagon, or on horseback, tried several expensive experiments, and many or even by sailing vessel, canal boat, flatof them proved of value only as lessons to boat, or barge. The number of accidents at the engineer. While experimenting upon last drew the attention of Congress to the the blower, he caused to be constructed a subject, and successive bills were passed to spiral fan in the chimney, but abandoned it endeavor to control and prevent these seriafter one or two trials. Placing the boiler ous disasters; but it was not until after sevon deck was his invention, as also the false eral trials that the present very efficient sysbow that made so great an improvement in ten of inspection was perfected. Since the speed. The present open work walking- passage of this act, whose provisions we beam is also ascribed to him; in fact we recite below, the number of these accidents may safely say that Robert L. Stevens did has materially decreased, though we are still more than any other man toward the im- occasionally distressed by reports of wholcprovement of the steam-engine. sale slaughter by the explosion or burning of In the early days of steamboats on the some great steamer with its hundreds of rivers and lakes, there were great fears en- passengers. tertained both of explosions and of danger Among others to whom great credit is due from fire. These apprehensions were not for their modifications of the steam-engine altogether groundless. On the western or some of its parts, Mr. Corliss, of Provirivers and lakes, where the boats were fur- dence, R. I., of whom we have already spoken; nished with high pressure engines, carelessly Mr. Learned, of the firm of Lee & Learned, built, and run with the highest attainable manufacturers of steam fire-engines; Capt. speed, by the use of pitch and other quickly Ericsson; Mr. Dickinson, equally celebrated burning fuel, and with prevalent recklessness as an engineer and as a great patent lawyer; of human life, explosions. were of frequent Mr. Horatio Allen, and several others, have occurrence, and fires which swept with fright- made valuable improvements in the steamful rapidity through the cargoes of cotton or engine. It is due in a great measure to the other combustible materials, took place too valuable modifications which these men have often. In the Atlantic states, where the en- introduced in the use of steam and to the gines were low pressure and the cargoes less simplification and increased perfection of the inflammable, they were less common. The mechanism of steam-engines, that among the first destructive explosion was on board the hundreds of thousands of them in use steamboat Washington, near Point Harmar, throughout the United States, so few accion the Ohio river, June 9, 1816. A consid- dents occur. The engineers employed are erable number were killed, and many others too often, especially on stationary engines, scalded and horribly mangled. The Oliver unskilled and incompetent for their business; Ellsworth, a steamboat plying on the Con- but most of the engines are so well constructed necticut river, exploded on that river in that they will not give out except from the 1818, with great loss of life. We have no most outrageous carelessness or stupidity in list of the number of explosions, or of the their management. burning of American steamboats, but the In the year 1852, an act was passed by number must have been several hundred, Congress, containing provisions against fire, many of them attended with great loss of regarding pumps, boats, life-preservers, the life, and terrible suffering. Any one whose transportation of dangerous articles, etc. memory of the events of the past fifty years This act also provided for an inspector of is distinct, will recall many of these sad boilers in each district, whose duty it is to scenes, of some of which he had very proba- test all the boilers in his district, used on bly been an eye-witness. Many of these board of vessels carrying passengers, once were inevitable under any precautions which when first constructed, and at least once a could have been adopted; but others were year thereafter. The Board of Inspectors the result of racing, carelessness, or reckless- were also empowered with the examination ness of human life. Still, while there have of engineers, which duty is set forth in the been many unnecessary disasters, the result following section: "Whenever any person of ignorance and mismanagement, there can claiming to be qualified to perform the be no question that the transportation by duty of engineer upon steamers carrying steamboats is much safer and less productive passengers, shall apply for a certificate, the LOCOMOTIVES. 243 Board of Inspectors shall examine the appli- up to the Albermarle and effected her cant, and the proofs which he produces in destruction. support of his claim; and if, upon full con- We have already stated that John E. sideration, they are satisfied that his char- Mowatt was the first to introduce the tug acter, habits of life, knowledge, and experi- business on the North river. This was ence in the duties of an engineer are all such Jonathan Hull's idea; he never dreaming as to authorize the belief that the applicant is that large vessels could be provided with a suitable and safe person to be entrusted propelling power, both on account of its with the powers and duties of such a station, weight, the weight of fuel for a voyage, and they shall give him a certificate to such effect, the danger from fire. This branch of steam for one year, signed by them, in which cer- navigation has proved very lucrative. Withtificate they shall state the time of the exami- in the past few years the propeller has here nation, and shall assign the appointee to the also been substituted. Philadelphia, we beappropriate class of engineers." lieve, was the pioneer in this enterprise, and It was also provided that nine super- most of the propeller-tugs were built in that vising inspectors should be appointed by the city. We will conclude this chapter with executive, to carry out the provisions of the the following statement of the tonnage of act. Since the passage of this law, steam- steam vessels belonging to the several ports boat explosions on the Atlantic coast have of the United States in 1868, as published become almost unknown, and have greatly in the "Report on Commerce and Navidecreased in the west. With competent gation:"inspectors this law is invaluable, and we Atlantic and Gulf Coasts.......... 653,730.37 hope to hail the day when a similar act is Pacific Coast................... 49,895.98 passed in every legislature, touching loco- Northern Lakes................. 144,117.15 motive and stationary boilers. Western Rivers............... 351,671.39 No one who looks at the immense amount The total steam tonnage of the United of business done by steam vessels, will ques- States, for the year ending 30th of June, tion the advantages obtained by the appli- 1868, was 1,199,414.89-95 tons. cation of steam to navigation, still this branch of commerce is as yet in its infancy, and it is our belief that not only will steam supersede sails entirely, but also that the laborious occupation of rowing will eventually CHAPTER III. be mainly done by steam. It is unques- LOCOMOTIVES. tionable that boats requiring four men to pull them can, even now, be much more economi- OUR second chapter referred more particcally worked by machinery, and certainly ularly to the application of steam to navigarun much faster. Their cost need not ex- tion. In this, we shall endeavor to set forth ceed five hundred dollars. For such small its advantages in land transportation. Among craft the propeller is better fitted than the the earliest experiments upon this subject in side wheel. There was a boat of this descrip- America, were those by Oliver Evans, of tion running in the harbor of Norfolk, for Philadelphia. The following is his account, some years, and capable of carrying twelve published in 1804:passengers at eight miles per hour, at the " I constructed for the Board of Health of expense of seventy-five cents per day for fuel, Philadelphia a machine for cleaning docks, and tie wages of one man, who could easily called the Orukter Amphibolos or Amphibdo the work and steer the boat. This boat ious Digger. It consisted of a heavy flatcarried passengers to the Great Eastern, bottomed boat, thirty feet long, and twelve when she lay off Old Point Comfort, and feet broad, with a chain of buckets to bring appeared like the minnow beside the whale. up the mud, and hooks to clear away sticks, In 1864, the Navy Department ordered stones, and other obstacles. These buckets the construction of several steam launches, are wrought by a small steam engine set in small boats of about the dimensions of the boat, the cylinder of which'ts five inches the C*ptain's boat of a war steamer, to diameter, and the length of stroke nineperform the service which had till then teen inches. This machine was constructed been done by the row-boats. It was on at my shop, one mile and a half from the one of these that Lieutenant Cushing ran'river Schuylkill, where she was launched. 244'STEAM. She sunk nineteen inches, displacing five for four persons, which weighed, empty, hundred and fifty-one cubic feet of water, about one thousand four hundred pounds. which, at 62.5 pounds, the weight of a cubic The cylinders were ten by four; boiler, foot, gives the weight of the boat thirty-four thirty feet of surface, only twenty feetr of thousand four hundred and thirty-seven which could be reckoned effective, or one pounds, which, divided by two hundred and foot of surface to about one hundred and thirteen, the weight of a barrel of flour, gives ten pounds of total weight. It outran the weight of one hundred and sixty-one horses, in night races, on the Broadway barrels of flour that the boat and engine is pavement, and ran at a moderate speed on equal to. Add to this the heavy pieces of cobble pavements, but had not steam enough timber and wheels used in transporting her, for common roads. and the number of persons generally in her, The next trial was in 1858, on two steam will make the whole burden equal to at least fire engines, the J. C. Cary and J. G. Storm, two hundred barrels of flour. Yet this the carriages and engines of which were small engine moved so great a burden, with built from his design, the boilers and pumps a gentle motion, up Market street and around being designed by others. These engines the Centre Square, and we concluded from had heavy boilers and apparatus, and could the experiment that the engine was able to not be regarded as steam carriages, but only rise any ascent allowed by law on turnpike as a demonstration of the practicability of roads, which is not more than four degrees." working by steam. Their cylinders are After giving a comparison of the merits fourteen by seven and a half inches; wheels, of steam and horse power, for moving car- five feet; the Cary boiler four hundred and riages on common roads, Evans says: "Add eighty feet of heating surface; that of the to all this that the steam wagon consumes Storm three hundred and eighty; weight of nothing while standing, will roll and mend the Cary, empty, fifteen thousand six hunthe roads, while the horse wagons will cut dred and thirty-six pounds; the Storm somethem up. Upon the whole it appears that what lighter. These engines ran well on no competition could exist between the two. pavements, and when fairly in motion could The steam wagons would take all the busi- run on soft ground at six or seven miles per ness on the turnpike roads. I have no hour. Mr. J. K. Fisher built another steam doubt but you will duly appreciate the im- carriage, completing it in 1861, fiom which portance of such an improvement, and con- great results were expected; but the all-enceive it to be your interest to appropriate grossing interest of the war, at that time, the sum necessary to put it in operation. I prevented its receiving attention, and nothhave invented the only engine that will ing has been heard of it since. A Newark answer that great purpose, as well as many machinist contrived one in which the motive others for which power may be wanted. It power was an engine and boiler in the form is too much for an individual to put in of a man, drawing a wagon, in the front part operation every improvement which he may of which was the water-tank. This excited be able to conceive or invent. I have no considerable attention but proved of no pracdoubt that my engines will propel boats tical value. In 1866, a steam wagon with against the current of the Mississippi, and vulcanized rubber ties 13 inches wide and wagons on turnpike roads with great profit. 5 inches thick, was run in the streets of I now call upon those whose interest it is, to Edinburgh, drawing one or two wagons up carry-this invention into effect. All which the steep grades of that city, and its perI respectfully submit to your consideration." formance was entirely satisfactory. Thus it will be seen that Mr. Evans not The railway itself does not come within only practically applied steam to locomotion, the compass of our article; we will state, but fully realized the advantages of his in- however, that its origin is unknown, as the vention. The introduction of the railroad remains of a stone tram-road have been prevented the improvements that would found among the ruins of Thebes. naturally have followed so great an inven- Thirty years ago they were still discussing tion, and but little has since been done, until the advantages of, canals as compared with within the past three or four years. railroads in this country; it is, however, Mr. Fisher has been one of the most success- somewhat singular that, with the exception ful in his improvements; his first experiment of a mile or two of canal near Cambridge, was in 1853, when he built a small carriage constructed by the Romans, England had in LOCOMOTIVES. 245 troduced the entire principle of railroads awaxen, at the commencement of the raillong before she took up canals. As long roads connecting the canal of the Delaware ago as 1776, and possibly thirty years prior and Hudson Canal Company with their coal to that time, England had wooden rails in mines; and he who addresses you was the some of her collieries. It was not, however, only person on that locomotive. The circumuntil the year 1825 that the subject was stances which led to my being alone on the prominently.brought forward. The railway engine were these: the road had been built project from Manchester to Liverpool was in the summer; the structure was of hemthe cause of this new impulse. The rails, lock timber; the rails of large dimensions, prior to 1776, were of wood, placed about notched on caps placed far apart; the timfour feet apart on sleepers; these wooden her had cracked and warped from exposure rails were then covered with iron plates, to the sun. After about three hundred feet and cast iron wheels were adopted instead of straight line, the road crossed the Lackaof the wooden ones that had been used up waxen creek on trestle-work, about thirty feet to this time. In 1790, the edge rail was high, with a curve of from three hundred and invented. From 1802 to 1806, the first fifty-six to four hundred feet radius. The effective experiments.were made with the impression was very general that the iron locomotive engine. It was not, however, monster would break down the road, or it supposed possible that the friction or ad- would leave the track at the curve and plunge herence of the" plain wheels of such car- into the creek. My reply to such appreriages upon the rail could be sufficient to hensions was, that it was too late to consider allow any great weight to be drawn after the probability of such occurrences; that them, and, therefore, the cumbersome ap- there was no other course than to have a pendage of cog wheels and ratchet wheels, trial made of the strange animal, which had continuous and endless chains, propelling been brought here at great expense; but levers, etc., etc., continued to perplex the that it was not necessary that more than one minds of engineers until about 1814, when should be involved in its fate; that I would it was first discovered that the adhesion of take the first ride alone, and the time would the locomotive carriage, with its plain cast come when I should look back to the inciiron wheels, was adequate for every purpose dent with great interest. As I placed my on ordinary railways. The improvement hand on the throttle-valve handle, I was unconsequent upon this was effected by Mr. decided whether I would move slowly or Stephenson in the north of England, and for with a fair degree of speed; but believing a long time his engines, with unimportant that the road would prove safe, and preferalterations, were used where fuel was cheap. ring, if I did go down, to go handsomely, Those locomotives drew about one hundred and without any evidence of timidity, I tons on a level, at four miles the hour, per- started with considerable velocity, passed the forming the work of about sixteen horses. curve over the creek safely,' and was soon Their weight was about ten tons, and cost out of hearing of the vast assemblage. At about sixteen thousand dollars. the end of two or three miles I reversed the The first railway in the United States was valve, and returned without accident; having built from Milton to Quincy, Mass., a dis- thus made the first railroad trip by locomotance of two miles, in 1826. The Baltimore tive on the western hemisphere." and Ohio was the first passenger railroad; The first locomotive engine ever built in it was opened in 1830, a distance of fifteen the United States, was built at the West miles, with horse power. Next in the order Point foundry, New York, under the direcof time came the Mohawk and Hudson, from tion of Samuel Hall, for the South Carolina Albany to Schenectady, sixteen miles; opened railroad. This engine blew up shortly after for travel also with horse power. The first it commenced running, and another was locomotive engine upon a railway in this built to replace it. In 1831, the De Witt country, was built at Stourbridge, England, Clinton was built at' the same foundry for for the Delaware and Hudson Canal Com- the Mohawk and Hudson (New York Cenpany, and imported by Mr. Horatio Allen. tral) railroad; this engine weighed four tons; This engine was called the Lion. Mr. it was run without load at the rate of forty Allen, in a speech not long since, gives a miles per hour. Cylinders, five and a half graphic account of the first trip: "It was inches in diameter-stroke, sixteen inches; in the year 1828, on the banks of the Lack- four coupled wheels, four and a half feet in 246 STEAM. diameter. The boiler was cylindrical, with for an incline upon their road, where they a large dome in the centre, and contained performed successfully. Since that time, some thirty flues. In January of the same engines have been exported to England, year, the Baltimore and Ohio railroad offered France, Russia, Germany, Egypt, and Chili. four thousand dollars for the best anthracite In the latter country all the locomotives are coal-burning locomotive, weighing three and American. The engines forwarded to Egypt, one half tons, and capable of drawing fifteen were built by William Mason, of Taunton; tons, fifteen miles per hour on a level, with and for excellence of workmanship, style, a steam pressure of not more than a hundred and finish, will compare favorably with any pounds to the square inch. The conditions in the world. There are now nearly fifty were filled by an engine built by Phineas American locomotives on German roads. Davis, of York, Pa., in June, 1831. This Messrs. Winans, of Baltimore, furnished the engine had an upright boiler and cylinder. majority of the locomotives sent to Russia. William T. James, of New York, who had There are twenty-five imanufactories of locoalready constructed a steam carriage in 1829, motives in the United States, aside from finished a locomotive in 1832; this engine the repair and manufacturing shops of was employed on the Harlem railroad, with the great railroad companies. Hinckley success, for a time, but was eventually sold and Drnry's, afterwards called the Bosto the Baltimore and Ohio road, where it ton Locomotive Works, was established exploded in 1834. This engine was pro- in 1840. The Lowell shop began to build vided with a <" spark arrester." In January, engines in 1835. Rogers, Ketchum & Gros1833, M. W. Baldwin, of Philadelphia, long venor, of Paterson, New Jersey, commenced one of our best locomotive builders, built building in 1837. This shop is still in full the Old Ironsides, for the Philadelphia operation, under the name of the Rogers and Germantown Railroad Company. This Locomotive Works. This shop made sevengine weighed five tons, and was said eral material alterations upon the English to have been run at the rate of sixty- type; they enlarged the boiler in proportion two miles per hour. Mr. Baldwin intro- to the cylinder, established the link motion, duced the outside connection engine, thus and covered more effectually the cylinders doing away with the crank axle, and plac- and valve chests, to prevent radiation. Roging the cylinder more under the eye of ers, also, was among the first to adopt the engineer. the full-stroke pump. The locomotives built It would be tedious to follow the con- at this shop have always found a ready struction and alterations in the various loco- market. Next in order was the Taunton Lomotives that were built by different manu- comotive Company, established in 1847, by facturers in the United States. We will, V.W.W Fairbanks, a marine boiler makei from however, mention the most important im- Providence, Rhode Island. Then John Souprovements. ther, formerly of IIinckley's shop, started The truck frame, in front of the engine, his works in South Boston, in 1848. In was first used by Adam Hall, of the West 1849, the Amoskeag Manufacturing CornPoint foundry, in 1832, on an engine called pany entered the lists with some important the Experiment. The four eccentrics were improvements; they were followed by the first used by William T. James, on his steam Portland, Lawrence, and Wilmarth shops, carriage; they were, however, patented by and a few years after, by Mason, of Taunton, S. H. Long, of Philadelphia, in 1830, and the East Bridgewater, and the Manchester first used on a locomotive in 1833; this was locomotive works. After 1857, the New the Black Hawk, built by Long and Norris, England locomotive shops turned their atof Philadelphia, the founders of the present tention largely to other work. One large locomotive shop known as Norris' works. company failed; others manufactured steam The Norris engines were the first ever ex- fire-engines, stationary engines, and cotton ported; this was brought about by the, at and woolen machinery; a number became that time, extraordinary fact of drawing manufactories of cannon and fire-arms dur19,200 pounds up an incline of three hun- ing the war, and much of the business fell dred and sixty-nine feet to the mile, the en- into the hands of the Paterson and Philagine weighing but 14,370 pounds; on hear- delphia shops. The causes of this change ing of which, the Birmingham and Glouces- are various: prominent among them may ter Railway Company ordered several engines be mentioned the manufacture of locomo 'SXEIOAA HAIIOW OOrI'FDVR[SVO i.' = ===C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~`~~'-~~~111~~-~ —~ —-— ~ I ---------- - ---- W-,> ---------------------------—..-.. 3= i c~- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I- IN ----------- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -; —-----— I -.._ ~ ---- -— i —-_-.: —-. 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LOCOMOTIVES. 249 tives by the larger railroad companies them- made upon our roads, however, but thirty is selves, at their repair shops. nearer an average, while in England seventy The manufacture of the locomotive engine miles has frequently been attained. had a good effect upon our machine shops, Dr. Lardner, in his lately published "Econindependent of the work it furnished; as in omy of Railroads," thus endeavors to convey order to construct them a variety of improved to the unpractised reader the enormous speed tools were made, that have greatly added to of a locomotive going at the rate of seventy the facility for turning out other machinery. miles an hour: "Seventy miles an hour is, These improvements are so marked that no in round numbers, one hundred and five feet one who is familiar with the machine shop per second, that is a motion in virtue of can help noticing them. which a passenger is carried over thirty-five Coal is now rapidly superseding wood as yards between the beats of a common clock. fuel for the locomotive. It is true that some Two objects near him, a yard asunder, pass of our first engines were coal-burners, but by his eye in the thirty-fifth part of a secwood has been for years the principal fuel ond; and if thirty-five stakes were erected used. The American engine has several by the side of the road, one yard asunder, marked distinctions from the English; what the whole would pass his eye between two most strikes the eye of the common observer beats of a clock; if they had any strong is the cab, or house for the protection of the color, such as red, they would appear a conengineer; this is peculiar to our locomo- tinuous flash of red. At such a speed, tive. The smoke stack is also very different therefore, the objects on the side of the road in the wood-burning engine from that in use are not distinguishable. When two trains, on coal-burners. The auxiliary pump is used having this speed, pass each other, the relaon some of our engines, but not to so great tive velocity will be double this, or seventy an extent as it should be. yards per second; and if one of the trains A first-class locomotive engine costs from were seventy yards long, it would flash by in 10 to 15 thousand dollars, and an average, a single second. To accomplish this, suppotaken fiom our largest roads, shows a cost sing the driving wheels seven feet in diameof about sixteen hundred dollars per year for ter, the piston must change its direction in repairs. Locomotives in this country are the cylinder ten times in a second. But built much too large for the work they have there are two cylinders, and the mechanism to accomplish, and the attention of our is so regulated that the discharges of steam master machinists having lately been much are alternate. There are, therefore, twenty attracted to this subject, it is to be hoped discharges of steam per second, at equal inthat some improvements in the weight will tervals; and thus these twenty puffs divide be made. A locomotive too heavy for the a second into twenty equal parts, each puff work it has to do, is not only more expen- having the twentieth of a second between sive in first cost, but in the greater wear of it and that which precedes and follows it. the road. A good locomotive can draw thirty The ear, like the eye, is limited in the rapidtimes its own weight on a level, and a paying ity of its sensations, and sensitive as that load should not exceed twenty-five tons; organ is, it is not capable of distinguishing bearing this in mind, why build twenty-six monotonous sounds which succeed each ton engines? There are many parts of an other at intervals of the twentieth part of a engine now built much too heavy; the bell, second. According to the experiments of dome-casings, and cabs, for instance. It is Dr. Hutton, the flight of a cannon ball was not necessary to greatly lessen the weight of six thousand seven hundred feet in one the. running gear, although in some instan- quarter of a minute, equal to five miles per ces this is much too heavy. Wrought iron minute, or three hundred miles per hour. in place of cast in some cases would be It follows, therefore, that a railway train, lighter and much better, and steel should be going at the rate of seventy-five miles per substituted for iron wherever possible. The hour, has the velocity of one-fourth that of speed over the American roads is not so a cannon ball; and the momentum of such great as in England, from the fact that the a mass, moving at such a speed, is equivaformer have more and steeper grades, and lent to the aggregate force of a number of have, besides, shorter curves, to say nothing cannon balls equal to one-fourth of its own about their construction being much less weight." expensive. Sixty miles per hour has been Some years ago a curious calculation, 250 STEAM. showing one of the advantages of the steam to the cars being run faster, our laws against locomotive, wasmade in England. "In 1853, fast driving are as potent in the one case as 111,000,000 passengers were conveyed, each in the other; and by Darker's arrangement, passenger travelling an average of twelve it is impossible for the car to go over a given miles. Twelve miles of railroad are accom- speed-the governor being attached to the plished in half an hour, whereas the old brake. The second argument against steam stage coach required an hour and a half to cars is that the noise and smoke will frighten get through the distance. The aggregate horses. The noise and smoke can both be time thus saved for the above number of avoided, and it has been proved that horses passengers is equal to thirty-eight thousand are not more liable to start than at the sight years." This was seventeen years ago, since of a buffalo robe. The argument as to exwhich time the number of passengers car- pense has been entirely thrown aside; still, ried has been nearly tripled. but few know the great advantage in this Mr. Fleming, on the Mobile & Ohio rail- respect that steam has over horse power. A road, and some other master mechanics, have number of our lines average seven horses to adopted the plan of paying the engineers a a car (in Boston they average eight), in certain fixed salary, and then giving prizes order to have the necessary relays; seven to those who saved the most fuel to the mile good horses for this purpose are worth, say, run. It is also customary to place the in- eight hundred dollars the feed, care, and spection of wood to be used under the en- stable-room of each horse averages, say three gineer's care, he having the choice of the dollars and fifty cents per week; so that aline stations at which he will take in wood. with forty cars is under the enormous annual With these two regulations the company get expense, for horse-care and keep alone, of better wood at the same price, as it is di- $50,960! Now then for steam. The first cost rectly to the engineer's interest to carefully of an engine and steam generator, with all the examine the quality, quantity, and price of necessary appurtenances, will be no more, if as every load of wood he takes on. So great much, as the seven horses to each car. Keephas been the economy of this plan, that ing the engine in repair would incur no more it is strange that every one does not expense than shoeing horses, renewing haradopt it. ness, etc. It would cost no more to replace Another important item in the running them than to replace worn-out horses. The expenses of the locomotive is the oil and engines, to be of sufficient capacity to overwaste. The latter is used to wipe the come our steepest grades, will consume eight machinery, not only on account of the looks, bushels of coke per day (a high estimate), but to prevent its gumming up with oil and running sixteen hours, the price of which at dirt. The average cost of oil, waste, and present is five cents per bushel; but, suppotallow, taken from some of our largest roads, sing the extra demand to cause an advance is seventy-five hundredths of a cent per of a hundred per cent.-which is hardly mile run; and as engines average some fif- likely, for even a less increase in price would teen thousand miles per year, we have a cause many private families and others to total cost, in these small items, of $1,125,000 cease using it-the fuel expense in one year,. per year in the United States alone, by the to a company with forty cars, would be more than 10,000 locomotives now in use. $9,984; making the difference in cost, Before leaving the subject of steam loco- in one year, between steam and horses, motives, we wish to speak of the Dummy of $40,976. Think of it! $40,976 saved engine, or steam car for city railroads. We to a company with forty cars, in one year know that this use of steam has met with (over $1,000 per car), after putting down great opposition from all classes of men; the fuel at double its present price. Coke but what are the arguments? In the first is preferable, because it is clean to handle, place they say: " Oh! the steam car is ignites quick, emits no smoke, is light and much more dangerous than horses." Why? cheap, and requires a much less draught than "Because it is more difficult to stop, and it coal. To save cumbrous and useless weight goes so much faster." What is the truth? as much as possible, it is proposed to carry It is much easier to stop a steam car than very little fuel, except what is on the fire, one drawn by horses, inasmuch as we have nor unnecessary extra water either, the tank not only the same brakes, but the power of and bin to be replenished at the depot each reversing the engine in an emergency. As trip, while waiting its time. LOCOMOTIVES. 251 Were the different companies to offer, as fiom one part of the city or its suburbs an inducement, to reduce the fare to four to another. Whether this difficulty can be cents, on condition that the community would obviated by any means of transportation permit the use of steam, they would anni- passing along the present level of the streets, hilate all groundless opposition on the part is doubtful; and of latef attention has been of the masses, which is every thing with us; turned in New York and some other large and the enormous increase of "short rides," cities, to other means of locomotion. These, occasioned by the reduction of fare, would so far as yet proposed, are the following: 1st, make the receipts greater than at present; an elevated railway sustained on pillars risand as the saving in favor of steam is quite ing from the curb, the cars drawn by endless $1,000 a year per car, the value of the stock chains set in motion by stationary engines, would be increased prodigiously. It would placed below the pavement. This plan has seem that there was no valid objection to been tried, but has met with several accithe use of some forms of dummy engines for dents, which have created a popular distrust city railroads, for they are more completely of it; 2d, an elevated railway passingthrough tinder the control of the engineer than a the middle of the blocks, crossing the streets horse is under his driver; yet the prejudice upon high and strong bridges, and running is very strong against them, and the South elsewhere on masonry and tressels of suffiSide railroad of Long Island, after trying cient strength to prevent danger, and drawn them for a year in Brooklyn, E. D., was by ordinary or dummy locomotives; 3d, an compelled, in 1870, by the opposition of.the underground railway with openings and stairpeople, to withdraw them. ways at every three or four blocks, in New Among the plans for city cars that have York, passing under Broadway or the Bowbeen suggested and built, we may mention ery, and having laterals running in connecthose of Latta, of Cincinnati; Baldwin, tion with it; 4th, the Arcade railway plan, Grice & Long, and Darker, of Philadelphia. occupying the entire width of the present Latta's engine was in a separate car from the principal street, (Broadway, for instance, in passengers; Baldwin's had its machinery be- New York,) but at the level of the present neath the car, and its boiler in front; and basements, and covered over above with Darker placed his entire engine and boiler Hyatt's patent illuminator, or some other upon the roof, connecting with the wheels mode of illumination, strong enough to peron the outside, near the centre. Grice & mit travel, except of railroads or omnibuses, Long's car was thus fitted: The engines and at the present level of the street; and with boiler are on the front platform; the engines elegant sidewalks the whole distance, for foot slightly inclined, and graded to the front passengers; 5th, the pneumatic tubular railaxle; the axle being placed at the extreme way, either elevated or underground, in end of the car, for the purpose of making which the cars are driven with great speed the connection, and increasing the stability through a tube by means of compressed air. of the wheels. The boiler was ofthe ordina- One form of this pneumatic tubular railway ry vertical, tubular type; the after part of proposes to have a gigantic wooden tube the car was finished with a self-adjusting, vi- made air-tight by the cement used for prebrating truck, for the purpose of turning the venting leakage in petroleum barrels, and short curves of city roads. elevated on tressels; through this tube the Oa roads running through sparsely settled cars are to be driven by compressed air at a districts, in the suburbs of our great cities, speed of a hundred miles an hour. The cost or to villages a few miles distant, these dum- is stated as about $10,000 per mile. By my engines often do good selvice,producing some of these means, it is claimed that less trouble and annoyance, and proving less the speed of transit can be greatly increased dangerous than the ordinary locomotive, but without danger, either to the passengers or the best form of motive power for driving others, and points now distant can be one or more cars along the streets of a large brought practically very near to each other. and crowded city, without inducing serious We will conclude this chapter with an accidents, is yet to be devised. Something anecdote of the first engine introduced upon is imperatively needed to take the place of the Baltimore and Susquehanna railroad. horses for this work, for there is a very gen- This road was built to run with. horses, and eral complaint that horses are too slow, and in some of the first circulars issued by the that too much time is consumed in going company, the road was spoken of as being 252 STEAM. delightfully picturesque, winding among the oscillating, and the rotary engine. The beautiful scenery, and forming a most inter- beam engines are commonly low-pressure or esting ride-rather different from the em- condensing, and are mainly used for pumpperor of Russia's idea of a railroad, which ing, or where great power is required; the he laid out with a ruler, by describing a motion of the piston is communicated by straight line from Moscow to St. Petersburg. the working-beam to the pump or crankAgainst the wish of the president of the shaft at the'opposite side of the machine. company an engine was imported from Eng- The horizontal engine is probably the most land in the brig Herald, about the year 1830, used at a high pressure in this country; its and was put upon the road under the man- advantage is the facility with which it is agement of an English engineer. While put up, and its steady working; every part standing upon the track one day, fired up being firmly attached to a solid bed, requirand ready to start, the president, who was ing but little bracing to keep it in place. absent on her arrival, came down to look at The disadvantage of a horizontal engine is the strange animal. He was accompanied the unequal wear of the cylinder, due to the by one of the directors, who had already ex- gravity of the piston. The steeple or vertiamined the iron steed and was desirous of cal engine has, like the beam engine, an upexhibiting it to the best advantage. The right cylinder, but is connected directly to engineer being temporarily absent, the two the main shaft above or below. In all the mounted upon the platform. " Thee sees, above-named engines the cylinder is stationfriend," said the director, " this lever; well, ary, and the reciprocating motion is changed by drawing it toward thee (suiting the action into rotary by means of a cross-head, slides, to the word), the machine will retreat, and and connecting-rod; in the oscillating engine by pushing it from thee, it will advance; the cylinder vibrates upon trunions, placed thus the competent man can handle it as sometimes at its centre, and sometimes at its readily as thee can drive a horse. If thee end; thus allowing the piston to be coupled turns this little crank the steam will com- to the crank, and doing away with the crossmence working, and the engine will start." head and slides. The advantages of this enAnd sure enough the engine did start, for gine are its reduced size and expense. In the the honest Quaker, in order fully to explain horizontal and other engines the steam valve its action, had opened the throttle. Away is moved by an eccentric, but in some oscilwent the iron horse, affrighting them out.of lators the trunion box forms a self-working all presence of mind, and increasing in ve- valve both for induction at the one side and locity at each stroke of the piston, until it eduction at the other. The disadvantages of reached one of the picturesque curves that an oscillator are the liability to overheat its had so much delighted the president, where, trunions and the difficulty of keeping them with one bound, it left the track and turned tight. An oscillator costs less at the start, a summersault down the embankment. Both but requires more oil, and is of doubtful parties were hurt, but most fortunately es- economy. caped with their lives. The change of the reciprocating into the rotary motion was a problem for many years, and the idea that there was a great loss of momentum in the constant stopping and CHAPTER IV. starting of the piston at each end of the STATIONARY ENGINES. stroke induced many mechanics to study some method of obtaining a direct rotary THIS is the oldest form, being but a modi- motion, or, in other words, to produce a rofication of the first steam pumping engines; tary piston. It was at once evident to the not being confined to space as in the loco- merest novice that a rotary engine would be motive and marine engine, these machines in reality a rotary pump reversed, and conhave admitted of a greater variation of form, sequently the rotary engines bear so strong and a better chance of artistic display than a resemblance to the oldest rotary pump as any other, consequently we have many in- to instantly strike the eye of any one who stances of elaborate workmanship and a has seen the two. One of the most sucgreat variety of design. The majority of cessful rotary engines of to-day is that of stationary engines in use may be divided as Holly, of Seneca Falls, New York, and this follows: the beam, the horizontal, the steeple, is only a modification of Murdoch's rotary --------------- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ROD COINUTIMN ----- - ---------— ~ —--- ------ --------- FCAiHR —FT ------ -------- COVERNOR —--- a~~.. B~A-................~~~~~~~~~~....... -.......................... Mo. 4. Fi'~ Fig. 6. L-' _^ —-^ —----- -- -- 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~-'i! Fig. 1. ~~~~o 1 ~ c Q Mll, M, T 77~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'l~ m i~~~~~~~~~~~1~ii i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~""1! 1111!~~a^~g Fig. 2. The Cut, Fig. 1, and the series to Fig. 6, represent one of our high pressure Engines, which, regarded either as a specimen of workmanship, or as an economical and effective source of power, is onie of the best in use. - These details, Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 6, heing similar to those of other engines, need no special notice; but the Cam, marked (C), Fig. 5, requires particular attentions, as it embodies a beautifil and simple device for cut- _ ting off steam with certainty at any part of the stroke, the motion being produced automatically by the ac- c tion of the governor upon this cam, throwing it more or less out of center with the spindle of the governor as the rotation of the balls is less or more rapid, the eccentricity of the cam determining the amount of steam admitted to the working cylinder of the engine. To produce this effect, the cam is msade of twvo pieces. (C) is a hollow cylinder or shell, with a part of one end formed into a cam proper. Throughout the whole length of this piece upon the inside, there is a spiral groove cut to receive one end of a feather, by which its.- -' pitch or eccentricity is regulated. _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - The inside piece (D) is a hub, which exactly fits in the hollow of the cylinder (C), and has a socket (e) 6 ---..... — 7 —..-. —- o/. into which the spindle of the governor is screwed, the other end (d) forming a journal or bearing, with a -v -- -~ bevel wheel on its extremity, to convey motion from the crank shaft gearing to the governor and cut-off. There is a hole throughout the length of the inside piece (D), which is continued through the spindle of the / /[ Xl -____-_____ governor, and which contains the rod that connects the cam with the governor. This hole is eccentric to the outside surface of(D), as well as (C), but is concentric with the collar (f) and with the governor rod.. Both pieces, (C) and (D), are connected together by a feather, one piece of which is of a spiral form, and 71 the other is a straight or rectangular piece, the two being conlnected together by a stub on the rectangular piece, which fits into a hole or bearing in the other or spiral piece, so that the latter can turn on the stub and accommodate itself to the groove in which it has to work. The spiral part of the feather works in a spiral groove in the inside of the shell (C', and the rectangular piece works in a straight groove in the inside of c Fig. 3. the hub (D), the inner part of the rectangular piece being fastened to the governor rod, so that the feather is permanently connected with the governor. When the several pieces are put together, the cam is complete as shown in Fig. 5, and it operates as follows: Motion is communicated by gearing from the crank shaft to the bevel wheel on the end of the piece (D), and is communicated to the spindle of the governor, which is screwed into the socket on (D), as the balls rise or fall through change of centrifugal force due to the variation in the speed of rotation. They raise or depress the governor rod, which..asses through the spindle and the piece (D), and is attached to the feather, thereby raising or depressing the feather, which, acting on the spiral groove, instantly alters the lift |AE of the cam, and so regulates the amount of steam admitted to the cylinder. Consequently, any speed may ___________ be selected at which the load of the engine is to move, and any variation from that will be instantly felt by 1 the governor and corrected by this simple and beautiful device. There is no jar in the workinig of the parts; COO) _ _11 _ l| |||-_ the feather moves noiselessly in its grooves; the governor rod moves up and down through the spindle and the piece (D), and can be regulated by hand to give an.y required opening of the stean ports to suit the work1 llllil to be done. Any change in the amount of work will then alter the speed of the engine, and so affect the | 7 7' 7/ i/ /' governor and camn as before said. It is unnecessary to insist on the great economy attained by using steam with a well-regulated cut-off, for practical men know now that the esse..tial points of excellence in the steam-engine, are a good boiler, wha.ich generates the greatest quantity of stea.n for the least consumption of fuel; and, seco..dly, a reliable cut off, I I which uses the steam to the best advantage by admitting the proper quantity for the work required. 1 \,$-/-/-,$' /////////'/ 7\'7/'-1|. LklJ~ ~ ~ ~ J' U1 LL [LIJ'kA LU u lLU 7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r~1 il2E STATIONARY ENGINES. 253 engine, which is, in turn, a perfect copy of an properly-constructed one would use to do old pump taken from Serviere's collection, the work of twenty. As an instance of the It may be thus described: two cog-wheels truth of this statement, we will take the fitted accurately to each other are inclosed engines built by Messrs. Corliss & Nightenin a case; each cog is grooved and fitted gale, of Providence, 6ver an engine that with packing, bringing it into steam-tight was working to good advantage in the contact with the circumference and sides of James Mills, Newburyport, but was rethe case. The axles of the cog-wheels are moved on the representation of the buildcontinued through the sides of the case, and ers of the new machine, that they would geared together at each end to prevent take five times the saving of the first year's friction upon the centre cogs; now, if re- fuel as sole payment of their engine. The volved, each cog will act as a piston, but as James Steam Mills contained 17,024 spinthe cogs in contact in the centre lap each dies, and, including the weaving and all other, the piston surface at each extreme of the preparations for making sheeting and the case will be just double that of the shirtings, required a hundred and ninety centre, and this surplus of force gives mo- horse power; their engines were condensers; tion to the two axles. The pump of which cylinders, twenty-four inches by four feet this engine is a copy was invented as long length of stroke. Ten thousand four hunago as the sixteenth century. dred and eighty-three pounds of coal per day A patent was obtained in England in 1825 was the average amount used during five by Mr. J. Eve, an American.. Within a years previous to the contract for the new cylindrical case a hollow drum was so con- engines; this included the coal used for structed as to fit closely to the case; floats, dressing, heating, and all other purposes for or pistons, were cast upon its periphery, and which steam is used in such an establishpacked to fit the cylinder; on one side of ment. The new engines were high-pressure the main cylinder was a small recess filled cylinders, eighteen inches by four feet stroke. with a small drum, that revolved in contact By the terms of contract under which the with the main drum, this small drum having change of engines was made, it was at the a segment removed to receive each piston as option of the company to pay -for the new it passed, and having, its diameter so pro- arrangement the sum of ten thousand five portioned to the main drum as to revolve hundred dollars cash in lieu of the saving once between the passage of each piston or of coal; but the choice was to be made befloat. Other rotary engines, on a plan anal- fore the new engines were put in operation. ogous to the above, differing only in the In view of the favorable results obtained by manner of opening the valve, have been in- the former engines, they decided to pay in vented; and copied from the ancients, some the saving of fuel. The new engines were of which are exceedingly complicated, but run one year from December 3d, 1855, and they have always been unsuccessful in prac- the average amount of coal used per day tice, principally from the fact that it is ex- was found to be five thousand six hundred ceedingly difficult to pack them. If they and ninety pounds. The coal being reckcould overcome this fault without adding oned at six dollars per ton, Messrs. Corliss friction, the rotary engine would be very & Nightengale received nineteen thousand valuable on account of the small space it seven hundred and thirty-four dollars and occupies. twenty-two cents. Thus it will be seen that The demand for stationary engines, from the builders received nearly double price one horse power upward, during the last for their engine, and yet it cost the owners twenty-five years, has been so great that now of the mill nothing for a machine that was almost any machine shop is prepared to build destined to be a source of great saving in them, and of course, while such is the case, their future expenses. thousands of engines are annually built that The singular character of Mr. Corliss' barwould better bear the name of steam eaters gains attracted much attention'to his enthan steam engines. In some of the small gines, as they showed conclusively the adengines that flood the market, the first vantages thereof over the old plans. The principles of steam are practically ignored, above experiment was a comparison between and there are at this moment running in the his engine and what had been considered United States engines that consume more a good machine; in the following, however, coal to do the work of ten horses than a we see its great advantages over a more or 254 STEAM. dinary engine. In March, 1852, Mr. Corliss double-nay, triple-that for which they contracted with Crocker Brothers & Co., were intended; the safety (?) valve weightof Taunton, Massachusetts, to furnish them ed down by old pieces of iron, stones, etc., with an engine that would do the same work to such an extent that the runner no more they were then doing with five tons of coal knows what pressure he is using, than does per day, and yet only consume two; agree- the stranger who is passing his door. In ing to forfeit one dollar per pound, for every thousands of cases the steam-gauge, which, pound per day used above that amount. at least, gives the pressure when in order, This contract was successfully filled without is not used, or never tested; and what was taking out the old boilers. - intended as a preventive, becomes, by a stopMr. Corliss' engines possessed, as may be page in the connecting pipe or a derangereadily supposed, several important improve- ment of its machinery, a source of treachments, one of which was the manner by erous security. Many a man, on being asked which its speed was regulated. Watt why he does not use a steam-gauge, will reregulated by connecting the governor with ply that they are not reliable, or that the the throttle-valve; Corliss used no throttle- safety-valve is good enough; and yet that valve, but connected the governor direct to same man is perhaps employing an engineer the cut-off. This connection of the gover- that could not calculate, to save his life, the nor was not of itself the improvement of amount of pressure he was carrying, or, the Mr. Corliss, as that had already been done size of his safety-valve being given, tell its by others; but it was the manner by which area in square inches. "We can point out this connection was made, which was at once places where the engines, beautifully. desimple and efficacious, for which he deserves signed and executed in their details, are credit. The use of the throttle-valve was nothing but a mass of slime and grease from always attended with a wire-drawing of the bed-plate to cylinder-head, the deposit of steam. This wire-drawing is a reduction of no one knows how many weeks of inattenthe expansive force of the steam, and is al- tion and neglect, while a stolid runner sits ways attended with more or less condensa- calmly by, as though rather admiring the tion; so that every form of cut-off, used state of things than otherwise. When such with a throttle, is more or less imperfect. is the case where every thing is visible, where By thus dispensing with the throttle-valve is the necessity of looking among the usualaltogether, and opening the steam-valve sud- ly unsearched portions of the machine for denly, the pressure of steam in the cylinder safety and economy." approximates very closely to the boiler pres- One of these steam boilers blew up in sure. The valves in the Corliss engine are Brooklyn, in 1859, and Mr. J. C. Merriam, a circular; and by his automatic method of scientific practical engineer, was sent for to varying the point of cut-off, he gains a great examine it. Jie found that in this case, advantage, as he cuts off suddenly without as in many others, the engineer did not danger of slamming, as in the use of the understand his business, as was sufficiently puppet-valve. evident from the following reasons: his The Corliss engines are manufacturea with pump was small, but sufficiently large if in extreme care; and Mr. Corliss, in 1869, re- good order-which it certainly was not; he ceived the great Rumford medal for the took out the piston with ease, and put it back greatest improvement in the construction of again readily, although it was entirely covsteam-engines; a medal which has been ered with the coarse gravel and sand thrown awarded but twice in more than sixty years. about by the explosion. The safety-valve When we add the fact that one-half of the was held in its place by a rod passing through stationary engines in the United States are a plate; this rod, originally a good fit, was run by boys or men not capable of manag- so firmly rusted in its place, that all the force ing a modern cooking-stove, the reader can he could exert on the end of the lever was realize to some extent the economy of cheap not sufficient to move it. He unscrewed (?) engines and cheap (?) engineers. Steam this plate, and it required two or three smart is a good slave but a bad master; and the blows of the hammer to drive the rod out. fearful loss of life in the United States In his opinion, it would have taken not less during the past forty years, from the explo- than twelve hundred pounds in the boiler to sion of steam boilers, is mainly due to bad have started that valve, allowing that it had management. Boilers are in constant use the weight upon it that he saw. The owner all over the country, carrying a pressure STATIONARY ENGINES. 255 stated that the valve always leaked more or mentioned Reed's oscillator, and the Wood less; but on looking at it he was convinced & Mann steam-engine Co.'s. A portable enthat if it rested upon its seat, it never could gine manufactured at the Washington Iron have leaked, as it was a ground joint and a Works, contains all the safety and economic good one. He consequently came to the appliances of the best stationary engines; conclusion that the valve was net held in its a description of this will answer for this place by the weight on the lever, but simply class of machines. The boiler is tububy the rust on the valve-rod or stem, the lar, commonly called a locomotive boiler, weight at the end having nothing to do with and is mounted upon two large wheels at the it. The safety-valve was bolted on to the fire-box end, and two small wheels at the steam dome with four 5-8 bolts, and was smoke-box end, so fitted as to turn beneath evidently blown off at the same instant as the barrel. The steam dome is over the firethe flue collapsed, as it was found in the box, and is fitted with safety-valve and steam shop near the engine, while the boiler was gauge. The cylinder is fastened to a hollow thrown at least seventy-five feet against a frame that serves as a feed-water heater, and house. is placed very near the steam dome, thereby We might name scores of other accidents preventing radiation in the steam pipe. resulting from similar causes, of which the Upon the top of the steam chest is placed above is a fair sample; but it is evident the governor. On the front of the boiler enough, from what we have already said, that we find the smoke pipe, and, directly behind there is a want in the community yet un- it, the main shaft and a pair of balance filled-one that should receive the careful wheels. The next matter of interest is the attention of every public man. What we arrangement of the main slide-valve of the need is a law compelling the owners of steam engine, which is well known to cause much boilers to have them inspected at least once loss of power, in the ordinary construction, a year, and properly provided with safety- by the friction caused by the pressure of valves and other trustworthy appliances; it steam on its back. This is entirely relieved also should be imperatively their duty to by a very simple method in this engine. employ engineers, and not mere runners. A The valve, which is an ordinary one, has a law framed upon the United States steam- solid protection at each end, which rests on boat inspection plan would be of incalcula- a roller. These rollers are made at first ble benefit to the owners themselves, as well slightly too small, but the grinding away of as the community at large. the valve on its seat soon causes the projecThe gradual introduction of the station- tions to rest on the rollers, when all the slidary engine has been of infinite value to our ing friction at once ceases, and the valve country as it is, but if rendered safe as it works free from friction except that caused might be, its value would be increased four- by the stuffing-box around its rod. It is evfold. It is now no longer necessary that ident that this arrangement will not readily the manufacturer should locate beside -a get out of order, for when the rollers wear, waterfall, and transport his manufactured it brings the valve on the seat, which at once goods for miles to a market; he can estab- begins to wear, and the pressure once more lish himself beside the railroad, the steam- is brought on the rollers; hence, it is selfboat, nay, in the city itself, where his cus- adjusting. The rollers being removed, retomers dwell. Thus, the stationary engine duces it to the usual slide-valve. tends to centralize manufactures, while the The force pump has been a fruitful source locomotive and steamboat lengthen the arms of trouble to all those who have ever had of trade. charge of a small steam engine having a The portable engine has lately come into quick motion; indeed, it frequently gives general use, and, like the stationary, is made trouble in larger engines, from the accumuof various forms, in all of which it resembles lation of air in the chamber, which prevents the latter, with the exception of placing the its suction. It is usual to have attached to engine directly upon, or against the boiler. the lower part of the pump, or valve chainThese engines are used wherever it is neces- her, a small air-cock, and, when the pump is sary to do work sufficiently great to pay for to start, the attendant places his finger on its them, but not for permanent business, such extremity as soon as the plunger reaches the as pile driving, excavating, etc. Among the bottom of the pump, thua expelling the air; simplest of this class of engines, may. be then, on the rise of the plunger, a vacuum is 256 STEAM. formed, and the pump fills with water; the stand this subject, it is necessary that we cock is then closed, and the pump left to it- should look closely into the nature of steam self. As soon, however, as air collects from itself. It would defeat the purpose of this any defect of packing, or otherwis, the article if we were to go into a lengthy argupump ceases to work, and has to be again ment upon the relative merits of the various started as before. This difficulty is entirely theories that have been advanced by sciengot rid of by the simple contrivance of an tific men upon steam, and, consequently, we air-trap, whose valve, opening outward at shall merely give our own opinions upon the each downward stroke of the pump, allows subject-opinions at which we have arrived the air to escape, accompanied with a little by careful study and experience, it being water, and closes by the atmospheric pres- understood that the laws of steam are at sure as the'plunger rises. best comparatively unknown. The analyzaWithin the last five years, the labor of tion of simple steam is yet to be made; we loading and unloading vessels at our wharves will, however, call it water converted into has been performed by hoisting engines. an aeriform state by the electrization of its These are all run at high pressure, and do particles by caloric. Simple steam does not, the work with economy and dispatch. One however, in the present construction of boilof the best of these machines is made at ers, come into use as a motor, from the followthe shop of Hittinger & Cook.' Several of ing reason: steam has the same affinity for the ocean steamers carry them to use at liquids that all fluids have, forming an electhe other end of the route. The hoisting so tro-magnetic combination to which there is much resembles the portable engine, as not no barrier; it will then absorb and hold in to require especial explanation. suspension particles of water whenever in In most of the steam sawmills in the direct contact therewith, and, consequently, United States, the fuel consists of the saw- all steam formed in the boiler will hold in dust made at the mills, and thus the cost of suspension a portion of water, and become, running is greatly reduced; in other en- in lieu of simple, surcharged steam. Thus, gines, coal is almost exclusively used. In steam at 20 lbs. to the square inch holds fact, the enormous amount of wood con- in suspension nearly double its weight of sumed by steam engines, throughout the water. What is the effect of this? First, United States, has so called the attention of the water thus carried off in suspension is mechanics to coal-burning engines, that it is at the maximum temperature, or equal to not probable we shall use wood as fuel that of the steam containing it, and the inmany years longer. One of the greatest vested heat of this water is not only wasted fields for economy in the use of steam, now to a great extent, but these water particles open, is the waste of combustible gases by become a very serious tax upon the real the chimney, commonly spoken of under the steam with which they are admixed, as folterm smoke, but often consisting of the best lows. having been heated under the maxipart of the fuel, unconsumed from the lack of mum pressure of the steam with which they oxygen, and, in some cases, lack of caloric. are incorporated, they have a corresponding Tubes, to conduct atmospheric air to the sur- temperature, and as the latter, the steam, face of the fire, have been in use some time, expands in the steam pipes, on its way to also the perforation of the fire door; but the cylinder, and in the cylinder itself, the the tubes being exposed to an intense heat, pressure becoming correspondingly less, soon become of no value, and the openings these particles flash partially into steam, but at the door and sides of the fire-box only not containing the total amount of heat necespartially supply the oxygen. A Mr. Pierce, sary to their constitution as elastic vapor, they of Troy, has patented a plan for surrounding absorb into the "latent" form a quota of the air tubes with water, thus protecting a heat from the surrounding particles of true passage direct to the middle of the fire; we steam, thus condensing them; for steam, be have not seen this plan tried, but think it it remembered, can part with no portion of would be a source of economy. its legitimate heat without condensation Stationary engines being the most plenty, (unless it be super-heat, of which presently), it is upon them that are tried nearly all the it being understood that the absorption of new experiments. At the present time, the sensible heat (temperature) into the " latent" use of super-heated steam is attracting a form, and which is the exact measure of the great deal of attention. In order to under- force exerted by steam under all circum STATIONARY ENGINES. 257 stances, whether usefully realized or not, is part of their volume, at the ordinary atmosnot here meant as a loss of heat. That pheric temperature, for each degree of Fah. there is a loss by direct condensation because additional forced upon them. Pure steam of the presence and action of these water thus, say at twenty pounds to the square particles as' explained, may seem to some at inch, would require to be elevated to a temthe first glance a paradox, but there is in the perature of about eight hundred Fahrenheit case of steam, and between the particles of to double its volume if under a constant all matter, a certain impetus and momentum pressure, or to double its pressure if under a in the transference of that unknown some- constant volume (the quantity of heat being, thing, which is their " vis viva," or cause of however, very different in the two cases); elasticity. The electrician knows this well; whereas the mere added temperature in this vide the "lateral discharge" and return stroke. case would correspond to that of simple Again, for more common place example, steam at a pressure of about seven hundred fastenby one extremity a straight spring, bend and fifty pounds to the square inch, not to it, release it, it flies back, not to its original mention that such, and far less temperatures, position of rest or neutral point, but far would destroy all packings, prevent lubricabeyond, though finally it will settle there. tion, cause "cutting," warp valves, etc. And so it might be held that the particles There are other practical defects. Although of steam would make "reprisal," so to speak, there is no difficulty in super-heating the. of the heat stolen by the particles of water steam to any desired extent according to the flashing into steam, as set forth; and so they size of the super-heating vessel and the part do, but meantime the piston is moving on, of the smoke or fire space in which it may and this heat, the source of the elastic force be located, yet it is very difficult, if not imof the steam, cannot, it will be evident, be practicable, to maintain a proper average unacting efficiently in two, or more directions der the influence of fluctuating fires-at one at the same time; but this is not all, the time in full glow, at another freshly trimmed, more watery particles in the steam, the more and an uneven draft, damp or dry, weak or heat wasted by conduction to,.and radiation strong; the engine at one time under full from, the steam.pipes, cylinders, etc. motion, and a rapid flow of steam passing Water is. classed as a non-conductor of through the super-heater, and at another heat to a high degree, but it is a medium time the engine stopped, and there being radiator, and it vastly exceeds steam and little or no flow of moist steam through it otheraeriform fluids in both. these respects.' to protect it from being overheated and This, to a great extent, accounts for the sud- "burnt out," or rendered brittle and insecure. den falling off of power du;ing " priming," Hence, if super-heating be attempted at all, so well known. But there is still another, it should be to the minimum degree, and as it were, negative loss due to this water not with the expectation of an important carried off in the steam, because, by its access of power that no degree will afford, minute subdivision, it exposes an immense but' only to an extent sufficient to supply surface to heat, particularly radiated heat, radiation from the various parts of the enthat might be brought to act upon it, gine, etc., during the travel and action of and thus quickly transform it into perfect the steam, thus preventing its condensation, steam, much augmenting the volume of the which, to a given extent, involves not only whole, and being generated at less cost than that much immediate loss, but the more imthe first portion which held it in suspension; portant coactive evils due to the presence and it is through the avoidance of the evils of watery particles. The great and main before mentioned as due to these water object, then, is accomplished by the producparticles, and the gain produced by their tion and use of simple (dry) steam; any conversion into elastic steam, that so much modicum of water present possessing but economy is found in the use of super-heated the negative advantage of supplying lubricasteam, which is steam that has received an tion, and any " super" heat, that of supplying excess of heat (temperature) beyond that radiation. normally due to its pressure when in direct A few words on the subject of large pumpcontact with the water from whence it em- ing engines, may be of interest to our readanated. The' system, however, is fallacious, ers. Opinions have been much divided as because pure steam, and all other known to the comparative success of the Cornish aeriform fluids, expand only about 1-540th engines, and other models. An opportunity 16 258 STEAM. offered in 1859-60 of putting the question The fly-wheel for regulating the motion of to a practical test. The Nassau Water De- the engine is twenty-six feet in diameter, partment of Brooklyn, N. Y., required a with rim twelve inches face by eighteen pumping engine to raise the water from their inches deep. The distribution valves are conduit into their great distributing reser- the double poppet or balance valves; and voir, for the supply of that rapidly growing the point of cut-off, or degree of expansion, city. Their board of engineers, thoroughly is determined by the time of tripping or informed as to what Cornish engines had dropping the steam valves, which point is done elsewhere, stipulated that the engine to regulated by the engineer. The bore of the be contracted for should be required to lift pump cylinder is 50- inches, and the diamsix hundred thousand pounds of water, one eter of the plunger 38 inches-the stroke of foot with one pound of coal; that it should both steam piston and pump piston being 9 deliver ten million gallons of water into the feet and 11~- inches. The air chamber for reservoir every twenty-four hours, and be the pump is six feet in diameter, and about capable of doing that amount of work in 35 feet in extreme height, with a semisixteen hours. Messrs. Woodruff and Beach, globular top or cover, and has a diaphragm (now the Woodruff and Beach Iron Works,) division-plate fitted with check-valves to regof Hartford, Connecticut, took the contract, ulate the return flow. There is no feed pump and their pumping engine, a double-acting connected with the engine for supplying the Cornish engine, with some modifications and boilers, this being done by an independent improvements, stood the test as to duty, steam pump. For supplying this engine (600,000 pounds of water raised one foot by with steam there are five " drop return-flue one pound of coal,) and exceeded the test as boilers," seven feet in diameter, and twentyto capacity, delivering 14,500,000 gallons in four feet in length, well set in brick masontwenty-four hours, and when crowded doing ry; so arranged that any number or all of nearly as much in sixteen hours. At the them can be shut off at pleasure. time of its erection, it was unquestionably This engine, undoubtedly the largest and the most powerful pumping engine in the most powerful pumping engine in the world, world. was set in November, 1869, and tested both The work required of this engine soon for duty and capacity, in December, by proved too severe for it, and in 1862 a second Messrs. Worthen and Copeland, eminent and engine of nearly the same pattern, though disinterested engineers. Its average results with some minor improvements, was built on the " duty " test were 750,000 pounds of by the same manufacturers, and placed along water raised one foot with a pound of coal; side the first. Though testing up to the re- its capacity, the pumping at the ordinary quirement of the engineers in the matter of speed 18,500,000 gallons of water into the duty, neither of these engines, in actual prac- reservoir in twenty-four hours, with a proved tice, has exceeded 543,488 foot pounds per capacity for pumping 21,000,000 gallons in pound of coal, and the first engine has not, the same time. The consumption of the since 1865, exceeded 500,000 foot pounds. Ridgewood water is now (1870) a little short For several years the pumping duty of the of twenty million gallons per day, at some two engines was comparatively light, as, un- seasons of the year, so that this engine is til 1865, a daily consumption of ten million capable, upon an emergency, of doing the gallons of water was never reached; but entire work. The frictional loss between the from that time the consumption has rapidly cylinder and pump, new as the engine was, increased, and both engines requiring very did not exceed 7- per cent. Remarkable as frequent repairs, and falling off in the amount this performance is, it will undoubtedly be of their work, a third engine of greater power surpassed within the next ten years. than either of the others was ordered, and this time of a somewhat different construction. This engine, built by Messrs. Hubbard and Whitaker of the Burdon Iron Works, Brooklyn, is called a beam rotative engine, CHAPTER V. with a "Thames Ditton" pump attached, placed directly under the steam cylinder, and STEAM PUMPS. worked by a continuation of the main piston THE great desideratum in a machine for rod through the bottom of the cylinder. extinguishingfires, is the rapidity with which STEAM PUMPS. 259 it can be set to work, and next to this the on suitable wheels and frame. A committee of quantity of water it will throw to a given the city council witnessed the experiment. height or distance. The machines that best From their report it appears that steam was filled these conditions were doubtless the raised from cold water, the engine started, American hand fire engines; but steam has and water discharged from the nozzle to the now turned fireman, and in the contest distance of one hundred and thirty feet, between his iron arms and human muscle, through three hundred and fifty feet of hose, we can readily determine the result. At in four minutes and ten seconds from the first, time was the all-important item; all time that smoke was seen to issue from the were ready to acknowledge that after the fire chimney. The demonstration was convinchad attained full headway,the untiring efforts ing, and did convince. The city council of steam were all-powerful, but as the major- contracted for a steam engine to be built on ity of our fires were nipped in the bud by the same plan, and this engine, when comthe rapidity with which the hand engines pleted, was placed in service under the were brought to bear, it was not believed charge of a company organized and put Umnthat steam would ever become economical, der pay by the city. Thus the first paid fire and rarely efficacious. An engine was con- company, to operate with the untiring energy structed for the insurance companies of of steam, was brought into existence-the New York some twenty years since, but first of the kind in any age or country. abandoned as too expensive; it was located Steam, whose resistless power had been so in a house containing a boiler,wherein steam extensively used in the fabrication, developwas constantly kept up at a low pressure, ment, and transportation of property, was at and so arranged as to discharge its water last compelled to aid in its preservation from into the engine on an alarm of fire being fire. Its superiority over muscular power, given; beneath the boiler of the engine, sha- acknowledged for other purposes so numervings and light fuel were kept constantly ous, was to be asserted against conflagration; laid, so that by the time the machine reached and a city not a century old, west of the the fire it would have steam up and be ready Alleghanies, attracts the applause of intellifor use. This was planned by Ericsson, who gent men everywhere, and the pride of also planned the Braithwaites engine, used western men, as the scene of this achievein England. The latter had two cylinders ment. of about six inches in diameter, one for After this successful experiment and the steam and the other as a pump; they were organization of the paid department, Miles placed horizontally. This engine would de- Greenwood was appointed chief engineer, liver nine thousand gallons of water per and it is to his energy and perseverance that hour to the height of ninety feet. The time we owe the success of the steam fire engine. consumed in getting to work from cold water These steamers were constructed by Messrs. was eighteen minutes. An engine built for A. & B. Latta; the first in service was called the Prussian government in 1832 had two the "Uncle Joe Ross." The circulation in steam cylinders of twelve inches in diameter, the boiler is kept up by. pumping, and thus with fourteen inch stroke, and two pumping steam is generated in a very short space. of cylinders of ten inches diameter. With a time; it is not, however, unattended with steam pressure of seventy pounds per square danger. After the success of Lattas eninch, this engine threw an inch and one gines, several manufacturers went into the quarter stream one hundred and twenty feet business. Reaney & Neafy, of Philadelphia; perpendicular; and an average duty was Lee & Larned, of New York; Silsby & called ninety tons per hour. She consumed Mynderse, of Seneca Falls; the Amoskeag three bushels of coke per hour. Manufacturing Company; the Boston LocoSuch were the first steam fire engines. motive Works, and several others. Reaney & Experiments were frequently tried in the Neafy used what is commonly called the United States, but the whole subject re- locomotive boiler; their engines gave good mained in doubt until the year 1852, when satisfaction, and at a trial in Boston, in 1858, the first public trial was made in Cincinnati. they received the prize over three competiA steam generator, or boiler, which had been tors. Of the Lee & Larned self-propeller made for the purpose,was placed in connection we have already spoken (J. C. Cary and with a steam cylinder and the pump of a fire en- J. G. Storm); they, however, build a light gine belonging to the city, the whole mounted hand engine, and have.heretofore furnished 260 STEAM. all the steamers for New York city. Their for a greater length of time; these machines boiler is of the upright annular form, Cary's are also used as auxiliary pumps for supplypatent, and their pump is rotary, patented by ing water to the boilers of larger engines, the same man. and are generally called " doctors," or The Amoskeag steam fire engine has some " donkeys." Among the best of these peculiar features, among which may be named are Worthington's and Woodward's steam the vertical cylinders and pumps, by the use pumps. The importance of an auxiliary of which they avoid to a certain extent the pump, in all cases, cannot be too much shaking that is so objectionable in some of dwelt upon. If the pump be attached to the other machines; also the arrangement of the main engine, it is evident that on the their gauge cocks so as to cover the whole lack of water-in the boiler, the main engine side of the boiler and show at once the must be started. This is not always possiheight of the water, which is used in this ble. A sudden break down in a mill boiler at a very low point in commencing, would necessitate the uncoupling of the thereby enabling them to get up steam very shafting before the boiler could be fed. The rapidly. At a trial in New York in Septem- lack of water at a station when waiting for ber, 1860, they obtained a working pressure a train, obliges the engineer to run back and from water at 90~ Fahrenheit in three and forth upon the road; and if a boat stops at one-half minutes. These machines have a wharf, or is enveloped in a fog, the power thrown a one and three-quarter inch stream that works the pump ceases with the engine. two hundred and twenty-fivefeethigh. They But how is it when the engine itself breaks weigh about six thousand pounds, and are down, or the locomotive is embedded in a intended to be drawn by horses. The Selsby snow bank, as is sometimes the case? Why, & Mynderse engines are entirely different the engineer must draw his fires to avoid from any other in their construction and ruining his boiler. Bearing these facts in operation; the engine and pump are both mind, the advantages of an extra steam rotary, and are built after Holly's patent; pump are obvious. we have already spoken of this engine under The Worthington pump is exceedingly the head of Stationaries. The weight of simple in its construction; asthe reciprocating these machines is as follows: to be drawn motion in the steam and water cylinder is by men-four thousand five hundred pounds the exact motion required, the cross-head, light; five thousand one hundred pounds with slides, and balance wheel are dispensed with fuel, water, suction hose etc., all ready for ser- as useless. In the Woodward, however, vice; this size is warranted to force a one and the connecting-rod, crank, and wheel are one-eighth inch stream two hundred and twen- retained to give motion to the valve, which ty-five feet, or two, one hundred and eighty in Worthington's pump is moved by an arm feet, with a steam pressure of from forty to attached to the piston rod. Both of these sixty pounds. To be drawn by horses-five pumps are favorites, and it is difficult to thousand six hundred pounds light; six thou- judge which is best. The importance of sand three hundred ready for service; forces these steam pumps as auxiliaries is not, howa one and one half inch stream two hundred ever, their only advantage. On board of and twenty feet, or two one inch streams the our steamboats, such pumps as are provided same distance. These machines will get to in case of fire are often rendered of no avail work in from four to six minutes. The best by the necessity that exists of stopping the work ever done by this style engine was in progress of the boat in order to check the Providence, R. I., where an engine weighing current of air, which otherwise would insix thousand two hundred pounds, threw a crease the flames. And let a fire engine be one and a quarter inch stream two hundred kept on board for the single purpose of exand fifty-five feet horizontal. One great tinguishing fires if they happen-does not advantage of the Holly pump is that it runs our common experience teach us that in so. steadily, no chocking being required to keep imminent a'danger, when all are seeking the engine in place while on duty, as is the personal safety, and unwilling to await the case with all engines having reciprocating issue of a doubtful effort for the general pumps. preservation, such a machine will be found a Other steam fire engines, for the use of very questionable dependence? Will they factories and large buildings, not intended not be difficult of access at the moment, or to be transported, have been in existence out of order, from rust or disuse, when most SILSBY'S FIRE ENGINE, HOLLY'S PATENT PUMP-CHAS. W. COPELAND, AGENT, 122 BROADWAY, 1A. ago~o~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~11iiiiiii1~~~~~~~iil CALORIC ENGINE PROM SE WAUOUs Or 0. V. ZS, N. Y. ~~it~~~~illN y MISCELLANEOUS. 263 needed? And does the confusion, which is all over the country, but none are so well always attendant upon such an occasion, al- known as the ones we have named. On low of reasonable hope that they will be some of the western steamboats they use found and repaired in time to be of use? small engines of the ordinary construction These are questions which can, perhaps, attached to the common force pump, but in be best answered by those who have wit- no case are they so compact, easy of repair, nessed the scene of a steamboat on fire. or durable as the above-named steam pumps. But with the " donkey" engine, the case is quite different; being constantly in use, it is always in order, and in case of fire it can at once be brought to bear upon the flames; it CHAPTER VI. is also always at hand in case of a leak that MI LA S. J1 a,*..11 a,. MISCELLANEOUS. overpowers all other available pumps; and, in fact, its advantages are so great that no boat; IN the former chapters we have set forth locomotive, or stationary engine should ever the various forms in which the adaptation be run without one. For large pumping of steam is most familiar to the community; operations, also, it is believed that the in all of which steam was used as a motor Worthington pump has many advantages. only; and before dismissing this portion of The power is direct, all the motions are the labor of steam, we will allude briefly to rectilinear, the friction is not great, nor is the some other machines, destined, perhaps, to wear excessive. A steam and a pump cylin- effect as great a revolution in other branches der attached to one frame, with two pistons, of industry, as the locomotive and steamtwo valves, and two rods, comprise the whole boat have in transportation, and the stamachine. The economy of the donkey tionary in manufactures. Agriculture-that engines is obvious where steam is only em- wide extended base, upon which we have ployedfor boiling, or for warming buildings, built up this great fabric of commerce, and where the large and costly engines usu- manufacture, and trade-has been the last to ally provided in such cases, are used solely experience a direct benefit from steam. for driving a pump to supply the boiler. The farmer is pre-eminently conservative, to The steam used to drive it, whether of high which the monotonous routine of his business or low pressure, is, of course, just adequate predisposes him; but the course of the giant to the required work of forcing water into worker, steam, is irresistible, aid he, too, at the boiler against the same pressure. last accepts its aid. For some time past the The Worthington pumps are made of a portable engine has been introduced to asgreat variety of sizes, from the miniature sist the farmer in the laborious duties of his ones used as feeders on the Lee & Lar;ecl calling, and soon will the iron horse be fire engines, up to the huge pumping engines chained to the plough, swing the gleaming for water works. The only fault we have scythe, sow, reap, thresh, and winnow, while ever heard found with them is the trouble of the husbandman will guide and direct the starting; this cannot, however, be very great, iron arms which do his bidding uncominasmuch as a pump, to be efficacious as a plainingly. Already has the shriek of our feeder for a fire engine, must be readily new friend been heard'upon the western started or it would be almost valueless. The prairie field, and the smooth-turned furrow Woodward pump has much more brass attested his strength, but as yet he takes used in its construction than any other, and not kindly to his new-found toil, and the is therefore not so liable to rust. The Holly brains of a score of inventors are at work to pump has been constructed as an auxiliary teach him this new duty. "God speed the engine, and, in fact, on some of their larger (steam) plough," say we. machines a small one is used as a feeder; it But this great problem, the education of occupies but very little space, and is well steam to its new duty, presents many diffispoken of by those who have used it. A culties. There are three kinds of enginespumping engine manufactured by Messrs. the locomotive, the portable, and the staCarpenter & Plass, of New York, patented tionary-capable of being employed in steam in 1859, and has the advantage over the cultivation; and there may, consequently, Worthington of starting at once on open- be three kinds of steam cultivators invented, ing the throttle; it being fully as simple. each characterized, in its general features, Other pumps of this class are manufactured by the kind of engine employed; though 264 STEAM. under each class there may be many modi- cess, thus far, has been but small. In the fications of parts, rendering the members of third plan, or that of the warping engine, the same class as widely different as those the inventor asserts that he requires an enof different classes. These varieties would gine of less than one-half the weight, power, be determined by the structure, form, or or cost of any locomotive; that he avoids size of the engine itself; by the mode of all indirect strain upon his cable, by getting conveying the power to the tools or imple- the engine to warp itself from one side of ments with which it works; and by the na- the field to the other, by means of a single ture of the tools or implements it. uses. rope passing a couple of times round a First, then, the locomotive steam plough; this drum; that the anchor at either side can be may be employed to draw a gang of ploughs removed and passed forward six or eight after it, or by a series of knives, cutters, or feet, by one man, while the engine is travsome form of cultivator, turn up the ground elling across the field; that, when using as it passes. The moving of this great mass, rotary cultivators, he has but little strain however, consumes much of the power, and upon his cable; and, lastly, that when he is the difficulty presented by steep grades is drawing ploughs, etc., he has the whole tracvery great. The mere sinking of the wheels tion power of his cable to prevent his being may be obviated, as it is in the Fawkes brought to a stand by his wheels slipping. engine, by broad wheels, but even these The stationary engine has been used to sometimes slip. In Boydell's engines the some extent, but we do not think it has machine lays and takes up alternately a suc- sufficient merit ever to come into practical cession of rails, upon which to roll. Iacket use. proposed to lay a temporary rail, but found As a motor for a dredging machine for it very expensive. The use of legs, or deepening our rivers and harbors, steam has pushers, has also been tried in England, but been in use since the time of Oliver Evans; was not successful. and as an excavator it has long ago disThe portable engine has been used in tanccd human opposition, The millions of several ways. As a cultivator it was mount- dollars that are annually expended in excaed upon a wagon drawn by horses. As a vating earth, have attracted the attention of plough it has been placed by the side of the inventors to devise modes of aiding the field, working a gang of ploughs by chains operation by machinery, and large and and cables; and after finishing one field, costly machines have been made for this pureasily transported to another; this was called pose in certain situations, especially in deep in England the Wolston system, but is at cuts of soft sand, which work well, and perbest very slow. The portable engine has form the labor of many men. Among many also been used with anchors, and to warp, others, Messrs. Goodale & Marsh patented or draw itself along by stretched ropes. last year a machine that not only acts as an Each of the above methods of employing excavator, but transports the earth to the steam has its peculiar difficulties and de- desired place of deposit, it being intended fects. In the first one, two horses would be to work in ground free from large stones, or required to draw an engine of the lightest nearly so, and where the hills are not too construction over safe ground, and up and steep for the ascent and descent of a locodown hill; and the advantage of the ma- motive running on broad wheels on the chine over animal power alone, would be ground. This machine will prove particuonly the difference between its work and larly useful in the west. what the team would do without it. The Steam has always benefited the farmer inventor, however, calculates that with an by bringing him nearer to a market, and inengine of two horse power, and of suitable asmuch as it reduces the expense thereof, construction, working a revolving axle, carry- it necessarily adds to his profit. The handing tires armed with a kind of short spade ling of the large amount of grain that antoward their points, he can do the work of nually passes through the large warehouses twelve horses, giving the work of ten horses of our western cities, is of itself no small and their attendants for the cost of feed and item, and here, too, steam lends its assistance, repairs, pay of attendants, interest of capital, being adapted to the large steam elevators etc. In the Wolston method the mode of of Chicago. It has benefited the blacktransferring the power is indirect, the ap- smith indirectly by blowing his furnaces paratus is complex and clumsy, and its suc- and driving the trip hammers, and directly MISCELLANEOUS. 265 within the past ten years in the immense with great success. One of Morrison's steam steam hammers, where it is so much under cranes was recently loaded with forty-five control as to give a blow of several tons cwt., the steam cut off from the boiler, and weight, or crack a walnut in the attendant's the load left to hang from the crane by the fingers without harming him. For this ad- power of the steam already in the crane vantage we were at first indebted to Eng- cylinder. After hanging for half an hour, land; but we are improving upon the model, the weight had descended only four inches. and steam hammers will soon come into Many other applications of steam as a motor general use, of American manufacture alone. might be enumerated if space would allow, An enormous steam hammer on Naylor's but we must now turn to the multifarious principle was selt, in 1860,to Australia. The duties of steam in the useful arts. One of hammer is not only lifted by the pressure of the most important of its applications is its steam from below, but the gravity of the use as a vehicle for transferring and uniformfalling hammer is assisted by the pressure ly distributing heat. Its large capacity for of steam from above. Th'e work is finished caloric gives it great efficiency for this at one heat, saving both the fuel and time purpose, as it holds and will communicate as, of second heats, also consequent deteriora- much heat as a mass of red-hot iron, and tion and waste of iron. The effect of the will transmit this heat to a great distance, blow of this hammer will be equal to the which iron will not do, for the heat will remomentum acquired by sixteen tons making main latent until the steam reaches its destiforty blows per minute. The hammer can nation and becomes condensed. In order to be made to work double or single, acting apply steam to the warming of buildings, it instantaneously; and by the adjusting valve is only necessary to use a close boiler, from gearing, the length of stroke and force of the top of which a steam pipe can be carried blow can be changed instantly. In all to the top of the building; the boiler being gravity hammers the effect of the blow is placed as low as possible. This steam pipe dependent on the weight of the hammer, is at the top connected with a series of larger multiplied by the height of its fall, and con- ones, placed with a slight inclination near the sequently, the greater the distance it falls, floor of each room, connected each with the the greater the force of the blow, and the one above it, at its highest end; thus giving slower is the speed of working. In the facility to the descent of the condensed water, double-action hammer, thrice the force of which is so directed as to re-enter the boiler blow can be given at double the speed. The near the bottom. By such an arrangement, principal dimensions and weights are: timber properly constructed, the entire caloric profoundation, twenty-six feet by twenty-four duced by the furnace will be distributed over feet six inches, depth, thirteen feet; cast the building. The small, or steam pipe iron anvil block, base eleven feet six inches should be made quite strong, and should by nine feet six inches, thirty tons weight; have at least an area of one square inch for base plate to receive standards, nineteen feet every six gallons of water evaporated per six inches by fifteen feet six inches, fourteen hour in the boiler. It will require occatons weight; standards, ten feet six inches sionally an addition of water to supply acciapart, weight fifteen tons; height from dental waste, and a ball-cock connected to ground to top of steam cylinder, twenty-one the feed pipe would be useful; but by all feet six inches; weight of all, about seventy- means have a safety-valve upon the boiler. five tons. Steam to work this hammer is The extent to which buildings are now generated from the furnace in which the heated by steam in this country is very work to be operated upon is heated, the great, and since the introduction of Gold's boiler forming the chimney, and the heat apparatus, Brown's, Baker, Smith & Co.'s, passing up four flues in the same, thus and other steam heaters have been economizing fuel and avoiding the expense added with great advantage to private dwellof a brick chimney. The boiler is six feet ings. They are certainly much more healthy six inches in diameter, and thirty feet long; than hot air, and, properly arranged and weight, fifteen tons..The weight of the managed, need not be more expensive. The whole apparatus, including boiler and mount- pressure is merely nominal, and therefore not ings, is about one hundred tons. This ap- a source of danger; the only disadvantage, paratus was constructed in England. that of leakage, is no greater than in the use Steam has also been applied to cranes of gas pipes. For large factories, steam as a 2688, STEAM. heater is invaluable; and for warming hot- comes off dry and ready for cutting; this houses, nothing can supply its place. It operation is singularly interesting. gives an equal heat, and is devoid of that Cooking by steam was the invention of dryness so injurious to plants. To warm a Denis Papin, of France, as long ago as 1680; greenhouse by steam, there is required the the most important of whose experiments boiler of a steam engine, reckoned at one were the extraction of gelatine from bones, horse power for every thousand feet of glass. and the manufacture of essence of meat, It is advisable, when heating a hothouse by soups, etc., suitable for long sea voyages. steam, to surround the pipes with stones; From a work published by him in 1681, we these stones absorb the heat, and if from extract the following: "I took," says he, carelessness or inattention the steam goes "beef bones that had never been boiled, but down, they will continue to radiate heat for kept dry a long time, and of the hardest some time, thus preventing the sudden cool- part of the leg; these being put into a little ing of the place. glass pot with water, I included in the enIt is sometimes necessary to boil liquids gine, together with another little glass pot in vessels of wood, as in brewing, etc., and to full with bones and water too, but in this use heat in evaporating thickened liquids, the bones were ribs, and had been boiled strong solutions, etc., where the direct appli- already. Having pressed the fire till the drop cation of fire would be destructive; there, of water would dry away in three seconds, also, we see the utility of steam. The com- and had ten pressures, I took off the fire, and mon manner of making glue is an instance the vessels being cooled, I found very good of this; elevate the bottom of the glue-pot jelly in both my pots; but that which had and cover the receptacle for boiling water, been made out of ribs had a kind of a redand you have at once a steam oven. This dish color, which I believe might proceed plan has been extensively used in making from the medullary part; the other jelly was salt. Or, introduce a pipe in the form of without color, like hartshorn jelly; and I the worm of a still into the vat containing may say, that having seasoned it with sugar the solution, and allow the steam to pass and juice of lemon, I did eat it with as through the pipe. The steam pipe can then much pleasure, and found it as stomachibe of iron, copper, lead, or tin, as the nature cal, as if it had been jelly of hartshorn." of the solution may require; copper is in Mutton bones are better than beef bones; all cases the best where it can be used. and he infers, first, that one pound of beef Another process of a similar nature was in- bonesaffords about two pounds of jelly; secvented by Mr. Goodlet, of Leith; it consists ond, that it is the cement (gelatine) that of pumping the solution through a spiral unites the parts of the bones, which is dispipe passing through the boiler, thus bringing solved in the water to make it a jelly, since the solution to the steam, instead of the after that, the bones remain brittle; third, steam to the solution. Steam kilns for dry- that few glutinous parts are sufficient to coning grain have also been used upon the same geal much water, "for I found that when principle. Dry houses, for lumber to be used the jelly was dried, I had very little glue (gluin the pattern room, are added to our ma- ten?) remaining; fourth, I used it to glue a chine shops. The process of drying printed. broken glass, which did since that time hold cloths and fabrics of various kinds, also the very well, and even be washed as well as if warp after it is sized, is in use in all our it had never been broken; fifth, it is heavier principal manufactories, and adds materially than water, and sinks to the bottom; sixth, to the economy and expedition of their pro- hartshorn produces five times its weight of duction. The process of drying cloths illus- jelly. trates this. Steam is conducted through the "From all these experiments, I think it axis of a cylinder, which is revolved by very likely that if people would be pers.uitable machinery; the cloth is then made to suaded to lay by bones, gristles, tendons, pass over it in contact with its periphery; if feet, and other parts of animals that are solid necessary, several cylinders are placed in a enough to be kept without salt, whereof line, and the cloth passes over the first, under people throw away more than would be necthe second, and so on. Paper is thus dried: essary to supply all the ships that England the wet pulp laid out on the web of wire has at sea, the ships might always be furcloth is gradually strained as it approaches nished with better and cheaper victuals than the cylinders, around which it winds, until it they use to have. And I may say that such MISCELLANEOUS. 267 victuals would take up less room, too, be- quire almost as much fire as those of old cause they have a great deal more nourish- ones to be boiled; that rabbit bones are ment in them in proportion to their weight. harder than those of mutton; that tough They would also be more wholesome than old rabbits may be made as good as tender salt meat. Vegetables, such as dried peas, young ones by this means; that pigeons may may also be cooked by the steam of salt be best boiled with a heat that evaporates a water without becoming salt." drop of water in five seconds; that mackerel We have already mentioned that Denis was cooked with gooseberries, in a digester, Papin invented the safety-valve; it was in the fish being good and firm, and the bones the construction of this digester that he so soft as not to be felt in eating. I parused it; he thus speaks of it: "To know ticularly recommend as an excellent dish the quantity of the inward pressure, you cooked in this manner, cod fish and green must have a little pipe open at both ends, peas." this being soldered to a hole in the cover, Another application of steam that has is to be stopped at the top with a little valve, proved very valuable on ship-board, is its exactly ground to it. This must be kept condensation after having been evaporated down with an iron rod, one end of which from salt water, to supply the wants of pasmust be put into an iron staple, fastened to sengers and crews when from accident or an the bar, and the other end kept down by a unusually long voyage the regular stores are weight, to be hung upon it nearer or further exhausted. The reader is probably aware from the valve, according as you would that when salt water is evaporated, the steam keep it less or more strong, after the man- therefrom is as pure as if taken from fresh, ner of an ordinary Roman balance or steel- and would be as healthful and palatable as. yard." any other were it not from the fact that it Papin's method of determining the tem- does not contain the usual quantity of atperature is somewhat curious: "To know mospheric air which has been expelled by the degree of heat, I hang a weight to a heat. If, however, it is allowed to fall in thread about three feet long, and I let fall a the form of rain, or is poured from one vessel drop of water into a little cavity made for to another, it very soon absorbs a sufficient that purpose at the top of it, and I tell how quantity and becomes as good as rain water, many times the hanging weight will move which, in fact, it is. to and fro before the drop of water is quite The application of steam to soften wood, evaporated!", As nearly all that we at pres- so as to admit of its being bent into various ent know about cooking, and extracting shapes, is old; but by compressing the wood jellies by steam, is derived from the experi- while being bent, so as to prevent the loosenments of Denis Papin, we will close this ing of its fibre, great improvement has been portion of the subject by adding his descrip- made, and in the manufacture of furniture tion of one of them: " Having filled my this has been of great service. There is also pot with a piece of a breast of mutton, and a Ship Timber Bending Company in Brookweighed five ounces of coals, I lighted my lyn, L. I., who are doing a large business in fire, and by blowing gave such a heat that that line; the timber thus bent being quite a drop of water would evaporate in four sec- as good as if of natural growth. ends, the inward pressure being about ten Steam bakeries, as they are called, show no times stronger than the atmosphere. I let new application thereof, as they simply consist the fire go out of itself, and the mutton was of dough-raising and other machines driven very well done, the bones soft, and the juice by a stationary engine; we mention them a strong jelly. So that, having had occasion simply to show how extensive are the uses to boil mutton several times since, I have of steam. always observed the same rule, and never Steam has been used within a few years have missed to have it in the same condi- past in the preparation of paper pulp or fibre tion, which I take to be the best of all. from the cane or brake of North Carolina. " Beef required seven ounces of coal and The canes, softened by exposure to steam the same heat, and the beef was very well for some hours, were discharged from the boiled, although there were more parts of steam cylinder with great force (by means the bones not quite softened. Lamb, rab- of the steam) against a granite wall, and bits, and pigeons, mackerel, pike, and eel, were thoroughly disintegrated and formed a were subjected to the same process; whence pulpy and fibrous mass. I infer that the bones of young beasts re 268 STEAM. CHAPTER YII. and if there still are accidents from boiler explosions, it is your fault that they have CONCLUSION. not long since ceased. Pass a law in each To understand fully our indebtedness to state providing for the inspection of all the inventors and improvers of the steam en- steam boilers, and the examination of all gine, we must compare the past with the engineers, and impose a heavy fine on all present. We must remember the North who hire an engineer who has no certificate. River sloops, the slow ocean packet ships, the Do not make this a political movement,! lumbering coach; then the canal boat, the but see that the board of inspectors is comhorse boat, the horse railroad; followed, but posed of experienced engineers, men who not yet entirely superseded, by the steam- can themselves pass an examination of the boats of Fitch, Fulton, Stevens, and a hun- most strict nature; and bear in mind also that dred others-each an improvement on the steam requires close attention, and that there last-until months are crowded into weeks is not one man in a hundred that can have and weeks into days. If it is true, as some the care of it, and at the same time have his have said, that the duration of human life is mind distracted by other duties, without less in each succeeding generation, it is in- endangering the whole neighborhood. Powcontestable, on the other hand, that the der mills are always located apart from other amount possible to be accomplished by each buildings, for a careless act would scatter man in the same ainount of time is increased destruction around; well, some of the boilers many-fold. We have shown what has been in New York at this present moment are done by steam; but are we nowto stop and fold worse than powder magazines, and yet they our hands at the request of the few old fogies are located in the most densely populated who have been hurried along against their parts of the city, and beneath sidewalks trod will, and now wish to sit down and take hourly by thousands. The engineer (?) saws breath when the great work has but just wood, grooms horses, or works at the bench, commenced? No! American genius is the while his pump clogs, and the water gets engineer of this locomotive, "Progress;" his low in the boiler; or, interested in other hand is on the throttle-lever, which he opens work, he forgets to put the pump on, and wider each day. Conservatism may act as soon after-longer, perhaps, than he is aware brakeman, but has no power to stop the train -he lets in the water, and wakes to find himunless the engineer aid him. His bright, self in a neighboring yard, or never wakes to clear eye looks out upon the straight track- see the effect of his employer's false economy. for the path of progress is only warped by Under such management, who can wonder at foolish.or selfish men-and conservatism may the accidents we read of weekly; or, rather, brake up and retard, but not stop the train. what man conversant with the laws of steam It will, it is true, take more steam to draw the does not wonder that there are no more load, while old fogies thus act as a drag, and " terrible calamities" to be recorded? they may rest assured that their action only It is comparatively easy to understand the renders the course of progress more danger- great advantages that have accrued to navigaous, but will never stop it. tion and land transportation from the use Lay down this vain opposition, then, and of steam, for its effects are constantly before add your voice and your purse to aid the our eyes; but improvements from the use advance of steam; send your horses into the.of steam in stationary engines are less apcountry, or retain them only for pleasure parent, although full as great. Even in the rides of invalids; pave your streets with iron, immense manufactories of Manchester and and harness steam to your drays and cars. Lowell, where the water power seems almost We may not live to see it, but it is our firm unlimited, we find the steam engine at work; belief that the time will come when the and all the water power of the United States foolish excuse that steam will frighten horses combined would not be sufficient to carry in our cities will be no longer urged, for out one branch of manufacture in all its dethere will be no horses to frighten. You tails. If we now compete with foreigners in say that we are enthusiastic; so was John the manufacture of cotton goods, in spite of Fitch; does it then follow that he was wrong? the low price of labor abroad, it is not only You try to urge that there is more danger owing to our great improvements in cotton in steam than by the old mode of travelling, machinery, but also to the competition of but this has long ago been proved false; our steam mills. And the steam press! Tiny CONCLUSION. 269 jets of steam puff forth from the offices of average of duty performed by our best staour smallest job printers, and ponderous en- tionary condensing engines is one horse gines work the six, eight, and ten cylinder power to four pounds of good coal consumed, presses of our large dailies. Ask the pro- while in marine engines it requires the conprietors of those papers what they could sumption of four and a half pounds to the now do without steam? The New York horse power; and yet engines are running Herald has two engines to do the press- that consume but two pounds to the same work; one built by Hoe is a beam engine of work. With these facts before their eyes, men twenty-five horse power, the other is an continue to purchase the former, instead of upright engine of fifteen horse power, looking for an improvement upon the latter; making in all forty horse. With these two for even these results can be improved upon, engines they consume about one ton of coal as in our best boilers there is much of the per day, and throq off an average of 75,000 combustible gases wasted, and much of the impressions. The office is, however, capable water evaporated into steam is condensed of doing much more than this, its utmost before it reaches the cylinder; any percepticapacity being 48,000 impressions per hour. ble heat from the engine while working is, of The engine rooms are very well fitted, and course, so much loss of fuel. Bearing this in have two of Woodworth's donkey pumps; mind, enter an engine or fire room, and you the one to supply the boilers with water, will realize the loss from that source alone. and the other, to be used in case of fire, is The first difficulty is being fast overcome connected with hose in every room of the by admitting atmospheric air above the fire, building. which unites with the gases as they rise, and The first steam mill that was erected in furnishes the oxygen necessary for their comEnglandwas mobbed by the populace. They bustion; it is now necessary to get rid of feared this giant competitor; they were afraid the heavy, incombustible gases, and this will it would take food from their mouths; and soon be done. The radiation of heat can we are sorry. to say that this old feeling of be prevented almost entirely by inclosing the the laboring classes is not yet entirely erad- boiler, cylinders, steam-pipes, etc., in some icated; educated Americans, who should non-conducting substance; this is technically know better, can yet be found to condemn called "jacketing." Other improvements in machine labor. Last year Broadway was the steam engine are being made every day, swept by a machine that would in time and we believe that the consumption of only have been replaced by steam, but New York one pound of coal to the hors epower will has taken a retrograde step, and politics have soon be accomplished. so strong a hold upon her citizens that prog- In view of all the facts that have been ress must bide her time. Has the intro- adduced to prove that the steam engine duction of machinery hurt the laboring is the best of all motors, can it be posclasses? That is the question! Are our sible that there are still those who are laboring men worse off than before the in- sceptical on the subject of its utility? troduction of steam? Look at the facts and Alas, yes! You will find them among the answer is plain. A few coachmen were those who object to the use of steam in our thrown out of employment to make room for streets to replace the horse cars; men who hundreds of employees upon the railroad, to believe that new inventions must necessarily say nothing of the thousands benefited by be humbugs, because in a few instances they their construction, and that of the cars, loco- have failed, and who cannot see that the motives, station-houses, etc. A handful of greater number have added to their wealth, weavers and spinners have been temporarily their comfort, and their pleasure. The greater removed, to be reinstated, with thousands of number, say we? We might have said all; their fellow men and women, at full as good for if the first invention fail, it paves the way pay as before. Head has aided hands every- for another and better, and many of the failwhere, and those who have kept up with the ures of inventors stand as sign-boards to age of improvements have been, as they show the false paths. You will find these should be, the ones to profit by its advan- incredulous men in the same position to-day tages. But great as have been the improve- as were the throng of spectators who stood ments in our stationary engines, there is in Brown's ship-yard when the North Rivstill much to do; we are not, in fact, living up er was fired up for the first time, loudly to what we already know. The ordinary calling it "Fulton's folly." Its great success 2 too i~JSTEAM. soon quieted them for the time, but it was they must be used with great caution, for if for a time only. A succession of surprises out of order they would be a source of posfrom that day to this should, it would be itive danger by the fancied security of the thought, have forever quieted them, but they runner. After all, the only safeguard is a "still live," and will only accept progress as boiler in good order, and a competent engia fact after repeated successes make it impos- neer to take care of it; be sure on these two sible to doubt; meeting each new plan with points, and nothing is better than steam to the same incredulity. do your work. Those owning small engines In speaking of the accessories of the object to paying the price of such men. Is steam engine, there is one point we omitted: it not better to pay more per day for absomany boilers are unprovided with steam lute safety than to risk an explosion that will gauges. In a conversation with a proprietor destroy all your property, and possibly your of a steam engine some time since, we asked life and the lives of your workmen? If your him why he did not have a gauge upon his work is not sufficiently profitable to pay a boiler. "Oh!" said he, "that is all nonsense; competent man, sell your engine and run my safety-valve is weighted at one hundred, your mill by horse power; better have a mule and my boiler would easily carry twice that to turn the driving wheel than run the ensteam. I have been without one for three gine. But it will afford it; nay, in nine cases years, and don't need it." We asked him if out of ten a good man will save more than his engine was always competent to do his his salary amounts to in fuel and repairs work, and if the latter was always constant. alone. "Yes," he replied, "the engine will always do And now a word to engineers. You who the work, but it is just all it will do. As for are upon our steamships and locomotives the work being constant, it is far from that; think that such a law would be of no benesome days we do not run but half of our fit to you; but you are very much mistaken; machines, and then the safety-valve tells its own once passed, it would give employment to story by'blowing off."' "Yes," we replied, hundreds that are now competing with you " and it tells another story, which is' loss of for a position that is only sought because it fuel.' Had you a steam gauge, the engineer offers better wages than stationaries can would know how to fire, and in less than three under the present system; under the same months you would be able to pay for a gauge pay, men would prefer to run land engines, out of your savings." "Pooh! nonsense," he and be near home. Therefore, it is a duty replied. Insisting upon the truth of what we you owe yourselves to insist, wherever you said, we prevailed upon him to try it for a exercise the rights of suffrage, that your repmonth with, and without a gauge, and so resentative shall advocate such a law; make well satisfied was he with the result that he it the sine qua non of your vote. And you, now says a gauge is worth two hundred dol- engineers in name only, if you wish to retain lars per year to him. This may have been your present positions, study your duty; learn an extreme case, for the engineer always knew why you do what you now mechanically perwhen he came in the morning what machines form; find out what pressure you are carrywere to be run, and he soon had an exact ing, for yourselves, and do not trust to the knowledge of the amount of steam required marks on your safety-valves; read works on to drive them, and, therefore, regulated his steam, and satisfy yourselves if they are true fires by the gauge. Gauges will get out of by, as far as in your power lies, testing them, order, we know, but they must be tested at for all that is printed is not necessarily true, least every three months by some standard, as you will very soon discover. Above all and repaired if wrong. Who wonders if so things, be one to form an engineers' society, delicate an instrument should get out of or- and discuss with men of experience the der under one hundred pounds pressure for knotty points which will rise in your mind two or three years? and yet we can point to when you once begin the study of this poa gauge in use in this city that has not tent vapor. been tested for four. It is unnecessary We cannot finish this article without reto add, the proprietor " don't believe in ferring briefly to another motor, which has gauges;" he probably expected it to last a for the last four or five years attracted some life-time. attention: we allude to the caloric engine. With regard to low water detectors, that Mr. Ericsson, of whom we have already spowhistle when the water is dangerously low, -ken, is the inventor of this machine. The CONCLUSION. 2'1 power made use of is the expansive force of throughout the country. In New York heated air. For small engines this motor has there are engines or boilers in every street; been used with success, but in all Mr. Erics- at our hotels and public buildings, in our'son's experiments on a large scale it has printing offices, carpenter shops, as well as failed. As there is no danger of explosion in all the larger manufactories and machine from the lack of water, the caloric engine shops, engines of from two to five hundred has been of value on the southern planta- horse power are daily running. Machinery tions, as any one can runit, it being only nec- of all kinds is driven by steam, from the essary to make a fire, and see that the ma- large lathes and planers of our machine shops chine is oiled and kept in repair. We do not to the sewing machines of the clothiers;'believe, however, that it will ever supersede manufacturing crinoline in one place, and steam as a motor, even for small engines. forging huge masses of iron in another, the Since Mr. Ericsson's invention, others have busyhum of steam-driven machinery resounds followed with various improvements, and on every side. Stand and look at the tenmuch ingenuity has been displayed upon the cylinder press, and think of Franklin worksubject; we hear occasionally of some great ing at his old wooden one. Compare the success of a caloric engine, but it never re- speed of the former with the country press suits in any thing permanent. The details of of only a few years back, if you would realize the caloric are different from thoseof the this great improvement. Has this hurt the steam engine, and the heavy boiler is done printers as a class? Figure up the gross away with, but they are not as cheap if the amount now paid to compositors, and comcost of the boiler be excepted, and are much pare it with the amount paid fifty years ago more liable to get out of repair; still, if prop- before you answer. Philadelphia is known erly taken care of they are useful, as we said as a manufacturing city, and one which is before, in situations where but little power is probably destined to be the greatest in this required, and water scarce. Mr. Holly, so country. To what does she owe her proswell known as " Tubal Cain" of the New perity? To the stationary engine, for she York Times, says, in speaking of the caloric has no water power. We have already said, engine: "We only wish it was a better and we repeat, that imperfect though the rival of steam in every particular, that it steam engine may still be, it is by no means might compel the makers and users of boil- certain that water power is cheaper, and ers to employ better materials, better forms, there is one disadvantage in the latter that and greater care in the management of the is often overlooked, it is that of monopoly. subtle motor-steam. And as its mechanism The rich company who own the water improves, as we believe it will, to some ex- power let it out at their own price, for there tent, year after year, it will better serve the is no competition; but with the steam enpublic by compelling us to improve the gine it is very different; if the price asked smaller varieties of the steam engine, which, for power by your neighbor be too great, we believe, can also be made perfectly safe. you can readily purchase an engine of just The hot-air engine requires no constant or the power you require, and run it inprofessional attendance, and for this reason dependently. But the greatest advantage is a valuable motor in cases where an occa- of the stationary engine is that it can be sional or auxiliary power is required. And used by the manufacturer at the door for small purposes, the saving of engineer's of the consumer, and the goods produced pay more than balances the increased cost will be thus under his direct inspection. of fuel and repairs." Steam enters into the manufacture of every Undoubtedly small steam engines and thing around us. The paper we write upon boilers can be made perfectly safe; in fact, was dried by steam, our tin paper-cutter they should be the safest, and will be so, was rolled by steam, the chair we sit upon when the public will not look to the mere was turned and bent, the carpet was perhaps first cost alone, but will only buy engines of wove or at least dyed, and the wood work the best builders, and pay a fair price there- of the very room we are in, were all done by for; another result that we hope to see brought steam. Steam can warm our dwellings, and about by an inspection law. Nor is this by prepare our food. It tunnels mountains, any means a small matter, for the unthinking and makes pins, cards, spins and weaves, man would be astonished at the amount of coins our money, braids, twists, sews, small stationaries that are now running washes, irons, and, in fact, enters into every 272 STEAM. branch of industry. It has added more ured in a large tank prepared expressly for than any thing else to the wealth, power, that purpose. Every valve upon the two and prosperity of our country. Think of engines of the Michigan was carefully tested this the next time you are asked to aid in and proved tight, as were also the pistons, any steam project, and as Americans have stuffing boxes, throttles, etc. The steam heretofore been among the first to perfect gauges consisted of two spring and two the steam engine, may they ever be the ones syphons, and were in good order. Indito educate it to new branches of labor. Be cators were placed upon each end of both not satisfied with past improvement, but engines. Thermometers were placed in the look forward to changes as great for the hot well, the feed-water tank, the engine next twenty-five years, as there have been room, upon the deck of the steamer, and in in the last half century. the water over the side. Diagramswere taken from each end of the cylinders alternately every half hour, and the average height of the barometers and all the above-named instruments was duly noted every hour by the APPENDIX. oofficer on duty. A large number of experEXPERIMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES iments were tried, each of which occupied GOVERNMENT. seventy-two hours. The fires were started and steam raised to a certain point (20 lbs. IN our introductory chapter we spoke of per square inch) before the experiment was the use of steam expansively. Soon after commenced; and at its expiration the fires the article was written, results were obtain- and pressure were brought to as nearly a ed by a series of experiments under the similar condition as possible. In fact every auspices of the United States government, care that experience and scientific ability that tend to the material alteration of en- could suggest was used, and we believe that gineering practice. As we had yet time, any one who will examine the tables prebefore this work went to press, we thought pared by this board, will acknowledge that that some of the results, together with their the nicest possible accuracy marked their bearing upon steam machinery, would prove entire labor. The experiments lasted about acceptable. three months; one cylinder was tried at alChief Engineer B. F. Isherwood, while try- most every point of cut-off with the initial ing some experiments in superheating steam, boiler pressure at 20 lbs.; and also with the found that the results obtained by the use initial cylinder pressure at the same point. of steam expansively were by no means The deductions by the committee were, even an approximation to those theoreti- that at seven tenths of the stroke they obcally claimed, and that a sufficient allowance tained the maximum results; that cutting off was never made ii calculating the increased steam at any shorter point than this is a loss from condensation. His experiments loss, as proved both by the water and coal attracted considerable attention from engi- consumed; that the loss by condensation neers and steam-engine builders, and a peti- in the cylinder, and increased friction and tion, signed by some of the most prominent back pressure, is generally greatly underof them, was sent to the Hon. Isaac Toucey, rated; and that the use of a cut-off is no adthe Secretary of the Navy, early in the fall vantage over the common throttle valve in of 1860. In reply to this memorial an ex- the majority of cases, and never sufficiently perimental board was appointed, consisting so to pay for its increased expense and the of Chief Engineers Isherwood, Long, Zeller, trouble attendant upon its use. These are and Stimers; and the United States steamer a few of the most prominent of their deducMichigan, then lying in her winter quarters tions. They are contrary to the received at Erie, Pa., was placed at their disposal. opinions of most of the engineers from the She was made fast to the wharf, and so time of James Watt to the present day, and loaded as always to remain with a fixed from this fact are decidedly unpopular. We draught of water, the coal burned being therefore do not expect in an article so genkept upon the wharf and brought on board eral in its nature as this to convince the seepas fast as used. Each bushel of coal was tical reader, but merely to state a fact that weighed, together with the ashes, clinkers, time will prove to the world. The followetc. The feed water was accurately meas- ing table is a digest of the first experiments, APPENDIX, 2 73 but in order to get the entire data of the vent, will probably appear before the end of series, we shall be obliged to wait for the the present year; and to that we refer those printed report of the board, which, if the sufficiently interested in the subject to wish present troubles at Washington do not pre- to look further. ONE ENGINE-BOTH BOILERS. a —---— Point of cutting off from commencement of stroke — One third. 13-14th stroke. Two thirds. One sixth. Date of commencing............................... 9P.M., Dec. 5. 3P.M., Dec. 10. P.M. Dec. 13. 10 P.. Dec. 16, Duration of experiment............................... 72 hours. 72 hours. 72 hours. 80 hours. Pressure of steam in boilers in lbs., per square inch....... 20 20 20 20 Inches of vacuum in condenser......................... 25.5 25.9 25.9 26 Lbs. per square inch of vacuum in cylinder............... 11.5 11.5 11.15 11.7 Mean effective pressure on piston, in lbs. per square inch... 20.5 30.2 28 4 132 Revolutions per minute.............................. 11 13.6 14.3 9. Indicated horse power................................. 111 201 200 58.7 Lbs. of feed water per hour per horse power............... 4.2.7 37.9 54.25 Lbs. of coal per hour per horse power.................... 5.85 5.46 4.89 6.64 Cost of power by these experiments, full stroke being unity. 1.07 1.00 0.89 1.27 Cost of power as usually calculated, full stroke being unity. 0.50 1.00 0.79 0.37 What interests the ordinary reader is this: without alluding to the course of Mr. Toucey, accepting that the deductions are true, and in this mater. The experiments were so exthat it is more economical to use steam at pensive that without government assistance nearly full stroke than by cutting it off early they would probably have never been accuin the cylinder, the following advantages rately tried, and the manner in which they will accrue-first, we shall build our cylin- were conducted will reflect as much credit ders smaller, costing less to construct and oc- upon the American government as was ever cupying less room, both of great importance conceded to the French Academy for their to the marine engine-second, the other celebrated experiments upon temperature parts of the engine having a regular strain, and pressure. May the successors of Mr. instead of alternately crowding and being Toucey ever show as much public spirit as he moved by the balance wheel, will bear to be has done in this respect, and devote some much lighter. And, lastly, we are forever rid of the public money to the advancement of of expensive and complicated cut-off gear. steam engineering that has done so much We cannot close this part of our theme for our prosperity. 17 COTTON MANUFACTURES, CHAPTER I. seen in the table. This production employs -ORIGIN-RHAND WORK-INVENTIONS. a vast capital in the transportation, manuO0RIGI-AN-DO IETO tfactule, and sale of the fabric. More people THE use of cotton as a material for human were, at this time, dependent upon the manclothing has been known since remote ages, ufacture for support, than there were- in not only in Asia, but among the ancient in- the United States at the formation of the habitants of America. The kind of cotton government. In the United States, in 1860, used in the United States is a native of 978,043 bales were manufactured, or equal Mexico, and it was the principal material to 1,470,000,000 yards of cloth, or forty for clothing in use with the Mexicans at yards to every person in the Union. The the time of the discovery of this country. value of this was about $140,000,000. This They had neither hemp,wool,nor silk, butthey was the grand result of seventy years prowove the cotton into large webs, as delicate gress from very small beginnings, and this and as fine asthose of Iolland. These they or- marvelous growth resulted from the extranamented with feathers and fur, wrought into ordinary inventions which did not cease to the fabric in the form of animals and flowers. succeed each other, and of which we shall Cortes sent a number of these magnificent give a brief sketch. robes to Charles V. The art was apparently The manufacture of cotton by hand origlost in the strife that followed, but the inated in India at a time too remote for material transplanted to the United States record, and it has there existed down to the about the time of the organization of the present time in a rude state as far as manew government, has become a bond which' chines are concerned, yet of an unapproachholds modern Europe in dependence on able and almost incredible perfection of American industry; a dependence which hand production. Ancient writers speak of they would gladly shake off if they could, the "fairy-like" texture. Tavernier, two but which only becomes more hopeless in hundred years since, describes a calico that their efforts to do so. The cotton culture you "can hardly feel in your hand, and the has produced a web which holds the lion thread is scarcely discernible." The Rev. in its toils, and his efforts to free himself, William Ward states that muslins are made gigantic as they may be, only make his im- so fine that four months are required to make potence more apparent. one piece, which is then worth 500 rupees The growing and manufacturing of cotton ($250). "When this is laid on the grass, by machine took date from the organization and the dew is on it, it cannot be seen." of the United States government, and its These are marvellous productions, doubtless, progress to 1860 was Yds. but they are possible only as a result of the United States Ctton of Total i er organization of the people. They possess United States Cotton of Total Liver- Yards crop. other sources. supply. pool. cloth. an exquisite sense of touch, and that gentlelbs. lbs. lbs. cts. ness and patience which characterize only 1800, 9,582,263 45,671,170 54,20.43 48 162,610,299 ness and patience which characterize o 1859, 2,162,000,000 199,446,616 2,361,444,616 6 7,064,883,646 an effeminate race. Even with them a long The cotton from other sources was that im- training is required in each district to perported into Great Britain from other places feet the cloth peculiar to it. This is a kind than the United States. The increase of of industry that does not minister to the supply was neanly all from the United States. wants of a vigorous people in other climes. The usual weight of cloth being three yards From India the manufacture spread to China, to the pound, the quantity of cotton spun in the eleventh century, and found its way would give in cloth the large number of yards to Europe with the Mahometan conquests. ORIGIN —HAND WORK-INVENTIONS. 275 It was for a long time supposed and as- this manner all the cotton yarn used was serted by many philosophers that the Egyp- made, in cottages and private houses, mostly tians made cloth of cotton, and the mummy by females. The weaving was also done by wrappers were asserted to be of cotton. It hand looms; but such was the slow process was not, however, until of late years, that of spinning, that the weaver's time was the error was proved. The microscope re- largely employed in going round to buy up veals the fact that the fibres of cotton and yarn. They competed with each other in flax are quite different. The latter is round this, and the yarn thus cost more than it and jointed, like a sugar cane, while cotton should. One fine morning Mr. James Haris flat and twisted. The mummy cloths greaves determined to emancipate himself are all of the first description, and there are from the spinners, by putting into practice an no signs of a cotton manufacture in Egypt. idea that had occurred to him. This was, It spread through southern Europe slug- to spin in his own house, and to make one gishly, and is first mentioned in England in wheel drive eight spindles, and to draw the 1641; but it made little progressuntil a cen- rovings by means of a clasp held in the left tury later. There were two obstacles to hand of the operator. That was the first progress-want of the material and want of spinning-jenny, patented in 1767. In 1769, machines to manufacture effectively. The Arkwright added the important discovery quantity of cotton imported into Great of rollers, or drawing frames. This was one Britain early in the seventeenth century was of the most important inventions. It conabout one million of pounds. sisted in causing the roving, on its way to Up to the time of the American revolution- the spindle, to pass between a pair of rollers ary war, the cotton manufacture in England in about four inches long and one in diameter. all its branches was in a very primitive state. These held the roving so firmly between At that date a series of inventions and discov- them that it could pass only at the speed of eries took place, that rapidly carried the their own revolution. From these the rovcotton manufacture to a magnitude second ing passed between two other rollers, which to no other industry, and gave it the. im- revolved twice as fast as the first pair. pulse which, as we have seen, has not yet The effect was that between the two sets, ceased to act. The cleaning, carding, spin- the roving was drawn out to double its ning, weaving, dyeing, and printing were all former length, and, of course, half its tenuity. conducted in slow and expensive methods, by The rollers thus supplanted the drawing by which a great number of peoplewererequired hand. By this mode of drawing the cotton, to produce small results. The only source the fibres are straightened and made parallel' for the raw material was then theWest Indies. and the improvements that have since been The quantity derived thence was about 40,000 made in the same direction are to increase the bales, or 4,000,000 pounds, and this was drawings and doublings, or the placing of sevwrought up by hand processes. eral slivers together to be drawn downl into The object in carding and spinning is to draw one. In 1784, Crompton combined these out the loose fibres of the cotton into a regu- two inventions into a third, called the mules lar and continuous line, andafterreducing it to spinner. The machine of ArkwrighLt was the requisite tenuity, to twist it into a thread. called the water-frame, because it was srst By the early method, after the cotton was driven by water power. The defect was, cleaned, it was carded between two flat cards that it spun thread for warps only. It could held in the hand. A small quantity of the not spin fine threads, because these could cotton placed on one was, with the other, not bear the strain of the bobbins. This the combed as straight as possible. The fleecy mule remedied. Instead of the spindles beroll that resulted was called a sliver. This ing stationary, and the rovings movable, the roll, or sliver, was then applied to the single former were placed upon a movable frame spindle, that was driven by a wheel set in which runs out fifty-six inches, to stretch motion by the other hand of the operator; and twist the thread, and runs in again for as it received a twist, it was drawn out into it to wind upon the spindles. The thread is a thick thread like a candle-wick, called a rov- thus treated more gently. The effect of this ing, and waswound on a cop. Thisrovingwas machine is best understood by the fact that again drawn out and spun into a thread. Thus, a " hank" of thread measures 840 yards, and in two operations, a single irregular and im- it was before supposed impossible to spin 80 perfect thread grew slowly in two hands. In of these hanks from a pound of cotton. The 276 COTTON MANUFACTURES. new machine spun 350 hanks to the pound, in 1803 a new loom was patented by Mr. thus forming a thread 167 miles in length! HIorrocks. These looms but slowly supThis mule was improved to carry 130 spin- planted hand looms, notwithstanding their dies; and when water power was applied, great superiority. The great obstacle to the in 1790, it carried 400 spindles. These success of the power loom was that it was mules, at the present day, carry 3,000 spin- necessary to stop it frequently to dress the dies, and are now self-acting. warp as it came from the beam. The dressThe process of carding had also in this ing is a size of flour and water, now used period undergone great improvements. The cold; the object of it is to make the thread first improvement made in the old hand smooth, like cat-gut. The inconvenience of cards was to make one of them a fixture, the frequent dressing was remedied in 1802, and of a larger size than the other. The by the invention of the dressing machine. workman could thus work more cotton in By this machine the thread is wound from the same time. He then proceeded to the bobbins upon the weaving-beam, and in suspend the movable card by a pulley, its passage it passes through the starch. It with a weight to balance it. The next is then pressed between rollers, and passadvance was to make the movable card a ing over hot cylinders to dry it, it is brushed cylinder covered with cards, and turned in its progress. When wound upon the by a handle, in a concave frame, lined also beam it is ready-for weaving. The power with cards, which was simply the fixed card loom thenceforth grew rapidly in favor. curved to adapt it to the cylindrical form of Before the invention of the dressing machine, the other. The lower part was let down in one man was required to each loom; afterorder to remove the cotton, by means of a ward, a girl of fourteen tended two, and stick with needles in it like a comb. The produced with them three and one-half times next improvement was in 1772, to attach an as much cloth as the best hand weaver. Imendless revolving cloth, called a feeder, on provements were made, until, in 1833, a which the cotton was spread, and by it convey- weaver fifteen years old, aided by a girl ed to the cylinder. The next step was to take of twelve, would weave eighteen pieces of the carded wool off the cylinder by means nine-eighths shirting of the same quality of of another cylinder revolving in an opposite which, in 1803, it required a grown man to direction, and called the doffer. This being make two in a week. entirely covered with cards, gave a continu- While these improvements in machines ots fleece of cotton, which'was in 1773 re- were made, there were discovered processes moved from it by means of a steel blade like of bleaching quite as important. This proa saw, working by short strokes. This cess previously required six to eight months:broad fleece then passed through a funnel, by to steep in lyes and bleach upon the grass. which it was contracted into a ribbon; it then By chemical discoveries, a bleaching powder, proceeded through two rollers, that com- composed of manganese, salt, sulphuric acid, pressed itand let it fall into a deep can. The and lime, is effective in bleaching the rough, carding machine by these means approached gray, and dirty fabric that comes from the perfection, but there was necessary to it weaver, in a few hours. Every thing is done the marvellous American invention of the by machinery and chemical agents. card-making machine, which made the cards The printing of calico was introduced into so perfectly and so cheaply as to make the England inthe seventeenthcentury, but made cylinder carding possible. The concave little or no progress until its introduction into frame in which the original cylinder re- Lancashire in 1764, when it was taken up by volved, was soon replaced by smaller cylin- a farmer, Robert Peel, grandfather of the late d&ers covered with cards and revolving in a prime minister of England, Sir Robert Peel. direction contrary to the main cylinder. When he began to print, he had the cloth Between the action of these, the cotton was ironed out by one of his family, and used a more perfectly combed out. parsley leaf for a pattern. The method was The carding and spinning of yarn thus had to cut the pattern upon blocks of sycamore, become developed in a manner to meet the like an ordinary wood engraving. On the wishes of the weavers, but now genius was back of the block was a handle. The color directed to the loom, and in 1785 the power was contained in a vessel, over which was loom was invented by the Rev. Dr. Cart- stretched a woollen cloth, in contact with wright. This was improved upon, until the liquid. To this the surface oftheblock was ORIGIN-HAND WORK-INVENTIONS. 277 applied, and it was then laid upon the white required in the same pattern, portions of it cloth ironed out, and struck with a mallet; are engraved upon separate dies, and the the figure was thus impressed. The block number of colors may be multiplied by addwas then applied in a fresh place; so that a ing cylinders. piece of calico twenty-eight yards, required We have thus sketched the state of affairs 448 applications of the block. To make down to about the period of the introducmore delicate figures, copper plates were tion of the manufacture into the United employed, with the press used for copper- States, which was about the period of the plate printing. The copper-plate method formation of the government. The imports was quite as slow as the block method. In of the raw material into Great Britain at 1785, cylinder printing was invented. A pol- that time, will show the rapidity with which ished copper cylinder, three feet in length the trade developed itself. and four inches in diameter, is engraved with the figure on its whole surface. It is 1 OTT. N I.POTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN., ~ * ~. ~,~ *~. i l ~1775.:..4,765,589 lbs. 1786...19,900,000 lbs. then placed in the press, and as it revolves, 181,977 1789..32,57 023 the lower part passes through the coloring matter, which is scraped from the surface as The cotton was derived as follows in it rises by a steel blade nicely adjusted 1786: British West Indies, 5,800,000 lbs.; lengthwise. This blade is called the "doc- French and Spanish do., 5,500,000 lbs.; tor." The cloth passes between this roller Dutch do., 1,600,000 lbs.; Portuguese do., and a large cylinder, and receives the im- 2,000,000 lbs.; Turkey, 5,000,000 lbs. The pression by a continuous motion. Thus, United States contributed nothing. They two or three minutes now sufficed to do did not then grow cotton. what required before 448 applications. Al- The American invention of the cotton gin most any number of these cylinders may be was more important than all the inventions used at the same time in the same press, we have described,for the reason that without and with different colors. Thus a five cyl- it, and the American supply of cotton made inder press will do what would have required possible by it, all the ingenuity of the 2,240 applications by the block; in other English would have failed for want of mawords, a man and a boy could now do what terial to work on. The sources of supply beforewouldhaverequired 200 men and boys. above mentioned have not increased in caAn American invention here made an pacity. England has derived some cotton important change in the printing. Mr. Jacob from India, but not so much in the raw Perkins, of Massachusetts, invented the proc- state as she sends thither in goods, and the ess of transferring an engraving from a very United States alone keep her mills in mosmall steel cylinder to the copper. Before tion. While they have done this they have this, thewhole of the copper cylinder required also developed the manufacture in a marto be engraved, at great expense, and when vellous manner. We will here enumerate the done would print about 1,500 pieces of cloth dates of the above described inventions, in before it was worn out. By the new order to show that it was in the midst of mode, a steel cylinder three inches long the excitement they produced, that the and one in diameter, is prepared by being manufacture was transported to America. softened that it may be easily cut. The Hargreaves' jenny................67 pattern to be engraved is so arranged and Arkwright's rollers............ 169 made to agree with the circumference of the Crompton's mule........... 184 copper cylinder, as to join and appear con- Feedig for carder.........l7 Doffer.1...13.. 1713 tinuous when repeated. When this is cut Cartwright's loom................1785 upon the steel it is hardened, and then, by Water power used.......... 1790 great pressure against another soft cylinder, Cylinder printing...............85 the figure is made on it in relief, or raised Dressing machine...............1802 upon its surface. This being hardened, It was at the period so prolific in inventransfers by pressure the design upon the tions, and when the use of cotton had so inwhole of the copper cylinder. The engrav- creased in England, that the manufacture ing is thus multiplied fifty-four times, and was commenced in the United States. The may be renewed at short notice when the first mill was at Beverly, Mass. It had a cylinder is worn. This was a most impor- capital of ~90,000, and was organized in tant step in advance. Whenmany colors are 1787, for the manufacture of corduroys and HAND LOOM POWER LOOM. ONE GIRL ATTENDS FOURB FF'I1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I iij I r f i fi t'1111ii I i.jvj light,!~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i j Ijiiijiij/jjjli. —s 9(1!1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~111 i r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~!l "~~~~~~~U. ~ U 4- I A MULE] SPINNER, OPERATED BY ONE HAND, CARRYING 3,000 SPINDLES, DOING RHE WORK OF 3,000 GIRLS. 280 COTTON MANUFACTURES. bed ticks. The capital was swallowed up mill into operation at the same period that "in fifteen years. The machines were very the federal government was organized under rude, inasmuch as the new inventions in thenew constitution, a most auspicious event. England were then unknown here. The manufacture did not fail to attract the attention of the new government, and Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, in his famous report of 1791, remarks:CHAPTER II. "The manufacture of cotton goods not long MANUFACTURE IN AMERICA-SPINNING- since established at Beverly, in MassachuPROGRESS. PROGRESS. setts, and at Providence, Rhoce Island, seems to have overcome the first obstacles to sucSAMUEL SLATER was an apprentice to cess; producing corduroys, velverets, fustians, Jedidiah Strutt, the partner of Arkwright. jeans, and other similar articles, of a qualHe served his time, and when of age de- ity which will bear a comparison with the parted for America, where he arrived in like articles brought from Manchester. The 1789. In the following year, he entered one at Providence has the merit of being into partnership with Almey and Brown to the first in introducing into the United start a factory at Pawtucket. Here, then, States the celebrated cotton mill, which not were put up, in the best manner, the whole only furnishes material for the factory itself, series of machines patented and used by but for the supply of private families for Arkwright for spinning cotton. There had household manufacture. been previous attempts at the spinning of "Other manufactories of the same material, cotton by water power, and some rude ma- as regular businesses, have also been begun chines were in existence fol spinning the in the state of Connecticut, but all upon a rolls prepared by hand, in private families; smaller scale than those mentioned. Some but the machines that had been invented in essays are also making in the printing and England for the purpose were entirely un- staining of cotton goods. There are several known here until put up by Slater. Those ma- small establishments of this kind already on chines were-so perfect that, although put up in foot." 1790, they continued to be used forty years, The same report proposes, as an aid to the up to 1830, when they formed part of an factories, to remove the duty of three cents establishment of two thousand spindles, per pound on the import of raw cotton, and which still exists in Pawtucket under the to extend the duty of seven and a half per name of the " old mill." Slater's business cent. to all cotton goods. It also remarks was prosperous, and he amassed a large for- that cotton has not the same pretension as tune. He died in 1834. His son and heirs hemp to protection, as it is not a production still carry on the business. It is to be re- of the country, and affords less assurance of marked that his business was confined to an adequate supply. These few facts afford the spinning of cotton. The business, of an idea of the notions then entertained of course, spread as soon as it was found to be that cotton which has since overshadowed profitable; but, up to the war of 1812, the all other interests. New England interests were commercial, and The old mill of Samuel Slater, Esq., the when the war broke out there was an im- first building erected in America for the mense rise in the value of goods, which manufacture of cotton yarns, is a venerable gave to all existing spinning interests a great wood-built structure, two stories in height, advantage. Cotton cloth sold at forty cents bearing numerous evidences of its antiquity, per yard; and Slater held almost a monop- having been erected in 1793. Two spinning oly of the supply of yarn to make it. Mr. frames, the first in the mill, are still there, Slater had, in 1807, in connection with his and are decided curiosities in their way. It brother John, who brought over important is almost incredible to believe that this old knowledge of the recent improvements in building, time-worn and weather-browned, Imachinery, erected a mill at Slatersville, near was the first to spread its sheltering roof Smithfield, R I. Mr. Slater established a over the young pupil of Arkwright, and that Sunday school for his operatives, and this is those dwarf frames, rusty and mildewed.with supposed to have been the first in New Eng- inactivity, are the pioneer machines of that laud. immense branch of our national industry — It will be observed that Mr. J. Slater got his the manufacture of cotton goods. It may be MANUFACTURE IN AMERICA-SPINNING-PROGRESS. 281 remarked that down to 1828 the exportation 1810, and, with the former,'would probably of machines of all kinds, and also wool, was work eighty thousand spindles at the comstrictly prohibited in England, for fear other mencement of the year 1811. He estimated nations should benefit by English mechanic- the amount of capital that would be emal genius, of which they supposed they had' ployed in these mills at $4,800,000, the a monopoly; when, however, they found that cotton used 3,600,000 lbs., the yarn spun at the balance of genius was on this side of the 2,880,000 lbs., valued at $3,240,000, the pond, they liberally removed the prohibition. men employed 500, and the women and boys Mr. Slater, the father of American cotton 3,500. manufactures, was so closely watched at the By the returns of the marshals of the English custom-house, that he could not census of 1810, the number of cotton facsmuggle over a drawing or pattern. He had, tories was 168, with 90,000 spindles; but however, acquired a full knowledge of the from most of the states no returns were made Arkwright principle of spinning, and from of the quantity of cotton used and the yarn recollection, and with his own hands, made spun. Massachusetts had 54, most of them, three cards and twenty-two spindles, and no doubt, small, having in the whole put them in motion in the building of a only 19,448 spindles, consuming but 838,clothier, by the water-wheel of an old fulling- 348 pounds of cotton, and their produce mill. Seventy-seven years have since elapsed, valued at $931,916. Rhode Island had 26 and the business has in that period increased factories, with 21,030 spindles, and Connectbeyond all precedent in the history of manu- icut 14, with 11,883 spindles. These were factures. Our rivers and wild waterfalls, for the supply of yarn to be used in hand that then flowed and murmured in solitude, looms exclusively. are now propelling thousands of mill-wheels, In this position of affairs the war took and millions of shuttles and spindles. In the place; but just on its eve Mr. Francis C. business, hundreds of fortunes have been Lowell, of Boston, returned from Europe, made, thousands of citizens earn a subsist- where he had inspected the great improveence and find constant employment, while ments in machines for cotton manufacturing, millions are clothed in different portions of and had formed the project of establishing the globe. A wonderful revolution has that the manufacture in this country. He asold mill produced on the shores of the new sociated with himself in the enterprise his world. When Gen. Jackson' visited the brother-in-law, Patrick S. Jackson, and they mill, and complimented Slater on his having set about it. The country was then at war been the first: " Yes," he replied, " here I with England, and there was no possibility gave out the psalm, which is now sung by of getting either models or machines thence, millions." nor even drawings. The memory of Mr. The machines for the spinning of cotton Lowell was all that was to be depended upon thence spread into several states, and con- for the structure of the machinery, the tinned to attract capital. The extent to materials used in the construction, even the which this was carried became evident in tools of the machine shop. The first object 1810, from the facts collected by the secre- to be accomplished was to procure a power tary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin, Esq. loom. To obtain one from England was, of The manufactures of cotton and wool were course, impracticable; and although there then principally confined to families; and were many patents for such machines in our Mr. Gallatin thought it probable that about Patent Office, not one had yet exhibited suftwo-thirds of the clothing (including hosiery), ficient merit to be adopted into use. Under of the house and table linen worn and used these circumstances but one resource reby the inhabitants of the United States, not mained-to invent one themselves-and this residing in cities, was the product of family these earnest men at once set about. manufactures. The number of cotton mills Unacquainted as they were with machinery returned to the secretary, which were erect- in practice, they dared, nevertheless, to at. ed at the close of the year 1809, was eighty- tempt the solution of a problem that had seven, sixty-two of which (forty-eight water baffled the most ingenious mechanicians. In and fourteen horse-mills) were in operation, England, the power loom had been invented and worked at that time 31,000 spindles, by a clergyman, and why not here by a mer, The other twenty-five, it was supposed, would chant? After numerous experiments and be in operation in the course of the year failures, they at last succeeded, in the 282 COTTON MANUFACTURES. autumn of 1812, in producing a model which plied, and the factories were to be recruited they thought so well of as to be willing to from respectable families. By the erection make preparations for putting up a mill for of boarding-houses, at the expense and under the weaving of cotton cloth. It was now the control of the factory; putting at the necessary to procure the assistance of a head of them matrons of tried character, and practical mechanic, to aid in the construction allowing no boarders to be received except of the machinery, and the friends had the'the female operatives of the mill; by stringood fortune to secure the services of Mr. gent regulations for the government of these Paul Moody, afterward so well known as houses-by all these precautions, they gained the head of the machine shop at Lowell. the confidence of the rural population, who They found, as might naturally be expected, were no longer afraid to trust their daughters many defects in their model loom; but these in a manufacturing town. A supply was were gradually remedied. The project thus obtained, of respectable girls; and these, hitherto had been exclusively for a weaving from pride of character, as well as from prinmill, to do by power what had before been ciple, took great care to exclude all others. done by hand looms. But it was ascertain- It was soon found that apprenticeship in a ed on inquiry that it would be more eco- factory entailed no degradation of character, nomical to spin the twist than to buy and was no impediment to a respectable conit, and they put up a mill for about 1,700 nection in marriage. A factory girl was no spindles, which was completed late in 1813. longer condemned to pursue that vocation for It will probably strike the reader with some life; she wouldretire, in herturn, to assume the astonishment to be told that this mill, still higher and more appropriate responsibilities in operation at Waltham, was probably the of her sex; and it soon came to be considfirst one in the world that combined all the ered that a few years in a mill were an honoroperations necessary for converting the raw able mode of securing a dower. The busicotton into finished cloth. Such, however, ness could thus be conducted without any peris the fact, as far as we are informed on the manent manufacturing population. The opersubject. The mills in this country-Slater's, atives no longer form a separate caste, pursufor example, in Rhode Island-were spin- ing a sedentary employment, from parent to ning mills only; and in England, though the child, in the heated rooms of a factory, but power loom had been introduced, it was used are recruited in a circulating current from in separate establishments, by persons who the healthy and virtuous population of the bought, as the hand weavers had always country. The success which these mills met done, their twist of the spinners. Great dif- with of course prompted their extension. In ficulty was at first experienced at Waltham, 1821, Mr. Ezra Worther, who had formerly for the want of a proper preparation (sizing) been a partner with Mr. Moody, and who of the warps. They procured from England had applied to Mr. Jackson for employment, a drawing of Horrocks' dressing machine, suggested that the Pawtucket canal, at which, with some essential improvements, Chelmsford, would afford a fine location for they adopted, producing the dresser now in large manufacturing establishments, and that use at Lowell and elsewhere. No method probably a privilege might be purchased of was, however, indicated in this drawing of its proprietors. To Mr. Jackson's mind the winding the threads from the bobbins on to hint suggested a much more stupendous prothe beam; to supply this deficiency, the ject-nothing less than to possess himself of macnine called the warper was invented, the whole power of the Merrimac river at and there was now no further difficulty in that place. Aware of the necessity of seweaving by power looms. The "double crecy of action, to secure this property at speeder," answering to the fly frame for spin- any reasonable price, he undertook it singlening roving, was then added. Mr. Moody handed. It was necessary to purchase not then invented the machine called the filling only the stock in the canal, but all the farms throstle, for winding the thread for weft from on both sides of the river, which controlled the bobbin on to the quills for the shuttle. the water-power, or which might be necesThe manufacture, as far as machinery went, sary for the future extension of the business. was now on a permanent basis. The dif- Such was the beginning of Lowell, since so ficulty that presented itself was in opera- world-renowned. A new company, the Mertives. There was here no such pauper class as rimac, was immediately established under that from which the English mills were sup- the direction of Kirk Boott, Esq. I-; " <"~ ~t —! i I/ ~ —- =-i - 777< i7'/ I' i1i 111i 1I1 / ~ /''I I~: ~ ~. D=!v —,-s'.W_:= A ce 11 z__~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~MEM-," 2 0 0 SPITIJE SPINNI JIACI appeals,, ~j~ii~~ ~~/=/ ~ i ~:~~: i i5~~~,.~WN ~~~~~~~~;; ~ ~ ~ Zm - -----------—.,..........P % ~ 200: SPINDLE SPINNING JACK.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I/ o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ (I'1 i; IN~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Iji~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t r III1111 c i: _ _ _ _ fbi J8; i ill i!I I~~~~~~~~I!,r a~i 1r MANUFACTURRE IN AMERICA-SPINNING-PROGRESS. 283 The establishment of the Lowell mills took | t place at a time when the occurrence of war as 8 ~'= had diverted the capital of New England i ~ -~... - from commerce, and it eagerly sought new g oe; S4 modes of investment. These were presented 2i: 2".' |' in the promising prospects of the newly in- 8 - I vented machine manufactures. The cotton:::: growth of the south had become large before C... the war, and that event caused an immense' P P,' *::.. accumulation of stock that sunk the price to CW.-. C the lowest point, and by so doing, offered c:.~., an abundance of raw material at rates merely 8 "1 nominal compared with what the English -^ oo.. manufacturers had been paying. This gave; a great advantage to the new enterprise, and 8. ~ Congress aided it by the establishment of U, CD. o protective duties. The minimum cotton ~ CID CA C duty was invented for the purpose. The io -c rate was nominally ad valorem, but the price: C CD 0 0C0 0' ~ -' was fixed at a minimum, on which the duty o 8 C Co.. oH- o was cast-hence the duty was in effect spe-. cific. Thus, the abundant raw material, the ~ low price of cotton, and the protection of g ~ - the government, all combined to give breadth ~..o. to the newly awakened manufacturing fe- ver. The capital that crowded into it, soon, co ~ co' -0 c | as a matter of course, overdid the business,,,,w Co,~ C= Ao. o) and distress followed, which was sought c o'~ to be relieved by a still higher tariff in 1824.' That seemed, however, to add but fuel to the' -S -'-i'`~s... flame; and in 1828, still higher rates were.,-.... Lo CID demanded. We may compare these tariffs: z cotton goods not dyed were to be valued at P.... sc r3.. twenty-five cents per square yard, and pay. o tu ~o ~~ o ru r3 ~~o_ c~~ no 00 i. ix oz O O.:: x. C, twenty-five per cent. duty, or six and a quar- o ter cents per yard; goods printed or dyed - G?S were to pay nine cents per square yard; fus- 1 S.... tians, moleskins, etc., were to pay twenty-five Sa oOD5o -~ m cents per square yard; woollens were charged ~. twenty-five per cent. in 1816, thirty-three C OD...... o. and a half per cent. in 1824, and forty-five co-. per cent. in 1828. Under all these circum- 5 A stances, the manufacture could not fail to P:. L 8 grow rapidly, and of course to bring on dis- 11 tress as the result. In 1831, the tariff excite- o o —~1 ment had reached such a pitch that the most disastrous political results were anticipated. O, A: -. |. It was then that the committee of the con-' "~ D N "l~5'' 0' vention collected information of the existing manufactures. They reported the table which... i we annex. The returns are for the eleven states where manufactures were well devel- L oped; some twenty to thirty other mills::: o were also reported, but so imperfectly that m 0 s the returns were rejected. The table is very. valuable-as follows:-:. o' Cto' to -..... c~'J~ too <8, 284 coTTON MANUPACTURES. Such had been the immense growth of the which they made, it appears that in six manufacture in ten years from the time the establishments under their direction they Lowell mills were started, when but little ma- had introduced already 540 looms to the chine cloth was made; but in 1831, there was 26,000 spindles, and were manufacturing made, it appears, 230,461,990 yards, or nearly sheeting at the rate of 6,000,000 yards per twenty yards per head for all the people. It annum, together with twilled cotton bags, is obvious that this large and sudden pro- batting, and yarns, and this in order to make duction of cloth could have found vent only the latter pay, by consuming the surplus by supplanting the work of families and yarns themselves. In the Penn Cottoni Mill, hand looms, and of course by pressing hard Pittsburg, the more modern system had beupon the spinners of yarn. The New Eng- come the rule of the establishment, and with land mills were mostly carried on as one 7,000 spindles and 207 looms, 2,730,000 concern, spinning and manufacturing to- yards of shirtings were produced annually, gether. This, however, is not the case with besides 240,000 lbs. weight of colored yarns the mills in the middle or the new states. for cotton warps and cotton rope. At two The mills there are mostly employed in spin- establishments in Richlmond, Virginia, the ning only, as were the first New England consumption of the yarn in the manufacture mills. The yarns are produced for sale to of piece goods was the rule. Georgia, Tenhand looms. The census of 1840 gave the nessee, and North Carolina are quoted as number of mills in the whole country at those in which the greater progress had been 1,240, and the number of spindles at 2,284,- made, while Virginia, South Carolina, and 631, consuming 132,835,856 lbs. of cotton; Alabama were the next. In Tennessee, spinand the manufacture had continued to spread ning would appear to be the rule and manuinto the southern and western states. That facturing the exception; in Georgia and was still hand weaving, which yet obtains North Carolina, equal attention is paid to in many parts of the older states of the both; while in Virginia, South Carolina, and Union. Thus, while in Pennsylvania the Alabama the manufacture of the piece goods capital invested amounts to about one-seventh is decidedly more extensively carried on of that of Massachusetts, the quantity of cot- than spinning; only slave labor is largely used, ton consumed is one-fifth; the value of the with free whites as overseers and instructors. *raw material, not quite one-fourth; number The males are heads of departments, maof operatives (male and female), one-fourth; chinists, dressers, etc., and the females are value of products, rather more than one- spinners and weavers. The latter are chiefly fourth; the number of pounds of yarn spun adults, though children from twelve to fifand sold as yarn is above thirty times greater teen are employed. The average hours of in Pennsylvania than in Massachusetts. This, work here are twelve, but vary a little with to a certain extent, gives a key to the differ- the season, very full time being the rule. ences in the modes of manufacture in the The James River Mill -roduces a large two states. There can be no doubt, however, weight of work for the exteit of its machinthat domestic weaving is gradually giving ery. The goods manufactured are coarse way, and those manufacturers, especially in cottons, and average about two and one-half Pennsylvania, who formerly did a prosperous yards to the pound, shirtings twenty-eight business as spinners only, now find that the inches wide (osnaburgs), summer pantaeastern states supply the piece goods at a loons for slaves, and bagging for export to rate so little above the cost of the yarn, that the Brazils for sugar bags, running about it is not worth the while of the farmer to three yards to the pound. Bagging of a continue this primitive custom of weaving lighter character for grain, and thirty-six inch his own cloth. Thus the domestic loom is osnaburgs, two yards to the pound, are also fast following the spinning wheel of the early produced. The Manchester Company manusettlers, and those manufacturers who until facture sheetings, shirtings, and yarns, and recently have spun yarn only, are gradually employ about 325 operatives; the children introducing the power loom as the only being of the same average age as at the James means of sustaining their position in the River Mill. Mr. Whitehead, of Virginia, in market. This was illustrated by the Eagle 1853, perfected a patent speeder. Its adCotton Mill, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. For- vantages are a greater speed, a more even merly, the proprietors spun yarn only, and roving, and a bobbin of any desirable size, did a successful trade; but, by a return which never becomes spongy in the wind MANUFACTURE IN AMERICA-SPINNING-PROGRESS. 285 ing. In Maryland, however, there were the erection of large establishments, with twenty-four establishments in 1850, chiefly their attendant boarding-houses, at Manengaged in the manufacture of piece goods, chester, N. E., and more recently at Lawsuch as drillings, sheetings, ducks, osna- rence, Mass. The falls of the Pawtucket on burgs, and bagging. The yarns produced the Merriknac river and the Pawtucket canal, for domestic purposes bear but a small pro- which had previously been used only for portion to those manufactured into cloth, the purpose of navigation and connecting and these are chiefly sold within the state the rivej above and below the falls by means for the home weaving of mixed fabrics of of locks, presented to the original projectors wool and cotton, forming coarse linseys. of Lowell a site for the solution of an If the illustrations given show the early pro- important problem, not only in Ameri. gress and position of this manufacture in the can industry, but to a great extent in that United States, so far as daily-recurring im- of Europe itself. This was the combinaprovements and ever-increasing wants have tion of great natural advantages with a permitted it to remain in its original form, large and well-directed capital, resulting the manufacturing towns of Lowell, Man- in extensive and systematic operations for chester, and Lawrence, strikingly demonstrate the realization of a legitimate profit, while the results of the energy and enterprise of the social position of t]e operative classes the. manufacturers of New England. At was sedulously cared for, and their moral Lowell, Mass., the cotton manufacture has and intellectual elevation promoted and been developed in a form which has been a secured. theme for many writers on the economy and The census of 1860 gave figures that show social bearing of the factory systejn; and the extent of the manufacture as it existed the plans so successfully put into operation at that date, in all the states. Those figures here and carried on since 1822 have led to are as follows:COTTON MANUFACTURES OF THE UNITED STATES PER CENSUS OF 1860. cs4-No. of i^'^'i0, Cost of raw Male Female, C od States. Establish- Capital.Cost of laterial abor.Vaue of States. material. hands. hands. ost of labo roducts. Maine............. 19 $6,018,325 $3,319,335 1,828 4,936 $1,368,888 $6,235,623 New Hampshire..... 44 12,586,880 7,128,196 3,829 8,901 2,883,804 13,699,994 Vermont........... 8 271,200 181,030 157 222 78,468 357,450 Massachusetts....... 217 33,704,674 11.214,592 13,691 24,760 7,798,476 38,004,255 Rhode Island........ 153 10,052,200 5,799,223 6,353 7,724 2,847,804 12,151,191 Connecticut........ 129 6,627,000 4,028,406 4,028 4,974 1,743,480 8,911,387 New York........ 79 5,383,479 3,061,105 3,107 4,552 1,405.292 6,676,878 Pennsylvania........ 185 9,203,460 7,386,213 6,412 8,582 2,768,340 13,650,114 New Jersey........ 44 1,320,550 1,165,435 1,010 1,524 468,336 2,217,728 Delaware.......... 11 582,500 570,102 520 589 218,352 941,703 Maryland....... 20 2,254,500 1,698,413 1,093 1,594 582,780 2,973,877 District of Columlia.. 1 45,000 47,403 70 25 19,800 74,400 Ohio.............. 8 265,000 374,100 372 468 151,164 723,530 Indiana.......... 2 251,000 229,925 177 190 84,888 344,350 Illinois.............. 3 4,700 11,930 10 1 2,640 18,987 Utah............ 1 6,000 6,000 4 3 3,420 10,000 Missovri........... 2 169,000 110,000 85 85 30,600 230,000 Kentucky.......... 6 244,000 214,755 130 116 41,280 315,270 Virginia............ 16 1,367,543 811,187 694 747 260,856 1,489,971 North Carolina...... 39 1,272,750 622,363 449 1,315 189,744 1,046,047 South Carolina... 17 801,825 431;525 342 549 123,300 713,050 Georgia......... 33 2,126,103 1,466,375 1,131 1,682 415,332 2,371,207 Florida............. 1 30,000 23,600 40 25 7,872 40,000 Alabama............ 14 1,316,000 617,633 543 769 198,408 1,040,147 Louisiana........... 2 1,000,000 226,600 220 140 49,440 466,500 Texas.............. 1 450,000 64,140 130.. 15,600 80,695 Mississippi.......... 4 230,000 79,800 106 109 36,264 176,328 Arkansas........... 2 37,000 11,600 14 11 4,428 23,000 Tennessee........... 30 965,000 384,548 323 576 139,180 698,122 Total....... 1,091 98,585,269 57,285,534 46,859 15,169 23,940,168 115,681,774 Total in 1850.... 1,074 76,032,578 37,778,064 35,295 62,661 17,267,112 65,501,687 Increase....... 17 $22,552,691 $19,507,470 11,364 12,508 $6,612,996 450,180,087 286 COTTON MANUFACTURES. CHAPTER III. both, inasmuch as that it produces more and INVENTIONS-MODE OF MANUFACTURE- better yarn. The spindle of this improved PRINTING —AG GREGATE. frame has no fly, but has a small steel ring, called a traveller, about a quarter of an inch WHILE the manufacture has thus spread in diameter, with a slit for the insertion of over the face of the Union, the pioneer mills, the thread, which is wound by the ring or those which are erected in new locali- travelling around the bobbin, being held in ties, are generally employed in the Spinning its horizontal plane, during its circuit, by an of yarn of coarse sorts; the old mills iron ring loosely embraced by its lower end gradually spinning *finer yarn, and attaching and fastened upon the traversing rail, being weaving and printing to their operations. sufficiently large to allow the head of the In the whole period, however, of the past bobbin, as well as the traveller, to pass fifty years, continued improvements have through without touching. This plan of been made in machines and in power. Those spindle may be driven 8,000 revolutions per mills that came into operation with fresh minute with perfect security when spinning capital and the newest machines, had always coarse yarn, and when producing the finer advantages over those which still worked the numbers, 10,000 revolutions per minute is old machines. The introduction of steam not an extraordinary speed for it to attain; as a motor also favored the introduction of the yarn produced in either case being sumills into localities that were not provided perior in strength. and character to the yarn with water, and many persons contended produced by the other throstles at a greatly that steam was cheaper and better even reduced speed. where water power existed. The latter was The manufacture, as at present conducted, improved in its turn by the introduction of is a most beautiful and complicated art. turbine wheels, which are a steady and suf- The raw material is divided into long ficient power. The streams of New England staple, medium staple, and short staple. were by art made to contribute in a wonder- The staple means simply the length of the ful manner to the work of factories. The fibre, and it is characteristic of the origin of works at Holyoke, Mlass., are a singular in- the article. The first or long staple is used stance of genius and enterprise. In the for the warps, or the longitudinal threads of machines themselves, the greatest improve- a cloth. These threads must be made of ments have been continually made, in this long staple; no other kind of cotton will country, as well as abroad. We have men- spin into the fine numbers. The medium tioned the American gin of Whitney, staple is used for the " weft," or cross threads which, by enabling cotton to be cleaned, of tissues. It is softer and silkier than the laid the foundation of the whole trade. The long staple, and fills up the fabric better. card-stic4dng machine, the steel die of Per- The long staple will not answer for this kins, ring spindle of Jenks, the improved purpose. The quantity of cotton in the throstle of M'Cully, the tube-frame, the weft of cloth is from two to five times as patent size of Mallerd, of Lowell, are among much as that in the warp. Theshort staple the most important of a crowd of inventions is used for weft, but it is harsher and more that havebeen made by American mechanics, like wool, and after washing or bleaching it and every few years a new mill.starts in some makes the cloth meagre and thin. It is quarter, with all these combined. The ring mixed with the medium staple in small spindle of Mr. Jenks is very curious, and is proportions. producing important results. That gentle- This last and almost, when alone, useless man was a pupil of Slater, and had an sort is that which comes from India, and establishment for the manufacture of cotton the first or long staple is "sea island," raised machinery near Philadelphia, since 1810. on our southern coast. The medium staple, On the starting of the Lowell mills, Mr. or that which is required for the great Moody invented a number of machines, viz: a bulk of the manufactures, is alone found in loom, a filling frame, a double speeder, a the United States. It is that kind called governor, and also what is called the "dead " uplands," bowed Georgia, or New Orleans. spindle," in distinction to the "live spindle," The quality is a result of climate and soil. which was the English invention. The The cotton having reached the mill, it is dead spindle is mostly used in Lowell. Mr. requisite that all of the same staple, but of Jenks' ring spindle is, however, superseding different qualities, should be well mixed, to INVENTIONS-MODE OF MANUFACTURE-PRINTING-AGGREGATE. 287 give as uniform a character as possible to through male hands; with the drawing it'the cloth. To attain this, the contents of a passes into those of females. The slivers, as bale are spread out upon the floor, and upon they are dropped into the tin can from the it another is scattered, and so on until a carding machine, are exceedingly tender and huge pile, called a " bing," has been raised; loose, and the fibres are not yet arranged in a rake is then used to scrape down from the the position proper for the manufacture of sides, thus mixing the whole as the cotton is smooth yarn. This is to be perfected by the required for the mill. This cotton is matted rollers of the drawing frame; some frames together and filled with dirt, sometimes by have three pairs of rollers and others four. design to increase the weight fraudulently. The distance between the pairs of rollers is It must, therefore, first of all be cleaned and such that the longest fibre of cotton will not the fibres loosened. For this purpose several reach from the centre of one roller to that machines are used. The favorite is a patent of another pair. This prevents breaking the VWilley, which is composed of two iron axles fibres, but the rollers must not be too far on a level with each other, each having four apart, lest the cotton separate in unequal stout steel teeth. The teeth of both axles thicknesses. The " doubling," by which the mesh together as they revolve, and also the end of a new sliver is laid on the middle of fixed teeth attached to the inner casing of one running in, equalizes the sliver. The the box which contains them. These axles more it is doubled and drawn, the more perrevolve 1,600 times in a minute, opening out feet is the yarn, and this doubling is done the fibres and beating out the dirt from the sometimes 32,000 times. cotton, which is blown through a tube by a The fifth operation is the roving, or revolving fan. first spinning process. The slivers unThe second machine through which the der the action of the drawing frame becotton passes is the spreading machine, come so thin and tender they will no the object of which is to perfect the clean- longer hold together without a twist, and ing and loosening of the fibres. The cot- many machines are used for the purpose of ton being carefully weighed and spread imparting it, under the names of slubbin, upon the feeding apron, passes in between a fly frame, belt speeder, tube frame, and pair of rollers, where it meets the action of others. The operation is performed one or blunt knives revolving 1,700 times in a more times, according tothe fineness of the minute. The cotton coming from this ma- yarn desired. The cans which receive the chine is flattened into a filmy sheet of uni- slivers from the drawing frames are placed form thickness, and wound upon a roller. It upon revolving wheels, and the sliver passes is of the greatest importance that this feed- from these to the fly frame. This came into ing should be done evenly, as otherwise use i 1817. In this frame the spindles are the "lap," as it winds upon the roller, will set vertically in one or two rows at equal have thin and thick places, which will run distances apart, each passing through a through the subsequent manufacture. bobbin, which is loosely attached to it, and The laps that come from the spreader which has a play equal to its length up and wound on rollers, are now to go through the down on the spindle; at the top of the spinthird process, that of carding. The machine die is suspended a fly with two dependent for this purpose we have described. It re- legs, one solid, and the other hollow. The ceives the end of the lap from the roller roving enters this by an eye immediately of the spreader, and by its operation above the top of the spindle, and passing combs out and straightens the cotton into a down the hollow leg attaches to the bobbin. delicate fleece, which the " doffer" delivers The revolving spindle carries the fly with through a funnel, whence it is drawn com- it, spinning and winding the roving at the pressed, elongated, and consolidated by a same time. At this point enters a very nice pair of rollers, that drop it into a tin can. calculation. The roller on which the roving To the observer it appears like a stream of -is wound delivers it with the exact speed of cream running into the tin can. For very the spindle, but as the size of the bobbin on fine yarns, this process is repeated with finer the latter increases, it going at the same speed cards. The first carding is then called would take up the yarn faster than the breaking. roller would deliver it, and would strain it The fourth process for the cotton is the too much. This is avoided by a contrivance drawing. Hitherto the cotton has passed only which varies the speed of the bobbin to meet 288 COTTON MANUFACTURES. the circumstances. The rovings having re- quires unremitting attention to reconnect ceived this twist, are now to be spun into the threads that are constantly breaking. yarn, and this is done either by the throstle The yarn now upon the beams undergoes or the mule spinner. The difference in the " dressing," or the application of the size motion and structure of these machines is not before mentioned, and the friction of the great. The former is similar to the bobbin brushes. The beams containing the dressed and fly frame. The roving being unwound yarngo to the weaving-room, which usually is from the bobbin is elongated between three a large mill containing one hundred and fifty pairs of rollers, and is then spun and wound girls, and some six hundred looms. From upon a bobbin as before. The greatest differ- this room the woven fabric goes to the ence in these machines is in the spindles. cloth-room, where it is trimmed, measured, The oldest is the live spindle, and the dead folded, and recorded, and either baled for spindle is that invented at Lowell, and that market or sent to the print-works. which has been most used here. The ring The print-works are a most interesting spindle of Jenks is fast superseding both. portion of the manufacture. The cloth reThe thread being spun by any of these ceived from the manufactory is covered with means is wound upon bobbins, and these are a fine nap, which, if printed, would rise up then set in a frame in such a manner that and give the colored parts a pepper-and-salt the threads can be wound off from them on look. To get rid of this, the cloth is singed; to a large six-sided reel. This, one and a not as the cook singes a fowl, by a blaze, half yards in circumference, makes 560 but by running the cloth over a half-cylinder revolutions, giving the length of a "hank;" of copper, heated red hot. The cloth is many hanks are wound on the reel' at the passed over dry, and repassed; after which same time, and when these are removed and it is moistened by wet rollers, to extinguish weighed they give the number of the yarn. any shreds which might happen to be on The coarsest yarn weighs half a pound to the fire. This singeing process always excites hank, or 840 yards;. common quality gives the wonder of the beholder, who is not a ten to forty hanks to the pound. The finest little astonished that the cloth is not injured. seldom exceeds 300 hanks to the pound. The next process is to bleach the cloth. On Previous to 1840 no yarn finer than 350 was the success of this depends all the aftermade in England; at the World's Fair there work. A good white is not only the soul was some exhibited 600, and some muslin of a print, but without it no good and brilfor a dress for the queen was made of 460 liant color can be dyed. The greatest diffiyarn. This exceeds the " fairy tissues" of culty is to remove every trace of grease and the east, mentioned in the fore part of this oil, imparted by the spinner and weaver. article. Thus machinery has overtaken east- The cloth is, therefore, put into big tubs, ern hand art. It has been stated that yarn holding five hundred pieces, and steeped in has been spun 900, and one specimen of No. warm water some hours. It is then washed 2,150, or 1,026 miles for a pound of cotton! in the dash-wheel, and subjected to the followThe finest yarns are singed by being run ing operations, which convert the oil to soap, through a gas flame; they are then passed and remove with it the coloring matter:over a brush and run through a hole in a 1. Boiled by steam in a creamy lime. piece of brass just large enough to admit the 2. Washed in the dash-wheel. yarn. Any inequality then stops the yarn 3. Boiled in alkali by steam. and is immediately remedied. Upon most 4. Washed in the dash-wheel. of the machines, throstles, and feeders there 5. Steeped in bleaching-powder solution are clocks, which, wound up once a week, some hours. mark the quantity of work that each ma- 6. Steeped in oil vitriol and water, about chine does. From this register the account the strength of lemon juice. is transferred to a board which hangs in 7. Washed in the dash-wheel. sight of all the operatives, and from which 8. Squeezed between rollers. the monthly wages are ascertained. 9. Mangled and dried in air, or in warm The yarn being spun, the filling is now rooms built for this purpose. ready for the weaver, but the warp goes to The cloth is now perfectly white, and the dressing-room. Here the yarn is warped loses not so much in weight and strength as off from the spools on to the section beams. by the old process of grass bleaching. The This is considered hard work, since it re- bleached cloth is now printed with one or / g 1 4 m A i 1 ~~~~~~~ir.o, rFi.. 1 1LYALL'S PATrENT POSITIVE MOTION POWER LOOM-COMPLETE. Fig. 4.-sIowiNO MOTION OF SHUTTLE. Fig. 2.-ELEVATION OF THE SHUTTLE AND SHUTTLE CARRIAGE. The most stiking feature of these Looms is that the picking stick heretofore of universal use is entirely dispensed with. The Shuttle being carried thrcuigh the Warps, is, with all other parts of the Loom, held, controlled... —---.. 7 and acted upon by a direct and continuous connection with the motive power; hence the..... --..._ liability of a "smash " is entirely removed,'-.. —-- "::..... and no injury can happen to the Reed. - mm L. These are the only Looms in the world ^^ —-" - - t with a PosITIE SHUTTLE MOTION; therefore in case of the Loom being stopped during the passage of the Shuttle, or at any other time, each part is in place for starting again. /9;2:S~~ T4The advantages of this Loom over all others may be briefly enumerated. lst.-The unlimited scope of the Shuttle:it being carried, instead of knocked through the Warps, enables the carrying of large quantities of Weft any distance. 2d.-The friction of the Shuttle on the yarn is wholly overcome, therefore the Shuttle does not wear the Warps, nor break any threads, even in the finest fabrics of silk, wool, \cotton or linen. F-. -3d.-The Weft is not subject to sudden Fig. 3. -ECTION OF T-IE LA AN D REED CONTAIN- pUl in starting, hence may be of the most ING SHUTTLE AND SHUTTLE CARRIAGE.. delicate texture, regardless of the width of the fabric. 4th.-The Reed moves but a little distance and wears less on the Warps. 5th.-The Heddles do not require to be opened as wide as usual, thus avoiding much of the strain on the Warps. 6th.-The width of the Fabric may be extended indefinitely. 7th.-The Loom runs with less power, much more quietly than other Looms, and at any speed desirable. In the manufacture of Silks and other Fine Dress Goods, the advantages are enormous; the simplicity of the Loom, and the certainty of the Shuttle Motion, dispenses with the necessity for the skilled labor required on all other looms. This improvement can be applied to any other Loom. These Looms are now on exhibition, run by steam power on Silk, Woolen, and Cotton goods, one of them weaving a fabric Six Yards in Width, which is the largest Power Loom in the world. INVENTIfS-MODE OF MANUFACTURE-PRINTING —AGGREGATE. 289 more colors. Four to six colors only could colors, according to the mordant, and these be applied by the printing machine up to colors are all fast. 1845; if more were wanted, they were, until The cloth having been printed and dried, recently, introduced by hand, with blocks, is "aged," during which a chemical combiafter the other colors were finished. By a nation takes place between the mordant and Boston invention, patented in 1851, twelve the cloth. Ordinarily, this occurs in two colors may now bbe printed. The improve- or three weeks by a natural affinity of the ment consists in the mode of applying pres- cotton fibre and mordant, but by certain sure to the print rollers. A yielding pres- agents, this chemical change is hastened and sure of several tons is given to each roller. perfectly effected in two or three days; yet The frame is also so constructed that any one as this process goes on in conjunction with of the rollers may be removed from the ma- the others, the visitor sees only the folding chine without disturbing the others. The up and winding into rolls of the piece of machine weighs ten tons, and is ten feet cloth, though all the time this change is high. This huge machine is so nicely ad- going on. The cloth is then passed, by justed that the cloth, while passing through means of rollers, through a boiling hot soluit at the rate of a mile per hour, receives tion of phosphate of soda, to render insolutwelve colors each with the utmost precision. ble any uncombined mordant, and to wet Ordinary machines will print 300 pieces, or the cloth evenly. It is then washed in the 12,000 yards, per day, while, by the old dash-wheel, and after this, to remove the hand process, it would have required 192,- thickening, passed for twenty or thirty min646 applications of the block. The figure, utes through bran or meal and water, quite or design, is engraved on a copper roller, hot, washed, and it is now ready for dyeing. each color having a separate roller. The The dye-woods used are madder, bark, or color which the beholder sees imprinted, as logwood-the last only for mourning prints, he watches the process, is not the color that or black and white. The dye-wood is put is to be, when the print is finished. The into large wooden vats, with a portion of color which he sees is, with the exception of water, and then the pieces of cloth, sixteen brown, or blue, or black occasionally, fugitive. in each vat, are introduced over a winch, It is merely what is called "sightening"- moved by water power. Steam is then that is, a color imparted to the paste, or admitted, the goods turned through and "thickening," which is imprinted by the through, round and round, gradually heatroller to enable the machine printer to judge ing the water, till at the end of two hours of the perfectness of the work. The paste, it rises near to boiling, and the mordanted or thickening, contains the mordant-that is, cloth is perfectly dyed. It is taken out, the peculiar substance which, combining rinsed, and washed in the dash-wheel. The chemically with the cloth, enables it to dye a cloth after this is passed, by means of a peculiar color, according to the nature of the winch, either through hot water and bran mordant and dye-wood.. The cloth dyes or through hot soap, for half an hour, only where the mordant is applied-that is, washed, and then again put through. these on the printed figure only. The mordants operations, again washed, and then rinsed generally used are alum and copperas, each through a hot solution of chloride of soda, of which is first changed to acetate of alu- washed again, squeezed, and dried in either mina or iron-that is, the color-maker takes air or in warm rooms.. Sometimes they are away the oil of vitriol from the alum and mangled with some stiffening, and'so are copperas, and substitutes vinegar in its place. finished. The visitor of print works will Sometimes the iron liquor, as it is called, is see a great number of men busily employed made by dissolving iron turnings in pyrolig- dipping wooden frames, on which are neous or wood acid. The preparation of stretched pieces of cloth, printed with a color, and the thickening it with flour, brown figure, into deep vats, filled with a greenstarch, gum, etc., is a distinct branch, carried blue liquor. The cloth comes out with a on in the color shop of the print-works. It greenish hue, and immediately grows blue in may be added, that with madder, iron dyes the air on all parts, except where the brown black and purple, according to its strength; figure was. That resists, or throws off the alum dyes red of various shades; and a blue vat. Now, the blue vat contains a solumixture of the two dyes chocolate. So that tion of indigo in lime water. Indigo is one out of the same dye-kettle come various of the most insoluble substances in water; 18t 290 COTTON MANUFACTURES. but by means of copperas and lime, the New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. oxygen of the indigo is abstracted by the They printed 100,112,000 yards, at a value iron; it then becomes greenish and is dis- of $11,667,512. solved by the lime-water. Exposed to air, The exports of cotton goods from the it again absorbs oxygen and becomes blue. United States in 1827 were valued at $951,It is during this change from green to blue 000 for plain white cloths; $45,120 printed that it becomes chemically united to the and colored; $163,293 for yarn, etc.; making cloth. The brown figure resists, because it together $1,159,413. In 1857, the exports is a preparation of copper, which yields its of white had run to $3,463,230; and of oxygen to the indigo on the figure while in the printed to $1,785,685; dark and other manuvat. The figure becomes covered with blue facture, $866,262; together, $6,115,117. In indigo in the vat; it forms then no affinity 1868, the exports of cotton manufactures with the cloth, and consequently after the were $4,970,385. The American cottons are copper has been removed by a weak acid, much in demand in China, in consequence the brown spot or figure remains white, and of their heavier quality than the English or so is produced the blue ground with white Chinese goods. The value of cotton goods figures. The whole is a most exquisite imported in 1856 was $25,917,999; and the chemical process from beginning to end, average for sixteen years previous was $16,equalled only by the process for China blue, 758,418. In 1868, the importation of cotwhere blue figures are raised on a white ton manufactures were, in currency, $23,355,ground. This is done by printing on the 000. The imported goods are mostly of the figure with fine ground indigo thickened finer description, nearly all from England and with paste, and then by alternate immer- Scotland, and mostly into the port of New sions in lime water and copperas liquor, the York, under the credit system of sales. indigo is dissolved and fixed on the spots We may here add the progress of the where printed, by a play of chemical affini- trade in Great Britain — ties similar to those described in blue dip- Hose power. pinles. Looms. Cotton sed,lbs. A., 1.. 1 1 i. Hotse power. Spindles. Looms. Cotton used,lbs. ping. Black and white, and red or chocolate 185, 134,217 25,638,114 301,445 757,379,749 and white, are made bypassing the cloth 1857, 161,435 33.503,580 369.205 1,023.8865'8,. T1- * 4. 1868 32,000,014 379,329 1,005,4 63,536 through red or iron liquor, or their mixture, 1868, 32,000,014 37,329,005,463,53 and after squeezing, while the cloth is open The following comparative figures will and fiat, that is dried in hot flues. Every show the decline in the cost of the yarn, as part of the cloth is thus imbued with mor- a result of machinery;dant. The process is termed "pading." No. 40 yarn. 1812. 1830. 1857. dant.anks per spindle per day. 200 275 275 It is then printed with citric acid (lemon Cotton per lb............$0 36 $0 14 $0 12. juice) thickened with roasted starch. This Labor "......... 0 24 0 15 0 10 acid discharges the mordant, and conse- Cost yarn........... 0 60 29 0 22 quently, when dyed as usual, the discharged The manufacture progressed in this counfigures are left white. Logwood is the dye try according to the wants of the population, for black, and madder is the dye for reds and and these wants increased in the two-fold chocolates. The designing of patterns is a ratio of more means and greater numbers. distinct branch of art. Usually, one or The progress here was also more steady than more designers are employed in each estab- it is abroad, for the reason that the demands lishment. of the people were not curtailed by those In the year 1840, there were thirty-six periodical famines, which abroad cause every cotton-printing establishments in the United other consideration to yield to that of food. States. These were in New Hampshire, We may sum in the following table the pro-.Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, gress of the manufacture since 1809:COTTON MANUFACTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. No. of Ct Yards cloth Fcoie. Spindles. Hands. used. made. Capital. Factories. lbs. made. 1809..............62 31,000 4,000 3,600,000 1820........ 250,572.. 9,945,609 1831............ 795 1,246,503 57,466 77,757,316 230,461,990 $40,614,984 1840........... 1,240 2,284,631 72,119 132,835,856 398,507,568 51,102,359 I850.............. 1,074 4,052,000 97,956 276,074,100 828,222,300 76,032,578 1860............ 1,091 5,235,727 122,028 422,704,975 1,148,252,406 98,585,269 1869 e *.......... 831 7,023,883.. 470,000)000 1,410,000,000 PAPER: ITS MANUFACTURE.;291 The figures for 1809 are those of Mr. Gal- minished, but those running are larger, and latin, and those of 1820 those of the United the number of spindles, the amount of cotton States marshal. Those for 1831 are taken used, and the number of yards made is about fiom the report of the committee before allud- 25 per cent. greater than in 1860. The ed to, and the succeeding ones from the de- quality of the printed goods is better than it cennial censuses. The war, of course, effected was at that time, though that of the bleached material changes in the cotton manufacture, goods is not, owing to the introduction of both in enhancing the cost of the raw material short staple cotton in the weft. The manuand the manufactured product. The manu- facture will, doubtless, increase greatly, and facture of cotton yarns in the south and south- especially in the southern states, where a conwest at one time almost entirely ceased, and siderable saving can be effected in the transthe supply of cotton goods in that section was portation of cotton, and where a demand for obtained from England, and only by running better qualities of cotton goods is springing the blockade. The price of bleached cotton up. The female operatives at the south, are shirtings and sheetings, of good brands, mostly from the families of the poor whites, went up to 75 or 80 cents per yard for goods though a few factories employ colored wosold at 10 cents per yard or below, in 1861. men. In the north, the American-born facSpool cotton brought $1.25 to $1.50 per doz- tory girls, farmers' daughters, have very en, against 35 to 45 cents, in 1861. Since largely given place to Irish, German, Swedthe close of the war many new cotton manu- ish, and French wornen of less intelligence, factories have been started in the south. The and who are willing, generally, to work at total number of factories has somewhat di- somewhat lower wages. PAPER: ITS MANUFACTURE. CHAPTER I. fourteenth century that linen rags became generally the material. The first German MTERIALSPROGRSS. paper mill was established at Nuremberg in IF the question were put, "What single ar- 1390; some English manuscripts, however, tide has been of the greatest service to man- date as far back as 1340, on linen paper. kind?" mature reflection would, we think, The first English mill mentioned is in 1496, decide upon paper as that article, since it by John Tate, jun., in Hertfordshire. In has been the means by which thought and 1588 a paper mill was started at Dartford. ideas have been diffused, not only among It is to be conceived, however, that in that cotemporaries, but preserved, and, as it were, age, when books and newspapers were little accumulatedinmagazinesforfuture expansion used, and walls were draped with cloth, that and growth. All other inventions, and per- paper was not much in demand, and many haps the whole growth of civilization, are due improvements were not made in the manuto the material of paper. Every branch of facture. In the early part of the- eighteenth knowledge is reached, and every avenue to century, the manufacture was introduced into the wisdom of great minds and the results of the colonies. Mr. J. M. Willcox, a paper genius are explored only by means of paper, maker near Philadelphia, stated that in 1725 and its blessings are diffused through all ranks his grandfather, who had been educated a of society. Even he who, wrapt in his igno- paper maker, came over and settled where rance, despises " book larning," enjoys a part the mill now is, and he erected in 1732 a mill of thosebenefits of civilization whichpaperhas for the manufacture of paper. The kind of been the means of imparting to all. Like al- paper then made was of the description used most all great blessings, however, it has been by clothiers for press-boards, for the pressing developed most rapidly and completely in the of cloth. There existed at that time an act United States. Almost all vegetable sub- of parliament against the manufacture of any stances were used for the manufacture of pa- other kind of paper in the colonies. There per by our ancestors, but it was not until the were at that time two other mills in the same 292 PAPER: ITS MANUFACTURE. business, one near Boston and another near when ready, is called half stuff and is lei Philadelphia. The demand for paper at that off into the other engine, which is on a time, either for books or newspapers, was lower level, and this beats or grinds the small, and not of a character to attract much whole into pulp for making paper. capital into the business. When the war From the date of the Revolution until the came on, a demand sprung up, and Mr. Will- year 1820, there was very little improvement cox manufactured the paper for the conti- in the mode of making paper by machinery. nental money, and at the same time com- The number of mills increased in proportion meneed making writing paper for the first to the demand for material for newspapers time in America. and book-making. This grew in such a manThe Massachusetts Bay assembly, in 1728, ner, that by the year 1810 the ordinary suppassed an act for the encouragement of the plies of material for paper making began to paper manufacture. They granted to Daniel fail, and rags from Europe were imported in Henchman and others the right of making greater quantities for that purpose. The paper, on condition that within the first principal supplies of rags in the United fifteen months they would make 140 reams States came from the economy of families, of brown paper and sixty reams of printing purchased by ragmen who called-somepaper. Of this the board of trade report of times paying money, and at others exchang1731 says: "By a paper mill set up three ing tinware and other commodities. It is years ago, they make to the value of ~200." only of late years, and that in the large This, with the mill of Willcox and another cities, that the European chifonniers, or ragnear lPhiladelphia, were the only ones exist- pickers, have made their appearance. These ing at that time; but the trade grew to a are now to be seen, male and female, with considerable extent. Coxe, in his "Views of the early dawn, armed with a bag and a long the United States," says there were in 1794 iron hook, watching the opening and sweepforty-eight mills in Pennsylvania. In 1810, ing out of stores, to pick up every shred of the value of paper made in the United States rag or paper, and following the gutters the was about $2,000,000. The general govern- live-long day, thrusting the iron hook into ment, fiom its origin, did what it could to filth of all descriptions to fish out matter for encourage the manufacture, by making rags the paper maker. This they rinse in the free; curiously enough, however, after the nearest puddle, anddeposit i theirbag. Many fall of Napoleon, a considerable quantity of of them earn a fair living at this unpromising paper came to this country, and was bought occupation. Nevertheless, the supply is very up by the contractors to supply Congress; inadequate, and large importations are reand for a long time, up to 1825, the paper used sorted to. The quantity of imports is as fQlby the United States Senate bore the water lows:line, "Napoleon, Empereur et Roi, 1813." I O.. IMPORTATION OF RAGS INTO THE UNITED STATEq. It was about the year 1760 that the inven- agsimpoted. Of ich Per lb. tion of wove moulds was made to obviate the bs. from Italy. alue. cts. roughness of laid paper. This led to the 1846, 9897,706 8,002,865 $385,020 3.89 ainufacture intesso z France l led to 1847, 8,154,886 6,529,234 304,177 3.73 1:nmti lfacture in France of what is called, of wha s called 1848, 17,014,587 13,803,036 626,136 3.68 vellum paper. In Holland, soon after, the 1849, 14,941,236 11,009,608 524,437 2.51 manufacture was improved by the invention 1850, 20,696,875 15,861,266 747,157 3.61 of cylinders with long steel knives to reduce 1851, 26,094,701 18,512,673 902,876 3.46 the rags to pulp, thus superseding the old 1853 2868 12,0,9 6,86 34 1853, 22,766,000 14,171,292 985,465 4.31 plan, which was by stampers. It was then 1 32,615,53 4,240,999 1,00,826 3.69 1854, "32615,753 24,240,999 1,007,826 3.69 customary to pile the rags in large stone 1855, 40,013,516 23,948,612 1,224,413 3.06 vats, and let them remain for a month or six 1856, 38,727,017 20,817,204 1,239,168 3.20 weeks to ferment and rot by soaking and 1857, 44,582,080 27,317,580 1,448,125 3.27,1860, 43,300,000 30,310.000 1,448,400 3.27 stirring in water. By these means the fibres 1860, 43300,0 3 0,310,000 1,4,400 3.26 y 1862, 5,088,449 7,567,703 241,738 2.69 became loosened, and sufficiently soft to be 18 reduced to pulp in the large wooden stampers. It may be remarked that the export of The vats were now supplanted by engines. linen rags is strictly prohibited fromn olland, These are arranged in pairs. That which first Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal. The receives the rags is calledthe washer, working import from Italy has been nearly 70 per the rags coarsely, while a stream of water runs cent. The rags thence derived are mostly through them. The contents of this vat, linen which has been used for outer gar MATERIALS-PROGRESS. 293 ments, and which have become whitened by stock? We think these inquiries can be exposure to sun and air. That circumstance answered affirmatively in regard to the sparformerly gave them a value which they have tina fibre in the Missssisippi valley, the tele lost since the improvements in bleaching all rush on the Pacific, the okra at the south, descriptions. The linen rags fioml the north and perhaps, the marsh mallow, basswood, of Europe are stronger and darker. The the North Carolina brake, and refuse hay at quantity of rags used in the United States in the east. Straw will answer a good pui pose 1850 was, according to the value reported in for some descriptions of paper, such as straw the census, nearly 200,000,000 lbs., and 20,- paper and board, and many descriptions of 696,875 lbs. were imported in that year. papier-mache. It is used largely for news The inportation subsequently more than and cheap printing papers, but is too tender doubled, and it was estimated, in 1869, that and brittle to be of much value, both fioml the quantity used is 1,170,000,000 lbs.; and its excess of silica and the protracted bleachas 1- pounds of paper stock give one pound ing it requires to give it a good color. Of of paper, the product would be 780,000,000 course rags will be used so long as they can lbs. This compares with the English and be supplied at moderate rates, but they did French returns as follows:- not supply one-third of the 1,170,000,c00 pounds of paper stock consumed in 1869. PaS',perstocke Lb.e. The vast increase in the consumption of coIsured. annuarly. head eon1!. ). ls. - sumed. paper in the United States, which amounIts United Sttes..1,170,000,000 780,000,000 19.27 to almost six-fold in twenty years, and nearly Great Britain... 4148,800,000 298,700,000 34.55 France........ 235,200,000 140,083,447 3.89 three-fold in ten, is not due wholly, perhaps not mainly, to the increase in the produeThere is serious reason to fear that the tion of books, newspapers, and periodicals. supply of available paper stock will, within These have, indeed, made a wonderful ada few years, be so far inadequate to supply vance within ten years past, greater than the demand that the cost of paper will be any where else in the world; but during the greatly enhanced. Rags proved insufficient san]e time paper and paper pulp have been as long ago as 1862 or 1863, and resort has applied to a great number of new uses. since been had to other materials. A book Paper collars and cuffs alone consume several written in Germany by MI. Schaffer, so long million dollars' worth of paper; paper for ago as 1772, contains sixty specimens of stereotyping newspapers, making clothing, paper made of different materials. This in- the soles of shoes, boots, the walls of houses, genious person made paper fiom the bark of picture fiames, twine, roofing felt, sheathing the willow, beech, aspen, hawthorn, lime, for houses and ships, doors, boxes of all sizes and mulberry; fiomi the down of the ascle- and for all purposes, bags for flour, meal, pias, the catkins of black poplar, and the grain, and groceries of all sorts, bridges, tendrils of the vine; from the stalks of net- casts, artificial flowers, &c., &e., all consume tie, nlugwort, dyer's weed, thistle, bryony, such quantities that the wonder is that a burdock, clematis, willow-herb, and lily; sufficiency of stock can be obtained at any from cabbage-stalks, fir-cones, moss, potatoes, price. When, in addition to this, we renellmwood-shavings, and saw-dust. Paper has been ber that tile number of newspapers and penilikewise macde from straw, hopbind, licorice odicals now in circulation is nearly three root, the stalks of the mallow, the husks of times as great as it was ten years ago; that Indian corn, the unbroken flax and hemp the quantities of books sold have nearly or stalk, the canes, brakes, and giant rushes of quite doubled, we shall see that there is amthe Carolina coast, the tile rush of Califor- ple demand for all the paper we are likely to nia, the okra plant, the esparto grass, a be able to manufacture, and that the $72,Spanish heath growing on sandy plains in 000,000 worth manufactured in 1869 will that country, the spartina fibre of the Mis- become $100,000,000 by 1875, and $150,sissippi valley, and the aloes and agaves of 000,000 by 1880 or soon after. Texas, Mexico, and Central America. There Some thirty years since, after the great is no difficulty in making paper from any revulsion of 1837, cotton was so cheap that fibrous plant. The only questions to be an- large quantities were manufactured into paper. swered are: Can' the fibre be furnished in It is ordinarily too dear for that purpose. sufficient quantity, and at a price low enough When the rags are received at the mill, to compete successfully with other paper they are sorted according to their respective 294 PAPER: ITS MANUFACTURE. qualities; for if rags of different qualities The very coarse parts are rejected, or laid were ground together at the same engine, aside for making white-brown paper. the finest and best parts would be ground The paper was formerly made into sheets and carried off before the coarser were suffi- by means of the mould and deckle. The mould ciently reduced to make a pulp. In the was a square frame or shallow box of masorting of rags intended for the manufacture hogany, covered at the top with wire cloth; of fine paper, hems and seams are kept apart, it is an inch or an inch and a half wider and coarse cloth separated from fine. Cloth than the sheet of paper intended to be made made of tow should be separated from that upon it. The wire cloth of the mould varies made of linen; cloth of hemp from cloth of in fineness with that of the paper and the flax. Even the degree of wear should be nature of the stuff; it consists of a number attended to, for if rags comparatively new of parallel wires stretched across a frame very are mixed with those which are much worn, near together, and tied fast through holes in by the time the first are reduced to a good the sides; a few other stronger wires are pulp, the others are so completely ground up also placed across at right angles to the as to pass through the hair strainers, thus former; they are a considerable distance occasioning not only.loss of material but loss apart, and are bound to the small wires at of beauty in the paper; for the smooth, vel- the points of intersection by means of fine vet softness of some papers may be pro- wires. In several kinds of writing paper the duced by the finer particles thus carried off. marks of the wires are evident, from the paThe pulp produced from imperfectly sorted per being thinner in the parts where the rags has a cloudy appearance, in consequence pulp touches the wires. In what is called of some parts being less reduced than others, wove paper, there are no marks of the wires; and the paper made from it is also cloudy or these are avoided by weaving the wire in a thicker in some parts than in others, as is loom into a wire cloth, which is stretched evident on holding a sheet up before the over the frame of a mould, and being turned light. When it is necessary to mix differ- down over the sides is fastened by fine ent qualities of materials, the rags should be wire. ground separately, and the various pulps The water-mark in paper is produced by mixed together afterward. The rag mer- wires bent into the shape of the required chants sort rags into five qualities, known as letter or device, and sewed to the surface of Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. No. 1, or superfine, the mould; it has the effect of making the consisting wholly of linen, is used for the paper thinner in those places. The old finest w:iting papers. No. 5 is canvas, and makers employed water-marks of an eccenmay, after bleaching, be used for inferior trie kind. Those of Caxton and other early printing papers. There is also rag-bagging, printers were an ox head and star, a collared or the canvas sakls in which the rags are dog's head, a crown, a shield, a jug, etc. A packed, also cotton colored rags of all colors, fool's cap and bells employed as a waterbut the blue is usually sorted out for making mark gave the name to foolscap paper; a blue paper. Common papers are made from postman's horn, such as was formerly in use, rag-bagging and cotton rags. An operation gave the name to post paper. Connected sometimes required after unpacking the with the sizing of papers is the blueing, rags is to put them into a duster, which is a which is said to have originated in the sugcylinder four feet in diameter and five feet gestion of a paper maker's wife, who thought long, covered with a wire net, and inclosed that the practice of improving the color of in a tight box to confine the dust. A quan- linen while passing through the wash, by tity of rags being put into this cylinder, it means of a blue-bag, might also be advantais made to rotate rapidly on its axis, and geously applied to paper. A blue-bag was thus a great deal of dust is shaken out, which accordingly suspended in the vat, and the might otherwise vitiate the' air of the rag- effect proved to be so satisfactory that it led cutting room. The sorting is done by wo- to the introduction of the large and impormen and children in a large room. The rags tant class of blue writing paper. It was soon are sorted, according to their fineness, into found that smalt gave a better color than the superfine, the fine, the stitches of the fine, common stone-blue, and smalt continued to the middling, the seams and stitches of the be used for many years; but when artificial middling, and the coarse. These divisions ultramarine came to be manufactured at a are more or less observed at the present day. very low cost, and in a great variety of tints, iA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ FOURDBINIEB PAPER MACHINES. The pulp is drawn from the stuff-chest A into the va. and screen o; passing along over the Fourdrinier wire or fine wire-cloth B B, it enters on a heavy felt which passes between seveial sets of rolls c c c c, by which time the paper becomes well formed; it then passes through the dryers r>, which are heated by steam; thence to the finishing rolls or calenders; from these to the reels. The pulp on leaving the stuff-chest we should say consists of 49-5Oths of water. The process of draining is very rapid in passing over the wire-cloth; in addition to the natural drain, it passes the fiat surface of half round copper cylinders punctured with holes; these are exhausted by suction pumps. Machines are from 50 to 170 and 80 feet in length, and 4 to I7 fcet in width. For want of room we show only two drying cylinders and one stack of finishing caleuders. From four to eight of the former and one to three of the latter are used, exact duplicates. When paper is sent to niarket in reams instead of rolls, there is a cutter attached which cuts the paper the required size; it consists of revolving shears, one blade stationary. There is also a sizing apparatus attached when animal size is requii-ed, consisting of vat for size and cylinders. The whole is moved by a system of gearing and pulleys (not shown, being back of the machine,) the whole so devised as to move in perfect harmony, termed the draw of the machine. C 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iiii I F AW —MUFOURDRINIE R PAPE MACINES to te fnishng ollsor alenars fro thse to~~iv the ees.Th plpon eain te tuf-ces w soud ay oniss f 9-0th o wte. eproes o daiin is very rapd in passig over the ire-cloth;in additio two the aua dan t asste ltsrfc fhafrudcoprclidr untrdwthhls; hs r of he machine,)wnfro the whle o dvisd a tomov in perfect harmony, tormed the drawlon of the machdine. ieo iewr-lt, tetr nahayfl hc INVENTIONS-MANUFACTURE. 295 this beautiful color gradually superseded quantities within a few years past, found smalt in the manufacture of writing paper. some modification of their machinery necesFrom 1820 to 1830, some efforts were sary to enable them to succeed with their made to introduce into the United States new material. The manufactories using the machinery from Europe. England and North Carolina brake or swamp cane, (a speFrance were before us in its introduction. cies of bamboos,) reduced it to paper pulp or Several machines were sent out from Eng- fibre, by subjecting it to steam in an iron land; some very imperfect, and the cost too cylinder for some time and then suddenly great for our manufacture. The patronage exploding it as they would a cannon, by the then offered was no inducement to our own propulsive force of steam, against a solid machinists to construct so expensive a ma- stone wall. It was in this way torn into a chine until 1830, about which time Phelps mass of fine fibres, suitable for paper pulp. & Spofford of Windham, Connecticut, made The other materials now used for paper, all one which answered very, well. Soon after, require a somewhat different treatment from the country was supplied at a reasonable rags; some of them are much stronger than cost, and equal in quality to the best English. even the best linen rags. The spartina fibre Not long afterward, Howe & Goddard, of'found in the marshy bottoms of the MissisWorcester, Massachusetts, commenced mak- sippi River and its tributaries, makes a reing the Fourdrinier-the shaking endless markably tough and handsome paper under wire-web machine. The cylinder machine, proper treatment, sufficiently strong for bankmore simple and less costly than the other, note purposes, and its coarser qualities make is in more general use; but the paper made excellent flour bags. Paper is now made in on it is not equal in quality. Notwith- all sectionsof the country. Some of the best standing, it does very well for news, and the specimens of paper come fiom the Mississippi various purposes which a coarser article will valley, where formerly it was thought that the answer for. These are made in various water was not pure enough to make fine paper. places throughout the United States. The interval from 1830 to 1840 was important for the vast improvements in the manufacture, by the application of this kind of machinery CHAPTER II. for that purpose; also, by the introduction VENTIO-MAUF of the use of chlorine in the form of gas, of INENTION-MANUFATUR chloride of lime, and the alkalies, lime and THE slow and difficult process of moulding soda-ash, in bleaching, cleansing, and dis- the separate sheets of paper by hand, has to charging the colors from calicoes, worn out a very great extent been superseded by the sails, refuse tarred rope, hernp bagging, and introduction and gradual improvement of cotton waste, the refuse of the cotton mills. the very beautiful machinery of Fourdrinier. These articles, which heretofore had been By means of this machine, a process which, considered only applicable for the manufac- under the old hand system, occupied a couple ture of coarse wrapping paper, have, through of weeks, is now performed in a few minthe application of this bleaching and cleans- utes. Within this brief space of time, ing process, entered largely into the com- and the short distance of thirty or forty position of news and coarse printing papers, feet, a continuous stream of fluid pulp is and consequently have risen in value 300 made into paper, dried, polished, and cut up per cent. A few mills possess machinery into separate sheets ready for use. The and adopt a process by which they are pre- paper thus produced is moderate in price, pared for the finest printing and letter paper. and, for a large number of purposes, superior A beautiful paper is made of cast-off cable in quality to that which was formerly made rope. Hemp bagging is an excellent ma- by hand. In fact, the machine-made papers terial for giving strength, and is in great de- can be produced of unlimited dimensions; mand, especially for making the best news they are of uniform thickness; they can be paper. The cost of making paper by ma- fabricated at any season of the year; they do chinery, compared with that of making it by not require to be sorted, trimmed, and hung the old method (by hand), not taking into up in the drying-house-operations which account the interest on cost and repair of formerly led to so much waste that about machinery, is about as one to eight. The one sheet in every five was defective. The mills which have been using straw in great paper machine moves at the rate of from 296 PAPER: ITS MANUFACTURE. twenty-five to forty feet per minute, so that I and is then called glazed. The general inscarcely two minutes are occupied in con- troduction of steel pens has increased the verting liquid pulp into finished paper, a demand for smooth papers, and has led to result which, by the old process, occupied improvements in finishing them. As an about seven or eight days. If the machine improvement in the manufacture of paper produce ten lineal yards of paper per minute, sized by the machines now in use, it is proor six hundred yards per hour, this is equal posed to conduct the web of paper, after it to a mile of paper in three hours, or four has been either partially or completely dried, miles per day of twelve hours. -The paper through a trough of cold water, then to pass is about fifty-four inches wide, and suppos- it through a pair of pressing rollers, and aftering three hundred machines to be at work on ward to dry it on reels, or over hot cylinan average twelve hours a day, the aggregate ders. Trie paper which has been thus treated length of web would be equal to 1,200 will be found to "bear" much better, and miles, and the area 3,000,000 square yards. admit of erasures being made on its surface, Paper is sent into market in various forms and written over, without the ink running in and sizes, according to the use for which it the way it does when the paper is sized and is intended. "The following table contains dried in the usual manner. It has been the names and dimensions of various sheets found that when paper is dried, after sizing, of paper. by the drying machines in present use, the Inches. paper is very harsh, and until it stands for Foolscap.....................14 y 1 some time to get weather (as it is technically Crown.......................15 " 20 Folio post.................. 16 " 21 termed) great difficulty is experienced in Demy............. 1 "L 22 glazing the paper. This inconvenience is Medium......................19" 24 proposed to be overcome by passing the Royal........................20,L 25 paper partially round a hollow cylinder, Super-royal.................. 22 " 2 through which a small stream of cold water I-mperial.....................22 " 32 Medium and half..............24 " 28 is made to run. By this means the heat is Royal and half................25 " 29 carried off, and the paper is rendered more Double Medium............... 24 " 38 tractable, and brought to a proper state for Double super-royal............ 27 42 undergoing the glazing operation. Double imperial...............32 " 44 We may describe the modern process of Many of the papers above enumerated paper making, by detailing the operations are made by hand of the exact size indica- as carried on in large mills. The visitor ted, but if made by the machine, the roll goes up to the second story, into a room of paper has to be cut to the required di- some sixty by eighty feet, in which girls are mensions. In order to do this with pre- engaged assorting the rags. Here are nucision and expedition, various cutting ma- merous bales of -white rags, foreign and dochines have been contrived, in which the mestic. The imported are linen, the others paper, as it comes from the manufacturing cotton. In the same room these rags are machine, is cut to any size required. Fine cut by a machine, driven by power, which papers are, in many cases, hot-pressed and fits them for the subsequent processes. They glazed. In hot-pressing, a number of stout are next sent into a rotary boiler of about cast iron plates are heated in an oven, and two tuns capacity, into which steam is adthen put into a screw press in alternate mitted, and the rags boiled. Next they are layers, with highly glazed paste-boards, cast down on a floor in the first story, where between which the paper is placed in open they are put into cars, on which they are sheets; and the hard-polished surface of the conveyed to the washing engines. Two pasteboards, aided by the heat and pressure, engines are employed in washing, called rag imparts that beautiful appearance which be- engines. These engines, play in tubs of an longs to hot-pressed paper. A yet more oval form, of large capacity, each containing smooth and elegant surface is produced by perhaps 200 lbs. of rags. The impelling theprocess ofglazing. The sheetsofpaperare power, steam or water, causes the revolution placed separately between very smooth, clean, of a roller, set with knives or bars of cast copperplates. Thesearethen passedthrough steel inserted in it longitudinally. This rollers, which impart a pressure of twenty to roller is suspended on what is called a lighter, thirty tons. After three or four such pres- by which it may be raised or lowered at sures the paper acquires a higher surface, pleasure upon a plate, consisting of bars of INVENTIONS-MANUFACTURE. 297 steel, set up edgewise. Passing now between water, and then between a second, pair of this and the plate, the rags are reduced to press-rollers, which remove the mark, of the fibre. A stream of pure water is then con- felt from the under surface; and finally it is veyed into the rao engine, and, by means of passed over the surface of cylinders heated a cylinder covered with gauze wire, the dirty by steam, and when it has passed over about water is passed off. This cylinder, called a thirty lineal feet of heated surface, it is patent washer, is octagonal in shape, some wound upon a reel ready for cutting. Forty thirty inches in length, revolving in the en- years ago three men could by hand manugine, and having buckets within it, corres- facture 4,Q00 sheets in a day. The same ponding with the sides of the washer. By number now by the aid of machinery will this process the rags are washed perfectly make 60,000. clean in from three to six hours. From the time of the Revolution the quanThe bleaching process is performed by the tity of paper imported has been gradually insertion into this engine of a strong solution decreasing; and before the revision of the of the chloride of lime and some acid, to cause tariff in 1846, had dwindled to perhaps not a reaction. The pulp is then emptied into more than 2 per cent. of the amount conlarge cisterns, covered with the bleach liquor sumed, with the exception of wall papers, of it contains, where it is allowed to remain which large quantities were imported, and from twelve to twenty-four hours to bleach. still continue to be, from France. The ilIt is then drained, put into the beating en- portations now of writing and drawing paginc, and reduced to a pulp, the consistency pers and bristol board, consist of considleraof milk, which it much resembles. This ble quantities of thin French and Glerman pulp is emptied into a large cistern, in a paper, mainly for foreign or flancy corresvault beneath, and kept in motion by means pondence, and drawing paper, and bristol of an agitator revolving in it. It is then boards fronm England, France, and Austria. raised by a lifting pump into a small cistern, The reduced price of machine paper has from which it is drawn off by'a cock-which forced almost all manufiacturlers to abandon is opened more or less, according to the the old method. There were, a few years thickness of the paper intended to be made- since, only two mills in operation in the on to a strainer, which removes the knots, United States in which it was made by sand, or hard substances that may damage hand-one in Massachusetts, and one in the paper, and then flows upon a leathern Pennsylvania. There is a limited quantity apron, which conducts it to an endless wire of peculiar kinds, that can be better made cloth, over which the web of paper is form- by hand than on a machine, such as banked. This wire cloth is'kept constantly note, laid letter, deed pareliments, and such vibrating, which both facilitates the escape as are used for documents that are much of water and the felting together of the handled, and require great strength and fibres of the pulp. The wire cloth, with the diurability. Within the last few years some pulp upon it-the edges being protected by improvement has been made in the finish of deckle-straps-passes on until it comes to a writing and printing papers, by the introduccouple of wet-press cylinders, as they are call- tion of iron and paper calenders for the pured, the lower of whichl is of metal, but cover- pose of giving a smooth surface. The finish ed with a jacket of felting or flannel; the of American papers is now equal to any in upper one is of wood, made hollow, and cov- the world. ered first with mahogany, and then with The quantity of paper required for the flannel. These cylinders give the gauze with newspaper service of the country is probably the pulp upon it a slight pressure, which is 200,000,000 Ibs. per annum, which would repeated upon a second pair of wet-press allow a circulation of 1,000,000,000 sheets. rolls similar to the first. The paper is then There would remain 300,000,000 Ibs. of led upon an endless felt or blanket, which paper for the service of the book trade, and travels at exactly the same rate as the wire the trade and publications of the religious cloth, while the latter passes under the cyl- societies. inders, and proceeds to take up a new supply The use of paper in part or wholly for of pulp. The endless felt conveys the paper, collars, cuffs, shirt fronts, &i~~~~~~ T i ,.:B~ >,. / k~~~~~~~BAKBA FOX. OTTER. BEAVERS. ~. 6, ///// -N jj)J /1/1/1AEIA SABLE I~~ ~ / Ii,~~~L-~~~~nS~~~A a~~~"~'.~~~~~~.'UYI ""/~~~~~~~I~~I"III'\~?'~"" i'" 5, / ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -— ~ — -= -Z ---- ------ MITSK(QUAH, A/N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 ~~~~~~-'Nz..j.. 17_".. "'A&MERICAN SABLE. FURS, AND FUR TRADE. 347 quality, to the lower grades of Russian sable. peltry. When stored, it is essential to keep The mink is the most popular fur for the them perfectly dry; and to guard against insame use, owing to its moderate price, com- jury from moths, camphor and tobacco are bined with good qualities, and a set of the strewed among them; and they must be finest is worth from $100 to $200. This examined every few weeks, and each skin and the sables are often ingeniously imitated be beaten with a stick in order to cause the by dyeing some of the cheaper sorts, as worms of the moth to fall upon the floor, rabbit's fur, so that even experienced per- when they are crushed by treading upon them. sons are sometimes deceived. The stone The first process of the furrier is to soften marten has been a fashionable fur, but the pelt. This is done, with the finer kinds, though very handsome, it is giving place to by placing them in a tub with a quantity of those sorts of darker shades. It is distin- butter and trampling them. After stripping guished by a white underground, and over off the loose pieces of skin, they are again this is the exterior shading ot a light brown trampled in sawdust (that of mahogany stone color. A fine set of this has usually being preferred), the effect of which is to sold for from $125 to $150. Fitch makes a remove the grease, and the cleaning process good serviceable fur, but was never very is completed by occasionally beating with a fashionable. It is of yellowish hue, mel- stick and combing the fur. The skins are lowed down in the best varieties by a long, now ready for the cutter, who from a large thick overgrowth of dark brown. Sets of number cuts out pieces of various shapes, the darker shades are worth from $50 to whice are then sewed together to make up $75, and others considerably less. Muskrat the various articles of fur dresses. Each cape, furs are sold under various names, as river muff, etc.,is thus made up of pieces fiom difmink, marsh marten, American sable, and ferent skins, and the numerous seams are conFrench mink, and are worth in a full set cealed on the outside by the fur itself, and on from $28 to $35. The French cony. called the inside by the lining. also French sable, is a French rabbit, colored Furs that are to be used forfelting require brown, with black stripes through the mid- first the separation of the long hairs. This dle of the skin, in imitation of mink and is effected after the skins have been split, sable. A set of this fur, of best quality, scraped, and pressed, by either clipping them costs from $20 to $25. Two sorts of squir- down to the length of the short hairs, or rel furs are made up, and mostly for chil- pulling them out one by one as each is dren's wear alone. One is entirely gray, and seized between a knife-blade and the thumb. the other mixed gray and white, and their When carefully trimmed and pressed, the value is from $25 to $40 the set. The skin is well moistened with water, and being white fur worn by children is of the miniver held upon a board of willow-wood, the fur is and white cony. Sets of furs are complete cut off close to the pelt by means of a sharp, with a victorine or small cape in the place rough-edged knife. The whole clipping of the large one, and are, of course, furnished is kept in one fleece by means of a piece of at considerably less cost. Fur overcoats for tin held in the left hand, and up which the gentlemen are rarely seen in this country. fur is slipped as it is cut. The rabbits' fur A few have been introduced from Russia of imported for the hatters is received in these great elegance, both sides being of rich fur, light, loosely cohering fleeces, each being the so that either might be worn outside. Ladies fur of one animal. The skins of the beaver in the cities often preserve their expensive and nutria require much more thorough furs during the summer, by depositing them cleaning to remove the fat from the pelt and with the fur dealers, who take the same care the grease from the fur, as by repeated of them as of their own stock. scrubbing with soap and hot water. The The mechanical processes to which furs are thick, closely matted fur of the former has subjected arefew and simple. The skinswhen been successfully cut by machine knives, stripped from-the animals are merely dried an operation that has always failed when in the sun, in order to protect them against applied to the more uneyen and thinner putrefying. Those of small size are often kinds of fur. Some chemical preparations first steeped in a solution of alum for more have been used to separate the fur from the efficient protection, but the operation is ob- pelt, but they are generally found to be jectionable, as the alum weakens the pelt. objectionable, as they destroy in part the They are made up into bales, and are called felting property. HATS. CHAPTER I. from being a fashionable hat, finally came to be appropriated to military officers, by whom EARLPY HISTORRYT-MANUFAT URE-TM- it is still worn as a badge of rank. The Quakers alone adhered to the old broad FROM an early period in the history of brims, making it, it is said, a point of manufactures in the United States, the pro- faith not to wear a button or a loop, and duction of hats appears to have been prose- wore their hats " spread over their heads like cuted with considerable success. As far a pent-house, darkening their outward man back as the year 1732, the business was so to signify they have the inward light." In successfully carried on in New England and the other extreme there were fashionable New York as to lead to complaints among hats, like ladies' bonnets of the present time, the hatters of London, and representations of too small to serve as a covering for the head; the injurious effects upon the trade were in such a hat was conveniently carried under consequence made by the London Board of the arm, and in fashionable calls furnished a Trade to the House of Commons. Being pleasant diversion to its owner, who twirled the most conspicuous article of dress, the hat it upon the head of his cane. naturally was an object of particular solici- Many of the soft hats of our ancestors were, tude, and much more latitude was allowed in no doubt, very fair articles of hand workgiving to it peculiar and fanciful forms than manship. They possessed abundance of at the present time. And if our fathers material, and used the choice fur of the failed to produce fine specimens of manufac- beaver more lavishly than hatters have of turing skill, we must admit that, in adopt- late been able to afford. Their mode of ing the graceful forms of the high Spanish felting was the same as that now practised hat, with its rounded brim, and ornaments where machinery is not introduced, and of plumes, or loops and tassels, they cer- their methods of shaping hats over blocks, or tainly excelled us in their appreciation and sizing," were probably as skilfully conselection of pleasing shapes, instead of such ducted as at the present time. But in the prostiff and avkward forms as those of the duction of the stiff pasteboard hats, covered fashionable hat of the present day. There with a sheet of fur or other material, the was, however, with them, quite as great a processes in use were comparatively rude, variety of hats as with us, both in material and have so continued down to within a few and in figure. The common hats were of years past. Within our own recollection, rough felt, usually of wool, or of wool and the hatter in almost every village made the fur-sometimes of fur alone-and. the prac- hats he sold, felting his own materials and tice was early introduced of covering the forming the bodies over his blocks, and wool body with a plating of fine fur, felted covering with them the stiff and clumsy by hand into the outside of the coarser ma- cylinders of pasteboard, shaped, as near as terial. The body was stiffened or not with might be, to the prevailing forms of the day. glue, and sometimes water-proof stiffened The fur of the musquash and beaver were with gum shellac. The round crowns of the used, often plated upon a body of lamb's early part of the century had given place, wool; and the choicest beaver hats were in the better kinds of hats, to flat tops, plated with the finest fur of the animal, taken and the broad brims of some were turned from the belly and cheeks. This, too, came up and looped, first on one side, then on to be used upon bodies of rabbits' fur, of another, and at last on the third, till it be- which the so-called beaver hats at last were came the regular three-cocked hat. This, chiefly made; and as beaver became scarce, EARLY IIISTORY-MANUFACTURE-IMPROVEMENTS. 349 nutria, from a South American animal of lot is mixed together, and to every 4 or 5 this name, was very generally substituted ounces (the usual quantity for a felt hat) - for it. The hatter was provided with dyeing to - an ounce of the finest carded cotton is kettles, in which the complex materials of added; and at the same rate for the lighter his hat bodies were brought to a uniform fashionable hats, the weight of which is black shade; and there was a variety of ap- about 3 ozs. Picking machines, revolving paratus for steaming, shaping, and finishing, with great velocity, and creating, in a capaall of which involved laborious hand-work- cious box, a powerful current of air, cause ing, and more or less mechanical skill, to the fur to be well mixed, the operation being produce the small number of hats required repeated to make it thoroughly effectual. by the men and boys of the village. The long hairs and bits of pelt are then Within a few years a complete revolution separated by what is called the blowing maha& been effected in this business. Ma- chine. This consists of pickers, which rechmery has been almost wholly substituted volve several thousand times in a minute, for hand labor in preparing the materials of and strike out tme coarse hairs and heavy hats, and this is now done upon an immense particles, which fall upon a screen, while the scale in a few of the large cities, whence the light hairs are blown upward -nd carried hat bodies, or the finished hats, are sent for forward to another compartment, where the the supply of the country. The effect of same process is repeated. The screens are this has been to furnish hats of uniformly kept in agitation, and the coarse particles better quality than were made by hand, at are finally shaken off at the feet of the man greatly reduced cost, and to carry the manu- who feeds the machine, and by him they are facture to such perfection that the American again passed through to save the fur that hat is now distinguished as the lightest and adheres to them. The dust escapes through best produced in any country. In England, the perforated copper covering of the mathe American is often recognized by the ex- chine, and the clean fur is delivered at the cellence of his hat. For this we are in part extreme end in a fine flocculent condition, indebted to the greater dryness of our cli- readily worked into a mat by felting, as is mate, the moisture of England rendering it shown by rolling a little of it between the necessary to give more body and stiffening fingers. In the large factory of the Messrs. to the hats exposed to its influence. This Burr & Co., about 30 of these machines is not so much the case in France, and hats are kept in operation, and the quantity of there approach more nearly the quality of fur prepared by them is enough for about our own. 10,000 hats daily. This number of hat In New York city the business in the com- bodies has been produced at this factory for mon felted hats of wool and of fur, which several months together. Two steam enmake no pretensions as works of mechani- gines are employed by turns, one of which cal skill, is carried on upon an immense is of 400, and the other of 200 horse power. scale in numerous establishments; and it is The fur used to be. felted altogether by stated that the commission houses and agen- the hand process: but various improved cies engaged in this trade, which are con- methods have been devised for lessening centrated chiefly in the lower part of Broad- the labor; and the best of these are of way, sell over 5,000,000 hats annually. American origin. By the process invented The business in stiff hats is quite a dis- by Mr. Thomas Blanchard, of Boston, the tinct branch, and their manufacture is ex- fur was made to collect upon a fine wire tended through several different establish- gauze, and there take the form of a matted ments. The making of the bodies is almost ribbon, by exhausting the air beneath so as monopolized by the firm of Messrs. Henry A. to create a strong current of air from the reBurr & Co., of New York city, and by their ceptacle in which the particles of fur were patented machinery, supplied to agents in a kept floating in the air. This ribbon being few other cities. They receive from the wound around a double conical block, of the hatters, who buy of the importers, lots of size of two hat bodies, was then joined along rabbits' fur-the chief supplies of which the overlapping edges by rubbing. The come from towns near the German Ocean, as method of Messrs. Burr & Co. is an imFrankfort-on-the-Main, Brussels, etc. Some provement upon this, perfected by Mr. of poorer quality is also obtained from Vir- Henry A. Wells and Mr. Burr. A cone of ginia and North Carolina. The fur of each sheet copper, considerably larger than a hat 350 HATS. body, punched full of small round holes, is timated at 56 cents each. The new maset upright, and made to revolve slowly chines, called "formers," employ, each one, upon a vertical spindle. An exhausting fan two men and a boy to tend them, and under it rotates about 4,000 times in a another man is occupied in rolling and putminute, causing a strong current of air to ting up the bodies. Their production is draw through the holes from the outside. 400 a day, and the cost of the labor emAgainst the cone is the mouth of a sort of ployed is rated at from six to ten cents for trunk, or long box, in the opposite end of each hat. which the fur is fed in quantities just suf- The " sizing" of the bodies, as performed ficient, each time, for one hat body. The by the manufacturers of felt hats, and those fur is taken up from the feeding apron by a who prepare then for the makers of silk cylindrical brush, and thrown forward by hats, consists chiefly in rubbing a pile of the the rapid revolutions of this, which also bodies after they have been dipped in kot create a current of air that blows the fur water, and rolled in a blanket upon a sloping toward the mouth of the box. From thence plank table, that forms the margin of a large it is seized by the exhausting current, and central tank. This is called the hat-maker's drawn down upon the cone, covering this battery, and is large enough for eight to completely, while it is turning round sixteen twelve men to work around it. By rubbing times. The workman standing by picks off the bodies they soon felt together more any coarse particles that fall in with the closely, and are reduced to the proper sizes rest, and as soon as the deposit is completed, for hats. Those intended for silk hats are he lays a wet cloth over the cone, and called shells; and in this condition are sent places over all a loosely fitting metallic to the factories where these hats are made up. cover. He then lifts off the whole, and im- Silk hats, which are the latest and most merses it in a tank of hot water, replacing a perfect improvement in this art, are made by new cone immediately, to receive the next covering the stiffened fur bodies or shells with hat body. The effect of the hot water is to black plush specially prepared for this use, make the particles'of fur cohere more closely and supplied to the trade from France, the together. When taken out of the water the best dyed coming from the manufactory of mat is placed in a piece of blanket, and Martin, of Paris. This business is carried on worked by the hand upon a table. It is in several large establishments in New York, then squeezed, to press out the water, and Philadelphia, and other cities; and from folded, to be pressed with others, and made these the fashionable hatters are supplied up with them into bundles for the hatters. with hats made to order and marked with The shape of these bodies is that of a wide, their names. The country trade is also supopen-mouthed bag, of a size much larger plied from the same sources, but with hats than the hat. They are very soft, and toler- rather heavier and stronger than those made ably strong, and are afterward reduced to for city wear. The latter weigh when finishthe required dimensions and shape by the ed only about three ounces, and are not process called "sizing," which is done by usually expected to continue in wear more the makers of felt hats for themselves, and than a few months; not because of their befor most of the larger manufacturers of silk coming shabby in this time, but because hats by intermediate establishments specially slight changes in the form are continually devoted to this object. introduced, which wearers must adopt to The immense advantage gained by these keep in the fashion; and in the city there is improvements, is seen in the enormous pro- more disposition and means for always wearduction of the factory of Messrs. Burr & Co., ing the best. which, in 1856, amounted to about 3,000,000 The manufacture involves a variety of prohat bodies, besides about an equal number cesses, each of which, after the most ecomade by their machines in other cities. nomical system of division of labor, is conThese were, moreover, of uniform quality, ducted by workmen specially devoted to this according to the kind of fur used, and alone. By one set of hands the soft shells every one free from imperfection. By the are first subjected to the operation of waterold method, it was the labor of a skilful proof stiffening. They are dipped one at a man to form four or five bodies in a day; time in a weak solution of shell-lac, then and these were generally inferior to the slipped over a block, and partially brought machine-made bodies. Their cost was es- into shape by rubbing with the hands. The EARLY HISTORY-MANUFACTURE-IMPROVEMENTS. 351 brim and tip (or edges of the top) are then The silk plush has been in the meantime albrushed over with a thicker coating of the ready prepared by sewing a circular piece for gum to give additional stiffness to these covering the top, with great nicety to the parts. When dry, a hot iron is applied, piece which surrounds the body, the two which has the effect on cooling, of giving. edges of: which meet in a line up and down greater hardness and solidity to the material; the side of the hat. The brim is covered by The next application is a coating of fine glue a separate piece above and below, and the'or gelatine, the object of which is to prevent edges ofthese pieces are afterward concealed the varnish of seed-lac, which is next laid on, under the binding and the band. A hot iron from striking in. The hats are after this is applied,, in order to smooth the plush and taken to the finishing-room, and here are cause it to adhere to the varnish, which is first shaped and trimmed, to the exact pat- softened by the heat of the iron. After tern sent with the orders from the retail hat- being lined and trimmed, the hat is finally ters. In this operation brass gauges of a smoothed and shaped with a hot iron, and variety of forms are made use of, by which the precise curve required is given to the the exact dimensions and shapes required brim, the finishing of which demands the are secured without the slightest. deviation. skill of a practical workman. - ~ —-— c —-- —; —-= I —— ~. "lil.. —.-'IlL^__ -— I........... --- - ----— O~Z~=IZ~~==; P; — ____. __ -— ~~~~~~~~~ —-— ^ I~~~~~ —~~ —----— ~~~ --— ~ —------ - ----------— Z1;L ~:~-=~I;~~-~*c- i _C- -_.^_. __._- r -- -= = — -- - - i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —-\_~- = _. =_=IEW OF = MCKERING SONS' PIANO-FORTE -AG TREMONT STREET, BOSTON_ _m_11 P_ IEW o3f CRICIERTNGI g, 53oss PIMS~O-]OR~Es MABUFAGTO&P, TREB4ONT BTIEEP, BOSTON. INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. THE great progress of this country, as the demand rewards the genius and judgevinced in the developments of the preced- ment of the manufacturer with a fortune. ing articles, is manifest to the civilizedworld, In almost all cases, but little money capital in the position which the country occupies was possessed at the commencement, but among the nations of the earth. If we have there was a better capital than mere money followed the progress of each leading branch, in the self-reliant genius of the indomitable from small beginnings up to the magnificent American. These individuals have remodresults that they now display, it has been to elled old manufacturing processes with imshow that these results, great as they are, are provements, and created others, giving embut the preliminary to that career which the ployment to thousands of workers, and crefuture promises. It is to be borne in mind ating interchangeable values for the great that the capital of the country had to be natural products of the country'; in other created, and that the large enterprises could words, finding a market for labor which be carried out only by an accumulation of would otherwise not have been available. capital that grew as it was applied. The In the present'article we will explore a manufactories, the mines, the finances, the number of the leading industries of this railroads of the country, were nearly all car- nature. ried on by associated capital acting through corporate bodies. Underlying those vast undertakings, however, are the broad fields of individual industry, where every man, de- BUILDINGS AND BUILDING MATERIAL. pending only on his own skill and perseverance, not only, as it were, created an in- AMONG the marvellous evidences of the dustry, but devised the means of making advancing wealth and luxury of the Ameriit useful. The inventive genius of the peo- can people, the multiplication and improveple has been systematically applied to the ment of dwellings are very conspicuous. improvement of qualities of goods made, at The official figures in relation to the numthe same time that the cost of manufacture bers and values of dwellings in the country has been cheapened. The field of individual are indeed not very abundant or very preindustries may be explored with quite as cise. There are materials, however, which, much interest and admiration as those which put together, give a pretty accurate estihave been opened by the application of in- mate of the enormous investments in dwellcorporated capital. The wonderful results ings. that have been obtained have been accom- In 1798 the number of dwellings and their panied by the.fortunes of the enterprising value in all the states, was given in the taxmen that have produced them. It is the list laid before Congress. The values given case sometimes with corporate capital'that in the official tax list at the end of the last the greatest enterprises are carried out sue- century not only apply to a class of dwellcessfully for the public interests while the ings far less costly than the average of capital invested in them has been sunk. In those now in vogue, but it was at a time the case of individual operation, a combina- when money or capital was of a higher tion of mechanical inventions, of industry value relatively. The number and value classified, of raw materials judiciously as- of the houses then reported may be comsorted, and of directing skill, produces ar- pared with the number of dwellings reported tides that, before unknown or unappreciated in the United States Census of 1850, as by the public, have become necessities, and follows; 354 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. NUMBER AND VALUE OF DWELLINGS IN THE UNITED STATES. 1798. 1850. No. dwellings. Value. No. dwellings. Value. Maine.................... part of Massachusetts. 95,802 $72,109,000 New Hampshire............. 11,142 $4,146,938 90 57,339 43,004,250 Vermont.................. 5,437 1.558,389 36 56,421 42,315,750 Massachusetts.............. 48,984 24,546,826 46 152,835 114,626,250 Rhode Island.......... 7,037 2,984,002 87 22,379 16,784,250 Connecticut.............. 23,465 8,149,479 28 64,013 48,009,150 New York................ 33,416 25,495,631 39 473,936 354,452,000 New Jersey............... 19,624 9,149,918 84 81,064. 60,798,000 Pennsylvania............... 51,772 29,321,048 33 386,216 289,662,000 Delaware................ 5,094 2,180,165 83 15,290 11,464,500 Maryland................ 16,933 10,738,286 63 81,708 61,281,000 District of Columbia............ 7,917 5,937,750 Virginia................. 27,693 11,248,267 67 165,815 124,361,270 North Carolina.......... 11,760 2,932,893 09 104,996 78,747,000 South Carolina......... 6,427,008,292 93 52,642 39,481,500 Georgia.......... 3,446 1,797,631 25 91,206 63,404,500 Florida................. 9,022 6,766,500 Alabama......................73,070 54,807,500 Mississippi................. 51,681 38,760,750 Louisiana................... 49,101 36,825,750 Texas....................... 27,988 20,991,000 Arkansas................ 28,252 21.189,000 Tennessee......... 1,030 286,446 83 129,419 97,065,750 Kentucky.................. 3,339 1,139,765 13 130,769 98,076,250 Missouri............ 96,849 72,344,850 Illinois..................... 146,544 109,908,000 Indiana............. 170,178 127,629,500 Ohio........................ 336,098 252,073,530 Michigan..................... 71,616 53,712,000 Wisconsin............ 56,316 42,237,000 Iowa..................... 32,962 29,971,500 California................... 23,742 17,806,500 Minnesota Territory........... 1,002 751,500 New Mexico Territory...... 13,453 10,089,750 Oregon Territory............. 2,374 1,780,500 Utah Territory............. 2,322 1,741,500 Total..............276,559 $140,683,984 77 3,362,337 $2,520,967,400 Number of churches...... 36,221 87,049,459 The national census of 1850 did not give If, then, we assume $750 as the average the value of the dwellings, but the state cen- value of the dwellings in the whole Union, sus of New York for 1855 gave not only the the result for 1850 will be an aggregate of dwellings but their value and material of $2,521,752,750 invested in dwelling-houses, construction. By that census it appears being an increase of $2,381,068,765 in 52 there were in New York 522,325 dwell- years, or nearly $50,000,000 per annum for ings, worth $664,899,967, or an average of 52 successive years, in addition to the $1,267 each. The average for stone houses $87,049,459 invested in churches. The was $6,526. These are mostly the better sums absorbed by other public buildings are class of houses belonging to the. wealthy in- not specified. The building which has been habitants of towns. The whole number of done in the last ten years by far exceeds that these is 7,536, of which 1,617 are in New ratio. Thus the New York State census York city, and worth $32,267,340, or an gives the number of dwellings in 1855 at average of $20,000 each. In the remaining 522,325 against 473,936 in 1850, an increase portion of the state the stone houses are of 48,389, or more than 10 per cent. in five 5,919 in number and $16,917,479 in value, years. Comparing dwellings to the populaor an average of nearly $3,000 each. The tion, the results are as follow - New York stone houses and hotels are ex- UNITED STATES. ceptions, being the most luxurious display N Free Persons to of the wealthy few. The number of brick population each house. o e i er......... 276,659 4,412,884 19.00 houses is 57,450, average, $5,433; and of 1850..........3,362,337 20,059,399 5.94 frame houses, 397,638, average value $748. 1860....4,333,730 28,000,000 6.00 frame ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~16 houses,..4,333,70270,0.0 BUILDINGS AND BUILDING MATERIALS. 355 NEW YORK STATE. In the United States, not only does this No. Population. peouse vast annual demand for 130,000 new houses PNl~ulaton. per house. 1198........... 33,416 586,754 19.00 exist, but every year brings improvements in 1850...........473,936 3,097,394 6.53 the style of construction and the luxurious1855...........522,325 3,466,212 6.64 ness of accommodation. The simple frame The number of persons to a dwelling was buildings that generally spring up on the greater in New York in 1850 than the aver- outskirts of cities, are, before they are yet age of the Union, and that number slightly old, required to give place to brick buildings, increased; in the next five years that increase since the spreading population carries the muwas again narrowed to the city of New York, nicipal laws which forbid wooden structures where the crowd of foreign arrivals and large over larger limits. The brick buildings that hotels and boarding-houses raised the num- supplant the frame must also be more subher of persons to 15 for each house. stantial, since the same fire laws also preThe population of Philadelphia and the scribe the thickness and stability of the number of dwellings are as follow:- walls. Wealth follows with its more pretenPopulation. D. P r tious style, and brown stone or marble palPopulation. Dwellings. aces rear their stately fronts on what was 1850............. 408,162 61,278 6.10 lately an open lot. With the improved 1860..............568,034 89,978 6.05 style of houses there is a constant ambition In Philadelphia the increase of dwellings to occupy a "modern house," or one with per cent. appears to be greater than the pro- the "modern improvements," which may be gress of the population. enumerated as, warming apparatus, whether The general result in the Union is a house by hot-air, water, steam, or gas; the waterfor every fiee white family, and these fami- pipes in all the rooms, connecting with the lies average 5 persons each. From these cooking-range for facility of heating; waterfigures it is apparent that the number of closets and bath-rooms connected with street houses in the Union progresses in the ratio sewers to carry off the waste water; bells, of its free inhabitants. Thus, in 1850, the speaking-tubes, telegraphs, ventilation, burnnumber of houses was to the population of ing-gas, dumb-waiters to communicate with the whole Union as 1 to 5.94; assuming that different floors, and all the luxury of arrangefor 1860 there are 6 persons to each house, ment and embellishment which makes a there must now be 4,333,333 houses, an in- modern private dwelling so far in advance crease of 970,996 houses in 10 years, at a even of the fairy palaces of the Arabian value of, in round numbers, $800,000,000. In Nights' Entertainments. There is a natural the same proportion, there must be, in 1870, desire on the part of all to obtain, as circum5,600,000 houses, which, at thevalue of 1855, stances will permit, a better house, and if would be $4,200,000,000. In other words, these are not built in the substantial manner during the present decade, 1,300,000 houses which in Europe defies the ravages of time, must be built, and it is probable, from the they are in the fashion and luxury of the advancing luxury of the age, they will cost day, and may be altered or re-constructed as more than those of 15 years before, and one fortune changes. The railroads that give thousand three hundred millions may be re- access to the neighborhood, in such a manquired for the expenditure. This is a neces- ner that a business man may take his breaksity of increasing numbers, and provides fast at 71 o'clock, ride 40 miles, and be at nothing for re-construction, or churches, or his office before bank opens, has, so to speak, public buildings. This item of house-build- carried city houses into a broad circle of ing in an increasing country stands out in country, and " villas" rise rapidly from the contrast to the demand in the same line in soil, also provided with all city improveold and stationary countries of Europe. ments. Thousands of miles are within this Some of those old cities were built 500 to influence. In sections which, a quarter of a 1000 years ago, of solid masonry, and very century since, were shadowed only by the few houses have since been added. There native forests, in which the scream of the is no active and continued demand for labor panther and the gleam of his eyes startled and capital to provide new dwellings to ac- the benighted traveller, streets of marble commodate swelling numbers. On the other fronts now emit the glare of gas and the hand, the empty dwellings frequently give latest creations of the opera. In all direcmelancholy signs of a departing population. tions the gaze of the traveller falls upon 22 356 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. new creations, where lumber, brick, stone, Feeth. Shingles. feet: M. Shingles. and lime are combining into a dwelling or Detroit.... 76,537,000 13,491,000 36,641,000 a factory, a school-house or a church. Savannah. 23,365.656 The increase of houses being proportion- Charleston. 15,312,128 ed to the increase in the numbers of the Albany... 291,171,762. 48,756,000 Bangor.... 116,187,016 people, their value has risen in the ratio Cincinnati. 32,000,000 of their growing wealth. It is remarkable Chicago.... 300,982,207 49,102,000 165,921,000 that the country, in all its sections, abounds Milwaukee 65,000,000 with the best materials for all description of Oswego.. 144,654,52 1,643,500 653,20..Cleveland. 28,950,000 dwellings, aid yet these materials were very Cleveland. dwellings, and yet these materials were very Baltimore. 100,000,000 2800,000,00 slowly discovered. For long years the bricks Boston... 131,000,000 20,000,000 10,000,000 with which the best houses of New York Buffalo... 68,558,151 2,026,000 1,768,300 were built, were brought from Amsterdam Philad'phia 162,819,122. 21,220,931 in those stately old droguers which, on their a..,, 320,02,481 Total...1,661,568,214 86,262,500 320,072,487 arrival in the bay of New Amsterdam, Value... $31,931,364 $138,797 $1,280,289 were regularly dismantled and laid up over the winter, setting out on their homeward The Bangor lumber is derived from the voyage with the early spring. The bricks forests of that region, and it composes a were probably used as ballast,but even then part of that sent to Boston, Philadelphia, the cost of a house so built was something etc. The Savannah and Charleston trade is important. The early houses of the set- that shipped from those ports, mostly North. tlers were log huts, but subsequently frame The Albany lumber is derived from the houses were raised by the more ambitious, canal deliveries and the northern section. and, as wealth increased, those " shingle The Philadelphia lumber comes mostly from palaces" that became famous in the stories the canals and rivers; about one-third comes of New England manners, began to dot the through the Chesapeake and Delaware Cacountry. In the cities, frame houses were nal, as much more down the Delaware river the rule down to a comparatively late date, from southern New York: about one million when the fire laws forbade the erection of feet only comes from Maine. The Baltimore wooden tenements within certain districts. supplies are mostly from the Susquehanna The abundance of timber not only for build- river, being rafted down from Pennsylvania ing purposes, but for fuel, was a great advan- and New York. From 150 to 200 millions tage to the country. But as the population of feet go down the Alleghany river every increased, the inroads upon it became very year. Chicago is by far the largest lumber heavy, and the forests were rapidly thinned market, and the supplies are derived from out. The annual consumption exceeded the the Michigan Lake shore, the largest quangrowth, according to the estimates of the tity from the Green Bay district. The sup, most experienced lumbermen, by about 30 plies are sent through the state by canal and per cent., and this notwithstanding that the various railroads that radiate through coal came to supply the drafts made for the prairie country, where wood of natural fuel, and the substitution of bricks for city growth is scarce, and which scarcity was one houses. The sources of lumber for building of the objections to settling until railroads purposes have become more diversified as became the means of furnishing the supplies. the demand'has increased. The State of The largest quantity goes by the canal, and Maine was for a long time the head-quarters the next largest by the Illinois Central of the trade for pine, spruce, and hemlock railroad. lumber; but hard pine comes from North With the vast supply of lumber and timCarolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama; her to meet the additional demand for buildOhio and Michigan supply black walnut, ing purposes, it followed that improvements cherry, ash, white oak. The exports from in the mode of preparing it would not fail the country are about $2,500,000 per an- to make their appearance. It is obvious num, and ship-building makes large drafts that inventions are more likely to take place upon it. The lumber trade at various when the quantities handled are very large, leading points, where the lumber resources than where but little is done from year to of the back country are most readily con- year. Thus if a few houses are built occacentrated for market, may be given as fol- sionally, the want of great facilities will not lows ~- be so marked as when twenty hundred mil ii ___ Ill i ___;Z~~ ~ ~~~~ II _________________ WIl:[~gm GETTING OUT FIOOR BOARDS BY P AAND. T-wo hundred feet a day~s work. Planer gets. out ten thousand feet. e ii'//. /;, *........ i~, I n ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i!11~illl,"i —./-,':.-;~111,:Jl fall,!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i"dlll! WOODWORTH PLANING MACHINE. BUILDINGS AND BUILDING MATERIALS. 357 lion feet of lumber is to be worked up every chase money. It not unfrequently happens, year for building purposes, mostly in the however, that the expenses of raising money construction of dwellings. The carpenter, to go on carry the cost of the houses too in the building of houses, receives the beams, high to get the money back, and foreclosure scantlings, planks, and boards, and out of finally settles the account. Houses are also them he makes bond-timbers, wall-plates, made for exportation, as well of iron as of roofs, floors, etc., and with the completion of wood, as in the case of the early times of strong skeletons his labors end. The joiner, San Francisco, which received many of its plasterer, and plumber succeed him. In the dwellings from New York. The settler on formation of his frame, the first is employed the new lands of the West is now not alin notching, cogging, tenoning, pinning, and ways required to plunge into the wilderness wedging. For many of these operations and rear his first shelter from logs, but may very effective machines have been intro- have his house sent from Chicago or other duced, especially for mortising, floor plan- cities by railroad, and put up to await his ing and grooving, etc. Some of the inven- coming. In all this lumber figures largely. tions, like the planing machines introduced With the settlement of the western country, in 1837, are of great value and influence. the demand for lumber is urgent, and new Circular saws, scroll saws, and a crowd of supplies are opened up. The most exteninventions bearing upon every part of the sive of them is round the Falls of St. Anwork, have wonderfully facilitated the work thony, where about 100,000,000 feet of new of the carpenter and joiner. The blinds, logs come down in the spring from the sashes, doors, window-frames, have become waters above. These logs are manufactured separate trades, each of which supplies its into lumber at the extensive mills round St. portion much cheaper and more perfect than Anthony. One of these mills will cut formerly. When the demand is large, these 92,000 feet of lumber, 50,000 lath, and are supplied with great precision. House- 20,000 shingles in a day of 12 hours. The building thus becomes a trade. In the large mill employs 150 men. There are cut probcities a speculative builder becomes possess- ably 200,000 feet per day for the supply of ed of a number of open lots. On them the lower country with lumber. At the exmoney is borrowed to build a block of treme South lumber is also supplied. Some houses, 4 to 12 in number. With the 20,000,000 feet are shipped from Pensacola money thus borrowed the work is hurried to the Atlantic and Gulf cities, in addition on until the roof is on, when the whole is to the large quantities used in the place. regularly mortgaged to secure first loans and The Dismal Swamp Canal at Norfolk deto obtain enough to complete the buildings. livers 3,000,000 feet of plank per annum, In the mean time they are offered for sale, and 50,000,000 shingles, 400,000 feet of and generally sold by the time they are timber and 8,000,000 staves. done. The material for dwelling-houses is thus In order to facilitate the sales much credit liberally supplied at the leading points, to is granted, a little money above the sum of and from which means of communication the mortgages being all that is required. have been so extensively provided. The The mortgages remain at 7 per cent., which, majority of country houses are of lumber, with the taxes, etc., make the rent rather or frame houses. In the cities the majority high to the owner. It not unfrequently are brick, and, as we have said, many New happens in some neighborhoods that houses York houses are still standing built from the may be rented for an annual sum far less small yellow brick brought from Holland. than the interest on the sum demanded for Brick clay is found in most of the states, the house. Nevertheless, the person who but not of the same quality. The best brick has paid a little money, and lives under a are Philadelphiaand Baltimore, but Chicago mortgage larger than the whole house would is famous for its straw-colored bricks. This cost if built with ready money, has the color results from the absence of peroxide pride of a house-owner. of iron in the clay. Some Milwaukee bricks Sometimes the builders, carpenters, were brought to New York city for the conplumbers, painters, all furnish their parts of struction of Trinity Building, head of Wall the work, and grates, furnaces, etc., also put street, and they assimilate in color to the old in either on shares or secured by "mechanics' Holland brick, also "far fetched and dear liens,"-all these to be paid out of the pur- bought." It is curious, however, that the 358 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. brick of the far West should mingle with against $212. It follows that, as the heat is that of Europe in the composition of the very unequal in a clamp, some bricks are city of New York. underdone, while others are slightly rused on In the manufacture of the brick the clay the surface, called " clinker brick." is obtained as pure as possible; but it must be It is obvious that in brick machinery the exposed for some time to the air and weather, saving of labor is the great object,' and to which soon disintegrates its particles, and attain that a great number of machines have fits it to be kneaded into a mass. The clay been invented. One of this class forces a is then soaked in a tank. The kneading lump of clay of the breadth and depth of a was formerly done by animals or the naked brick along a trough; and it is cut off the feet of men, which machinery has superseded. proper length by a wire. Other machines The clay is now first ground in the pug- have been made to stamp the brick out of a mill, which is a tub in which revolve on a lump of clay. Again, the clay is forced into shaft blades that cut and knead the clay as moulds by a heavy roller. There are mait is fed in from above, and passes out at the chines which pulverize the dry clay, and bottom. It is then cut into pieces and press this with great force into moulds, stacked for use. The old hand mode of ready for burning. A patent for this, taken moulding was to throw the clay into the in Baltimore in 1847, and another in Bosmould by force and then scrape off that ton, pulverizes, screens, moulds, and presses which was superfluous. The labor of this 2,500 bricks per hour. On this plan process was reduced by causing the moulds bricks are made on Staten Island. They preto receive the clay from the mill in succes- sent a smooth surface, but they are not so sive sets. It is obvious that the clay must good as the Philadelphia and Baltimore.'be cleaned from all stones, sticks, etc., that Bricks have been made partly hollow to would disfigure the brick. When the bricks diminish the weight. The size of bricks is are moulded they are dried. For this pur- 73 to 8- inches long, 4 to 41 wide, and 24 to pose a level yard is prepared, and bricks are 2- deep. In New York 5 courses of brick brought in the moulds; which are removed, are allowed to the foot in height. In New leaving the bricks to dry, a longer or shorter England 5 courses make a foot, without the time, according to circumstances. If the mortar. The weight of a brick is about 4 bricks are not thoroughly dry they will crack lbs., and 21 make a cubic foot of wall. The in baking. For the purpose of baking, the Philadelphia brick are the best in the counbricks are piled one upon the other, to make try, and are made mostly by hand. The the kiln or clamp. These contain from clay and sand give the brick a better color. 500,000 to 1,000,000 bricks. A central The Baltimore brick bring a better price double wall is built, lengthwise the lower because the clay is purer, and therefore portion, of baked bricks. On both sides stronger, are better burned, and less liable to longitudinal fire flues of green brick are damage by transportation. The quantity built. Over them the mass of bricks is made in Philadelphia is reckoned at 100,laid, with flues leading to the top, and in 000,000 per annum. an open manner, with small scuttles through The lime used in New York and on the the heap as it is built up. The top and Atlantic coast is mostly of Thomaston, sides are built of baked bricks. Over all Maine, where it is manufactured of limeloam is laid to prevent the fire from burning stone and oyster-shells. Its quality is much too rapidly. The time required formerly on superior to that of the lime of other sources. the Hudson river for burning the great The chief use of lime is for making mortar clamps of 1,000,000 bricks was two weeks, for cementing brick and stone work and and there were required 40 cords of wood plastering walls. The best qualities, made for 100,000 bricks. About the year 1838 from pure stones or shells, slake rapidly, and fine anthracite coal dust was introduced into are called fat. This kind more than doubles the clay in the proportion of 75 bushels to in bulk on being slaked, and falls into a soft, 100,000 bricks, and thoroughly mixed in white paste. The inferior qualities slake the kneading. The effect of this was to re- slowly, and give out but little heat in the duce the time to four days, and the wood to process. The value of lime with masons de16 cords for 100,000 bricks. Thus 16 cords pends upon the quantity of sand it will bear of wood is rated at $80; 75 bushels of dust, in the manufacture of strong mortar. Thus $3; 4 days' attention, $6; total cost, $89, the best Thomaston lime will take 8 bbls. BUILDINGS AND BUILDING MATERIALS. 359 of sand for one of lime. It is stated that fronts have come latterly much into use. an excellent lime is made near New York These are cast in ornamental styles, and put city from white marble, and that it will take up piece by piece, each being riveted to the 9 bbls. of sand. The Thomaston lime is other, the whole front thus forming one piece% burned with anthracite coal. In New York and then painted to resemble stone. Marble it is used for plastering, at a price of $1 to is the favorite material in- Philadelphia, not$1.30 per bbl. of 2{- bushels. A cheap withstanding her superior brick. It is procurlime from Ulster county is sold at 70 cents ed in abundance a few miles from that city. for stone work. In the mortar each atom of Stone at the West is not so abundant, but sand is surrounded with lime, which adheres discoveries of good building stone have closely to it, and attaches it to adjoining por- been made. A yellow stone in the neightions, becoming hard by exposure to the air. borhood of Cincinnati supplies a handsome The building stone of Boston for the best material to that city. The canals of Ohio houses has been derived from the immediate and Illinois carry considerable quantities, neighborhood, and is called Quincy granite. and marble has been found near Dubuque. It is a handsome gray stone, hewn for dwell- There are valuable quarries in the neighborings, but sometimes used unhewn for public hood of Chicago. Iron is destined to figure buildings. The stone is derived from Quin- largely in fronts for stores, as well as for the cy, and the first railroad started in the coun- construction of fire-proof grain depots. try was for the service of these quarries, hav- How long the once mighty forests of the ing been introduced shortly after their open- country will supply the prodigious and ing. The stone now so well known and exten- growing demand for the use of dwellings, is sively used, not only in Boston but in most a problem; but long since, the demands of of the Atlantic cities, as well as the West shipwrights have so thinned the Atlantic forIndia Islands, was a discovery of the present ests, that it has become cheaper to build upon century. It was formerly supposed that, the lake harbors and western rivers. The where, there is but little soil there is also scarcity of knees and bends for ship-buildno stone, and it is recorded that stone for ing, led to the invention of the timber-bendthe foundation of the dwelling of Governor ing machine, by which the straight oak timPhillips was brought from Rhode Island. ber was claimed to be bent in curves or at The State House was, through scarcity of right angles for knees without decreasing its stone, built with brick. Granite quarries strength. The ports of the West, however, are also now worked near New York and in have of late been appealed to, and vessels Delaware Bay. These sources supply some built at Cleveland and other lake ports, at a of the stone for New York city, where a small cost for lumber and labor, find their coarse marble, known as Sing Sing marble, way to sea much cheaper than the same is also used. The chief stone relied upon class built on the famous old ways of Maine, for the fashionable dwellings is, however, Massachusetts, or Baltimore. The white oak "brown stone," from the Portland quarries becomes less abundant, and live oak no greatof Connecticut..It by no means follows, er in supply, while the pine and other woods however, that a brown stone palace " on an used in the floors and trimmings, compete avenue" is built of brown stone, any more with the demand for dwellings. The number than a brown painted house is built of of vessels built in 1858 was 1225, of 242,286 " paint." The house is usually built of lum- tons. Of these nearly one fourth were built her and brick, and a thin coat of brown in the state of Maine, one eighth in Massastone put on the front. The difference in chusetts, as much in New York, and ten per cost between a plain front of stone and one cent. in Philadelphia. If we compare the of Philadelphia brick, with stone trimmings, number and class of vessels built in the westwill be from $700 to $1000. For the con- ern states of Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, struction of large and fashionable stores, the Wisconsin, Michigan, in 1859, with 1829, we Sing Sing marble'is mostly used, but iron shall observe the progress in 30 years:WEST. Ships, Brigs. Schooners. nSlpntd Steamers. Total. Tons. canal boats. 1829................... 1 12 4 25 42 9,032 1859................ 4 1 65 37 98 205 45,731 ATLANTIC. 1829................. 44 67 4-3 141 18 743 68,066 1859.................118 44 366 365 128 1,021 196,555 360 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. The tonnage built at the West has in- ora value of $260,637,000. Of this amount creased fivefold, while that on the Atlantic 3,400,000 tons, or a value of.$ 170,000, has increased less than threefold. In 1860 000, have been built in the last ten years. an enormous stimulus was given to ship- The annual value built is over $16,000,building in all the western ports. Milwau- 000, and the value of the lumber used kee did a large business, and the lake ton- $9,000,000, and there are about 13,000 nage was greatly increased. The whole men employed. The census of 1850 gives quantity of tonnage built since the ac- the statistics of house and ship building as counts were kept has been 5,212,743 tons, follows:No. Capital. Material. Hands. Cost of labor. Value produced. Carpenters......... 2,790 $3,289,308 $7,011,930 15,276 $5,559,320 $16,886,819 Ship-builders...... 892 5,182,309 7,286,401 12,623 5,922,576 16,595,683 Bricks......... 1,603 4,367,912 1,474,023 16,726 4,235,088 6,610,731 Lime and plastering,. 761 1,124,072 1,106,775 2,834 735,746 2,286,242 Lumber-yards.......17,895 40,038,427 27.593,529 51,766 16,022,052 58,520,966 Masts and spars..... 39 124,130 89,719 154 63,216 189.482 Plumbers.......... 124 646,225 1,297,119 1,037 377,944 2,343.607 Sashes and blinds.... 433 1,066,355 859,827 2,448 860,920 2,277.061 Shingles..... 520 823,940 406,932 2,127 425,328 985,957 Quarries......... 1,144 4,032,182 2,475,160 9,996 3,431,194 8,180,115 Timber-hewers.... 129 222,479 14,742 414 67,508 132,246 The New York census of 1855 gave the from a decrease in horses, new ones and of number of feet of lumber used per annum better breed were required for fast and in house-building at 5,953,000; ship-build- stylish driving. The well-to-do, permanent 5ing, 16,938,000 feet; boat-building, 7,673,- business man must have his business-wagon 000. The number of brick made in the of tasteful appearance, case-hardened iron state was 408,052,000, and 4,214,000 bush- axles, steel springs, and a top buggy. A els of lime. rockaway, or even a coach, in many cases, is required in addition, and furnishes labor for fancy horses. The multiplication of vehicles is caused on one hand by the greater CARRIAGES AND COACHES, means of the people, and on the other hand by the great improvements in manufacture, THE improvements in the means of trans- which have diminished the prices while portation in the United States are very man- they raised the quality of the almost infinite ifest in the number and quality of private variety of styles offered. These are so adcarriages of all kinds that are now kept by mirable as to have elicited not only the suralmost all who live out of cities, and by very prise, but what is better, the custom of the:many of those who reside in them. With citizens of Europe. The tide of improvement the multiplication of railroads, which were ran naturally at first in the line of stages to supply the place of stage-coaches, it was and coaches. The object was to make them supposed that the number of horses employ- strong and light, and with such proportion ed would be greatly diminished. The con- of all the parts as would facilitate the draft; trary seems, however, to be the fact, since in other words, to avoid loss of the power the greater breadth of land by their means of the horse. In the cities the improvelaid open to market, and the resulting gen- ments are of recent date, and arose out of eral wealth have enabled all to keep pleasure- the magnitude of the business. The style vehicles, when formerly the saddle only was adopted in 1830 was the omnibus or long'used outside the stage-coach. The plain coach. One vehicle was then started to run springless box-wagon of the farmer conveyed up Broadway for 12- cents per head. The his family to and from church on Sunday, success was complete, and the number muland hauled his produce on week days, until tiplied, while the fare fell successively, until within a very few years, when the idea of at the present time the most successful charge extravagance attached to the possession of 5 cents in common with the rail-cars. The pleasure or spring-wagons began to give number of omnibuses now running in New way, and those vehicles were found in the York it 440, and the use of them has spread all carriage-house before the piano supplanted over the country, giving birth to very numerthe quilting-frame in the parlor. So far ous and extensive factories for their produc CARRIAGES AND COACHES. 361 tion. About 300 per annum are made in New hind wheels are 56 inches, and the width of York, and larger numbers in Newark, New track is 4 ft. 8 in. The naves of the wheels Jersey. The experience, skill, and capital have a lining of metal, forming a box that that had been applied to the production of excludes dust and retains oil. the old post-coaches were applied to the con- It will have been remarked by the observstruction of the new vehicles. The work ing reader that, in every branch of industry to be performed by the coach requires the which has been recently taken hold of by utmost care in the selection of the mate- the American manufacturer, the facility of rials and in the manner of combining them. production and cheapness of sale-prices have The frame is a piece, of the nicest joiner's hand in hand made rapid progress. This work, of the toughest ash, that has grown remarkable feature has been due mostly to in exposed situations, and been seasoned at one principle: it is that of reducing the manleast two years. For some portions, oak ufacture to its utmost subdivision, and makand hickory, equally well selected, are used. ing a distinct branch of each separate part The planking is of the strongest elm, and of the object to be completed. A pattern the panels of Spanish cedar; mahogany and being once fixed upon, all the parts of that rosewood for ornamental portions. The pattern are given out to workmen, who conframe and axles are thoroughly ironed with fine themselves each to the manufacturing the best metal. The springs are of the best of the part he undertakes. The parts so steel, and of these many of the improved produced are made in the best manner. forms are of quite modern dates. The ellip- Each man strives to improve in the work, or tical spring was introduced in 1825. The to do more and better in a given time, and leather is of the toughest and finest descrip- his native intelligence does not fail of retion. The upholstery is of fine cloths, nets, suits. The products of all their labors are damasks, plushes, with coach-laces, exten- then combined in complete articles in number sively manufactured in New England. The and quality to defy competition. This mode most important part of the construction is of manufacture is a cause and a consequence probably the wheels. These must be so put of large sales. By improving and cheaptogether as to give the greatest amount of ening the goods the demand is increased, strength with the smallest weight of mate- and thus reacts upon the power to produce. rial. For this purpose the felloes are of The carriage manufacture is another illustraash, the spokes of oak, and the nave of tion of this principle. The Messrs. G. & D. elm. All these are so arranged as to receive Cook & Co., of New Haven, when they enthe weight of the coach as far as possible gaged in the manufacture, nine or ten years longitudinally of the fibres of the wood. A since, introduced this way of systematizing very important American improvement in the work. The mode of building carriages the strength of the wheel took place some then was for each man to have a hand by 30 years since. Up to that time the iron turns in all the processes until the manufactires had been put on in separate plates, ture was completed, and that was of uncertain breaking joints with the felloes. An Ameri- time. The Messrs. Cook were enabled by can blacksmith conceived the idea of mak- this plan to turn out a complete carriage in ing the tire whole and driving it on when a day, of a quality which enhanced the adhot, so that its contraction as it cooled would miration that the time of the operation had bind the whole wheel together almost as one awakened. Their business has gradually piece. This invention has been universally expanded, until they now turn out ten per adopted. The tires of New York omni- day, with the same facility with which they buses are, when new, an inch thick; but so formerly turned out one. The engraving on great is the wear, that they require renewal another page gives an idea of the extent of in 4 months. The size of the wheel is reg- their establishment, which covers two acres, ulated by the ease of draft. Thus it is and affords 85,000 square feet of floor room. found that the greatest ease requires that It has grown to this extent from one buildthe line from the centre of the forward axle ing, on one third of an acre, with 3,000 feet to the shoulder of the horse should form of floor room. There are in the concern an angle of 15 degrees with the horizon. 24 separate departments, under 24 distinct This principle will not admit of the fore foremen, each of whom is responsible for the wheels being more than forty-four inches in part of the work performed in his departdiameter, while to diminish the draught, the ment. All of them cover every branch of 362 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. the business, from the rough lumber to the parts requiring strength and lightness comboxing up of the complete vehicle. The bined, a native wood (upland hickory), orders are all laid before Mr. Kimball, one which is admirably adapted to the purpose. of the firm, and by him 24 blanks are filled The carriages from the continental states do up with minute particulars of the jobs de- not exhibit this useful feature in an equal livered to each foreman, with the time degree." specified for the completion. These fore- The woods most used in the construction men have 300 workmen employed in all the of carriages, ash, oak, and hickory, grow of departments, each of which is also supplied superior quality and in great abundance in the with every variety of machine that invention neighborhood of Philadelphia, and the fact and experience have suggested to facilitate gives the art of carriage-making there great the work, and these are driven by a steam advantages. There are in that city over engine of great power. This huge giant 30 factories that produce pleasure-carriages. with its thousand arms obeys every move- The capital invested is some $600,000, and ment of the 300 human workers, and the over 800 hands are employed. The vehicles surprise of the observer who s6es rough are mostly for city use, with some export lumber wrought up into pleasure-wagons at demand. One of the largest factories of the the rate of one an hour is merged in admira- city, Roger & Co., occupies 40,000 feet of tion of the intellectual combination that work room, and employs 125 men in all produces such results. the departments of designers, body-makers, It is such enterprise and success as this wheelwrights, carvers, painters, platers, trimthat drew from the London Jurors of the mers, upholsterers, etc. The wagons of that World's Fair, the following remarks in their establishment have a good reputation. In report: "Comparing the state of the art of New York, the carriage business is pushed carriage-building," say the London Jurors, to a great extent. The demand for heavy in their report on carriages exhibited at the vehicles for the great cities is large, and the World's Fair, " of former and not very dis- effect of railroads, in spreading the populatant times, with that of the present, we con- tion of the city over a radius of 40 miles sider the principles of building in many around it, has caused a considerable demand respects greatly improved, and particularly for pleasure-wagons. Some persons who with reference to the lightness, and a due would have no use for a vehicle in the city, regard to strength, which are evident in car- in adopting a suburban home, found a carriages of British make; and especially dis- riage a necessity. The aggregate of the played in those contributed by the United business in the state of New York in 1855 States, where there is commonly employed was given by the state census of that year as in the construction of wheels, and other follows:CARRIAGE AND CAR MANUFACTORIES IN NEW YORK. No. H ads. Capital Value of Value in tools. materials. produced. Felloe factories......... 6 30 $13,250 $21,450 $45,174 Wheel'................. 2 12 3,500 2,800 11,100 Hub ".................. 1 5 600 400 9,000 Spoke "............... 16 64 15,950 14,966 52,331 Coach and wagon factories......... 1,397 6,391 471,530 1,712,256 5,005,125 Car factories............... 26 1,547 264,784 679,239 1,274,768 The number of cars made per annum is This is mostly at Newark, where great 580, and there are used 1,472,000 feet of numbers are turned out, of an approved,lumber in their construction, and in that of quality. A feature of the carriage and wagon wagons, 6,562,200 feet. There are 11,151,- business that has been introduced of late 500 spokes made. The number of wagons years, is that all. possible parts of vehicles turned out is 33,138, and of sleighs 3,838. can be purchased in any quantity, conseThe size of some of these factories, and the quently the wheelwright business of small number of vehicles turned out, are surprising. towns has been entirely revolutionized. They The numerous depots for carriages in the can no longer make an entire vehicle as city, contain every possible description of formerly with any success, but purchase vehicles, and of all manufactures. The car- wheels, axles, top frames, springs, etc., of any riage manufacture in New Jersey stands and every pattern, to put together and finish. next in magnitude to that of New York. All these parts are produced in great quanti 1810. 1820. THOROUGH BRACE-1825. FIRST ELLIPTIC SPRINGS. The following are a few of the many styles from 1830 to 1850. JAGGER. GAZELLE. CRICKET. FRENCH DOG CART, DOOTOR'S PHAETON. FULL TOP CABRIOLET. CHAMPION. PRINCE OF WALES. The following are a few of the many styles from 1850 to 1870, AMERICAN SOCIABLE, ROCKAWAY. / / ^ ^s4^^_^ ^^-si^ ^ With Turn-out Seat._ VICTORIA PHAETON. YORKE A GOOT ENGLISH SQUARE PHAETON. C SPRING VICTORIA. T. R A.. CARRIAGES AND COACHES. 367 ties, by machine. Hence, as we see, there are plank used is three to four inches thick. in New York, 16 spoke factories, which turn This must be all well seasoned. Hence out 1,115,500 spokes per annum, also felloe capital is required to keep a sufficient stock factories and hub factories, etc. The largest on hand, since it requires four or five years city factories, however, make most or all the to season, or one year for every inch of parts within themselves. In the production thickness. The timber for hubs is of black of a vehicle, the design is first prepared, locust. This, of different sizes, has the bark whether buggy or coach or rockaway, on removed, and is bored through the centre paper, 3 of an inch to the'foot. The design to facilitate the seasoning. All the lumber being approved by the purchaser or owner, thus seasoned in stock, is, when ready, rea geometrical plan is executed upon the moved to the saw mill. Here machines are black-board. The patterns are then cut in usually ready to shape every part: upright the wood, and from this skeleton the shape and circular saws to cut-the plank into shafts and proportions are determined. There and felloes after it is marked; planing mamust be exercised in this process, the utmost chines, and mortising machinery; lathes for mathematical exactness. The wooden frame turning spokes and hubs; for boring holes is now removed to the smithy; then come in for the spokes; for driving in. the spokes; requisition, springs, tires, hinges, axles, bolts, for shaping and finishing the felloes; for locks, and every variety of form by which boring holes in the hubs to receive the boxes, iron can conduce to the strength of the fa- so as to insure a solid bearing, and for turning brie. This being completed, the skeleton is the hubs, of which the two ends are cut off moved to the body department, to receive at once by circular saws. All these machines its floors and panels, the sides with their soon turn the solid plank into finished wheels, proper curvature, the seats of the destined while the body is growing under similar construction, and the doors with their trim- applications in another room, under the dimings. From this room, the body goes to rection of various departments. The iron the paint room. This is a tedious process. axles are turned in the machine shops, where From 15 to 18 coats of paint are applied, also all the tires, bands, straps, bolts, rivets, each being rubbed down with pumice stone. etc., are prepared and applied. The wagons When it is dry, several coats of white lead are then ready for the paint. This is the and litharge, succeeded by a number of general operation of wagon-making in large white lead and yellow ochre, complete this establishments. In Philadelphia two concerns "priming," on which the finishing coats of furnished 550 wagons for the Utah expediornamented colors are charged. When it is tion of the government in five weeks, or at clothed in its pride of paint, it seeks the the rate of 16 wagons per day, or a wagon trimming room, to be decked with fine in 45 minutes. cloths, silks, lace, carpet, embossed leather, The demand for express wagons that has or the finest morocco, and becomes as taste- grown up of late years, has become very ful as art can make it. While the body of large, and they are produced in great perthe vehicle is thus being prepared, the car- fection as respects strength and price. Anriage, or wheels, axles, perches, and shafts other large demand for vehicles has taken have also been approaching a state ready to the shape of railroad cars, and these almost receive it. The felloes, shafts, and nave, rival coaches in the extent of manufacture. In each of its appropriate and well selected New York, the value of production is nearly wood, are combined into wheels, that must $1,500,000 per annum, mostly at Troy. in size bear a certain proportion to the body. The car wheels are of iron, and the utmost The average difference between the fore and care is taken in the manufacture of them, hind wheels is eight inches. In the combina- that when cast the iron shall cool equally in tion each department supplies its proper part, all its parts. For this purpose, when the and when ready to receive the body, that is wheel is cast in a mould, it is removed as hung upon the springs, and the whole is speedily as possible into a circular chamber ready for the final polish. Apart from the or furnace, composed of fire brick, 42 inches coach or pleasure-vehicle business, is the thick, and surrounded by an iron case. When wagon business, which is of great extent, they are there deposited, the opening is all the parts being formed by machines of closed, and the heat of the whole is raised to late invention. The lumber for these heavy nearly the melting point. All the avenues to vehicles is of considerable dimensions. The and from the interior are then closed, and 368 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. the whole is left to cool gradually. By this of passengers are always depending upon process of raising the heat, the tempera- the soundness of the running wheels, and the ture of the wheel is equalized in all its parts, utmost care is taken to make and keep them and as the heat can then only subside sound. through the wall, it cools so gradually that The census of 1860 gives the following all parts of the wheel contract alike. For statistics of the production of carriages, this cooling 4 days are required. While red wagons, carts and children's carriages for the hot the wheel is removed, and having its year ending June, 1860. There has been, edges packed round with sand, the centre is generally, an increased production since that made to communicate, by means of a flue, period, though what were distinctively known with a chimney 120 feet high. The draught as "southern carriages" are manufactured in thus created cools the centre. The same, if less quantities than formerly. During the not far greater importance attaches to the war, immense numbers of army wagons and uniform toughness of the iron of a wheel as ambulances were built. to that of a cannon. The lives of hundreds No. of Cost of Annualcost Annual value Establish- Capital raw Males Females of nts. invested. maial employed employed. labor product. Carriages............3,917 $14,131,531 $9,085,301 27,304 157 $10,001,891 $26,848,905 Wagons and carts.....3,305 4,591,968 2,812,981 9,639 2 3,415,925 8,703,937 Children's carriages... 32 134,470 108,393 335 22 129,540 374,350 CLOCKS AND WATCHES. one's fob, and were troublesome to light and snuff. If a Yankee peddler had walked PERHAPS there is no one article of more in upon him' with a wooden clock under his general utility than "Yankee clocks," and arm to sell for a dollar, he would far more none on which more small wit has been ex- likely have been hanged as a wizard than pended both at home and abroad. The sneered at as a humbug. Time-keepers were land of "wooden clocks and nutmegs" has invented, however, in the process of time, been a standing jibe against those who have and gradually found their way into the so cleverly and perseveringly executed those hands of the rich. They were imported into practical ideas that tend directly to the this country from Europe down to the amelioration of the human condition. When formation of the federal government, at we look around and reflect that every house, high prices. Some of these were the penhut, and hovel in the length and breadth of dulum clocks, some six feet high, and genthe land is, or can be, supplied with an erally stood in the landings of the old houses. accurate time-keeper for one dollar, that is About the time of the formation of the to say, a bushel of grain, and reflect that federal government, however, Eli Terry, thirty years since comparatively no time- of Windsor, Connecticut, made some clocks keepers existed within reach of the masses of wood, of a small size, to hang up against of the people, we begin to perceive that the wall. In 1793, he began making them, Yankee clocks are by no means so con- as a business, in Plymouth, Connecticut. temptible a commodity. Doctor Franklin Then he made a few in the year by his own demonstrated that "time is money," but labor. In 1800 he had procured the help the people at large had no more means of of a couple of young men. The wheels measuring their time than of money to were marked out on the wood with square count. Alfred the Great and other old and compass, and then cut out with a fine progress men discovered the value of time, saw and jack-knife, the teeth of the and were hard put to it to measure it out. wheels being formed in the same manner. Some of the old fellows sought to do it by Twice a year Mr. Terry would pack up the dropping of water; many marked the some of these clocks and make a journey progress of the sun; and other devices were into the new country, by which name the employed without very great accuracy. region west of the North River was then Alfred contrived twelve candles, which be- called. There he found sale for his wooden ing burned one after the other, divided his " movements" at $25 each. He so prosday into twelve portions, which had each pered in this, that by the year 1807 a numtheir special employment. Twelve candles ber of persons in Waterbury associated were not convenient, however, to carry in themselves into a company to furnish Terry CLOCKS AND WATCHES. 369 with stock of which he was to make the manner that ruined them. This difficulty movements. To execute this formidable the brass works did not encounter. The work, he bought an old mill, introduced new business improved very rapidly under some machinery, and laid out a lot of 500 the demand for the clocks, which was conclocks at one time, a larger number; it is tinually stimulated by the gradually falling said, than was ever before undertaken at prices. The old wooden dial was supplantone time in the world. Mr. Terry used to ed by one of zinc, and an eight-day clock, sell his clocks himself at a price of $25, but which would have cost $20 in 1837, can of course money was not then obtained, now be had for $4. The one-day clock is Salt pork was currency, and when he took sold for 75 cents, and is an excellent timethe clock out of his saddle-bags, he put salt keeper. The brass works, of the clocks are pork in the place of it. In 1810, Mr, made from the metal sheets with the greatTerry sold his factory to Thomas & Hoad- est rapidity. The oldest manufacturer, Mr. ley, and competition springing up the price Jerome, states that three experienced men of the wooden movements was reduced can make 500 clocks in one day from the from $10, the then price, to $5, at which sheets. There are in every one-day clock low price some of the manufacturers failed. from 8 to 10 wheels; an eight-day clock reIn 1814, Terry invented a new style, called quires more. All these wheels are cut from the pillar scroll top case, about 21 inches the brass at one operation, pressed out and high. These sold for $15 freely, for many levelled for use. The expense of three days' years, and he made a fortune of some $200,- work is thus distributed through 500 clocks, 000. At this juncture Chauncey Jerome not quite 14 cents each clock. The whole became an apprentice to Mr. Terry, and the cost of the movements was 50 cents each. works being extended, a circular saw was The frames of the clocks are also made in introduced for the first time, and it was a large quantities by machine. For the body great curiosity. Jerome began when of age of the case, common merchantable pine to make a few clocks for himself, and sold lumber is used. The boards are by circular them at $12 each. He continued the busi- saws cut into suitable lengths for sides and ness under many vicissitudes, making large tops. Those free from knots are then by quantities of clocks that were sent all over another saw cut into their proper widths, the Union, and sold by means of peddlers. and go to the planing machine. They then An occasional new form to the clocks gave are by an appropriate instrument cut in the a renewed impulse to the sales, the grow- shape designated for the fronts. The pieces ing competition between the clockmakers are then taken by a workman who spreads continuing to force down prices. The panic glue upon them, to receive the rosewood or of 1837 had a disastrous influence upon the mahogany veneer. These are then in lots trade, ruining almost all the manufacturers. of a dozen placed in hand-screws until dry. Up to that time the clocks had been alto- When ready, the veneer is polished by apgether of wood, of which it was difficult to plying it to a revolving cylinder covered procure the right description. When this with sand-paper, by which it is soon suffiwas obtained it required a year's seasoning, ciently polished to receive the varnish, of and then it was a slow process, even with which several applications are made, and it machines, to cut out the works. The largest requires about ten days to dry. They then manufacturer had never made more than receive a polish and are put together in the 10,000 per annum. These clocks were one- form of the case. It was usual to have day clocks, but gbod time-keepers. In 10,000 clocks undergoing this process at 1837, Mr. Jerome invented the one-day once. In this manner a case would cost 50 clock with brass works. This invention cents, 20 for labor and 30 for stuff; a cabiproved a new era in the clock business, and net-maker could not make one such under buried the old wooden works. From that $5. The dials are cut by machinery from time the business made very rapid progress, sheets of zinc, the holes being punched by and the clocks not only found their way all the same operation. They are then painted over the Union, but also to Europe, India, and the letters and figures printed on. One China, Australia, and elsewhere. The old man could print 1,200 to 1,500 in a day. wooden clock could not well be exported, The whole dial would thus cost 5 cents. because exposure to the humidity of the The tablets printed in a similar manner, and ocean air caused the works to swell in a colored by girls, cost 1- cents each. The 3'70 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. glass and work 4 cents. The weights cost From Connecticut, by the perseverance 13 cents. Thus the complete clock would of these energetic men, the clocks have cost about $1.25, a price brought about by spread over the face of the whole country, the systematizing of the labor. ticking in almost every store and dwelling The great clock factory of Chauncey of the Atlantic cities, and almost every log Jerome was one of 31 that were in operation hut of the frontier. Nor have they been in 1852. It had been merged into a joint- confined to this country. In 1841 they stock company in 1850, called the Jerome were introduced by Mr. Jerome into EngManuifacturing Company. In 1853 and land, exciting there great surprise and in1854 that concern produced 444,000 clocks dignation at the presumption of the Yanper annum; another factory, that of J. C. kees with their wooden tickers. The tariff Brown, produced 100,000 clocks per an- laws of England permit the owner of goods num, and failed subsequently; and the to enter them at his own price, on which Ansonia Company, which was afterward the duty is to be cast. If the officer thinks formed, 150,000 clocks per annum. The that price too low he can take the goods at sharp competition of all these companies 10 per cent. advance on it. The first cargo reduced the price to such a degree that sent by Mr. Jerome were entered at regular many stopped. In the ten years ending prices, but these appeared so ridiculously with 1856, four factories were destroyed by low to the officer that he paid the 10 per fire, nine failed, and five closed on account cent. and seized the goods. The owners, of low prices. There remained 13 factories, nothing loath, brought forward another lot, of which six produced 95,000 per annum, which met the same fate; but on presentand the remaining seven, 48,000 clocks. ing the third the officer had become a wiser In 1855 the great showman, Barnum, be- man, and let the Yankees do their own busicame a member of the Jerome Clock Corn- ness. Jerome's clocks had there a great pany by selling a clock factory which he run, and they also tell the time to the people owned in Bridgeport to the Jerome Co., and at Jerusalem and Joppa. The Chinese have taking stock of the company in payment. been taught to use them, and a Yankee clock In the same year the Jerome Co. failed.marked the time when the emperor fled from utterly; its owners allege, because the Pekin. debts of the company bought from Barnum While Yankee clocks have had such an exruined them, while the assets of the con- tensive and important run during the present cern were of no value, and the extensive century, the making of watches has been financiering to stave off these liabilities, undertaken only within the last ten years. swallowed up all the means of the Jerome The originator of the business was Mr. E. Company. The result was almost a com- Howard, of Boston, and a successful busiplete sweep of the clock business. The ness is carried on at Roxbury, Massachusetts. New Haven Clock Co., which succeeded to A distinctive character of these watches lies the business of the Jerome Co., is now the in that part of the watch which constitutes largest factory. Its method of making the main feature of difference between the dials, etc., is the same as was that of the English and Swiss watches, and which gives old company. There is also the Benedict & to each its national characteristics, so far as Burnhan Co., at Waterbury, Conn. The the principle of their construction is confactory of Seth Thomas & Co., at Plym- cerned. In the English watches, the motive outh, is the next largest. The factory of power is conveyed to the train or wheelWilliam L. Gilbert, of Winsted, is also im- work by means of a chain and fusee; in the portant. The factory of E. N. Welsh, of Swiss watches, the motive power is conveyBristol, is the successor to the business of ed to the train directly by means of what is J. C. Brown, who failed. These five cor- termed the " going barrel." In the Ameripanies now make most of the clocks manu- can arrangement, is employed neither the factured in Connecticut. The New Haven fusee nor the going barrel, but the staCo. produces about 200,000 per annum, tionary barrel, in combination with the and the other four companies about 300,000. maintaining power. The stationary barrel There are other parties engaged in making has indeed been found in watches made a clock movements and parts of clocks, and hundred years ago; but in all such watches one house in Bristol makes thirty-day brass the stationary barrel is very impractical, as clocks that keep excellent time. they are minus the maintaining power, and '~ -'~~ 1~'~~ ~ ",,~ ~" "/~'I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~'~-"-~-~, -~~' ----— ~ — ~~ ~ ~~ I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;'I / 1 i I:i1 /::jjji iii ~ ___ J Ii~~~~iiilI 11111 iiiI~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i1IlIIIIIIIP~II~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l I _______!_______) _!!_______r!"/____;_'_:!: Ii!Il It~ll ~i: ~/11 t/Ii,!I ~ ___________::~~ail' i k\~~~iIIII~~~iiI:Iiii _______ iIi II!i iI If~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.'U' ~", Ii.,~'1 I ~~ — ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —------ ---- ___i_'_____ -.I' LiiL I':~ II'!~I':~ II ______________________IMAM IlN i~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j Iiii ELGIN M~ACHINE SHOP; 1 z %~~~~~~~~~~t~~~~i~~~~Egg~~~~~~~~~~lllblU\~~~~~~~~fl iii~ ~i ii % ~i! i iU i::~~~~~~~~~~i 1 SETIGUPTE ACHS HOuR-GLASS. Shaped like wine glasses minuis the stand part, one inverted, connected I tgether by a simall tube, by which the sand passed from one to the other in one hoor it was then reversed THE SUN-DIAL an i d the sad ran back agai. Whet THE SU -DIA er ot. ancestors sat tp nlights to turn By which olr forefathers cotld tell it over we ca ot tell. hen it wao noon n fair weather. |Whenl cloldy they jldged by the indi':- X`' cations of the stolnach. i F~IRSTCLOCKSUSD BY wvith the pendatum. t\ 23 TU~2 0 CT'[3R -' - 19 "'................ Without case, they were fastened nearly to the floor. They iept goo time when the children did not play with the pendulum. Jlli MINS-11910-M *- H~u;~~~~~~MNTECOKS-LiqCVR 1(~~~~~~~~~~~~~1)j// ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ zr ae ~ C, 31ANTE CLOKS-BRNZE ASE AD STAUARY MANTE CLOKS-BRNZE ASE AD STAUARY CLOCKS AND WATCHES. 371 are consequently liable to stop while being means of a gauge, so delicately graduated wound up. But by the direct application as to detect a difference of the ten thouof the maintaining power to the fixed bar- sandth part of an inch. The jewels are rel, are obtained several very important ad- classified by means of the pivots, the jewels vantages over the chain and fusee, and also and pivots of the same number fitting each over the going-barrel arrangement. These other exactly. The sizes of the several facts add much to the character of Ameri- pivots and jewels in each watch are carefulcan-made watches, and in point of national- ly recorded under its number, so that if any ity, afford features of difference to distin- one of either should fail in any part of the guish them from the foreign watches. world, by sending the number of watch to The perfection with which machinery is Waltham, the part desired maybe readily and adapted to fine work, is beautifully illus- cheaply replaced with unerring certainty. trated in the works of the Waltham Co., By the old method, the processes of borwhich we believe is the only one in the ing holes and shaping wheels and pinions, world where all the parts of the watch are and bringing them to a size, were done by perfected under one roof, and systematized the drill-bow alone, a slow method, and deso that all the parts of one will fit any num- pending wholly on the quick eye and steady her of others. The different parts of the hand of the workman, who only acquired mechanism of foreign-made watches are the requisite skill by long years of apprencast and cut laboriously by hand, separately, ticeship. At Waltham, all this is done by and often in places remote from each other, lathes connected with a steam-driven shaft, then sent to the finisher's to be polished, and the boring or cutting tools guided by fitted together, and set up. Not only does machines of most ingenious contrivance, so this arrangement involve a vast amount of as to make the pieces absolutely uniform in expense for the time and labor employed in all their dimensions. the execution, but it necessarily results that Take, for instance, a pinion, which is no two of these pieces can ever be so pre- made out of the solid steel wire drawn for cisely alike as to render it possible to substi- the purpose. Some of this is drawn plain tute one for the other, and that the whole and some with grooves for the teeth. In mechanism, made thus in different places by either case, the arbor or axle is turned to skilful, mediocre, and inferior workmen, can the exact size and taper required to fit the never be adjusted with the same precision holes in the jewels, and the teeth cut to as though manufactured in one establish- their shape and distance, all by various mament, under the supervision of a single chinery, and with such absolute uniformity head. These difficulties have been obviated that any one piece will fit to its place in any by the American Watch Company. Every other watch of the same pattern. In like part of the watch is cut in their establish- manner, the stones for pivots are first cut, ment by the aid of machinery, graduated to and then rounded and brought to a size, microscopic exactness, and working with a polished, and fitted for use by machines, delicacy of touch that the fingers would strive tended by young women, who acquire the in vain to emulate. The pieces are thus cut requisite skill by a few weeks' practice. exactly alike. The jewelling department in Little screws, so minute that it takes one this establishment is under the direction hundred and fifty or two hundred thousand of the most skilful artisans. The precious to weigh a pound, are cut from the wire stones, rubies, sapphires, or chrysolites, infe- with surpassing rapidity, threaded, and the rior only to the diamond in hardness, and re- heads finished with complete accuracy. sembling grains of brilliant sand, are drilled by The tools and mechanical movements by the diamond's point into pivoted'reliances. which all these results are so completely They are then opened out with diamond accomplished, are nearly all of original condust, on a soft, hair-like iron wire, their per- trivance, and if fully and scientifically deforations having certain microscopic differ- scribed, would excite general admiration for ences. In like manner, the pivots of steel their ingenuity. that are to run in these jewels, without The works admit of the employment of wearing out in the least, must be exquisitely 220 hands, and can turn out 50 watches per polished. By this operation their size is day. Of about 125 pieces that go to make slightly reduced. The jewels and pivots, a watch, some pass through 50 hands before after being thus finished, are classified by they are finished. 372 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. -ELETRTOPLAT'ING. & rheated and the gold burnished. In this way sword-blades are ornamented. Instead of IT is now scarcely a score of years since.ether the essential oils may be used. this wonderful art began to attract attention, Making gilded trinkets was brought to and it has become of great importance in such perfection that the use of real gold many. departments of industry. By its was very much diminished. The most elemeans an exact copy of any surface may be gant patterns are struck in thin copper, and obtained in a metallic layer, as of a page of then gilded so perfectly as not to be distintype, a medal, or coin. This impression ob- guishable in a general way, while new, from tained, being backed with more fusible metal, gold, and with proper care they will last for becomes a duplicate of the original article. a considerable time; but when the gilding This branch of the art is called electrotyping, does wear off, the color cannot be restored, and some account of it is given in respect to as in the case of jeweller's gold. These type elsewhere in this volume. The other were the processes in use up to 1836, branch of the art, by which the metal held when Mr. Ames was one of a committee sent in solution may be made to settle upon and to England by the government to acquire to cover permanently the surface of objects knowledge in aid of a government arms manornamental and otherwise, is called electro- ufactory, and his attention was attracted to plating or electro-gilding. The discovery the subject of depositing silver by electricity, that this might be done was made early in which was then being discussed, and its thethe present century, but it was not followed ory established. No process of depositing the up as a useful art until 1839, when Mr. silver upon any base metal, as german-silver, Jordan published an account of the manner had been discovered. Subsequently, purin which he obtained impressions of en- suant to some suggestions of Professor Silligraved plates and other matters. Attention man, it was discovered that prussiate of was then directed to it. Previous to 1836 potash would hold the silver in solution silver-plating or gilding was executed in the without oxidizing the baser metals. This old way or various ways. Iron was gilded removed a part of the difficulty, but there by polishing its surface and then heating it yet remained to deposit any given weight till it acquired a blue color. When this was of silver that might be required. This was done leaf gold was applied, slightly burnished also removed by the discovery of the cyanide down, and exposed to a gentle fire, after solution. From that time the art of depositwhich it was burnished again. Copper or ing the precious upon base metals gained brass may be gilded in the same manner. ground, and has since become important. Gilding metals by amalgamation was effect- The early process was to dissolve sulphate ed by forming the gold into a paste or amal- of copper in a vessel, and to suspend a zinc gam with mercury, and was chiefly employ- plate by wires soldered to it, and the object ed for gilding silver, copper, or brass. The to be coated by the same wires in the liquid metal being well cleaned, is dipped into the facing the zinc and very near to it. On the amalgam or spread over with it, when a application of the electric battery, the zinc quantity will adhere to the surface. The dissolves, and about the same amount of metal is then exposed to the heat of a fur- copper deposits itself upon the object to be nace, which volatilizes the mercury, leaving coated, which is attached to the negative the gold adhering; this is afterward bur- pole of the battery. A quantity of sulphate nished. In this way buttons and similar ar- of copper is suspended in bags in the upper tides are gilded. portion of the liquid to supply that which Ornamental figures may also be delineated deposits. In electro-plating with gold or in gold upon steel by a very ingenious proc- silver there should be a constant motion ess, by means of ether. Gold is dissolved sustained, in order to aid in equalizing in nitro-muriatic acid, and a quantity of the deposit. In plating, the utmost care ether is added, and the mixture shaken. is to be taken to remove all traces of The ether will then take the gold from the grease by boiling the object in alkali. This acid, and an ethereal solution of gold will be process is extensively employed for giving a produced, which is separated and applied to very thin coating of silver to german-silver, the surface of the steel by a camel hair; the britannia, pewter, or brass, by which they ether will evaporate, leaving the gold on the have all the apparent beauty of the precious surface of the steel. The metal is then metal. The mode of dissolving the silver The following few Engravings show the beauty of design attained in this branch of manufacture; our limits admit of but one pattern of a kind. =_- -~"'_'_/ A7 F. _ =. ___ -,I f -9-1 —z —- Z/ii,TEA SETi TEA SET. MEDALLION SPOON IIOLDER. TOILET STAND, VEGETABLE DISH. CELERY STAND, CARD RECEIVER. CUP. SYRUP CUP. GLASS LINED DESSERT SET, SOUP TUREEN. PICKLE CASTOR BERRY DISH, OLIVE iJAL CAKE BASKET. VASE. SPOON HOLDER FRUIT DISH, CHASED ICE PITCHER. CASED URN. REVOLVING WINE STAND. CASTOR. GOBLET, BUTTER DIS NAPKIN RING. FISHERIES. 377 was originally by pure nitric acid; distilled the relative magnitude of its position. water then being added, the silver is pre- Their manufactory is a very extensive one, emcipitated as a cyanide by a solution of cyan- ploying many hundreds of hands at the same ide of potassium. The precipitate being col- time. They make more than fifty different lected and washed, is dissolved in a solution patterns of tea-sets, and their ware excels of cyanide of potassium, and this is used for in richness and durability. Their ware has silver, in place of the sulphate of copper used found its way into private families, hotels, for the deposit of that material. The object is and steamboats to a considerable extent, and more conveniently obtained by connecting a also swells the volume of the national exports. plate of silver with the positive pole of the In electro-gilding the metal is dissolved in battery, suspended in a solution of cyanide nitro-muriatic acid, when the chloride of of potassium, and allowing the current to pass gold thus obtained is digested with calcined until the silver begins to deposit upon the magnesia. The oxide precipitated is washed negative pole. To insure the adhesion of by boiling in nitric acid, and is then disthe silver to every part of the object to be solved in cyanide of potassium. The temcoated, it is well washed in an alkaline lye. perature in gilding copper should be at least The copper wire is then attached to the ob- 130~ F., and in gilding silver still higher. ject, which is dipped in nitric acid, and then The positive plate of the battery must be of placed in the solution; after being in it gold, and the negative of iron or copper. some minutes it is taken out and well brush- Some of the metals, as iron, steel, lead, do ed with sand. It is then replaced in the not readily receive the gold in deposit solution, and in several hours' time it will (unlike banks in that respect), but, being have acquired a coating of dead white silver first covered with a light coat of copper, as thick as tissue paper. It may then be the gold is deposited upon that. The copburnished or polished with a hard brush and per may be said to act in this case like the whiting. The strength of the battery makes mordant in calico printing. The solution a difference in the hardness of the silver. should contain as much gold as will perfect WMhen the battery is weak, the deposit is the desired work at once. In this operation soft, and it hardens with the increase of the the smallest quantities produce the most exmagnetic strength, accompanied by contin- traordinary effects. Thealmost infinitemalleaual motion, which also equalizes the depos- bility of gold is well known, and its capaciit up to a certain point, beyond which the ty to "spread itself" upon properly presilver changes to a black powder. To pro- pared metals beats that of a 4th of July duce the natural hardness of the hammered orator. An ordinary watch-case may remetal, it is requisite to preserve certain pro- ceive a heavy coat on the outside and be portions between the size of the silver plate, well covered within, and yet the expenditure and the object to be plated. If the time of of gold will be only 20 grains, or the value the operation is.prolonged, the deposit may of one dollar. "A magnificent gold pencilbe thickened to almost any extent. To de- case" will have cost 3 grains of gold, or 16 posit a plate as thick as ordinary writing cts. worth. The expense of tipping a taper paper, will require 14 or 1 —oz. of silver to 12 finger with gold for sewing is 5 cts., and square inches. The pure metal thus deposit- probably that is all it is worth since sewinged is as durable as that used for silver coin. machines have laid both thimbles and sailors' By the electro-plating process all ornaments, palms upon the shelf. however elaborate as designs, however corn- It is easily understood that the introduction plicated they may be, can be produced of such an art as this should have at once suas readily and in as great perfection as in perannuated the old system of plating. Progsolid silver. The most elaborate epergne ress is being continually made, and in New or the plainest tea or dinner-set is wrought York machines have been introduced and apand plated in the perfection of the purest plied to practical operation in electro-plating. silver. Door-plates, knobs, bell-pulls, cutlery, etc., all come within the scope of this rare art. The manufacture is carried on in New York, New England, and Philadelphia, on a FISHERIES. great scale; but perhaps the house of Rogers, Smith & Co., of Hartford, the first that en- THE fisheries, as we have elsewhere shown, gaged largely in the business, has retained were the irst successful industry of the col 378 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. onies, and they laid the foundation of our try and intelligence, the causes of the defeat national commerce and marine. The results they sustained a century later. are not singular in this respect, since the About the time of the Declaration of Inmost flourishing commercial countries of the dependence, the trade growing out of the modern world owed their origin, like the cod fishery furnished the northern colonies Romish church, to the " poor fisherman." with nearly one half of their remittances to When the subjects of ancient Rome, flying the mother country, in payment for goods. before the hordes of Attila, retreated to the All the seaport towns were engaged mostly lagunes of the Adriatic, nothing remained in it, and thus grew in proportion to the to them but the sea and its treasures. This success of that business. Under these cirpursuit enabled them to rear on the rocks cumstances, the fishing rights were a very that had sheltered them, the proud Venice important part of the negotiations entered which awed the world, and whose power fell into at the peace. The general result of the only when the republic had become a cor- negotiations was that the Americans might rupt oligarchy, and the young general Bona- catch fish anywhere except within three parte, the agent of a new republic, called miles of certain English colonial coasts, and them to account. With the same origin might land to dry and cure on the southern Genoa grew into the dominion of the seas, side of Newfoundland and other convenient and encountered the same fate when wealth coasts. Congress, by law, also granted a and corruption succeeded the humble vir- bounty to vessels of which all the officers tues of the founders. The Dutch, from a and three fourths of the crew were American band of herring-catchers, whose collection of citizens. The bounty was altered from time fishing huts was called Amsterdam, carried to time, and as it now exists under the law on that system of energetic industry that of 1855 is as follows: If the vessel is more conquered Holland from the sea, and pro- than five tons and not more than 30, $38 vented the future encroachments of that ele- per ton; more than 30 tons, $4. The alment by dikes; while the country grew rich lowance of one vessel during the season, and so powerful that the successors of those whatever may be her tonnage, cannot exceed old herring-busses carried a broom at the $360. The bounty paid out in the last 12 mast-head in token of the sovereignty of years amounts to $4,046,929, or $337,244 the seas. To them succeeded the Eng- per annum average. The whole amount lish, whose fishing-nurtured marine, coupled paid since the formation of the government with an aptitude for commerce, gave them has been $12,944,998, and the following the mastery over the wealth-enervated Dutch. states were the recipients:The English felt the maritime sceptre to tremble in their grasp for the first time, STATES THAT RECEIVE THE FEDERAL BOUNTY. when the New England trained fishermen Maine................. $4 0 them. in. battle aNew Hampshire........... 563,134 met them in battle, ad almost every en- Massachusetts............ 7,926,273 gagement resulted in the triumph of the Connecticut.............. 182,853 "bit of striped bunting." But warlike Rhode Island....8,895 supremacy is the least of the triumphs, New York.. 18,319 since the commercial and maritime superi- irgi... ority has every day become more mani- Total......... 12,944,998 fest, from the moment Paul Jones "began to fight" and " old Stewart" out-manceuvred The cod fishery is the most important, if the Engish fleet, to the success of the we take the number of tons employed as the yacht America in the British waters. In guide. In 1795 there were 37,000 tons of that period the Yankee fishermen have car- shipping so employed. At present there ried the stars and stripes to every corner are 110,000 tons employed in the business. of every continent and shown them to every There are several ways in which the fishingisle of the ocean. The vigor and address vessels are fitted out. The leading one is with which the New Englanders early em- for six or seven farmers with their sons to barked in the cod and mackerel fishing, build a schooner during the winter. When and built vessels with which to prosecute it, the spring crops are in, they fit out the vesnot only excited the admiration of the sel with the necessary stores and go on mother country, but roused the alarm of board to make the voyage before harvest. the government, who foresaw, in their indus- They proceed to the "Banks," the Gulf of Hlls;SN 1 mri ca! il.;Arili ifi'i; ii ji~~~~~~~~~~-,; ilf illl~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~il SR~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~fl Bl iii ~ ~,. IM all,, MI-~~~~~~~~~~~~~c ~isi NITHI Ollil,~Sp ii'ij~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iiii~~~~~~~~~~;t '~'i'~;if,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Aitonaey li111,, ~;"~ Fil.......... Oli ili "iiiiliiil i i' ~"~'y', i i'i~ i~:!H' III Illinois 111111,11-";: ~ ~ ~ ~'iiiiiii:,,;;iiii~!iiii,!!t!ii~~!!llifi I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J!!tJIi,.,,,.:1::~, iiiti'Nlii ii ll i ii!'I' 11 il'..'-':~ "'":!i i:',!?~'/" " 1i"/;iiijj ii:i::':,,.:.,,:,,,~:iri~ii............ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~"lt""'"'"'l~ ~'~'~'''~~' "'~~~~ ~ "~: ~':-" I olh, itI~~~~~~~~~~~~l j ii~~liliiiiitiiiiliii~~ili iil iti iiii~ li iii ill I ii, Ali",~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iiiiiii~i jl- l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ill'l i~~l!;i~!!iiI 1:llii~jjI~iljiii i-ijjijijjji i~;Biii~ii w RMiiiiii ilii ii i ij AI~~~~~~~~~ i,:::iiii~~ljfj!r iliiii ii i'i IN FISHERIES. 381 St. Lawrence, or Labrador, and, with a good hand over hand, until the fish is hauled up catch, get home in time to harvest. From to the surface, when he is taken in on deck, the proceeds of the voyage they pay any out- unhooked, and thrown into a square box, standing claims for outfit, draw the govern- which each man has fastened by his side, ment bounty, and divide the proceeds. Af- called a " kid." The hooks are then baited ter harvest they make another voyage, the and hove over again, and the fisherman, catch of which is not dried, but salted down while the line is running, picks up the fish for home use, under the name of mud fish. caught, and cuts out his tongue. Another plan is to charter a vessel from the Toward night, the fish are counted out owner, merchant, or other, in a company of from the kids, each one separately, and 10 or 15, on shares; the owner finding the thrown into a large kid near the mainvessel, and nets, and salt for his share, which hatch, called the " dressing-kid." They are is usually three eighths of the whole catch. counted aloud as they are thrown along, and The men supply provisions, hooks, lines, and each man is required to keep his own acJie salt for their share of five eighths of the count and report to the skipper at night, who 4fsh. One of them is selected to navigate, keeps a separate account for each man on for which service he gets $4 or $5 per the log-book. The dressing-gang, consisting ronth; otherwise he turns in to catch fish, of a " throater," a "header," a "splitter," or to work with the rest. The first spring and a " salter," now commence dressing voyage is usually made to the Banks; the down. After passing through the hands of second either to the Banks, the Gulf, or Labra- the first three, they assume somewhat the dor; and the two fall voyages also generally shape seen in market. They are then passed to the Banks. down between decks to the salter, who puts Fish here are all caught with hooks, and them up in kenches, or layers, laying the are taken from the bottom. Each fisher- first tier on the bottom of the hold, and man has a strong line, of from sixty to sev- building up with alternate layers of salt and enty fathoms in length, to which is attached fish till the kench reaches the desired height. a lead of a cylindrical shape, weighing about The decks are then washed down, sails taken five pounds. This of course is the sinker, in, and the vessel anchored for the night. From this proceeds the "pennant," which is A popular, though somewhat dangerous a cord about twice the size of the line, and method, called "trawling," has been emis about three feet in length. To the lower ployed of late years. The trawl is a long end of the pennant, and attached to it by a rope, with from twenty to a hundred lines small copper swivel, is the " craft," which is depending from it, to which hooks are ata small stout cord about two and a half feet tached as to the common line. The rope is in length, having three strips of whalebone kept at the surface by means of keg-buoys, Luid around it at the middle, where it is at- each one marked with the vessel's name, to tached to the swivel of the pennant. The prevent any dispute as to ownership. The whole is then serried or wound round with hooks are baited and the trawl got clear and tarred twine. On each end of the craft is ready, and it is then taken in a dory some a smaller swivel, to which the gauging of distance from the vessel, and set. It is the hooks is attached. The whalebone generally, we believe, set at night, and serves to keep the hooks about a foot apart, hauled in the morning. The very laborious so there is little danger of their becoming duty of hauling the trawls is performed also entangled with each other. in dories, by two or three men in each. The men arrange themselves on the wind- Occasionally, nearly every hook has done ward side of the deck, throw over their its work, but most frequently from twenty leads, and unreel their lines, till the lead to fifty fish are the reward of their toil. rests on the bottom. It is then drawn up Sometimes trawls are set at a distance of so that the hook will be on the bottom with five or six miles from the craft, and not unthe down pitch of the vessel, and with nip- frequently do the trawl-men get astray from pers drawn on their fingers to keep the line their vessel. In this case, they generally from cutting them, they lean over the bul- board some other vessel, if one is lying near,. warks, patiently awaiting a bite, which is or drift about for hours until they find their known by a slight jerk on the line. They own. then give a sudden pull, in order to hook The herring fishery, which was formerly him, stand back and haul in the long line, very abundant, has of late years fallen into 23 382 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. decay, for the reason that the great schools been in demand, when cured in any manner that formerly visited these shores have by salt, for the domestic or foreign markets, ceased to come, most probably because the but few were prepared for that purpose. In waters resorted to by the fish to deposit fact, so worthless were they considered as their spawn have been obstructed by dams, salted fish, that the owners of the vessels mills, etc. For the same reason the once employed in the fisheries generally inabundant salmon has now become scarce. structed the crews to cut adrift all the The indentures of the apprentices in colonial halibut which were drawn up, and every times were said to have contained clauses year many thousands had been thus turned that the apprentice should not be compelled back to the deep with a fatal wound. But to eat salmon oftener than thrice a week. such was now the facility of transporting Since then, through scarcity, that fish has them fresh to the New York market, that risen to $2 a pound, at certain seasons. at least 16,000 were taken, and a large portion Streams that once afforded supplies for do- of them sent to that city by the railroads mestic consumption and thousands of barrels and steamboats. for export, now supply less than the local de- The mode of taking halibut is as follows: mand. Along the Maine waters forty years The lines are thrown over and allowed to ago two hundred a day for three months in sink to the bottom; a heavy lead is attached, the year was not extra. A boy of 15 would for the under current on the Banks is very take 1500 in a season with a dip-net. strong; the fish takes the hook by suction, They probably caught them all, for very few but the force of suction is sufficient to enare seen of late years. Until within twenty able the fisherman to discover that he is years salmon were plenty in the Merrimac "thar;" then commences the "hauling in," river, but they have been driven away by and the reader may believe it is no joke to turbine wheels. Of the Delaware, Susque- haul in a line, in a rough sea, of some hanna, Hudson, Connecticut, and Thames, eighty or ninety fathoms in length, with a the same story may be told of former abun- fish of from twenty-five'to two hundred dance and present scarcity. As an instance pounds' weight at the end. Sometimes the of relative values, one shad was formerly fish comes up very readily to the surface, thought equal to three salmon, but in certain but in most cases it is necessary to "drown" seasons one salmon will now be worth a it, by drawing it some ten or twenty feet bushel of shad. The Aroostook river is now from the bottom, and very suddenly letting the source of greatest supply, but the chief go. This last process is of course a very quantity that comes upon the market is tedious one. The fish upon coming to the from the colonies. On the Pacific coast, as surface is seized by a " gaff;" an oaken pole far south as the Columbia river, they are or stick with a strong hook attached, drawn still abundant. In that river a navigator on board the vessel, and thrown into the asserted he purchased a ton of salmon for a ice-house. Each man keeps account of the jack-knife. There are those who already number of fish he takes, of which he reanticipate a dinner in New York upon a ceives the proceeds from one half the Columbia river salmon, to be brought by amount of sale. the Pacific railroad. Some seven years ago Formerly the halibut was only caught the same table on Lake Erie presented Ken- late in the spring and during the summer nebec salmon side by side with Lake Supe- and autumnal months, on the south shoals rior salmon-trout. of Nantucket, along the coast of Cape Cod, The halibut fishery on George's Banks in Barnstable Bay, on Cash's Ledge, and is an enterprise of recent years. It is pur- some other places, where they were most sued in mid-winter, and few occupations, abundant at certain seasons of the year, even on the ocean, are more hazardous. and always in deep water, being considThis delicate fish is packed in ice, and sent ered, as it is termed, a bottom fish. But by railroads, sound and sweet, to the most since the demand for this American turbot, distant markets. as it may with propriety be called (for it Before the construction of railroads, the much resembles that delicious fish in form whole number of halibut annually caught and flavor), has so vastly increased, the fishand brought into Cape Ann, did not exceed ermen have made explorations in search of 2500, which were nearly all sold fresh for other haunts, and, to their great astonishimmediate consumption; for not having ment, found them in immense quantities on FISHERIES. 383 George's Banks, early in March; and what crews for the mackerel fishery generally was still more surprising, and a fact until then consist of from 10 to 14 men, according entirely unknown to them, they appeared in to the size of the craft; for the cod and extensive shoals on the surface of the water, halibut fishery, of about 8 men. The veslike mackerel, and were taken with but three sels are nearly all of a clipper build, foreor four fathoms of line, instead of from 26 to and-aft rig, and are valued at an average of 70, which they had been accustomed to use about $4000. Most of them have all the contime out of mind in the bottom fishing. veniences of a mechanic's house on shore, The Cape Ann vessels take from 200 to and their cabins will generally compare, in 500 each trip, weighing from 25 to 200 a due proportion of course, with the cabins pounds. of any merchant-ship. It is the fisherman's The fish is packed and shipped mostly, if pride that his craft shall compare in beauty not altogether, in Boston, and thence sent with any other he may meet. In Gloucesto the most distant points of the South. It ter the value of shipping tonnage is $1,600,much surprised the epicures of New Orleans 000. In the months of May and June, when it popped out of the ice-box in the nearly all the vessels owned in the port market, not only by the strangeness of its ap- commence "fitting out" for the Bay of St. pearance, being altogether unknown in those Lawrence, in which locality, for the past parts, but also by the delicacy of its rich few years, mackerel abound in the greatest flavor. numbers. The "fit-out" consists in the The growth of this fishery has been so craft being newly painted, rigging and sails rapid that from a small beginning it has renovated, anchors and cables replenished, in a few years increased to $60,000 per an- if necessary, men shipped, and bait, salt, num, and employs 75 nearly new and well- and provisions taken on board. She is then adapted vessels, chiefly owned at the port ready for a start. For the first few days of of Gloucester. the passage all hands are busily employed The mackerel fishery was one of the earli- in arranging or deciding for their fishing est pursued, but it did not reach much im- quarters at the rail. The best men are genportance until the close of the last century; erally given positions near the main rigging, and it is now mostly confined to Maine and which is considered the most advantageous, Massachusetts. There are about 30,000 as the fish usually rise there in greatest tons employed in it, and the number of numbers. The men are shipped "on barrels caught annually will vary from 131,- shares," as it is termed, i. e. each man is 000 to 360,000 barrels. Nearly the whole entitled to one half the fish he takes-the of the business is carried on in Massachu- other half going to the vessel. After about setts, the other states doing but little in it. a week's sail they arrive at their destinaA few vessels from Maine and Connecticut tion, which comprises the Bay of St. Lawfit out at Gloucester, the chief place for that rence, from Cape Breton island on the industry. The merchants of_ Philadelphia, south and Prince Edward's island on the New York, and Boston have their agents at west to the mouth of the St. Lawrence on that place to purchase and ship for them. the north. When arrived, bait is got up There are now employed in it over 1000 and ground. The "toll-bait," as it is vessels and 10,000 men. The value is given called, is generally menhaden, or porgies, a as follows by the inspector general of Mas. small bony fish, little used as an article of sachusetts:- food. This is supplied in great quantities Vale of v s ad o s in - to each vessel. It is finely ground in a mill Value of vessels and outfits in Massachusetts............. $6,032,000 provided for the purpose, then mixed with Value average of catch,.......... 4,400,000 water, and it is ready for use. Upon the appearance of a school of mackerel, which is The American mackerel-catchers took of indicated by a rippling of the surface of the this fish one year as follows: 188,336 barrels water not unlike that of the schools of herin American waters, and 140,906 barrels in ring, the vessel is "hove to," and the " tollwaters now claimed as the exclusive right bait" thrown. The fish will generally folof the Earl of Derby. low this bait to the side of the vessel, where Gloucester sends out annually about four all hands are at their quarters, and. anxiously hundred schooners, ranging from 65 to awaiting the first "bite." And now com110 tons, and averaging 90 tons. Their mences a general excitement. Each man 384 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. has his barrel by his side, and to those who they were fatted, as "East Rivers," "Shrewshave never seen the operation, the rapidity burys," etc. The setting, planting, and bringwith which the fish are taken from the ing them to market occupy a great numwater is almost incredible. The men are ber of men and no inconsiderable tonnage. also provided with two lines each, and upon They attain a marketable size in about a " strike," which means when the fish bite eighteen months, and breed very rapidly. rapidly, these lines are in constant motion, When the oyster vessel arrives in the spring and what seems strangest of all is the fact, from the South, it is anchored near the site that although a space of only about a foot of the proposed bed. The cargoes are then and a half or two feet is allowed to each put into small boats that come alongside. man for himself and his barrel, it is very The beds having been staked off into small seldom that the lines become entangled, squares, about 50 bushels are spread over even when the school being at some dis- one of the squares in such a manner that tance from the vessel, some 15 or 20 fath- no oyster shall be upon another. By the oms of length of line is required, and the fall, the oysters will have considerably infish, as soon as the hook is felt, dart hither creased in size, and greatly improved in fiaand thither with the rapidity of lightning. vor. If allowed to remain too long in shelAfter a "deck" of mackerel is obtained tered waters, the oyster not long acclimated (which signifies a goodly number of bar- will perish with the rigor of the northern rels), all hands immediately prepare to put winter. The breeding time of native oysters them in salt. The operations of " passing is in April and May, from which time to up," " splitting," and "gibbing" are gone July or August, they are said to be sick, or through, and they are packed in salt in the in the milk, and in most localities laws forbarrels. This, with a plenty of leisure, when bid taking them until the first of Septemthe fish are "slack," or do not take the ber, with a view to favor their growth. hook, is the routine of the Gloueester mack- They are then cau'ght in a net, which has erel fisherman's sea life. on its lower edge an iron scraper. This The process of netting and seining is used being attached to a rope and cast over from very little, it being a much easier and safer a boat, is dragged along the bottom by a method to take them by the hook and line. forced motion when rowed by the fisherNumbers of city and country people make men. The iron scraper turns up the oysters trips in these fishing craft in summer sea- and they are retained in the net, which from son, from the fact that the business is of a time to time is drawn up to be emptied. healthful nature, and is a pleasant and very When the water is shallow a pair of huge convenient manner of enjoying a few weeks' tongs are used to pick up a number at a leisure. time. In some places the drag or dredge These schooners make two or three trips is very large and heavy, and is drawn along each season, starting about the middle of by the vessel under sail. This process is May or first of June, on their first voyage, forbidden by law in some districts, since the and returning in October or November from heavy drag crushes and destroys as many as their last one. A "good trip" is considered it catches. When the season sets in, the to be about 250 to 300 barrels. fishermen crowd the waters where the oysThe oyster trade is a large and general ters are to be had, and sell their catch in one, and pervades most of the towns and the neighboring cities. The larger dealers cities of the Union, having spread with the buy their oysters in Virginian waters, and facilities of transport to points that distance carry them North to plant until they are fat. before deprived of the bivalvular luxury. The value. of the Virginia oyster trade has The oysters are of a great variety of species, been given as follows, showing the destinaseemingly dependent upon the locality where tion of the oysters:they are fatted. Large numbers of oysters No. of bushels. Value. taken from the original beds are unfit for Virginia cities.......... 1,050,000 $1,050,000 market until they have been planted or Baltimore............... 3,500,000 3,500,000 transferred to a favorable locality for them IPhiladelphia -........ 2,500,000 250,000 New York........... 6,950,000 6,950,000 to fat. The different localities impart to Fair Haven............ 2,000,000 2,000,000 them various flavors, more or less salt, and Total.............. 16,000,000 $16,000,000 which are difficult to discriminate other- Other cities,Providence, etc. 4,000,000 4,000,000 wise than by the name of the place where Total............ 20,000,000 $20,000,000 .-~~~~~~ —— iii~~~~~~~~~ —---— x —-X —--— ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~=-~~~~i t=I~~~~~~~I —-L —IIL-...- -:;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. - - - - -. - i=L-~~~~~- ------ _. —:,~~~~~ I~~;~~~~~~-~~-~~-~~-~~-`~~~~:: —- ------ ~ —t~~~~~- ~~~~-~~ i ~ ~ ~~~~~ ~~n --—, — — lln-~ —~-= —= —— ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~= —-7 —~~~~~~~~ _;-.^,;L I;I —: —~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- ---------- ~~~-~~~ —-~~~~~~-~ i~~~~~~~~-?I- ~ -~~~:: —------- -,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_~~~. ~~~~~ii=~~~~~~-~~~~-==~~~~~~=~~~~==~~~~~"i-~~~~~~ii=;~~~~~~~~~c —-- --- --.~~~~-====I-~ —- ~~~~~~~~~~;:~~~~: x- ~ ~ ~ ~ 1. —----- -. —-— ~~~~~~~~~~~~;;;-;I; —------—; —— rlz~~~~~~~~~~ —- ----- --- ~~~; ~ —---— i~~ I ~ ~ — ~=~.?III~~==I_- - ----------;~~~i;~~~i~~~i~~i~~~ii~~~- T~~~t-~~~~~~~=' —~~~~~~ —--— ~~~~~.. - ----- ~:.~ —"::=~=~"' _;~;;;~ —-~'-' =' — II;I~;;_ —~~ —;~PEN N=-=;1=~~ ----— ~ — ~~ —~ =L ~ ~ - J~-~-~ —-~..~L== _~=11==-~==.1==-_==rr~-~. - - ME I IRS --------------------- ----------— "I, —--- KA,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_.~....-. I_- __11 —;;lr_~l_-li ~ ~-g-;l=-=;===;.---- ~-x~~:.==3==~~""~-~~I~==I TT= I~~?I-~=~rJ==IL~.~.-11x~.-`..1-"-"~~~~~~~-g-= "- P MMWO-E1-21Mr~-~;-~ —~-~-~-=-~ ~ -~~ ~ ~ - -. - I- - - ~m in~~~-~-;;r~~~:: — — l-c~~~sz=-ROUT FSHING FISHERIES. 385 It has been estimated that the oyster spawn, than in any other river on the globe. trade of Baltimore is more valuable than These fish give rise, as a matter of course, to the whole wheat trade of Maryland. The a large business. The number of barrels whole shores of the Chesapeake Bay are caught annually is some 42,000, which may admirably adapted to their growth, and they be divided as follows: Lake Superior, 3000; reach maturity in one year. There are there Michigan, 15,000; Huron, 14,000; Erie, 250 vessels engaged in the business, and 3000; and 7000 barrels in Detroit rivtheir catch is 900 bushels every trip of ten er. Being sold at an average of $11 per days, and the annual aggregate is 4,800,000 barrel, the aggregate value is some $462,000. bushels. The average value being 50 cents About one sixth of the whole quantity is per bushel, the value is $2,400,000 paid trout, the remainder white fish. The mode by the Baltimore dealers. Some of these of taking them is by " gill nets" set some houses send West over the railroads 8 to 10 ten miles from the shore. Considerable tons of canned oysters per day. The shells numbers are taken when, having been up sold for m.anure are put at 6,000,000 bush- Detroit river from Lake Erie to spawn, they els annually, worth two cents per bushel, or are on their return. There are about 50 $120,000. The Long Island Sound oys- fisheries on the river. In some of the rivers ters were originally from Chesapeake Bay. that flow into the lakes, great quantities of These oysters cost originally 25 cents, and pickerel are caught, say Fox river, Wisconthe freight is 15 cents. The native oysters, sin, 1000 barrels; Saginaw river, 1500 baror what are considered such, being propa- rels; St. Clair, 15,000 barrels; Maumee, gated from old plants, are taken mostly for 3000 barrels, and as much mullet, bass, etc. the city trade, while the transplanted oys- The annual product of the lakes and tributers find their way all over the country by taries is given as follows:railroad. To preserve them they are first Barrels Value opened and put into kegs or cans of a ca- Lakes..........: 35,000 $385,000 pacity of 12 to 20 gallons each. These are Detroit river...... 7,000 7,000 then put into boxes and surrounded with Other rivers...... 10,000 85,000 ice. There are some 250 vessels employed 52 547 in carrying oysters to New Haven. There' are about 20 houses engaged in the business, One of the most remarkable fisheries is the largest having branches in Buffalo, Cleve- carried on in Long Island Sound and some land, Hamiltoni and elsewhere. These firms other localities. It is the taking of what employ a great number of boys and girls in are called bony fish for manure. These fish opening the oysters. The operation is per- go in immense schools, which show themformed with incredible dispatch by the ex- selves in ripples upon the surface of the perienced hands. The instruments used are water. They are taken by nets, which may a hammer to crack the edge on a slip of be seen by the steamboat traveller, hung iron fixed upright in the bench, and a knife. upon immense reeds at the water's edge to The latter is always held in the hand, while dry. These nets are weighted with lumps the hammer is seized, the blow given, and of lead at the lower edge, having floats at dropped, the knife inserted, and the oyster the top, so as to keep them upright in the being seized between the knife and the water. The fishers, in boats, pay out the thumb is pitched into the tub. The move- net from one and the other, and encircle the ment produces a constant click-gouge-splash, school with it. The two ends then being click-gouge-splash, as the tub rapidly fills carried to the shore are drawn in with great with the "bivalves" previous to packing. force, and an immense haul of fish results. The openers get 2 cents a quart, and they With the bony fish, many of a better class earn from $1 to $2 per day. There are 150 are caught, but if the aggregate will not oysters to the gallon, and to earn $2, 100 equal 150 cart-loads it is not thought large. quarts, or 3750 oysters must be opened, or These fish are spread upon the land' as ferduring 12 hours 50 per minute! tilizers. They are far better for the land The sea-coast by no means monopolizes than for the neighbors, who for miles round good fishing. In and about the great lakes suffer odors not from "Araby the blest." there are 35 varieties of fish, and it is said The whale fishery began at the close of that a larger number and variety of fish as- the 17th century, in Nantucket, and that cend the Maumee river in the spring to has been, until very recently, its chief loca 386 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. tion. About the close of the revolutionar Value. tion. About the close of the revolutionary \essels employed, 661 Sperm oil, bbls. 193,300 $,571.812 war, Massachusetts employed 183 vessels, of Tonnage, 203,062 Whale. 153,850 3,392,892 13,820 tons, navigated by 4,059 men, and pro- Seamen, " 16,370 Whalebone, lbs. 1,538,000 1,070,600 ducing about $2,000,000 per annum. The Total value of product................... $12,040,04 Value of vessels, outfit, advances to seamen, etc $16,625,000 business has progressed until the American Supplies by masters............................ 793,000 seamen have nearly driven all others from the Money paid to officers and men fortheir'shares.. 4,013.6t01 seas in that pursuit. England, to encourage $21,431,601 her whalers, imposed a duty on foreign oils, Add interest and wear and tear....... 2,004,21 but finding her fishers coming home more Total investment.............. $23,436,222 frequently without oils, while her wants The value of all the fisheries, including the were greater, and the American whalers whale, may be summed up as follows:offering to supply it, she "caved in," and Vessels. Ton'ge. Capital. Persons. Value. took off the duty, in order to encourage Whale........... 66 203,062 23,436,226 16,370 $12,040,804 Cod,mackerel,etc. 2,280 175,306 7,280,000 19,150 8,730,000 her own manufacturers. Our own whalers Oysters, etc............................ 25,000,000 have never had the bounty of the govern- Iake, etc........................ 2,375,000 Fish for manure............................ 260,000 ment like the cod fishery, to encourage them, but have on the other hand been Total................................ $48,405,804 compelled to encounter the opposition of The "cod, mackerel, etc.," includes shad "prairie whales," which yield their lard oil, and other marketable fish. The item for and the multitudes of inventions of patent oysters, etc., includes the turtle, clam, and oils from coal and other substances, while other shell-fish. from the growing scarcity of whales, that desert their old feeding grounds, the extreme difficulties and dangers of the business are continually increasing. Neverthe- ICE. less, the hardy American seamen continue less, the hardy American seamen continue Hast thou entered into the terrors of the snow, or hast to chase them, even into the extreme arctic ast thou entered into th e terrors of th e snow, or hail?"-B. regions, whither the whales resort, as it was said by an old " ship's lawyer," to supply FOR how many years, not to say centuries, the " northern lights" with oil. In spite of was the vast icy wealth which nature confers all these difficulties the business has grown, upon northern latitudes in such profusion, probably in consequence of the peculiar and within reach of every individual, utterly manner in which it has always been con- unappreciated and neglected! The use of ducted. The voyage being projected by ice was indeed known to the luxurious few the owners, the officers and crew are shipped in remote ages. The ancient Romans learnon "lays," every man having an interest in ed to cool their choice wines with frozen the voyage. If the voyage is not success- water, and almost in every age, the " upper ful he gets nothing, but if the usual sue- ten" were acquainted with its merits. Like cess is met with, he gets a certain number education, and suffrage, and freedom of of gallons proportioned to the whole, and opinion, and toleration in religion, it howis thus interested in the price as well. The ever became known to and extended among shares of officers and men equal one third the people only under our federal governof the whole. This system has developed ment. It is now no longer regarded as exa spirit of enterprise and hardihood never elusively a luxury, but has become a necessurpassed, if it was ever equalled by any sity. Under almost all circumstances water other nation. The largest seat of this busi- is made palatable by it, and wines are imness is now New Bedford, and the next in proved by its application. The introduction importance is New London. Fair Haven of water into large cities by aqueduct, is ranks next, and Nantucket has declined to made acceptable to citizens not only in the the fourth position in relative importance. summer but also in the winter by the use of The annual report of the United States ice. The excuse for ardent drinks based on Secretary of State of a late date contain- poor water, is removed by the possession of ed the following statistics of the trade, ice, since tepid water is rendered attractive to which is added a summary of the capi- by it. When water is thus rendered agreetal and value of all the fisheries, accord- able, the temptation to indulge in strong ing to the best authorities, official and ex- drinks is diminished. By its use, also, the perienced:- supply of food is virtually enhanced, since ICE. 387 the surplus of districts, that might otherwise sends the annual crop, which like the manna be lost, can be sent to a considerable distance has only to be gathered, and the market for to supply the wants of large cities. The it is ever increasing. surplus supplies that may thus accumulate, There were many farmers possessed of icecan be preserved for a longer time by the houses in the middle states, at a date as far use of ice. The fruits of the West Indies back as the formation of the government. may be preserved in the northern cities, and But the idea of making a trade of it seems those of our own orchards are by the same to have occurred first to Frederick Tudor, means preserved for the markets of India, Esq., of Boston, in 1805. He shipped a Brazil, and the West Indies. Packet ships cargo in that year from Boston to Martinique. no longer carry live fowls and pigs, since a The ice was cut with axes, and carted in small ice-house may be packed with fresh wagons to Gray's wharf, Charlestown, where provisions for the voyage. The markets of it was shipped. The voyage proved a total all large cities are provided with hundreds loss,as did several succeeding ones, until the of ice-chests, in which fresh provisions are war put an end to trade. Mr. Tudor resumpreserved free from taint. Fishermen have ed it at the peace, and persevered in face of become greatly dependent upon ice, which continued losses, until 1823, when he exenables them to keep a large and full supply tended it to the southern states, and the of fish in every variety, and almost every West Indies, and it began to pay. As long family has its refrigerator or ice-box, which, as it was a losing business he had it all to regularly supplied, is the recipient for butter, himself; as soon as his perseverance had milk, and other food. Thus families are as mastered the business and made an art of it, readily furnished with ice as with milk. he began to have competitors. Up to 1832, To country houses and substantial farmers, however, he was alone in it, and in that ice-houses have become a necessity for the year extended his shipments to Calcutta, same general reasons. Madras, and Bombay, and also to Brazil. Not the least important use of ice is its These were the first ice shipments ever made.medical applications. It is a reliable tonic to those countries, and they have ever and of the safest. In cases of fever it has since been good customers. Since 1832, a become of general use. In India the first number of firms have engaged in it. In that prescription of a physician is ice, and some- year the shipment. was 4,352 tons, cut from times it is the only one, and the ice is always Fresh Pond. In 1854, it had grown to American! If India sends us her opium, 154,540 tons. she gets as valuable a return in ice. That The use of ice extended itself in all the article is also a styptic, and has many impor- cities of New England, and in Boston betant medical applications. All these benefits came very general. The quantity there used and many more were annually provided is about 70,000 tons per annum, against for humanity in the frosts of winter and about 27,000 tons in 1847. The ice is cut in the congealing of water, but were disre- mostly from Fresh and Spy Ponds; at the garded until an enterprising Yankee adopted former the houses are capable of containing the notion of harvesting that crop. Massa- about 87,000 tons. The price of ice for chusetts to be sure has but two crops, and it shipping is usually $2 per ton, and rises required two centuries to discover them. from that to $6 after mid-winter. The For more than 200 years the snow fell upon article is served to families at the rate of $5 and melted from her granite hills, before for the season, May to October, for nine lbs. speculation, putting its hand upon them, sent per day; 15 lbs. are served for $8, and 24 lbs. them along the coast by schooner loads as for $12. When large quantities are served, material for palaces. For more than 200 the price is 17 ets. per hundred, and $3 per successive winters the clear and sparkling ton to hotels when 500 Ibs. per day are taken. ice showed itself upon her ponds, and van- In New York the quantity used is nearly ished under the vernal sun, before enterprise 285,000 tons. This is supplied in the prodetected in its preservation the means of in- portions of 120,000 tons from Rockland creasing human enjoyment. Those frozen Lake; 30,000 from Highland Lake; NewRolakes were each winter covered with gold, chelle, 10,000; Athens, 15,000; Rhinebeck, but, like that of California, it was long undis- 18,000; Kingston Creek, 60,000; Catskill, covered. It will, however, never run out, 20,000; Barrytown, 12,000. Of this quansince, without ploughing or sowing, nature tity, 113,000 tons are stored by the Knicker 388 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. bocker Co., and the remainder by four firms. were engaged upon cutting ice on the same The cities of Newburg, Poughkeepsie, Huid- pond as to their comparative rights. This was son, Albany, Troy, lay up from 5000 to settled at Fresh Pond by a committee, who 20,000 tons each. In central and western decided that each owner should hold the New York the use of ice is large. It com- same proportion of the contiguous surface of menced at Syracuse in 1844 for the supply the pond as the length of his shore line is to of a saloon, and it was gradually extended the whole border. to butchers and families, and the quantity The time for cutting is December and there used is about 10,000 tons, taken mostly January. The "experts" can in the middle from Onondaga Lake, from which it is drawn of January estimate the value of the crop. itwo or three miles to be stowed in an ice- When the ice is sufficiently thick to cut, say house. The other cities of western New from nine to twenty inches, the former for York have followed the example, and the home use and the latter for exportation, if average price is 20 cts. per hundred. Cin- there should be snow upon the surface, it is cinnati used to draw its supply of ice from its removed by wooden scrapers drawn by own vicinity; but the railroad facilities per- horses. There is a layer of what is called mit of drawing it cheaper and better from "snow ice," that is not fit for market; this the lakes. Chicago is well supplied from must be removed, and for this purpose an the same source. In the neighborhood of iron scraper with a cutting-edged steel is Peru, Illinois, a large quantity is cut for drawn over it by a horse. A man rides upon the supply of the lower Mississippi. It is the scraper, which in its progress cuts several cut in the winter and packed in flat-boats inches of the snow ice from the surface of which are allowed to freeze up in the Illinois the clear and glittering article that is to go river; there is therefore no other ice-house to market. When this is completed, the needed. As soon as the river breaks up in field of ice is marked off into squares of five the spring, the boats float down stream and feet each. The marker is drawn by a horse, supply the markets below. In Philadel- and is guided by handles like a plough. In phia, Baltimore, and Washington, ice is more the tracks of these marks and cross marks folimportant than in the cities of the North. lows the cutter. This is a remarkable invenWhen the weather sets in cold in the early tion, which has reduced the cost of cutting part of the winter, they cut ice in the neigh- ice in the neighborhood of Boston alone, borhood, but the best supplies are from Bos- some $15,000 per annum. Acres of ice are ton or from more northern lakes. The thus cut into square pieces, which are then Atlantic and Gulf cities of the South get floated off through canals, and impelled by most of their ice from Boston, which sends long poles, to the sides of the pond, where them about 110,000 tons per annum, and inclined planes lead up to the ice-houses; up further quantities to Havana and the West this inclined plane each piece is dragged with Indies. Rio Janeiro, Callao, and Peru, great celerity by a powerful steam engine. Charleston, Mobile, and New Orleans, are In the house it is directed by hand down large customers of Boston in the article other planes to be packed away by the of ice. In New Orleans, substantial brick requisite number of men. By the aid of ice-houses have been erected at a cost of steam ten tons of ice may be cut and housed $200,000, and similar arrangements have in a minute. With a full power, it is not been made in Mobile for its distribution. uncommon to stow 600 tons an hour. SomeThe quantity exported to Europe is large, times there are several parties on the pond, and England takes about 1,000 tons of each vieing with the other in the rapidity of American ice. their operations. It follows as a matter of course, that where Most of the ice-houses that we have seen this object of industry and enterprise is are built of wood. Sometimes they are formed by nature, the means of conducting found of brick. They are very. high and the trade will gather around it. Hence broad, and are usually from 100 to 200 feet the land in the immediate neighborhood in length. Fresh Pond, Cambridge, Mass., of fresh-water lakes at the North rises in has its shores almost covered with some fifty value, and good wages come to be earned in of these ice-houses. They present a singular the winter by men who at the dull season appearance, neither looking like barns nor would otherwise not be employed. The houses; and one unacquainted with the ice question soon presented itself to those who business would be almost certain to ask, on Fi 2. THlE ICE.- -_ ~Fig. 3. _ _...*S' IN4'AND'BARINCI or, F. i Li iI M I 1I J MIR"-1.:'" M i -M ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Fig. 4. ___ _____________________ CA&NATLING TO THE ICE-HOUUSE. Figo 5. THE ELEVATORS. =_. = _ _ _ _ _. _C_ Fig ________~~~~~~ -:-._ ----— PACKIING AWAY THE ICE. PINS. 389 seeing them for the first time, "What are was filled annually at an expense of $25. In they?" The construction of these houses, in that he preserved his fresh meat and fish, and which ice is to be stored until sold, must be prevented his butter fiom'6 running away." regulated by the clitnate-the amount to Sometimes farmers live in sight of fine ponds be stored-the material nearest at hand- -that would give a plentiful crop, that might and the facility of reaching the shore-the be harvested and sent by railroad to good object being to have a cool spot, where the markets, without ever bestowing a thought influence of the sun and a warm atmosphere upon the matter. To get $2 or $5 for hauling, shall be least felt. Added to this, the mass of would pay their otherwise idle teams at that ice must be preserved as much as possible season well. We may close this notice by from wasting, by being surrounded by saw- an extract from an oration of the Hon. dust, tan, shavings, rice-hulls, charcoal, or Edward Everett, as follows:leaves, which must he used in the ice-house, "When I had the honor to represent the or aboard ship, according to circumstances. country at London, I was a little struck one Private ice-houses are constructed in dif- day, at the royal drawing-room, to see the ferent ways. They were formerly merely President of the Board of Control (the board cellars; they are now'in the most approved charged with the supervision of the governmethods erected above ground, with a drain ment of India) approaching me with a under the mass of ice. The opening is gen- stranger, at that time much talked of in erally to the north, and the ice is the better London-the Babu Dwarkananth Tagore. preserved for a double roof, which acts as a This person, who is now living, was a Hinnon-conductor. The waste of ice is different doo of great wealth, liberality, and intelliunder different circumstances; shipping ice gence. He was dressed with Oriental magshould not waste more than 40 per cent.; and nificence-he had on his head, by way of when shipped on an India voyage of 16,000 turban, a rich Cashmere shawl, held together miles, twice crossing the equator, and oc- by a large diamond broach; another Cashcupying some months, if one half the cargo mere around his body; his countenance and is delivered it is considered a successful manners were those of a highly intelligent voyage. The cost of the ice delivered is of and remarkable person, as he was. After course affected by this element of wastage. the ceremony of introduction was over, he In Boston, it is $2 per ton; in Calcutta, said he wished to make his acknowledgments 2A cts. per lb., or $56~ per ton. The use of to me, as the American minister, for the ice in India, as we have said, is medicinal as benefits which my countrymen had conferred well as luxurious, and the demand is gener- on his countrymen. I did not at first know ally quick. There is hardly a nook or cor- what he referred to; I thought he might ner of the civilized world where ice has not have in view the mission schools, knowing, become an essential if not a common article as I did, that he himself had done a great of trade. While we admire the persever- deal for education. He immediately said ing energy of the enterprising Yankee, who that he referred to the'cargoes of ice sent started the trade amid every discouragement, from America to India, conducing not only and carried it to a successful issue, which gives to comfort, but health; adding that numeremployment to thousands of men, and freights ous lives were saved every year by applying to hundreds of ships and boats, and confers an lumps of American ice to the head of the inestimable blessing upon, we might say, the patient in cases of high fever." human race in all warm climates, we cannot but consider how vast a harvest perishes yearly. Hundreds of lakes and rivers in the northern section of the country present their PINS. annual harvest of pure ice, and yet they pass away ungathered. How many millions in THE manufacture of pins has reached a all parts of the world, even within the limits great development in the United States, of the United States, pine during the long where the most important invention in the summer months of each year for this tonic! art of making them, that of. "solid heads," The time is coming when every farmer will originated. So simple an article as pins gather this crop as regularly as his potatoes. formerly required a great manipulation in When Daniel Webster took his farm at their production, but are now, like most arMarshfield, his ice-house cost $100, and it tides that have been the objects of American ;90 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. ingenuity, produced in great perfection and necticut. About the year 1850 the copper abundance by machines. Up to the war of from Lake Superior began to be used for the 1812, pins, like almost every other article of wire, giving an impetus to the business, and manufacture, were imported, and, as a con- 250 tons were used per annum. Great imsequence, became very scarce when commu- provements were made by self-acting manication was interrupted, and the price rose chinery superseding a process that formerly in 1813 to $1 per paper, of a quality much required six or seven hands. The old worse than are now purchased for 6~ cts. per method of sheeting pins, or sticking them on paper. These high war prices prompted paper, was a tedious process; a good hand the manufacture, and some Englishmen con- could stick five or six dozen papers in a day. menced the business at the old State Prison, By the improved machinery now in use, a at what was called Greenwich village, now hand will stick from 75to 125 dozen aday, and a part of New York city. The labor of do the work in far greater perfection. There the convicts was employed in the business. are three patents in force for improvements The return of peace bringing a deluge of in the machines in use for this operation, cheap pins from abroad, put an end to that viz., those of S. Slocum, De Gras Fowler, enterprise. The tools used in the manufac- and J. J. Howe. The present price of ture at the prison fell into the hands of a American solid-headed pins is only about two Mr. Turman, who in 1820 undertook to em- thirds of the lowest price at which imported ploy the pauper labor of the Bellevue Alms- pins of the same weight were ever afforded behouse in the manufacture, which was, how-; fore the manufacturing was introduced, and ever, unsuccessful. "Pauper labor" here, it for service they are undoubtedly better than seems, could not compete with pauper labor the article of which they have taken the abroad. A machine had been invented dur- place. The American improvements in both ing the war, for making pins, in Boston, but the pin-making and the pin-sticking mait did not work successfully. The old pins chinery have been for several years in operhad the heads put on them; but Mr. L. W. ation in England and some other parts of Wright, of Massachusetts, invented a ma- Europe. chine for making solid-head pins. He car- One firm in Waterbury, Connecticut, have ried this to England and operated it there, in operation an improved machine for the and the first "solid-head" pins were sold in manufacturing of pins which turns out two the market in 1833. In 1832 a pin machine barrels per day. A barrel contains 4,000,was patented in the United States by John 000 pins, consequently the product of that J. Howe. The machine was designed to little manufactory is 8,000,000 per day, or make pins similar to the English diamond 48,000,000 per week, and 2,496,000,000 pins, the heads being formed of a coil of per annum. Well may it be asked " where small wire fastened upon the shank by a all the pins go to?' The machine is perfect pressure between dies. In December, 1835, and simple in its operation. The wire is the Howe Manufacturing Company was run into it from a reel, cut off the proper formed in New York for the purpose of length, pointed, headed, and made a finishmanufacturing with this machine. The com- ed pin before it comes out again. From this pany moved to Birmingham, Connecticut, machine they fall into the hopper of the where it continues operations with a new sticking machine, in which they are arpatent for manufacturing solid-head pins, got ranged, stuck upon papers, and come out out by Mr. Howe in 1840. In 1838 another perfect, ready for packing for market. This company was started at Poughkeepsie, not- last machine, tended by one girl, does the withstanding that by an extraordinary over- work of 30 persons by the old process. sight pins were under the tariff admitted That is better than pauper labor. There free of duty, while the wire of which they are four other machines in the United were made paid 20 to 25 per cent. duty. In States. These operating at the same rate, 1846 there was much excitement in respect will make 312 pins per annum for every to the pin manufacture, and many machines soul in the Union. There should be a were invented; few of them, however, sue- large surplus for export to other counceeded in doing good work. Most of the tries, and at a profitable rate, after paying attempts to manufacture failed. The Pough- freight and charges, since no European keepsie Company was, however, sold to the machines can compete with this little conAmerican Pin Company, Waterbury, Con- trivance. REFINED SUGAR. 391 REFINED SUGAR. lasses; and few edibles escaped that sweetening, from a spoonful of brimstone in the THE people of the United States are fa- spring to a mince pie at Christmas. Refined mous for having a "sweet tooth," and if the crept in, and with the use of this article vastory about " pork and molasses" is not quite rious grades of pure sugars made their apaccurate, it is nevertheless true that a "little pearance. When the plants or canes are sweetening don't go far" in a family, or, to crushed in a mill, the juice flows abundantly use a New York phrase, into a family. The through a strainer into the clarifier; where, figures show that consumption in the United mixed with alkali, which assists the operaStates is far ahead of any European countries, tion, it is raised to a certain heat. It then but is less than that of Cuba, where it is passes through evaporating coppers, and enormous, being to a great extent used in the scum that arises in the process is represerves that are largely eaten as well as moved. In the last copper it is boiled until exported. In the year 1859, the quantity it will granulate in the boiler. Here it soon of foreign sugar taken for consumption in ceases to be a liquid, and being placed in the United States was 239,034 tons. The hogsheads with holes in their bottoms, the crop of Texas, Louisiana, and Florida was molasses drains out into a cistern below. 192,150 tons, making together 431,184 tons When quite cured in this manner it is shipof cane sugar. The quantity of sugar made ped as "brown" or " muscovado" sugar. from molasses was 12,053 tons, The crop The next grade of sugar is "clayed;" when of maple sugar was 27,000 tons, exclusive of thesugar is properly boiled, it is poured into California and Oregon. The result is a total of conical pots, apex down, with a hole in each. 470,237 tons, or 1,058,033,000 lbs. Allow- When the molasses has drained off, a stratum ing the population of that year to have been of moistened clay is spread over the surface, 30,000,000, the result is 351 lbs. per head the moisture of which percolating through per annum. In Great Britain the consump- the mass contributes powerfully to its purition is 28- lbs. per head, in France 9 lbs. fication. per head, and in Germany still less. In "Refined" sugar may be prepared by takthose countries, however, the sugar is used ing either the clayed or muscovado, redisalmost exclusively in its refined shape, but solving it in water, and after boiling it with very sparingly. During the long wars of some purifying substance, as blood, or other Napoleon it was difficult to come by, and the articles, pour it into the conical pots again manufacture of beet-root sugar, now so im- with the clay application. portant, grew out of the necessities of that The solutions of brown or clayed sugar, period. A generation grew up in the eco- boiled until they become thick, and then renomical use of sugar, and even to this day in moved into a hot room, form into crystals the rural districts, and among some of the upon strings placed across the vessels, and old fogies of the cities, no other sugar is used become sugar-candy. than a piece of the sugar-baker's candy held The use of molasses and brown sugar, as in the mouth while the unsweetened liquid we have seen, is by far the most important is drank. The story is told that this piece in the United States. In the year 1857, was formerly, in the times of privation dur- when the Louisiana sugar crop failed, the ing the war, suspended by a string from the importation of these articles reached nearly ceiling over the table, and being taken in the $57,000,000, and the import contributed mouth by one convive when drinking, was principally to the panic of that year. Gradallowed to swing to that of her whose turn ually the use of refined sugar has extended, succeeded. The German idiomatic phrase and in 1850 the federal census reported 23 of "pass auf" or " look out" for the next was refineries, having a capital of $2,669,000, and said to have thus originated. In our own using $7,662,685 worth of raw sugar, percolonies the refiner was not by any means haps 70,000,000 lbs., and producing a value considered a necessary go-between of the of $9,898,800. Since that period the busicane and the consumer, who went directly to ness has greatly extended itself. In that year the fountain-head and used the molasses, or there were two in New York city, Woolsey's " long sugar," not only for his coffee, but to and Stuart's. These rapidly increased to fifcompound his new rum or "white-face" into teen, which together refined 200,000,000 lbs. "black-strap," with which he washed down of sugar, or about half what was produced in his pumpkin pie, also sweetened with mo- the whole United States. The introduction 392 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. of machinery moved by steam almost revolu- the business is some millions. The value retionized the business of refining. An impor- fined in New York is now some $17,000,000 tant improvement that was made in substitu- per annum, and the refineiers of Philadelphia ting aluminous finings for bullock's blood, have a capacity of some 81,000,000. There which was always productive of injurious are a number of refineries in the eastern consequences, greatly increased the produc- states, and some in Baltimore, St. Louis, tion and raised the quality of sugar. The Cincinnati, and New Orleans. These are raw sugar of the Spanish West Indies and sufficient to meet the demand for consumpBrazil comes mostly in cases and boxes; that tion, and the importation has become nnimof New Orleans and the English islands in portant. One of the largest refineries is hogsheads; South America generally, Ma- Stuart's, the annual sales of which are over nilla, and the Mauritius send it in bags. $3,500,000. The concern works up over When the refiner gets possession of any of 45,000,000 lbs. of sugar per annum, employthese, he empties into a pan with a perforated ing some 321 men. The quantity of coal bottom; through these perforations comes a used is from 7,000 to 8,000 tons per annum, current of steam which dissolves the sugar. and the value of the bone charcoal used in Chemical application then bleaches the sugar the finery process is $30,000. A week's operor takes all its color from it. It then passes ation requires a supply of 763 hogsheads of into the vacuum pans to be boiled by steam. sugar, or at 1,110 lbs. each, 840,000 lbs. This, The sugar in this process becomes so con- for the working time of six days, gives one centrated that it is held in solution only by hogshead for every 11 minutes. The sugar the high temperature. -The moment it be- is by steam power hoisted to the top of the gins to cool, a rapid crystallization takes building, where it is emptied into an implace, producing the fine grain seen in loaf mense copper, when the steam soon converts sugar. When the syrup has boiled suffi- it into the fluid state. In its descent through ciently, it is poured into moulds which are the building by pipes and tanks it undergoes prepared in the loaf form, for the purpose of the various purifications to which it is subfacilitating the separation of the sugar. The jected. The flow of the vast quantity is liquor that runs from these moulds is sub- like an abundant supply of water, and the jected to a new boiling, when it yields lower rich product finds its way on the ground grades of sugar. The syrup that exudes floor into barrels ready to meet the extenfrom this second process is sold as molasses, sive demand that the high quality occasions. and the proportion of this is about 20 per One large refinery was erected and furnished cent. of the original quantity. at an expense of $875,000. The growing The art of refining has been carried to luxury and refinement of the country is makgreater perfection in this country than in ing refined sugar more of a necessity than Europe, and so manifestly that no imported formerly, and it is to be remarked that the article can equal the fine granulated sugars of use of refined sugar increases the demand for the domestic manufacturer. The business the raw material nearly 50 per cent., since has spread with the demand for the improved 1^ lbs. of cane sugar are required to make sugars. The increase of the manufacture has 1 lb. of white. The concentrated sugar unalso been aided by the federal government, doubtedly contains greater strength, but the which allows a drawback upon refined sugar quantity used is not curtailed on that acexported equal to the duty on the equivalent count; on the other hand, it seems to inraw sugar imported. The export of refined crease, since the custom of "putting down" sugar was last year 3,141,835 lbs., worth preserves in families extends, and the purest $368,000. The manufacture of sugar into sugar is required to attain that clear appearcandy and confectionery is carried on to the ance of the preserved fruit on which housevalue of $5,000,000 per annum. Some years wives so much pride themselves. The use since, the bounty or drawback upon refined of sugar for this purpose fluctuates with the sugar amounted to more than the duty on the season for fruits. In those years in which raw article, and was therefore equivalent to peaches, for instance, are abundant, a large an additional bounty on the manufacture. It number are preserved. A basket of peaches was not surprising that the b'usiness should in New York will weigh 50 lbs., and the spread under such circumstances, the more fruit with the stones taken out, 25 lbs., reso that modern inventions contributed largely quiring as much sugar. Some years the to its improvement. The capital invested in peaches are worth $5, of the preserving qual? SILK. 393 ity, which is a clear white, and in other decided efforts in that direction. The New years, 50 cents. In the latter case, the sugar London Gazette of 1768 informs us that is worth four times as much as the fruit; in William Hanks of Mansfield, had "raised the former, one half as much; hence a great silk enough for three women's gowns." fluctuation in the use of sugar, which must The gowns of "three women" at the present be of the best refined. This demand takes day would involve a formidable amount of place for all kinds of small fruits as well as silk, but we are to presume he meant three peaches, and it grows in the double ratio of "dresses" simply. The term gown, like numbers and wealth. Strawberries may be "vandyke," seems to have become somepreserved with granulated, but would hardly what obsolete. Mr. William Hanks also adbe palatable done up in "long" sugar. vertised in the Gazette, 3,000 mulberry trees, three years old, and of one inch diameter. The best time to set them out, he says, is at the new moon of April. They SILK. were to be sold cheap, in order to promote the culture of silk. Sundry gentlemen in THE culture and manufacture of silk are Windham had large mulberry orchards, inamong the oldest industries of the colo- tended to supply a silk factory erected at nies, and many efforts on the part of Con- Lebanon. While all manufactures were in gress and of enterprising men have been so depressed a state and struggling for life made to promote them, but the industry has under the disability of deficient capital, it not thriven in any degree to be compared was hardly to be expected that so hazardous with some of those that have grown steadily an undertaking as silk manufacture could under the intelligent perseverance of unob- make much progress. When, however, the trusive individuals. No branch of industry high tariff policy after the war gave the is ever planted, promoted, or perfected by spur to manufacturing of all kinds, that of means of government operations alone. It silk was revived, mostly in Connecticut must grow, if at all, out of the spontaneous and Pennsylvania. This had so progressed promptings of individual genius, and live that in five small towns of the first-menupon the necessities that give rise to it or tioned state, there were raised in 1829, 2j the wants it of itself creates, to be healthily tons of raw silk, valued at $21,188. In prosperous. Hence all the efforts that have Washington, Pennsylvania, sewing silk was been made to encourage the silk culture successfully produced, and some garments and manufacture have proved abortive, while were made by individuals who performed individuals not encouraged have prosecuted the whole work, from the management of branches of the trade not contemplated, the worms to the weaving of the fabric. with success. The southern colonies were The town of Mansfield, Connecticut, was in early silk producers. So important had it that year the great seat of that industry. become in 1753, that at a meeting of the im- The population was 2,500, and produced as perial Board of Trade, Oct. 26, of that year, many pounds of silk. This silk was con"the state of the colony of Georgia was verted into the most beautiful sewing silk taken into consideration, at a Board of Trade and some other manufactures by the skill and Plantations, and it appeared that the and industry, of that ingenious people. colony produced upward of ~17,000 [75,- Thus prepared, the silk was at that time 000 dollars] worth of raw silk, since January worth $8 per lb. This industry was carried 1752, besides what is not yet come to the on without interrupting the ordinary occunotice of the board." The other colonies pations of the people, and also employed of the South were also well engaged in it. the young and old not suited to the labors Virginia in particular was largely interested of the field. The mulberry trees are ornain that industry. The culture of cotton and mental as shade trees, and do not impovertobacco, however, in the early years of the ish the soil as much as fruit; and they Union, were so profitable as to absorb all will flourish in almost all latitudes, or other culture; and silk nearly disappeared, wherever the apple will grow; and wherealthough numbers of farmers preserved their ever they are present the silk-worm may be mulberry groves, and continue to make reared. small quantities of raw silk. The state of The feeding of the worms commences Connecticut seems to have made the most with the first opening of the mulberry leaf, 394 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. and continues for the period of 32 days, tablishment of extensive nurseries of mulwhen the worm commences its spinning berry trees, but it ended with the downfall of and ceases to eat. The leaves are gathered the famous "Morus Multicaulis Speculafor the worms, and this gathering is the ap- tion," in 1839. The rates of the mulberry propriate work of young children. Having cuttings were at 2 cents each in 1838. In wound itself in its cocoon, it requires nurs- that year, in the neighborhood of I-Iartford, ing and watching, that the young may not Connecticut, many thousand trees were sold eat its way out and by so doing destroy the at 20 to 50 cents each. The trees were silk. The cocoons being placed in warm sent all over the country, and it was stated water to soften the natural gum upon the that the growth per acre gave from three silk, the winding is begun by women, one to five thousand dollars. The demand for of whom can make 16 lbs. of raw silk in trees was from those who undertook, in all the season of six weeks. sections of the country, to plant mulberry The excellence of the silk depends upon groves for the supply of silk factories that the properties of the mulberry leaf, and were to be started. The sales of trees were these are considerably diversified. The often made on the ground, standing, at the white mulberry is decidedly the best, and rate of 129 cents per foot, those "trees" not of this there are several varieties, each of 12 inches high being rejected. That specwhich depends in some degree upon local- ulation is yet alive in the public mind as a ity. The kind to be cultivated and the monument of the folly which at times overmode of proceeding are to be learned from takes a community, even to its own destrucexperience, which was very limited in the tion. It was second only to the famous United States in 1829, when the attention tulip mania of Holland, or the South Sea of Congress was called to the silk culture bubble of England, or the Mississippi scheme by the petition of G. B. Clark, of the city of France. The mulberry buds sold at of New York, for a grant of 262 acres of fabulous prices, and passed rapidly from land owned by the United States, at Green- hand to hand of the speculators, multiplybush, New York, and used for military pur- ing from the nurseries to meet the speculaposes, to aid him in rearing mulberry trees. tive demand, which suddenly ceased when The grant was made in the shape of a lease, the test of practicability was applied. The on the condition that 100,000 mulberry real evil, however, which the mania inflicted, trees should be planted, and that he should was that the means taken to stimulate a procure a sufficient number of worms to doubtful culture retarded the manufacture consume all the foliage that could be gath- of sewing silk and goods, because the high ered from the trees. The public objects to be price of the raw material so occasioned made gained were to ascertain the best kinds to competition with the foreign article imposbe cultivated, and to obtain a quantity of sible. In 1836, the state of Massachusetts that description for distribution. No very paid $71 bounty on silk made in that year. great results flowed from this movement., This bounty rose to $2,111 in 1841. All The culture never amounted to much, but the means used had raised the quantity of the tax, 15 per cent., imposed upon im- silk made in the United States in 1840, to ported raw silk in order to encourage the 61,552 lbs., worth about $250,000. In culture, was a great drawback upon the 1844, the quantity was stated in the report manufacture. Nevertheless, the excitement of the commissioners of the United States in relation to the mulberry trees progressed, census at 396,790 pounds, worth $1,400,and in the year 1831, the project of rearing 000. In 1850, however, the quantity had silk-worms was renewed in various parts of fallen to 14,763 lbs., showing an immense the Union, with great vigor; and the sub- decline, which has been ascribed to inherent ject was deemed to be of so much impor- difficulties of the climate. Nature seems to tance that it not only attracted the attention have put a veto on it at the North, and at of Congress, but afterward received encour- the South other cultures have proved more agement from the legislatures of several profitable. The effort to produce the silk states, by bounties offered for all the raw failed, and caused the failure of, or at least silk produced within their limits for certain retarded, the silk manufacture, which has periods of time. The business soon began grown in England in some degree to rival to be prosecuted with extreme ardor, and France, where the silk is raised, by means continued several years, resulting in the es- of entire freedom from tax on the raw ar FIRE-PROOF SAFES AND SAFE-LOCKS. 395 tide. Of late, some further progress has is free of duty. From 1830 to 1850, the imbeen made in the manufacture. port of the raw silk increased 300 per cent. In the year 1769, on the recommenda- The manufacture had, meantime, gathered tion of Dr. Franklin through the American strength, and in the last ten years it has Philosophical Society, a filature of raw silk risen to over $1,540,000 per annum, while was established in Philadelphia, by private the import of sewing silk is nearly extinsubscription, and placed under the direction guished. The largest portion of the silk is of an intelligent and skilful Frenchman, derived directly from China. who, it is said, produced samples of reeled.,'s. ep~ a.~ r* e.,.,~ n~ -IMPORT OF RAW SILK. silk not inferior in quality to the best from Ra. Raw. Sewing. Raw. Sewing. France and Italy. In 1771, the managers 1830. 1850. 1860. Tanse Towns... $7,635 $1,870 $6,716 $4,733 purchased 2,300 pounds of cocoons, all the ollan"d.Tow. $735 $ 16 T,33 product of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Dutch E. I... 2,073 297 Engl'd & Scot. 17,985.164,695 112,258 600,901 72,05T Delaware. The enterprise was interrupted B.N.A. Cols..... 43 by the Revolution. A similar enterprise B. East Indies 18,226 1 470 27 France...... 3,240 10,606 101,86 7 15,4TO 2T,699 was again attempted in 1830, under the su- Italy........ 8,153.. 7,068 4,604 pervision of M. J. D. Hornerque, and co- Tukey.. 7682. 238 co- Turkey...... 2,623 coons were brought in abundance to the China........89,696 198,619 9,288 915,504 7,185 establishment from various parts of the $119,074 $404,477 $489,487 $1,543,195 $111,912 country, and so continued for some time afterward; but for want of capital, the undertaking failed. About the same time, however, other undertakings were begun in FIRE-PROOF SAFES AND SAFE-LOCKS. various parts of the country, and some of these have attained a high degree of suc- BUT a very few years have passed, since it cess. In 1841, the convicts in Auburn was a matter of necessity for individuals to prison, New York, were employed in the keep their valuables in their own houses, and manufacture of silk for a time, with much to defend them from the attacks of burglars success. In the first year a value of $12,762 and the risks of fire, as they best could. For was produced of sewing silk, pronounced these purposes strong boxes were in requisisuperior to the imported article. The tion. In modern times, paper promises have domestic supply of the raw article running been substituted for the hard currency of short, through defects of climate, that manu- former times, and banks become the deposifacture began more severely to feel the tories for that money, thus relieving individweight of the duty of 15 per cent. ad va- uals of the risk of keeping coin in their lorem on raw silk, and of 10 to 30 per cent. houses, to attract thieves. The banks are on dyestuffs. These duties were a direct dis- also depositories for plate and jewelry, and crimination in favor of the English manu- insurance companies guarantee from loss by facturers, who obtained those materials free fire. Under these circumstances, it was of charge. Nevertheless these manufactures hardly to be anticipated that a demand for here and there had taken root, in spite of strong boxes should arise, when the use of this attempt to force the culture of the silk them was apparently on the decline. Singuby means that tended to destroy the market larly enough, however, the art of making for it. Many manufactories of ribbons grew strong boxes has only been developed in the in favor, and produced goods with a texture, present century. It is to be considered, finish, brilliancy of color, and general adapt- however, that with the progress of the credability for an extended consumption that it system in the last 150 years, and the exgave them advantage over the imported tension of commerce, paper securities and goods. In sewing silk, particularly, the account-books of all kinds have multiplied, American manufacturer has excelled. The causing a greater demand than ever for iron American article is in every respect equal in chests. The manufacture of these, and of color and finish to the imported, and supe- the locks to secure them, has- taken great rior in the spinning and "fixing the cord" dimensions. (the'great desideratum in this branch of It is obvious that, in the construction manufacture) to the Neapolitan article. of a chest, designed to be not only burThe following figures show the rapid prog- glar but fire-proof, iron, as a material, ress of the manufacture now that the raw silk would naturally suggest itself. Neverthe 396 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. less, oak seems formerly to have been a grained wood, covered on the outside with favorite material, probably from the facility plate iron, over which were hoops or bands of working and ornamenting. An example of iron, about two inches wide, crossing of this kind of coffer is afforded in the chest each other at right angles, so forming squares in which the crown jewels of Scotland were on all sides of the chest. Holes were made in deposited in 1707. The chest, beautifully the bands and plates, through which wellornamented, was secured with iron bands, made wrought-iron nails or spikes, having hasps, and staples. There were three locks, " hollow," half-spherical heads, were driven which then, no doubt, afforded security, but into and through the wooden box, and then each of them could be opened in five minutes "clinched." The inside of the chest was with a bit of crooked wire in our day. At then lined with a covering of sheet iron. the close of the last century there began to These chests had a well-finished but very be made the iron chests, known as "foreign large lock, having from six to eight bolts, coffers." These were constructed of sheet operated by one turn of the key. iron, strongly riveted to hoop iron, crossed at The first actual application of plaster of right angles on the outside. A lock throw- Paris to safes in this country seems to have ing eight bolts inside, and two bars and been by James Conner, the type-founder, of staples for padlocks outside, were employed New York. His business made him acto secure the lid. Over the door lock was a quainted with the non-conducting qualities cap beautifully pierced and chased, and a of plaster of Paris, and he applied it to an secretly operated escutcheon concealed the iron chest in his office, which chest has been key-hole. These were formidable to look at, in use ever since. Soon after, Jesse Delano, and no doubt answered their purpose all the of New York, began making chests of the better, that the science of lock-picking was Paris pattern, substituting solid cast-iron then not so advanced as in the present day. heads, to secure the bands. In 1826, he About the beginning of the present cen- patented an improvement, which consisted tury, cast-iron chests began to be made in coating the wooden foundation with a for common purposes, and the manufacture composition of equal parts, clay and lime, flourished to a considerable extent. The idea plumbago and mica, or saturating the wood of introducing non-conducting substances as in a solution of potash lye and alum, to rena protection against fire, occurred but some der it incombustible. These were generally years later. The favorite substance for this used in the country, and as a curious inpurpose is gypsum or plaster of Paris. This stance of the fire-proof qualities of these safes, material was first used in Paris for the con- we may state that one stood many years near struction of fire-proof houses. The practice the stove, in the counting-house of Lyman for more than fifty years had there been to Stockbridge, of Hartford, until its fire-proof erect hollow walls with spaces between them qualities seem to have been exhausted, since varying from five to nine inches in width. it spontaneously took fire and burnt up about Plaster of. Paris, mixed with water to a three years since, without doing other injury proper consistency, was poured into these on the premises. In this case, it would seem spaces, where it set and became hard. After the fire-proof quality was inverted-viz., that the beams and rafters were fixed in their the fire could not get out, instead of failing places, boards were nailed to them, and the to get in. After Mr. Delano, C. J. Gayler same material was spread thereon. The lower began the safe manufacture, and in 1833 he floors' of the building were of plaster, over patented his " double" fire-proof chest. This which tiles were laid. The same material consisted of two chests, one so formed within was applied to fire-safes in Paris, and these the other as to have one or more spaces bewere, to some extent, imported into New tween them, to inclose air or any known nonYork about the year 1820. The first port- conductors of heat. In the same year, one able fire-proof chests introduced for sale in of these double chests.was severely tested New York, were imported from France, by by being exposed ina large building in Thomthe late Joseph Boucheaud, Esq., about 1820, aston, Maine, that was entirely destroyed and no doubt many of our old merchants and by fire. The chest preserved its contents in bankers remember them, as many were sold good order. This excited the public admirafor use in counting-houses and bank vaults. tion, and one enthusiastic writer described it They were constructed of wood and iron; as a "Salamander," which name has ever the foundation was a box of hard, close- since been popularly applied to safes. - TM =1: ——; III ~ - I HEI~RR.ING;S PATENT CHA-MPION TRIPLE BANKER'S SAF,. ili~~ii;!/ii?,~i!!i~~~~iii~i;~lill I Itl~~ii l:Uii'! -!'. i i i dinliii'8.'l i~,!'=. FIEP00 AE WT H IllD BANKR'S CHEST. gg1.!Failll~ 11"t(1I''Ft C111;1! i 1'fall!Title~~~~~~~~~~ll~liliiI 1 1;I Oil~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~!j tii3l!,! 13tl,~, lit'l 1a ii..:.i i. _ fi I iii!li~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I!hi!Ri~11lf ii1::~~~........O N ij Ilr~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~mr!I 1L - FIEPRO AFWTHI-SD ANE' CET :-x~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9M~~~~~Et=1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t -- - - -- - - M ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IM2 FIRE-PROOF SAFES AND SAFE-LOCKS. 397 The majority of the so-called "safes" in kiln, and, when in a dry and almost impalpause at the tilme of the great fire in New York, ble powder, rammed into the safes. The in 1835, were simply iron closets, and were safes thus prepared were found to have no of little protection against the devouring ele- tendency to rust, and to be better protected ment. There were then about sixty of Gay- against fire than by the use of the plaster, ler's do'uble chests in use, and a few of these this powder giving up its water of combinapreserved their contents. Soon after, John tion in less quantity, and more slowly than Scott olbtamned a patent for the use of asbes- the plaster, but sufficiently to preserve the tos for fire-proof chests. In 1837, Benjamin contents of the safe. Messrs. HIerring & Co. Sherwood obtained a patent for a revolving purchased Mr. Spear's discovery, and, since interior safe, fillitng the spaces with plaster 1854, have.made their safes mainly on this of Paris and (lharcoal. principle, thoulgh the Wilder patent had not In 1 843 Enos Wilder obtained a patent expired. r. B. G. Wilder had meantime for the construction of a safe of heavy iron commenced the manufacture of safes under plates, filled with hydrated plaster of Paris, his patent, himself; and the successors of and soon after, Mr. Fitzgerald, whose disco- Messrs. Roberts & Rich, under several firm very was made previously, was associated names, as Rich & Roff, Roff & Stearns, and with him. About 1841, Mr. Silas C. Herring Stearns & Marvin, also manufactured the became interested in Wilder's safes, first as Wilder safe. In 1854, the safes which had agent and afterwards as a manufactnrer. been rusted through by the moisture fiom the The Wilder safes proved a protection plaster of Paris began to be returned upon against fires which destroyed the Gayler and the manufacturers, and the cost of repairs other patents. In 1844, Enos Wilder's and refilling was very heavy. There began a patent was transferred to his brother, B. G. little before this time to be a demand for burWilder, but the safes under this patent were glar-proof safes. Lillie's safes were highly made by Mr. IIerring; and not long after, commended for this purpose, he using thick Messrs. IRoberts & Rich commenced the slabs of chilled cast iron, and flowing cast manufacture on the same principles, but iron over wrought iron ribs in their conpaid no royalty. After a protracted lawsuit, struction. It was found after a time, a comprollise was effected by which both however, that the burglars succeeded in parties coa:tinued to manufacture. Other drilling these sufficiently to blow them up parties tried hydraulic cement, soapstone, in a few minutes, and that the dependence alum and glue, alum alone, mica, asbestos, placed on them was not justified. Messrs. and other articles for filling, but none proved Herring & Co. a few years since adopted as effectual as the hydrated plaster of Paris, the plan of making their burglar-proof safes which, under the influence of intense heat, externally of boiler-plate wrought iron, gave up its water of combination, and form- with an inner safe of hardened steel, and ing an atmosphere of steam in the inner then filled the space between with a casting portion of the safe, protected the books or of Franklinitc, the hardest of all known papers firom destruction. It was found, how- metallic ores, which in casting, was incorever, that the plaster after a time gave up a porated with rods of soft steel, those on one part of its water of combination, and not only side running vertically, and those on the made the interior of the safes mouldy and other horizontally. These castings resist damp, but rusted the plates of iron till they the best drills for many hours. This has, were eaten through. Messrs. Herring & Co. in connexion with the burglar-proof locks, had offered a reward of $1,000 for any filling proved the most complete protection against which should stand the test better than the burglars yet invented. Among the burglarplaster which they were using. In 1852, Mr. proof locks, the Bramah, invented in EngSpear, a chemist of Philadelphia, discovered land in 1784, was in high repute for many that the residuum of the soda fountains, years, but was picked by IIobbs, a Boston after the liberation of carbonic acid gas, for locksmith, in 1851. A "permutation lock" the so-called soda-water, possessed remarka- was invented by Dr. Andrews, in 1841, and ble non-conducting powers. This residuum, another by Newell, about 1843. Both which had been previously thrown away, were finally picked, and Newell then inwas, by Spear's process, preserved, washed vented one with a detached tumbler, which to free it from the sulphuric acid, which was, after a time, picked by William Hall, of had acted upon the chalk, dried in a Boston, by the L"smoke process," by whicl 24 398 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. a smoky flame is introduced by the key-hole, clockmaker, of London, remarks in relation and this leaves a fine deposit of lamp-black to this, as well as to Newell's, " that the castupon the "bellies" of the tumblers. When ing of both these American locks (which have the key is next introduced, it removes the all their heavy parts of cast iron) is vastly lamp-black from the parts it touches. By superior to any iron castings we have ever means of a small reflector, a strong light is then seen made in England; and, on the whole, thrown in, bringing the key marks to view. the United States are evidently far ahead of The exact sizes for a false key are thus ob- us in the manufacture of both good and tained. To prevent this operation, it was cheap locks." This is certainly very gratisupposed that concealing the tumblers would fying praise to the national pride, when we be all that was requisite. H. C. Jones, of reflect how few years since we depended enNewark, accomplished this by concentric tirely upon England for bank locks. rings and curtain; and Pyes did it more ef- In some cases, burglars introduce strong fectually with eccentric rings and curtain. tools to force locks apart, and others introThe lock was now thought perfect. It was duce gunpowder to explode them. A device called the parautoptic (concealed from view) against this is to form a strong slider of cast lock. A. C. Hobbs, with one of these at the steel to close the key-hole, and also to cut English exhibition of 1851, defied the best out a piece of the back plate and screw it English operators. One of these locks was on again, with small screws. This giving way used at the Bank of England, and they came on the application of force, saves the rest. into general use in the United States. In These brilliant inventions have been made 1855, Linus Yale, jr., of Philadelphia, by to close the doors of safes against burglars, means of the impression process, picked this while the improvements in the boxes guard great lock. In 1843, Linus Yale, senior, pat- against fire. ented a " pin" lock and then the duplex lock, for which two keys are required. One being introduced, it was necessary to unscrew and remove its handle, then close the key-hole GLASS MANUFACTURE. entirely with a hardened plate, before the other key-hole could open. The ingenuity WHEN we contemplate by turns each of of his son dispelled the idea that this was the great materials most conducive to man's absolutely secure, by picking it. Yale, jr., advancement in civilization, we are at times being convinced that no lock is secure so lost in the attempt to give precedence to long as the shape of the key prevents the en- any one, since so many have held so high a tire closing of the hole, he set to work upon rank in the scale of usefulness. Iron has, that principle, and in 1851 he invented the perhaps, been the most important in respect magic lock. In this lock, the key and its of industrial purposes, and paper has been bits appear as of one piece; on being intro- the means of recording and promoting that duced into the lock, the bits are taken up by general intelligence without which progress a pin, which enters through them into the could not be very extensive, but glass has centre of the key-shaft. The key then being entered more into the necessities of science, turned in the usual manner, puts in motion as well as those of social life and every-day;a set of gear wheels. These first separate comforts, than most materials. The great the bits from the key, and then carry them properties of glass are its transparency, its into the interior of the lock, away from the hardness, its power of assuming any possible key-hole. They there operate upon the turn- form when hot, and its non-conductibility. blers out of sight and beyond the reach of Employed as windows, it transmits light into any picking tools. The same motion which our dwellings while protecting us from the carries away the bits effectually closes the inclemency of the seasons and permitting a key-hole. When the bolt is passed, the key- view of exterior objects; wrought into the hole re-opens, the bits come back and join form of vessels, it preserves all liquids withthe handle to be taken out, as they were put out alteration, while we can inspect the conin. The bits may be taken away in the tents. This quality, added to its indestrucpocket, if desired, leaving the handle with tibility by any of the acids (except fluoric), the lock. This mechanism seems to effect has much facilitated the investigations of perfectly the conditions sought for security chemists. The physical sciences are not less against picking. E. B. Denison, the famous indebted to it. It is the principal auxiliary GLASS MANUFACTURE. 399 of optics. With his glass prism, Newton de- manufacture was one of the earliest introcomposed light; it is by its means that as- duced into the colonies. At Jamestown, Va., tronomy makes its observations and discov- a glass-house was broken up by an irruption eries in the infinity of space; combined in of Indians in 1632. There appears, howthe microscope, it carries the vision of the ever, to have been no accurate account of naturalist into the most minute formations of any until that of Mr. Hewes, of Boston, in nature; with it, those of short sight have Temple, N. H., 1780. Those works were opthe perception extended, and by it, the flat- erated by Hessians and Waldeckers, deserttened vision of age is restored to its natu- ers from the British army; and one of the ral powers. To the science of fluids it is first articles there produced is now the propindispensable, and most of the experiments erty of Harvard University. Washington, in caloric and electricity are due to its in his diary, 1789, alludes to a glass-house agency. If all the sciences are more or less in New Haven. In 1803 a German, of the dependent upon it, the ordinary usages of name of Lint, undertook glassworks in Boslife are no less promoted by it. It gives ton, and the state made him a bounty on mirrors for the toilet and for ornament to every table of window glass made. From houses; it serves the table with liquids; it that time the works prospered, or at least preserves works of art from the dust, orna- were sustained. ments lustres, and with it the piecious stones The manufacture of crown glass was early can be imitated in all respects but in their commenced at Pittsburg, Pa., by Colonel hardness. In the arts its wonderfully varied O'Hara, who, in 1798, started glassworks in powers may be put in requisition for almost that city, to which the materials were brought all purposes, from the delicate spring of a from 30 to 100 miles' distance. The conchronometer watch to the heavy pipes for sup- cern had a considerable success, and was plying water to cities. For the former pur- followed by others until, in 1814, there were pose, its insensibility to climate and temper- five glassworks at that place. In 1812, ature gives it advantages over the metals used Messrs. Bakewell & Co. established at Pittsfor that purpose. burg the first flint-glassworks in the Union. The use of glass is of a very remote an- They brought the manufacture to great pertiquity-how remote is left to conjecture. It fection, bringing out workmen from Europe had been supposed that the ancients were not at high wages. The style of cutting and enacquainted with its use. Glass beads have, graving was thought equal to the foreign, however, been found on mummies more than and the operations of the house extended 3000 years old, and in the ruins of Nineveh until the works became the largest for glass bottles and vases have been found of glass; manufacture in the country. There were and the exhumations of Pompeii and Hercu- there made sets of glass for two Presidents laneum disclosed the fact that it was in those of the United States; and a set of splendid cities used for windows, as well as for very vases there produced 40 years since, still numerous utensils, all of which gave evidence adorns the saloon at La Grange, the seat of of great skill in glass work. The manufac- Lafayette. The house have also received ture of glass spread from Italy to other coun- the silver medal of the Franklin Institute. tries of Europe, at first into Gaul. Bohemia In other parts of the country the manufacwas, however, possessed of the best materi- ture progressed to a greater or less extent, als in the greatest abundance, and the manu- and in 1832 a committee of the New York facture settled and acquired for Bohemian convention made a report on the glass manglass a reputation which has come down to ufacture, from which it appears there were our times for vessels. The use of glass for then in operation 21 glass furnaces, having mirrors seems to have originated in Venice. 140 pots for the manufacture of crown The manufacture of glass was carried on glass; of these, 6 were at Boston. There in England as early as 1439, according to were also in operation 23 for the manufacture Horace Walpole. Flint glass was made in of cylinder glass; of these, 10 were in PennLondon in the middle of the 16th century, sylvania, 2 at Wheeling, 2 in Maryland, 2 and the manufacture of plate glass was corn- in New York, 2 in Ohio, 1 in Massachusetts, menced by the Duke of Buckingham, who 1 in New Hampshire, 1 in Vermont, 1 in imported Venetian workmen. Since then Connecticut, and 1 in the District of Columgreat progress has been made, and English bia. The whole value of flint glass then fint glass has won a great reputation. The produced was given at $1,350,000. The 400 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. most extensive green bottle' factory was at chief, silica, obtained from the sea beaches in that time Mr. Dyott's, near Philadelphia. the form of quartz sand, and from the quartz There were there melted 4 tons per day, or rocks of the interior. The name of' flint 1200 tons per annum. At that period the glass," which originated with the English glass manufacture received an impulse, and manufacturers, and long held the highest in 1834 there were 6 works at Pittsburg, rank in Europe, came from the use of flints, making crown and cylinder glass, green bot- calcined and ground to powder. This procties, and apothecaries' phials. One bottle ess is now supplanted by the use of sand, of factory produced 1600 dozen weekly, and a which a highly prized article is imported phial factory 2200 gross weekly. There into England from Austria. The pulest arwere also produced in one concern 5000 tide used in the United States is obtained boxes window glass annually, of a quality from Lanesborough, Mass., being a disintenearly equal to the best crown glass. There grated quartz rock. It is easily broken by were also at Wheeling 2 crown and flint- the pick, and the lumps may be crushed in glassworks, and 1 for phials and bottles. the hand. The grains are remarkable for At Wellsburg, 16 miles distant, there were their purity. They appear white in the 1 flint glass and 1 green bottle factory. mass, but under the microscope each appears The census of 1840 showed that there as limpid as crystal. This is used for the were then in the United States 81 glass- best flint and plate glass. Lime is used in houses, employing 3,236 men. The aggre- the shape of limestone of the purest qualigate capital was given at $2,014,100. Of ties, or as quicklime. Potash is derived these, 2 were in Virginia, 28 in Pennsylvania, from common wood ashes, and the ashes of 25 in New Jersey, 13 in New York, 2 in sea-plants supply soda. Pearlash is someVermont, 3 in Connecticut, 4 in Massachu- times used; also the refined alkalies. Comsetts, 3 in New Hampshire, and 1 in Michi- mon salt is used whence to extract carbonate gan. The census did not distinguish the of soda. In addition to these, saltpetre, different branches of the glass manufacture, alumina, and waste glass, enter into the innor the modes of making window glass. gredients of glass, the proportions of many The increase up to 1850, by the census of kinds of which are as follows:that year, appears to have been not very English bottle glass-sand, 100 lbs.; lixivconsiderable. The number of works had iated ashes, 100; wood ashes 40; kelp, 40; risen to 94, with an aggregate capital of clay, 80; cullet, or waste glass, 100. For Bo$3,402,350, employing 5571 men, and pro- hemian crystal, are used-100 lbs. sand; puducing a value of $4,641,676 per annum. rifled potash, 60; chalk, 8; cullet and manOf these 94.establishments, 28 were in Penn- ganese, 40. In window glass, are usedsylvania, and 20 more in New Jersey, mostly 100 lbs. sand; chalk, 40; carbonate of soda, owned in Philadelphia; 18 were in New 35; of broken glass, from 60 to 180; and York, 6 in Massachusetts, 2 in Maryland, 1 some manganese and arsenic. For plate in Connecticut, 4 in New Hampshire, 2 in glass-Lynn sand, washed and dried, 720 Missouri, 6 in Ohio, 6 in Virginia, and 1 in lbs.; alkaline salt, of which 40 per cent. soda, Tennessee. The glass manufacture thus 450 lbs.; lime, 80; nitre, 25; broken plate concentrates apparently in Pennsylvania. glass, 425. These will give 1200 lbs. of glass. There has been in the last ten years some For Faraday's heavy optical glass-protoxprogress. In 1853 the first plate glass man- ide of lead, 140 lbs.; silicate of lead, 24; ufactory in the United States was established dry boracic acid, 25; and 100 lbs. of sand. at Cheshire, Berkshire county, Mass. The Artificial gems are composed of 100 lbs. same company now are at Lenox under the of quartz crystal, or sand; pure minium, or name of the "Lenox Rough Plate Glass red lead, 154 lbs.; caustic potash, 54 lbs.; Co." The rough or hammered plate glass boracic acid, 7; and some arsenious acid. manufacture has also been recently estab- These are a few of the proportions used, lished in Philadelphia; also a new descrip- but most manufacturers modify them in varition, called "German flint," of less beauty ous ways, since the same compound will, in than the old flint, but better adapted for the the same furnace, under different conditions use of apothecaries, chemists, perfumers, etc., of fuel, draft, and weather, give different resince it is little affected by acids and alka- suits. Bituminous coal, or coke, or seasoned lies. wood, may be used for fuel, and firewood The materials for glass are several; the is preferred. In some glassworks of the GLASS MANUFACTURE. 401 United States, rosin is preferred to all other ally practised. That description is generally fuel, since when pulverized it may be added known as English crown glass.' In the in small quantities at a time. It burns with- manufacture, the melting pots, of which out giving off impurities that may mix with there are usually eight, hold about half a or injure the glass, and it leaves no residuum ton of metal each, and this will suffice for In proceeding to manufacture, when the 100 tables of crown glass. When the glass combination of materials is formed, they is in its proper state, the workman is armed are thoroughly ground, mixed together, and with a pipe, or blowing tube, 4 or 5 feet sifted. The glass furnace is a large circu- long, with a bore I to 1 inch in diameter, lar dome, in the centre of which is the fire. and a little larger at the mouth end than at This is surrounded by 8 to 12 melting pots, the other. It is, as it were, a long hand, which being raised to a white heat, receive with which, the end being heated red hot, the mixed glass in quantities about one the workman reaches into the pot of melted eighth at a time. As each instalment melts matter, and gathers up the quantity he redown, the others are added. The entire quires. By long experience he is enabled quantity being melted, the fires are urged to to do this with great exactness, and this, the utmost, while the workmen watch the for crown glass, will not vary much from 9 operation, with long iron rods, by means of lbs. The pipe being cooled to admit of which they extract from the boiling mass handling, the lump is rolled upon the marportions, from time to time, until transpar- ver (which is a polished cast-iron slab), to ency, on cooling, indicates that perfect fu- give it a conical form. Blowing through sion of all the materials has taken place. A the tube, at the same time, causes the lump scum rises during the boiling which is re- to swell. It is then heated in the furnace, moved as it appears. The heat is then and again rolled and enlarged by blowing. raised to the highest degree, to perfect the In this operation, the portion next the tube fusion. The glass is now made, but it con- becomes hollow, and the greater portion tains many impurities, being substances that of the glass works toward the point of the would not melt; and there is also still a quan- cone it forms in rolling. The solid point is tity of gas, which, if not got rid of, will form called the bullion. This being softened in those bubbles that are sometimes seen in the furnace, the tube is laid across a rest, common window glass. The mass is therefore and made to revolve, while the glass is blown kept fluid during some 48 hours, by which to a globe. During this operation, a boy means the "metal" is fined, that is, all thebub- supports the soft end, or bullion, with an bles of gas will have disappeared, and insolu- iron rod. The globe, by continually revolvble matters will have settled to the bottom. ing, increases in size, and flattens out, the The heat is then allowed to subside until the bullion point still forming a thick centre, to metal becomes thick enough to work, at which an iron rod, called a pontil, which has which point the temperature is maintained a little molten glass on its end, is applied; in order to keep the glass in this condition. at the same moment the globe being sepaThe pots that surround the furnace will gen- rated from the blow pipe by the application erally thus hold enough to employ the force of a piece of cold iron to its "nose," reday and night for the first four days of the mains upon the pontil. As the tube breaks week, the hands being divided into gangs away, it leaves a circular opening, which the that relieve each other every six hours. workman, holding by the pontil, presents to The glass materials, being thus brought into the furnace. By this means it is softened alsuitable combination, are ready for some of most to melting, and being made to revolve the numerous branches of manipulation in rapidly, the opening grows rapidly larger by which that article is employed-the manu- centrifugal force. The heated air in theglobe facture of window glass, plate glass, bottles, prevents the two opposite faces from coming phials, flint glass, vessels of all descriptions, together. The portion next the fire appears gems, optical instruments, etc. The manu- to roll inside out, and it suddenly, with a facture of window glass is perhaps the most noise like opening a wet umbrella, flattens extensive, and this is conducted in two modes. out into a circular disk, which is then reBy one the glass is blown into "tables," like moved from the fire, and kept revolving uncart wheels, and by the other it is formed into til it is cold. The pontil is then cracked cylinders, that are cut open lengthwise and off, and the disk removed to the annealing fattened out. The former is the more gener- oven, and set up on edge with the rest, ar 402 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. ranged in rows, and supported by iron rods, raised platform extended in front of the furso as not to press against each other. The naces 10 feet above the bottom. Standing annealing is completed in 24 to 48 hours. upon this, each man gathers a proper quantity These "tables" are generally 52 inches in of metal from the pot before him. By apdiameter; sometimes, however, as much as plying the lump to a wooden mould and 70 inches. blowing, it takes a globe form. This he Plate glass imperfectly annealed will, when heats, and then holds upon the pipe vertionce cracked, soon fall all to pieces. The an- cally over his head, at the same time blownealing process is simply to place the hot ing into it. This causes the globe to flatten. glass in a hot oven, and allow the whole It is then held down so as to swing below to cool gradually. By this operation it is the platform on which the worker stands. found that glass is deprived of much of its This, with continued blowing, causes the brittleness. The explanation is, that the glass glass to elongate in the form of a cylinder. is a non-conductor, and when made, the exte- The workman watches with care lest the rior cools first, forming a crystalline crust elongation should proceed too rapidly, in which shelters the interior particles, so that which case he raises it again over his head. these continue longer in the fluid state, and This operation is dexterously continued until are prevented from expanding as glass the cylinder attains 47 inches in length, and usually does when it cools. The interior 10 inches in diameter. The end is then has thus a constant tendency to expand or softened in the fire, while the pipe is closed burst out. When the whole is allowed to with the thumb. The air within the cylincool slowly in an oven, all the fibres of the der then expands so as to burst out the end. glass assume their proper and natural places, The edges of the opening thus caused are and the mass becomes tough and elastic. then spread and trimmed. The tube end is The effect of sudden cooling is manifest in cut off when the glass is cool by the applicathe toys called " Prince Rupert's drops." tion of a hot iron, and letting fall a drop of These are simply hot glass dropped into water on the heated line. The cylinder is water. In so doing, most of the drops burst now to be cut open lengthwise in order that to pieces, but some retain a pear shape. it may be flattened out into a pane. For These, when taken out, will bear a smart this purpose two methods may be employed blow without breaking; but the smallest -one with the hot iron and cold water, and break at the stem will cause the whole to the other by a diamond applied inside the fly to pieces with a loud explosion. Bo- cylinder along a rule. The cylinders are logna phials are formed of unannealed glass now carried to the flattening furnace, where 4 or 5 inches long, and I inch thick. These they are laid, slit uppermost, on the flattenwill bear a hard blow, or a bullet may be ing stone. Here, as they soften, they open safely dropped in. If, however, a sharp out, and a workman with an iron rod aids fragment of sand is introduced, the phial the operation. Another at the same time, will fly to pieces. Annealing deprives them with a rod having a block of wood at the of these qualities. end for polishing the sheets, works down the From the annealing kiln the tables go to irregularities of the surface. The sheet is the warehouse, and are there assorted ac- then passed into the annealing oven. In cording to defects and qualities. Each one every stage of this process, the sheets are is then laid in turn upon a "nest" or cush- exposed to imperfections, and, in conseion, and is divided by a diamond into two quence, few are perfect. Most answer for pieces, one of which, the larger, contains the inferior uses. None have the brilliancy of bull's eye. These are then cut into square crown glass. The main difficulty is in the panes. The circular shape and the bull's wrinkling. The glass being made in the eye involve much waste in cutting. The cylinder form, the inner and outer surfaces glass thus manufactured, however, has a re- are of unequal lengths. In the flattening markable brilliancy, and for that reason it is out, this inequality produces undulations, preferred to the cylinder process, by which, called cockles, which distort objects seen however, larger panes are made. through the glass. The unevenness also The cylinder process has been pursued to made it very troublesome to polish the sura great extent in the United States. It is face until the difficulty was overcome by the practised by a number of workmen. Some- device of pressing upon each sheet soft times 10 are arranged side by side, with a leather, which, acting like a boy's "sucker," GLASS MANUFACTURE. 403 adheres to the glass by atmospheric pressure. windows is cast. The mixtures employed Two plates thus held are laid face to face, do not vary much from those used in sheet and, by the action of machinery, rapidly glass. A larger proportion of soda is used; rubbed together with the intervention of pol- but this pushed to excess gives a greenish ishing sand and water. By this means a tinge. The greatest care is taken in the sebeautiful polish is bestowed. lection of the materials. When the glass is By these two methods of manufacture melted in the pots, it is ladled into cisterns most of the glass used in the United States or cuvettes placed in the fire by the side of is produced. For the city dwellings of the the pots. Some manufacturers allow the more wealthy, as well as for the large stores metal to remain fluid in the pots 16 hours, and shops, plate glass is used; but the de- and an equal time in the cuvettes; arid maud is small compared with the quantities in some cases, in order to allow the soused in the United States for the rapidly da to volatilize and the air bubbles to esmultiplying dwellings. Thus the average cape, the time is prolonged to 48 hours. number of square feet of glass for a dwelling When nearly ready, the temperature of the may be placed at 100. The number of glass is allowed to fall in order that the houses in the United States in 1850 was material may assume a pasty consistency. 3,363,427, which would require, in round Meantime, the casting plate is prepared. numbers, 336,000,000 feet. In 1860 the This is usually a cast-iron plate, perhaps 7 number of dwellings was about 4,700,000, inches thick, 11 feet broad, and 20 feet long. requiring 470,000,000 feet of glass, or an It has raised edges to prevent the glass from increase of 134,000,000 feet for new dwell- flowing off, of a depth proportioned to the ings alone, without taking into account proposedthickness of the glass plate. On a breakage, rebuilding, churches, hot-houses, level with this table, and arranged along its public buildings, etc. The value of the new side, are the annealing ovens. Each of these glass required would be about $4,500,000. is 16 feet wide and 40 feet deep. Hot coals On account of this large demand, the imports are heaped upon the plate to bring it to a continue considerable, and were in 1858, proper temperature. The cistern swung on 19,734,439 square feet, at a value of $626.- a crane is then approached to the table, 747. In the same year the export of do- which is thoroughly cleaned, and the melted mestic glass was $214,608. glass carefully skimmed with a copper blade. Various causes affect the combination and By canting the cistern, the glass is then the qualities of the compounds. The alkali poured upon the table. A copper cylinder in window glass, powdered and moistened, is 3 feet in diameter extends across the table, detected by its action upon turmeric paper, resting on the raised edges. This, being and may be dissolved out by boiling water. rolled forward, sweeps before it the excess Atmospheric agents sometimes remove it in of glass, spreading the whole uniformly of a part from window panes, leaving a film of thickness governed by the raised edges of silicate of lime. The glass of stable windows the table. The effect of the passage of the is liable to change its appearance and assume copper roller upon the brilliant surface of prismatic colors from the action of the am- the glass is very beautiful, leaving, as it does, moniacal vapors upon the silica. When a splendid play of colors. The superfluous moderately heated, glass is readily broken in glass being then trimmed from the edges, any direction by the sudden contractionpro- the plate is thrust forward into the annealing duced by the prompt application of a cold oven previously raised to a red heat. Sucbody to its surface. It is divided, when cessive plates are thus cast until the annealcold, by breaking it along lines cut to a ing oven is full, when it is closed up and left slight depth by a diamond or some other 5 days to cool. When taken from the oven extremely hard-pointed body. It may be the plates are examined for defects, and the bored with a steel drill kept slightly mois- mode of cutting decided upon is then done tened with water, which forms a paste with with a diamond. the powder produced. Copper tubes, fed There are many modes of grinding and with emery, also serve to bore holes in polishing, but in this, as in most other arts, glass. the latest improvement is an American inAs very large panes of glass could be made vention, which, highly successful here, was by neither of the above methods, the large introduced into England in 1856. A circuplate glass used for mirrors and for shop lar plate of cast iron, 10 feet in diameter and 404 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. 2 inches thick, is secured upon the upper material, on the floor of the furnace, and end of a vertical shaft, so as to revolve with made in the required form. The sheet of it. Above the table, frames are arranged to glass is laid upon this, and as it softens in hold the plates of glass, which are laid in a the heat, it assumes the form of the bed bed of plaster of Paris, with the face to be on which it is laid. polished resting upon the revolving table. The manufacture of flint glass for domesThe frames are so arranged that the friction tic purposes requires great care in the selecof the table upon the glass causes them to tion of the materials. It possesses the revolve so as to present every portion of the properties of great transparency and high glass surface to an equal amount of rubbing. refractive power. Its brilliancy and density When sand is required to grind down the are in some degree due to the introduction glass, it is fed in fiom a box above the of oxide of lead. Oxide of zinc has also frame. This is found to be the best mode; been found effective for the same purpose. but sometimes the surfaces of the plates are In order to protect the glass from effects of ground together, After grinding, they are smoke or other elements which might dissmoothed with emery powders of successive color it, it is melted in a covered pot, with fineness until they are ready for polishing. an opening in a short neck on one side. This, in the American machinery, is per- The heat is made very intense that the fusion formed by rings coated with felt and screwed may be rapid. The moment fusion and to the surface of the iron table. Oxide of fining have thoroughly taken place, the heat iron or rouge is applied to the felt as a pol- is reduced, to prevent the deleterious action ishing agency. When this is completed of the materials of the vessel upon the glass. they are ready for silvering. In the United States, when the metal is In the process of silvering a large stone taken out by the workmen, it is shaped in table is prepared so as to be canted, by means the required form by pressing into a die. of a screw beneath it, on one side. Around For this purpose, when the article is large, the edges of the table is a groove, in which considerable pressure is required. The exquicksilver may flow, and drop from one perience and skill of the workman are put corner into bowls placed to receive it. The to the test in taking up just the quantity of table, being made perfectly horizontal, is metal required to fill the mould, which is covered with tin foil carefully laid over it. kept at a red heat. The objects, being A strip of glass is placed along each of three formed, go through the cutting process, as sides of the foil to prevent the mercury from it is called, but really the grinding procflowing off. The metal is then with ladles ess. Circular stones or metallic disks are poured upon the foil until it is a quarter of made to revolve, being fed with sand and an inch deep, and its tendency to flow is water for coarse grinding, and emery for checked by its affinity for the tin foil. The finer work. The marks left in the coarse plate of glass, well cleaned, is dexterously grinding are removed by application to slidden on from the open side. Its advan- wooden revolving wheels, fed with pumice cing edge is carefully kept in the quicksilver, or rotten-stone, and finally with putty powso that no air or any impurities can get be- der, a preparation of tin and lead. The tween the metal and the glass. When ex- fine polishing of chandelier drops, and simactly in its place it is held until one edge of ilar ornaments, is effected by a lead wheel, the table is raised 10 or 15 degrees, and the supplied with rotten-stone and water. Globes superfluous metal has run off. Heavy weights and lamp shades are polished on the inside are then placed on the glass, and it is so left by filling them with sand, and placing them several hours. It is then turned over, and in a drum, which revolves rapidly for a placed upon a frame, the metal uppermost, length of time.,which becomes hard in the course of sev- The glass most important in the arts is eral weeks. Patents have been taken out certainly that used foi optical instruments. for precipitating silver upon the glass, but Flint and crown glass are both used for that this process is not so successful as the old. purpose, but both have their defects. Those When these plates are used for shop win- of the former arise from the difficulty of efdows, some of them require to be bent in fecting uniform fusion, and crown glass is various manners. This is a separate branch seldom possessed of the requisite uniformity of business, and is carried on at Newark, N. of texture. These difficulties were so great J., extensively. The bed is made of suitable that, until the early part of the present cen A-,-2- MM~..~-.~~M.~ 11~ MM.:~..... RI...M.. M L a g ~IA~UFAOTURE OF GLASS ]~OTTLES.~~~~~~~E R ~,,~,~ ~ ~ "" ~ - ~ —5M i-~"-I-` 115~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P::::i illl~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ l t~-I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M,,I ~~ —~~-W NZ -L-~~~~~~~~~~~~~O rlii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~i I~~~~~EMAUACUR F LASBOTLS GOBLET MAKERS. PRESS FOR MOLDING GOBLETS. N — ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~ —--- III, Mj ti_ _ I'~ MANUFACTURE OF WINDOW GLASS. GLASS MANUFACTURE. 405 tury lenses larger than three and a half inches of the furnace, the enamel becomes vitrified could not be made. At that time a Swiss and incorporated with it. It then passes to clockmaker, Guinand, produced them as the annealing furnace. This process was inlarge as nine inches, of the. greatest perfec- vented by Mr. William Cooper, of the firm tion. The secret remained with him for a of Cooper & Belcher, New York, whose exlong time, but was finally, by one of his sons, tensive works at Newark, N. J., supplied imparted to M. Bontemps, who in 1828 pro- 60,000 feet for the New York Crystal Palace. duced lenses of twelve to fourteen inches. Another variety, the flocked, has now come The secret was in keeping the mixture ac- more into use. The process is nearly the tively stirred when liquid, and then suffering same, except that a smooth opaque surface it to cool and anneal in the pot. Lenses are is given to the glass before the enamel is apnow made of flint glass twenty-nine inches plied. in diameter, and weighing two cwt. Soluble glass has been made of later years The production of vessels of colored glass of equal parts silica and caustic potash. This is conducted in a very ingenious manner. is soluble in boiling water, and is used exThe coloring matters are various. Blue tensively for making buildings and all comtransparent glass is made with 2 lbs. oxide bustible bodies fire-proof. of cobalt; azure blue, 4 lbs. oxide of cop- In the manufacture of bottles, the metal, per; ruby red, 4 ozs. oxide of gold; other on being withdrawn from the melting pot colors by various combinations. Sometimes on the end of the blowing tube, is, if for the color is incorporated merely with the common black bottles, shaped in concavities outer portion of the glass. This is effected that are made in the edge of the marver. in the blowing by dipping the lump of clear Fine bottles of flint glass are shaped in glass, when shaped upon the marver, into moulds of brass or iron, which are made in the pot of melted colored glass, and then two parts hinged together, so that they may blowing it to the shape requiredand flash- be opened and shut with the foot. Bottles ing out, if desired to convert it into panes. for champagne, soda water, etc., are made The color may afterward be reduced in of extraordinary strength, and tested before depth by grinding, and clear spots reached using by hydraulic pressure. They ought to by grinding through the color. In the proc- support, for this purpose, a pressure of 40 ess of " casing," a portion of partially blown atmospheres, or 600 lbs. on the square inch. flint glass is inserted into a thin shell of'Notwithstanding the great strength with colored glass, and then blown until it fills which they are usually made, the breakage the shell, with which it becomes incorpo- in the manufacture of champagne is rated at rated by heating and further blowing; cas- 30 per cent. ings of different colors may be thus applied. The glass is drawn out into tubes in a In painting, the color, mixed with a flux manner that illustrates the curious maniputhat will fuse at a lower temperature than lations of the metal. The workman, with the glass, and with boiled oil, is laid on with his blowing tube, accumulates a certain a brush as in ordinary painting, or by blocks quantity by successive dips into the meltas in calico printing. The glass is then ing pot. This is then blown into a globe. heated, when the flux melts, and sinks into Another workman then takes hold with a the body. The painting of glass for church pontil, at a point exactly opposite the blowwindows was formerly carried to a high de- ing tube. The two men then separate, and gree of excellence, that moderns have not the globe contracts in the middle, which bebeen able to equal. Although the receipts ing drawn out to the size of the tube desired, have been preserved in ancient treatises, the cools, and the hotter portions successively process has been lost. yield to the drawing, until a tube of 100 Enamelled glass has of late been much feet or more hangs between the workmen. used. The glass of the New York Crys- The diameter of the bore retains its proportal Palace is an illustration. In this proc- tion to the thickness of the glass; hence ess the enamel substance is ground to an thin tubes must be drawn from globes blown impalpable powder, and then laid with a to a large size. These tubes of colored glass brush, in a pasty state, upon the glass. Af- may be converted into beads. Beads have ter the paste is dried, the ornament is etched always been a great element in the trade out either by hand or by machinery. The with the North American Indians, being glass being then softened in the intense heat highly prized by them. 406 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. ~INDIAIARUIBER AND ITS MANTfAGTUIRE. nature of the gum did not, however, long fail to become an object of research. The ONE of the most remarkable American learned decided that it was neither gum nor discoveries of the present century is, un- resin, but of a peculiar nature analogous to doubtedly, the mode of manufacturing and resin, from which it differed in not being applying the article known to commerce as soluble in alcohol. Many attempts to make "India-rubber," but which, among the peo- it useful in the arts were made, and finally it pie of South America, is called "caout- was found that by dissolving it in volatile chouc." The article in question is a gum oil there was obtained a sort of varnish very procured from a peculiar tree in the hottest useful in making certain tissues and fabrics regions of the equator. The tree which water-proof. A thin coat, placed between yields this gum in the East Indies is some- two sheets of stuff, caused them to adhere what different from that which produces it closely and made them impervious as well in the equatorial regions of South America. to water as to air. This application of it The former (" ficus elastica") is represented was made in the manufacture of mattresses, in an engraving on another page. Although cushions, pillows, boots, bottles, etc. A so, the gum was used in a rude fashion since lution in linseed oil is called an excellent varmany ages by the inhabitants of the countries nish for making leather water-tight. The which produce it (and it had been known best solvents are said, however, to be oil of to commerce for a long time, having been turpentine, coal, naphtha, and benzole. A1discovered by a French philosopher in cohol will not dissolve it, but will precipitate 1736), it is only within 20 years that its it from ether. Another solvent is of rubber value has been appreciated. In that time, itself, called caoutchoucin. It is produced under the genius of American manufacturers, by exposing rubber to a heat of 6000, when it has risen to a rank equal, perhaps, to that of it goes off in a vapor, which, being conironand glassamong the materialsthat admin- densed, produces the solvent. All these ister to the necessities and comforts of man. applications, however, utilized only one In the forests of equatorial South America of the distinguishing properties of rubthe "siphonia elastica" grows to a height of ber, viz., its imperviousness to water. An 60 or 70 feet, and is covered with a scaly inventor, however, by the aid of a new bark. It bears a fruit, which encloses a solvent, found means to spin threads of the white almond highly esteemed by the na- rubber of various degrees of fineness and tives. A slight wound on this tree causes strength. These threads, covered with texthe sap to flow freely, thick, white, and unc- tile fabrics-silk, wool, cotton, or linen-betuous, like the sap of the milk-weed. On came light and supple tissues of extraorbeing exposed to the air, this soon becomes dinary elasticity. This opened the way to solid. This sap is collected by the natives, an immense number of employments. who make a longitudinal cut in the centre In some machines the rubber is kneaded, of the tree, and lateral cuts leading diago- and compressed in various ways, and finally hally into it. At the bottom of the perpen- a number of the balls thus treated are brought dicular cut a banana leaf is placed to con- together and powerfully squeezed by a screw duct the sap, as it flows, into a vessel placed press in cast-iron moulds, in which, being to receive it. The sap is used for the for- firmly secured, the mass is left several days. mation of bottles, boots, shoes, and various This process is somewhat modified in differarticles. The process is to form the figure ent establishments. In some, the cleaned of the thing desired in clay, and cover it on shreds are rolled into sheets, from which the outside with many coats of the gum, ex- threads and thin rubber are sliced by the posing it to fire to dry. When the desired application of suitable knives, worked by thickness is obtained, the mould is soaked machines, and kept wet. The sheets are at out in water, and the article is ready for use. once ready for the purpose to which this Clumsy shoes, rudely fashioned in this man- form is applied, or, by machinery of great ner, were long an article of importation from ingenuity, they are cut into long threads of Para into the United States, and extensively any desired degree of fineness. If then resold down to within 20 years. There was quired to be joined, a clean oblique cut is little other use made of the article except to made, with a pair of scissors, and the parts erase pencil marks, and for which purpose being brought together, readily and perfectly was charged 50 cents for I a cubic inch. The unite by the pressure of the fingers. As TUE GREAT CALENDER MACHINE. FICUS ELASTICA, FRO',I THE CUTTING RUBBER INTO SLABS FOR THE EAST INDIES. WASHING MACHINES. lp MACHINE FOR WASHING INDIA-RUBBElR. m!,"~~~~~~}l~l!111j1m~1,, tgg W X 4~~~~~~~~~~~~j /i B INDJtltlIA-RUBBER GR N MILL, INDIA-RUBBEE GRINDING ~ILL, I~HN O VSZN NDIA-RUBBER GIDN IL INDIA-RUBBER AND ITS MANUFACTURE. 409 the threads are reeled off, they are elongated the exclusion of air and moisture. Preabout eight times their original length by pared with other ingredients, it forms a mapassing through the hands of a boy, and by rine glue unsurpassed in adhesiveness when the same operation they are deprived of applied to wood. A pound of fine rubber their elasticity. After remaining on the reel is dissolved in four gallons of rectified coalsome days, they are wound upon bobbins, tar naphtha and well mixed. In ten or twelve and are then ready for weaving and braiding. days this will attain the consistency of cream, The threads are of different fineness. A when an equal weight of shellac is added. pound of caoutchouc can, by one machine, It is then heated in an iron vessel having a be made into 8000 yards of thread. This discharge pipe at the bottom. As it melts, may, by another, be divided by 4, making it is kept well stirred, and the liquid flowing 82,000 yards. Elastic braids are these out is obtained in the form of thin sheets. threads covered with silk and other mate- When it is applied, it is heated to 248~ and rial. In woven fabrics, caoutchouc thread applied with a brush, and retained soft unmakes the warp, alternately with threads of til the jointing is made, by passing heated stuff to receive the extreme strain that would rollers over the surface. This has been, it is destroy the rubber, and the other materials said, applied to masts of vessels, which have form the weft, or cross-threads. When wo- been so firmly spliced that fractures take yen, a hot iron is passed over the stuff, and place in the new wood sooner than to sepathis causes the rubber to regain its elasticity, rate the glued portion; and it has been held Another mode of forming the threads per- that parts of vessels may be, by these means, fectly round and smooth, is to convert the so firmly put together that iron bolts would caoutchouc into a soft paste. This is done be unnecessary. by macerating it for some hours with about Rubber has been made use of for paving twice its weight of sulphuret of carbon, add- stables, lobbies, and halls, here, as well as ing 5 per cent. of alcohol. The paste is well in England, where Windsor Castle carriagekneaded by compressing it through dia- way is so paved. There are a multitude of phragms of wire gauze, placed in cylinders, uses for the material, such as baths, dishes and is then forced through a line of small for photograph and chemical purposes, teleholes at the bottom of another cylinder. graph wire covers, boots, shoes, toys, lifeThe threads, as they issue, are taken on a preservers, clothing, furniture covers, travelweb of velvet, from which they pass to ling bags, tents, beds, water pails. It is another of common cloth, and are carried being constantly applied to new uses, as the slowly along for 600 to 700 feet, when be- chemical modes of treating the article decoming dry and hard by the evaporation velop new properties. of the solvent, they are received in a little The uses of the article were, however, cup. The threads produced of vulcanized still comparatively limited. The water-proof rubber retain their elasticity, and are, when qualities were, to some extent, availed of, and woven, kept stretched by weights. On re- its elasticity was ingeniously applied in many leasing them, the material woven with them minor directions. The native article itself is drawn back, producing shirred or corru- was still an impracticable object in the mangated fabrics. ufacture. It had baffled the philosopher, Caoutchouc supplanted the metal elastics the chemist, and the artisan in investigating for many purposes, since it would not cor- its nature and in controlling its properties. rode in moisture. It was at once in demand Repeated attempts were made to transport for suspenders, garters, corsets, and number- the pure juice or gum to Europe, there to less appurtenances of apparel. be operated upon, but without success, since It came to be used for water-proofing it was found that it rapidly degenerated. A cloths, surgical instruments of all kinds, method of doing this was finally devised by elastic bands, in the arts and trades. Book- Mr. Lee Norris, of New York. The liquor binders have used it for securing the leaves is first filtered and mixed with A its own in books, imparting flexibility and freedom weight of ammonia. On being poured out to the opening volumes. In thin sheets, it on any smooth surface, and exposed to a has been used for taking impressions of temperature of 70~ or 100~ of heat, the amengravings. In this form, also, it is an ex- monia, which had preserved it from the accellent material for covering the mouths of tion of the atmosphere, is evaporated, and bottles, and similar applications requiring leaves the gum in the form of the object .10 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. which holds it. Its intractable nature was the " cracker," of which an illustration will finally, however, conquered by Charles Good- be found on another page. This is formed year, who controlled it, apparently, as Rarey of two large cylinders grooved longitudinally, does horses, viz., by producing the result and revolving slowlybut irresistibly. Between without any one being able to explain the these the slabs, as they are passed, are elonphenomenon. Mr. Goodyear spent 20 years gated and twisted, by which operation much of the most unremitting toil in experiment- of the dirt and bark works out. The ing upoi India-rubber, and finally discovered stretched slabs are then taken to the washthat a mixture of sulphur, white lead, and ing machine, where numerous sharp knives, caoutchouc, exposed to regulated tempera- revolving under the water, cut it into small ture from 8 to 12 hours, becomes " vulcan- pieces, as seen in the baskets on the right of ized," or an entire new substance unlike any the illustration, which, at the same time, are other. The native rubber, being exposed to kneaded and washed until they are thortlhe extremes of heat and cold, is destroyed; oughly cleansed. They are then ready for but those agencies have no effect on the the grinding machine. This consists of same article vulcanized. The liquids which large hollow cylinders, made of cast iron, dissolve the pure rubber do not influence the and revolving in opposite directions. The new article, which, however, acquires a far small pieces that come from the washing higher degree of elasticity -becomes, in machine, being fed in, are kneaded by the fact, an' elastic metal." The article, when cylinders again into thick sheets or mats. put into the heaters, is a tough, sticky, une- With this process the preparation is suslastic dough. It comes out endowed with a pended for several months in order to allow high degree of elasticity, insensible to heat, the mats to be thoroughly dried and cured or cold, or solvents, and applicableto almost by the action of the air. This involves the every want of life. It has been since dis- necessity of keeping on hand a large stock covered that the white lead contributes but of rubber. little to the change undergone in the heat- When the rubber is quite cured, it is taken ers, the cause or manner of which has baf- to the mixing machines, where it is to be fled the skill of the most scientific chemists combined with the various metals and subin this country or Europe. In mixing the stances to which the metallic rubber owes its proportions of the compounds, reference has peculiar properties. The mixing machines, always been made to the nature of the ob- like most of those used in the manufacture, jects to be manufactured. The form and are hollow revolving cylinders. The mixing adaptation of the articles are perfected before cylinders are of great size and strength, and the "vulcanizing." The general mode of acquire the necessary heat to work the rubpreparing the rubber is the same. The rub- ber from the steam let in at the ends. These, her imported from the East Indies is said to revolving toward each other, knead the be of a stronger fibre than that of South rubber like dough. In the process, a conAmerica, and the gum is selected in accord- stant series of explosions, like pistol-shots, is ance with the manufacture proposed. It is caused by the air confined in the folds of imported in rude masses, in which sticks, the substance being forced out by the action leaves, and dirt are thickly mingled. These of the cylinders. This, on a grand scale, are about 2 feet long and 1 foot thick. The repeats the boy's amusement of chewing first process that the gum undergoes is the rubber soft in order to explode on his fist expensive and laborious one of cleaning, by the air-bubbles created in it. As the rubwhich the mass loses about l of its weight. ber softens under this action, the workman A large vat is filled with hot water, and in slowly mixes in the various substances re, this the rubber remains until the exterior is quired. These consist mostly of sulphur, to sufficiently softened to allow of the removal which are added the oxides of various metals, of the coarse basket-work that covers and zinc, lead, iron, etc. Here the greatest skill adheres closely to it. When this is done, of the manufacturer is brought into requisithe lumps are, by means of a circular knife tion. Every quality of rubber requires a of a diameter of 4 feet, revolving with great different compound, and every difference in speed under the influence of powerful ma- the compound requires a different treatment chinery, cut into slabs about 1 inch thick. in the subsequent stages of the manufacture. The engraving will give a good idea of the Thus prepared, the substance is ready to be operation. These slabs are then carried to moulded and shaped into the various forms INDIA-RUBBER AND ITS MANUFACTURE. 411 in which it is to be finally perfected and there is drawn out a long railway carriage. used. The modes of preparation are various, On this are placed the goods, which are according to the ultimate object-whether then rolled in, the boiler closed, and steam that may be for it to assume the form of the admitted. In from 8 to 12 hours, the sinhard, unelastic comb, a door spring, a steam gular transformation known as vulcanizing, valve, a carpet, or any of the thousand shapes takes place. it is made to take. The manufacture of "Croton hose" is It may be here remarked that the dis- similar. A long iron tube, of the proper covery, great as it was, was but the first step diameter (and hose is made from I inch to in the great series of improvements that has 12 inches) is covered with a sheet of careresulted from it. After 18 years of incessant fully-prepared rubber. This, however, inlabor, Mr. Goodyear had perfected a raw tended to be pliable, would not of itself be material-but a raw material for what? It of sufficient'strength to sustain a strong was necessary to know to what articles it head of water, hence it is covered with could be applied before there could be any webs of cloth prepared in the manner of demand for it; until then it was of no market- the belting duck. When a sufficient numable value. It was necessary to invent or dis- ber of folds have been applied to give the recover all the uses to which it might be ap- quired strength, an outside covering of pure plied. The shoe business was the first to rubber is applied. A heater of immense make it available; but since then, vast as length then receives the pipes, with the has been the number of manufactures based hose on them, to be cured by the same on it, discoveries are being daily made to process as the belts. The hose is then extend it. drawn off the pipe to be subjected to proof. The manufacture of "belting" and "hose" This hose will withstand a pressure that is a very large business. The belts are will burst the most powerful leather hose. used for driving machinery, and are superior One of the most useful applications of vulto every other means. They are stronger canized India-rubber, is steam packing. The than the best sole leather, and adhere to vulcanized rubber is the only material that the drum or pulley with a tenacity that will preserve its elasticity and counteract the prevents slipping. This manufacture is a expansion and contraction of metals exposed peculiar process. Cotton duck, similar to to the heat of steam, thus making a joint that of which sails are made, is woven in a perfectly steam-tight. It is used to pack mode to give double the usual strength lon- round piston rods in steam machines; to gitudinally. This duck is impregnated with place between the iron plates of steam pipes, the rubber, under the influence of powerful wherever a joint is required; for gaskets, machinery, which drives the substance valves, and rings. Some ocean steamers through and through its meshes. It is then have huge rubber valves, five feet in diamtaken to the calender machine, seen in the eter, which play up and down in the vast engraving. The large cylinders of which it cylinder, opening and shutting like the is composed have a perfectly polished sur- valves of a colossal artery. The use of face. The rubber having gone through the rubber is now so great a necessity, wherever mixing process, is in the shape of sticky, steam is used, that the mind wonders how slate-colored dough, and passing through it could ever have been dispensed with. It the calenders, is rolled out into a perfectly is not only steam, however, but every branch even sheet, upon the prepared duck. When of mechanics that demands its presence, in this is completed, the "bolts" are taken to the shape of sheets, plates, rings, hollow elthe belt-room, spread out upon tables 100 lipses, of all imaginable forms and sizes, of feet long, and cut into the strips desired for which none but a mechanic can conceive the various kinds of belting. For one of the number applicable to his own art. great strength, several of the strips are The use of rubber for car-springs has beplaced one upon the other, and then pressed come almost universal. The high degree of together with immense power, by rolling- elasticity which the sulphur imparts, makes machines; thus giving them the strength of that application an admirable one, and the metal, with the peculiar friction- surface more so that it does not lose the elasticity found only in rubber. The belts are now by prolonged use. ready for the heaters. These are long steam The "elastic metal" supplants the rigid boilers, the door of which being opened, one in numberless uses. - House-sinks, in 412 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. stead of cast iron, are now formed of rub- manufacture of goods under Goodyear's patber, without joint or seam; and these are ents. Numbers of companies have been far less fatal to the china washed in them, formed in Connecticut, New York, Newark, than were the metal ones. Springs for doors, New Brunswick, Millstone, N. J., and elsefrom this material, supplant all others. These, where. Some of these have been highly for churches, are so arranged that the door successful, and others have sunk their capimay be closed, or held open to a desired tals. These companies now have a common distance. For bed-springs, it has become agency for the sale of their goods, under the most desirable, durable, and luxurious certain regulations and restrictions, by which material. Carpets and mats for halls, stair- the ruinous effects of competition are abolways, and public rooms, are formed of it, of ished. The progress of the manufacture has infinite variety and usefulness. The mixture been very rapid. In 1850, the value of the of lead in the compound was found to make rubber goods made in the United States it more compact and heavy, but the pecul- was $3,024,335. In 1860, it amounted to iar properties are apparently attained as well $5,642,700, an increase of 86-6 per cent. without the use of the lead. The combina- The number of establishments had diminishtion with sulphur has been effected by ex- ed, but they employed a larger capital, used posing the material to the action of sulphur- more raw material, and made a much larger ous fluids, as the sulphuret of carbon and quantity of goods. Since 1860 the manuthe chloride of sulphur. An immersion of facture has nearly or quite doubled. The one or two minutes, in a mixture composed hard rubber, or vulcanite, is used for jewelry, of 40 parts of sulphuret of carbon to 1 of buttons, dress ornaments, pencils, canes, &c. chloride of sulphur, kept at the usual high Gutta percha is used extensively for simheat, will produce the vulcanization; and ilar purposes as the caoutchouc, and is prepressed into moulds while at the high heat, pared in the same manner by Goodyear's the form becomes permanent when cold. process. It is a gmn found in the trees of For the purpose of imparting that hardness the Malay peninsula, and procured in the which is manifest in combs, fancy boxes, same manner as caoutchouc. European atcanes, buttons, knife-handles, and all those tention was first called to it in 1842, and it forms in which it has supplanted bone, shell, began to be imported in 1844. Its chemiand ivory, magnesia is introduced. It is cal composition is identical with that of stated that sulphur, in the proportion of one India-rubber, except that it contains oxygen, to three, will impart the hardness if the which rubber does not. It has a number of high temperature is sustained for a suffi- qualities that make it preferable for certain cient length of time. The magnesia gives uses. It is a bad conductor, and is therea lighter color to the articles in which it is fore very applicable as a covering for telecompounded. In the manufacture, articles graph wires, and its peculiar acoustic propto be heated are buried in pulverized soap- erties make it valuable for speaking-tubes stone, by the introduction of highly heated in public houses and large establishments. steam. The ingenuity of chemists and me- The application of gutta percha to the coatchanics is still actively stimulated to pro- ing of telegraph wires is claimed by Mr. duce new compositions and new results, Samuel J. Armstrong, of New York, who not only in the properties that result from for that purpose modified the machinery for new compounds and varied proportions, but gutta percha tubing. The first machinery in the applications of which they are sus- built for that purpose was in 1848, and the ceptible. Vast as are the resources that first wire so coated was laid across the Hudrubber opens to the arts and to trade, it may son river, at Fort Lee, in August, 1849, for be said yet to be in its infancy. The effect the Morse Telegraph Company. This maupon the commerce of the country is seen in chinery was furtively carried to England, the following table. The largest proportion and there used for the Atlantic Telegraph. of caoutchouc used in the world comesfrom The articles made of gutta percha alone, or South America. mixed with other substances, are of very Rubber Shoes exported. Other Total great variety-ornaments, vessels, articles of Years. imported. Pairs. Value. rubber goods. value. clothing, fancy articles, surgical articles, 1856..$1,143,372 625,220 $427,936 $665,602 $1,093,538 1857.. 1,012,643 537,238 331,125 312,387 63,512 dentists' and numerous other articles. VesT. 755,828 247,380 1i,931 197,448 313,379 sels have also been made of it, and its uses There have been great vicissitudes in the are being daily multiplied. SEWING MACHINES. 413.M / PAST. PRESENT. SEWING MACHINES. THE description of labor which is the it is not to be supposed that this important most general is, probably, that of sewing, field could be neglected. The first attempt, since all women take part in it more or less, so far as we can learn, to accomplish sewing and they are aided in the heavier work by by machinery, was made by John Knowles, men. All human clothing, bedding, uphol- of Monkton, Vermont; who, as early as the stery, &c., require more or less sewing in year 1819, invented and constructed a sewtheir manufacture, and during the present ing machine, which is said to have made a century the amount required has, from vari- good seam, and to have been, so far as the ous causes, been greatly increased. To the capacity of forming the stitch is concerned, flax, wool, &c., previously used as materials a decided success. It used but one thread, in the manufacture of cloth, cotton has been and made a stitch identical with the ordinary added; and by the aid of machinery, cloth, " back-stitch " made in hand sewing, and by from all these materials, has been produced a process substantially the same. The needle, in greater abundance and at diminished cost; however, was differently constructed, hating while the increase of individual wealth among a point at each end, with the eye in the midthe people has given them the means of using dle; and it was passed back and forth through a greater variety and amount of clothing, the cloth without changing its ends. His all of which was required to be made up machine was furnished with a device for with the hand needle. The condition of feeding along the work, automatically, in sewing women became a matter of public concert with the action of the needle; a sympathy; and much sentiment was exer- device similar in principle to the "bastercised over those thus compelled to waste plate of Howe, noticed hereafter; it was, howtheir lives in ever, defective, as it would move the work "Sewing at once, with a double thread, only in a direction straight forward, and A shroud as well as a shirt." hence it could be used only to sew upon straight seams. After much unsuccessful When the inventive genius of the age was effort to correct this defect, so as to adapt directed to the means of facilitating all labors, his machine to the general purposes of sew 414 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. ing, Mr. Knowles abandoned his invention. peculiar shuttle, holding and feeding deAnd yet it appears that his machine em- vices, thread carrier and guide, &c. In its braced nearly all the essential features of a operation, a loop of thread being thrust practical sewing machine; approaching more through the fabric by the needle, the shuttle, nearly to the results reached in the first ma- carrying the lower thread upon a small bobchine of Mr. Howe, than did any other in- bin within it, passed through the loop, leavvention between the two. Mr. Knowles did ing in it a line of thread, which, being not apply for a patent, and never made but thus interlocked, was drawn into the fabric. the one machine. The pieces of cloth to be sewed were susDuring the next twenty-five years, many pended upon points of a " baster-plate," with attempts in the same direction were made, proper "holding surfaces," which was moved both in this country and in Europe. In forward, and the length of the stitch reguMay, 1829, a patent was granted, in Eng- lated by a "ratchet wheel." When a land, to Henry Bock, for a "tambouring "reach" of the seam had been sewed the machine," the needle having two points and length of the baster-plate, the cloth was an eye; but tambouring is not sewing. July detached, the plate run back, the cloth re17, 1830, a patent was granted in France, to attached to the points, and another reach of M. Thimonier, for a crocheting machine, seam sewed. This constituted the feeding adapted to sewing purposes; but this ma- apparatus. In his later machines, however, chine had no feeding apparatus whatever; the method of holding and feeding the cloth and the material to be sewed had to be is entirely changed. The baster-plate is no moved along by hand. It had a crochet or longer used, the fabric to be sewed being hooked needle, and a device called an " a- laid upon the horizontal plate or table of the croucheur," to lay the thread on the hook, machine, and passed under a straight needle after it had passed through the cloth. It which acts vertically, instead of horizontally used but one thread, and made the single- as in the original machine. Few mechanical tambour stitch. An attempt was made to inventions are introduced in a state of absoe introduce it in the manufacture of army lute perfection; and this, as we have seen, clothing, but the attempt proved a failure, constitutes no exception to the general rule. as did the machine. The first patent for an improvement upon The first patent issued in this country for Howe's machine was issued to John Brada sewing machine was granted February 21, shaw, of Lowell, Mass., for a device to regu1842, to J. J. Greenough, of Washington late the tension of the thread, and was dated, City. This machine used a needle having Nov. 23, 1848. On the 6th of February, two points and one eye, and made the 1849, J. B. Johnson and Charles Morey, "through-anc-through," or shoemaker's of Boston, Mass., obtained a patent for a stitch. Whatever may have been its merits, machine, having a circular or continuous it proved of no value to the public, as no baster-plate, which was an improvement machine except the model was ever built. upon the straight baster-plate of Howe; but A machine for making the "running" or other and more valuable improvements for "basting" stitch was patented March 4, 1843, the same purpose soon succeeded this. May by B. W. Bean, of New York City; but we 8, 1849, John Batchelder, of Boston, Mass., believe that no machines were ever built obtained a patent for an improvement to for sale. A patent was granted, December regulate the feeding of the cloth, automati27, 1843, to Geo. R. Corlies, of Greenwich, cally, by the machine. And about the same N. Y., for a machine similar to Greenough's; time a patent was also granted to J. S. but no machines were ever made for use. Conant, of Dracut, Mass., for an improveThe first really practical sewing machine in- ment designed to accomplish the same purvented was that of Elias Howe, Jr., of Cam- pose, by a different arrangement. October bridge, Mass., invented in 1845, and pantnted 2, 1849, Blodgett & Lerow, of Boston, September 10, 1846. His patent covered, obtained a patent for a machine to make broadly, the formation of a seam for uniting the shuttle-stitch, by a method different pieces of cloth, by the combined action of from that of Howe, the shuttle describing a an eye-pointed needle and a shuttle, or their circle, instead of moving back and forth. equivalent, interlocking two threads. His The introduction of this machine, though it machine, as originally introduced, combined was clearly an infringement of Howe's patent, a grooved and curved, eye-pointed needle, a proved a decided advantage to him; as a WHEELER & WILSON'S SEWING MACHINE, Fig. 1.-View of the Machine ready for work. 2.5 2 3 2I X Fig. 8.-Front view of Fig. 2. Fig. 2.-Yiew-of the Machine with the Cloth Plate removed. Ia~~~~~~~~~_. 2 9~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a~ Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. T.-Cloth Plate reversed. Fig. 9.-Hemmer.'9 Fig. 8.-Feed Bar. / IV/i/o, THE SINGER MANUFACTURING COMPANY'S SEWING MACHINES. Plain "New Family" Machine, "New Family" with Folding Cover. "New Family" with Extra Finished "New Family" with Folding Cover Folding Cover, open for use, "New Family " in Cabinet Case. "New Family "in Cabinet Case open for use, THE WEED SEWING MACHINE CO. No longer is wrought the gusset and band - With ceaseless stitch and wearied hand; For sewing is pleasure by magic art,'cuvs s m.,z Since curious machines well play their part. "F. F." AACHINE." UNDEER ViEW OF':F. F. F." MACHINE. "'NO. 2' MACHINE, WITH A CORDER ATTACHED. Lm, F"I MOIACHINE.'F. F," MACHINE ON A FULL CABINET CASE. SEWING MACHINES. 419 considerable number of the machines were provements on that of IIowe, bore a closer made and sold, and their operation, though resemblance to it, in its general construction, far from perfect, did much toward con- than either of the two last named. Copying vincing the public that sewing could be so nearly from Howe, Singer & Co. had less done by machinery. Several other improve- to do in getting out their machine, and were ments were also introduced, but those the first in market, but the others followed above mentioned were the most important soon after; and thus, with a nearly even that appeared during the first four years start, those three companies commenced the succeeding the date of Howe's patent; manufacture and sale of their respective and none of these can be said to have ac- machines; Singer & Co. taking the lead for complished any marked results. During the first two years, Grover & Baker for the the fifth year, however, improvements were two next, and since that the Wheeler & multiplied more rapidly; and from this Wilson. With such energy was the busiperiod may be dated the first decided sue- ness prosecuted by each of those companies, cess in the practical application of Howe's and so great was their success, that before invention. the expiration of Howe's original patent, in On the 12th of November, 1850, a patent 1860, the aggregate number of machines was issued to Allen B. Wilson, of Pittsfield, made and sold by them had exceeded 130,000; Mass., covering two improvements: one, a of which about 55,000 were turned out new device for feeding the cloth, termed the by Wheeler & Wilson, 40,000 by Singer & "two-motion feed," afterwards changed by Co., and 35,000 by Grover & Baker. At a further improvement to the "four-motion that date less than 2,000 machines of iowe'i feed "-which has proved the best feed ar- patent had been manufactured, and; these rangement for general purposes yet invented; were made by a brother of the inventor, Mr. the other, a shuttle, pointed at each end, A. B. Howe, of New York. While, therewhich made a stitch at each movement, while fore, the highest honor is due to Mr. Elias in Howe's machine the shuttle had to go and Howe, Jr.-as the origimwl inventor of the return at every stitch. This improvement sewing machine-the public is largely inwas, however, superseded by another, styled debted, for its improvement and successful the "rotating hook," which was the sub- introduction, to the inventive genius of Wilject of a patent dated August 12, 1851, son, Grover, and Singer, and the enterprise and which served as a complete substitute of their respective companies. And here it for the shuttle of Howe. This improve- may be remarked, that the infancy of the ment constitutes the leading or characteristic sewing machine, like that of many other imfeature of the Wheeler & Wilson ma- portant inventions, was beset with difficulchine. ties. By the time that Mr. Howe had comOn the 11th of February, 1851, a patent pleted his experiments, built his model,, and was granted to Grover & Baker, of Boston, secured his patent, he had exhausted h;id for a machine invented by William O. Grover, mmeans. He could not embark in the. ipaniof that firm, the distinguishing feature of' facture of machines without capital; and. h which consisted in a device called the "circu — could not obtain the capital b,e so much lar needle," which also served as a substitute needed until the utility of his inye.ntiono bad for the shuttle. In the summer of, 1851, been demonstrated by practical l se, Failt Mr. Grover, without knowledge of what ing in his effort to enlist the aid of capitalWilson had done, invented a feed device, ists in this country, he went to, Europe. In substantially similar to Wilson's, for which England a patent was secured for. his invena patent was issued to Grover & Baker, tion, but he allowed it to lbe taken in the June 22, 1852. This double invention of name of another party resi;ding there, who, the same device gave rise to some difficulty losing confidence in the invention, never did between the two companies; but this was much with it, and Howe never realized any compromised, and the same feeding-arrange- thing from it, Failing of any success ment has since been used in both machines. abroad, he decided to return, and try his In September, 1850, Isaac M. Singer, of luck once more here. But to such poverty New York City, completed a machine, for was he now reduced, that. he was obliged which a patent was issued to I. M. Singer & to pawn his effects to pay his wife's pasCo., on the 12th of August, 1851. This sage, and to work, as an ordinary deck machine, though it contained several im- hand, for his own. Arriving penniless, but 25 4,20 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. not disheartened, confident that some day one good purpose, as by it the public behis invention would be appreciated, he re- came satisfied of the worthless character of suined his old employment as a journeyman cheaply made machines; and hence the remechanic, for a livelihood. At length the suit was, on the whole, advantageous rather tide of circumstances turned in his favor. than otherwise, to those interested in the The infringement of his patent, by the three manufacture and sale of good ones. companies above referred to, and by other From 1852 to 1857, no new machine, of parties of less note, in a short time accom- any marked excellence, was introduced, the plished what he had never been able to do efforts of all inventors, outside of the aforehimself; as great numbers of machines, of said combination, being directed not so much various makers, were thus distributed, by to the improvement of the sewing machine, means of which the utility of the sewing as to the production of a cheaper class. The machine was soon demonstrated. These next invention, which possessed any claim infringements furnished also the occasion for to special merit as an improvement upon legal proceedings, in the course of which the those already noticed, was a machine invalidity of his patent was established by vented by James E. A. Gibbs, of Millpoint, judicial decisions. Of the suits brought by Va., for which a patent was issued June 2, him against those three companies, one re- 1857. The leading idea of Mr. Gibbs, and suited in a judgment, in his favor, and the the object claimed to have been accomplished other two were settled, before decisions had in his machine, was-the attainment of been reached. At this time, or soon after, greater simplicity, in order more perfectly an arrangement was entered into between to adapt the sewing nachine to the capaMr. Howe, Wheeler & Wilson, I. M. Singer cities of all. Mr. Gibbs, who was a natural, & Co., and Grover & Baker, by which each but uneducated mechanic, had never seen a.of those three companies was licensed to sewing machine of any kind until he had manufacture its own machines, under the completed the model of his own. His maprotection of Howe's patent, during the re- chine, therefore, though containing princimainder of the term for which it had been ples which had been previously invented granted, at a patent rent, or royalty, of ten and patented, was with him entirely an oridollars on each machine made and sold, ginal invention. He had seen in some newsuntil a certain number had been produced, paper or magazine a notice of a "sewing:nd at a less rent afterward. The contract machine"-which was described as using by which that arrangement was perfected "two threads"-and the thought immewad dated October 10, 1856, and is known diately occurred to hin, that if a reliable.s ikte " Albany Agreement." By its pro- seam could be made with one thread, invisions;9 those four parties were constituted stead of two, less machinery would be rea combination, for the mutual protection of quired, and thus greater simplicity would be their severl. patents, against outside infringe- secured; a result which, to him, appeared to ment-a coimbination which has exercised be one of great importance, especially in an an inportaint ilfluence upon the general instrument for general family use. He at sewing iuacline interests of the country. once set himself to work, and soon invented While these inventions were being in- a new kind of stitch, requiring the use of but troduced, there were other difficulties to one thread, yet possessing, as claimed, at be overcome —difficulies affecting not Mr. least equal merit, for general use, to any Howe only, bbt,also the combination made with two threads. After Mr. Gibbs among which,were, -the intqcedulity of the had obtained his patent, James Willcox, then public; the trouble of;tesacng operatives; of Philadelphia, secured the control of it; the indisposition,of manufacturers to adopt and on the 18th of February, 1859, obtained new modes of doing'business. the disincli- a license from the aforesaid combination, nation of tailors and seamstresses to wel- and commenced the manufacture of the macome the sewing machine; and, last btlt not chines, under the name of the Willcox & least, the introduction of an inferior class of Gibbs Sewing Machine. The peculiarities machines, which, being sold at lower prices, of the stitch, and the construction and operamet for a time a ready sale, and which, by tion of this machine will be more fully detheir general failure, did much to impair -te. scribed hereafter. confidence of the public in the utility of the On the expiration of Howe's original patsewing machine. Yet this experiment served ent, and its extension for the further term of SEWING MACHINES. 421 seven years from the 10th day of September, tical movement, acting in concert with the 1860, a more liberal policy was adopted. feed; the office of the needle being to take The "combination" was continued; but an the thread from the spool, and, carrying it agreement was made between Mr. Howe and downward, perforate the fabric and pass a the other parties constituting' it, which pro- loop of the thread down through it, to a vided for the granting of licenses, by the point where the stitch-forming mechanism combination, to other parties not members underneath will reach it, while the feed, by of it, in numbers sufficient to secure to the an alternate movement, carries the goods public a " full supply of good sewing machines forward for another stitch. The second proat reasonable prices." cess is accomplished by means of special The patent rent exacted of licensees, un- mechanism, the office of which is to connect der this rlew arrangement, is fixed at seven and fasten, with a separate under thread or dollars for each machine using two threads, with a portion of the upper one (according which is manufactured and sold to be used to the kind of stitch made, whether a double in the United States, and four dollars each or a single thread one), the successive loops for all exported,- to be used in foreign coun- of the upper thread as they are passed down tries. Of this rent, Mr. Howe receives one through the fabric by the needle. Thus, as dollar on each machine made and sold, and the sewing proceeds, two continuous rows the balance goes to the other three parties; or lines of thread are produced, one on the who are required to defray all the expenses upper, and the other on the under surface of protecting his patents, jointly with their of the goods, inclosing between them the own; besides paying him a license rent of pieces of fabric united by the seam; the one dollar each on all machines made by upper line being always a single thread, them. Mr. Iowe has therefore a net in- while the under one is either single, as in come of one dollar for every sewing machine the " lock-stitch," tWo-corded, as in the made and sold in the United States-an in- "twisted-loop stitch," or three-corded, as in come which amounts to a fortune every year. the " double-loop stitch." These two lines The amount thus received by Mr. Howe dur- of thread, it will be perceived, are united or ing the year 1866, as appears by the license linked together by the loop of the upper returns, was upwards of $155,000. During thread passing through the fabric at the end the same period, the three companies received of every stitch; and this coupling, or locking firom the same source about 8213,000; mak- of the two lines of thread, when properly ing a total of over 6368,000, received by the drawn up by the tensions, completes the forcombination. mation of the stitch. A continuous row or The progress of invention has brought into chain of these united stitches, thus inclosing use three classes of sewing machines, viz. the fabric sewed, constitutes a seam. 1st. Those making the double-thread, The first of these operations is substan"'shuttle" or "lock-stitch." Of this class tially the same in all machines; but the are the Howe, Wheeler & Wilson, Singer, second operation, or under process, is difWeed, Etna, Elliptic, Florence, Empire, Fin- ferent iin the different machines, and the kle & Lyon, and Leavitt Machines. variations are as numerous as the different 2d.'Those making the "double-loop," or kinds of stitches made. It is in this feature "Grover & Baker stitch." The only ma- only, that the distinguishing characteristics chine of any importance, which mrakes this of the several kinds of sewing machine kind of stitch, is the Grover & Baker. stitches consist. Thus in all lock-stitch ma3d. Those making the single - thread, chines, whether using a reciprocating shuttle "twisted-loop" or " Willcox & Gibbs stitch." like Howe's, or a rotating one like WilThe only machines of this class are those son's, a separate thread is used underneath; manufactured by the Willcox & Gibbs Sew- and the entire length of this thread is caring Machine Company. ried, by the shuttle, through each successive In all sewing machines, the formation of loop of the upper thread; thus leaving, when a stitch requires two distinct operations, the the seam is completed, only a single line of first of which is performed on the upper sur- thread on the under surface of the fabric as face, and the second on the under surface of well as on the upper one. the goods. The first process is accom- In forming the double-loop stitch, a sepaplished in every machine by means of an rate thread is also used underneath; but this eye-pointed reciprocating needle, with a ver- thread, instead of being re-wound, and car 422 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. ried by a shuttle, is manipulated by an eye- radically different. Instead of passing a pointed, non-perforating, horizontal needle, bobbin with the lower thread through a loop which takes the thread directly from the of the upper, he puts a loop of the upper spool, and instead of passing the entire around a stationary bobbin containing the length of the under thread through the loop lower thread, and feeds the fabric to sew an of the upper one, as in the lock-stitch, it endless seam. passes only a loop of it through; and this For carrying the loop of the upper thread loop in its turn is fastened by the next loop around the bobbin containing the lower of the upper thread. Hence, when a seam thread, Mr. Wilson employs a rotating hook of this class is completed, instead of there of peculiar construction, marked 5 (fig. 4). It being a single line of thread on the under is formed by cutting away a portion of the side, there is a series of compound loops, periphery of the circular concave disk. a forming a ridge or chain, of the "ldouble- (fig. 4) is the point of the hook. From a tambour" character, which is always more is a diagonal groove across the periphery of or less prominent, according to the size of the hook to the point b, where the edge is the thread used. beveled off. The hook thus constitutes a In the formation of the twisted-loop stitch, portion of the thread of a screw. 46 is the the connecting and fastening of the stitches cloth-plate, 35 the needle, with the eye near on the under side of the fabric are also effect- the point threaded with e, a loop of which ed by means of loops instead of a single line has just been entered by the point of the of thread. But as there is no under thread hook a. The lower thread is carried in a used, this fastening is done with a portion double convex metallic bobbin 15, to lie in of the upper thread, after it has been passed the cavity of the hook, and held in its posidown through the fabric. In other words, tion by a concave ring 16 (fig. 2), between the lower, or fastening loop is simply the which and the concave surface of the disk it upper loop extended. On its reaching the lies. No axis supports it, so that a loop of under side of the fabric, each loop is first thread can pass around it as the girl passes carried through the last preceding one; and the skipping rope under her feet. then extended-twisted-and held open- Fig. 5 represents the hook as having ready to receive, and be in its turn fastened made about two thirds of a revolution, and by the next succeeding loop fiom above. the lower thread, z, extending fiom the With these few observations on the elemen- lower surface of the fabric to the bobbin tary principles of machine sewing, we pro- in the concavity of the hook. The upper ceed to describe these several stitches; in thread, e, extends through the fabric from a the illustration of which it will be necessary previous stitch into the concavity of the to describe also the construction and opera- hook behind the bobbin, diagonally around tion of one or more of the leading, or repre- the hook at the point b, thence diagonally sentative machines in each class. The along the groove to the needle 35. FIRST CLASS-includes those making the As the hook further revolves to the posilock-stitch; to illustrate the character and tion indicated in fig. 6, both lines of the formation of this stitch —which is pre- loop e are upon the same side of the disk. cisely the same, made by one machine as The line of thread that extended in fig. 5 another —we select the Wheeler & Wilson along the groove of the hook by b, has machine. slipped off at the termination of this groove, Among the first improvers of the sewing and fallen in front of the bobbin, so that machine, as we have already stated, was Mr. the loop of the thread e extends behind the A. B. Wilson, of the Wheeler & Wilson bobbin, around the point of the hook a, and Sewing Machine Company. In his hands across the front of the bobbin to the needle the sewing machine underwent radical 35, thus surrounding the bobbin, and inchanges, and his results embody mechanical closing the lower thread z. conceptions that place the sewing machine As the hook further revolves, the loop is among the most ingenious and effective held by the check 36, until the point of the pieces of modern machinery. hook enters the succeeding loop as seen in Mr. Wilson, like Mr. Howe, approved, of fig. 4, when the loop e is freed from the check, the lock-stitch only, but his method of and being drawn up by the enlargement of making it, the holding andfeeding mech- the succeeding loop, interlocks with the lower anism, and the tension of the threads, are thread z in the fabric and forms a stitch. SEWING MACHINES. 4.23 In this connection we will explain the the feed-bar ear, when the points drop be"tension." In the' lock-stitch," when prop- low the surface of the cloth plate and the crly formed, the interlocking of the two feed-spring 12 (fig. 3), working between the threads is in the centre of the fabric sewed, left standard 2, and the left ear 11 of the as seen in the following diagram: feed-bar, throws the bar back to the left against the feed-stop 54 (fig. 7), and the next revolution of the cam throws it forward. It should be remarked that while The lower thread is re-wound upon the the needle penetrates the cloth, the feedmetal spool or bobbin 15, of such size as to points are below the surface of the clothhold 50 or 60 yards of No. 80 cotton. This plate, and intermit their action upon the re-winding is effected by the machine itself, cloth; hence the needle constitutes a pivot The bobbin with the lower thread is placed upon which the fabric may be turned to sew in the concavity of the hook, and held in a curved seam of any radius. place by the ring 16 (fig. 2), with the thread The feed-points rising and penetrating the flowing from the top toward the front of the cloth at each stitch, their movement forward machine, in which direction it revolves determines the length of the stitch, which slowly. The hook 5 revolves rapidly in the is graduated by regulating the play of the opposite direction, and the friction between feed-bar. The play of this bar is limited to these surfaces renders the strain or tension the difference between the widest and the upon the lower thread sufficiently great to narrowest parts of the feed-cam 6, which is keep it straight. about one fourth of an inch, and may be The upper thread is fed from the original graduated to any length within those limits, spool 38 (fig. 1), through the guide 39, by the feed-stop 54, against which the feedpasses once around the tension pulley 40, bar is thrown by the feed-spring 12. As and thence through the eyelets 33, 33, and the widest or the narrowest part of this ecthe needle 35 near its point. Its flow is centric stop is turned toward the feed-bar, regulated by the thumb-screw and volute- greater or less play is permitted, and longer spring 41 pressing against the side of this or shorter stitches are mnade. pulley. Should the thread be drawn too The machine is mounted upon a neat easily from spool 38, the hook will draw work-table, as seen in the cut at the head of thread fromn that instead of drawing up the this article, and driven by sandal treadles preceding loop (fig. 4). The proper pres- and band 7 (fig. 1). Motion is thus consure, however, being upon the pulley 40, municated to the hook 5 (fig. 2), and by the hook draws up the previous loop to the the eccentric 8 through the connecting-rod proper position of interlocking in the fabric, 28 to the rocker 24, pivoted at 25, 25, and before it draws any from spool 38. gives motion to the needle-arm 29, which The feeding mechanism of Mr. Wilson's holds the needle 35. The needle vibrates invention consists of a feed-bar 10 (fig. 8), through a small hole, 60, in the cloth-plate. slotted nearly its entire length, in which is The threads being adjusted, the machine is pivoted near the left end the feed-tongue touched into motion by a gentle pressure of 13, armed with two rows of feed-points, 14. the foot upon the sandals. The cloth moves This feed-bar works in grooves in the stand- forward fiom left to right, and the sewing is ards 2, 2 (fig. 3), and lies just beneath the accomplished in the manner described. cloth-plate 46 (fig. 1), so that the points 14 Various appliances are furnished for regumay be raised through the slots 52 (fig. 7), lating the width of hems, etc., until the with its left end against the feed-stop 54. hand and eye have become trained to disrThe feed is worked by a cam 6 (fig. 3), pense with them. Another appliance is the which rotates with the arbor 4. As this hemmer (fig. 9). It is slipped into a slot of camr revolves, the swell of its periphery the cloth-presser 20, and is so convoluted, strikes the under surface of the feed-tongue that as the edge of the cloth passes through 13, and raises the feed-points 14, through to be sewed, it is turned down as in ordinary the slots 52, while the swell upon the right hems, and stitched. In addition to their side of the cam 6 presses upon the right ear regular machines, the Wheeler & Wilson 11 of the feed-bar, and throws it forward. Co. also manufacture the Elliptic Machine, The cam further revolving, brings a point of and a Button-hole Machine. depression both in its top and its side next to As before remarked, the lock-stitch is al 424 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. ways the same, on whatever machine it is saving the trouble of re-winding the under made. In forming this stitch upon either thread. In sewing, the upper thread is earthe Howe, or the Singer machine, the de- ried by the perforating needle down through tails of operation do not differ essentially the fabric, where a loop is thrown out as the from those above described, with the excep- needle rises, and this loop is entered at the tion, that the shuttle movement in both these right moment by the circular needle carrying machines is reciprocal, instead of being ro- the under thread, which, in its turn, throws tary as in the Wheeler & Wilson machine; out a loop also as the needle is withdrawn; and the feed movement is rotary, instead of and this loop is entered by the upper needle "four-motioned." Each of these several as it comes down again with another loop movements has its advantages for certain from above. Thus, the "under process "'of purposes; the reciprocating shuttle being the sewing, in this machine, consists in putting, best adapted for heavy work, and the rotary first, a loop of the under thread through a one for light work, particularly for such as loop of the upper thread, and then a loop of requires a high rate of speed; while the ro- the upper thread through a loop of the untary or wheel-feed is preferred for leather, der thread; and so on to the end of the and for some kinds of heavy cloth work,- seam, each loop being drawn up by the tenand the four-motion feed for family use, and sions as the sewing proceeds. A seam of for light manufacturing purposes generally. this kind, when finished, appears as in the The Howe and Singer machines so nearly following diagram: rcsemble each other in construction and action, that a description of the operation of Ha one would be substantially correct for the other.. It should here be stated that the which gives a side view of the seam, with "wheel-feed," as now used in these and the fabric cut away so as to. exhibit the several other shuttle machines, projecting course of the threads in the formation of the upward through the table, was first applied stitch. This stitch, it has been stated, was in the Singer machine; and also the "arm," introducec as an improvement of the lockfor supporting the working apparatus over stitch; and the reader will naturally inquire, the table. The "New Family Machine" of what has been the result of experience on the Singer Co., a style brought out during this point? The answer is found in the folthe past year (1866), is furnished, however, lowing facts:-These two classes of mawith the "four-motion " feed. This machine chines have been on public trial about the is less noisy, simpler in construction, and in same length of time, or about sixteeg years. other respects superior to their old family Owing to various causes, Grover & Baker machine, now superseded by this. did not get fairly under way in manufacturOf the "licensed" machines making the ing their machines as early as Wheeler & lock-stitch, there are several which possess Wilson, or the Singer Company. But so greater or less merit; but none of these, we favorably was their machine at first received, believe, contains' any valuable feature which that, as soon as they were prepared to meet is not to be found in one or more of the ma- the demand, they took the lead, and, in 1854, chines already noticed. Grover & Baker sold more machines than We come now to the SECOND CLASS; —of both the other companies. The license which the Grover & Baker machine is at returns for 1866, however, show that, duronce the original type, and the only repre- ing the past year, the Wheeler & Wilson sentative at present in the market. In this Company alone sold nearly twice as many machine, a circular, eye-pointed needle takes machines as the Grover & Baker Company; the place of the shuttle. This needle is at- these returns also show that more than fourtached, in a horizontal position, upon the fifths of all the double-thread sewing machines upper end of a vertical shaft, which is ope- made and sold during the past year were of rated in such manner as to give to the needle the lock-stitch class. an oscillating movement, similar to that of Among the advantages claimed, for the the balance-wheel in a watch, and the cir- "double-loop" stitch over the lock-stitch cular needle makes two movements, one for- are,-greater elasticity of seatn,-the fact ward and the other back, at every stitch. that there is no necessity for re-winding the The under needle, as well as the upper one, under thread,-the non-liability of the seam takes the thread directly from the spool, thus to ravel when broken,-and the capacity for SEWING MACHINES. 425 making a certain kind of embroidery, which sequence will be formed. Of the correctness cannot be made on machines of the lock- or incorrectness of this explanation, the readstitch class. It is also claimed that the er can judge from the above diagram of this double-loop stitch is free from certain defects stitch-which is an enlarged side view of a of the lock-stitch, one of which is, that in seam made on common shirting muslin, with thin goods, where the diameter of the thread a Grover & Baker machine, using No. 70 must necessarily be nearly or quite equal to thread above, and No. 140 underneath — the thickness of the fabric, the lock cannot these being the proper sizes for such goods. be made in the center, although it may be so By many persons this ridge is considered an made on thicker goods; but that it will be objection to the stitch. Yet there can be made on one of the surfaces, thus'leaving the no doubt of the value of this class of mathread on that side straight, and the seam chines for certain purposes; especially for all without any elasticity. It is also claimed, kinds of work where great elasticity of seam that in thicker goods, in consequence of varia- is required. Thus far we have described tions in the tension, caused by the unequal only machines using two threads. It now thickness of the thread in its different parts, remains to notice those of the the position of the lock is constantly vary- TIRnD CLASS;-which, as we have already ing, from the center of the fabric to one side stated, use only a single thread, and make or the other, as exhibited in the following the " twisted-loop stitch." The fact that diagram: this stitch requires but one thread has, doubtless, led some to suppose it identical with the olt " chain-stitch, long since rejected as unsuitable for sewing purposes. and it is claimed that a large proportion of They are, however, distinct-as much so as the sewing done in families, upon lock-stitch any two stitches made. In forming the machines, is of this description. On the twisted-loop stitch, each loop is twisted, other hand, it is objected to the double-loop and its opposite sides crossed, as illustrated stitch, that it requires a great deal more in the following diagram, No. 1; while the thread. In reply it is claimed that in using chain-stitch loop is never twisted, but is lock-stitch machines, there is much waste of thread, at the ends of the seams; and that 2 in the ordinary sewing of a family, where the majority of the seams are short, this waste of thread is fully equal to the extra amount used in making the double-loop always in the position shown at No. 2. In stitch seam. Widely differing estimates of the formation of the twisted-loop stitch, the the relative amounts of thread, thus wasted, "upper process," or that which is performed or used, by these two classes of machines, by the needle, is substantially the same as in have been published, as the results of actual the machines already described. The feeding experiments. These apparent contradictions apparatus is the "four-motion feed," which have doubtless arisen from the mse of differ- is operated by an eccentric on the end of ent naterials, and different lengths of stitches the driving shaft. This shaft operates also the in making those several experiments; since a needle and the "hook." The " underprocess," thin material, with a long stitclf, would or connecting and fastening of the stitches on show a.far greater difference, in the ratio of the under side of the fabric, is wholly unlike thread used, than a thick material with a short that of any other machine, the entire prostitch. All such experiments are therefore cess being performed by a novel and ingeunreliable; nor are they necessary, for the nious stitch-forming device, called the roactual difference between two seams of equal tating hook." As the needle begins to rise, length, made on the same goods with the after having carried the thread down through same thread and length of stitch, would the fabric, a loop of the thread is thrown plainly be just equal to twice the length of out, just in time for the point of the hook, the seam. It is also objected to the double- as it passes the needle, to enter the loop. loop stitch, that it leaves an unsightly ridge As the hook continues to revolve, it passes on the under side. To this it is replied that further and further into the loop, enlarging if the under thread is of the proper size (half and twisting it as it proceeds; until, having that of the upper one), no ridge of any con- made an entire revolution, the point of the 426 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. hook arrives again at the needle, which, in ing over old garments, and in removing the mean time, has brought down a fresh seams that have been placed amiss. loop; this new loop is now caught by the Another valuable quality claimed for the hook and carried through the former loop, rotating hook is, the certainty with which it which still remains upon the hook, spread performs its work. This is said to be such, open in the right position to receive it. As that unless the machine is out of order, the the hook proceeds to make another revolu- missing of a stitch cannot occur. tion, it soon passes out of the old loop, and The rotating hook has also the peculeaves it to be drawn up, by the tightening liar capacity of fastening off the scam, autoof the stitch, into the seam. This tighten- rnatically, whenever the work is removed ing is effected, partly by the lifting of the fiom the machine, or the thread is cut or needle-bar as it rises for another stitch (the broken. But, perhaps the most remarkable other end of the thread being held by the feature of the hook is, its own simplicity. tension), but chiefly by the peculiar action While it performs all the various offices of the hook, as'it enlarges the new loop. accomplished in two-threadel machines, by But it is the twist given to the loop during the "bobbin"-the " shuttle"-the " conthe process of opening it, as above describe(d, cave ring"-the " shuttle-race " —the'spoolwhich is claimed to constitute the distin- er" —the "circular-needle"-the "spiral" guishing feature of this stitch. And this lock, -the " driver"-the " under-spool " —the or twist, being drawn in below the surface of " spool-holder "-the " under-tension," &c. the fabric, the seam is left as'smooth on its un- -it is itself only a single piece. In fact it der surface as its upper one; the only differ- does not add so much as a unit to the numence being, that while there is but a single ber of the working parts in the machine; line of thread above, there is a double one for as it is permanently attached to the end below, the two being so closely imbedded in of the driving shaft, and revolves with it, it the surface of the goods, as to present, ex- is, practically, a part of the shaft itself. cept on a close inspection, the appearance The following description, and the correof a single line. The following diagram ex- sponding cuts in the plates, at pages 417 and hibits a section of a Willcox & Gibbs seam, 418, will give the reader a general idea of the construction of this machine: __ "______________ _-_ ~The perspective view (fig. 1) exhibits the machine itself, separated from its table or as it appears when completed; the edge of stand. All the working parts, unrderneath the goods being cut away to the stitching, to the cloth-plate, are but two in number-the show the course of the thread. in the forma- "rotating-hook," B, and the "feed" apparation of the seam. It has been cljected to tus, which is situated just behind it; these the twisted-loop-stitch, that it is not so reli- parts are covered, when the machine is in able as one made with two threads. On the use, by the hinged cap, A, which, in the cut, other hand, it is claimed that this stitch is, is turned down to expose the hook and feed, even in this respect, an improvement on both The length of the stitch is regulated by the the lock-stitch, and the double-loop stitch; lever, G; and the cloth-presser, a, is raised that the effect of the twist in the loop is to from the plate by the cam, H. The maproduce a mutual fiiction or bind of the two chine is fastened upon the table (fig. 2) by a opposite sides of the loop on each other, thumb-screw from the under side. It is which actually makes the seam stronger and driven rty a round, leather belt, C. The tenmore difficult to rip, when cut and pulled sion on the thread is produced by passing it open, than any stitch made with two threads. between two polished, glass washers, F, At the great trial at Island Park, in 1855, which are fitted on a screw spindle, and this stitch was subjected to a thorough pressed together by a spring, the pressure of practical test, with the lock-stitch, before which is regulated by turning the screw. a jury of sewing machine experts. Their The balance-wheel is prevented from turning decision was, that in every kind of work, in the wrong direction, or wearing the dress they found " the twisted-loop stitch strong- of the operator, by a patented improvement, er, and less liable to rip, than the lock- shown in fig. 2; in which A is the wheel, C stitch." It can, however, be readily taken the dress guard, B a part of the stand, or out if desired, after unlocking it; a capacity table frame to which the guard is fastened, which is claimed to be an advantage in mak- and D a rubber ball, which fits loosely in a WILLCOX & GIBBS SEWING MACHINE. Willcox & Gibbs Machine, without Table No. 2 Machine. No. 4-Half-Case Machine, closed. WILLCOX & GIBBS SEWING MACHINE Needle-bar and Needle, Feller. Hemmrer, Nos.No 7,- t 5 hine, open.6, Ialf-Case Machine, open, No 7 -Cabinet Xmachine, open. SEWING MACHINES. 427 recess in the guard, and is kept, by its own 1 2 3 4 5 gravity, in contact with the rim of the wheel, between which and the recess it wedges when any attempt is made to turn the wheel backward. The needle (fig. 5), which, with the manner of setting it, is patented, is made self-adjusting, by means of a groove in its shank, which matches with a spline, or steel rib, situated within the tubular cavity or hole in the lower end of the needle-bar, D; so that it is impossible to set the needle in any but the right position; and as the needles are all of precisely the same length, when it is pushed to the upper extremity of the hole and secured by the nut, E, it is sure to be adjusted properly. This improvement, in the manner of setting and fastening the needle, is one of much practical importance, especially in a sewing The hemmer (fig. 3), and feller (fig. 4), machine for general family use. In all other which are also patented, turn the hem or fell machines the needle is fastened by means to the under side, so that the stitch is on the of a set-screw (or other device producing right side of the goods-whichis not the the same result), which presses against case in the hembming or felling done on other the shank of the needle only at a single machines. They are also self-adjusting; are point, while the bearing against the back easily operated; make the hem or fell of any side of the shank is equal to its entire length. desired width; and do their work in a very In this mode of fastening, which is repre- perfect manner. sented in the following cut, the needle is The groove in the cloth-presser, at a, is liable, when first set, to stand the braider, by means of which braiding is aslant, as indicated by the dotted done of any desired pattern; and the braider, lines, b and c; in which case it being a part of the machine, is always adis necessary for the operator to justed, and ready for use. This machine spring or bend the needle, until has also several other adjuncts which are not seen at a. This is a difficult pro- corder, and tucker, —all of which are patent, cess, and often occasions much ed improvements, of recent introduction. trouble, especially with beginners. The machine runs very easily, is almost But in the Willcox & Gibbs ma- entirely noiseless, ancd all its movements bechine, this trouble is avoided; ing rotary and positive, it runs faster, and is since, in fastening its needle, the said to wear longer and cost less for rcshank is compressed by means of pairs, than any other yet introduced. The the concentric nut, on all sides Elm City Company of New Haven have run alike; and consequently, the a large number of these machines by steam point of the needle, when fast- power, in the manufacture of stitched ruf7i d ened, is certain to be in its fling, working double time (20 hours a day), proper place-as seen at a. The at a speed of more than 3,000 stitches per Willcox & Gibbs needle is also unlike any minute. other, in having a much shorter blade-as Although the Willcox & Gibbs is offered seen in the cut above, which exhibits a only as a family machine, and no effort needle of each of the five leading machines; has been made to introduce it for manufaceach needle being'of the size ordinarily used turing purposes, it has already found its way for common muslin,-and the illustration into manufacturing establishments, in the being in each case exact, in size and form. various departments of industry-especially Of these, No. 1 is the Singer needle; No. 2, in the manufacture of shirts and collars, and Wheeler & Wilson; No. 3, Howe; No. 4, other descriptions of ladies' and gents' furGrover & Baker; and No. 5, Willcox & nishing goods; in hat and cap trimming, Gibbs. finishing hosiery work, &c. 428 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. The success of this machine, commer- found principally on Broadway. Several of cially, affords evidence of the appreciation these are constructed in the newest style ot of its merits by the public. In the number warehouse splendor, and combine, in an emi. of machines already made and sold, the nent degree, ornament with convenience. Willcox & Gibbs is second only to the That of the Wheeler & Wilson Co., at No. Wheeler & Wilson, Singer, and Grover & 625 Broadway, is the largest and most costly Baker. Although it is, comparatively, a new structure of the kind in the world. The machine, having been in the market scarcely Singer establishment, on the corner of Broadeight years-and not prominently so more way and Grand Street, and that of the Howe than four or five-upwards of 55,000 of the Co., at No. 699 Broadway, are also capamachines have already been made and sold; cious and elegant structures. The preceding a number nearly twice as large as any other cut represents a front view of the salesrooms company sold in the same number of its of the Grover & Baker Co., at No. 495 earliest years. Till recently this machine was Broadway. The depth of the lower room manufactured by Jas. Willcox, then sole pro- is nearly 100 feet, and the front is almost prietor; but the business has now passed entirely of glass. On this long floor, richly into the hands of the Willcox & Gibbs carpeted, the machines are displayed, and Sewing Machine Company-a new stock inspected by the purchaser, to whom incompany of half a million dollars capital, struction is given in the inner rooms. organized within the past year-of which It is conceivable that, when the fact came Mr. Willcox is President. The principal to be clearly established that machines would office and salesroom of this company is at do good and strong sewing, and witha speed No. 508 Broadway, New York. so much greater than hand sewing, every The warehouses for the sale of sewing branch of industry in which the needle is machines, now quite numerous, are to be used began to introduce and adapt the _____________ machines to its own exigencies. It was.X 7, ~~ - — _-_:_==_=5- soon found that some machines were better adapted than others to particular labors. h~r.~ _________ The clothing business, which has become so ___ — ~ cimportant as a new branch of industry in the last 25 years, found a powerful auxiliary -~~ ~ - }t11in the sewing machine, and great numbers are used in it, mostly Singer's. For shirt'U 5, e and collar making, and most other light manufacturing pur'poses, Wheeler & Wilson's is used much more extensively than.~ ~,~~~any other. For bag-making, seaming knit fabrics, and other work where great elastiitv of seam is necessary, the (Grover & PI; Baker is chiefly used; although the Willcox [~riil & Gibbs is also much used for this purpose. The Howe machine, as now made, takes the,'Tlhiiill lead for light leather work, and competes'it~,,,{!! i 4ji?'"illj( strongly with Singer's in tailoring and lea-'"'"t'"'" ~ther' work of the heavier grades. For *! t~t' family use, nearly every kind has been rej~~it~[il ~. I; commended, and, to greater or less extent,!Iljj~~ ~ lsold; the most popular for this purpose, a.~l['ji'ii..... until recently, being the Wheeler & Wilson, and next, the Grover & Baiker; but of late the Willcox & Gibbs-on account of its greater simplicity, ease of working and management, and non-liability to get out of _____] _ order, adapting it more perfectly to all kinds........of work and to all capacities-though a later,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ P Ainvention, is taking the lead for domestic. O- -~.F,~. use. SEWING MACHINES. 429 The activity which has been imparted to ness and perfection of its machinery, and the the use of sewing machines may be inferred superior character of the work sent out. from the fact that the number of machines These several establishments so nearly resemmade and sold under Howe's patent, up to ble each other in character and general arand inclusive of 1866, is over 700,000, the rangements, and in the process of building proportions being, in round numbers, as fol- the machines, that a description of one will lows:- serve for all. The following is a sketch of Wheeler & Wilson Co.................250,000 the Singer establishment: Singer Co.............................160,000 The main building is of iron and brick, Grover & Baker Co.....................140,000 six stories high above ground, with a cellar Willcox & Gibbs Co. (since May, 1859).... 55,000 and sub-cellar underneath. The length of Howe.............................. 40,000 the front is 100 feet, with an extension of All others....................... 65,000 _l ots about 60 feet at the south end. The depth o10,000 of the main building is 60 feet, but an addition to the rear causes the premises The number of sewing machines made an used as a foundry to reach trough to Elizasold under Howe's patent, during the year beth Street. The main edifice is now ex1866, and during the last quarter of said year, tended to Broome Street, making its entire as appears from the license returns, was as fol- length 250 feet. The floors are of wood; ~lows:~ - - Last quarter. Year 1866. but the pillars, beams, girders, and stairs are Wheeler & Wilson Co.*......13,579.. 47,125 of iron; while the ceiling to each floor is Singer Co...................14,164.36,235 arched with brick, making the whole conGrover & Baker Co........... 8,776 28,186 cern fire-proof. Silleox & Gibbs Co.......5... 2,180 15,028 Entering by the front door, we find a neat Howe................. 2,820.. 10, 251 All others............ 0 27673 business office to the left, beyond which is 52,19 the stock room, occuping nearly all the 52,199.. 164,498 first floor. Sales have also been made of a great numn- In the adjoining wing is the blacksmithher of infringing machines, of inferior char- shop, with its forges, drop-hammers, tlrpacter and imperfectly made, that would not hammers, &c. This apartment, well ventidlo the work promised. The number of lated and lighted, has from twenty totwentythese now made is, however, very small; and five men constantly at work. Here are the manner in which all sewing machines fabricated the shuttles, feed-hammers and are now got up is much more perfect than other light parts of the machine, made of formerly. Great preparations have. been the best bar steel. The shuttle is a litmade by the leading firms to meet the tie canoe-shaped vessel, from one to three growing demand. One manufactory, that inches long, as bright and smooth as a new of the Wheeler & Wilson Co., at Bridgeport, pin. A die of the proper size and shape is Conn., is said to contain four acres of floor- placed on the block under the drop-press, ing; and another company boasts of its which is made to fall with a blow of 250 ability to supply 170,000 machines annually. pounds upon the heated steel, when the Since the extension of his patent in 1860, shuttle is substantially formed, requiring Mr. Howe has erected at Bridgeport a very only to be polished with the file to be ready extensive and complete establishment for for use. The next process is annealing the the manufacture of his machines. The articles turned out from the forges, il order Grover & Baker Company have an estab- to soften the metal sufficiently to bear hamlishment nearly as large, at Boston, Mass.; mering and filing. For this purpose they and the Singer Manufacturing Company have are packed between layers of charcoal in a theirs in New York. The manufactory of strong iron box, which is shut up in the anthe Willcox & Gibbs Company, at Provi- ealing furnace for about two days. This deuce, R. I., though not as extensive as those done, they are passed through the trimmingabove named, is capable of turning out a press, a instrument which cuts off all flanges very large number of machines. This estab- or excrescences that may have been made lishment is distinguished for the complete- under the drop-press. Some pieces require to be dressed on the planing-machine; * Wheeler & Wilson's returns include the Elliptic others to be turned in the lathes, or filed in machine. the vices. 430 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. Passilng down one flight of stairs, we at work is about sixty. The scale of wages enter the foundry, which not only extends ranges from $4.50 for boys, to $25 per week all the way under the main building, but has for the best mechanics. offshoots in two other directions, its entire Room number four is the acljusting or area being nearly half an acre. So much finishing room, into which all the parts are crowded, however, was this department that brought to be put together. The instrua separate foundry had to be established up ment, however, is'recognized as a macline, town, where a portion of the work is now after the table and arm have been bolted toturned out. The engine, having a capacity gether, which is done on the second floor. of eighty-horse power, occupies a separate The quantity of machinery there is inconapartment iln the basement. siderable, as compared with the lower apartThe sub-cellar is devoted to cleaning the ments, the work being mostly of a kind that castnlgs, which is done.by the ordinary must be done by hand. The number of emmode of immersing them in diluted sulphuric ployes is about 85. acid, and afterward scraping off, or by Room number five is the japanning room, placing them in a large cylinder, with several and shows the effects of the operations carhundred weight of metal stars. The cylin- ried on, the roof being in places a rich ander is then made to revolve rapidly, expos- ber color, which deepens into a dark or ing every part of the surface of each casting brownish green. Japanning is an art of to a constant attrition from the stars, by comparatively recent introduction into this which it comes out in time smooth and country; but it has already attained a hiigh shining, as if it had been filed. In the degree of excellence. A coating of it befoundry about eighty employes are at work. comes apparently as hard as the metal on The average weekly wages of journeymen, which it is laid. We can describe it only including some over-time, is between $20 in brief. The liquid, composed of oil, turand 822. pentine, and gum asphaltum, is applied by a On the second floor, the machine properly brush to the metal, and the article is then takes its rise. Here its heavy parts are put into a'kiln or furnace, a fire-proof buildplaned, bored, grooved, and otherwise pre- ing, heated to a temperature 350 degrees pared for the adjusting room. About one Fahrenheit. After baking about eight hours, hundred machines, planers, lathes, milling, it becomes smooth and hard, and i; taken slotting, grooving, screwing, &c.-are run- out. But previous to this operation, if the ning-while the hundred workers behind machine is to be a fancy one for fanmily use, them are so actively engaged that they have is that of pearling, for which purpose the no time to bestow upon the stranger. In delicate green snail shells are sawn into thin every sewing machine are nearly one hun- layers, and, by means of a punch and dies, died pieces, independent of the wood-work, cut into any desirable sizes or figures. These some of the pieces having ten or a dozen a e applied by hand to the margin and cenfaces. It is essential that part shall fit part ter of the table, making a border and center so accurately as to occasion neither jolt nor of flowers, which are laid on before entering jar afterward, or delay in adjusting, when the kiln. the whole instrument is put together. Hun- Plain machines receive three coatings and dreds of openings of all sizes have to be bakings, after which the black surface is drilled and reamed out; yet so nicely that rubbed smooth and light with pumice or none shall vary a hair's-breadth from the rotten stone. The pearl machines, after betrue line. Grooves have to be excavated- ing baked, are scraped along their margins often one below another. Bolts, nuts, turn- and centers, so as to expose the face of screws, have to be turned and milled, in the pearl, which is then even with the many cases undergoing half a dozen -opera- surrounding surface. The operation next tions at the hands of a single workman. in order is to apply gold-leaf, for which The third floor-differs little in appearance purpose a line of asphaltum is traced on the or use from the second, except that it is ap- table with a pencil, of any required design. propriated to the smaller parts of the instru- Gold-leaf is applied to the entire surface, ment, the infinitesimal screws and bolts, the and afterward rubbed off with wet cotton needle-bars, &c. In this apartment are fifty waste. To the line traced as above demilling machines, twenty lathes, and eight scribed, the gold adheres. The cotton, thus gear cutters; the number of men and boys saturated with "the king of metals," is care SEWING MACHINES. 431 fully preserved and made to yield up its then tempered and pointed in rows of six at treasure. On the plainer instruments, gold a time, the grinding being done on a wet is not applied, but a substance known as stone. From this they pass to the polish"German metal." In this department are 32 ing-roll, a round revolving bar, overlaid with finishers and laborers. First-class ornament- a composition, in which grooves have been ors can readily command $30 per week. sunk corresponding to the sizes of needles. The sixth floor, which is next the roof, is the This done, they are put up into bundles and department for making and fitting a variety sent off to their destination. of small work, namely, the springs, gauges, needle-bars, &c. The number of employes there is eighty. There are several screwing machines, with revolving heads, at work. The close, delicate-fitting work is done here; though the body of the machine is put to- MILLS. MIILLS. gether on the fourth floor. In an adjoining roonm the emery wheels are hard at work, THE universal dependence of the human emitting their streams of fire, and imparting family upon bread as food, has no doubt an exquisite polish to various parts of the caused that article to be aptly designated machine. The number of steel springs as the "staff of life." It has been made of made and polished every week is about many substances, but in the American color 12,000. The number of employ6s in all nies, from the earliest times, Indian corn, departments is 783. The amount of a wheat, and rye have been the leading if not week's pay-roll was $9,700. the only materials. The laborers of Europe Two kinds of machines are made, "the have only since comparatively recent dates Standard," or "Manufacturing," and the used grain commonly for bread. The poa"Family Machine;" also a Machine for sants of the south of France for long atres making button-holes. used only chestnuts and similar fruits for the The Spring Street branch comprises two purpose. In Germany, rye forms the nafloors in a large building, both being used in tive L' black bread" made of the grain making needles. Hence, it is sometimes ground but unbolted. The Scotch use oattermed "the needle department." The meal and barley for bread. The English number of hands employed is about seventy, use wheat commonly, as is the case now who turn out, on the average, 50,000 mostly in America. Here, however, the needles every week. About twenty-five of variety and abundance of animal and other the employes are women and girls. The food is so great that wheaten bread enters needles are made of the best quality of less into the daily diet of the masses than steel wire, some of it costing $4 or $5 per would otherwise be the case. Whatever pound. The first operation is to straighten the grain used, however, milling is the first it by removing all twists or kinks. The ap- necessity, and the number and capacity of paratus used had to be invented for the pur- the mills must always be proportioned to pose. After cutting the wire into lengths, the numbers of the people. In a country the needles are grooved on both sides by like this, where they multiply so fast, the means of a revolving circular saw, the fine investments in mill property must keep pace teeth of which gnaw into the side of the with the swelling numbers of the people. needle as it moves forward. Of course, it We find, therefore, in the returns of the is a delicate piece of work; but there is manufacturing industry of the Union for hardly ever an instance of failure. One man 1850, published by order of Congress, that of is able to attend half a dozen of the saws, the whole value produced, $1,019,106,616, each cutting 2,500 per day. by far the largest item was the products of The needle is next taken to the eyeing flour and grist mills. This amounted to machine, where the eye is punched by means $136,056,736, or rather more than 13 per of a lever worked by hand. The attendant, cent. Next to this industry, the highest if excelling, will punch 8,000 in a single day. production was of cottons, the most general After punching, the eye is drilled out by material for clothing, and that product another delicate device. The speed here reached $65,501,687. The largest mill inattained is less than at punching, a good terest was in the state of New York, where day's work being 2,500. The needles are.the product was $33,037,021. The census 432 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. of 1840 gave the number of flour mills in meter, average weight 14 cwt. The surfaces the Union for that year, and if we compare are dressed, and the lower one fixed, the the population and crop of wheat as report- upper one revolving with an immense veloed, with the number of flour mills, the re- city, generally 120 revolutions per minute. suits are as follows:- The wheat being fed in through an aperture, is g'round between the revolving and fixed Population. WVhe. NMills. surfaces of the stones. It is obvious that 1840.... 17,069,453 81,83:3,272 4,364 the great weight of the revolving stone, the 1850.... 23,191,877 100,485,944 11.891 speed at which it moves, and the friction 1860.... 31,443,322 170,176,027 13,868 caused by the interposition of so glutinous a substance as wheat, involves the expendiIn order to get the quantity of wheat ture of vast power to-sustain the action. A floured, it is necessary to deduct from this single pair of stones requires a four-horse production the quantity reserved for seed, power to keep up the required motion. In and the quantity exported as grain, this mode of grinding between such extended From the earliest settlement of the coun- surfaces, the flour does not escape so readily try, flour has been an important article of as desirable, and becomes somewhat deteexport, and New York wheat early gained riorated by continuous retrituration. There a reputation as well abroad as at home. hlave been many improvements introduced During the wars of Napoleon, the valley of, in the form of mills. One of the most suce the Hudson furnished large supplies of flour, cessful seems to lave been to give the stones and milling was a very profitable business. a conical form. In this improvement, the Water-power was generally used. Millss con- weight of the running stone is reduced froln centrated where this was to be had advan- 14 cwt. to 12 cwt., and it is placed beneath tageously in the neighborhood of good sup- the fixed stone; thIe size of both is reduced plies of wheat. The mills of'Rochester, New to one-third, and they have the form of a York, where the famous Genesee wheat is fiustum of a cone. It is obvious that a mass floured, are a grand exarnple of well-applied of 14 cwt., revolving over a surface, is not water power. The Baltitnore and Richmond snsceptible of the same delicacy of adjustcity mills acquired great reputation, and of ment as one of 1- cvwt. revolving under the late years the settlement of the western fixed surface, and the miller has a much country has caused St. Louis to become the easier and more effective control over the central point of a vast region, and magnifi- most important portion of his operations. cent mills are there constructed. The mills The conical form facilitates the discharge at Louisville are also on a grand scale. One of the flour, and obviates the clogging and of thlose mills, as an illustration, erected at overheating of the.flat stones. By a judicious a cost of $85,000, has four run of stones of combination of this mill with tlhe dressing a capacity of 1500 busliels of wheat daily. machine, a perfect separation of the flour The mill is situated at the falls of the Olrio, fiom the bran is effected at the moment the just where they dash through the Indiana grist escapes from the stones. The bran chute. The mill-race, excavated in the solid still remains in the mill, and falls by its own limest4oe, involved a large expenditure of gravity to a second pair of stones in all time and money. The wheels are con- respects like the first pair. Both pairs, being structed on a new principle, being similar mounted on the same spindle, are imnpelled to the submerged propellers used in war by the same gearing. The lower pair comsteamers, and working an immense upright plete the process, and leave nothing unconshaft, the base of which is sunk fifteen feet verted into flour that will add either to the in the solid rock. This shaft drives the weight or the qulality of the loaf..entire machinery of the mill with irresistible The capital invested in flour mills in the power and the regularity of clock-work. whole country was in 1860 given at $84,Almost every state albounds in valuable mill 585,004, and the production $248,580,365. sites that furnish the power for flouring the The quantity of flour exported in 1860 was -grain of the several districts for local use. somewhat over three millions of barrels. Steam plays, however, an- important part as To supply this, and the wants of a popua motor for supplying flour for export. The lation amounting to fully 32,000,000, the ordinary operation of grinding has been by quantity floured was about 35,500,000 bartwo millstones of some 4 to 6 inches in dia- rels.; MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. PASSING over the class of band instru- use of soft elastic washers to soften the tone, ments, the violin and its congeners, the flute, by the same manulfacturer; the double guitar and harp, all of which, though manu- sounding-board of Mr. S. B. Driggs, intendfactured here, are substantially the same as ed to increase the volume and sweetness of European instruments, and none of them the tones of the instrument; the patent have been materially improved, we have combination sounding-board of Messrs. Raven only space to speak of the. piano and the & Bacon, and the cycloid forml of the piano class of reed instruments. The church or- of Messrs. Lindemann & Sons, having the gan might indeed challenge our attention, same purpose.. Messrs. Steinway & Sons but this has only kept pace with the foreign have applied the patent Agraffe arrangement instrument in its improvements. directly to the full iron frame, and have also The PIANO lhas been improved in compass, obviated the difficulties which had been cxtone and ability to imitate the musical sounds perienced in the construction of the upright of the human voice, during the past eighty piano, by their patent resonator, and double years, more than any other musical instru- iron frame. Their instruments took the ment; and most of these improvements have highest premium over the competing pianos originated in the United States. The instru- of the best manufacturers of Europe, at the ment in its earliest form, dates back only to International Exhibition in London, in 1862. 1757, and as late as 1823 was still a very Both their instruments and Chickerings have imperfect, wiry-toned affair, tolerated but a very high reputation in Europe, and are not admired. Considerable numbers of the largely exported thither, while the importaEnglish and French pianos were imported tion of pianos has ceased. The Chickerings in the early part of this century, though at- have made over 30,000 pianos, a larger tempts were made at manufacturing pianos number than any other manufacturers. The here, by Osborn, by J. Thurston, and by entire production of these instruments is Stodart, from the London house of that probably not far from 25,000 per annum, name. In 1823, Jonas Chickering, a young mlechanic from New Hampshire, commenced REED INSTRUMENTS. their manufacture in Boston,, and possessing mechanical ingenuity as well as musical THESE are all the inventions of the present skill, he soon began to improve the instru- century. The first use of metallic reeds (viment. He made the entire frame of iron, in brating tongues of metal), for musical purorder- to enable it to resist the better the im- poses, in Europe or America, was the Eolomense strain of the tense strings, and at the dicon of Eschenberg, of Bohemia, invented same time to increase the resonance and purity about 60 years ago. This was followed, in of its tones. He also devised the "circular 1821, by the accordeon, which, whether of scale " with the "arch-wrest planks" or small or large size, was little more than a mu"tuning blocks;" both these improvements sical toy. The rocking melodeon, as at first were speedily adopted by other manufac- constructed, was only an amplification of this, turers in Europe and America. He also made and as in the English and French melodeons, numerous improvements in minor details, the air was forced outward through the which resulted in rendering his instruments reeds, in order to produce musical sounds. equal to any in the world. Other manufactu- The reeds, moved by this forced current, rers have also made important improvements, frequently caught, or did not vibrate promptwithin the last 20 or 25 years, in the instru- ly, especially the highest and lowest notes. ment. Among these have been the LEolian at- About the year 1840, some of the rocking or tachment of Obed Coleman; the adoption by lap melodeons, constructed by several manun several manufacturers of the over-strung bass facturers on an improved plan, gained considin square.pianos; the bedding or insulation erable reputation. The reeds of these were of the iron frame by Mr. F. C. Lighte; the fastened to, and vibrated in, a small square 434 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. metallic pipe, which was inserted through the reeds, this harshness was overcome, and the top of the wind-chest, with the points of the tones rendered soft and musical. reeds downward, the rear ends of the keys In 1855, the firm of Mason & Hiamlin, resting on the open ends of the metallic pipes, formed the previous year, offered to the puband thus forming the valves. About 1840, lie their "Organ HE&rmonium," an instrument another improvement was adopted in the lap having 4 sets of reeds and two manuals of melodeons, which gave them a better charac- keys. The reeds extended from cce in the ter of tone, and contributed to their intro- "bourdon" to c""' in alt, or seven octaves. duction as accompaniments to church music. Two blow-pedals were also attached to it, The reeds were riveted upon a piece of brass which enabled the performer to produce efswedged or bent so as to form three sides of fects not hitherto attained by any reed instrua square, the edges of which were then in- ment in this country. In 1861, after numerous serted in grooves made for them upon the up- experiments, Messrs. Mason & IIHamlin sucper side of the wind-chest, directly over the ceeded in perfecting their " School Harmovalve mortice; and, in order to bring the point nium," simplifying the construction, but reof the reed to vibrate on the inside, the reeds taining all the good features of the larger inwere made to pass through their sockets to strument. In this instrument, the bellows the udcer side, and thus naturally took was first placed vertically. This and the other the form of a double curve, somewhat re- improvements were soon after adapted to scmubling the letter S. This curving the the organ harmonium, which thenceforward reeds improved the tone, and on this ac- became capable of receiving a more elegant count was adopted by most of the American form, and, in 1862, was brought out in its manufacturers, though liable to the objec- present shape, as the "Cabinet Organ." tion of retarding the promptness of the re- Its history since that time has been one of spouse of the reeds. constant improvement, by which its compass, In 1846, Mr. Jeremiah Carhlart secured a variety and sweetness of tone have been enpatent for a certain construction of bellows, hanced, while its rapidity of action enables with other combinations, to operate the it to render secular music with fine effect, reeds by suction or drawing in, instead of and to become a formidable rival of the forcing out the air, since known as "the piano. Of these improvements, the chief exhaust plan." This invention gave to are, the Double B llows; the improved these instruments an improved quality of Self-adjusting Reed Valves; the Automatic tone, greater durability, more simplicity of Bellows Swell, an addition of great practiconstruction, increased promptness of utter- cal value; the Sounding and Tube Boards, ance, uniformity of tones, and an equal which increase the resonance of its tones; distribution of power through the entire the Noiscless Safety Valves, regulating the scale. The melodeons made on this plan pressure and escape of the wind; and the by Carhart, and subsequently by Prince & Improved Combination Register, which faciliCo., were at first small, of only one size, tates the drawing and closing of the stops. having but four octaves of reeds, and ex- The Cabinet Organ is the most perfect of tremely plain in style. After two or three the reed-instruments, but the melodeons, years, they were increased in size, extended harmoniumls, and Cottage, Gem and Monitor to 4- and 5 octaves, and had two sets of organs, which have preceded it, or are now reeds. This was about the utmost compass made by other manufacturers, though inpossible for the melodeon. Another improve- ferior to it in sweetness of tone, resonance, ment, niade about 1849, was the change of variety and rapidity of execution, are yet form ofthe bellows, the exhausterbeingplaced much superior to the English, French or on the upper side of the reed-board, instead German instruments, none of which are conof underneath the bellows; this enabled the structed on the "exhaust plan." During performer to operate the bellows more easily. the year ending November 1, 1866, the inThe tones of the instrument still lacked soft- ternal revenue taxes paid by the manuness and sweetness. This difficulty was reme- facturers of reed instruments in the United died, in 1849, by a discovery made by Mr. States, on their sales, were a little more than Emnmons Hamlin, now of Mason & Hamlin, but $80,000, indicating a manufacture of the then with Prince & Co. I-e found that, by value of $1,600,000. Of this $80,000, Mason slightly twisting each of the already curved & Ilamlin paid about $21,000. HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. CHAPTER I. educated for a life of crime. In one state PRISONS AND PRISON DISCIPLINE.- (Connecticut) an old abandoned copper mine PRISONS AND PRISON DISCIPLINE. ( was fitted up as a convict prison, and in its THE idea of imprisonment, as a punish- dark, damp shafts and galleries, into which ment for crime, though less than a hundred the light of day never penetrated, criminals years old in this country, seems to have oc- were confined till in many cases its poisoncurred to our law-makers sooner than to ous air and the dampness of its walls put an those of most of the states of Europe. In end to their existence. the early history of the colonies, however, Pennsylvania having been the first state the prison was seldom used, except as a place in the Union to ameliorate her penal code, of detention for debtors, for those arrested was also the first to attempt an improvement but not yet tried, and for criminals awaiting in her convict prisons. In 1786, the Walthe infliction of the death penalty. Death, nut Street Prison was erected on the solitary under the code of most of the colonies, plan, with thirty cells. The convicts were which was based upon that of Great Brit- confined in a cell larger than that generally ain, was the penalty of a great number of of- in use in prisons, and here they remained fences, not less than a hundred and fifteen in without work or books, or the opportunity one of the states; while for minor crimes of seeing a human face or hearing a humaa and misdemeanors, the pillory, the stocks, voice. The men who advised the adoption whipping at the whipping-post, branding, of this plan were really humane men, who cropping, slitting the nostrils, wearing the had from motives of philanthropy urged and halter, and banishment, were the usual pun- effected the abolition of the death penal-' ishments. ty for many of the crimes for which it had Very soon after the Revolution, however, hitherto been inflicted, but they did not unthe penal code was revised in a spirit of hu- derstand how terrible a system of torture inanity in most of the states, the number they were establishing, in inaugurating this of capital offences greatly diminished, the solitary plan. To have no occupation, no indignities to the person either abolished or recreation or relief, nothing to do but: to (with the exception of one or two states) think, think, year after year; to be deprived, greatly mitigated, and imprisonment substi- too, of all communication with friends, of tuted for the death penalty, as well as in a all religious instruction, of all opportunity milder form for various punishments of a of reading the Bible, or any other book, personal character, and for heavy fines. was a torture so refined and dreadful that The prison was not at this time by any it was deserving of being ranked with the means a model institution. The worst crim- rack, the boot, and the thumbscrew of the inals were often herded together, and fight- Inquisition. ing, blasphemy, drunkenness, and obscenity The effects of this system of punishment made their dens(for really they werenothing in producing insanity and fatuity, though more) perfectly hideous. Often, too, young obviously to us inherent in the system its and innocent persons, unjustly accused of self, were attributed at first by'its advocrime or detained as witnesses, were com- cates4 to the limited scale on which it was pelled to endure the society of the most de- tried, and certain defects in the methods of praved wretches, and the young man or construction and arrangement; and it was young woman who entered the prison with insisted that if tried on a larger scale and' no evil habits, after a few weeks' stay there with the modifications suggested by experiemerged with tainted morals and thoroughly ence, it would be found the best plan for a 26 438 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. prison. The citizens of Pennsylvania have Pennsylvania penitentiaries, opportunity for been wont to deliberate for some time on observation had been afforded, and the intelthe best plan for conducting public insti- ligent and thoughtful friends of prison retutions, whether corrective or humane, but form in the state, though not disposed to when their minds have once become settled give up the idea of separating convicts from in regard to them, they have never hesitated any association with each other, yet saw on the ground of the expense of the meas- the necessity of some modifications of the ures they deemed necessary. It was so in solitary system. The changes they initiated this case. Two convict prisons were need- justified the change of name they applied ed in the state, one to take the place of the to the system, and both in England and this miserably arranged and managed one at country it has since been known as the Philadelphia, the other to accommodate separate system.- The expenditure for perthe convict population of the rapidly grow- fecting the penitentiary buildings for the ing western counties. The latter, since purpose designed was liberal, almost lavish. known as the Western Penitentiary of Each prisoner has a cell, seven feet by sevPennsylvania, was first completed. It was enteen, or thereabouts, of good height, and located at Pittsburg, and was finished and well warmed and ventilated, and supplied occupied in 1826. The Eastern Peniten- with water for washing, a water closet, a fiary, located at Cherry Hill, near Philadel- good bed, books, and the implements of phia, was not completed till 1829. Mean- some kind of labor. There is also an artime, the experiment of the solitary plan rangement, by means of which, in case of had been tried, though under very unfavor- sickness, neglect, or the want of any article, able circumstances, in several other states. he can call his keeper to his cell. These A narrow and miserable economy had pre- cells are so arranged as to prevent the possivented such a construction of the cells as bility of communication between one conwas tolerable; and the plan of strictly soli- vict and another, or the sight of one convict tary confinement, bad' enough at the best, by another. The convict is visited by the became utterly unendurable and was aban- warden, the keeper, and the moral instructdoned. or, and is allowed to receive the visits of In Maine, one of the states which tried those who are interested in his moral and rethe experiment, the cells were in the form ligious welfare. On the Sabbath; religious of pits, entered through a trap door, made worship is conducted in the corridor, and of an open grate of iron, about two feet all who have cells on that corridor can square-serving the double purpose of a listen to it, and, if they please, join in the door and a window. The only ventilation hymns or prayers. was through a crooked orifice in the side The revulsion of feeling caused by the wall, one and a half by five inches, and all cruelty of the solitary system, led many of the heat they had, in a stern northern win- the states, and prominently among them ter, was by the admission of warm air New York and the New England states, to through a hole in the bottom of the cell adopt a widely different system, first emabout one inch in diameter. The cells or ployed in this country at Auburn in 1821 pits were entered by raising the trap door, (though it had previously been tried in Iolputting down a ladder for the convict to land), and hence often called the Auburn descend,.and then drawing up the ladder plan; a more appropriate name would be and fastening the door upon him. either the congregated or the silent system, The Auburn (New York) State Prison, also as expressive of its peculiar features. commenced on this system, carried it out Prisons constructed on this system have with great rigor, in small, inadequate, and ill small cells, usually five by eight feet in ventilated cells, and, as was to be expected, size, with iron grated doors, arranged in produced the most disastrous effects on the tiers over each other, in which the prisonhealth and reason of the convicts subjected ers are confined at night, at meal times, and to it, and in 1821 it was definitively aban- on the Sabbath, except during short religdoned. ious exercises in the chapel. Attached to The New Jersey Prison, though construct- the prison and within its enclosure are exed on the same plan, was better arranged, tensive workshops, to and from which the and the rigor of its r6gime was soon modi- men are marched three times a day, keepfied. At the time of erecting the two ing the lock-step, and in which they are em PRISONS AND PRISON DISCIPLINE. 437 ployed during the day, their services being their working alone), and the general weakl usually let to contractors at so much per ening of the character of the convict, makhead a day, the contractor furnishing tools ing him after his discharge rather dependand machinery, and the state, rooms, ppwer, ent upon others for guidance than indeand the board and clothing of the convict. pendent and self-reliant in his conduct. The prisoner is prohibited from looking up The silent system demands a much less from his work, or speaking to a fellow-con- costly structure for its inmates, and while vict, or to his instructor (the contractor's the per capita cost of their maintenance agent) except about his work; nor is the and safe keeping, owing to the greater exinstructor or the keeper allowed to converse penditure for guards and watchmen, is about with him. There is usually a sermon, and the same, the labor when well (i. e. economperhaps also a Sabbath School on the Sab- ically) managed, is considerably more probath, and the chaplain or moral instructor ductive. No separate prison has ever yet is also allowed intercourse with the prisoners paid its way, while some of the congregated during the week; and in some prisons there prisons have done so, for a time, at least. are libraries, and the chaplain selects and This fact has exerted an unwarrantable exchanges the books for the prisoners. influence over the legislatures of the difOn one or the other of these plans, the ferent states, who seem to have forgotten, separate or the silent, or on some attempted or never to have realized, that the design of combination of the two, all the convict pris- imprisonment was to reform as well as to ons of this country are organized. Neither punish, and only to have inquired which plan is free from objections, while both have system would pay the most immediate profalso their advantages. it to the state, without reference to its effect The separate, system individualizes the upon the prisoner. convict; prevents his recognition by or The objections to the silent system are, communication with other evil- disposed that it deals with the men in the mass, rathpersons who may be in prison at the same er than as individuals; that it is impossible time; renders a large armed force of guards under it to prevent the convicts from comunnecessary, since combinations and con- municating with each other, and that from spiracies are impossible; makes his reforma- their knowledge of each other they are less tion more practicable, since he is only in likely to be reformed, inasmuch as, after communication with the good and virtuous, their discharge, the more hardened will and is left for the most part to his own exert an evil influence over those who dothoughts, unprompted to evil by the sight sire to reform; that conspiracies and comof, or association with the vicious; and he binations are not infrequent; that extreme is not liable, except under extraordinary severity on the part of the wardens and circumstances, to those severe personal pun- keepers is rendered almost inevitable, and ishments, by the lash, the bolt-shower-bath, degrading punishments are frequent; that buckinol, etc., which are regarded as indis- the almost unlimited and irresponsible powpensable in the silent system, and conse- er, necessarily reposed in the officers, is very quently escapes their degrading effect. It. liable to abuse; and that the constant irriwas for many years claimed that the sepa- tation of mind under which many of the rate system induced insanity and materially prisoners labor, stimulated, as it often is, by shortened life; but the statistics of the their overseers or companions, is very unfaPennsylvania prisons, for a considerable vorable to reformation. term of years, as compared with the best When we add, that in nearly all of the congregated prisons in this country, demon- states the pardoning power is exercised with strated the error oi this opinion. Insanity very little discretion, and often with great is much less frequent than in the Auburn or injustice, and that the appointment of the the Connecticut prisons, which have been officers of the prisons is generally among reckoned the most favorable examples of the prizes of the successful political parthe latter, and the percentage of deaths is ty, and that party services, not eminent also smaller. qualifications, are the ground on which the The objections to the separate system posts are claimed, it will be evident that are, the much greater cost of the prison the system is not usually so well adminisbuildings, the comparative unproductiveness tered as it might be. of the labor of the prisoners (the result of There are, indeed, in nearly all the states, 438 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. state prison directors, or inspectors, whose mainder of his sentence he is under the duty it is to investigate the condition of surveillance of the constabulary force; and the prisons and the management of the offi- if guilty of any offence against the laws, can cers, and redress any wrongs or grievances be taken at once and remanded without of the prisoners; but in the nature of the trial'to his first prison, to serve out the recase they can learn but little except what mainder of his sentence. The plan works the officers are disposed to have them know, admirably there, and would, we think, do so and in many cases cruel and inhuman beat- here if the difficulty in regard to police suings, and the use of the bolt-shower-bath, pervision could be obviated. one. of the most terrible instruments of tor- Great Britain and Germany are greatly in ture ever invented, the yoke, and other advance of us in the matter of prison dispunishments worthy only of the Inquisition, cipline. Eminent men are devoting their fall to the lot of the unhappy prisoner, often whole thoughts and time to the work of deat the mere caprice of the keeper. vising the best means of combining punishIn Massachusetts, and perhaps in one or ment most effectually with reformation, and two other states, the plan has recently been the government, wisely deeming the men adopted of commutation, or of throwing off worth reforming at any cost, spares no exa certain number of days, proportioned to pense to carry into effect the best methods. the length of the sentence, from its term, In both countries, too, every officer, even for each month of good conduct on the part down to the lowest subordinate, is trained of the prisoner. Thus a prisoner sentenced for his work, and is selected for his moral for ten years, commutes five days for each worth and executive ability, and not as a remonth of good behavior, and may shorten ward of partisan service. his sentence almost two years, if his conduct Besides the convict prison, already deis uniformly good. The intention of the scribed, of which there is one in each state, measure is good, but there are two serious and in the larger two or three, there is in objections to it: one, that as a reformatory each county (with a few exceptions where measure it is of little avail, since it is often several small counties have united in supthe case that the sly, cunning rogue, who is porting a district prison) a county jail, to constantly on his guard, is more likely to which persons arrested on a charge of conform to the rules, in the hope of the crime are committed previous to trial, in sooner resuming his career of wickedness, which witnesses who would be liable to abthan the man who, though earnestly desir- scond are detained, and persons convicted ous of reformation, is passionate and sensi- of habitual intemperance and vagrancy, pettive to harsh treatment; and the other, that ty larceny, and other crimes of a venial the personal prejudices or spites of the character, are confined. To these county. keepers will often make this an engine of jails are also committed prisoners convicted punishment, to the unhappy wretch who in the United States courts, in many cases, has incurred their displeasure. and juvenile delinquents awaiting trial or A better plan, in every respect, is that transportation to a reformatory. In most adopted in Ireland, of intermediate prisons, cases, there are one or more apartments 1he ordinary prisons of Ireland are on the destined for the confinement of those arseparate.plan, and the prisoner sentenced to rested on civil process, and known as the one of them for, say ten years, earns the debtors' prison. privilege, if he will, by continuous good These jails, when located in the large conduct, of being transferred at the end of towns, or in populous and wealthy counties, six years to an intermediate prison, usually, especially if recently erected, are usually connected with some government works, built substantially on the plan of the silent where &he men work in gangs; and if his convict prisons, but the rule of silence is conduct c9ntinues exemplary there, he is not so strictly adhered to. Each prisoner discharged at the end of a year and a half, has a cell to himself, but the able-bodied are by a ticket of license, allowing him to be at employed in the day time in the workshops large, he reporting himself to the constabu- connected with the prison, or in other work,, lary station nearest him, and being there'reg- under the direction of the jailer or his depistered,'the constabulary being notified also uty. The sentences being in the majority of' his iaving received a ticket of license, of cases short, and the prisoners in many inby the prison authorities. During the re- stances confirmed drunkards, or otherwise PRISONS AND PRISON DISCIPLINE. 439 physically infirm, the labor is seldom or onment. To these prisons are also commitnever sufficient to defray the cost of the ted prisoners convicted of capital offences, prisoner's maintenance. and awaiting execution, or those who having The greater part of the jails throughout been convicted of state prison offences, are the country are, however, inferior to these, not yet sent to the convict prisons; or hayand are rather calculated to demoralize ing appealed, await the result of their apthan to reform their inmates. Unseemly peal. United States prisoners are also conand ill-constructed buildings, often erected fined here. Besides these, there are prisons originally for some other purpose, and at all for persons arrested on civil process, generevents poorly adapted to this, ill ventilated ally known as debtors' prisons, though debtand frequently filthy, congregating the pris- ors are not imprisoned in most of the states, oners, whether convicted for crime, awaiting except on the charge of fraudulent conduct; trial, or detained as witnesses, in one or two there are also houses of detention, for witrooms, where they remain night and day, nesses; and workhouses, or houses of correcthe vicious polluting the minds and deprav- tion, for able-bodied vagrants. Under the ing the tastes of the innocent, by their blas- general head of education, we have spoken phemy and obscenity, and their boasting of the houses of reformation for juvenile deover the crimes they have committed; linquents, which partake somewhat of a drunkenness and pilfering practised un- penal character, though having for their checked, or at least with but partial re- main object the reformation of the youthful straint; and in many cases, the jailer, a ra- offender. pacious, greedy cormorant, selected in con- The condition of many of these institusequence of party service, and without any tions is very far from what it should be, qualifications of humanity or moral princi- though the sums expended upon them by pie for his post; all these together consti- the city authorities have been amply suffitute a scene so forbidding, that it is wonder- cient to make them model institutions, if ful that it should be tolerated in an intelli- money alone could accomplish that -end. gent and enlightened community. It is Many of them are of bad construction, but certainly desirable that in counties where the great want in most of them is of capathe population is so sparse and the number ble, upright, humane, judicious keepers-a of criminals so small as to make the burden want never to be fully remedied till the ape of erecting and maintaining a good and well- pointments are made on the ground of comregulated.county jail too heavy for a single petency for the position, alone, without refcounty, several adjacent counties should erence to political opinions. unite and establish a district prison, where There are, however, a few of the penithose improvements can be adopted which tentiaries, and prominent among them the shall prevent it from becoming a source of Albany (New York) Penitentiary, where the moral corruption, and over which a man prison has been constructed under the superthoroughly qualified for his position may be vision and direction of men of large expeplaced. rience on the subject of prison discipline, In the large cities there are other prisons and where the officers employed have been deserving of notice. The large number of selected solely on the ground of their adapoffenders, as well as the different authorities tation to their several positions. In these by which they are committed, render a clas- institutions, the prisoners have been treated sification of the prisons necessary. There as human beings, and not being deprived of are, then, in most of the large cities, peni- all hope or self-respect, a large proportion tentiaries, or prisons to which persons guilty of them have thoroughly reformed, and on of minor crimes are sentenced for periods their restoration to society have proved from one month to two years, and where themselves good citizens. they are usually employed in; labor during The improvements in the construction of their period of imprisonment. In these, prisons, as well as in their discipline and there are usually separate buildings for male management, are due in a great degree to and female prisoners. There are also city or the unwearied labors of the late " Boston police prisons, to which parties arrested by Prison Discipline Society," founded in the police are com'mitted for safe keeping 1826, the " Philadelphia Society for alleviatill tried, and in which, if their offence is ting the miseries of Public Prisons," foundtrivial, they pass their brief term of impris- ed in 1787, and the " New York Prison 440 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. Association," founded in 1846. These socie- remainder retained at the Home. The effect ties, though the first two were engaged for of this institution in reforming this class years in a most acrimonious discussion of the of women has been excellent. Similar incomparative merits of the separate and silent stitutions exist in Boston, Baltimore, and systems, have yet diffused much valuable in- other cities. In Boston, a philanthropic formation on the subject of prison manage- gentleman, Rev. Mr. Spear, has established ment. For fifteen years past the Philadel- a monthly journal, called the Prisoner's phia society has published a quarterly Jour- Friend, for the benefit of this unhappy class, nal of Prison Discipline, containing articles and the promotion of measures for their imof great value and importance. The Phila- provement. delphia association has a visiting committee who visit regularly and frequently the prisoners of the Eastern Penitentiary and of the city prisons, and instruct and encourage CHAPTER IT. them in their efforts to reform. Efforts are HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE also made to protect those who are unjustly accused, and to save from prison the young THE condition of the insane in all civilwho are novices in crime or dupes of the ized countries has become, within the last designing. This work was originated and seventy years, an object of deep solicitude successfully carried on in that city for many to the humane. Hospitals for their treatyears by the late Isaac T. Hopper, a mem- ment, or rather for their confinement, have ber of the Society of Friends, who subse- existed in Europe for five or six hundred quently removed to New York, and there years; but the suffering endured, previous was the means of organizing the New York to the close of the last century, in these Prison Association. The reports of this places of torment, by the hapless creatures association are very valuable and interest- deprived of reason, exceeds the powers of ing, and throw much light on the causes of human description. The vilest galley-slave, crime and the most effectual means of re- or the most depraved heretic in the power pressing it, as well as on the statistics of of the pitiless officers of the Inquisition, crime both in the state of New York and was not subjected to such tortures as were in other states and countries. The associa- inflicted on those who had "lost their wits," tion has authority from the legislature to and who were so unfortunate as to be known visit, inspect, and report upon the condition as lunatics. Confinement in close, dark, of the convict and county prisons through- damp cells, without fire, without sufficient out the state, and by its reports has aided clothing, in the most pestilential filth, loadgreatly in improving the condition and con- ed with chains, often cruelly beaten either struction of the latter. It employs a general at the will of their brutal keepers or as the agent, who visits the city prisons, and pro- only curative treatment, their limbs often cures the release of the innocent and friend- sloughing off from the combined irritation less, and the suspension of judgment and of their chains and frost, till death, most discharge of those who, having committed earnestly longed for, yet sometimes so long trivial offences, give evidence of sincere re- delayed as to excite our astonishment, ended pentance, and a determination to do better a life of inconceivable wretchedness: such in future. The same agent also aids dis- was the terrible fate that awaited the insane, charged prisoners who are desirous of lead- even in Christian lands, but eighty years ago. ing correct lives, furnishing them, where Nor was it those deprived of reason alone, necessary, with clothing and a small sum who were consigned to a doom so terrible. of money, and finding them employment. The private establishments for the treatment There is also a Womeirs Prison Associa- of lunatics, and even some of the public tion in New York, formerly connected with ones, offered ready facilities for putting out the New York Prison Association, which of the way persons whose existence in socinow maintains, at 191 Tenth avenue, a re- ety interfered with the covetousness, malice, fuge for discharged female prisoners, called or hatred of relatives or others, and whom the " Isaac T. Hopper Home." Here 121 it was not prudent to remove by poison or females were received last year, on their the assassin's knife; and many a helpless discharge from prison, and 53 provided victim was consigned to a private or public with good situations, 15 discharged, and the "bedlam," whose fault was not insanity, but HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE. 441 the possession of property or affection cov- of the most revolting filth and exposure. A eted by another. warm room in the winter was considered The first step for the amelioration of the entirely unnecessary for the insane, partly, condition of the insane was taken by Philip doubtless, from the apprehension that they Pinel, at the Bicetre in Paris, in 1792. He would injure themselves or others by means took off their chains, brought them out to of the fire, and partly from an absurd nothe light of day, and sought to win them tion that the feverish heat attendant upon back to reason by kindness instead of bar- their disease rendered them insensible to barity. Humane reforms are seldom rapid cold. in their progress, and this was no exception In 1817, members of the Society of to the general rule. Twenty-one years later, Friends in Pennsylvania, moved by the sucthe first movement to substitute kindness for cess which had attended the experiment of chains, and the system of non-restraint for Mr. Tuke, at his Retreat in the vicinity of one of cruelty and brutality, was made in York, Eng., established at Frankford, Penn., England by William Tuke, a member of the the "; Asylum for Persons deprived of their Society of Friends, at the Retreat, near York, Reason," a small, but, from the first, an adEngland. Three years later the first perma- mirably managed institution, and which has nent lunacy commission was appointed in the honor of being the first in which the England, and its reports revealed such atroci- system of non-restraint was adopted in this ties in the treatment of these poor wretches, country. In 1818, the McLean Asylum at that reform became imperative; but in Eng- Somerville, Mass., the first of the New England and on the continent of Europe it is land insane hospitals, was established. The only within the last thirty years that the Bloomingdale Asylum, a branch of the New proper construction of insane hospitals and York General Hospital in New York city, the truly scientific treatment of insanity was founded in 1821; the South Carolina may be said to have been initiated. In both Insane Hospital at Columbia, in 1822; the particulars our country has fully kept pace Retreat for the Insane, at Hartford, Conn., with the most advanced of the European in 1824; and the Kentucky Asylum at Lexstates. ington, the same year. At the close of the Revolution there were Up to 1840, there were fourteen insane but two insane hospitals in the country, and hospitals in existence in the United States. of these one was a branch of a general hos- Of these five were in the southern states, pital. These were the "Insane Department four in New England, two in New York, of the Pennsylvania Hospital," at Philadel- two in Pennsylvania, and one in Ohio. The phia, founded in 1755, and the "Virginia construction of many of these was very Lunatic Asylum," at Williamsburg, Virgin- faulty in respect to ventilation, warming, ia, founded in 1773. The two had less than and convenience of classification of patients. two hundred patients. In their treatment Many of them were also over-crowded for they were probably on a par with the best their accommodations. Their management institutions of the time in Europe, which is was, however, decidedly in advance of the no very high encomium; chains, straps, views which had obtained in the early part strong, dark rooms, the strait-jacket, and of the century, and their construction, in very likely occasional whippings and beat- most instances, admitted of such modificaings were among the remedial means em- tions as would make them, if not perfect, ployed; but this was the universal treatment yet measurably well adapted to the comfort of the insane. No other insane hospital was and welfare of their inmates. But at this established in this country till 1817, though time a new era commenced in the care and the number of the insane, at the commence- treatment of the insane. This was due to ment of the century, could hardly have fallen several causes. The managers of the Pennsylshort of 5000 persons. These were kept in vania Hospital for the Insane, which for many private houses, under restraint if violent, or years had occupied a site in the city, at the at liberty if deemed harmless; if paupers, corner of Eighth and Pine streets, finding its they were confined in jails and poor-houses, location surrounded on all sides by a dense or let out to the lowest bidder, who man- population, sold its property in the city, and aged, if possible, to make their services of purchased a farm of one hundred and thirsome value, or if not, often kept them con- teen acres in the suburbs, in 1836, and profined in pens or sheds, under circumstances ceeded to erect upon it a hospital for the 442 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. accommodation of about two hundred pa- these ends the Annual Convention of Supertients. Having ample funds at command, intendents of Insane Hospitals, first organand a judicious board of managers, it was ized in 1845, and the American Journal of resolved to introduce into the hospital all Insanity, established in 1844, have materithe improvements in construction which ally contributed. At the time of the cornwere to be found in the best insane hospitals mencement of the latter, not more than five in Europe and America. The present emi- or six works on insanity, including translanent superintendent of the hospital, Dr. tions and reprints, had been published in Kirkbride, was elected to the post early in this country. The number of such works the progress of the work, and contributed is now very large. Many of the superingreatly to the completeness and perfection tendents of insane hospitals have visited the of its arrangements. This hospital was not European institutions, and some of them, opened till the beginning of 1841, and its Drs. Earle, Bell, and Ray among the numimproved construction exerted a decided in- ber, have given to the public very full defluence on those states which were contem- scriptions of the best institutions there. The plating the erection of hospitals for the in- Convention of Superintendents have agreed sane. upon certain principles in regard to conA still more powerful agency in stimula- struction, number of patients, and minimum ting action in behalf of the insane, and lead- extent of grounds, desirable in the erection ing to the erection of new and improved of hospitals; these, with other suggestions hospitals for them, was found in the efforts of great value and importance, have been of Miss Dorothea L. Dix. Highly educated, embodied in a treatise on the construction and occupying a social position which left and management of hospitals for the insane, nothing to be desired, this heroic and noble- by Dr. T. S. Kirkbride of the Pennsylvania hearted woman, touched with the condition Hospital. Drs. Beck and Ray have, in their and sufferings of the insane, devoted herself works on medical jurisprudence, laid down to the work of promoting their welfare by with great clearness and force the principles personally investigating their condition in which should govern all legal investigations each state, and urging upon the legislatures concerning insanity. Dr. Macdonald gave the the erection and maintenance of hospitals first public course of lectures to medical' stufor their treatment and cure. Her memori- dents on insanity, in 1842. als to the different legislatures, and subse- The careful investigations made by most quently to Congress, are replete with terrible of the superintendents into the different facts, showing the cruel abuses to which forms of insanity, and their comparative efthey were subject where their care devolved feet on the general health of the patient, upon relatives or upon the towns; and the have led to many discoveries of great imeloquence of her appeals was almost invaria- portance to the community at large as well bly irresistible. The twenty years which as to the medical profession. It has been have passed have increased the public hospi- fully demonstrated that early treatment at a tals for the insane to more than fifty, besides hospital greatly increases the probability of a considerable number of private asylums. cure; that insanity often exists long before Of these public hospitals, most have accom- its presence is suspected; that crimes are modations for 250 patients, and some of many times committed under an insane imthem for a much larger number. In their pulse; and that mental aberration may exconstruction there has been jealous care ex- ist, to an extent which renders the subject ercised to introduce whatever improvements irresponsible, where there is no hallucination, had been fairly tested, either in Europe or America; and the result is that in convenience and healthfulness, and in all the par- delphia, opened in 1859, intended for male patients ticulars of construction and management, only, but in the immediate vicinity of the female department, which was opened in 1841; both being the American insane hospitals are surpassed under the general supervision and management of by those of no country in the world.* To Dr. Thomas S. Kirkbride. It is intended for 250 patients, and cost, with its complete equipment, about $350,000. It was planned by Dr. Kirkbride, * The most complete and perfect of the American and, for its size and purpose, is unsurpassed either hospitals for the insane, not only in its construction in Europe or America. The hospitals recently but in all its equipments and appliances, is the "New erected at Northampton, Mass., and Kalamazoo, Pnnsylvania Hospital for the Insane," near Phila- Mich., are also admirably arranged. HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE. 443 and no maniacal excitement, or melancholic far more reluctant to receive them, when depression. Painful evidence has been ad- brought to them after years of insanity. In duced that in many instances persons have England, and generally in Europe, hospitals perished upon the gallows whose crimes specially for incurables have been establishhave been committed under the influence ed; but this plan has its objections, as, exof insanity, and who should have been com- cept in cases of fatuity, it is almost impossimitted to the care of the superintendent of ble to pronounce positively on the curability an insane hospital rather than to the hang- of a given case, and the association with man. those whose recovery is more probable often Within the past two or three years, in- exerts a beneficial influence upon those who sane hospitals have been established for have long been insane. Some measures those who have committed serious offences should be adopted soon for the relief of this against the laws under the influence of in- large class of the insane. sanity, and for convicts who have become The fifty public insane hospitals in the insane during their imprisonment. The country have cost on the average somewhat largest of these is at Auburn, opened in more than $250,000 each, or an aggregate February, 1859, and which has received of not less than $13,000,000. In conjunesixty-nine patients, fifty-five of whom are tion with private asylums, they afford acstill in the hospital. commodations for a little more than ten Among the improvements introduced in thousand patients. According to the estithe treatment of the insane within the past mate of Miss Dix, recently published, the ten or twelve years are horticulture and whole number of persons in the United floriculture for those patients who can be States, who at some time in their lives are induced to take an interest in them; libra- afflicted with insanity, is about 62,000. This ries and reading-rooms; gymnasiums well would indicate an alarming deficiency of provided with apparatus; the introduction hospital accommodations for this unfortuof paintings and engravings, not only into nate class. That there is a great deficiency the halls, but into the patients' rooms; is undoubtedly-true, but it is not quite so games like chess, checkers, backgammon, large as these figures would indicate. The tivoli, and dominoes, as well as those of a population of the hospitals is a constantly more active character; school exercises for changing one, and the discharges in any one a portion of the patients; parties, lectures, year will amount to very nearly one half of tableaux, readings and recitations, and other the number in the hospital. It is safe theremeasures for diverting the mind, and recall- fore to conclude that the present hospital ing it from the trains of thought to which it accommodations are sufficient for nearly or is accustomed to revert. The success which quite one half the insane. They are, howhas crowned these measures has been most ever, unequally distributed. Massachusetts gratifying. The percentage of recoveries in has five public and several private hospitals, recent cases has been constantly on the in- furnishing accommodations for nearly 1500 crease, and even among those regarded here- insane; Connecticut, with nearly one half the tofore as incurable, there have been many population, has but one public institution, instances of recovery under the stimulus to having accommodations for 250, and one new trains of thought thus induced. small private asylum. New York has but There is. still needed provision in all five public, and several private hospitals, the the states for cases of long standing, the public hospitals affording accommodations chances of whose recovery are very slight, for not more than 1600 patients; while inasmuch as in many cases they have fallen Pennsylvania, with a considerably smaller into a condition of hopeless imbecility, or population, has seven public hospitals, with are most of the time stupid and depressed, accommodations for about 1800 patients. with occasional alternations of violent mania. The newer states are not, as yet, fully The safety of the community, as well as. provided with hospital accommodations for their own comfort, require that they should the insane, though most of them have combe in a hospital; yet most of the insane menced their erection. hospitals are so pressed with applications The character of our population, active, for the admission of recent cases, generally restless, eager, and impulsive, is such as to of a far more hopeful character, that they make insanity more prevalent than in most are reluctant to retain these incurables, and other countries; and it is of a different ATATISTICS OF INSANE HOSPITALS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1860.__ C!- ~ ts) bc. a) ccc ~ ~o` Superintendents.;' " Name of Hospital. S u oratent |,| State Insane Asylum..Augusta Me.. 184....20....149..120..2 4 5 8 45I17 261 61 3892 Dr. Hai-low.. $32,421 $32726 eI nsane Asylum.................................... S r e, M 18 6 1 142 178 61 6 28 09.0 1.7046.4 Dr. Tyer... 64,118 61,627 stat Lunatic hospital.W?......:orcer, N. 1833 316 20 18S4 31 8.97683028801 9 70 44750 Dr. Benis. 60,41 602 20 14!, 38 36 58 43 87.....Taunton.. 18'.331 231 149 341...4.2::89 S.5p 4308.5 Dr. Choak:el. 6 6 48 l InState n at Asylum.......................................... t N 1843 502 312 295 519 114 146 3 228 0 68 36. Dr. Gray 11845 10946 ity..New ork, 183 688 389 247 711u14s3tate 86ai Ay........21 6.97 65' 88.05 Dr. I-Iney.....y. 49,6.15 50,318. cLoingal Lunati Ayu.... Somc...Ms...1821 1483 131 18 58 589 13 86. 91712.08 449.850 Dr. Barowns..... 49,149 40,208 i ngs at c unt at Al2....9.8............180.162 808.87.49 26 29.10 S.69 48.3 Dr. Chapin........ ** 645 Ciinal~nt l l **** *** **"Insane Asylum. aub n..189 51 18 14 8 12 1 122.64 0.8.. Dr. Hall.t 666.........................eor..,.......] p h' 1841 34 21 1 274 98 672 8 7.12 9.84 8 46.44 DDr. Kirkbride..... 84,144 06,407 Pennsy.............vania Hospital for the Insane................... i a, 4enn.. 29 0 0.5 Dr..... City Lunatic AsyluTm a4................... 4........... 110 1 7.0 4 000. Dr. rth..... 1 ~~~~~As~~~~~yluu~Poien foreepersons deprived of their reason (Friends'I Asylum).. Frankfo3 2 2 229 3 1I S 1 1.6: 6.6 2. Dr. rhn..g.. Western PunnsylvaniaiInsane Hospital.Pi***-**-,**''*%ttsburg,^ " 18856 74 83 67 90 384 19 12 41.46l 4.60 40.96 Dr........... 24,000 23,704 ~ State Lu natictl HospitalT 1...............1 2........9 18 170 06 76 6I 26 28.00 8.66 40.6 Dr. uttolph..... 51,525 51,20 State RLunatic Aspitl.u................ B..............HarltiorCreMd.'1834 1085 17 15 1 9 110 9 196 80 63.30 11.8 71.13 Dr. Fonerden........,45. 0, UTiau nto. "....1 18543.501 21 1918 [. 4',l 318.03 2r9hat5.... 86 6, State Lunatic Asylum...................................orth ao' 18 2 144 18 102 177 39 47 16 24.37,10.00 28.8 Dr. PinStokes...... 4,5. EoaIster itton Virgiia IIs anan slu.W.l.l.am.s.bg............... 0 7 121 00 3 1 59 11.8221.1419.76 Dr. Gait.......... 66,518 5,458 WEstern.... ".Bstuton "...........18.2 089 1 19 072 62 17 40 16.110.52 60.7 Dr. WStriling.e.... Ueiter (l Sttsma optal.************** *Washinton, D. C.. 1887 110 43 06 117 18 5 13 15.80l11.40 41.88 Dr. NicbolsT... 24,500 24,500 Buteos dta t uInsane s....................... 4 6 910 6 4. Dr. F is........000 30,000 In.C..oli, S.C. 2 65 4 9 10..0.68D. us 18411 5Parker. 4 42 3 1 Ki. Co *.t.".....Midway, Georgia..... 1840......... 1y.......30, 0,00 0 A H-syalum".Jackso.,"Miss.1854 108 ^47810614 iIi9 1.303 18.09229.76 Dr. Hells. 00,065 08,015 ^ Cimsnsane Asylumo a..............................18..107 97 77 187.4 6 7 21.29.2.17. 0.08 Dr. Barkdull..... 31,167 81,129 4 Tennessee A'sylum.NashvilleTenn....o1852 105n122e69 188.28' 22 19 2.21.14.09.22.19 Dr. CPeeat1am.... 52,426 43,000 1 EasternKentuckyl Asylum.Lexington..y.1324.226.48......... T 86640422819 18 9 8.07.96 42.22 Dr. Chipley.......... WesternyHLnantvciAsyem.............14.....6................4 06 87 9 4 108 8 18 18 08.77 18.366 40.00 Dr. Montgomery.2... MisWe~~~soute~~rin ~~.... Asylu.F. Hl*****rrisb***'**** ulte, Mo.. 31 8 122 186 171 48 192 2 9.41 14.517 186.86 Dr. uSmithe........ 5, 8,9620 Stateoi Lunatic Asylum............................Ur.....0.tbr11888 141 3140 13 148 7 54 452.08 2.8053.87 Dr. Kendrict.. 14 920 Cestern Oio Inasan.Co.u.bus,. 289 178 179n28851015919 09.34 7.01 57.71 Dr. Hills... 51,523 Sothe rnal Ho l..........................D.............188 9 5 161 16 17 16 73 27 17 48.60 10.60 62.93 Dr. M ellbenny.. Hamiltoern County Insan Asylum.Cincinati........ 18824 179 188 107 230 46 49 12 22.58 5.88<29.11 Dr. Mount.......... SatltehLn Aonsya.ospiane Al... Kaaaz........h.....................Mon oe... 1842 4Ill,12 IT 9 4 6 24671.5 26.0S Dr. Van Dusen...... IMni thana Insan o rpt h e..........................dan i I 27 200 177 303 9 70 12 276 4.14 47.29 Dr. Athon.......... 6.196 Illnisn " ".akovle Ill................. 188181 21 0|? JI 12 297 2.29 164 91W42 73.87 19.82 52.80.5 Dr. Mc.rland.... 06,000 06,000 EW cnsn Vgin "Insane.sylum....Madison, Wis... 16............... 29. 6105 68. t in.... Ilowa......... Mt.anto, I 1828 P n 1t, wa 16 BlomindaerLna i......................1T 1 5 il 1 801 0 4.869D.1hl. 2i 0 2,0 Califonia ".S::::^*.;*.atockth ".... W1non. D. 188 270 76 124 8 3 70 40 5 49 128157149 Dr. Ayltt. 0 as "Aust...........in. Texas. 1188981.|. 4 2 16O Unitd. SatesInsae Hopit.......Ralegh,. C 1856 138 16.0:.4 4.10 r. FsherDr...InaeA yum.............................. 194 2 9 1.31-5 3.68 Dr Plarke......... 4T12 4 0T 44 ~~~........Cou b,S.C..... - 1222.463!)r C iialIsnAslm...........................................Miw y G or a 14 560 8, 0 hel are sptalso Count Hospt s the Insane to.............................a.n Ns. c a ss Hospi f E j o n ed, ( W.0., ra iv asyloms at Dorchester and Pepperell, Mass. Ms... l, Lthel C n.1si2etc. o rport.. J....ue o ay CiyLntc Asyluxm............................................. I17 3 T 2.92A 50 r ak ul... 11T 8,2 Tennpsee sylu.............................. Leingtn, 124 26 45 43 28 19 15 9 S.36. 966 42.22 D~r. orhington..... FAyl m rpros dpi e ftheiresn (Frentdsk A sylum).................... Fran f o r 6..................................b ulto, Mo......11854t 21.3 14 22 186 1 458 2 2 9 1.41 14591 S6.67 Dr. Smrwen........9, 79 8',99 Ms soeunaic Hospital.............."............................N w ug O... 85 11 10 13 1- 5 5, 4 5.3 28 5.5 r e dil Northern Ohio Lunatic Asylum...ttsb.'...........74.]......6..].0 8 19119 141.46 14.69 40.94 t7Dr. Reid.........ills, 0 0 0 1933423 Centernaensl v a I n a n tlspta...........................C l m u, 1.... S3 29 25 1 44 44 Day~~~~~~~~reton, kS........,1 84 5 9 8 1 81 16,17 T 1606 76 2T I 456 0 128 008.60624.93 Dr. Muetlphen.... So tateLn a tcHsia............................... Cnint S2 19 1S 1- 3 6 4 2 2.5.8 2.11 D. M u t........ Sta iton CountInatic Asylum........................BatmrM. [18310597 i0ll 10I9 19 86-31.27.1}Dr. Vonerduen... t~ia i-anInsa e Hopita.................................K lm zo Mi8l 9 Ionloplinsttuio f r hnsn............................... Madso,525... 51,523 t~~~~~~~isc~~~~~~~ounslopn....114 14 4 1 5 {0 2 n 4t u 71 6o....1.00 2.8D..................... t~~~~~~~~~~~~owa ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3... t..................... 60o~ 5~5 Californ ~rii a InaeAyu................................. I. t~~exas................................., 11... ].~l~.A strinbiexa....... U nt e t ates Ionsan H ospital. forsheinan tAl ny ann igatroy, anI uf)o. Y.,'187 an0 I nsn 43sil fo 36gr1t, just opeed 1 15 801.0 ere are, so * o repor. t Juto 4 o eryrayfrptet..... ns at DochsteynPpeelum Ms.,............................. Con.Flushing, et. C 11211463]5]91 g198.31059.8r.ake..../4j~/4,T ~~~~........................Tucooa, i. o0700 THE RELIEF OF THE POOR. 445 type, assuming oftener the violent form; well as the authorities who take charge of while in Europe, the pauper insane, who it, vary in different sections of the country. form the largest portion of those afflicted, In New England, where the town was an have usually become so under the influence older political organization than the county, of insufficient food and depressing circum- province, or state, the legal care of the poor stances, and are melancholy and dejected, has always devolved upon the first town rather than violent. officer, or selectman, as he is usually called. The preceding table, prepared with great To him all applications for assistance are care, exhibits the condition and success of made, and after the necessary examination nearly all the public insane hospitals of the into their condition and necessities, relief is -United States, up to January, 1860, though furnished, to a, limited extent, from the town a few of the returns of the remoter institu- treasury. Those needing only temporary tions are of the previous year. assistance receive small sums, and are encouraged to struggle on at their homes, those wholly dependent are provided for, in the smaller towns, by contract with some CHAPTER III. citizen, who for a stipulated sum agrees to THE RELIEF OF THE POOR. provide them with food, clothing, and shelter, employing such of them as are able to IN every large community there is, of ne- perform some labor, in such work as their cessity, a dependent class, to be in some health or want of skill will permit. In the way provided for; their poverty and help- larger towns, this class are received into lessness may proceed from the loss of their almshouses, to which often a farm is atprotectors, the husband or parents, at a time tached, much of the lighter labor of which when they were unable to provide for them- is performed by the paupers. Paupers of selves; from sickness; from mental or phys- foreign birth, who have never gained a resiical incapacity for self-support; from lack dence in any town, as well as vagrants who of employment; or from intemperance and have no fixed abiding place, are sent to a vicious indulgence. state almshouse, or placed in charge of a Whichever of these causes may have in- state contractor for the poor. duced this state of dependence, it is a recog- In the middle and western states, the assistnized duty in all civilized communities to ance to the poor and the support of paupers diminish, and so far as possible prevent, ex- are a county charge, and are under the control treme suffering on the part of those thus of supervisors elected by the voters of the helpless. county. Those entirely dependent are usuThe methods of accomplishing this result ally quartered in a county almshouse, and, are of necessity various. All who need, at where practicable, employed in light labor. times, pecuniary aid, are not -paupers; and In the Southern states, with a milder climate to treat them as such would not only wound and a sparser population, there is less occaand distress them needlessly, but would in sion for definite preparation for the wants of the end produce a demoralization and indis- a pauper class, especially as a very considerposition to exertion which would throw an able portion of those who would elsewhere intolerable burden on the tax-paying class, be dependent upon the- public are, from the who would be compelled to support them. peculiar constitution of their institutions, It was the recognition of this truth which cared for, when infirm, sick, or disabled, by led very early to the organization of asylums, their masters. Hence, except in the cities dispensaries, and relief societies for the or- and large towns of the South, there has been phan and the widow (especially those of cer- no well-defined provision for paupers. tain classes), the aged and infirm, and the sick. At the close of the Revolution, there was It led also to the administration of private a vast amount of poverty and suffering, the charities, which, although sometimes inju- result of the prostration of commerce, the dicious, was prompted by the most humane ravages of war, the loss of the productive inmotives. It also led to the distinction be- dustry of so large a number of able-bodied men tween the out-door poor and the pauper, for several successive years, and, the complete which is commonly established in our large and ruinous depreciation of the continental towns. currency. From this condition, however, The methods of providing for the poor, as under the stimulus of an active and prosper 446 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. ous trade and commerce, the country soon with insufficient means, their -anners, cusrallied, and though the war of 1812 brought toms, and language diverse from ours, and much privation and loss of property, yet the the climate, under their privations, proving constant westward emigration, and the enter- far more severe than that of their native prise of the people, kept the pauper popula- country, sunk down. into a hopeless and detion within narrow limits. The poor were spondent pauperism almost immediately on mostly natives of the country, and the ties their arrival. With the intent of obviating of kindred were strong enough to prevent this influx of foreign pauperism, stringent the burden of their support from pressing laws were passed by the states having extenheavily on the public treasury. sive commercial relations with Europe, proIn the larger towns, and especially in the hibiting the reception, by captains of emiseaports, where there was the largest influx grant ships, of pauper emigrants, and a tax of persons of foreign birth, and of families of two dollars per head required of all emireduced to poverty through the vicissitudes grants arriving at the principal ports, or a of a seafaring life, there were benevolent so- bond by the ship-owners to the state that cieties, some of them dating back almost to they should not become chargeable to the the revolutionary period, of the different na- state within three years. These laws were so tionalities, which bestowed aid on their own constantly evaded, and the pressure of foreign countrymen, and marine societies (that of pauperism in consequence became so severe New York founded as early as 1770) to pro- in New York, the great port of entry for emivide for the widows and orphans of seamen. grant ships, that a modification became neeThere were also one or two dispensaries in essary, and aboard of Commissioners of Emi*the larger towns, for providing medical at- gration was appointed to receive the emigrant tendance and promoting vaccination among tax, which was raised to three dollars, and the poor. Between 1800 and 1830, relief they were required to establish hospitals, societies, some of them connected with par- almshouses, etc., and to assume the entire ticular trades or professions, such as the tai- responsibility for the pauperism of emigrants lors' house-builders', firemen's, etc., some for five years after their arrival. composed of persons of particular national- Measures nearly as stringent were adopted ities, as the Germans, Irish, etc., and oth- by'Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. ers of a more general character, like the Ma- Notwithstanding these efforts to restrain sonic,Odd Fellows', and Temperance Lodges, within due metes and bounds the influx of were organized, having for their object the foreign pauperism, and prevent its becoming care of the sick, and provision for the wid- chargeable upon our own citizens, its inows and orphans of their members. The crease in New York, Massachusetts, and New York Hospital opened in 1792, the Pennsylvania, has been such as to create no City Hospital at Bellevue, the New York small degree of alarm on the part of the taxEye and Ear Infirmary founded in 1820, the payers. The state of New York alone had, City Dispensary founded in 1791, the North- in 1859, above 260,000 paupers, being 7.4 ern Dispensary founded in 1827, and the Ly- per cent. of her population, or nearly one ing-in Asylum founded in 1824, afforded the pauper for every 13 persons. This propornecessary medical treatment to those who tion is about eight times that of Ireland, and were without means to pay for the attend- more than double that of the United Kingance of a physician. Soon after 1830, how- dom of Great Britain and Ireland; and forever, the tide of European emigration began midable as it is, it does not include any of to set westward, and with each successive those under the care of the Commissioners year, larger and still larger numbers of emi- of Emigration. The increase of pauperism grants, at first mainly from Ireland, but sub- has been nearly fifteen times that of the popsequently in quite as large numbers from the ulation within the last thirty years. Of this German states, began to pour in upon us. increase more than 75 per cent. are either Many of these possessed a small amount of of foreign birth or the children of foreigners. money, and others, stout and able-bodied, In New York city the proportion of foreignfound ready employment at remunerative ers exceeds eighty per cent. wages, and provided well for themselves and These statistics, however, by no means families. tell the whole story in regard to the dependNo inconsiderable portion, however, had ent poor of the great cities. Large numeither been paupers at home, or coming here bers, who are unwilling to be enrolled on COMPARATIVE STATISTICS OF POOR RELIEF IN ENGLAND, FRANCE, MASSACHUSETTS, AND NEW YORK. France. England. France. Massachusetts. Massachusetts. New York. NewYork. Average from 1859. 1848 to 1852. 1853. 1858. 1859. 1858. 1859. Number' of almshous,poorhouses, or work-.1 2 06 ^"^ el.8!"3!1008/.^^ u~~~~~~~~~79 * 212' 222 60 60 houses................. Land attached to these houses..... 21,276 21,601 7,208 7,691 ^ Number of persons relieved in almshouses, etc... 107.050 618,207 542,323 11,845 10,369 38,582 36,550 ~ Out-door poor........... 692,384 982,516 1,022,996 23,071 21,954 333,405 279,717 a Cost of support of poor in almshouses.... $12,644,906 $13,431,379 $435,661 $380,149 $1,121,222 $927,581 i Average weekly expense of each pauper in alms-, $.7.$13 $.5$.4 cs.95ct.18 ^^ ses^.^ ^^ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~~$2.27 ** 1.13 $1.57 $1.47 ets. 90.5 ets. 71.8 | Average yearly expense ^ of each pbuper in alms- $118.12.. $58.76 $81.64 $76.44 $46.06 $37.34 - houses.................... Expenditure for out-door poor................. $14,259,149 $3,420,585 $284,963 $356,096 $748,196 $677,680 ^ Average expenditure per head per annum for $2.9 223233 1.5$622224$.2 ^^ ^ ^ 6^ ^ P~~~~~~~~~r!^ ^~~~$0.59 $223 $2.33 $12.3 $16.22 $2.24' $2.42 out-dor poor............. Total expenditure for legal relief of poor......... $26,904,055 -. $27,886,554 $720,624 $736,245 $2,1 23,974 $1,877,908 S Population.................................. 19,578,000.. 36,012,669 1,231,494 1,231,494 *3,735,607 *3,735,607 g Ratio of expenditure for paupers to population... $1.37.. cts 77.4 cts. 58.5 cts. 59.8 cts. 56.6 cts. 50.2 Whole number of'paupers;.......... 902,052 1,726,236 1,694,495 58,907 49,137 399,839 344,763 Percentage of paupers to population............ 4.60 4.79 4.70 4.78 3.99 10.70 9,20 Number of insane paupers...... 19,487 -- -- 1,176 1,142 3,457 4,299 Valuation of property of country or state...... $897,795,326.. $1,416,298,837 Percentage of poor-rate to valuation.. -...0008...0013 Percentage of the poor-rate of the whole tax of - - 3 1 te country or state.................... 344 * Except Albany County. -7 448 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. the city or county records as paupers, are where one of these associations exists, is distill dependent for a considerable share of vided into districts, which are again divided their support, especially during the winter into sections (New York has almost *four months, on private charity, bestowed either hundred of these sections), to each of which through the churches with which they are a visitor is appointed, who takes upon him — connected or some of the societies or asso- self, without compensation, the entire overciations devoted to the relief of the poor. sight of the poor of his section, visiting These organizations have greatly increased them, ascertaining their situation, their rewithin the past twenty years, in all our large sources, if any, their just claims upon any cities, and though varied in their specific other organization for relief, and where necpurposes, they all have the general object of essary, rendering them such assistance as ameliorating the condition of the poor. For will enable them to subsist until they can the sick poor, hospitals, dispensaries, and obtain work or aid from quarters where they infirmaries have been greatly multiplied; for have a claim for it, or if they need assistance, the aged and infirm and for very young bestowing it in such a way as not to destroy children, homes and nurseries have been es- their desire for self-dependence or injure tablished; for widows and orphans, widows' their self-respect. societies, assistance societies, and orphan To check street begging, every member asylums; for the disabled, relief societies; (and *any person contributing to the funds for youthful offenders or the morally en- of the association is a member) is furnished dangered, asylums, houses of reformation, with printed cards and a directory showing houses of industry, children's aid societies, the residence of the visitors and the section and "missions;" for the intemperate poor, which they have in charge, and when a beginebriates' homes and Samaritan homes; gar applies for charity, the member inquires and for the poor in general, associations for his residence, and instead of giving him improving the condition of the poor, prov- money, gives'him a' card with the address ident societies, soup houses, etc., etc. of the visitor upon it, and directs him to call In addition to these, very large sums in upon that visitors who will investigate his the aggregate are bestowed by the benevo- case, and if proper, render him aid. lent in private charity to the poor and suf- These associations have also been active in fering, and sums almost as large in contribu- promoting sanitary reforms, encouraging the tions to the importunate mendicant, by those erection of well-arranged tenement houses, in who give from impulse and a naturally gen- preventing truancy, in aiding. in the formaerous disposition. tion of temperance societies, in pwomoting The great increase of mendicancy, and the the establishment of dispensaries and houses annoying( importunity of the beggars who of reformation, and in diffusing, by means of preferred a living obtained in that way to tracts and handbills, information among the one acquired by honest toil, led to the for- poor on the subject of cleanliness, ventilamation of a class of organizations now exist- tion, and household economy. ing in most of the large cities in the country, Ignorance, intemperance, licentious indulbut originatinpg in the city of New York. In gence, the congregation of such large numdifferent cities different names for these or- bers in filthy, ill-arranged, and ill ventilated ganizations have been adopted, but their tenement houses, and disregard of sanitary general purpose is the same. "The New laws generally, are the causes of more than York Association for Improving the Condi- four fifths of the pauperism of our great tion of the Poor," was not only the first but cities, and it is only by removing these has been the most efficient in its action. Its causes that any considerable diminution in purposes, and those of its kindred associa- the number of paupers can be expected. tions, of which there are now thirteen in as The small dependent class whose poverty many of our large cities, are, "to discoun- is not traceable to either of these, can tenance indiscriminate almsgiving and put readily be provided for; but the terrible an end to street begging and vagrancy; to burden of taxation to maintain those who are visit the poor at their dwellings, and extend paupers from their own fault or that of their to them appropriate relief; and through the parents, renders it certain that there must be, friendly intercourse of visitors to inculcate ere long, carefully considered, but stringent among them habits of frugality, temperance, legislation to prevent the evils which inflict industry, and self-dependence." Each city, such a burden on the industry of our people. HOSPITALS. 449 CHAPTER IV is twenty-four. There are about 500 beds. The cost of each patient is $4.32 per week. HOSPITALShe rate of deaths to the whole number of HOSPITALS for the sick, either general or patients is only about 5 — per cent.; being special, have been in existence in Europe less than that of any hospital in Europe. from the early Christian ages, and their en- Connected with the hospital is a library of dowment has been a favorite form of Chris- between 6000 and 7000 volumes. tian charity. In this country, the first gen- The Massachusetts General Hospital at eral hospital was the Pennsylvania, at Phil- Boston, founded in 1817, is an institution adelphia, opened in 1752. The charter, of high character and reputation. It has granted in 1751, contemplated "the recep- funds to the amount of about $300,000; a tion and relief of lunaticks and other distem- medical staff of 20 physicians and assistants, pered and sick poor in this province," and and about 200 beds. It is managed by it has always had a department for the in- a board of trustees, and a president, vice sane, who occupied a portion of the hospital president, secretary, and treasurer. It has building until 1 841, when they were removed an out-door department, furnishing medical to the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, and surgical aid to over 3000 out-patients. then completed, which we have described The McLean Insane Asylum, at Somerville, under the head of Hospitals for the Insane. is a branch of the hospital. The annual This building, now the female department of expenditure is nearly $100,000. the insane hospital, was erected mainly from There are now in the city of New York funds resulting from the sale of the hospital fourteen hospitals, and five other institutions land, and the general hospital has, aside having hospital accommodations. Of these, from this, a permanent fund of nearly $400,- seven are general, and receive patients of all 000 invested, the income of which sustains classes except those with contagious disnearly 150 free beds. The average number eases; one is for small pox, one for syphiof inmates is below 200. The medical staff, litic diseases, one for quarantine patients, selected by the managers, serve gratuitously, two exclusively for women, one for children, and are the most eminent members of the and one for diseases of the eye. Of the profession in the city. There is a library five institutions having hospital accommoof over 10,000 volumes attached to the hos- dations, one is for lying-in women, two for pital. Benjamin West's picture of "Christ young children, one for aged females, and Healing the Sick" was painted for this hos- one for colored persons. There are also pital, and its exhibition added $24,000 to its hospitals connected with the Orphan Asyfunds. lums, House of Refuge, and Juvenile AsyThe New York Hospital, the first in New lum, for the sick inmates of those instituYork, was incorporated in 1771 by the co- tions. The entire capacity of these hospital lonial legislature, but was not opened for the accommodations exceeds 7000 beds. reception of patients till 1791. At first it Philadelphia has eleven hospitals, four of had wards for the insane, like the Pennsyl- them general, one naval, one for infectious vania Hospital, but in 1818 the governors disease, one a lying-in charity, one for disof the hospital established a separate asylum eases of the eye and limbs, and three for for the insane at Bloomingdale, with an effi- aged and indigent females. The entire numcient superintendent and corps of officers, her of beds does not exceed 1600. but under their general supervision, and sup- Boston has eight hospitals, of which five ported in part from their funds. The gen- are general, and one for diseases of the eye eral hospital has grown up to be a very large and ear, one for aged and indigent females, and admirably managed institution. It is a and one a lying-in hospital. close corporation, under the control of 26 Brooklyn, N. Y., has five, two of them governors. All cases of serious accident or general, one naval, and two for aged women. emergency are admitted immediately, with- Baltimore has three, two of them general, out regard to payment or recovery; other- and one for aged women. wise, persons whose cases appear not to ad- Charleston has two hospitals, and Norfolk, mit of cure or relief, are not received. It has Va., two, a naval and city institution. four physicians and six surgeons in regular Cincinnati has three, one a commercial attendance, besides a house physician and hospital, one a hotel for invalids, and one a several assistants. The entire medical staff widows' and female asylum and hospital. 4'0 STATISTICS OF HOSPITALS IN NEW YORK, BOSTON, AND PHILADELPHIA, WITH COMPARATIVE STATISTICS OF PARISIAN HOSPITALS. 0 i 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e'S3'^ * ~ n ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0. 0~~S | | ^ -' ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~..8 a * 0.e 0u 23 a I.: * 0 S. s.^.t o 0. * Name of hospital. "J 0?:.|.|'S' f 5. 1.I'2,'.* 8 | 1 0. I 0A c C Ca 1 i I. 0 0 0'S ti a 1 r i i >i i |||1 i I 21 I I? II I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 1 11 Namekes ofospital... 2 7 7 0 0 7 3 4 The eW osptal.......15.87 18.07'85 48 0 03 7.6 1581 713 698 24 38 43 20 170 3 47 0 0. 3 o 0. 0 02 41. 4 2 0. 0. 08 4 H.spital for W omen............ o i853 106 4 1.0 0 4 0 0 Z 8s E0 8: New York Hospital.......... 1 8,115 4 2,045 384 89 316 10.1 $46,596 51,706 $29,609 $24,4673 $6,1938 $5,2 $1,486 $14,695 $1.71 4.04 $4.00 1,927 1,188 St. Vincent's Hoptl1849 600 217 823 186 286 58 125 20.8 1.1,074 4,1926 8,069 5,752 -~784 79 620 2,125 1.82 8.7080 89248 e'sg-i Hospital................. 1859 46.01 87 79 32 619 4..0 211 201 2,8 6 6 6 7 9 St., Luke' optl15 6 8 3 2. 8 91. 16.08 15,715 14,1.77 6,751 1,492 01 86,36*.1 425 4.0 56 412 8 The Jews' Hospital......... 18,52 887 180 107 185. 48 7 28, 7.687 15,817 7,198 6,918 2,448 828 428 204 1,470 1.38 4.07 4.00.. The Woman's ospital........ 1 8... 12 18 130 52 41 4 2 1.54 8,512 8,958 9, 47 1. 4.00 -e1 Chldls Nursery and Hospital....... 1854 607 468 22 106 17.46 10,548 8,854 4,881 4,572 1,28 60 489 1 0 51 0.98.4 1.20 n e a. H sital H ospital f 2men.1858 106 2 1064.. 5,088 8,718 1,500 1,869 196 48 20 10 0....00 Colored iosmeand Hopial.1840 589 116 466 7 169.6 15,488 12,184 12,184 8,780 758 284 852 1,800 0.28 108-5 none all. Lying-in Hospital........ 182 3 87 547 79 2 6 2,171 2,081 2,081 863 368 60.8 578.. 8.98 ensla aHospit al............ 172 198,7.88 13124 6 3 6.7 9,41;45 119,4139 119462 51 58 2,630 3,677 1,2,9:6:3 40 631 Bellev'ue osit al... 11,411 6,819. 4,592...1,018 8.8194419,131,1 9,480 12,422 10,168 10,547 14,622 0.80 1.80..noe ll 4 Island Hospital 6125 1820 4805 158 2.58 31,426 81,426 81,426 17,407 2,911 2,884.8,148 t4,445 0.79 1.48 2,. none 4all. 4 Smnall. Pox- Hospital.889...204..135. 86 10.62 8,454 8,454 8,454 1,118 608 864 254 98(1 0.88 2.67T. none all1. E migranits' Hospital.. I 4,729 2,8~48 1,881 8,014...226 4.79 58,918 58,918 58,918 26,065 18,872 5,825 2,782 17.085 0.69 1.57..none, all.. Nursery Hospital,- Randall's. Island. 1,829,. 924 298 107 8. 20,844 20,844 20,844... 4,292.. 1.48-.. one, all. 0 Massachusetts General Hospital.... 188 1,894 8148 546 698 805 184 121 8.69 45, 749 42,57i8 86,148 16,887 8,397 8,657 1,588 12,451 2.45 6.42 4.50 257; 1,187 P~ennsylvania Hospital.......1752 1,958 1,570 888 1,851 248 167 181 6.79 85,845 85,189 24,628 15,158 2,680 8,677 1,927 7,894 1.69 8.98 4.00 628; 1,1 78 Total for 16 American Hospitals. 84,067 -, 2,520 7.4 $447,287 $440,108 $2.98 Hospitals of Paris-1858... 88,237.... 78,913.... 9,283 11.76 $998,206 $998,206 $998,206............ $3.02.. none all. * This is exclusive of large donations of cooked food made to the hospital. t Exclusive of donated food, and vegetables raised on the extensive grounds of the hospital. PAUPERISM IN THIE CITY AND COUNTY OF NEW YORK,.1860. ~~~~~~~~~~~. H ~ H ccc I~~~~~ ~~~~ J I ~ i~ I: ~ ct~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Name of Institution or Depart _ - * C) if cl~;. P, s, H ment renderingait ai5nce - agss6[7 5.1... 01H ICity Prison i papes).'9si1 H' /5 H:7 1]89:1865 H4.4 4 Cs 0~~~~~~~ 4H H Almsh'o e g." BOlit aH H5,1 9 9.. 9......'" ~'" ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H t H H 4 H Hi Hi H H Hi Hi H H:::::; 75 Bok selelle s s n. H. t..........:::6 1:,': 1,.. 8? 29 1 3-48 1-,6 106.. 21 " 474 Almshouse1,BlackwelPs Island 1,110 11,123,6011,4027 13,0289955 8889 610 $ 2.2 155 2586074 8$5,27 $139... 4 2 Bolicyoc HospitaL. 860 ~~~~~~~~I05 10,485 926 11,411 519 5 5 6 759 119,414 25.7 1.80 10,541 9401,2 1,68...103 1 1'0621.... 3 5 City Prison (insAane paupers)........40 555 2.5............. 8 5 401 858 T54 1,112 801 45' 92~~~~1,8641 225.6 1.0T15S9 1 8'01.596....{...'38 975 City Lunatic Asylum, B. Island. 111 40 5,112 45 4 902,6.55589 861 454. 1 14. Randall's Island Nursery.. 1,142 1,89 1 1330I 1,15:3 2,539 53 101 999 *842 234 43,114 21.2 1.48 15,822 3.3,823 21,505..... 82... 11S)tl 256 1,073 1,031 29S 1,329 298S.... 20,853...... 101T...0 Workhouse, Blackwell's Island. 1,38S7 11,641 11,301 1, 4 21 13.028 615 152... 88.961 22.2 1 55 25,607 355219 18,006..... 21..* ColoredHo e.............m 293 568 55- 305 81.... 1.... 14 153 1.09 1,096,131 11,339 984.... 98.. 1 Colored Orphan Asylum.... 211 10 63 235 281 19,135 24.1 1.6S 1'796 5,903 1,161 375.... 1,17g 12,2~4 35,0 6 5 0,2 2ii0 Island Hospfital,_Blackwell's IsL. 4]31 93 93 259 1.40 3,148 1.401 2,611 2,884.... 54 Small Pox Hospital, Blackw's Is. 16 323 293 43 339 26i 11.29 23 3,454 38.09 2.66 2 1113 6 Out-door poor for the year...... 7,077 79,0.... 79,80 al t.1 46,101 * *1 101,348.... 2-6..255 1"33,619 1....1't'835,818 110,283 *. 3 I $28,535 Totals fur municipal reliec..... 86,857 1 0,367 512118185,706 41,450 43,530 $624,482 25.0 $1.75 $89,9338 $202,073 $120,016 $14,775 $28,535 2,01 1,8284 COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION. Total assistance afforded........ 20,715 $206,064...... Refuge and Hospital, Ward's Is l.. 64 965 661 1068 2848 1881 557 422 40 58,913 22.4 $1.7 $26065 $2782 $13,37 $18,192 $5,825 226 204264 If to the municipal relief, $624,482, we add that afforded by the Commissioners of Emigration, $206,064, and that furnished by the voluntary charitable associations of the city, which by careful investigation has heen demonstrated to amount to $586,119 for the year 1860,1ve have a total aggregate of $1,416,665 for the public relief of the poor in the city of New York. The amount bestowed in private charity cannot, of course, be estimated. *Adults. t Children. A large portion of these are children of foreigners, though themselves born in this country. O, 452 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. Chicago has a marine hospital. to it, keeping a supply of the vaccine virus St. Louis has four, one for quarantine, one constantly on hand, and vaccinating all who marine, and two general; one of them under apply, and at some seasons of the year callthe care of the Sisters of Charity. ing the attention of the people to the necesNew Orleans and Mobile are more am- sity of it. To some of the dispensaries a ply supplied with hospitals in proportion to lying-in department is added. their population than most of the cities of The first dispensary in this country was the Union, the former having four, one of the Philadelphia, founded in 1786. them a United States naval hospital. The The New York Dispensary, the first ia Charity Hospital at New Orleans is the that city, was founded in 1791, and the Boslargest in this country, receiving from 13,000 ton Dispensary in 1796. to 20,000 patients a year, and having about There are now in New York five public 1000 beds. Mobile has three, one marine dispensaries, covering the whole city below and two general. All are large, and admira- Sixtieth street west of Fifth avenue, and bebly managed. low Fortieth street east of that avenue. The Most of the cities of twenty thousand in- territory of the city below these streets is habitants and over have one, and some of parcelled out between these dispensaries, in them more than one hospital, though ordi- such a way as to give to each a district not narily their wards' are by no means full. excessive either in size or population. Each dispensary employs two or more district physicians, to visit the sick poor at their homes when they are unable to come to the CHAPTER V. dispensary. The patients who come to the DISPENSARIES. dispensary between the hours of 10 A. M. and 4 P. M., are divided into eight or nine ANOTHER of the methods of relief and min- classes, each of which has its room, where istration to the wants of the poor has been the physician in attendance prescribes for the establishment of Dispensaries. The the patients belonging to his class. The idea of such institutions originated, we sup- medicines prescribed are furnished by the pose, in Rome, but:was not adopted in oth- institution, and though plainly put up, great er cities till the latter part of the last cen- care is taken to have them uniformly of the tury. In London, a dispensary was establish- best quality. ed in 1696. There was none in Paris till Besides these, there are three homceo. 1 803. At first, it was simply an apothecary's pathic dispensaries in the city, and four oth-. shop, where medicines were dispensed gratu- er institutions of a dispensary character, initously to the poor. After a time, a physi- tended for special diseases, two of them for cian attended at a certain hour to prescribe diseases of the eye, and two for women and for patients who might require treatment; children. then, as the number of patients increased, Philadelphia has three dispensaries, two they were classified, and other physicians of them with a lying-in department. It has volunteered to take charge of the different also several institutions which dispense rmedclasses, and a house physician and apothecary icine to the poor, and prescribe for them in were appointed to take the general oversight, particular forms of disease, in connection with keep the records, prepare medicines, arrange the hospital or asylum accommodations. the patients for the classes, etc.; then, as it Boston has one central dispensary, which was found that many of the sick poor were is largely endowed, although its funds are unable to come to the dispensary to receive not yet available. This dispensary has two treatment, and. some of those who came once consulting and eight attending physicians, or twice were unable to continue to attend, two consulting and four attending surgeons, and so suffered for the want of medical care, a medical superintendent and apothecary, the plan was adopted of dividing the region and eight district physicians, who divide beappertaining to the dispensary into districts, tween them the city territory and visit all to each of which a district physician was ap- the sick poor who apply, and who are unpointed who visited the sick at their dwell- able to attend at the dispensary. The Masings. Vaccination, from its first introduction, sachusetts General Hospital also affords was largely practised at the dispensaries; medical and surgical relief to out-patients, to and nearly all of them now give attention a very considerable extent. LEADING STATISTICS OF THE FIVE NEW YORK DISPENSARIES AND THE BOSTON DISPENSARY FOR THE YEAR ENDING JANUARY 1, 1860. ~' Ptet ccnto. esls Prescriptions, their Nativity of Sexeas and ages of ptPatients v accination. Results. number, average, and Financial. Ntivit of Name of Dispensary, and,. *,.~ date of incorporation. as a* a _ a a: 0 a.j~jLJ l - -g ag a 0New York, A. D. 1791 18,317 25,222 25,525 18,014 43,539 37,140 6,399 1,5- 7'0 1,667 5,428 272 37,839 102,591 2.45'cts. 02.78 $5,706 20 13.1 cts. 6.6 cts. 19,358 24,181 Northern, " 1827.. 7,653 11,883 11.129 8,407 19.5.38 15,033 4,503 1,289 109 1,398 143 95 19.298 30,840 1.7 " 0.22 3,833 0219.62" 9.81 9,088 10,448 m Eastern, " 1832.. 12,920 17,182 14.948 15,104 80,052 23,758 6,294 5,116 2,051 7,167 918 157 28,977 55,658 2.28 "03.9 4,421 16{14.7 7.4 15,250 14,802 t Oemilt, " 1851.. 11,229 15,387 15,479 11,137 26,616 18,550 8,066 1,772 19 1,791 381 313 25,922 44,4581 1.79 04.9 45913617.25 8.62 11983 14,633. North-western, " 1852.. 6,586. 8,089 8,113 6,562 14,675 12,125 2,550 686 8 694 172 88 14415 28.776 2.0 4.95 2,910 95 19.S " 9.9 " 6,3S8 8,287 Totals.. 56,705 77,713 75,194 59,224 134,418 10,606 27,812 10,460 2,207 12,667 7.042 925 126,451 262,6S3 2.15 04.55 $21,462 96:15.96 7.98 62,067 72,351. Ad'lts Ad'lts ----- Boston Dispensary, A.D. 1796 2,805 5,8s2 8,687 5,649 14,336j 7,094 7,242 218 283 6,764 34,685 2.5 05. $3,888 08 0.27 12.5 | We subjoin the following general statistics of the New York Dispensaries. Owing to the loss of its early records, those of the Boston Dispensary cannot be ascertained:Average number of years in which medical charity has been dispensed to the sick poor of New York by the dispensaries........................ 29 Whole number of persons vaccinated in all the dispensaries since 1804............................................................... 218,991 Whole number of persons who have received medicine, and medical, surgical, and vaccine service gratuitously since 1791......................... 2,069,804 Aggregate amount of expenditures of the several dispensaries since 1791................................................................. $361,735 39 General average cost of medicine, and medical, surgical, and vaccine service to each dispensary patient since 1791.............................. 17.4, cents. Average number of patients treated annually for the average twenty-nine years that the dispensaries have been organized and in operation......... 71,372 The New York Dispensary alone, in the sixty-nine years of its existence, has prescribed for.................................................. 1,046,404............ ----- -— ^ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 4' Rs 454 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. In Brooklyn there are three city dispensa- In many cases, those who have thus taken ries, not as yet systematized like those of New charge of them were utterly unfit for their York, and having, up to the present time, duty, and painful instances of cruelty and no district physicians. There is also an eye maltreatment of these unfortunate children and ear infirmary, at which persons suffering have come to light. Closer scrutiny is now with diseases of these organs are prescribed exercised in regard to the character and pofor gratuitously, and a homeopathic dis- sition of those who apply for employment pensary. as nurses,' and the abuses are measurably Baltimore has two dispensaries or infirm- checked. If the children survive the nursaries; Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, New ing period, they are placed together in a Orleans, and Charleston, as well as some public nursery or farm school, and there reother smaller cities, one or more. ceive a good English education, and are then Besides these institutions, there are in apprenticed or adopted in families in the connection with nearly all the medical schools country, or, in some instances, sent to sea. in the large cities, cliniques, at'which, at a The neglect and evil results which in given hour, once, twice, or thrice a weekl many instances followed from the course patients are prescribe.d for gratuitously by pursued in these institutions, as well as the the professors, in order to familiarize the conviction that the infant children of virstudents with the practical diagnosis of dis- tuous parents, who were deprived of their ease. Some of the medical schools have parents' care by death or extreme poverty, hospitals, with quite a number of free beds, were entitled to a tenderer watchfulness and for the same purpose. supervision, has led in most of the large We insert a table showing the annual cities to the establishment of nurseries, inamount of medical service rendered by the fants' homes, and other institutions of a simdispensaries of New York and Boston, and ilar character, for children of this class. The the small cost at which so large an amount "homes for the friendless," a class of instiof good is accomplished. tutions we have elsewhere described, have received very considerable numbers of these children, and after carefully rearing them, have provided them with good homes, where CHAPTER VI. they have been adopted by those who received them. There are also in Noew York, NURSERIES AND FOUNDLING HOSPITALS. Boston, and Philadelphia, hospitals for inTHERE has been a strong prejudice in this fants of legitimate birth. An institution country against foundling hospitals, mainly much needed in all our large cities, and undoubtedly the result of the mismanage- which has just been established in Boston, is ment which formerly prevailed, and, to some the crcche, now very popular in most of the extent, still prevails in some of the great European cities. It is a large building; with European hospitals for foundlings. They fine, airy, well-ventilated rooms, fitted up have been stigmatized as offering a premium with cradles, toys, and every thing necessary for licentiousness, and destroying the barri- for the care and amusement of infants and ers against illegitimate births. On the other young children, and provided with a sufficihand, it has been urged in their favor, that eut number of amiable and intelligent nurses, they tend to prevent infanticide and those where the poor mother, whose daily toil suscrimes so prevalent in communities where no tains her little flock, may leave them for the such institutions exist. After long delib- day, certain that they will be well cared for, eration, the public authorities of New York and receive wholesome food and pure air. have decided in favor of a foundling hospital, For this care she pays a trifling sum, gradwhich will be the first in this country. uated to her ability. Provision' has been made for many years past for the care of the young children of criminals, and of paupers deceased, or inca- CHAPTER VII. pable of taking care of them, in.all our large cities. The usual method, if they are in- HOMES AND ASYLUMS FOR THE AGED fants, is to put them out to nurse until they AND INFIRM. are three or four years of age, the city pay- FROM tne care of children who have been ing a dollar a week or thereabout to the nurse. bereft of a parent's tender love, to the pro HOMES AND ASYLUMS FOR THE AGED AND INFIRM. 455 vision for those whom the burden of years endowed by one of her citizens; Baltimore and infirmity has reduced to an almost two; and the other larger cities one or two childish feebleness, seems a natural transi- each. In Boston and Philadelphia there are tion. For this class, and especially for also institutions for aged clergymen, merwomen who in the time of old age find chants, and others.- New York has an asythemselves without those who can minister lum for infirm seamen, the Sailor's Snug to their wants, and to whom the almshouse Harbor, located on Staten Island, and foundseems almost as terrible as the grave, the ed and amply endowed by the munificence large-hearted charity of the philanthropic in of a retired sea captain, Robert R. Randall. most of our cities, has made liberal provision. Provision has been made in most of New York has five institutions for this class, the Northern cities for children, the aged besides several relief societies intended main- and infirm, and the sick of the African race, ly for them; Boston three or four, one of in separate institutions, but with accommothem largely endowed; Philadelphia four; dations fiully equal to those provided for Brooklyn two, one the Graham Home, nobly whites. AGENTS WANTED To sell this valuable Standard National work in every unoccupied Town, City, and Village in the United States. Every family, every young mal should have a copy. It is a perfect storehouse of information, a library in itself, every page containing valuable information for all classes. It is the only work of the kind published in the country. Treats of subjects which all are inclined to boast of, and of which we may be proud of having historically described and embodied in a permanent form. Its value as a family book can not be over-estimated. It will take a place among the standard works of the country like Webster's Dictionary, Bancroft's History, and the New American Encyclopedia. The second canvass will, in many cases, be more profitable than the first, as there are but few books of any kind sold the first time over the ground in proportion to the population; only just enough to give valuable works a good reputation, and create a desire to buy them. We hope some resident of each place where the book has been sold, will take up the second canvass and supply every family who was not furnished the first time over the ground. Our terms are extra liberal. For particulars, territory, &c., Address L. STEBBINS, Hartford, Ct. APPENDIX. MARVELS WHICH OUR GRANDCHILDREN WILL SEE, OR, ONE HUNDRED YEARS' PROGRESS IN THE FUTURE. -BEIN — A View of the Prospective Increase of Population of the United States in each Decade for a Hundred Years to come; the Wonderful Development of all branches of Industry and Enterprise, giving the Aggregate of Wealth for each Decade, Rapid Growth of Cities, Great Development of Commerce and Internal Trade, and of Means of Communication by Rail, Steamers, and Telegraph; Remarkable Advance in Education, Literature, Fine Arts, and Luxuries of Life; Crushing Influence of Individual and Corporative Monopolies; Impending Conflict between Capital and Labor; Increase of Protective Unions; Acquisition of Territory; Exhaustion of Public Lands; Advance of Real Estate beyond the Means of the Poor. All deduced from the Facts and Figures of the past One Hundred Years' Progress in this Country. WITH REFLECTIONS On the Social, Political, and Religious Changes which will ensue from the Transference of the Governing Power from the Anglo-Saxon race to the admixture of the Teutonic, Celtic, and Scandinavian peoples of Europe, and the Mongolian, Malay, and African races, which are destined to form so large a portion of its Population-with Examples from Ancient and Modern History of the Effect of such Changes in the Past. * a=== - "_== ----------- 12S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ll IXi - o 4 0 IDvlts|F~| H'-. -- -' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-'- - - - - - - I r.............,,I ea I i ii iillliiiii 1 iiili i ~~~~1111H Hll11111 1 l~tl~ ~ ~!ti [':' I' I I I I II I ititi i' I ~i~ii f'I'ift Ii' I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I i l fli rll,ii jl i ~i.L~~lilliiiiiilii I I I II I~ ~ I" ii~yxI;;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ il' i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'a illi ii.~=!r] ~i~ II Ffr~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~I I i; j j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i.-:'~ ——'~~'"-"_.... L ~ till!~i~~~ ~ii'i~ I I II ii II~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~llil i~~ —?: —'-" — I'~ ~'~ I i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I ili' _1-I —l —-.. ~~ —-—. — i~~~ll /j/j// //~ ~ ~ ~~ t~l! 463 MARVELS, &c. ESTIMATED POPULATION OF THE UNITED of our own and other davs; the immense STATES FOR TEN DECADES TO COME. quantities of iron ores which, now yield anIn the preceding pages we have traced the nually almost two thousand million tuns of growth of our nation from its infancy, from that valuable metal; the copper, the lead, the time, now one hundred years ago, when, the zinc, the quicksilver, the silver, the gold, after the losses of the second French war, and the platinuln, whose abundance has and the general poverty and depression which changed the value of money, the world over, followed, less than two millions of people within the past twenty years; the quarries, occupied the territory of the present Atlantic from whose depths come the walls of our city States and half a dozen years later proclaimed palaces and many of our rural homes. We themselves "the people of the United States, have watched the great foundries, machine fiee and independent." We have followed shops, and rolling mills, where ponderous their growth, step by step, in population, till machines, huge locomotive and stationary they now number over forty millions of free engines, iron bridges and buildings, and the and independent citizens, surpassing in num- rails for the railway, the wheels for its cars, bers the United Kingdoni of Great Britain and the machinery for its construction and and Ireland, of which they were then feeble repair, are wrought out, and have compared colonies; surpassing in population France, these with the little roadside blacksmiths' which then stooped down fiom its powerful shops of our fathers. position, to lend them a helping hand; sur- We have followed the methods of travel passing Italy, Spain, Prussia, and Austria, and transportation, from the days of the slowand inferior inthe number of their people only moving ox-cart, and the venerable and aristo their great ally, Russia, among the nations tocratic " one-horse-shay," to the mail wagon, of Christendom. We have followed, too, the canal packet, the two or four-horse stage with ever-increasing interest, their advance in coach, the railway train, and the steamagriculture as they have hewed out homes ship, until we have seen the long trains leavfor themselves in the wilderness, subdued the ing our Atlantic cities and without change gigantic forests, reduced the vast prairies to landing their passengers a week later at Sacrafruitful fields, and made the desert to bud mento, there to connect with the steamships and blossom with the waving grains and which plough across the great Pacific for abundant flowers; we have watched the China or Japan, as the returning passengers growth of their commerce, till their sails would do at New York with the European whitened every sea, and their strong keels steamers. vexed even the icy waters that gather round Nor has the advance in literature, science, the Northern and the Southern poles. We art or religion been less remarkable; our auhave seen, from the humblest beginnings, those thors, our scholars, our physicists, our paintgreat manufactories spring up, which give ers, sculptors and architects, our musicians employment to so many myriads of our peo- and our preachers, are the peers of those of pie, and include in their production almost any nation of the world, and the principles every thing which the human hand can use, of Christianity and of a pure morality are or the human heart can crave; we have taught and practiced as carefully as among looked down into those dark depths which any people on the globe.. the sun's light never penetrates, and have A nation whose growth, during the first witnessed the uneartling of the hidden treas- hundred years of its history, has been so vigures which the earth's green mantle conceals; orous and rapid, and its progress so unprecethe vast stores of fuel reserved for the needs dented in all that constitutes national pros 464 APPENDIX. perity, can not but have before it a grand and 1865 was but 165,000 a year; in 1866 the glorious future; it is as yet but in the fresh- number of immiigrants was 318,554; in 1867, ness of its youth, for nations count their age 298,358; in 1868, 297,215; in 1869, 352,not by years like individuals, but by decades 569. If we take account of the immigrants and centuries. who came here between 1820 and 1860, we Let us then turn our eyes to the future of find that the annual arrivals averaged only this people and endeavor, calmly and without 126,000. Of those who enigrated hither up extravagance, to predict their future for a to 1865, nearly three-fifths were from the hundred years to come. The historian, rea- British Isles, and almost one-half fi'om Iresoning of things to come and predicating the land. The emigration from Germany has events of the future upon the facts of the been gradually increasing for twenty-five past, is a historian still, and not a prophet or years past, and in the year ending June 30, mere theorist in the descriptions of the things 1869, exceeded, as it will be certain to do which shall be, when he bases them upon the hereafter, that from the British Isles; the things which are. It will be our aim to de- number of Germans arriving being 132,537, duce our history of the future strictly from or nearly two-fifths; English and Scotch, the facts of the past. 60,286; Irish, 64,938. The Swedes and Let us then consider first the POPULATION Norwegians exceeded 45,000, and the emiof the Country for the next hundred years. gration from these countries is rapidly and We are accustomed to talk of this in a loose largely on the increase. But the immigraway, and speak often of the hundred millions tion to the Pacific coast from China, Japan, of people who will find their homes in the India, and the Malay countries, is destined to United States at the beginning of the twen- exceed vastly that from Europe. Amounting tieth century, and the guess is not so far out to about 13,000 in the year ending June 30, of the way; but very few have ever at- 1869, it is likely to quadruple in the year tempted to go beyond A. D. 1900 in their ending June 30, 1870, and in the ten years estimates of our future population, and even 1870-1880 will hardly fall -below five millof those who have made vague estimates of ions. the number of inhabitants at that time, not The emigration of five millions of people more than one or two have carefully consid- from any one of the countries of Europe in ered all the influences which have a bearing ten years would so diminish the number of on the true solution of the problem. producers as to force up the price of wages The ratio of increase in each decade since to a point which would check and possibly 1790, when our first national census was forbid emigration, and therefore we can taken, has been: from 1790 to 1800, 35.02 hardly expect the European emigration to per ent.; fiom 1800 to 1810, 36.45 percent.; exceed four or five millions (it has never yet from 1810 to 1820, 33.13 per cent.; fiom exceeded two millions) within ten years' time. 18250 to 1830, 33.49 per cent.; from 1830 to But the emigration from China, Japan, 1840, 32.67 per cent.; fiom 1840 to 1850, India and Malaysia is controlled by no such 38.57 per cent.; fiom 1850 to 1860, 37.75 law. The population of these countries is, per cent., or an average ratio for each decade in round numbers: China, 400 millions; of tle past seventy years of 34.58 per cent. Japan, 50 millions; India and Farther India, It is noteworthy that the lowest per centage 200 millions, and Malaysia at least 100 millwas between 1830 and 1840, before the tide ions more-making, in all, 750 millions. Of of immigration had fairly set in, and that the these, more than two-thirds are very poor, ratio of increase of the last two decades has though at the same time very industrious; been but little more than that of the first and under the arrangements now making or two. which will soon be made, the immigration of Will this ratio of increase continue in the fifty millions of them to our shores within future? The question is one of great im- the next twenty years, will only relieve modportance, and there are many considerations erately the poverty of those who remain, to be weighed before a correct decision can while there will be ample opportunity for be made. those who come to obtain a better living In favor of its continuance or increase may than they could possibly have obtained in be urged, 1st, the constantly-increasing rate those countries. of immigration to the United States. The 2. The vast extent of land as yet unoccnaverage immigration for the ten years 1855- pied is favorable to the rapid natural increase APPENDIX. 465 of the population. In a new country, the 5. There is no probability of any widelybirths are more numerous and the children desolating war in this country, certainly for more vigorous than in older and more densely the next fifty years. State sovereignty and inhabited countries, and in general the prog- Slavery were both settled forever by our late eny of the poor and laboring classes are more war, and there is no other conceivable cause numerous than those of the rich. In a new- for another civil war. That one is likely to ly settled country, too, marriage usually takes be fomented on religious questions, no one place earlier, (where the disparity in the nurn- who has studied the future of the country can bers of the two sexes is not too great,) and believe for a moment. A war with England is usually more prolific. or France might be possible, but hardly prob3. There is a strong probability, almost a able, and should it occur, though it miglt certainty, of the annexation of British Co- occasion loss of property from tl.e blockading lnmbia, Canada, and probably also a part or or possible bombardment of some of our the whole of Mexico, Central America, and ports, it could hardly make much difference the most important islands of the West In- with our population, and in the case of Endies, before the close of the present century. gland would end in our possessing the entire The aggregate population of these countries territory now subject to that power on this would be fifteen or sixteen millions-an im- continent. No other power could mnintain portant addition at present, though a very war with us to any extent which would injure trifling one if deferred for a hundred years. us. The loss of life due to a great war makes But these additions are not of moment only itself felt under ordinary circumstances for for the additions they will make directly to two or three decades, in the'census; and our population, but for the vast tracts of un- where there is no immigration to make good inhabited or sparsely-inhabited territory they the loss, materially reduces the ratio of inwill add to us; much of it a rich and highly crease. In France the great wars of the first productive soil yet to be redeemed from its fifteen years of the present century, and the original condition. Much of this territory, drain which they made on the youth of the and particularly Mexico, Central America, nation, being counterbalanced by no immiand British Columbia, is rich in both mineral gration, has hardly yet ceased to show its and vegetable wealth. Gold, silver, quick- effect on the censust; the increase of popusilver, iron, copper, zinc, and probably tin, lation being only from 3 to 5 per cent. in ten abound in almost all parts of it. There are years, or only about one-tentl of ours. There vast deposits of coal, and quarries of superior can be no question that the late war has building stone. The immense forests of Brit- slightly diminished our ratio of increase firom is! Columbia and of some portions of Mexico 1860 to 1870, but owing to the great influx will furnish timber, lumber and fuel for ages. by immigration consequent upon our improThese considerations all favor a rapid growth ved national condition, this diminution will of population, and sustain the position that be comparatively slight. The improbability the ratio of growth will be an increasing of any desolating war is an important item rather than a diminishing one. in the rapidity of our national growth in tle 4. The great and constantly-increasing fa- future, for war, aside from its immediate docilities of travel throughout all portions of structive effect, deranges commerce, injures the country tend to increase the ratio of and often revolutionizes manufactures, and growth of population. While the American to some extent paralyzes all the ordinary Anglo-Saxons, those of our citizens whose industries. homes have been on this continent for three We can not predict with any certainty that or more generations, are inclined to congre- there will be no visitations of sweeping epigate in the large cities, and the Celtic races demics; these are always liable to occur; but to a very considerable extent manifest the the laws of health and the control of episaime tendency, all the Teutonic and Scandi- demics are so much better understood now navian immigrants are full of the desire to than formerly, that we may safely conclude buy land-to have a home of their own. The that if they occur they will not make such Japanese and most of the Chinese have the havoc with our population as has been made same disposition. Whatever means of trans- in former times and in other countries; and pcrtation afford an easy and speedy transit there is, besides, a law of nature in regard to to the new lands of the interior will greatly epidemics, which does not exist in regard to facilitate the growth of the population. other losses of population. The number of 466 APPENDIX. deaths, in a well regulated and intelligent so powerful an influence as they would have communlty, during the prevalence of an epi- done, a hundred or even fifty years ago; but demic, (cholera, for instance,) is not mate- they must to some extent diminish the ratio rially greater than in other years, the epi- of increase of the population. The intense dcmic apparently swallowing up most other excitability and tendency to overwork of the disorders, and the number of fatal cases from people of the United States, partly the effect them being nearly as much less as those from of temperament and partly of climate, shortthe cholera is greater. There is, too, a law ens the duration of human life and hence of compensation, in the marked increase in diminishes the growth of the population. the number of births in an epidemic year. The excessive use of alcoholic liquors, tobacco There is, it is true, a loss; for those who die and opium, and licentious indulgence, exert are mostly adults, and those who make up a powerful influence in the same direction. their place and number are infants; but the We have considered with great care these aggregate numberof births and deaths bear various influences and their effect upon the about the usual proportion to each other. increase of the population, and in order to be But, on the other hand, there are reasons on the safe side and underestimate rather why the ratio should be a decreasing or sta- than overestimate the growth of the nation, tionary one. Among these are: the aggre- have made our tables of the population of gation of wealth in comparatively few hands, each decade of the next hundred years, on a leaving the middle class small in numbers, constantly though slowly decreasing ratio. and the dependent or laboring class large, We have in these estimates made no account and probably eventually very poor. This of any accessions to our territory or to our would tend to diminish the ratio of increase population by annexation, for the obvious in the population, since, though the births reason that it is impossible to say when such may be proportionately more numerous than accessions would occur, and equally imposnow, the number of deaths at one year old sible to predict whether they would result, and under will also be greater. The monopo- for some time after their annexation, in an lizing of the land in large estates, to which increase or diminution of the population. there is a strong tendency, will have a some- The ratio of increase from 1850 to 1860 was, what similar effect, though it will not mani- as we have already said, 37.75 per cent. But fest itself quite so soon. Again, as the pop- for the civil war, the ratio between 1860 and ulation becomes more dense, the mortality 1870 must have been considerably greater increases fromt a variety of causes, such as than this, in consequence of the great invicious habits, crime, hereditary tainting of crease of immigration; but this disturbing the blood, epidemics, foul air, starvation or cause must be taken into the account; and defective nutrition, &c. &c. The laws of we believe we are making a sufficient allowhealth are now so much better understood ance for it in reducing the ratio to 36 per than formerly, that these causes do not exert cent. This makes the population in 1870,....... 42,763,052 The ratio from 1870 to 1880 we have put at 35 per cent., though we believe it will exceed that. This would give for the population in 1880.......... 57,730,120 Still diminishing the ratio of increase, we make it, from 1880 to 1890, 34 per cent., which would make the population of 1890, 77,358,360 From 1890 to 1900 our ratio is 33} per cent., making the population in 1900,*.............. 103,144,480 From 1900 to 1910 we have assumed 32.5. per cent. as the ratio, falling for the first time below the ratio of 3'per cent. per annum, which, since the organization of the Republic, has been the lowest ratio of growth. This gives for the population in 1910,........ 136,666,436 For the decade 1910 to 1920, the ratio is farther decreased to 31.5 per cent., giving a population in 1920 of....... 179,716,363 * These figures agree very nearly with those of Mr. J. C. G. Kennedy, in the "Population" volume of the Census of 1860. He. does not, however, make any estimates beyond 1900. APPENDIX. 467 From 1920 to 1930 the ratio is 30.5 per cent.,.and the population of the census of 1930 would be..... 234,52'9,854 From 1930 to 1940 the proposed ratio is 30 per cent., making the population of 1940,........... 304,888,810 From 1940 to 1950 we make a reduction of one per cent. in the ratio, giving it as 29 per cent., by which rate of increase the population of 1950 would be........... 393,306,565 From 1950 to 1960 a further reduction of the ratio to 28 per cent., gives a population in 1960 of.... 503,432,403 From 1960 to 1970 the increase is estimated on a ratio of 27 per cent., giving a population in 1970 of....... 639,359,152 Vast as this aggregate seems, being a little strong rivalry between two cities, a simple more than one-half the largest estimate of and apparently insignificant incident may the present population of the globe, it is in turn the scale toward one or the other, and all probability below the actual number of its rival fall into decadence. In 1860, Chithe inhabitants of the government of North cage and St. Louis were bitter rivals, and St. America in 1970. It should be remembered Louis had decidedly the advantage in poputhat only small portions of the earth have a lation, location, and capital. The three years population approaching in density what the which followed changed this position of land is able to sustain, and those portions are things. St. Louis, from its proximity to the often among the most sterile. Taking the seat of war, and from the paralyzing influwhole of North America as the probable ex- ence of the war upon its industries, fell betent of our country in 1970, and this estimate hind in the race, and its energetic rival seized would give but 80,40 inhabitants to a square the opportunity to lead in those lines of traffic mile, or if we reject the uninhabitable por- in which St. Louis had been preeminent, and tion, which it would be excessively liberal to to secure those connections with the Pacific estimate at one-half, we should have a maxi- Railway and the Northwest, which gave it mum density of 160 — 0 to the square mile. the trade and travel of an almost illimitable In 1855, Belgium had a population of 397 region. When, in 1864, St. Louis awaked persons to the square mile, although its soil to the consideration of her future, she found is generally sterile; and Saxony, England how greatly she had retrograded, and though and Wales, Netherlands, Sardinia, Wurtem- she has, since that time, made desperate efburg, and Ireland, each exceeded 200 persons forts to regain her prestige, and although she to the square mile. Indeed, with the excep- is unquestionably destined to become a great tion of Russia, Sweden, Norway, and Den- city, yet it will be long before she can remark, nearly all the States of Europe have a trieve those three lost years, and longer still more dense population than this would be. before she can lead the way for the City of With a more intelligent and skillful culture the Lakes to follow. Other examples of these of the arable portions of the earth's surface, epochs in the life of a city will occur to all. and a careful husbanding of much that is now It is necessary, too, in predicting the future recklessly wasted, there is no reason why six growth of a large city, to take into the acor even tenfold the present population of the count as really a part of its growth, the popglobe might not be supported in far greater ulation of the region within a radius of from comfort than is at present the lot of many six to fifteen miles of its central point; for millions of its people; and the progress in although this may not be technically within agriculture, manufactures and the arts in the its corporate limits, it is, in all large cities, next hundred years will be such as to make really a part of its actual inhabitants. This a dense population of the globe possible is particularly the case when, as in the case without suffering. of New York or Boston originally, the actual It is a much more difficult matter to pre- corporate limits of the city are circumscribed diet the future growth of cities than of a by natural boundaries. It is probable that whole country; for there are so many things the population now inhabiting Manhattan to disturb the uniformity of municipal Island is very little more than it was in 1860. growth, things which can not be foreseen, There has been growth certainly in the upper but which exert a controlling influence for a wards, but not to the same extent as the score or more of years, and where there is a diminution in the lower wards, where great 28 468 APPENDIX. hives of population have been transformed of the West, the coal and petroleum of the into broad streets occupied by great ware- Central States, and the fruits and vegetables houses, and where now there is hardly a fain- of the Northern and North-western tier of ily where once were hundreds. But the con- States at Boston, at about the same price, stant influx of population has overflowed into without breaking bulk, at which they are now Brooklyn, East New York, Jamaica, &c., Stat- brought to New York; and not only can en Island, Bergen, Jersey City, Hudson, Ho- these articles be shipped to Europe fiom that hoken, Newark, Paterson, Orange, Bloomfield, city at less cost than from New York, but Montclair, and even as far as Plainfield, N. J., goods can be brought from Europe in return and toward the north has filled up the lower sooner and cheaper than to New York. Bosportion of Westchester county, till it is for ton has not all or even one-half the advanmany miles a continuous and dense village tages for business which New York has, and population. No estimate of the population hence can not probably compete very suewhich failed to take these suburbs of the city cessfully with her; but it is in these constant into the account would do justice to its ad- struggles for the supremacy that the danger vance. Yet this greatly complicates the of decadence in our great cities lies. Yet question of future growth. With the present with all these drawbacks to any very minute facilities for travel, the merchant or mechanic accuracy in our estimates, we have felt that doing business in New York can reach his it was necessary to prepare a tabular stateshop, office or store in an hour after leaving ment of the probable. growth of our leading his home fifteen or eighteen miles away, or cities in each decade of the next hundred in from thirty to forty-five minutes if he lives years. In this, acting upon the principle we four, five, or six miles away. Next year, with have laid down, we give but one city where the improved methods of transit he may be there are several so contiguous as to be really able to come from these distances in half the but suburbs of it, and include them in our time he now spends, and places twenty-five estimates. We have been mindful also of or thirty miles distant by the same improve- the fact that a city will cease to grow when ments will be just as desirable for residences its distances become too great for convento those whose business does not require ience, and its cost of rents and living too them to be too early at their work. Twenty great for its citizens to be able to make a years hence there may be such rapid means profit on their business. of transit that a man sixty miles distant can In the following tables we give the popureach his place of business in fifty or sixty lation of nearly one hundred cities, accordminutes. Must we then include in the city ing to the census of the United States for the population for a radius of sixty miles? 1850 and 1860, with the rates of increase; Other things being equal, that city will be also the estimated population for one hundred the largest in which concentrate the largest years, beginning with 1870, with the average number of trunk lines of railways, ocean or per centage of increase for the ten decades. lake steamers, canals, &c., and which by its It will be observed that the per centage in abundant capital is able to accumulate the nearly all cases, except a few of the new goods from all quarters which are requisite cities in the West, is much below our esto supply the demands of the merchants, timate for the whole country, while the tenmanufacturers, miners and mechanics who dency of population is to concentrate in cities. flock thither, on the best terms. But to re- The reason of this must be obvious to the tain this preeminence requires a constant intelligent reader. Throughout the Mississtruggle. With the increasing facilities and sippi Valley and in the new States, there are cheapness of travel, the merchant who has hundreds of towns and villages, now too bought his supply of goods at Omaha will small to be included in this table, which come to Chicago, if he can do enough better within the coming hundred years will grow to pay hiin for the journey, or if lie has up into populous and flourishing cities. The bought at Chicago, he will come to New routes of our great transcontinental railroads, York; and if he finds that Liverpool orLon- the Union, Northern, Southern, and Kansas don or Paris afford goods materially cheaper Pacific, will also be studded with cities where than New York, and he wants enough to pay now there are only broad prairies. These for the additional time or trouble, he will estimates, at best, are but an approximation cross the ocean. At this very time, lines of to the truth, but they will furnish some data railroad are nearing completion, the freight for enabling us to comprehend the America cars of which will lay down the flour and grain of the future. ....................~iiii~~:~i~~~;i:~ jlli~:'-:-:::ii-l-ii-i —:-:-:::::::.:-:-;'F ~~i~i~~;ii~ -- -- - --- — ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:::-:::::_; —::::~~l~~~-i~~-------...........~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~?,;;;;;;;;-;;;;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-=~~~~~~~~~~~;~~~~~~~;~~~~~......... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~%B~~~~~~~~~~~t~~~~~~~fiS ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~........... ~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~i..... c~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~............................... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 7.............~~r~*-i~,......... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~k~~~~~~~~~~~~....................................g~ l............... i':i ii ii: i~......................~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ii~~iiii ED ~~ ~ ~ ~i ch THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN CITIES FIROM 1850 TO 1970. Average per Ppl Rates of Popula- centage f opula- opul Popula Popula- Popula- Popula Popula Popula- ppula- ppula- Pppula1.50 from1.5 160 ine tion in tion in tinn in tin in tion in tionin tion in tion tionn in to 1060. from 1870 to 1870. 1080. 1050. 1500. 1510. 1050. 1950. 1940. 1950. 1960. 1970. 1970_ Albany, N.Y,including East Albany, Greenbush, &c.,after1860, 50,763 22-86 62I367 1.64 o SOi) 118,000 145,000 175,000 210,006 253,010 26.000 345,000 400,000 465.000 Auburn, N. Y.,............................. 9,548 15.6 10,986 18.44 13,200 15,500 18,600 22000 26,400 32,00 38,000 45,000 54,000 60,000 72,000 Allto, 0ll,..7........33...................... 3,585 104.07 7,388 31.35 15,000 24,000 35,000 48,0100 60,000 75,00(j 92,000 120,000 150,000 184,000 220,000 At.as.e.ta, G... C 9........554..527.55 16,000 24,000 35,100 46,000 58,000 70,000 86,000 103,000 125,000 150,000 180,000 Baltimore, Md. and suburbs alter 01860....................... 169,0545 / 4 1 Balticore, Nd., andsuburbs aer 1860.1629,054 204.65 -212,418 319.77 3 275,0000 33( 000 400,000 450,000 540,00,0 650,000{. 780,000 936, 000 1,125,000 1,350,000 1,625,000 Buffilo, N. Y., with suburbs after 1860...................... 2,21 917 81, 2497 12,000 170,000 20,000 290,00 38000 475,00 570,000 685,00 820,000 75,000 1,160,000 Boston, Moss., including Dorciester, Cambridge, &cL., after 1860,. 136,881 29.90.177,812 21.67 250,000 320,00)U 400,000 505,000 620,000 750,000 860,000 1,030,00011,230000/1,470.0001,720,000 Bangor, Me.,............................................ 14,432 1368 16,407 14.06 18,800 21,500 24,600 28,000 32,000 36,500 41,700 47,500 54,000 62,000 70,000 Burlington, Vt............................ 6,1100 26 24 7,713 19.82 9,600 11,5)0, 13,800 16,500 19,800 23,500 28,200 33 800 40,500 49,000 60,060 Burlington, Iowa......................... 4 64.28 6,76 49.17 10,500 17,000 25000 38,010 58,000 84,000 12,000 185, 000 75,000 40,000 25,000 4D,98tr1osts5~ch. and suburbs si ce 8600, 578 11..............3..I.... ^ 3^^ *^ ^ ^ ^ ^' gOO ~ j30,000 170000 220,000 28 5 0,000 40.0000 525,000 Charst, S..............................42,985 loss 5.60 40,578 1193 35,000 39,000 44,000 50,000 56,000 62,000 69,000 76,000 84,000 93,0100 104,000 Cincinnati, O., including Covington, Newport, &c., after 1860, 115,436 39.51 161,044 26.20 250,000 340,000 460,000 630.000 840,000 1,050,000 1,300,000 1,550,000 1,860,000,220,000 2,600,000 Columbu s,............................................... 17,882 3.76 18,554 114 0,000 22,500 26000 28000 32000,000 46,000 51,000 57,000 Cleveland,., with suburbs after 1860..............17,034 154.88 43,417 2865 65,00 90000 120,000 160,000 210,000 280,000 360,000 450,000 550,000 675,000 800,000 GConoerodi, TNexaH.Hu.~.....~...................... 8,576 35.00 10,896 14.68 13,700 17,100 21,000 25,300 30,500 37000 44000 52000 61,000 70,000 80,000 ConcaIrd L, N H................................* ~>b-45 W3. *w- n-000 759,O'OOO 27000 35 1,700,00 2,15 2,600,00 3,150,000 Chicago, li., with suburbs after 1860......2.... 9,963 204.65 109,:260 31.33 250.000 375,01)0 525,0011 750,00001 000 000 1 Columbus, Ga............................................. 5,94 61.91 9,621 3.02 12,00 15,000 19,000 24,000 30,0 00 37000 45,000 54000 64,000 75,000 90,000 Cairo Illinoisa.........................2,188 3392 5000 8, 13000 18,000 24,000 31,000 39,000 50,000 63,000 76,000 90,000 Carson City, Nevada, and suburbs.................. 714 48.81 5,000 10,000 22,000 36,000 53,000 72,000 93,000 115,000 140000 170,000 220.000 Detroit, Mich., and suburbs since 1860...................... 21,019 117.03 45.619 26.04 65,000 90,000 o120,000 155,000 195,000 250,000 310,000 375,000 4501,000 540,000 625,000 Dayton, Ohio, and suburbs since 1860,................. 00,970 83.05 20,081 31.96 35,000 53,000 72,000 96,000 130,000 170,00 2 000 20,000 3505,000 Doenport, Iowa,.............................. 1,848 509.68 11,267 34.12 20,000 35,00 52,000 70,00 90,000 115,000 145,00 180,000 220,000 270,000 330,000 Diubuque, Iowa,..........3,'1086...108 318.27 12,9,67 31.81 23,000 336,000 54,000 73,000 95,000 125,000 154,000 190,000 230,100 285,000 350,000 erieP'npor,' Io a.......... 5,858 61.40 9,419 23.21 15,000 20,00 000 31,000 41,0)10 50,000 0.,000 72,000 85,0 00 100,000 20,000 1trie, rMuss...,.,... ~ ~~.~ 11,54 21.71 14,0.26 20.66 17,050 21000 2 0 32,000 38.510 )50 46,000 5,000 66,0001 7,000 95,000 1)54 000 Fort Wayne, MIad.4,8.5............. 2 142.51 10,3884 21. 12 18,000 20,000 1000 3000 43,0001 55,000 66,000 79,000 95,000 112,000 125,000 Galveston, Teas......4,177 74.93 7,307 26.67 9,00 11, 14,030 17,500 22,000 26,0(10 31,000 37,000 44,000 52,000 61,000 Croes, Ill.604 36458.....2. 1005...0.0..................0.... 33,000 4.,0. 48,000 57,000 67,000.081,000 95,00 Galv eison, eas.................................,,0, 1430 3000 56,000 67,000 50,000 Golden City, Colorado,........ -1,014 753.03 5,000 9,000 14.000 20,000 27,000 35,000 44,000 54,000 65,000 78,000 93,000 artford, Ct., and suburbs after 1860.......... 13,555 115.08 29.154 19.77 43,000 5,000 68,000 8 94,000 110,000 135,000 162000 19,000 220,000 260,000 Hnarrisburg, Pa., and soburs alter 18(1a.fe 80. 7,834 71.11 13,105 22.63 22,000 31,000 42,000 54,000 67,000 81,000 95,000 110,000 127,000 145,000 165,000 Indianapolis, Ind., and suburbs after 1860................ 8,034 131.65 18.611 23.12 38,000 48,000 62,000 77,000 92,000 184,000 135,000 160,000 205,000 260,000 320,000 jwna City, Iowa1...................8 8............... 417582 74.58 5,214 07.84 8,500 12,000 16,000 21,000 27000 34.000 42,000 50,000 60,000 72,000 85,000 Keokuk, Iowa...................................... 2,478 228..2 8,136 30.63 16,000.25,000 35.000 48,000 63,00 80,010 100,000 125,000 155,000 190,000 230,000 Kn~~~~~~ll ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~......1oxville, Tens~. 3,690 6;o.80 6,000 6.78 7,500 10,000 13,000 17,000 22,000 28,000 35,00 44,000 53,000 64,000 78,000 Lowell, Moass.,'and suburbs after 1860.....33,383 10.31 36,827 10.99 41,000 45,000 50.000 56.000 62,000 569,000 76,000 84,000 93,000 103,000 114,000 Louisville, Ky., and New Albany, Jeft'ersoiiville, &c., after 1860,. 43,194 57.50 68,033 18.97 85,00 105,000 125,000 150.000 180,000 212,000 256,000 310,000 360,000 420,000 480,000 LyInn Mo.ss..............,...14,257 33.85 19,083 21.11 24,000 30,000 37,000 45.00 54,000 65,000 78.000 94,000 110,000 130,000 155,000 Lancaster, Pa.12.. 12.369 4231 -17.603 27.41 24,000 33,000 44,000 59,000 78,0GO 104,000 130.000 160,000 195,000 230,000 270.000 Larfsyette, lid.6,12 6b..72 9...372................91 13,000 1000 22,00 8,000. 35,000 43,000- 51,000 60;000 70,000 84,000 100,000,Lansing, Mich....................... 1,229 150.12 3,074 26.53 8,000 12,000 16,000 21,000 27,000 34.000 42,00 49,000 58,000 68000 80,000 nsesr, N. H.13,932...44.33..20,103..21...... 20 11.1 8,000 35,000 44,000 0 6,00)0 78,000 93.'000 112.000 135,000 160,000 19(,000 lMbile, Ala., and suburbs............................20.515 42.61 29,28 19.44 35,000 45,000 57,010 70,000 841.100 99,000 116,000 135,000 158,100 180,000 25,000 Milwaukee, Wi.......................... 20,01 125.54 45.,246 22.94 75,000 100,000 130,000 160,000 195,000 235,000 280,000 340,0(0 410,000 490.000 580,000 noxvil,Te, Tr....................".......................,983 1554 22,0603 ~,00,0 197000 235,000 275,0o~ MPa'l~~~emphin~, Teis~. 8,839 155.94 22,62e~3 25.90 28,000 40,000 55,000~~',0 400 5, 72,000 90,000 110,000 135.00 165000 7,000 Madison, led.s. 8,012 1.47 9.068 23.42 16,000 822,00 29,000 37.000 46,000 515.010 67.010 811,000 94,00 110.,000 130,000 ~Ma~diso~n. W~..3,400 0 6,6117 24.73 11,000 16,6)00 21.000 214,000 32.000 39.000 47.000 561,000 67,000 80.000 96,000 Montreal, Canada-.......57.715 56.22 910,323 17.65 130,000 160,000 195.000 235.0,0 280,000 330,000 385.000 445,000 510,000 580,000 660,00 New Haven, Ct.. and suburbs fter 1860..2,345 93.00 3 9,267 20.05 60,00) 75,000 92,000 110,000 135.000 165,000 197.000 235.000 275,000 320,000 3170,000 Norfolk, Va., with Portsmouth and Gosprt after 1860........ 14,326 8.96 15,611 17.68 30,000 38,000 47,000 55,000 65,000! 76,000 18,000 102,000 117,000 133,000 152,000 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN CITIES FROM 1850 TO 1970-CONTINUED. Average per Rates of poula- centage Of Popula- Popula- Popula Popula- Popu!la- Popula- Poulapula Ppla- Pppula- Popula- Pppulao pula Irease increase per tion in tion in tion in tion in tion in tion in tion in t ion in tion in tion in tion in Name and State of City. EtonIn. f 1050t"iii each decade 70. i n0. 1890. 1900. 1910. 1920. 1930. 1940. 1950. 1960. 1970. tlou, t 1860. 1860. from' 170 to 1970. New York City, with adjacent cities within 20 miles ra- 4,200,0005,600,0007,000,000 8,500000 10,200,000 12,000,000,000 16,500,000 18,500,000 dius from City Hall, after 1860................515,547 56.7 805,651 25.61 1,900,000 2,85000 4,200,000 5,600,000 7,000,000, 0 0,200,000 12,000,000 1400000016500,000 18,500,000 Nashville, Tenn., and suburbs after 1860,. 10,478 62.13 16,88 14.79 0,000 25,000 32,000 39,000 47,000 57, 8,000 80,000 93,000 10700 22,000 New Orleans, La., with Algiers, &c., after 1860,.... 116,375 44.94 168,675 12.96 185,000 10,000 240,000 275,000 310,000 350,000 000 5,000 500,000 560,000 625,000 Nashua, N. H........................................ 5,820 72.93 10,065 19.79 14,000 18,500 2:,000 8, 34,000 40,000 47,000 55,000 64,000 74,000 85,000 Newburyport, Mass....... 9,572 40.00 13,401 18.00 17,000 21,000 25,500 30,000 35,00 41,000 47,500 55,000 63,000 2,00 82,000 Newburg, N.Y......................... 11,415 3312 15,196 1809 0,000 25,000 31,000 37,000 44,000 52,000 60,000 69,000 80,000 72,000 105,000 New Bedford, Mass.............16,443 3.60 22,300 15.00 2...........,600 29,400 33.,800 39,000 45,000 52,000 60,000 69,000 79,000 91,000 104,000 5Norwich, Conn........10,265.49.00 14,048 21.42 18,000 23,000 30,000 38,000 47,000 57,000 68,000 80,000 93,000 108,000 125000 Omaha, Neb.,...............................1,883 38.50 20,000 40.000 60,000 84,000 110,000 150,0001 00,000 260,000 3025,000 400,000 480,000 Oswego, N.Y....... 1....205 3.0. v,,.0'2 ~!.0 7,760 89.00 14,669 18.47 22,000 28,000 35,000 43,000 51,000 60,000 70,9 000 81,000 92,000 105,000 120,000 Portlandwa, Domineion ofand suburbs,...........20,815 26.54 26,341 22.18 33,00 41,000 50,000 62,000 75,000 94,000 114,000 135,000 160,000 190,000 225,000 Providence, R. I., and suburbs after 1860....... 41,513 22.04 50,b666 18.67 60,000 72,000 85,000 100,000 120,000 144,000 170,000 200,000 240,000 285,000 340,000 Philadelphia, City and County, and Camden after 1860,.. 340,045 65.43 52,529 30.40 950,0001,425,000 2,100,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 15,300,000 6,600,000 1 8,000,000 9,600,000 11,200,000 13,000,00 Pittsburgh, Pa., and Ailegharii City after 1860...... 46,601 5.61 77,919 20.04 86,000 97,000 120,000 147,000 180,000 217,000 260,000 310,000 365,000 425,000 490,000 Petersburg, Va.,........14,010 30.38 18,266 1.85 16,000 2...000 28,000 35,000 43,000 52,000 62,000 73,000 85,000 98,000 114,000 Poughkeepsie N........................ 13,944 561 14,726 21.6 18,000 22,000 27,000 32,000 37,500 43,500 5,000 58, 000 6,000 8,000 Peoriaughkeepi.,.ll.......*5,095 175.66 14,045 21.529 22,000 28,000 35,000 43,000 52,000 62,000 75,000 89,000 105,000 0005,000 100,000 Peoria,II........................................,000 1 00 Quincy, III....................6,90 97.51 13,632 18.44 20,000 25,000 31,000 37,500 44,000 51,000 59,000 68,000 79,000 92,000 108,000 Quebec, Dominion of Canada,... 42,052 21.56 51,109 35.12 60,000 7000 86,000 101,000 117,000 134,000 152,000 172,000 194,000 220,000 245,000 Rochester, N.Y., and suburbs since 860............. 36,403 3242 48,204 19.60 62,000 7,000 94000 113,000 135,000 160,000 10,000 225,000 265,000 310,000 360,000 Richmond, Va., and suburbs after 1860,................ 7,570 37.50 37,980 17.96 33,000 42,000 52.000 63.000 75,000 89,000 104,000 120,000 137,000 155,000 175,000 Rleading, Pa.i.......~15,743 47.12 23,161 16.39 29,000 36,000 43,000 50,000 58,000 67,000 77,000 88,000 100,000 115,000 132,000 Reading, Pa................................. I 4,',U0 13,000 15,000 18,000 Raleigh, N. C.................... 4,518 5.80 4,730 14.89 4,500 5,000 5,800 6,700 7,800 9,00 10,200 11,500 13,000 15000 18,000 Salem, Mass............................,264 9.81 22,252 11.56 24,000 26,9000 28,500 31,000 34.000 38,000 43,000 49,000 56,000 64,000 73,000 ~~~~~Springfield, Mae~ss. ~11,766 29.18 15,199 20.11 19,0001 23,500 29,000 35,000 42,000 50,000 60,000 712,000 85,000 100,000 120,00 Springfield, Mass........ I............................^ ^ b ^ ^ ^ ^. ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^0, 000 Syracuse, N. Y.,......... 22,271 26.26 28,119 19.94 35,000 43,000 52,000 62,000 74,000 88,000 104,000 125,000 150,000 180,000 215,000 Savannah, Ga.-.... 15,312 45.59 22,9292 20.79 23,000 31,000 40,000 50,000 61,000 73,000 86,000 100,000 115,000 133,000 150,000 St. Louis, Mo., nd suburbs after 1860. 77,860 106.49 160,773 23.54 200,000 270,000 350,000 440,000 550,000 660.000 775,000 900,0001,050000 3,225,000 1,600,000 San Francisco, and suburbs after 1860.34,776 63.34 56,802 24.26 125,000 180,000 240,000 310.000 390,000 495,000 600,000 715,000 830,000 955,000 1,100,000 San Francisco, and suburbs after I860,.. 89000 104000 120,000 140,000 165,000 195,000 230,000 270,000 Troy, N. Y., and West Troy after 1860................ 28,785 36.29 39,232 17.07 50,000 62,000 75,000 89,000 104,000 120,000 140,0 165,000 195,000 230,000 270,000 STaunton ^ 4:Mass.7 60 10,441 47.27 15,376 19.37 20,000 25,000 31,000 38,000 46,000 55,000 65,000 76,000 88,000 101,000 115,000 Utica, N. Y......... 17,565 28.26 22,529 17.21 28.000 34,001) 41,000 49,000 58,000 68,000 79,009 91,000 104.000 118,000 137,000 Vicksburg, Misa................. 3,678 24.82 4,591 30.14 6,000 9,000 13,000 18,000 24,000 31,000 39,000 48,000 58,000 69,000 81,000 Washington, D. C.. with Alexandria and Georgetown,.. 40,001 52.78 61,122 less 90,000 125,000 165,000 175,000 160,000 150,000 125,000 100,000 75,000 60,00) 50,000 Wilmington, N...C.................. 7,264 31.50 9,552 22.85 10,500 13,000 16,000 90,000 25,000 31,000 38,000 46.000 55,000 66,000 78,000 Wilmington,. Del........................... 13,979 53.86 21,508 1.00 28,000 36,000 44,000 53,000 64,000 76,00 88,000 101,000 115,000 130,000 148,000 Worceter, Mass....................... 17,049 46.40 4,960 18.10 33,000 42,000 53,000 64,000 76,000 884100 100,000 115,000 130,000 147,000 165,000 Wheelin. West Virini,,, 11,435 23.16 14,083 19.86 17,000 20,500 24,600 30,000 36,000 43,000 51,00 62000 74,000 88,000 APPENDIX. 471 It will be seen that we have given to New When, as must by that time be the case, popYork and Philadelphia, with their suburbs ulation begins to press close on the heels of of twenty miles radius, a much larger popu- production, so that there is a necessity for lation in 1970 than any city on the globe some measures to repress its too rapid innow has; but when we consider that the ter- crease, the number of the dependent classes ritory allowed gives them 1,600 square miles, will greatly enlarge, especially in the cities, and that this provides for an average density and thousands will lie down at night with no of only from 7,000 to 12,000 persons per knowledge of the source from which they square mile, while portions of New York now are to be provided with bread for the mo.rhave over 200,000 persons to the square mile, row. and parts of London over 400,000 to the square mile, the supposed population of these cities and their suburbs is seen not to be so very much out of the way. The Metropol- CHAPTER II. itan District of London, which is now estimated as containing 3,600,000 inhabitants, GOVERNMENT AND LEGISLATION OF THE has in the largest estimate only 116 square FUTURE. miles, only about one-thirteenth of the pro- What will be the form of the National posed territory to which we have assigned Government a hundred years hence? The this seemingly large population, while its question is a difficult one to answer, and one present number of inhabitants is one-fifth of which suggests perils'of a serious character that which we have supposed New York to to free institutions. No republic of the past possess in 1970. We have in all probability has retained its republican government long, underrated the population of the Mississippi after it had acquired great wealth, an exValley a hundred years hence, though we tended territory, and a large population; have provided for some very large cities while small republics have maintained themthere.; but one of the most intelligent and selves for ages, in part perhaps by virtue of thoughtful of the scientific men of that val- their insignificance. A vast territory, made ley, J. W. Foster, LL. D., of Chicago, author up of States of small or moderate size, of of "The Mississippi Valley, its Physical Ge- differing conditions of climate, soil, indusography, &c." regards it as absolutely certain tries, origin and interests, is likely to lose its that that valley will have over fifty millions cohesiveness and fall to pieces by a natural of inhabitants before A. D. 1900, and if it process of segregation. History is full of has that number within thirty years, its nat- examples of this. The great Babylonian ural increase and the vast flood of immigra- monarchy; the Medo-Persian kingdom, with tion pouring into it from East and West will its hundred and twenty-seven provinces; the inevitably give it three hundred millions by empire of Alexander, which did not survive A. D. 1970. Of this great population by far its founder, the Roman empire, and in later the larger part will undoubtedly be concen- times, the vast domain of Genghiz-Khan, and trated in its cities and large towns. There the still greater one of Timur-lane, the empire will be enough, outside of these, to till the of China, the Saracen empire of the West, lands successfully, doubtless; for agriculture the great German empire, and the hastilywill be compelled to coax from the reluctant organized and as speedily disintegrated imearth its utmost gifts in the way of crops, to perial domain of the First Napoleon, are all feed such multitudes as will then call that instances of this unwieldiness of a great fair valley their home; manufactures and State. mining will undoubtedly keep considerable It may be said that these were not repubnumbers away from the great towns, but as lies, but monarchies controlled and bound it has always been in the past so it is always together by a single will. This is true; and likely to be; the great cities have irresistible it may be added that there were in none of attractions for the masses, and in them they them the capacity for free government, the will congregate, often to their destruction. intelligence, or the free institutions which are There will be, of course, a great multipli- our strongest safeguards. cation of the employments and avocations by It would seem that the strength of our which it will be possible to earn a livelihood, government and its stability could be put to and very probably also a corresponding in- no severer test than that which it has so tricrease of the pauper and dangerous classes. umphantly sustained- in the late civil war. 472 APPEDIXX. There were arrayed not only the differing in- pected moment, find it difficult to reach the terests of two sections of the country, settled Presidency, and by the aid of his servile tools at first by different classes, and whose cli- and dupes, effect a coup d'etat and make himmate, soil and productions were unlike; the self President for life, King, Emperor, or one composed of an active, industrious, and Autocrat. How long he would be able to homogeneous population, the other having maintain himself in such a position would be mainly but two classes, the aristocratic and questionable; our people in general have no the servile, and the latter without hope of great fondness for crowned heads, or for advancement or of liberation from slavery. usurpers of any degree; but there is a conThe war was bitter, and at times the result siderable class who would be attracted by seemed doubtful, but in the end the nation the pomp and display of royalty, and if they and its government were stronger than be- could attain to honors, places or preferments fore. The destruction of slavery, and the through the royal villain, would willingly strong bonds, moral, social, political, and give him their homage. We do not believe physical, which bind all the different sections that it would be possible for such a usurper of the country together, forbid for fifty years to long enjoy his ill-gotten power, but the to come any serious probability of another great danger would be that the barriers which civil war. If it comes, soon or late, it must now hedge in our Constitution and our rebe from one or other of the following causes: publican form of government being thus the introduction in vast numbers of an infe- broken down, would lose so much of their rior laboring class, such as the Chinese or sanctity in the eyes of the nation that a Hindoos, and their discontent with the treat- second aggression would be less difficult than mnent they receive, or the rights and privi- the first, and a third more successful than leges of which they are deprived. Should either. Our greatest danger as a nation is to the Chinese, for instance, emigrate to the be found in the knavery of those railroad United States to the number of say twenty kings and chiefs of rings who will employ millions, and be refused suffrage and political money to corrupt electors, to make fiaudurights, and at the same time be oppressed lent canvasses of votes, to buy judges and and kept in a servile position, we might ex- legislatures, and to secure to themselves as pect a protracted civil war and very possibly nearly as possible irresponsible power. as a result a change in our forms of govern- The tendency of our government before ient. If, again, the Hispano-American races, the war was toward state sovereignty; by (the Mexicans, Central Americans, Cubans, slow degrees the central or federal power was &c.) of whom there seems a probability that weakened and the power of the States the greater part will be annexed during strengthened, till even a man of stronger will the coming twenty-five or fifty years, with and more earnest patriotism than Mr. Butheir old proclivity for revolutions and pro- chanan might have been justified in doubting nunciamentos, should feel themselves ag- whether the Federal Government actually grieved and lift the standard of revolt, there possessed the power to coerce a rebellious would follow a civil war, which would be State. The State sovereignty heresy was so "short, sharp, and decisive," but would be inwoven into the hearts of the Southern peolikely forever to prevent any farther aspira- ple through the mischievous teachings of tions in that direction. Calhoun and'his disciples, that they never A more reasonable cause of concern in regarded themselves as citizens of the United regard to the stability of our present form of States; they were South Carolinians, Virgingovernment, may be found in the tendencies ians, Marylanders, Georgians, &c., and intelto an oligarchy of wealth and political power ligent citizens of Great Britain and France in our. great cities and the fearful corruption had learned to distinguish between the peoof the ballot, which even now exists. If a ple of the North and the South who visited man possessing large wealth and devoid of Europe, by this very trait; the Northern moral principle, can, by alien votes, repeat- man always called himself an American or a ing, fraudulent naturalizations, or fraudulent citizen of the United States, the Southerner canvass of votes, attain to power in the city, never did so, but always named his State. county, or State; if he can bribe the legis- The war broke down these distinctions and latures, purchase influence or control the ju- State sovereignty with them. As was natdiciary, and put his own creatures in all ural, the pendulum swung at first too far in places of trust, he may not, at some unex- the other direction; the Federal power was APPENDIX. 4' 3 exaggerated, perhaps, a little beyond its just love, we might, even with our vast increase claims; but there is, even now, a reaction of population, administer our affairs without which needs to be guarded against. Yet the any considerable enlargement of our army or checks and balances of our system are so ad- navy, which, small as both are, would be sufmirable that we may fairly hope that our ficient for national police duty; but unfortupresent form of government, the best, all nately we have not attained, and probably things considered, which man has yet known, shall not in the next hundred years attain to will be continued forthe next hundred years. that blissful condition. Our isolation aTld The President of that time will have a hun- our numbers will render a large standii.g dred States or more under his sway, and will army unnecessary; but the increasing admixbe the chief ruler of a mightier empire than ture of races in -our population, and the reckever was subject to one man in the world's less character of some portions of it, will history. The cares of such a position will require a steady though not a rapid increase be such as few men will be able to endure, of the army to maintain peace in all quarand while the number of his cabinet officers ters. The necessities of our commerce and must be greatly increased, and they must be. the advancement of science will require the more fully responsible to the National Legis- maintenance of an efficient navy, not so much lature for their respective departments, his for warfare, offensive or defensive, as for the own labors will be herculean. It will make promotion of the interests of peace and good his task somewhat easier, as well as conduce order. greatly to the national quiet, if his term of of- Our foreign relations will require the best fice is extended to six years, and a reelection abilities of the foremost statesmen of the is prohibited at least until one term has inter- nation for their successful management, not vened. Among the other changes which will because we shall be in any special danger of be forced upon the nation by the great in- war with foreign powers; our great populacrease of population and enterprise, will be tion, our ample resources, and our somewlhat the establishment of distinct departments isolated position will render that improbable; for Agriculture, Manufactures, Mining, Com- but a great nation must set an example to merce, and Education; the division of the the smaller powers of moderation, of justice, present Treasury Department into sub-depart- of honorable dealing, and of dignity. It must ments, of Finance, Currency and Coinage, not be so easy and careless, as to temptimpoInternal Revenue, Foreign Revenue, and Debt sition upon its good nature, nor so sensitive -the simplification of all revenue systems, and jealous, as to be too ready to take offense whether home or foreign-the addition of a where none is intended. As our population postal telegraph system to our present post- will be drawn fiom the four quarters of tile office system, the Government directorship globe, it will be needful for our Foreign Secand supervision for its mail and transporta- retary or Minister of Foreign Affairs to see tion purposes, of all the principal railway and to it that none of those who have become steamship lines;* a department of the public citizens shall fail of receiving that protection lands, which shall be able to facilitate their in all their lawful enterprises to which they sale to actual settlers; the payment of all are entitled; and to this end a watchful care pensions in monthly or semi-monthly instal- must be kept against any attempted aggrcsments; a reorganization of the-Patent Office, sions or oppressions on our immigrants when to facilitate and encourage useful inventions; they revisit their native lands; as well as the protection and aid of immigration, and against the commercial frauds which are so such fieedom of intercourse with the coun- often practiced under our consular system. tries of Europe as may enable us readily to Wrongs there will undoubtedly be against adopt any of their improvements or methods our commerce and our citizens, as there have of cultivation; manufacture or mining which been in the past, and these wrongs it will be may prove advantageous to us, and to recip- the office of our Secretary of Foreign Affairs rocate these advantages with them. to redress, always being mindful of the will Were all the nations of the earth, or even of the people, as expressed through their repall our own people, governed by the law of resentatives in Congress. The negotiations for further accessions of territory will also *We desire to be distinctly understood as ex- be a part of his duty, if by that time we pressing no opinion in regard to the propriety of are not lready the possessors of the entire these measures. We are not speaking of what ought arenlry the possesss of the to be, but of what will be. North American Continent and the islands 474;APPENDIX. adjacent, which seems probable. At all sight and care for the millions of immigrants, events, we are not likely to find it neces- especially from Asia, who, but for some such sary to purchase territory otherwise than, care, would be in danger of suffering grievperhaps, by the assumption of the debts of ous wrongs; a Bureau of Travel and Transthe republics or colonies which desire to portation, which shall control in the interests unite with us, if these debts are not too of the government the great routes and means large; the smaller States will gravitate toward of locomotion, which by that time will have us in due season, and will be seeking the come into the hands of the government, as privilege of annexing themselves to us. the Erie Canal has become the property of We must give a separate chapter to the the State of New York, the government own"Finances of the Future," and hence will not ing the roads and routes, and renting for consider now the duties or the policy of the terms of years the privilege of running steamcabinet officer who may a hundred years cars, caloric cars, electro-motive cars and enhence preside over the Treasury. gines, or cars, spheres or cylinders driven by The functions of the Minister of the Inte- compressed air or other motive power, upon rior will be somewhat changed. He has now them, by the payment of a fixed rate per under his care the Bureau of Public Lands, mile. It will have also a Bureau of Mines the Bureau of Pensions, and the Bureau of and Mining, in which those connected with Indian Affairs, with a quasi responsibility that great interest can be brought directly in over the Patent Office, the Agricultural De- communication with the government, and all partment, the Department of Education, and questions relative to the government mineral a supervision of the Census Bureau during lands can be solved. If there shall remain the years while the census is being taken and any forest lands appertaining to the governprepared for publication. The General Land ment domain, the preservation of the forests, Office will probably exist a hundred years and the restoration of such as have been cut hence only for the care of its archives, or the off, with reference both to the government superintendence of such lands, should there interests, and to their effect on climate, hube any, as the General Government has re- midity, and capacity for restoring needed served to itself the right of controlling for elements to the soil and lands about them, national purposes aside from those in charge will form another bureau of great importance. of the War and Naval Departments. No There will therefore be ample work for the available lands will then remain for settle- Department of the Interior, though of a difmeat in the hands of the government, unless ferent character from that which now occupossibly some in Northern Alaska, among pies it. the highest mountains of Mexico, or on the The whole subject of Revenue, whether shores of Labrador or Greenland. The Pen- from excise, stamps, income-tax, licenses, cussion Bureau may still exist, for even if we toms or tonnage duties, should and probably have no other wars, there will be a few chil- will be assigned to a. single department of dren or other relatives of the heroes of the the government; and it will not be difficult, Wvar of 1861-5, who will still claim the na- when one competent man has virtual control tion's bounty, and the veterans of the army of the whole subject, to so adjust,these taxes or navy service may by that time have a re- as to derive fiom them the greatest amount tiring pension. The Bureau of Indian Affairs of revenue with the least possible annoyance will be a thing of the past, for except such or injury to the tax-payers. There is much of the Indians as have adopted the habits of to be done to simplify these matters so as to civilization and the responsibilities of citi- make them bear justly on all descriptions of zenship, the red men will have entirely dis- property and vested interests, and not unduly appeared. The Patent Office, the Agricul- upon any. tural Department, and the Department of Commerce and navigation will also soon Education, will have each become, separate require a distinct cabinet officer, who can deand independent branches of the govern- vote himself, without the distraction of other lent, and the Census Bureau will have been duties, to the promotion and extension of our merged in a general Department of Statistics. mercantile enterprises and to the proper There will remain, however, to the Depart- management of our commercial relations ment of the Interior, the superintendence of with other nations. The time must come, the government buildings and lands, a Bureau within the next thirty or fifty years, when our of Labor, which shall have a general over- commerce shall have regained more than its APPENDIX. 475 old prestige before the war; when England greatly, as they will, the transaction of all ~hall not be able to boast, as she now does, business requiring the remittance of money that in consequence of the war of 1861-5, in small sums. Should the government, as she has been able to drive the greater part now seems probable, take into its own hands of our ships from the ocean, and that the the transmission of telegraphic despatches, amount of American shipping is now incon- and perhaps also the forwarding of parcels siderable. The revival of trade, the greater below a certain weight, the Post Office Dedevelopment of the immense iron interest, partment will require a very considerable enand the impulse which will be given to the largement to enable it to perform its numercarrying trade by the pressure of Asiatic ous classes of duties. goods on our markets and of Asiatic emi- The law officer of the Executive Departgrants to our coasts, will render the corn- ment of the Government, the Attorneymerce of this country, both foreign and coast- General, is with us a member of the Cabinet, wise, greater in extent than that of any other though no other nation having a representacountry in the world. The abstraction of tive form of government makes him so. His commerce and navigation as well as of cus- duties will of course increase with the growth toms and internal revenue from the Treasury of the nation, but hardly to the same extent Department, will not materially diminish the as those of the other cabinet officers. vast amount of labor which belongs to that Turning to the other coordinate branches department of the government. The man- of the government, we foresee some great agement of the National Finances, the dimi- changes, both in the constitution and customs nution and it is to be hoped the final extinc- of the two houses of Congress. The Senate tion of the National Debt, the organization was intended to be a grave, deliberative body and judicious investment of the Sinking composed of the ablest men-the representFund, the auditing of all the accounts of ative men-of each State, and a sort of counother departments prior to their payment, terpoise to the light weights of the other and the control of the currency, coinage, and branch of the National Legislature. It did banking affairs of the whole country, will be not long come up fully to this high standard, sufficient to make that department, even after and for a score of years past it has steadily the bureaus indicated have been taken from degenerated. The highest deliberative body it, the largest and most important of the gov- in the country, some of its members have not ernment. been ashamed at almost any session for the It is in the highest degree probable that last twenty years to enter its stately chamber by some modification of the newly-devised in a condition of the grossest intoxication, system of sphero-locomotion, the transmis- and even to attempt to participate in its desion of our mails may be accelerated till bates in that disgraceful state. There are within twenty-four hours from the time of indeed many noble and honorable men their mailing, the letters dropped into the among its members; but they should know post-office in San Francisco will be ready for that the dishonor of such misconduct reflects delivery in New York City, and their trans- upon the whole Senate, and should have been mission across all but the largest oceans by prompt to punish such offenders with expula similar process is not an impossibility. sion. But it is not drunkenness alone which This rapidity of transmission, as well as the dishonors the Senate. The violent denungreat increase of population, must of neces- ciation, the reckless abuse, and the constant sity multiply many fold the quantity of the imputation of base and unworthy motives in national correspondence, and the transmis- the debates of the Senate, assimilate it too sion of newspapers and periodicals also. closely to the unseemly wrangling of the While this must greatly increase the labors House of Representatives. It were to be of the post-offices, it is to be hoped that con- wished that the Senators could have been trivances for the more expeditious sorting chosen without reference to party; but as and delivering of letters will be devised, that seems now impossible, it is certainly not which shall greatly increase the efficiency of too much to hope that no State will disgrace the Post Office Department. The money- itself by sending to that exalted position, a order system, which is destined to have an low blackguard, a drunkard, a gambler, or an almost indefinite extension, and the postal unprincipled demagogue. Yet, unless there savings bank system, will undoubtedly be- is some change or check in regard to the come leading featuresin -its work, facilitating election of Senators, when the time comes, 476- APPENDIX. as come it will within the century, when two to have nearly seven hundred members from hundnled Senators, the representatives in that these diverse nationalities, elected by unibody of a hundred States, shall take their versal suffrage, and in the mad scramble for seats there, tlere will be reenacted on the office or place, the worst demagogue having floor of the Senate chamber, the scenes of the best chance of election, how can it be folly, depravity and brutality which have other than a motley horde ivhich will include hitherto been confined to the Lower House. many of the worst men of the nation? There tiow indeed can it be otherwise? We might might be, there probably would be, some hope that the several States would select good men even in this collection of their best men for their representatives in Black spirits and white, blue spirits and gray, the Senate, but the experience of the past twenty-live years forbids the belief that the but they would be utterly powerless for the moral character of State Legislatures will be accomplishment of any good purpose. The sufficiently high to prevent them from send- only hope for a better National Parliament ing, sometimes, bad, base, unprincipled dem- or Congress lies in three measures: a restricagogues to the Senate on partisan grounds. tion of suffrage by a standard of intelligence, Among these two hundred there will be such education, and morality; a reduction of the a mixture of races, religions and civilizations, number, by largely increasing the ratio of as have not been seen together elsewhere. population for a representative, and their The States of the Atlantic coast and the Missis- election by general instead of local ticket, sippi Valley may retain their representatives with a provision for the representation of of the Anglo-Saxon race, with. perhaps some minorities. "To this complexion it must slight admixture of the Celt, the Teuton, and come," sooner or later, and the sooner the the African, but from the north will come better for the country. This is a matter of French Canadians, Celts, and half-breeds; greater importance than is generally supposfrom the Rocky Mountains, Chinese and civ- ed, for upon the character of our national ilized Indians; from the Pacific coast, Chi- legislation will largely depend the future nese, Japanese, Malays, and perhaps Hindoos; welfare of our country. the stalwart Indian of the northern portion The other coordinate branch of our govof British Columbia, and the Esquimaux of eminent, the Judiciary, will pirobably undergo Alaska. From Mexico and Central America, less change than any other department of the those mixed Spanish, Indian, and Negro government. There will be of course a larger races, in which most of the bad traits of all number of judges, and it is to be hoped three predominate; fiom the West Indies, sound discretion will prevail in their selection. the diminutive Cuban Creole, whose hot It would be a sad thing for the nation if the blood makes him always ready for strife, and Justices of the Supreme Court should ever the Negroes and Mulattoes of Hayti and St. come to be brawling political partisans and Domingo, with all their worst passions in the demagogues, or men who would take bribes, ascendancy from a hundred years of anarchy or degrade their high positions by any unand bloodshed. From these diverse races worthy act or motive. They should be, as and peoples must our Senators be chosen, they have been in the past, men learned in unless some plan can be hit upon for select- the law, capable of comprehending its great ing the best men of the nation without ref- principles, of understanding its broad genererence to locality, for its Grand Council. alizations; not too much cramped and fetThere could be no hope of any great meas- tered by its letter, but grasping the spirit ures for'good being originated or promoted that underlies the letter; men thoroughly in such a motley assemblage. versed in'the principles of equity; men who, As to the House of Representatives, we like John Marshall, the first and noblest of must confess that its present character gives our Chief Justices, were sure to get at the very little ground of hope for the future. right of any question, though they might not Within a few years past it has had among its be able always to give chapter and verse of members, murderers, gamblers, prize-fighters, the precedents for it. It might be well, too, swindlers, and thieves, (the names of repre- that they should not be disposed to adhere sentatives of each of these classes will occur too slavishly to precedents, but in the conat once to every intelligent reader,) and it sideration of the great national questions has, not inappropriately, been named "The occasionally brought before them, incline to National Bear Garden;" when it shall come remember that there were cases where it was APPENDIX. 477 the duty of the judge to make precedents for tions of the country, whose influence may be others to follow, rather than to follow those far more potent for good or evil than any of of others. Our nation is a great one and is these we have named. We do not refer to rapidly growing; its situation, its population, the Negro, for it is doubtful whether even its political character, and its government, now he has a majority of voters in any State differ materially from those of all other na- of the Union; and if he has, it will be but tions, and require a different application of temporary and productive of no serious mislegal principles in many cases. This rigid chief; for he is readily controlled by white adherence to precedents laid down in other men in whom he trusts, and has so much of countries at other times, and under other cir- the childlike, imitative propensity, that he cumstances, has been a great defect of all our will copy perhaps even too closely the conhigher courts, State and National. As to the stitutions and laws of the Anglo-Saxon States. State governments, while all will probably With the Chinese and the Japanese, on the be on a republican basis, since without a contrary, there is very little disposition to most radical change in the National Consti- imitate our institutions or laws. In the States tution they could not be admitted into the in which, fifty years hence, they will preUnion with any other, there will be, doubt- dominate, they will, doubtless, organize a less, a greater diversity than now exists in professedly republican form of government their details of law and government. in order to their admission to the Union; As yet the AngloSaxon element is pre- but in all other respects, the Chinese forms dominant in the constitution and government will be copied, for John Chinaman, beneath of every State. In some it is modified to all his apparent humility and teachableness, some extent by other influences; as for in- has an innate conviction that China is the stance. in Louisiana, where the French ele- only country that has a perfect government ment permeates many of the constitutional and laws, and that he himself is better qualprovisions and State laws, and in some of the ified than any man of another nation, any newer States of the Northwest, where the "outside barbarian," can possibly be, to esTeutonic element has introduced some laxity tablish a government and laws according to in regard to the observance of the Sabbath, that infallible pattern. We shall be likely to and other questions of ethics and good mor- have, then, Chinese and possibly Japanese als. States; of different forms, purposes, religious But the Anglo-Saxon element has nearly civilizations, firom our own; and with these exhausted its capacity for State-building in we must constantly be brought in contact. this country. We shall in the future receive, Another form of government and system of it is true, some accessions of immigrants from laws differing materially from our present England, but more from Ireland, Germany, ones will be those of the Hispano-Amierican the Scandinavian countries, France and Italy, States, which are fast preparing to be annexed and the immigrants from Germany and Scan- to us, and the two Negro republics, which, dinavia are coming to a large extent in par- sooner or later, will also be thrust upon us. tially organized colonies, prepared to take up The Spaniard in his best estate is singularly large tracts of land and to exert a formative ill qualified for a democratic form of governinfluence on the new States yet to be formed. ment, and his American half-brother inherits This influence will differ somewhat, though all his disqualifications, with a host more not very widely from that of the Anglo- which are specially his own. Pride, haught-,Saxons, and there is perhaps little to fear iness, contempt for others, an overweening from it. The Celtic races are not so much self-conceit, jealousy, intolerance and cruelty, inclined to colonize, but they will congregate are his chief sins, and the really numerous in our large cities, and through their greed virtues which partially compensate for these for office, and their slight conscientiousness, vices, are not of a character to help much in partly perhaps the result of ignorance, they his efforts at republicanism. No Spanish and.will form fit tools for designing knaves, and by indeed no Celtic nation has ever maintained false naturalization papers,'fraudulent voting for any considerable period a well-ordered and repeating, will accomplish more toward republican government. Chili has come subverting good government than ten times nearer to it than any other State, but her their number of honest men could do toward revolutions have been numerous, and her remaintaining it. publicanism is a very different. thing from But there are other elements of population our idea. which will gain the ascendancy in some por- Should we, as we probably shall, admit 47 8 APPENDIX. these States to the Union, it must be with a look toward the far-distant evening; but its material modification of their present forms radiant beauty is hidden in part by the gloomy of government, and a provision that will pre- shadows of overhanging clouds. It remains vent their uprising and issuing pronuncia- to be seen whether the experiment, which is mentos at the beck of any aspiring dema- to be tried here on a grander scale than ever gogue. There must also be an entire abolition before in our world, of reducing so many difof all the requirements of a state church, and ferent races, in such vast numbers, to a hothe hindrances placed on education. mogeneous mass, under one government, and The Canadians, the citizens of the Eastern that, one in which they themselves shall be Provinces, the people of Labrador,Winnipeg, the rulers-can prove a success. All the and British Columbia, will require some mod- experiments of the past are against it; but ifications in their views and organizations they never embraced the principle of self-govbefore they can enter the Union as States. ernment. The despot, who gathered nations The French creole population of Canada, the under his sway and used them for his own half-breeds of Winnipeg, and the loyalists of purposes of self-aggrandizement, held them Ontario, have all something to learn and by his own personal will and magnetism, and much to unlearn before they will become when that was gone, they fell back naturally qualified for a truly republican form of gov- into their original elements. If the union of ernment. Whether the pressure of popula- these diverse nations can become a fusion, tion upon the Pacific coast will drive or draw and from that fusion there can grow up a a sufficient number of hardy adventurers and homogeneous nation with a singleness of aim their families into Alaska to make it possible and purpose, and an intelligence and printo erect that forbidding territory into one or ciple sufficient to enable it to govern itself, more States, within a hundred years, is, per- then indeed will the great experiment prove haps, a question. We are inclined to the a glorious success; but is this possible? belief that it will, and that the influence of kindness and good management will draw enough of the Innuits or Esquimaux into the lower portion of the territory to make them a large fraction of its population. The Es- CHAPTER III. quimaux are a gentle, harmless race, but their capacity for self-government is, to say the THE FINANCES OF THE UTURE. least, problematical. In the matter of finance we have to conWe are doubtful, too, of the ability of the sider, 1st. The National or Governmental semi-savages of Hayti and St. Domingo, and receipts and expenditures; 2d. Those of of the Mosquito coast, ever to become good States and cities; 3d. The individual incitizens of a republican government, much comes and extravagance. less to rule in or legislate for it, not so much Under the first head we may remark that on account of their race, though these ad- while it is altogether probable that our presmixtures in all grades of servile and degraded ent national debt will be substantially wiped races, give little promise of excellence; but out before or by the close of the present cenmainly because for nearly three-fourths of a tury, there is no good reason to suppose that century their history has been one of anar- we shall ever again be without a national chy, rapacity, revenge and blood-thirstiness, debt of considerable, though probably not of and the worst passions of the human heart oppressive amount. There is no absolute have attained such a predominance that it necessity for this, for so great and so conwill take a full century of a strong but pa- stantly increasing are our resources that a ternal government and the influence of intel- very moderate rate of taxation ought to be lectual culture and an active Christianity, to sufficient to pay off the existing debt and bring them up to the level of the other na- supply the means for all indispensable expentions of Christendom in self-control, civil diture. As we have said elsewhere, there is order, and capacity for self-government. little probability of another great war for the The outlook, then, for the government of next hundred years. But so great will be our country in, 1970 is not without its dark the pressure for the acquisition of new terriclouds and threatening storms. The bow of tory, that the government will inevitably be hope, in the general diffusion of education led into more foolish bargains like that of and Christianity, may span the sky as we Alaska, or into the purchase of islands or APPENDIX. 479 colonies already saddled with heavy debts of to occupy her valleys running from North to somewhat indefinite amount, which will be South, but to climb her lofty plateaus and to sure to grow larger as the prospect of their cross her mountain slopes; and if perchance payment increases; and when we have made some fine morning an earthquake should inone purchase of this kind, we shall have to terfere with the grade, depressing or elevamake another of some adjacent island or ting portions of it, or a stream of molten mainland, because that which we have just lava should prove a slight obstruction to the acquired will not be complete without it, or progress of the iron horse, why, it will be so will be in peril in some remote contingency much the worse for the road, and the govunless we buy other lands which we do riot ernment will be called upon to make it all need. And in this way the work of purchase right. Central America will require not only will go on till we shall have absorbed the railroads but ship canals, two or three probentire continent and the adjacent islands. It ably, to enable her to draw toward her shores is evident, to be sure, that if we will sit still, the commerce of the East; and here again and be contented with what we now have, the government will be expected to insure all these adjacent states and countries will against losses by earthquake or volcano. gravitate toward us, and before long be beg- The West Indies will need railroads, artiging us to annex them without a considera- ficial harbors, breakwaters, and navy yards, tion; but what nation was ever content to dry-docks, public buildings, &c. &c. And sit still and let the adjacent nations come each of the hundred or more States compoand ask to be taken in? sing the Union of 1970 will feel specially These various adjacent states having been aggrieved unless the government expends absorbed in our country, will demand, and fiom six to ten millions for river and harbor the demand will be granted, that they should improvement, buildings for courts, posthave the same facilities and grants for in- offices, custom-houses, &c. &c. ternal improvements as the states and terri- We regard and with some justice our tories now in the Union have received. present taxation, state and national, as heavy, Canada will require a railroad to the Pacific, not really oppressive, but onerous, and should and roads stretching northward.to Winnipeg, hardly be willing to bear burdens as heavy to Hudson's Bay, and to the eastern prov- for a very long time in the future; yet our inces. The Saguenay will become a favorite taxes are really much lighter than those of summer resort, and there will be a necessity the British people. Their valuation of real for a railway in that direction. What is now and personal property, is, it is true, about British Columbia will require railroads and five times what ours was in 1860, and pertelegraphs and tubular bridges to facilitate haps two and a half times our present valuacommunication with Vancouver's Island, and tion, but when we add to the national revethe Frazer River country; the argument will nues, which average about three hundred be urged and probablyprove irresistible, that and seventy millions of dollars, the educaif we are ever to make anything out of tional taxes, county, borough, city, and Alaska, we must have railroads and subsi- above all the poor rates, the grand aggregate dized steamerlines and telegraphs to develop is more than one thousand millions of dolthe country and facilitate communication lars to be paid by a population less than with Russia via Siberia. The valleys of the three-fourths of ours. The resources of our Rocky Mountains and of the Sierra Nevada people are multiplying more rapidly than must each have a railway running through those of any other nation in history, but our them to open the country and enable the set- expenditures will, unless jealously guarded, tlers to reach the great East and West lines, multiply quite as fast. and send their bullion, their minerals, their The expenditures of the General Governcattle and their grains to market. New ment for the year ending June 30, 1869, Mexico and Arizona and Western Texas were $321,490,596. Of this sum, $130,694,must be gridironed with railways, to drive 243 was for interest on the public debt. The away the Indians and aid in the development expenditures of the year ending June 30, of their rich mines, and with these railways 1870, will not, it is said, be quite so large, there must be Artesian wells bored, not more though including the payment of nearly sevthan a mile apart, to furnish water for the enty millions of the public debt, but a roads, and to irrigate these waterless lands. greedy horde of claimants are tugging at the Mexico will need a host of railways, not only public purse, and it is hard to shake them 480 APPENDIX. off. For a time the railroad companies will made to the Royal Household of Great Britbe partially satisfied by large donations of ain,) while a cabinet minister's salary will the public lands, and some of them have al- probably not be less than $50,000. So vast ready received enough to make a half-dozen a population will necessarily require a great European duchies, but ere long the public number of officials, though many things will lands will be exhausted, and then the clamor then be accomplished by maclhiiery which for money will be renewed. Can we suppose now require the labor of human lands. In it will be ineffectual. nothing, perhaps, will this be more conspicIt is estimated by those who have given uous than in the dispatch of the mails, now special attention to the subject, that a fair requiring on all the larger routes the attendvaluation of the taxable property of our peo- ance and personal service of a route-agent, pie, real and personal, in the year 1870 will but which, then committed, at the great disshow an amount of thirty-five thousand mill- tributing office, to their spherical or elliptical ions of dollars, and possibly a little more receptacle, and closed by a spring-lock, will than this. We are just entering upon a be rolled into their tubes and dispatched period of far more rapid development of our with perfect safety and almost lightning resources than anything we have yet seen, speed to their several destinations, secure by and if we have thirty-five billions in 1870, their very speed from deprealtion while in we shall certainly reach seventy billions in transit. But with all the aid of machinery, 1880, and one hundred and sixty billions at there will still be probably a hundred thouleast by 1900, or twice the present wealth sand or more officials, all eager for governof the British Empire, the richest of modern ment pay. Should the government, as is States.'That by the year 1970 we should possible, become the proprietor -of all the attain to a valuation of a trillion or $1,000,- principal railroad routes of the country, not 000,000,000, seems not only possible but running its own cars, but leasing to all reprobable. The sum is indeed so large that sponsible parties at fixed rates the right to we can not comprehend it, and it makes but run trains upon the roads on certain condilittle impression on our minds; but it repre- tions, thus abolishing the hateful railroad sents an amount probably greater than the monopolies, there would be a small army of aggregate wealth of the entire globe to-day. officials necessary for the superintendence of Our present revenue is just about one per this work. The adoption of a system of cent. on our supposed valuation; if it con- compulsory education, which will become an tinues to hold the same relation, the revenue admitted necessity within a few years, will of the country for 1970 would be $10,000,- also require a very large force of teachers, 000,000, or four times the amount of our whose pay must come directly or indirectly national debt, and almost three times that of firom the government. the national debt of Great Britain. We must When we add to these items the various bear in mind, however, that, by that time, subsidies to lines of transportation by land the purchasing power of money will have and water, a principle which has already, materially depreciated. A dollar in gold perhaps necessarily, been established; the will not now purchase as much of most corn- construction and maintenance of new routes moditics, especially of articles of food, as of communication, for which there will be a fifty cents would have done in 1848; and constant demand.; the support of the army, when all the gold fields of our own conti- navy, and revenue services; the endowment nent, and those of Europe, Asia, Africa, Aus- of institutions of higher education in art, tralia, and the islands of the Pacific, are literature, physical science and practical techyielding their maximum quantity of the pre- nology, and the other myriad demands for cious metals, five dollars in gold will hardly governmental expenditure which a hundred purchase more than one dollar will now. years of active energetic national life will There will be then necessarily a great in- develop, and a hundred years of practice by crease in the salaries paid by government, the cormorants upon the public purse will and a corresponding increase in all its expen- crave, we think we are not predicting a larger ditures. The ruler of a realm of six or seven revenue than will be required when we put hundred millions of people will hardly re- the income of the government in the year ceive a salary of less than half a million dol- 1970 at ten thousand millions of dollars. lars for the expenses of the Presidential But the local expenditure of States, household, (one-fourth the allowance now counties, and especially of great cities, will APPENDIX. 481 in the aggregate largely exceed that of the third generation, may and probably will National Government. This is inevitable. modify somewhat this passion for display; When single States of the Republic exceed, but as there will be in the future, as in the as several of them will, the population of past, constant accessions to the class of the some of the present important empires of the vulgar rich, we may expect that there will be Old World; when, for instance, New York violations of good taste in this reckless exhas a population of fifty millions, and Illinois, travagance of dress, equipage and houses in Missouri, Nebrlaska, and California, as many the future. We can only hope that there or more, we can hardly expect that their ex- may be a prevalent feeling among the wealthy penditures of State, counties and cities will against this gorgeous barbarism, which will be less than those of France, Great Britain, to some extent control and subdue it. Still or Austria now are, while their present num- when we see, as we have in our own day, the ber of inhabitants is considerably less than heir of one of the oldest princely houses of the prospective population of these States of Europe, the Prince Paul Esterhazy, seeking the future. The tendency of great cities in to surpass the other princes of Europe in the which large wealth is accumulated, to lavish splendor of his equipage, the number of his expenditure, is well known. The public ex- carriages, the vast collection of his jewels, penditures of the city and county of New the extravagant adornment of his person and York for all purposes, exceeded thirty-two dress, and the variety and elegance of his millions of dollars in 1869. When there shall palaces and estates, while the culture of his be included within a single metropolitan intellect, the furnishing of his mind and the government and jurisdiction, a territory of development of his moral nature, were wholly twenty miles radius from the present City neglected, we can hardly hope for much Hall, and a population in that territory of either from our railroad kings and great eighteen millions, with a valuation of $14,- landed proprietors or their descendants. 000,000,000, (its present valuation is $872,- The cost of living among our middle 000,000, and this is probably not more than classes has rapidly advanced within the past one-half of the true valuation, while that of ten years, and has been doing a serious Kings, Queens and Richmond counties is amount of mischief in contributing toward over two hundred millions more,) its expen- the destruction or material reduction of the ditures for all public purposes will hardly be middle class in society. While we do not less than four hundred millions per year. We believe that this class will be entirely oblitmight go on with these estimates, but this erated in the next hundred years, we have no single illustration will be sufficient to show question it will be greatly diminished, and that the public expenditures will undoubt- that a century hence our population will conedly increase to an extent fully comrnmen- sist mainly of a very considerable class of surate with our future population and wealth. large wealth, a small middle class, and an In the matter of private expenditure it is overwhelming number of the poor, who may less easy to predict what will be the future perhaps be subdivided into the poor and the course of our people. That there will be a very poor. The class of professional men, considerable and constantly-increasing pro-, artists, small merchants, and others living on portion of the population who will be pos- a moderate income, before the war, found in sessed of vast wealth, is certain. In our our larger cities an income of $1,200 to own time many of those who have rapidly $2,000 sufficient to supply their moderate acquired fortunes, and are without the cul- requirements, while in the smaller cities or ture, education and refinement which would rural districts, from $500 to $1,200 was about prompt them to the best use of their money, the limit of annual expenditure. Now, the expend it most extravagantly in dress, equip- same classes in the large cities find an inage, or pretentious and tasteless dwellings; come of from $3,000 to $7,000 absolutely and there is no surer indication of newly- indispensable for their expenses, and in the acquired wealth than is to be found in the country from $1,200 to $2,500 is as necesprofusion of gaudy and costly dresses, jew- sary. This is not owing wholly to the adelry, horses and carriages, or so-called palatial vance in the prices of commodities or the residences. A better education, more thor- reduction in the purchasing power of money; ough art-culture, and the cultivation of a the requirements of society, at the present more refined taste, which usually accompany day, will not tolerate as inexpensive dress, the possession of wealth in the second or food, or household conveniences as would 482 APPENDIX. have been considered amply sufficient fifteen British vessels already built and eager to obor twenty years ago, and every step of ad- tain cargoes, can exercise in our own ports, vance in this direction has augmented the but at a time when it has been demonstrated cost of living. Six years ago a bankrupt that iron vessels are cheaper, safer, more eamerchant, turned editor, in New York, ex- sily handled, and capable of carrying larger pressed his belief that no one could live freights in proportion to their tonnage than respectably, hardly decently, on any thing wood, we find ourselves almost wholly withless than five thousand dollars per annum; out these vessels, and unable to build them and illustrated his faith, by living himself at at the rates at which they can be constructed the rate of more than ten thousand dollars a in English ship-yards, owing to the greater year. This increased cost of living will go cost of iron and labor. These disadvantages, on, till the middle class will find that their severe as they may be, are however but ternonly alternative is to live at an annual cost porary. We have the iron and the coal as of twenty or twenty-five thousand dollars a near each other as they are in England, and year, or sink into the poor class, who lack both convenient to good river and marine the means, and soon the disposition, to main- ports. The new processes of making iron tain the comforts and amenities of refined and steel, and our resort to machinery for life, and the requirements of fashion. We doing that better which is done in Great deplore such a result, but it will come, within Britain by hand, will soon enable us to build the century. better iron ships than the English, and build We conclude, then, that the vast produc- them cheaper. The building of wooden ships, tion of wealth which will flow in upon us in which has been so large a business in Maine the next hundred years will be attended with for many years past, must give place to some some disadvantages as well as advantages; other form of industrial enterprise. Iron that it will prove mainly beneficial to a cor- ships driven by steam are now the great deparatively limited class, whose vast accumu- sideratum for our commerce. There seems lations will enable them to expend large sums little likelihood of a change in the material for the maintenance of their families, while for ship-building, for iron has the advantage through their lavish expenditure, and their of great strength, lightness, stiffness, and influence, the middle class will be ruined in cheapness, and can hardly be surpassed in the effort to follow their example, and the these requisites by any other material. There poor be separated by a wide gulf from the may be a change in the motive power; conclasses above them in social position. pressed air, or electricity, or the condensed and carefully-preserved solar heat; and it will be a great triumph for American invention when this can be accomplished; but we shall CHAPTER IV. never go back to wood again as our chief material. We have a sea-coast and naviTHE COMMERCE OF THE FUTURE. gable river line unsurpassed by any nation in That our commerce, which, since it was so the world, with hundreds of excellent ports largely driven from the seas by piratical priva- and harbors, and nothing can prevent our teers, built, manned, armed and equipped in becoming the greatest commercial nation.of Great Britain, during the late war, has been in the globe. With the Darien ship-canal to a state of depression, is destined to regain its facilitate the transit from ocean to ocean, the ascendancy and to make us the greatest improved navigation of the Missouri, the Miscommercial nation on the globe, does not sissippi, the Red River and the Arkansas, admit of a doubt. The boast of English the completion of a ship-canal from Lake writers within the past year that our ship- Michigan to the Mississippi, and another ping did not amount to one-third of what it around the Falls of Niagara, the improvewas before the war, may be true now, but it ment of the St. Lawrence, the enlargement will not be so long, and the great dispropor- and strengthening of the Erie and Northern tion which now exists between the number Canals, and the dredging of the Hudson, all and tonnage of our vessels engaged in the works sure to be accomplished in a few years, carrying trade, and those of Great Britain, our internal and our marine commerce will will be rapidly diminished. The present is, assume an importance of which we can now however, a transition period. Not only are have but a very imperfect comprehension. we compelled to submit to the rivalry which The total registered, enrolled and licensed APPENDIX. 483 tonnage of the United States in 1861, was the West African States, which we may hope 5,539,813 tons, of which 877,204 tons were will ere that time have become stable and steam vessels; this was reduced in 1865 to civilized communities, and with South Amer4,310,778 tons, in consequence of the depre- ica, will be very large, amounting to many dations of the privateers. In 1868, the ton- millions of tons, but this will be dwarfed nage had risen to 4,351,758 tons, of which into insignificance in comparison with the 1,199,315 tons were steam vessels. This immense commerce of the Pacific, which is included barges and canal-boats, as well as now in its infancy, but which, bringing its the small coasting and fishing vessels of the millions of immigrants from China, Japan, seaboard, and the steamboats of the river Malaysia, and India, will bring also the silks, navigation. In all there were 28,118 vessels, cottons, teas, hemp, jute, rice, spices, lacgiving an average tonnage of only 155 tons quered wares, and other goods of the Orient, per vessel. The British shipping of all grades, for which a vast demand will be found among which, in 1861, was about 1,200,000 tons our six or seven hundred millions of people. less than ours, had increased in 1868 to 5,- From the Australian republics and New Zea516,434 tons, nearly what we had in 1861, land, as well as from the numerous islands of and this amount was in 22,250 vessels, giv- the Pacific, we shall receive cargoes of the ing an average tonnage of 250 tons to each fruits and products of those tropical and fervessel, but only 824,614 tons were steam ves- tile lands, and to all these countries in return sels, showing that even with our diminished our own manufactures and productions will commercial marine, we had 300,000 tons be welcome. We can hardly err, except in more of steam vessels than Great Britain. the way of under-statement, if we put the There has been, up to the present time, a ocean tonnage of our country in 1970 at fifty great depression in the commerce by ocean million tuns, and the tonnage of lakes, rivers, steamers of American ownership; but this is and internal water communications, at destined to be speedily remedied, and while twenty-five million tuns. For our foreign in 1868 there were 39 American to 106 for- commerce, New York, Norfolk, Baltimore, eign steamers plying on the Atlantic and Charleston, Mobile, New Orleans, Vera Cruz, Gulf, we are assured that the next ten years and at the North, Boston, Portland, St. will see the proportion reversed. The. river John's, and Halifax; and on the Pacific, San and lake commerce of the- country is only at Francisco, Acapulco, Manzanilla, Guaymas, the threshold of its development, for while San Diego, Monterey, Astoria, Portland, the multiplication of railways will stimulate Port Townsend, Victoria, and New Westemigration and production, all the more bulky minster will be the principal ports. There crops and mineral products can be moved will be also two very large ports at the terfar more cheaply by water than by land. mini of the Darien Canal, on the Atlantic The improvement of the navigation of the and Pacific. Of these ports, in the nature of rivers and lakes by means of canals, locks, things, New York and San Francisco must and slackwater dams and locks, and the in- be by far the most important. While much troduction of improved engines and new of our commerce from Australia, New Zeamotive powers will, within twenty years to land, the Southern Pacific Islands and the come, bring the 1,200,000 tons of lake and Malay Archipelago, will pass directly through river vessels of 1868, up to 5,000,000' tons, the Darien Canal, not taking San Francisco and by the year 1970, our internal navigation or indeed any of the Pacific ports in its way, will reach 25,000,000 tons. The sea-going very little of it will fail to pay tribute to vessels, propelled by some efficient motive New York. Long before that period, the power-steam, or hot or condensed air, solar great money-centre of the world, which even heat, or some application of electricity-will now shows symptoms of the coming change, sail daily by scores from all our principal will be transferred from London to NewYork, ports to. all the great ports of the. world, and and where that centre is, thither the world's either by reducing the friction or increasing traffic will come. But aside from its importthe power or rapidity of action of their pro- ance as the great money and exchange centre pellers, they will reduce the time of the trip of the world, the improvements now proacross the Atlantic to four days, and that jected or in progress will make New York across the Pacific to nine or ten. Our traffic the greatest maritime port on the globe. with Europe, with the Mediterranean and With a land-locked bay of sufficient capacity Asia by way. of the Red Sea, with some of and depth to permit the entire commercial 29 484 APPENDIX. marine of Christendom to ride at anchor in But as a port of entry for China, Japan, safety; with the broad and noble Hudson and all Northeastern Asia, San Francisco washing its western shore, and the strait will maintain her preeminence. Into her known as the East River pouring the waters Golden Gate will enter the emigrant ships of'Long Island Sound into the bay; and both with their millions of Orientals, who will rivers spanned by lofty suspension bridges at find their homes on American shores, and various points,* and capacious tubular rail- thither, too, the ships laden with all the ways crossing both rivers by a newly-con- products of the East will come to deposit trived tunnel; with the difficulties of navi- them for distribution over our own country gation at Hurlgate all surmounted, and a and Europe. The commerce of Southern channel deep enough for the largest ships, Europe, the Mediterranean, and the African enabling the city to make Long Island Coast, will find in Norfolk a convenient and Sound another bay; with a ship-canal 350 excellent port, and one of the finest harbors feet wide and 60 feet deep, connecting New- in the world, and that city will have a large town Creek with the beautiful Canarsie Bay, and prosperous growth from its facilities for and thus giving full sixty miles of wharves foreign commerce and internal communicaand piers, accessible at all times, and all its tion. As the entrep6t of thevast riverine cornsuburbs as well as all parts of the city itself merce of the Mississippi Valley and the port connected by swift railways in arcades, in from which the mineral, vegetable, and anitunnels, elevated upon iron pillars along its mal products of that region are sent to all streets, or running in a belt outside the piers parts of the globe, New Orleans, with her and above the height of the vessels which recently-improved means.of exit into the throng the wharves; with its costly and Gulf, will always command a commercial pobeautiful warehouses, churches, banks, public sition second to no city on the Atlantic slope institutions and residences, it will be the except New York. The trans-continental railgrandest city the world has ever seen, and ways which. are soon to terminate at San worth a journey round the globe to see. Diego, and its fine harbor, will call thither a large and constantly-growing traffic from *Description of the East River Bridge, New York. Australia and the West Coast of South Length of river span from center to center America. As to the ports now in Mexico, of tower,........... 1,600 feet. their growth will depend very much upon Length of each land span............. 940 " Distance anchor walls,................ 3,480" the greater stability of their government Length of New York approach,......... 1,441 " which will follow their annexation, and the Length of Brooklyn approach,......... 941 " infusion of American enterprise and energy Total length from terminus to terminus,.. 5,862 into the languid and apathetic Mexican. Ascent of New York approach per 100 ft., 3 44 o Ascent of Brooklyn approach per 100 feet, 1T - ul the West India Islands become a-part Deflection of cable in summer,.......... 150 " of the Republic, there will be two or three Elevation of grade in center of space in commercial ports of considerable importance summer above high tide,............ 138 " there. Havana will of course retain its posiElevation of bridge in the clear,........ 135 " Elevation of floor in center of tower,.... 118d Kingstn, Jamaica, St. Thomas and Elevation of floor at anchorage,........ 85 64 4 Port au Prince or St. Domingo, all lying in Elevation of New York terminus,..... 36 " the direct route between New York and the Elevation of Brooklyn terminus,........ 63 " Darien Canal, will have the opportunity of Height of tower above floor,........... 150" becoming important seaports. Total height above high-tide, balustrade not included,...................... 268 " Foundation of tower below water level, New York side,.................... 110 " Foundation of tower below water level, Brooklyn,....................... 40 CHAPTER V. The weight of superstructure of the central span, as far as supported by the THE AGRICULTURE OF THE FUTURE. cables and stays, and including the That Agriculture has made great progress weight,of four steel cables, is equal to.. 3,483 tons. 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Both these obstacles are likely very spect, and when we have, as we soon shall soon to be removed. have them largely engaged in the cultivation At the beginning of 1869, the area of the of our lands, it is to be hoped that they will States and Territories containing public lands bring with them their thrift and carefulness, was 1,834,998,400 acres; of this amount, though we might perhaps dispense with some 225,628,.501 acres had been either sold, en- of their customs of gathering fertilizers, as tered under the homestead law, or granted offensive to our refined tastes. for military services; and 204,000,000 acres As it is, we drop down altogether too soon in round numbers had been granted for rail- from thirty or thirty-five bushels of wheat to roads, wagon roads, internal improvements, the acre to ten or twelve bushels; and our universities, agricultural colleges and schools, lands, which, when new, yielded their fifty to leaving 1,405,366,679 acres, the greater part seventy-five bushels of corn or their three or of it as yet unsurveyed, as the entire amount four hundred bushels of potatoes to the acre, of public lands owned by the government. come much too readily to a crop of twentyMuch less than one-half of this will ever be five or thirty of the former and eighty or available for settlement or for agricultural pur- ninety of the latter. Even the rich prairie poses; the greater part of Alaska, the Rocky lands of Illinois or the still deeper and richer Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, the Colorado soil of California speedily ceases to respond desert, the great Llano Estacado or staked liberally to the slovenly cultivation which plain, and the Mauvaises Terres, or Bad Lands merely scratches the surface and does not reof Nebraska and Dakota, are all to be deduct- turn to the soil any of the elements which it ed, together with hundreds of lakes, swamps, has taken from it. Yet, so wide is our terand soda-covered lands, some of which, by ritory, so fertile our lands, and so various our irrigation, may possibly bear crops.- There climate, that it will be perhaps a half cenare not at the outside over 600,000,000 acres tury before, even with the careless and indifof these lands available for agricultural pur- ferent tillage of the present time, we should poses, and of these, patents were issued to find our population trenching upon the railroads, &c., for more than 50,000,000 acres boundaries of subsistence. If we will but be in 1869, and 100,000,000 acres more are wise in time, this need never be; but if we asked for at the present time by the various keep on taking the elements of plant-food railroads and other schemes before Congress. from the soil and returning none of them to It follows from this that the time is coming it, we shall find with each year a constantlyspeedily, probably before the end of the pres- advancing barren desert; we shall be coment century, when there will be no more new pelled to draw our food from greater and lands to be purchased except at very high greater distances, till finally the whole breadth rates, and when agriculturists will find it of the continent will become desolate like that necessary to bring their farms up to the high- broad waste which now extends from the Jorest condition of productiveness and keep dan eastward to the Syr-daria and Amoothem there, or there will ere long be a lack daria in Central Asia, comprising what were of food for the supply of the scores of mill- for ages the most fertile lands of the earth. ions of non-producers. To accomplish this, To avoid such a fate, it is necessary not more thoroughly scientific farming, careful only to drain, till and manure the soil bouncultivation, rotation of drops, and profuse tifully, irrigating it where necessary, but to manuring, will be necessary. The Japanese restore the forests as far as possible. Espeand Chinese agriculturists have cultivated the cially on the prairies and wide, treeless same fields for nearly 2,000 years, and they plains of the central basin should trees be yield as large crops now as they ever have planted by millions; trees of quick growth, done. The secret of their success is their and trees which will attain a lofty height. thorough tillage, and the extraordinary care By means of these the rains may be restored with which every description of fertilizer is to those now parched and desolate lands, and preserved-and applied to the soil. The gar- they will be enabled now, as they did eight bage and sewage of their great cities does hundred or a thousand years ago, to sustain not go to waste, and every where the hus- a vast and prosperous population. "The old bandman treasures up the materials for main- wastes will again be inhabited, the cities of a 486 APPENDIX. hundred generations," and the thirsty soil, The cultivation of textile fibres, cotton, ramie, drinking in the rains and dews, will become hemp, spartina, &c., will for a hundred years like Eden for beauty and productiveness. In to come continue to be an important part of regard to the crops to be grown, there is no our agricultural products, though probably reason to suppose that there will be much they will never again so entirely engross the that is new in the hundred years to come. labor of any section as cotton did before the A few new textiles, perhaps, the ramie, the war. Viniculture, or cultivation of the grape new silky fibre, which yields such enormous for wine, has already attained a magnitude crops, and possibly on the plains some of the which promises within a few years to make cacti, or Agave tribes of fibres, such as the us independent of Europe in the production Ixilotl or the Sisal grass, some of the new of wines and brandies. That it will reach nettles, which may prove more profitable as its highest point within twenty years is probcrops than our common hemp, and possibly able, though it can not fail to be always a some improved species or variety of cotton; great and powerful interest. The culture of among grains, improved varieties of wheat, the grasses and the traffic in them is an inoats and barley, possibly the African dourra terest of greater importance than is generally or millet, other and more productive varieties supposed. The hay crop of the country is and species of maize, including perhaps that one of its most valuable, perhaps the most remarkable deep blue corn which Professor valuable of its vegetable products. Its sale Newberry found among the Moquis; new and consumption away from the place of its and better varieties of the sorghum and im- growth, is bad husbandry, only to be parphee; hardier varieties of the sugar-cane, tially atoned for by the most bountiful use which will bear a more northern climate; of fertilizers from abroad; but without it tea, coffee, the pomegranate, the banana or our cattle, horses and sheep could scarcely plantain, the olive and other tropical and exist. California and several of the Terrisemi-tropical plants, of which already there tories of the great plains have no natural are plantations in Southern California; sev- grasses; or at least none which form a sod. eral of the new and productive grasses, and The long dry season parches them and kills all the varieties of the mulberry, as well as their roots. The wild rice, wild oats, alfalfa, other plants which will furnish sufficient food and other introduced grasses and grains, for the silkworms. The culture of the grape, make up for the deficiency, and as the dothe production of silk, the rearing of the mestic animals of these countries seldom olive for its oil, and the cultivation of both require shelter, there is not much hay needtea and coffee, are destined to become marked ed. The introduction of some foreign grasses features in our agricultural industry in the within a few years to come is probable, near future. So, too, will be the sugar cul- though not many of them are really superior ture. The cane, the sorghum, the sugar-beet, to what we now have. and not improbably also maize, and some of Stock-raising is likely to be for some years the more saccharine melons or squashes, will to come a favorite occupation with many of all be laid under contribution for our supply our farmers. Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, of sweets. Sixty-two millions of dollars' Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and portions worth of sugar were imported into the United of Arizona, Texas, the Indian Territory, and States in 1868, beside all that was produced much of Kansas and Nebraska, as well as the in the country. The time is not distant greater part of Oregon and Washington Terwhen, instead of importing, we shall export ritory, and California, are well adapted to our sugars, and though the consumption of this pursuit. It is, however, the lowest form hardly any article of food increases so rap- of agriculture, and tends so greatly to a halfidly, yet the increase of production, espe- nomadic life and to the barbarisms connected cially if we annex, as we probably shall ere with it, and requires, moreover, such vast long, some of the West India Islands, will tracts of territory for its successful prosecukeep pace with it. The production of silk tion, that as the population becomes dense, in the raw state, as well as its manufacture, it must gradually diminish in importance. is another form of agricultural industry which We are, as a nation, the greatest meat-eaters will become prominent in a few years. Our in the world, with the exception perhaps of Pacific States are favorably situated for the the Guachos, or half-civilized hunters of the rearing of the silk-worm, as well as some of South American pampas, who subsist entirethe Territories east of the Rocky Mountains. ly on animal food. Even our poorest classes APPENDIX. 48-7 have meat once or twice a day, while the steam or horse-power, for agricultural purpeasants and lowest classes of Belgium, poses, though already an interest of great France, and Sweden, hardly taste meat once extent, is destined to receive an astonishing in six months. Whether this fondness for a development. The vast plains, prairies and meat diet will continue to prevail, is some- plateaus of Nebraska, Kansas, Dakota, Colowhat doubtful. The Chinese, Japanese, rado, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Utah, New and indeed the Oriental nations generally, Mexico, and Arizona, will be broken up by are more abstemious than we are. With most the steam-plow, doing the work of fifty men of them, rice, with some condiments, is the and a hundred horses at once, and never principal article of diet, though occasionally tiring till the arable lands are all furrowed, they eat the flesh of the smaller animals, if pulverized and harrowed by its agency. The able to pay for the luxury. Should they pre- steam-sower, steam-cultivator, and steamserve their present habits, the demand for mowers, reapers, binders, threshers, and digbeef, mutton and pork would not keep pace gers, will garner the crops with a celerity with the increase of our population, and this and certainty which could never have been would be well, for we should not be able to accomplished with hand labor. But we need spare from cultivation the immense tracts not confine ourselves to steam. Other mowhich would be required for the rearing of tive powers, more compact, more managethese great herds. able, less expensive, and less dangerous, may The live stock of the United States in and probably will take the place of steam for 1869 was, according to the report of the Corn- these and other purposes, and it will thus be missioner of Agriculture, 6,332,793 horses, possible to cultivate these vast regions thorvalued at $533,024,787; 921,662 mules, oughly and easily, when, if they had been valued at $98,386,359; 21,433,095 beeves, explored and settled twenty-five or thirty valued at $667,964,149; 37,728,279 sheep, years ago, they must long have remained valued at $82,139,979; and 23,316,476 untilled from the scarcity of labor. swine, valued at $146,188,755. We can The agriculture of the future is destined hardly be far out of the way if we estimate to be a grand success. The 900,000,000 the numbers in 1969, as 97,000,000 horses, bushels of Indian corn, our most distinctively 14,000,000 mules, 336,000,000 beeves, 400,- American crop, which were produced in 000,000 sheep, and 368,000,000 swine. It 1868, will have increased to 15,000,000,000 will be borne in mind that though these in 1970; the 225,000,000 bushels of wheat numbers might be in excess of what would will have multiplied to 3,300,000,000; and be required for supplying the needs of the 4,000,000,000 bushels of oats will be necessix or seven hundred millions of our own sary to supply the wants of the 97,000,000 people, the export demand would unques- horses, and the other.animals and human tionably be large, and would undoubtedly beings with whom it is an article of food. consume whatever we had to spare. We have Barley, already becoming a favorite grain on purposely estimated the increase of sheep as the Pacific coast, will yield not less than less than that of the other animals, for two 400,000,000 bushels, and buckwheat, relished reasons; the other textile fabrics coming into alike by oriental and western palates in its use will considerably diminish the consump- season, will hardly fall behind barley in tion of wool, and the increase of flocks of quantity. Rye will not probably increase so sheep is, when unrestraint X, so great that to fast, but may attain to 250,000,000 bushels. avoid a glut in the market, it is often neces- Of the root crops, potatoes, the most imporsary to take special measures to reduce it; tant of our esculents, will average 1,500,thus in Australia, where the facilities for gra- 000,000 bushels and possibly more; the beet, zing are very similar to those of Texas, Ari- including its use for sugar, will perhaps attain zona and New Mexico, the increase of sheep to 1,000,000,000, and the different varieties had been so greatly in excess of the demand of the turnip, to 500,000,000 or 600,000,that the settlers have found it necessary to 000. Hay, of which our average product is erect immense vats heated by steam, in which now about 26,000,000 tons, will not increase they boil down hundreds of thousands of in quantity so much as other crops, since, in carcasses of sheep simply for the tallow. most of the Central and Southern regions, Such measures would soon reduce the num- the live stock does not require shelter. Tober of sheep within reasonable bounds. bacco will, in default of more potent stimuThe production of machines, driven by lants, continue to be the beloved but noxious 488 APPENDIX. weed of the millions of our inhabitants, of the classes which came most directly in though there is danger that the Chinese may competition with the products of our own substitute the far more baneful opium for it. foundries. There was a time when blanket It is difficult to estimate the tobacco crop of shawls of American manufacture were in great 1970, because we can not be certain how demand, and our woolen manufactories could many tobacco-producing countries may be not make enough of them; that demand has annexed by that time. If we state it at 5,- now ceased, and the manufacturer who should 000,000,000 pounds, we shall be undoubt- attempt to revive it CWould find himself edly below the quantity which will actually swamped very soon by the accumulation of be produced. The quantityof cotton then his stock. Twenty years ago, the mowing, grown is still more doubtful, since it remains reaping and harvesting machines, the horseto be seen what proportion of our new lands rakes and hay tedders, were just struggling can profitably be devoted to cotton, and what into existence, and the sale of them did not other textiles may take its place in the man- exceed a hundred or so a year. Now the ufacture of dress goods. We should not be harvests of the Westernsprairies as well as of inclined to fix the production of 1970 above many of our Eastern farms are wholly gath20,000,000 bales, and probably this quantity ered by machinery, and though this manuwould be consumed at home. facture is yet in its infancy, and is destined Of minor crops, it is impossible to speak to become a hundred-fold what it now is, the with any certainty. Some of them may and sales already amount to many millions every probably will, attain to a magnitude which year. will enable them to rank with the great sta- In 1860, the manufacture of coal oil had ples of our present agriculture. Others may reached an annual production of $478,695fall off to the most insignificant proportions. kerosene oil and its cognates were hardly But as a whole, there can be no reasonable heard of. In 1868,.74,774,291 gallons of doubt that the agriculture of a hundred years petroleum oils were exported, of a value of hence will more than keep pace with the $30,000,000, while the home consumption of population in quality, quantity, and excel- this and the other products of the crude pelence. troleum must have amounted to as much more. Here was a manufacture which had multiplied its products one hundred and twenty-five times in eight years. SewingCHAPTER VI. machines, invented in 1846 by Elias Howe, had not attained to a noticeable amount of MANUFACTURES IN THE FUTURE. sales in 1850; in 1860 the annual product There is more difficulty in determining de- was. $276,235. In 1869 the three companies finitely what will be the increase and prog- known as the " Combination;" the Singer ress of manufactures in this country for the Co., the Wheeler & Wilson Co., and the next hundred years than in predicting the Grover & Baker Co., report sales amounting progress of any other form of national in- to over $8,000,000, and the whole business dustry. Manufactures are so much stimu- approximates very nearly to $20,000,000. lated or depressed by tariff regulations, so Here again is an increase of eighty fold in much influenced by popular taste and de- nine years. The development of the trade mand, and so much controlled by new inven- in reed instruments, melodeons, harmoniums, tions and discoveries, that apart from stating cabinet organs, &c., is nearly as great in prothe general fact that there must be in most portion, and that in pianos but little less. branches of manufacture an enormous devel- The manufacture of American watches, opment, it is hardly safe to make any specific which in 1860 was,not of sufficient magnipredictions. We might illustrate these flue- tude to find a place in the census report, had tuations by a reference to the manufacture of in 1869 become so important as to supply a iron in the past; in 1842, 800,000 tons little more than one-half the demand, in value were produced in the United States; in marketing nearly $5,000,000 worth a year. 1852, 564,000 tons; in 1856, 874,428 tons; The direct manufacture of iron and steel in 1861, 731,564 tons; in 1865, 931,582 in their various marketable forms, including tons; and in 1869, 1,950,000 tons. These all articles made solely of iron in this counfluctuations were produced, in a very large try, was, in 1868, $147,621,251. With the degree, by the varying duty on foreign iron finest iron ores in the world, and in close APPENDIX. 489 proximity to mines of coal admirably adapted scriptions of woolen dress goods, or those for smelting purposes, we shall be much to composed in part of wool and part of cotton, blame if within the next ten years we do not silk or linen, are now manufactured successmanage to supply our home demand for iron fully here, while ten years ago we were deand steel, which is increasing with unprece- pendent upon Great.Britain, France or Gerdented rapidity. The demand for steel rails many for them; others are still beyond our for the railroads already in operation, and present ability to manufacture successfully. those to be built in the next two years, will, In the articles of woolen underwear, and in the railroad men say, be 150,000 tons, worth delaines, broadcloths, doeskins, cheap popnot less than $12,000,000, and of iron rails lins, blankets, &c., there has been a fierce in the same time, 1,200,000 tons, worth over struggle between American and foreign man$60,000,000. The iron and steel for loco- ufacturers, and the foreign manufacturers, in motives, car-wheels, trucks, and cars for these order to drive our goods from the market railroads, will consume not less than $60,- and break our manufacturers, have sent their 000,000 more, making at the very lowest goods to the United States in immense quanestimate $132,000,000 worth of iron in two titles at less than actual cost, in the hope of years, or $66,000,000 per annum forthe next being able to make a large profit when they two years for railroad purposes alone. Add had defeated competition. Heavy losses have to this our annual consumption of iron and been inflicted on both sides by this policy, steel for other purposes, amounting in 1868 but for the most part, though at the cost of to $132,00,00000, and increasing every year, individual failures, the American production and the consumption of American iron in has been kept up, and the foreign goods 1870 can not fall short of $200,000,000. A driven from the market. The production of writer in the Boston Commercial Bulletin woolen goods in 1860 was reported by the estimates from existing data that our con- census as about $70,000,000. The producsumption of American iron for.all manu- tion of army clothing during the war greatly facturing purposes (including railroad bars) increased it, so that at one time our producin 1900 will be $600,000,000. The esti- tion of woolen goods must have amounted to mate is certainly much below the truth; nearly $300,000,000. The depression since but adopting it as a basis, we should have that time has reduced the annual product, our manufactures of iron in 1920 of an annual according to the best estimates, to about value of $1,200,000,000; in 1940, of an an- $160,000,000 in 1868, and possibly to not nual value of $2,400,000,000; in 1960, of more than $150,000,000 in 1869. For the $4,800,000,000, and in 1970, of $7,200,000,- future, notwithstanding some fluctuations, 000. We shall certainly do better than that, we may confidently hope that our constantly but the estimate itself is large enough to improving machinery, our higher attainstartle us. ments in chemical knowledge for the coloring The manufactures of cotton will not in all of these goods, and in the principles of taste, probability increase in any thing like so rapid and advance in artistic skill in' designs, will a ratio, unless some new uses should be dis- enable us soon to command our own market covered for cotton which would greatly stim- by the production of goods whose quality, ulate both its production and consumption; durability of color, and taste in design, shall yet in view of the probability that it will satisfy the most fastidious buyer. If we can continue to form the basis of the clothing of do this, we may be assured of a demand for the great mass of the nation, and its use for more than $2,500,000,000 worth of these bedding, for sails, and for so many other goods in 1970. purposes, we are justified in believing that The manufacture of clothing has been the manufacture will keep very nearly an largely developed within the past ten years. even pace with the increase of the population. In 1860, it was reported at about $88,000,It was about $120,000,000 in value in 1860, 000. Since that time, not only has the cost and can not well be less than $2,000,000,000 of most articles of clothing more than doubin the amount of its annual products in 1970, led, and the amount of work on them greatly or somewhat more than the entire annual increased, but the manufacture of undervalue of all our manufactured products in clothing for both sexes, of collars, cuffs, and 1860. fine shirts, for men, and the entire production In woolen goods there has been a greater of walking suits, and dresses of all descripvariation than in cottons. Many of the de- tions, cloaks, children's clothing, &c., been 490 APPENDIX. almost created. The war stimulated produc- not well be less than $30,000,000. As in all tion in these directions, and once established,: probability the men of 1970 will require some it has maintained itself. This trade at the sort of head-gear, for we can not well suppose present time produces not less than $300,- that, like the Abyssinians, they will butter 000,000 worth of goods annually, and as the their hair and go bareheaded, we may conproportion of these goods to the population elude perhaps that the increase in the busimust, both fron the requirements of life and ness will keep pace with the population, and the depreciation in the value of money, be put it at $480,000,000. This may very posmuch greater than now, we are warranted in sibly be an under-estimate, as the only hats believing that the annual product of clothing now imported in any quantity, the "Panain 1970 will be above rather than below ma," or as they are sometimes called, "Guay$6,000,000,000. aquil" straw or grass hats, may then be very The silk manufacture is just obtaining a largely made in our own territory. foothold here. We have, it is true, for near- One of the most extensive industrial operly twenty years, manufactured a considerable ations in our country is the tanning or prepportionjof our sewingsilk, producing in 1860 aration of leather and the manufacture of $3,600,000 worth of that indispensable arti- boots and shoes. These two branches of cle; we had done something also in the way manufacture in 1860 produced an annual of silk gimps, fiinges, and trimmings, and amount of about $170,000,000, viz., $78,000,perhaps a little in the way of ribbons, but: 000 of leather, and $92,000,000 worth of our production of all these was less than boots and shoes, to which may be added $3,000,000 in 1860. Dress silks, piece: over a million more for leather gloves. The goods, beltings, and the finer ribbons, had old proverb says, "There is nothing like not at that time been produced in any appre- leather," and though a great variety of other ciable quantities. Now there are about' substances have been tried for the various 1,500,000 yards of dress silks manufactured purposes for which leather is used, yet nothhere, perhaps half a million pieces of ribbons, ing thus far has taken its place permanently and most of the dress trimmings, hat bands, or to any very great extent. Yet the price braids, serges, bullion trimmings and car- of leather is advancing steadily and pretty riage trimmings, as well as the silk plush for rapidly. It is worth now double what it was hats and bonnets required in our markets. before the war, and the fall in gold does not The sewing silks have nearly driven the for- reduce its price materially. There may be eign article out of our markets. The manu- no falling off in the supply of hides, but the factures of sill and of mixed goods partly of materials necessary to the proper tanning of silk in the year 1870 will not fall below them are diminishing in quantity and in$25,000,000. For the first time in our his- creasing in price. It is a question whether tory we are, on the Pacific coast, producing, leather enough can be produced a century on a considerable and rapidly-increasing hence to supply the various demands for it scale, our own cocoons, and the influx of of a population of 639,000,000; if it can, it Japanese, accustomed to rearing the silk- will be at a great advance on present prices. worm, will make this in a few years, in that We are justified in believing that the leather climate and soil, a favorite pursuit. Our fa- product of 1970 will not be worth less than cilities for obtaining the raw silk from China $2,000,000,000,'and the boots, shoes, and and Japan are now superior to those of any gloves of the same year as much more. of the European manufacturers. We may The manufacture of india-rubber goods is then feel justified in predicting for 1970 a one of those branches of industry which has production of silk goods of not less than made immense progress within ten years $500,0000000. past. The whole history of vulcanized rubThe hat manufacture has had great vicis- ber is comprised within less than thirty situdes in the past ten years, at some times years; its practical adaptation to any thing in the full tide of an unexampled success, except shoes and clothing within less than and at others remarkably depressed. It twenty, and its use in almost every departamounted to about $117,600,000 in 1860, and ment of the useful arts belongs to the last in 1863 or 1864 had more than doubled that ten. The "hard rubber" has been found amount. Since that time it has undergone admirable for every purpose for which ivory, great depression, and is still far from pros- bone, the ornamental woods, leather, bois perous. Yet its present annual production can duree, or most of the metals had been pre APPENDIX. 491 viously used; while the more flexible soft riages, but we think we are warranted in the rubber has an infinitude of applications for opinion that in 1970 the value of the pleaswhich other materials had been used with ure carriages of all sorts will not fall below less advantage, as well as to very many for $800,000,000. which nothing else would answer. In 1860, The manufacture offurniture for dwelling the annual production was stated at $5,642,- houses, churches, halls and schools has made 700, a sum even then considerably below the great advances in the past ten years. More truth. The production of vulcanized rubber costly woods, more elaborate, designs, and and gutta percha in the United States at the more skillful inlaid and ornamental work, present time, (aside from the very large for- have greatly enhanced the price of the better eign manufacture'under the Goodyear pat- qualities, and the demand for showy and ents,) is above rather than below $25,000,- cheap furniture has led to the manufacture 000, and as new sources of supply of the raw of vast quantities of trash, which found a material have been discovered recently, there ready sale to those who buy a thing because seems no reason why it should not continue it is cheap. The census of 1860 gives the to increase as rapidly as the population, and value of the furniture manufactured that year reach $400,000,000 in 1970. as $25,632,293, and we are assured by the Clocks, watches, and jewelry, though dis- most intelligent men in the trade that it has tinct branches of manufacture, are usually more than doubled within ten years. The classed together. The manufacture of the growing scarcity of choice woods, and the better class of clocks, those of the grade cor- increasing labor of the finish justify an estiresponding to the French parlor clocks, has mate of $1,000,000,000, as the annual probeen first brought to perfection within the duct a hundred years hence. past five years. The watch manufacture, as.Furnaces, ranges, heaters, grates, and steam we have already observed elsewhere, has or hot-water heating apparatus, with their made great strides since 1860; and many accompaniments of registers, ventilators, and descriptions of jewelry are now, by the aid hot-air pipes, have within a few years past of machinery, brought to a perfection which become necessities of modern and fashionwould not have been deemed possible ten ably-constructed dwellings, as well as of years since. As belonging to the same gen- churches, schools, halls, theaters, and hotels. eral class of manufactures, we may mention This class of manufactures have increased in also solid silver and gold plate, and silver- importance very rapidly during the past ten plated and Britannia ware, and the manufac- years, and the annual product, which in 1860 ture of gold pens. In 1860 these various was a little' below $2,000,000, can not now branches of manufacture produced annually be less than $16,000,000. Some simpler about $24,000,000. Their present produc- and less expensive mode of heating and vention would be understated at $45,000,000, tilating our dwellings and public buildings and they are articles for the most part of lux- may be devised, accomplishing the desired ury, which will be in demand to a greater result by electrical, philosophical, or chemical and greater extent as the nation increases in means; but whatever that mode may be, it wealth. We estimate their production in will not in all probability dispense with much 1970 at not less than $800,000,000. of the apparatus now in use for these purCarriages are, to a considerable extent, poses, and we are clearly below the probable objects of luxury, and in the abundance and truth when we estimate the annual product constant multiplication of our other means of of these and other apparatus for effecting locomotion, we might expect that they would the same purpose at $300,000,000 in 1970. not increase in their production as rapidly as From heating and ventilation the transition articles of necessity; but the fact seems to be is easy and natural to the manufacture of otherwise. The annual value in 1860 was illuminating fluids and gases, and the pipes, $27,265,000, of which about $375,000 was for fixtures, chandeliers and lamps, by means of children's carriages, dolls' carriages, &c. This which the illumination is effected. The anbranch of the business alone now produces nual product of these various industries in annually more than $5,000,000 worth, and 1860 was about $24,000,000. Since that the aggregate production is about $50,000,- time, gas has been introduced into almost 000. We can not tell how soon the steam every city or town of 5,000 inhabitants, and locomotive or some new motor may take the its use has become far more general than place of the horse before our pleasure car- ever before: the manufacture of gas fixtures 492 APPENDIX. and gas-pipe, as well as of chandeliers and natural and artificial stone for building purbrackets of the costliest description, has poses in 1970 would not be less than $500,become a leading branch of manufactures; 000,000. kerosene oil, in the peculiar lamps and sta- The manufacture of sawed and planed tionary burners for its use, has become the lumber in 1860, produced for that year the staple illuminating article for all towns, vil- value of $104,928,342. To this is to be lages and country hamlets not large enough added a little more than $7,000,000 for ship to have gas-works,.and the present annual timber, shingles and lath, making a grand production of all can not be less than $60,- total of $112,000,000, and this exclusive of 000,000. Here again, it is difficult to pred- large imports of lumber firom Canada. The icate with any certainty in regard to the product in 1869 was more than $200,000,future. We may be, we probably are, on 000 in value, partly from the enhanced price the eve of great discoveries in regard to illu- and partly from the greatly increased conmination; the electric light9, the magnesian sumption. This can not last, however, for light, or some yet undiscovered illuminator, our forests are perceptibly diminishing, and may replace very shortly our present expensive our people are awaking to the fact that the and unsatisfactory means of illumination, and destruction of our forests must lead to the enable us to dispense with costly burners and depopulation of large tracts of country. For chandeliers, and satisfy ourselves with some many purposes, iron and papier mache are simple and inexpensive fixture. Without now taking the place of wood, and necessity something of this sort, our annual production, will increase these applications. We can to keep pace with the increase of population, hardly suppose that the great population of would have to be about $1,000,000,000 in the country in 1970 will use more than 1970. double the quantity of lumber that is used But while we have been stocking, furnish- at the present time, but they will have to pay ing, heating, ventilating, and illuminating at least four times as much for it, so that the our dwellings in the future, we have paid no money value of the lumber product of that attention to the manufacture of the materials year will not be less than $1,600,000,000. of which the houses themselves are composed. But we have not yet done with the dwellThe annual product of brick and brick ma- ing-houses and public buildings. The nails chinery in 1860 was $27,228,746. The in- and spikes for fastening, produced in 1860, vention and application of better processes, were of the value of $9,857,223; the sash, the greatly-enhanced price of the product, doors and blinds were worth $9,601,607; the and the rapidly-growing demand, have given lime and plaster, $4,959,359; the builders' to this manufacture a wonderful impulse dur- hardware, $10,903,106; the slate and other ing the past ten years. Its two branches, roofing, $1,313,000; and other small items, the making of bricks, and the making of such as sewer pipe, copper boilers, faucets, brick machinery, now yield an annual pro- mantels, &c. &c., an aggregate of $1,500,000 duct of more than $65,000,000, and as there more, making a grand total of $38,134,295. is little probability that our successors for a The production of these articles in 1869 was hundred years to come will substitute any certainly not less than $70,000,000, and in thing else for them, in building, we may 1970 will not fall below $1,125,000,000. safely conclude that the annual product of Houses built of such costly materials can not bricks and brick machinery in 1970 will not be considered as furnished without one or be less than 1,200,000,000. more musical instruments. We find that in AMarble and stone work in 1860 yielded an the year 1860 there were $7,548,300 worth annual product of $16,244,044. With the of musical instruments manufactured in the increase of luxury and wealth, there is a much United States. In the ten years that folgreater demand for these costly materials for lowed, the piano manufacture had more than building, and new quarries are constantly doubled in quantity, and there was also a opening. The use of various kinds of arti- material advance in prices. The cabinet ficial stone is also slowly increasing, and organs were first made within the past ten when processes, now imperfect, shall have years, and the melodeons, cottage organs, been brought'to perfection, it will undoubt- and harmoniums, had multiplied both their edly be far greater than it now is. Judging numbers and their good qualities many times. from the developments of the last ten years, The value of the production of musical inwe should say that the annual product of struments in 1869 was over $18,000,000, of APPENDIX. 493 which nearly $13,000,000 was in pianos, and sorts, in 1970, will be at least $1,000,000,about $4,000,000 in reed instruments. The 000. piano or cabinet organ, or both, are now re- Butter and cheese, from being home progarded almost as a necessity in every decent ducts, have come to be largely produced in house, and the demand for them is growing factories. There are said to be between thirwith great rapicdity. That $300,000,000 teen hundred and fourteen hundred of these worth of these instruments will not more than factories now in the United States, producing supply the demand for 1970 may be consid- butter and cheese to the value of over $10,ered certain. 000,000 annually. The home manufacture The sewing machine, ten years ago a lux- is probably nearly or quite double this. The ury in the private family, and but just begin- aggregate value of these useful articles in ning to be fully appreciated by the manufac- 1970 will not probably fall below $450,000,turer, is now the cherished servant of almost 000. every family. The production of 1860 was The manufacture of the means or vehicles valued at $4,247,820; that of 1869 exceeded of locomotion come next in order. We have $18,000,000, a single manufacturer selling already spoken of pleasure carriages and chilover 100,000 machines. The sewingmachine dren's carriages, but locomotives, railroad of 1970 will doubtless be a great improve- cars, omnibusses, car-wheels, wagons and ment upon that of to-day in its ability to do carts, of which in 1860 there were produced a greater variety of work, and will certainly $19,869,800, have increased in a most extrareach $240,000,000 in the value of its annual ordinary ratio within the last ten years. The production. great development of railroads has kept up a Let us proceed next to manufactures of demand for locomotives and railroad cars articles of food. Of these, flour and bread- which has tasked the ability of the largest stuffs occupy the first place, and form the manufacturers to supply; the manufacture of largest single item of our manufactures. In car-wheels, in its infancy in 1860, has now 1860, though flour was at a moderate price grown to be a prominent interest; the buildand the wheat crop unusually large, the value ing of cars for the city or horse railroads, of the flour and meal produced was $248,- now employs the entire time and resources 580,365. In 1869, also a year of moderate of six or seven large firms; and the railroad prices, the value of the production of bread- building, the war, and the exigences of trade, stuffs was over 8400,000,000. In 1970, while have given great activity to the manufacture they may possibly include the flour of some of wagons and carts. The production of new cereal, the total product will hardly be velocipedes and other vehicles of self-propulof less value than $6,500,000,000, including sion has had its rise and growth almost starch, farina, and corn starch, which together wholly within the past five years. The proin 1860 yielded a value of nearly $4,000,000, duction of these articles in 1869, though the and rice flour, which amounted to $775,000 year was one of moderate business, exceeded the same year. in value $60,000,000. The uncertainty in The manufacture of provisions, such as cut, regard to our means of locomotion in the smoked, dried, and pickled meats, sausages, future makes an estimate of the production head cheese, &c., is one of very considerable of 1970 somewhat difficult; the steam locoamount, and is increasing. In 1860 its value motive may then be entirely superseded, the was $31,986,483, and in 1869 it had increas- ponderous railroad car may be replaced by ed to nearly $50,000,000. Allied to this is a carriage combining extreme lightness and the preparation of canned vegetables, fruits, strength, and this may be propelled under meats, and fish, and of concentrated and des- the earth in tubes or above it on elevated iccated vegetables, meat essences, milk, cof- railways, or through the air; heavy freight fee, &c. These goods have been prepared may be sent to its destination, in spheres or almost wholly within the last ten years, and by some other more rapid and easy mode the traffic in them has attained a great mag- than the heavy lumbering cart, while the nitude. The value of them in 1869 was es- emigrant's wagon, the "prairie schooner," timated at somewhat more than $18,000,000. will only be remembered by the " oldest inWhat other devices may be resorted to for habitant," or perpetuated in the paintings of preserving meats and vegetables, can not now Darley and'Bierstadt and Johnson. But be foretold, but in all probability the annual however this may be, there will be a demand amount of manufactured provisions of all for some means of locomotion and propulsion, 494 APPENDIX. and probably of cost proportionate to those duction is of the value of not less than $300,now in use, and we think $950,000,000 is 000,000 annually. That its future increase not an extravagant estimate for the produc- may not keep pace with that of the population of 1970. tion, every good citizen will most earnestly The manufacture of rhachinery has been for desire, but that it will reach $2,500,000,000 many years a constantly-increasing business, by 1970, is altogether too probable. but it has attained a magnitude during the The manufacture of paper, an important past ten years in the United States greater interest for many years. past, and producing than in any other country in the world. In in 1860 an annual amount of $23,450,000, 1860, its annual productionnexceeded $53,- has rapidly increased within ten years past, 600,000. In 1870, it is more than $125,- while its price has been materially enhanced. 000,000. The great development of rail- The great use of it for paper collars and roads, and the means of locomotion, of cot- cuffs, for the manufacture of papier mache, ton, woolen and silk manufactures, agricul- for cartridges, for stereotyping, and the enortural implements and machines, of the paper- mous increase of books, periodicals, and trade, of stationary and marine steam-engines, newspapers, have led to a very marked adof fire-arms, sewing-machines, iron buildings, vance in its production. We are not aware mining enterprises, petroleum wells, grain that there are any very accurate statistics elevators, suspension and other bridges, and of the amount produced in 1869, yet it could a thousand other enterprises, all requiring not well have been less than $64,000,000. machinery for their prosecution, has given a Six or seven establishments used nearly vast impulse to this branch of business. That $1,000,000 worth a year each, and so many its progress in the future will be rapid is cer- thousands were using large quantities, that tain, and $2,500,000,000 is the lowest esti- the aggregate consumption must have been' mate of its annual production in 1970. enormous. This consumption of paper is Fire-arms, from the tiniest pistol to the likely to increase faster than the population, twenty-inch cannon, have been unfortunately and we do not overstate in making the proin great demand during a portion of the past duction of 1970, $1,200,000,000. ten years. This manufacture was not fairly Printing and publishing, with their allied represented in 1860; the value of the fire- branches of industry, engraving, lithographarms made that year in 239 establishments, ing, book-binding, type and stereotypestated in the census at $2,362,681, was really founding and electrotyping, have attained a exceeded in the manufactories of the city of wonderful development within the past ten Hartford, Conn., alone. During the war the years. In 1860, the annual product of these business attained a magnitude at one time of connected manufactures was $39,092,348. over $75,000,000 of annual production; it The war and the prosperous times which folsubsequently fell off materially, but taking lowed for three years, stimulated production the government and private manufactories to the utmost. Newspapers and periodicals together, it probably does not fall below attained a prodigious circulation, and books $35,000,000, if we include under the same "about the war" sold by hundreds of thouhead what are known as military goods, sands. In 1865 and 1866, the annual proswords, epaulets, sashes, equipments, and duction of these branches of trade went up munitions of war. The multiplication of to nearly $150,000,000. In 1868 and 1869, deadly weapons, though a necessity, is not so there was a material falling off, but there is desirable as some other branches of manufac- no probability that the production has or will ture, but its increase will probably pretty fall below $100,000,000. The power of the nearly keep pace with that of the population, press is realized to a far greater extent than and may attain to an annual product of it ever was before; and the more general dif$500,000,000 per annum, fusion of education has not only stimulated The putting up of spirituous liquors, wines, the sale of school-books beyond all former malt liquors, distilled, rectified, and cordials, precedent, but has opened a new and great and too frequently their manufacture from demand for general literature. Another feaspurious and poisonous materials, has always ture of the progress of the publishing busibeen a very large business. In 1860 it was nes is, that apart from the general periodreported in the census at about $53,000,000, icals, whose circulation has materially inwhich was unquestionably far below the creased, every profession, trade, and departtruth. At the present time the actual pro- ment of industry, as well as every consider APPENDIX. 495 able benevolent enterprise, has its own special Intimately connected with the manufacture organ, published weekly or monthly, (and of chemicals is that of drugs, patent medimany of them more than one,) and in almost cines, perfumery, and mineral waters. These, every case these special periodicals find a in 1860, reported a production of $6,240,914. liberal support. Most of these professions, The introduction of many new chemicallytrades and occupations, too, have their own prepared drugs into medical practice, the special literature, books prepared especially successful advertising which has created a for them and intended to throw light on their vast demand for many proprietary medicines, duties and labors. The conviction that there often of little or no intrinsic value, the introwere some processes by which the sun pic- duction of numerous new mineral waters to tures or copies could be utilized for the re- the public, and the skillful compounding of production, without much additional labor, artificial waters having the same ingredients of engravings, old manuscripts, or printed and proportions with the most celebrated books, drawings, designs, &c., has led during European mineral springs, and the invention the past year to the invention and perfecting of new perfumes, have greatly enlarged the of processes of photolithography, heliotypy, business within ten years past. Single houses and other plans of accomplishing this pur- in the trade have sold fiom one to two millpose. These have now come into a position ion dollars' worth of their own preparations where they can produce excellent work with within a year, and the aggregate sales of great rapidity and at a low price. The prac- 1869 were not less than $16,000,000. We tice of the art of chromo-lithography, in this can not expect that men will need, or at all country, dates wholly within the last decade, events will take, less medicine in the future and it has already attained a high degree of than in the past; nor that they will be less excellence, and its products are in great de- gullible and disposed to swallow the nostrums mand. which are largely advertised; nor is it probThe arts of printing and publishing, and able that the toilet perfumes will ever go out those manufactures and professions directly of fashion; so that we may predict with conconnected with them, must continue to grow siderable certainty that the production of certainly as rapidly as our population, and, these will about keep pace with the increase we think, more rapidly. We are not inclined of the population. We' shall have, then, a to put their annual production below $1,600,- production in 1970 of about $240,000,000. 000,000 in 1970. Another and somewhat coarser manufacChemicals, paints, dye-woods and dye-stuffs ture, that of soap, candles, paraffin wax, form a very important department of trade, and glycerine, is also intimately connected and one stimulated into extraordinary activ- with the production of chemicals. Some of ity by the events of the past ten years. The its processes are cleanly and delicate enough, discovery of new chemicals of world-wide while others are dirty and repulsive. In use; of new manures, chemically prepared; 1860, the annual product was reported as of new paints and painting materials, and of $18,464,574. Since that time new varieties the whole'class of aniline dyes, and com- of soaps and new uses for them have been pounds now numbering about one hundred invented, such as the carbolic and cresylic and fifty distinct preparations; the forceful soaps, for healing, disinfecting and bleaching and destructive fulminates and explosive pre- purposes, and as a sheep dip, the medicated parations devised, some of them for torpe- soaps largely used for cutaneous affections, does or shells in the war, and now used for the glycerine soaps for toilet purposes, the blasting and mining purposes, the new anues- emery soaps for cleaning and polishing metthetics, and a thousand other recent chemical als, &c., &c. The manufacture of glycerine inventions, indicate the activity which per- has become very important, and that of pavades the whole body of chemical technolo- raffin wax has largely taken the place of gists. New chemical writers are springing up spermaceti. The soap and candle manufacevery where, and all find abundant work. In ture now yields annually over $30,000,000, 1860, the annual production of chemicals, and its increase is sure and will be steady. paints, dye-woods and dye-stuffs, was stated We may put it down at $480,000,000 in at $14,190,446. The estimate was even then 1970. too low, but in 1869 it had attained a mag- The manufacture of saddlery and harnesses, nitude of over $30,000,000. In 1970 it will and that of trunks, carpet bags, portmanteaus not be less than $500,000,000. and reticules, which is often associated with 496 APPENDIX. it, is an important industry. In 1860 the an- vessel practically air-tight and oil-tight, and nual product of these two manufactures was at a low price. The further extension of this $17,494,797. During the war, and since, in process to wooden tubes of any required the construction of railroads and emigration length, has led to the development of the to the plains, the demand for these goods, es- plan for pneumatic tubes for railways and pecially the saddles and harnesses, has greatly sphero-locomotion, which seems destined to increased, and it must continue a steady and revolutionize our modes of transportation healthy increase for a hundred years to come, and possibly of travel. The $11,000,000 of reaching by 1970 an annual production of cooperage goods in 1860 have grown to a not less than $450,000,000. production of $20,000,000 in 1869, and with The production of glass and glass ware, the impulse they are likely to receive from porcelain, stone china, pottery, and other fictile this new mode of transportation in the not wares, has become a very important industry distant future, will certainly attain to $350,within a few years past. In 1860 the annual 000,000 in 1970. production of these wares was $11,515,836. The subject of manufactures is a boundSince that time the production of the better less one, and we might easily fill many pages sort of porcelain ware has been greatly in- more with the prospects of manufactures now creased, and plate glass, as well as very supe- of minor importance, but destined perhaps to rior cut-glass, has been produced. Within a grand development in the not distant futwo or three years past, a new class of goods, ture. We prefer, however, to close the presknown as "hot cast porcelain" have been ent chapter with a few words in regard to largely manufactured, combining the mellow cooperative manufacturing. translucency of china with the other good The cooperative principle will find its largqualities of glass, and a toughness and est and best development in manufacturing. strength much greater than that of either In commerce, in agriculture, and in mining, glass or porcelain, while its price is mar- it will be successful only in exceptional cases. velously low. It has at once attained to a The views, aims and capacities of the indilarge sale. The present production of fictile viduals composing a co6perative association wares is not less than $20,000,000, and in will be so diverse that it will hardly be pos1970 will not fall below $300,000,000. sible for them to carry on business peaceAnother important industry is that of the fully and successfully together where there is production of edge tools, axes, cutlery, sur- not and in the nature of the case can not be gical and dental instruments, joiners' tools, a place which each man can fill as well or scythes, saws, shovels, spades, hoes, pickaxes, better than any other. In almost every &c., &c. Of some of these we have almost branch of manufactures it is possible to orthe monopoly, sending our Collins axes, ganize a body of workingmen (not too large) Ames shovels, and our picks, scythes and where each will have his duties for which he spades, to all parts of the world, and corm- is specially fitted, and in which he will not pletely occupying the markets. In 1860 we come in collision with any one else. Then, made these goods to the value of $8,632,149, as it will be for his interest that his work and the necessities of the war, the Pacific shall be done in the best possible manner and other railways, and the new mining re- and as promptly as possible, he will do more gions, have greatly increased the demand. and better work than he would have done if The annual production is ndt less than $14,- employed on wages by another. The tide is 000,000 now, and in 1970 will probably be setting strongly toward cooperation now, and about $225,000,000. many will go into it in some form who The cooper's art is the only other large would do much better to stay out. As a manufacture of which we have space now to rule, cooperative associations are too large; speak. In 1860 the manufactures coming only the best workmen, temperate, prudent under the general head of cooperage amount- men of sound judgment, clear head and good ed to $11,352,321. The great expansion of temper, will succeed well in it; and in manthe trade in petroleum and petroleum oils in ufacturing, which furnishes the best field for the five or six years that followed, and the it, the cooperative association should employ constant complaint of large loss by leakage a considerable number of persons who are fiom the casks, led to the invention of a cask not members, hiring them in the ordinary which, having the staves as well as the joints way, but giving them, after a period of prosaturated with a peculiar cement, made a bation, the opportunity, if they are qualified, APPENDIX. 497 to become members, but still hiring con- it is equally so that there are so many plastantly non-members. All the most success- cers, quartz leads, and silver deposits yet unful cooperative manufacturing associations, known and undeveloped, that for a hundred both in this country and Europe, have adopt- years to come not only will the present ed this plan, and it has its advantages. The rate of production be maintained, but it will persons so hired do not receive, taking every be greatly increased. The gold production thing into account, so large a compensation of 1869 was, in round numbers, $63,000,as the members; while they are stimulated 000, and for the first time in the last eight by the example of those around them and or nine years there was an advance on the the hope of eventually becoming members, amount mined the previous year.. With the to do as much work and do it as well; and completion of canals and other improvethus their labor in turn acts as a stimulant to ments, and the. opening of new gold fields, the members. Much, too, will depend upon this production is likely to increase steadily the skill and business ability of the foreman for some years to come. Silver mining has or superintendent of the manufactory, A two special reasons for a large development wise selection here, of a man with a capacity in the near future; the speedy completion of for leading and controlling men, with a thor- the Sutro tunnel, which, tapping the silver ough knowledge of his business, good finan- lodes in succession at their richest point, by cial and executive talent, and a power of level adits will drain them as well as make ready adaptation to any circumstances which them readily accessible, and will lead to other may arise, will insure success, while the op- similar enterprises; and the development on posite qualities will most. certainly lead to a large scale, which can not be long delayed, failure. Cooperation will play a large part of the rich silver mines of New Mexico and in the enterprises of our country in the next Arizona. Colorado has also large quantities hundred years, but the great masses neither of silver with its gold, and though its ores can nor will be brought to participate in it. are somewhat refractory, they are very rich. The newly-discovered silver lodes at White Pine, Enterprise, and the Base Metal range, in Nevada, are also yielding large amounts. We are not sanguine of such a vast developCHAPTER VII. ment of the gold and silver product of our MINIG I TE FUTURE. country as of some of its other industries; I T FUTUR nor do we deem it desirable; for if there No nation in the world, not even Russia, should be a great annual addition to the whose mineral treasures stretch across half of amount of the precious metals, it would neeEurope and the whole breadth of Asia, pos- essarily depreciate their purchasing power, sesses one-half the mineral wealth which is and make a gold dollar the representative of deposited within the present territory of the but one-half, one-third, or one-fifth the quanUnited States. The great development of tity of food or staple muslins, cloths, or other this wealth has been made within the past articles of fixed value, that it now is. There twenty-five years, and much of it within the is danger of this result even now, from the past ten or fifteen; and as yet we have hardly greatly increased production of these metals made a beginning in the work of bringing to in all parts of the world. We believe, howlight the hidden treasures of our mountains ever, that it is not impossible that the yield and valleys. Gold has been found in twenty- from all the mines in 1970 may reach $100,three of our thirty-eight States, with a fair 000,000 or even $125,000,000. The present prospect for it in at least three or four more, gold and silver product of the world, includand in all the ten Territories. In thirteen of ing, beside our own mines, those of Mexico, these States and all the Territories, the pro- Central America, the South American States, duction is known to be sufficient to admit of Australia, Eastern and Southern Asia, the profitable mining. Silver, either in a nearly mines of Siberia and the Ural mountains, and pure state or combined with gold, lead, or the various rudely-worked mines and gold copper, is found in at least sixteen States and washings of Western and South-eastern Africa most of the Territories in profitable quan- does not much exceed $200,000,000 per antities. That the older gold mines and silver num. If it should rise to $300,000,000 per lodes have reached and passed their maxi- annum, a hundred years hence, its quantity mum of production is undoubtedly true, but would be so greatly increased (for it is to be 498 AAPPENDIX. remembered that but a small proportion of it has been mined to a small extent on the Pais actually lost or used up) that its purchasing cific coast. It is too soon yet to determine power would be greatly lessened. A bushel whether it can be made to supply any conof wheat, the most accurate and unvarying siderable portion of the national demand. perhaps of all our standards of value, which Quicksilver, which is indispensable in gold is now worth, say $1.40 in gold, would then mining as well as in many processes of the not be purchaseable below $4 or $5 in gold; arts, is now produced in quantities nearly or and so with other articles; not that the quite sufficient for the demand, in the New wheat was intrinsically worth any more, but Almaden and New Idria mines of California, that the gold would be worth less. At the and the existence of large deposits of cinpresent time we will say that the day's wages nabar and perhaps other ores of it in New of an average journeyman mechanic are Mexico and Arizona is well known. It would equivalent to two bushels of wheat. They be of no use for us to predict what quantities would be worth the same a hundred years of these metals will be produced in 1970, for hence, but expressed in money value they there are no means of knowing what the dewould be $8 or $10 a day, instead of $2.80 mand will be for them. Other metals, and as now, yet the $8 or $10 would purchase particularly aluminium, which is now being no more food, clothing, house-rent, or other produced cheaply and in large quantity, (and things needful, than the $2.80 will now. A being the metallic basis of our common clay, nation's highest mineral wealth does not con- can always be procured,) may take the place of sist, however, in the amount of gold and sil- copper or zinc or possibly of lead in many of ver beneath its soil. The iron and coal, the their applications to the arts and mechanism; copper and tin of Great Britain, are worth this much, however, we may regard as cermore to her than gold or silver mines would tain, that with the possible exception of tin, be. Judged by this standard, we are rich in we shall not in all probability have occasion mineral wealth. Copper and lead abound at to import any of them from other countries. various points in our territory, as the readers Of iron and steel we may speak more accuof this work already know. The vast beds rately and confidently. No State or Terriof copper ore in the upper Michigan penin- tory of the Union is without its deposits of sula; the extensive deposits of the same ma- some of the ores of iron. These, as our terial in California; the cupreous ores of Col- readers already know from the earlier chaporado, New Mexico, and Arizona, where gold ters of this work, are very numerous, and the and silver are blended with the copper; the very best of them for producing the best copper deposits of the lower California penin- qualities of iron and steel are in close proxsula, and the smaller but rich deposits found imity to the best deposits of anthracite and at various points near the Atlantic coast, and bituminous coals of excellent quality for the copper mines of East and Middle Ten- smelting them. The vast iron ore deposits nessee, insure our supply of this important of Pennsylvania, Ohio and Missouri, the rich metal. Zinc, with which it is so often alloyed ore-beds of the Lake Superior region, of New to make the important and useful compound, Jersey, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, brass, is scarcely less abundant, and for- the West Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and most part of excellent quality. Lead ores, and several of the newer Territories, supply all especially the galena, more or less argentif- the needed varieties, and will enable us within erous, are found in immense quantities a few years to become the greatest producers throughout the greater part of the Mississippi of iron and steel on the globe. The new Valley, especially in Illinois, Iowa, Wiscon- processes for making steel and semi-steel sin, Missouri, Arkansas, and Tennessee, and direct from the ore will enable us to turn out in equal abundance all over the Southern and during the present year, between one hunCentral portions of the great plains, the dred and one hundred and fifty thousand Rocky Mountain plateau, and the valleys be- tons, and by 1880, our annual production yond, even into California. Its deposits will reach, four hundred thousand tons of stretch northward also into Idaho and Mon- steel:. The production of pig iron in 1869, tana, Oregon, Washington, and British Co- as we have stated elsewhere, was, in round lumibia. Tin, of which Great Britain and the numbers, one million, nine hundred and fifty East Indian Archipelago have been for ages thousand tons, an increase of eight hundred the only considerable producers, undoubtedly and forty-seven thousand tons on the preexists both in Maine and in California, and vious year, With our facilities for its manu APPENDIX. 499 facture, and a tariff sufficiently high to pro- are found nearly pure on the Pacific coast, tect our manufacturers at the start from and also at one or two localities east. CMedisastrous competition, there is no reason sium, zirconium, rubidium, and several other why we should not in 1970 produce over of these rare metals, are found in localities thirty million tons of iron and four million in New York and some of the New England tons of steel per annum. The practical uses States. of these metals must, necessarily, increase The elementary bodies, chlorine, iodine, with each year. We are only beginning to bromine, &c., are not strictly minerals, but find out to what purposes both iron and steel are usually procured by the distillation of seacan be applied. It is but about twenty years water or from the kelp or ashes of sea plants, since iron was first used to any extent in this and the livers of some fish. Some mineral country for building houses and warehouses; springs and two orthree land plants also connow, in our large cities, most of the ware- tain a small percentage of them. houses and a very considerable number of The most abundant and valuable of our railroad stations, ferry-houses, churches, and minerals, after the metals, and perhaps even even private dwellings, are constructed whol- including them, is coal. The area of the ly or in part of it. It is hardly ten years known and worked coal-fields of Europe, since an iron ship was so great a rarity that Asia, Africa, and Australia, does not exceed it was worth going miles to see; now the twenty thousand square miles. The two steamships, propellers, and many of the sail- great coal-fields of North America, the Aping vessels, are almost entirely of iron, and palachian and the Rocky Mountain, contain the vessels of war are almost wholly either of'coal deposits of one million, three hlundrd iron or iron-clad. It is hardly half a dozen and seventy-six thousand square. miles, Of years since we began to lay our\first steel this vast area, six hundred and thirty-nine rails upon our railroads, and now we are using thousand, two hundred and sixty-six square one hundred and fifty thousand tons a year, miles, viz., one hundred; and twenty-six thouand very soon shall use five hundred thousand sand, two hundred and: sixty-six in the Easttons.l So of other applications of these met- ern or Appalachian coal-field, and five hunals. Books have been made with leaves of dred and thirteen thousand square miles in steel as thin as tissue paper, and beautifully the Rocky Mountain: coal-field, are within the flexible. Furniture of all kinds, toys, but- present limits of the United States, without tons, jewelry, articles of dress, type, engrav- counting the very extensive deposits known ing plates, glaziers' diamonds, cordage, tas- to exist in Alaska, or those of California, or sels, inkstands, and wigs, are a few of the the Lower peninsula and its vicinity. The latest applications of this wonderful metal. great bulk of these deposits are of bituminous We have already spoken of aluminium, or semi-bituminous coal, varying in quality, When the processes for its reduction shall but much of it very pure and rich in carbon have been still further simplified and the and hydrogen. The Eastern anthracite coalprice brought down to such a point that its field is small in extent, not exceeding five universal use shall be possible, there can be hundred square miles, though some of its no doubt that a metal so light and at the veins are very thick. The coal mined and same time so ductile and malleable, nearly as consumed from this field in 1869 was fifteen white as silver and even less subject to oxi- million, seven hundred and twenty-one thoudation, and which can be produced almost saudc, three hundred and eighty-six tons. every where, will come to be of as general. There are some other small anthracite coalservice as copper, lead, and zinc. fields in Rhode Island and Massachusetts (of The other rarer metals are some of them inferior quality,) a small one, we believe, in found in our country, and will undoubtedly Iowa, a considerable anthracite bed in the most of them prove sufficiently abundanutfor Queen Charlotte islands, off the coast of the demand, which is not large for many of British Columbia, and in Lower California. them. Potassium, sodium, iridium, rho- The recently-discovered coal in the vicinity dium, cesiurn, zirconium, and one or two of Carbon Station, Wyoming Territory, on more, have some use in the arts, but the re- the Union Pacific Railroad, is said to be a duction of the first two is rather a work of semi-anthracite. The production of anthracthe laboratory than of the mining works, and ite coal, a Ihundred years hence, unless new the material fiom which they are to be redu- anthracite coal-fields are discovered, can not ced is always at hand. Iridium and rhodium much exceed twenty-five or thirty million 80 500 APPENDIX. tons per annum, since these fields will be so Texas, and California. Salt, both in brine nearly exhausted, and the price will be so springs and in the form of solid rock salt, is high as to limit the consumption. found in New York, West Virginia, KenThe production and consumption of bitu- tucky, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, Missouri, Tenminous and semi-bituminous coals, on the nessee, Arkansas, Texas, Arizona, New Mexother hand, is in its infancy. The production ico, Utah, Nevada, and California, and is also of 1869 was estimated at fifteen million, made fiom sea-water, both on the Atlantic eighty-six thousand, nine hundred and thirty and Pacific coasts. Its production and mantons, including four hundred and twenty- ufacture are capable of almost indefinite exthree thousand, eight hundred and ten tons tension, and there can be no doubt thatlong imported, and largely used for the manufac- before 1970 we shall produce all the salt reture of illuminating gas. The recent discov- quired for our own consumption, which will ery of extensive beds of coal in Illinois, In- not probably be less than two hundred and diana, and Kentucky, and the opening of the fifty million bushels. great deposit of coal along the line of the We have referred briefly to buildingeastward base of the Rocky Mountains, will stone, and marble, granite, free-stone, slate, stimulate its use in all sections, and ere long sienite, Scotch granite, &c., used for statuary all our locomotives, steamships, and steam- and monumental purposes. That we possess boats, and all our stationary engines, will use all these, of quality fully equal to the best bituminous coal only. Some descriptions of that can be imported from Europe, does not this coal are well adapted to the smelting of admit of a doubt; we are gradually importiron, and the reduction of lead and copper; ing the marble, sienite, Scotch granite and others are capable of furnishing the best of Caen stone in smaller quantities; the other illuminating gas and the most admirable of building and statuary stones are not now imlubricating oils. Great Britain produced, in ported to any extent, and when the time 1869, one hundred and three million tons, all comes that this department of national probituminous coal, an increase of thirty-one duction shall receive the attention it deserves, million tons in ten years. Before 1880 it is we shall have no occasion for foreigifmateprobable that our consumption will rival rial. In all departments of mining industry, hers, and that it will reach five hundred mill- there must in the nature of things be a stnion tons by 1970. pendous development, and no small proporOf the other mineral products, the most tion of the wealth of the nation, a hundred important is petroleum, of which we have years hence will be derived from its mineral spoken somewhat at length under the " man- products. ufactures of the future," most of the oil undergoing a refining process to fit it for market. The aggregate product of petroleum, crude and refined, the lubricating and illumi- CHAPTER VIII. nating oils, paraffin, &c., was about two hundred and fifty million gallons in 1869. When MACHINERY AND INVENTION IN THE we consider the various uses to which it is FUTURE. likely to be put, the probability of its adapt- The production of some classes of maation to the purposes of fuel for steamships, chinery, such as locomotives, stationary enand the vast extent of the lands in which it gines, sewing-machines, agricultural machines is found, both in British America and the and machinery for their manufacture, both United States, we can hardly doubt that in in the present and future, have been consid1970 its consumption will reach four thou- ered under the heads of Manufactures and sand million gallons, or one hundred million Agriculture. There are other descriptions casks. of machines, however, which deserve some Lime abounds'in almost every section of notice. The invention of printing machines the country; and the demand for it is gen- of all descriptions has taken a great advance erally supplied without:any very long trans- within a few years past. From the huge tenportation. The limestones of the Mississippi cylinder machines, which will tumble out Valley furnish both lime and a fine building- their 30,000 newspapers of the largest size, stone. Sulphate of lime (pilaster of Paris) is printed on both sides, per hour, to the little found in several of the Atlantic States, in flying imp that rattles off 5,000 to 10,000 Iowa, Nebraska, New Mexico, Arizona, handbills or cards per hour, and the slower, APPENDIX. 50 1 though still comparatively rapid book-print- it is uttered. New discoveries are constantly ing machine, whose tireless fingers pick up making, too, in the adaptation of the photoand throw off their 2,000, 3,000 or 5,000 graph, the telegraph, and the spectrum sheets per hour, all exquisitely printed-all analysis, and by means of machines already of them are marvels of mechanical skill and invented or soon to be invented, we shall of the adaptation of the principles of nat- undoubtedly be able to learn more, daily, of ural philosophy to the arts. That these the history of the earth and of its present mechanisms will continue to be improved is a and past inhabitants, and of the condition law of our nature and of our national genius, and habitability of the heavenly bodies, than and when at no distant day a printing ma- ten or twenty years ago we could have acchine shall be required which shall print quired in a lifetime. In an age of such in100,000 newspaper sheets per hour, it will be tense intellectual activity as that on which forthcoming, though it may require another we are now entering, what to-day seems a St. John's Park to house it. But it is not miracle in invention or discovery, will toalone in printing machines that the inventive morrow be regarded as an every-day occurgenius of our people has displayed itself; rence, and the mind will be constantly startled the past decade has witnessed the comple- with new and unexpected developments and tion of a more perfect composing and dis- combinations, till we become as impassive tributing machine than had before appeared, and incapable of surprise as the Indian now one which seems almost endowed with the is. capacity of thought. This has not yet at- No nation on the face of the globe ever tained to full perfection, bit it will ere long possessed the inventive faculty in the same be rendered capable, under the hands of a degree that it is manifested by our people, skillful operator, of doing the work of twenty, and though the admixture in the future of possibly of fifty rapid composers, in a given Mongol blood may deprive us of some of our time, and doing it with an almost infallible originality in invention, the aptitude of that accuracy. Of course such a machine is des- race at imitation and their patient faculty of tined to be largely in demand in the future. automatic labor will, on the whole, inclrease Machines for adding, for making logarithmic still further our inventive powers. In 1869 tables, for a variety of mathematical calcula- there were, in round numbers, 18,000 patents, tions, are also among the recent inventions caveats, and renewals, issued from the Patent of our time, and the plan of self-registration Office. Of these, perhaps 12,000 were new is applied to a great variety of machines and inventions, many of them, of course, worthless, instruments of practical and scientific pur- but a few of decided value and importance. pose. By this ingenious combination we The gradually-increasing cost of procuring can read the time of a clock 4,000 miles patents may restrict somewhat their issue, away, can have delineated for our inspection but the practical limit seems to be in the the rhythmical or unrhythmical pulsations of finding room for models, and skillful experts our hearts; can ascertain what was the range to make the examinations and report upon of the thermometer and the barometer, the them. If it should be decided to dispense past night or the past month; can tell how with the models and rely upon photographs many miles a carriage has gone in its last and drawings of the inventions, the number trip, how many passengers have entered or of patents issued annually in 1970 may be left a railroad car; whether a night watch- 260,000 or more. man has performed his whole duty in the In such an infinitude of possibilities in the order and at the times required of him; what way of invention and discovery, it is idle to is the rate and course of travel of any partic- attempt any definite prediction of what even ular star in the heavens, and what was the the most remarkable may be. We may conexact duration of the last eclipse. Among elude, however, with safety, that a new the latest scientific inventions is a machine motive-power, or the application to practical for recording sounds, as the photograph re- motor purposes of some agency already cords objects, taking advantage of the vibra- known, will be one of the great discoveries tion of the sound-waves in the atmosphere. of the coming age, and the thousands of apBy means of this "sonograph," as its in- plications of it will form the subject of more ventor has named it, it is hoped to be able than as many patents. For the rest, they to record in characters readily legible by the will probably concern one or other of the initiated, a speech, however rapidly-delivered following topics: Improvements in locomo 032 APPENDIX. tion, transportation, and travel, including, and processes; the invention of processes by possibly, some practical mode of ero-locomo- which greater certainty, safety and success tion; the introduction of new textile fibres, could be assured in chemical manipulations, and.new methods of preparing and manufac- especially those pertaining to the extensive turing them; the invention or adaptation -of and constantly-increasing departments of pracnew materials to tale the place of wood, tical chemistry and chemical technology; leather, stone, or some of the metals now in additions to the number and great improveuse; the adoption of new materials for, and ments in the quality of our musical instrunew combinations in, fictile wares, pottery, ments; new materials and new processes for china, &c.; new or greatly-improved ma- attaining a higher success in sculpture, paintchintes for agricultural purposes, and specially ing, &c.; better methods of preserving vegeplows, cultivators, reapers, mowers, thresh- table and animal substances without change ers, hay-tedders, corn-gatherers, huskers and or decay, including in these some process for shellers, &c., driven or drawn by steam or embalming the human body far more persome other and newer motor; processes for fectly than it is now done; and finally, new, multiplying and adapting fertilizers; improve- more economical, and greatly better plans of mnents and new machines for joiner, carpenter heating, ventilating and illuminating our and cabinet work; for the manufacture and dwellings and public edifices than any yet laying of brick; for railroad and bridge con- devised. There will be, of course, many sinstruction; new or improved machines for gular, ingenious, and out-of-the-way invenevery description of needlework, accomplish- tions, some of practical value, perhaps, which ing it with greater perfection, certainty, and will not come under any one of these heads, speed; improved machines for weaving car- but there are enough suggestions here, if pets, goods of mixed colors and peculiar fig- rightly considered, to occupy the inventive ures, and in connection therewith, improve- powers of a great nation for more than a inents in all departments of the manufacture century. of woolen, cotton, and linen goods; the per- To this department of machinery and infection of machinery for the manufacture of vention legitimately pertains the profession all the finest descriptions of cutlery, needles, of civil engineering, a profession which has, files, steel and gold pens, watches, clocks, within a few years past, greatly increased in jewelry, and the setting and mounting of pre- numbers, and in its capacity for directing the cious stones; new discoveries, inventions and great enterprises of railroad, canal, and bridge improvements for the setting and distributing construction, and the solution of the great of type and the production of printing, en- problems of the adaptation of materials to graving, color and fac-simile printing, by the purposes to which it is proposed to apply some processes at the same time cheap and them. It is but a few years since it was perfect; new and better facilities for book- thought that no one who had not a training binding; improvements both in the manu- in the schools of engineering in England or facture of paper and the production of paper- on the continent of Europe was competent pulp; inventions for facilitating the copying to undertake any great work of construction. of manuscript, and reducing the manual labor It has been proved, however, that our native of writing; improvements in the construe- engineers, trained either in-the field or in our tion, models, and motive-power 6f ships and own engineering schools, are the best in the sailing vessels of all sorts; and in this con- world; and the wonderful feats of railroad nection the production of armor-plated ships construction, building of viaducts, tunnels, of war, combining lightness of draught, ir- subaqueous structures, bridges, both suspenpregnability, and excellent speed and fighting sion and tressel, and lighthouses, and removqualities; the great improvement and perfec- ing obstructions to navigation, which have tion of fire-arms of all descriptions and espe- been accomplished by men born and educially of the larger classes; improvements in cated here, satisfactorily demonstrate their explosives, both in regard to their safe use ability. The greatest engineering feat of the and their bursting and propelling qualities; war, the bringing the vessels of Admiral discoveries and improvements in anmesthetics, Porter's squadron safely over the rapids and both in their character, safety, and more con- falls of the Red river at a low stage of water, venient preparation and administration; in- was accomplished by a Wisconsin lumberventions and improvements in medical and man, General Bailey, who had not an engisurgical apparatus, instruments, appliances, neer's education in any school except the Wis APPENDIX. 503 consin pine forests. The skill which availed as utterly beyond human ability, no enterto make a firm foundation and plant in an prises of which ourimaginations can conceive eligible position the great Swamp Angel bat- need be regarded as impracticable. tery, which accomplished a work previously deemed imposs'ble, in the midst of a quaking marsh and quicksand of unknown depth, was not trained at West Point, but was that of a CHAPTER IX. self-educated civil engineer, General Serrell. And though some of our great suspension PUBLISHING, AUTHORSHIP AND LITERAbridges have been the work of European en- TURE IN THE FUTURE. gineers, to whom we would give all honor, it -We have shown in the previous chapter, is not to be forgotten that the finest and the great improvements and advances which most perfect tressel bridge, the one almost are now making and will speedily be peruniversally in use on our great railroads, was fected, in type-setting and distributing, printinvented by Howe, a mechanic of Springfield, ing, engraving, photolithography, heliotypy, Mass. The corrugated iron bridge, destined intagliotype, color-printing, &c., &c. The to a yet higher success, is the conception of effect of these upon the publishing business another self-taught American mechanic; and must be very great, not in the way of matethe combination iron truss, in which the rially cheapening production, for most of greatest possible strength is united with the these improvements rather add to the cost of smallest amount of material, originated in the manufacture of a book, by making it posthe mind of Asa Whitney, a self-educated sible to give a greater number of illustrations American engineer. With the present re- and a superior typography, than could have markable opportunities for education in the been afforded for the same or perhaps for any principles of engineering science, it is to be amount of money, fifteen or twenty years expected that the strong bent of the Amer- ago. The present volume is an illustration ican mind toward this pursuit will leadto the of this very point. Twenty years ago, a most extraordinary results. book on the subjects of which we treat might Already a company is organizing to lay a have been produced, having the same numtelegraphic cable from San Francisco to ber of pages, and the same binding, perhaps China; and other companies are preparing, for three or four dollars; but the ablundant by ship canals, by excavations to a vast and superb illustrations on wood and steel, depth, by tunnels, if need be, to open the and in colors, and the superior typography, way between the waters of the Atlantic and could only have been produced by great labor Pacific at two points, (the Isthmus of Darien, and very slow and careful printing, and would and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,) for the com- have made the cost of the volume not less merce of the world to pass through. Still than twelve or fifteen dollars. It is now others are projecting a navigable highway afforded at four and a-half and five dollars, across the Alleghanies, through the Ohio and (according to the style of binding,) affording the James rivers; and yet others are propos- a smaller profit to the publisher than the ing means of overcoming the difficulties of volume with poor paper, indifferent printing a union of the waters of the Atlantic and the and few and poor illustrations would have great lakes with the Mississippi, by way of done, at the price named above, but giving the Wisconsin and Fox rivers, or by a ship the purchaser the advantage of a much more canal through Illinois and another around the beautiful and valuable work, at a very slight Falls of Niagara. The crossing the penin- advance in cost. This work of improvement sula of Florida by a ship canal is a foregone in the illustration and externals of our publiconclusion at no distant day; and in the cations is destined to go on, and though the event of the annexation of Cuba, a causeway average price of books, periodicals and newsand bridge may unite it with the mainland. papers will probably never again be as low What other and still vaster enterprises may as it was ten or fifteen years ago, yet the be projected and executed in the future, we public will receive very much more for their know not, but it will be a time of great un- money. The same state of things exists in dertakings,.and as the ambition of man will relation to periodicals and newspapers. The know no limit and the wealth of the nation price is somewhat higher than ten or fifteen is likely to be sufficient to pay the cost of years ago, in some cases nearly double, but improvements which now would be regarded the quality is in all cases greatly superior, 504 APPENDIX. and in most instances the quantity of matter little leisure for any otler pursuit. Of course, is nearly or quite double. The illustrations the issue of an hourly paper of the dimenin the periodicals are generally of a much sions of the N. Y. Tribune, Times, World or higher grade than formerly. Such is the ex- Herald, is an absurdity; but the attempt to pense of illustrations; typography and paper read daily, twelve papers of the size of the lavished on a first-class periodical (weekly or New York Sun, would be an infliction bemonthly) in this country, that a circulation yond the endurance of most persons. as large as that of some of the most prom- The tendency of the weekly literary, sciihent English periodicals would not begin to entific, and religious newspapers, and of the support them. Several of our most popular monthly periodicals, is constantly toward enweekly and monthly periodicals have a cir- largement, and very large sums are often culation exceeding 100,000 copies, and two paid to popular writers for single contribuor three have 200,000 or more. This makes tipns or serials, which, by extensive adverthem very valuable property; but constant tising, may materially increase the circulation energy and activity is necessary to keep them of these periodicals. The effect of these up to this standard. Of the daily news- measures, if continued in the future, will be papers, not more than one or two come up to concentrate the available talent of the to a circulation of 100,000, though several country in magazine and newspaper writing, exceed 50,000. With the improved ma- and thus to make our literature fragmentary, chinery for rapid printing, and the facilities superficial, and careless. The promptness for duplicating to any required extent the and rapidity necessary in writing for the daily stereotype casts of the paper, there seems to press is necessarily unfavorable to that care, be no necessary limitation, certainly none deliberation and finish which characterizes inside of one million copies, which a daily our best literature. Hasty generalization, paper might issue. Such a paper, if well rash assertion, appeals to the feelings and conducted, would exert a mighty power in imagination rather than to the reasoning forming and influencing public opinion, powers, the introduction of colloquialisms, It is altogether probable that if the same provincialisms, and slang expressions, and the eagerness and greed for the latest intelligence desire to tickle the ear and amuse the taste, continues to possess the minds of our people, rather than to instruct the mind, or improve which now makes them impatient of the the morals, will be the natural results of this slightest delay, the number of editions of the surrender of the domain of literature to jourdaily papers will be greatly multiplied, and nalism. There will remain, it is true, certain perhaps in the end, with the greatly increased fields in the realms of literature and science facilities for procuring intelligence from all which the magazinist and journalist can not parts of the world, the newspaper patrons of successfully till; works of scientific research 1970 may have a small hourly paper, at least or learned investigation; grave essays, and through the business hours of the day, issued careful dissertations, too grave and painsto them, instead of the mammoth dailies of taking for the literary periodicals; treatises the present time. Such a change would be on physical, metaphysical, or theological topno more surprising than the issuing of the ics; text-books, and philological works, and first daily paper to the reading community, those books on which the laborious and pawho had till then satiated their thirst for tient student spends a lifetime of labor. For news with a weekly paper, and indeed it has these works there will be, doubtless, in the its prototype in the bulletins of the stock future as in the past, some demand; but the exchange and in the hourly and half-hourly popular taste, accustomed to lighter diet, will extras with which we became familiar during not easily acquire an appetite for sound and the war. substantial literature. This tendency is alThere is a limit in one direction to this ready producing a noticeable effect on the multiplication and frequency of issue of literature of our own times; not to speak of newspapers. It lies in the power of the hu- the ponderous volumes of Cotton Mather, the man eye to read, of the human mind to able but slightly heavy orations of Burke, the retain, and of the busy man to find time for learned but occasionally drowsy historical such an accumulation of news. Our present essays of Gibbon, we already find that the mammoth.dailies contain too much, and he great majority of the purchasers who buy wnho would make himself master of the con- Addison, and Bacon, Hume, Hallam, and even tents of one or two of them, will find but Washington Irving, because it is the thing to APPENDIX. 505 have them in their libraries, are entirely in- food, these young people may turn to somenocent of any knowledge of the works of thing better, higher, and purer, and that in the these great masters of English undefiled; and generations to' come, a better taste and a deeven the polished essays of such men as sire for a more thorough intellectual culture Willis, Hawthorne, Prescott, Macaulay, and may prevail. But, alas! who shall teach the Milman-men who belonged to our own gen- teachers of those generations? If it be true eration-are more talked about than read. that the stream can not rise higher than its The taste for trashy sentimentalism, born and source, where shall we find, in this general debred of this excess of magazine literature, cay of sound literary taste qmong the purveyhas already exerted its evil effect in corrupt- ors of literature, the authors of the coming ing the minds of the reading community, and age, those whose mastery of the subjects they rendered a sound and thoughtful literature may discuss is so perfect, and their intellectdistasteful and almost unendurable to the ual grasp so wide, that they can present mass of readers. Yet there is nothing which sound and profound truths in a garb so atso readily palls upon the mental appetite or tractive that the young literary dyspeptics produces so speedy and stubborn an intel- shall be beguiled into their study2 There lectual dyspepsia, in any mind which is ca- may be some such writers, we would hope pable of doing its own thinking, as this same there are many, but there is ground for fear sensational, prurient, and exciting literature, that the number is not only small, but deof which the Miss Braddons, Oaidas, and creasing. Our age, an age full of great and Wilkie Collinses of our day furnish us such heroic deeds and of mighty discoveries, a profusion. should produce a great poet, or more than The man, woman or child who, now-a-days, one, who could write an epic that should be sits down to iread a work such as would have to the world what the Iliad, the iEneid, the delighted the readers of thirty years ago, Jerusalem Delivered, the Visions of Heaven whether it is a religious treatise like those of and Iell of Dante, and the Paradise Lost, Baxter, Doddridge, Howe, Bunyan, or Zim- have been to the past ages; but thus far;o merman, or a thoughtful essay like the mis- such poet has greeted our eyes; he may come cellanies of Carlyle, Stephen, Jeffrey, or Dr, in the next hundred years; he may even now Milman; a learned dissertation like those of be biding his time, but as yet his coming is Bacon, Hallam, or Gibbon, or a great histor- unheralded. ical work like those of Grote, Gibbon, Hume, The hundred years to come should be proor Thierry-is voted slow, old fogyish, dull, lific in great poets, great historians, great and not up to the times in literature. How orators, great preachers, great philosophers, will it be in the coming time, when this ten- and perhaps great novelists. We hope it dency to pander to the weaker and baser may. tastes of our intellectual nature shall have In regard to the publishing of books we dominated more completely over the minds may reasonably expect that the two methods of men? There is great danger lest, with a so long in vogue will continue to be mainwider culture, and a more general diffusion tained; that in the future, as in the past, the of education, the age in its literary aspects publishers will be divided into what is techshould become even more soulless and frivo- nically known as "the trade," or the publous than was that of the first, second, and lishers who publish for and sell through the third Georges in English literature. The bookstores all over the country; and thesubpassion for the lowest form of the novel, the scription publishers, who sell through agents mere story, almost always improbable, and who go from house to house in the scattered concocted by immature minds, not versed in hamlets as well as in the large cities. Both the knowledge of men or the world, is stim- methods of publication have their advantages ulated in our nurseries, in our schools, and and their disadvantages, and neither is likely above all in our Sunday School libraries, until to be relinquished. The publishers for the the boy or girl of sixteen has no taste for any trade are tending more and more with each thing higher than the New York Ledger and year to that concentration and aggregation its kindred class of illustrated newspapers, of great houses which seems to be the conthe dime novel, or the miserable and disgust- trolling tendency of all mercantile business, ing array of yellow cover sensational stories. and with a population fifteen times what we We can not but hope that satiated and sur- now have, there is no reason to believe that feited at last with this unwholesome mental we shall have fifteen or even ten times the 506 APPENDIX. number of prominent publishers we now have. complished much to insure their future sucTwenty-five firms now issue nineteen-twen- cess. The demand is now increasing for tieths of all the books in general literature books of a much higher grade than were forpublished for the trade; and twenty more, merly sold by canvassers, and we think that and some of these included in the previous at the present time the books sold by subtwenty-five, would include nearly all the pub- scription will compare very well with the lishers of school and scientific text-books. average of those published for the trade. The number has not materially increased Competition and the desire of attracting the within the past ten years; indeed we doubt attention of purchasers to their books, will if it has not diminished, for though there lead to greater improvements in typography, have been a few new firms, a larger number illustration, and possibly in the preparation of the old ones have either retired, failed, or of their books in the future, and the subscripbecome consolidated with others. A gigantic tion book which will sell to the extent of one capital is necessary for the successful conduct hundred thousand or two hundred thousand of the business, and the great sums invested copies in 1970, will be a very attractive in stereotype plates, electrotypes, and engra- book. While, of course, the number of difvings, and the heavy cost of conducting the ferent books sold by this method will bear business, consumes money so fast, that the no comparison with those sold through the net return is actually smaller than in most trade, it will achieve great successes for a few branches of business. The school-book and books, and as it will require a smaller amount text-book trade, which has been perhaps the of capital than publishing for the trade, it most successful of any branch of the busi- will probably be more extensively tried. We ness, has now formed an association with should be inclined to estimate the number of very stringent regulations, which is likely to subscription publishers in 1970 at not less make their future business profitable, while than fifteen hundred. We believe, too, that it will do much toward preventing accessions very many authors who have something to to the trade. We are inclined to believe that say of real value and importance to the whole the publishing of books for the trade, whether nation, will seek this mode of publication, as miscellaneous or text-books, will be conducted bringing them more directly in contact with a hundred years hence mainly by about one the great mass of those they desire to adhundred firms, each of themr wielding a cap- dress. ital of several millions, and so leagued to- The publication of music and music bools gether as to make it very difficult for new and periodicals, is distinct fiom other firms to engage in the business. Their issues branches of the publishing business, and ermof books will be daily announced and in ploys a large capital. It is increasing, and very considerable numbers, and sales will will continue to increase as the taste for probably reach a much greater extent than music and the disposition to a higher and now, but the management of a business so better musical culture prevails. We are bevast as most of them will have, will require coming gradually a music-loving people, and the most vigorous division of labor and a the large accession of Germans to our popuhigh order of executive ability. The school lation will aid in inducing a better musical and text-book department of the business training in our families. The Orientals, who will especially demand a vast amount of labor, will by and by form so large a portion of our and its sales will amount to many millions of population, are not famous for their musical dollars annually. taste, and though they are fond of what they The business of publishing books to be term music, it is, to a Western ear, only a sold by subscription will have a somewhat horrible agglomeration of discords. If they different course. Doubtless the subscription have the musical ear, they can doubtless be publishers will unite in an association for made to appreciate the concourse of sweet their own protection and defence, and thus sounds; but this is somewhat doubtful. Oil will obviate some of the difficulties which the whole, we may, with safety, predict a now beset them. If they can, by this or any very considerable advance in the knowledge other means, secure the services of a higher and taste for music in the next hundred years, and better-trained class of canvassers, and and the musical publishers will doubtless can give the public generally a more favor- reap an abundant harvest. able impression of them, they will have ac APPENDIX. 507 CHAPTER X. tiplying (not permanently, perhaps) the representations of statuary, machinery, portraits, THE FINSE ARTS IN THE FUTURE. landscapes, and historical scenes, the exterior The increase of wealth in a nation always and interior of buildings, &c., &c. The tends to the increase of luxury; and in no stereoscopic views, and the presentation of way can this tendency to luxurious expendi- these in the stereoscopticon and other instruture expend itself more beneficially than in the ments, have greatly added to the means of encouragement ofthe fine arts. The wealthy rational enjoyment in the observation of art-connoisseur who expends some thousands works of art. Thousands and tens of thouof dollars on a fine painting, a beautiful sands who, with the culture which would statue or group, or a tasteful and luxurious have enabled them to enjoy a tour in Europe, dwelling, though his principal impulse may have never been able to command the be the gratification of his own tastes and love means for it, have enjoyed nearly all the of art, is really a public benefactor, if in the pleasures of the journey in being led step by first two cases he does not hoard up his treas- step over the route, and made to witness in ures of art, and keep them from the view of life-like reality those landscapes-mountain, all whose enjoyment might be heightened by lake, river, and cataract-and the venerable them; for not only does he encourage the and interesting buildings, and still more venartist in his labors, but he aids in improving erable and interesting ruins, which they the public taste, and contributes greatly to would have seen in the actual journey. The the pleasure of those who, while having the problem, so long unsolved, of photographic same tastes, do not possess the same means representation of persons and objects in their of gratifying them. Yet he is also a public natural colors, is already beginning to show benefactor in a larger sense, who devises signs of yielding to the importunate quesmeans for bringing the treasures of art within tioning of skilled experimenters; and rethe means of persons of small fortunes. A markable as have been the discoveries of the beautiful landscape, a grand and rugged past thirty years in regard to photography mountain, a cataract as lofty as Niagara, or and its combinations, we are evidently just waterfalls uniting sublimity and beauty like on the verge of others still more extraordithose of the Yosemite, a sweet and charming nary. Our photographers, before the close of face, full of innocence and truth-these are the present century, will have overcome their all objects which not only delight but elevate present difficulties, and will be able to preand enrich the soul; and the transference of sent us the wondrous hues of the evening any one or all of them to the canvas, if sue- clouds, the glittering whiteness of snow-clad cessfully accomplished by an artist whose summits; the reddish gray, deepening into soul is in his work, and who has the ability tints of blue, and of living green, of the lower to embody his conceptions in color, or draw- slopes of our mountains, the various shades ing, or in the pure marble, is itself a thing of mountain lakelet, the purling stream, the of beauty, which brings hardly less enjoy- broad inland sea, and the foam-capped waves ment to the cultivated taste than the scenes that burst on the rock-bound shores of New or objects it represents. England; the tints of autumn in our forests, If now by the skill of the engraver, the the shades of grass and flowers and sllrubs; chromo-lithographer, or the moulder and die- the hues of the sky, the shadings of the hucutter, who must in each case be himself, an man complexion, even to the delicate flushartist as truly as the first designer of the land- ing of the modest maiden's cheek, and the scape, portrait, figure, or group, these rare resplendent beauty of the plumage of birds, and costly objects of art can be reproduced the wondrous tints of the butterfly and the by thousands in an exquisite engraving, glittering iridescence of the insect's wings, or chromo, or statuette in Parian, bisque, or the gold and purple bronze which glistens bronze, at a small price, and thousands of on its armor. In every other department of homes thus made beautiful and joyous, is not the fine arts, there will be equal progress. the world made the better and happier for The reproduction in more permanent and enthe life of this artist who manifolds the crea- during forms of these wonders of nature, will tions of art? task the highest skill of the chromo-lithogThe development of art by means of pho- rapher, and methods will doubtless be devised tography and its combinations with other for printing in color froni raised surfaces, processes, is also effecting great good, in mul- with a perfection as yet unattained by the 508 APPENDIX. lithographic art. We do not despair, even, America is that country; yet our architects of learning the secret of the application of only ring changes on Doric, Tuscan, Corinththe different rays of light to produce the ian, Composite, Italian, Early, Middle and colors of nature, and the skill to use them Later Gothic, Norman, and Renaissance, or for the production of the same effect, thus some combinations of these. It would seem making the sun our colorist. This once ac- to be their idea that all the possible styles of complished, and how dull would be the finest architectural structures had been already excolors blended on the artist's pallette corn- hausted, and that nothing more remained for pared with the tints which the light would them to do except the combination of some give us. We do not, however, anticipate two or three of them in some way which that what is now, properly enough, called should mingle ugliness with inutility. This high art, will in any respect degenerate; on state of things can not last. We shall have, the contrary, we have great hope of its ad- probably before the close of the present cenvance far beyond anything which it'has hith- tury, some architect who, by the force of his erto attained. When our artists shall have genius and the brilliancy of his inventive learned fully the important lesson that the powers, shall introduce a style of architecture successful copying of nature in its sublimity, which shall commend itself to public taste its beauty, or its desolation and homeliness, and acceptance alike by its beauty and its is the highest attainment of art, and shall adaptation to our climate, conditions and reresolutely reject those conventionalities and quirerents. Nay, diverse as are these, we tricks of art which have led them so far should and doubtless shall, have a series of astray, they will be prepared to stand forth styles of architecture, each appropriate to its as the founders of a new school of art which own section. On the broad, sunny plains of shall be enduring, and whatever may be the our central region, where the blue sky is ever colors or materials they may use, they will cloudless, and no forest trees woo the winds, produce effects hitherto unattainable. In a style of architecture which shall supply the sculpture, as in painting, there is no reason needs of shadow, quiet and repose, will be why we should not attain a higher success needed; in the mountains and on the Pacific than even the most skillful of the Greek coasts there will be an opportunity for bolder sculptors; the anatomy of the human form, flights of fancy, for buildings whose well dethe positions and expressions of the passions fined and clear outlines shall stand out sharp and emotions, and the laws which govern and cleanly cut in that wonderfully pure and them, are fully defined, and the artist who transparent air; and on the Atlantic slope, has the power of expressing his conceptions grand, solid and substantial edifices will well in plastic material (clay or plaster,) can have become our more rigorous and frowning clithem rendered for him exactly in the more mate. The palaces and great manor-houses enduring marble by inferior hands. So much of a hundred years hence will surpass in exof the work of the sculptor is merely mechian- tent and magnificence the famous imperial ical, and can be performed by machinery or palaces of Rome or the Orient, for it is a by the labor of ordinary trained workmen, characteristic of the rich men of our own that he has a much better opportunity than time and nation to surpass in their lavish exhis predecessors in former ages, of working penditure the most renowned spendthrifts of out the great thoughts in which high art antiquity. The costliness, and we would really consists. hope also the architectural beauty of our In architecture there is a necessity for the churches, capitols, halls, and other public development of a higher measure of creative buildings, as well as of our college edifices, genius than has yet appeared in our country. schools, and theaters, will increase in a still The problems of climate, of temperature, of more rapid ratio. It was formerly objected light and shade, of material, of warming and in Great Britain that the voluntary system of ventilation, and of the surrounding scenery religious worship in this country utterly preand landscape, are all more or less new, and eluded all possibility of good church archiat all events different from those of other tecture; that the churches would only be countries; differing, indeed, in a very marked huge barns, because the communicants of degree in different portions of our own coun- each denomination would be unwilling to contry. If any country ever imperatively de- tribute for anything beyond the cheapest and manded styles of architecture peculiarly plainest of church edifices. The true danger adapted to its own wants and necessities, lies in just the contrary direction; thevolun APPENDIX. 509 tary system, by its strong competition, this is to some extent a matter of fashion, prompts to altogether too heavy expenditures and many hundreds and perhaps thousands for church edifices, and though the expend- of pianos are rarely or never opened except iture is not always in good taste, yet enough at some evening party or entertainment, the is paid to make the churches, at least in our ladies of the household having, to use their cities, admirable models of the best styles of own expression, had enough of that in their ecclesiastical architecture. We have not the school days. Nor is the greater prevalence exact figures at hand to verify the statement, and larger support of Opera a certain indibut our impression, derived from a pretty cation of a higher musical culture, for this, large acquaintance with the cost of church too, is a matter of fashion, and as many go edifices in Great Britain and the United to see and to be seen, or to witness the acting States, is that the aggregate value of these and dancing, as to hear the music. The edifices in the United States is very little, if shamelessness and indecency of the performat all, below that of Great Britain. We have ances in Opera Bouffe of late have attracted not, indeed, a St. Paul's, a Westminster Ab- thousands who would never have gone boy, or a York-Minster, and ages must elapse merely to hear Offenbach's music. At the before we can rival them in the wealth of Philharmonic and other great concerts there their historic and antiquarian treasures and are also many in attendance who have no memories, but in the matter of actual cost knowledge of and no taste for music, but who and money value we are not far behind the go because "it is the thing" to do. United Kingdom, though she has had two Yet there has been a rapid advance in muthousand years, and we but one hundred, for sical culture in the United States within the the development of these edifices. A hun- last twenty or twenty-five years. The numdred years hence the advantage will be alto- her of really accomplished singers and first gether on our side, and we may hope that class performers on string and wind instruthe originality and beauty of the archi- ments has greatly increased, and the persons tecture will not be less so. Our National, who can appreciate the best music although State, and municipal government buildings, it may be difficult, is certainly tenfold what whether architecturally successful or not, it was twenty-five years ago. Several of our have led to most enormous expenditures in prime donne, born, and educated almost the past and will lead to still greater extrav- wholly here, have attracted great attention agance in the future. Our National and State and occupied the highest positions in Opera Legislatures, our Presidents and Governors, abroad. The musical taste of the masses is aie not so well paid as they should be, and becoming more cultivated; church music is far less than some of the smaller States of acquiring a very much higher character. Europe, but for the most part they are far These are all indications for good. Musical more luxuriously housed than the legislatures instruction of the highest grade is now to be of any country of Europe, and the Presiden- had in the musical conservatories of most of tial and Gubernatorial offices are luxuriously our large cities, and our amateur performers fitted up. Our present National Capitol at often attain a very high degree of skill. Our WVashington has cost between fourteen and pianos, cabinet and parlor organs, and brass fifteen millions of dollars, and is not remark- instruments, are acknowledged by European able for its beauty; the Capitol of 1970, musical professors and connoisseurs to be the whether at St. Louis or Omaha, will, before best in the world. With these advantages its completion, cost not less than a hundred we may confidently look forward to great atmillions, and will, we hope, be the erbodi- tainments in music in the next hundred ment of the best architectural genius of the years. Whether they will display themselves nation. in monster concerts, anvil choruses and acBut we must not overlook the claims of companiments of twenty-inch cannon, may zmusic to be considered one of the fine arts, be uncertain; but this much we may be asnor forget that melodies addressed to the ear sured of, that not only will the grandest comhave as elevating and refining an influence as positions of the old masters, and the more. the lessons of beauty in which the eye finds brilliant but less substantial operas of the such delight. The measure of our national present century be worthily reproduced, and progress in music is not to be ascertained with an effect which has never yet been from the wonderful increase in the sale of attainable, but other composers will arise musical instruments of all descriptions, for who shall be able to transfer to musical ex: 510 APPENDIX, pression the great events of our national his- and green-house. Side by side there will be tory and the music of niature in hergrandest seen growing the caoutchouc tree of South hymns of the forest, the mountain and the America, the cactus of Africa and of Mexico, cataract. In religious music we may expect the bauhinia of South Africa, tie clianthus new triumphs, in songs and melodies which of Australia, the dwarf yet fruit-laden pear shall lift the soul heavenward when the thor- and orange of Japan, the ferns of the Southoughly trained voices of the great congrega- ern Continent, the club-mosses, gentians and tion roll out their volume of joyous music, chrysanthemums of the Alpine flora. The and though the somewhat extravagant antici- houses of the rich will have a well-filled and pation of one of our poetical and- musical skillfully-managed conservatory as certainly composers may hardly be accomplished, as they have a kitchen. Every year will wit"When Heaven's every bright rafter ness new co sts from the woods, t Shall shake with the thunder of sanctified song," plains, the ravines; new treasures garnered for cultivation and development, and botany, still we may rightfully expect that there will no longer a dry and unpleasant science of barbe grander choruses of sacred music rising barons Latin names, will become a study of from the sanctuaries of the future, than we life in the plant, in all its stages of growth, have dared to dream of. fruition, decay, and reproduction. Floriculture is fast taking its place as one I is one of the most hopeful traits in the of the fine arts; and very appropriately so, character of the Clinese and Japanese, that for nothing can be more delightful or more through all the long ages of their formal and elevating and refining to the mind than the uninteresting national and social life, cut off culture of flowers. There is something ex- from intercourse with the outer world, with quisitely beautiful in the development of a a routine prescribing all the minutie of life, flower; in tracing it from the seed, the layer, they have still maintained their love of the bulb, or the germ, all of them various flowers. The future development of floricilphases of the leaf, which is the primary form ture in this country will depend largely upon of the plant, through all its stages of growth them, and it could hardly be in better hands. and development till it blooms forth in its In our freer country, with a new and virgin highest beauty or yields its perfected fruitage, soil under their feet, and new and briighter the infinite variety of its forms, the exquisite skies overhead, it will be a wonder if they do blending and the beautiful contrasts of its not themselves learn lessons from the flowers colors, the delicate proportions and shapeli- of the field, which, in all their national expeness of its flowers, and the remarkable diver- rience of 3,000 or 4,000 years, they have sity of the habits of the plants, one rejoicing never yet dreamed of: in sun and drought, another constantly craving water; one perishing in the shade and another unable to exist out of it; one expanding its flowers to catchl the sun's first rays,APTER X another hiding away till the afternoon rays come slantingly upon it; one covering the THE SOCIAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROGearth with its continued blossoms through RESS OF THE NEXT HUNDRED YEARS. the whole summer, another shy and coy, giv- A great social and political problem-one ing but scant and widely-separated blooms, which has troubled our nation since its first but of exquisite beauty, to the hand that cul- organization-has received its solution within tivates it; all these varied incidents of plant the last decade. The negro and his conlife make the cultivation of flowers one of the dition of slavery was the constant source of most instructive and intellectually profitable anxiety, of irritation, and became the basis pursuits in the world. This pursuit, too, is of social distinctions and the corner-stone of to have a grand and glorious development in an attempted aristocracy. A fierce and the future; the flowers and productions of bloody war grew out of this problem, and it all climes will be ours to choose from; there was solved at last in the only sensible'way is no climate so hot, so cold, so moist, so dry, by giving him his freedom, and the same so purified with strong, searching winds, or rights and privileges, social, intellectual, and so languid and drowsy that we have it not, political, which all other citizens enjoy.'This either in nature in our varied temperatures, is the true basis; it makes him no longer a orin the artificial climate of the conservatory slave, nor, on the other hand, a petted fa APPENDIX. 511 vorite; but a man, with the same privileges, production of grains for the purpose of distilresponsibilities, joys, sorrows, struggles and lation; the manufacture of factitious liquors triumphs as other men. He has a fair field from alcohol or.strong whiskey and other inand no favor; what he attains either in social gredients; and the raising and manufacture or intellectual progress, in the accumulation of opium and tobacco for habitual use as of wealth, or the acquisition of political sta- stimulants. tion and renown, he will owe to his own abil- 3d. The Chinese question, viz., whether ities and his own wise use of them. There the Chinese and other oriental nations shall is no question of amalgamation here, but if be allowed to swarm into our territory and the negro, rising fiom a condition of igno- take the place of our present laboring classes; rance, degradation and slavery, can achieve and whether, if, as is probable, this right is position and station by dint of hard work; if conceded, they should be admitted to the he can surpass in intellectual brilliancy and same political and social privileges with ourvigor the white man, who has had so many selves. These questions are all of them of generations the start of him, let him do it by great importance, and should be settled all means. The white man should feel stim- speedily and forever. Other questions, mainly ulated by the progress of the man of color to ethical, but all bearing on our social condimake higher attainments himself. There will tion, will claim an answer by and by, such as be, doubtless, during the lifetime of the pres- the question of the marriage relation and dient generation, minor difficulties and annoy- vorce; polygamy, free-love, absolute freeances growing out of this former condition trade, some form of communism, the aboliof the negro; but they will not prove of se- tion of capital punishment, &c.; &c. The rious consequence. The great fact of his coming hundred years Will not, more than freedom and equality before the law will lead the past, be free from exciting and sometimes him on to higher culture and will wear off rancorous discussions on these points. But speedily the slighter failings in his character, the three great questions already indicated his ficlleness, childishness, and untruthful- will, until they are decided, occupy the foreness. most place in the public attention; not only This great social question being disposed will political victories and defeats, bothState of, we find ourselves confronted by three and National, rest on the decision, but their more, each claiming speedy settlement. influence will be felt in our homes and'in These will be the great social questions which every phase of social life. The question of for the next hundred years will agitate the the political and social status of woman remind of the nation. We hope and believe solves itself into so many subordinate questhat they will not, like the one we have just tions, that those who would be disposed to solved, find their solution in war. These concede many rights and privileges to her, three problems are: 1st, the social and polit- will be blamed by some for conceding so ical status of woman, and the position she much, by others for not yielding all. That, will occupy in the government of the nation; in the matter of the rights of property; that 2d, the liquor question in all its bearings, in in some of the disabilities connected in the regard to the manufacture, whether it shall English common law, and even in many of be heavily taxed; the sale, whether it shall our statute laws, with her position in marbe restricted by license laws, prohibited ex- ridge; that in the compensation for labor cept for medicinal, chemical, manufacturing, performed by her, or for injuries done to her, and sacramental purposes, or left free to work woman in the past and to some extent in the out its injurious effects; and the drinking to present, has suffered wrong, every intelligent intoxication, whether it shall be prevented, right-thinking man will admit, and society by restriction of the sale, or punished, by will not hesitate, when the measure of these fine, imprisonment, or public degradation. wrongs is ascertained, to make amends for There are other ethical questions more or less them; but that it is the privilege and duty connected with this, which will also create of every or any woman to exercise the act of considerable excitement in the communities suffrage on political questions, to choose offiwhere they assume a practical form. Among cers of the government at the polls, to make these are, the culture of the grape for the laws, to preside in the courts, to become manufacture of wines and brandies; the rais- members of Congress, political leaders, or ing of the hop, for the manufacture of ale executive officers of the government, admits and distilled liquors; and to some extent the of very grave doubt. The nature of suffrage, 512 APPENDIX. the fact that the woman is already repre- tion. If all the women who possessed the sented in the head of the family tolwhich she property qualification were to be registered, belongs, her strongly-marked adaptation to the whole number of voters, men and women, the duties and pleasures of home life, and her would not be one-ninth of the population, equally manifest inability to view political and the only ground on which it is urged questions in any other than a partisan light; there is that certain single, widowed, or in a the demoralizing effect of active participation few instances married women, possessing in politics upon the purity and delicacy of property in their own right, have not, without true womanhood; the large proportion of the ballot, sufficient control of it to prevent women who would always vote under influ- undue taxation of it by parties who, if they ence, and that of the worst kind, and the great could vote, would be more ready to consult majority of the best women, who would be their interests. There is, in the suffrage agiunwilling, even under stringent compulsion, tation in England, no claim of equality of the to vote, while the worst classes would be sexes, or of any inherent right to vote in marched up to the polls en masse, to cast woman as woman, but only in the right of a their ballots for those demagogues who had woman who holds property to have a voice purchased them-are all so many strong rea- in choosing those who are to lay taxes on sons against woman suffrage.* As to holding that property. Here, on the other hand, sufoffice, an almost necessary corollary of the fiage is well nigh universal, so far as men of exercise of suffrage, we are inclined to the adult age are concerned. There is no propbelief that very few of the women who pos- erty qualification, and the only possible reasess sufficient capacity for it, would desire to sons why women should vote are based on undertake its responsibilities. So far as the the assumptions of her being hitherto enstrife has yet progressed, the only women tirely unrepresented, and of her being in all who have nominated themselves for Congress respects the equal and peer of man. Both or other high office, have manifested no other assumptions are unfounded; woman is tle qualifications for it than unlimited powers of complement, the other half of man, but the declamation, without point or argument, and question of equality or inequality is absurd with absolute ignorance in regard to many between things or persons essentially unlike; important questions which would inevitably and as to the representation, it is the family, come before them for action if they ever not the individual, which is the unit of sufachieved an election. There are, unquestion- fiage, and in that family representation, the ably, many women much better fitted for this woman is as truly represented as her father, position than these boisterous declaimers, but husband, brother, or son. they are not of the sort that aspire to it. Should the decision in favor of woman Our own opinion has been and still is, that suffrage finally prevail, with its inevitable the ardent advocates of woman suffrage result of office-holding and partisan candiwould so overdo the matter, as to provoke a dacy on the part of the sex, the social conreaction against it, and render their success dition of the country would be greatly altered. impossible for at least a hundred years to While there would be great numbers of wocome. Still the itching for progress in any men who would' neither vote nor seek office, direction is so strong in the minds of the un- many thousands (millions we might say, perthinking masses, that it would not be matter haps, in view of the great prospective inof surprise, though certainly a cause for pro- crease of our population) of the more giddy found regret, if they should succeed in some, and conceited, pleased with the notoriety and possibly in all the States. The possibil- which political life would afford, would abanity of the adoption of a limited'woman suf- don all home duties and pleasures to discuss frage in England is often quoted as a strong political questions in public; partisanship reason why it should be established here; but would run high, and as in the minds of this the cases are entirely unlike. Suffrage in sort of women incidental circumstances, such England is based exclusively on a property as good looks, handsome address, tasteful qualification. The registry of voters com- clothing, or even the possession of some sinprises now less than one-tenth of the popula- gle feature which they might admire, would be more likely to secure their support for a *See this subject more fully and thoroughly dis- candidate than the highest intellectual or cussed in "Woman: her Rights, Wrongs, Privileges al aificatin, th e danir of a foolishl and Responsibilities," by L. P. Brockett, M. D., Hart- alficatons, the danger a ool ford, Conn. Published by L. Stebbins. or injudicious choice of candidates would be APPENDIX. 513 greatly increased. For the first time in well- office-seeking, have never been portrayed authenticated human history, the interests half so vividly as they should be. and action of the two sexes would be very 2d. The evils resulting fromn the untramgenerally antagonistic, and as women would meled manufacture, sale, and use of intoxiinevitably be in the minority, it would only eating drinks have been set forth so often be by absolute demagogueism that their that the denunciation of them falls many measures could be carried or their candidates times on ears and hearts dulled to apathy by elected. Partisanships would run high, and their repetition. Yet there is no evil affectoften the home and family circle would be ing our social condition so seriously as this. the scene of bickerings and rancorous polit- The greed of base gain on the part of the ical disputes which would in time become maker and seller, the craving for stimulants intolerable. It could not be otherwise than prompted by our dry and exciting climate, that the number of divorces should increase the feeling of temporary exhilaration induced rapidly; and the marriage tie, subjected to by their use, and strongest of all, the love of this fearful strain of political strife, which in conviviality and good fellowship, all conspire too many instances from the violent impul- to keep up the ranks of the intemperate, and siveness of both parties would become per- are fast making us a nation of drunkards. sonal, would soon give way, and it would be The temperance organizations are struggling well if it was not sundered with violence and manfully and nobly against this fearfulf evil, murder. The close affiliation of partisan and doubtless save many fiom filling a drunkleaders of both sexes, and the corruption ard's grave; but with all their efforts they (which is even now shamelessly rife) of un- can only keep the field which they occupy principled politicians determined to carry clear. It is a painful fact that there are more their points at all hazards, would become intemperate persons to-day in the United. astounding, and would inevitably lead to a States, and a considerably larger consumption debasement of the public morals which has of intoxicating liquors, than in 1860. The had no parallel except in the worst days of liquor interest is well organized and strong. the French Reign of Terror. The lower It holds the balance of power in most of our classes of women, especially female servants States, and cracks its whip effectually, over of whatever nationality, and the vicious class, both political parties. It controls too many voting almost wholly under influence, and votes, to permit any radical measures of rebrought upto the polls in masses at the order pression to be enacted, or enforced if enacted, of their leaders and purchasers, would add to and the gains so vilely accumulated in the the social degradation of the time, and a po- destruction of our citizens, are lavishly exlitical campaign would come to be dreaded pended to retain its hold on power. Our and abhorred by every virtuous, high-minded citizens who love their country and desire its woman. The influence of this condition of prosperity ought to unite in repressing this things on our children and youth would be formidable crime-inducing monopoly, and by unfortunate in the extreme. That chivalric taxation, fines, pains and penalties, restrict feeling of respect and reverence for woman and curb the traffic, so that temptations shall which it has ever been our pride to have in- not be found at every corner, and almost at stilled into the hearts of our boys and young every door, to lead the young, the weak, the men, would die out, blighted by the degrad- generous and the unwary astray. In their ing scenes they could not fail to witness, and efforts to do this they will be met, doubtless, in its place would come a contemptuous feel- by the claim of vested rights, and an outcry ino for the sex who had strayed so far from against fanaticism, and intermeddling with their pristine purity and modesty. It would other people's business, for avarice and heartbe in vain for the Christian mother to' seek lessness know well how to conceal their baseto inculcate in the mind of her son a feeling ness under the mask of honorable motives; of reverence for and courtesy toward the but there is no fanaticism, no intermeddling sex, of whose good qualities she might, in- with other men's matters, nothing but the deed, be a shining example; for on every side purest and most exalted patriotism in this her example and instructions will be nullified effort to rescue our youth, who should be the by the bold and brazen partisanship of wo- pillars of the republic in the coming generamen in the same social rank with herself. tion, from the destruction which is impendThe perils to society and to good morals ing, if the liquor dealers are allowed to hold which would grow out of woman suffrage and high carnival. Unless this question is decided 514 APPENDIX. adversely to the free manufacture and sale of be his rights, as Patrick, but he will be as intoxicating drinks, very soon, the next gen- shrewd in obtaining them. eration will be powerless for good. Inten- Regarding this point as settled, and believperance and lust, twin demons fiom the pit, ing as we do that before 1880 we shall have will walk our streets, and cast down our 5,000,000 of Chinese on this continent, and strong men, and this country, with the grand- before 1900, 20,000,000 or 25,000,000, let est future before it that any nation ever had, us consider what will be the result upon our will become what Egypt has been for ages, social condition, as a nation. the basest of the nations. We must remember that in the Chinese, The culture of the grape for the purpose we shall be brought in contact for the first of manufacturing wine and brandy, has al- time with a civilization of a type entirely diready become a very important business and verse from our own, and having hardly any is augmenting rapidly with each year, and points in common with it. The Clhinese civthere is reason to fear that this industry, as ilization is far older than ours; when our anwell as the hop and barley culture, may be cestorswere scantily clad in skins and roaming the means of increasing the sway of intern- through the vast forests of Britain, Brittany, perance in our country. That the coming and Saxony, subsisting on animals killed in men will be addicted to the use of intoxica- the chase or on fish, a barbarous, uncultivated ting liquors, unless more strenuous and ef- race, his ancestors were masters of science, fectual efforts are put forth to protect them philosophy, the useful, and, to some extent, from this great temptation, is too evident, the fine arts. Their silks, their porcelain, 3d. The Chinese problem, though in one their filagree work in gold and silver, their sense already solved, is one of great import- carved work in ivory, their temples, their litance in its influence upon our social condition erature, and their history, were even then in in the next hundred years. We say it is in existence. When our ancestors had barbaone sense already solved, because it is evident rian chiefs, given over to gluttony and revel, that we can not, if we would, keep them out, they had philosophers, reverenced by all the as they are now arriving upon our Pacific people and uttering maxims of wisdom which coast at the rate of several thousand a week, to this day are honored in all countries. and already number about 150,000 of our Much as we boast of our discoveries in the population. Nor can we, when their num- arts and sciences, there are very few of them bers begin to be large, successfully withhold which they had not already tried. First of from them the privilege of suffrage, beyond all the nations of the world, they had inthe ordinary period of naturalization, if we vented and used the mariner's compass. grant it to immigrants of other nationalities. While with most of the nations of the West, There is no surer method of laying the found- and notably with our ancestors, the ability to ation for a civil war than to have a large read and write was confined to a very small laboring or servile population of considerable number, whose attainments were regarded as intelligence diffused through a country, and marvelous, the Chinese were not only prodeprived, of the political privileges which ficient in many branches of literature and others in like condition enjoy. We may take science, but they had their printed books, it for granted, then, that whatever politicians executed, indeed, after a rough fashion, but may say, or however stringent may be the giving them the opportunity of multiplying laws to repress their immigration, or to pre- them with considerable rapidity, a thousand vent their participation in the social and po- years before Faust or Gutenberg. litical privileges of the country, they will, It is true that their civilization has, for just as soon as they become powerful in num- some centuries, been nearly stationary, while bers, find a foothold in all our States, and ours has been of late years very progressive; exercise the privilege of the ballot, at the but it need be no marvel if we should find expiration of a limited period of naturaliza- them wedded to customs, and habits, and scition. Our Irish immigrants, who are now so entificformulce, which seem to us formal and strongly prejudiced against them, have not, antiquated, but which are to him the foundain many instances, waited for their period of tion of his social and intellectual system. naturalization to be accomplished, before en- The Chinese will come to us, mainly, like tering upon the privileges of citizenship. some of the European immigrants, as candiJohn Chinaman may not be so bold and blus- dates for filling our more menial positions; tering in the assertion of what he believes to they will be house-servants, washermen, rail APPENDIX. 515 road laborers, miners, laborers in the field, they are now lacking, the exchange will be &c., &c. They have not so generally emi- advantageous to both parties. grated to other countries in these humbler That the intermixture of the two races, capacities; but in Batavia, in Cochin China, Caucasian and Mongolian, (for in the end it in Manchuria, and in Chinese Tartary or must come to that,) will not tend to elevate Suingaria, wherever and in whatever capacity the type of physical beauty in the offspring they have entered a country, they have ere of the union, seems probable, and yet it may long obtained the ascendancy, compelling the result that a new type of humanity will be adoption of their language, their habits and thus formed, possessing a higher degree of customs, and attaining to leading positionsin perfection than was possessed by either business and influence. It is questionable parent. whether they can do so among us. The West- We should be inclined to hope for a higher ern intellect is more vigorous and controlling degree of intellectual power in favorable than the Oriental, and in the end, after per- specimens of the progeny of the union, than haps a hundred years of attrition and quiet we have yet found in either race. There is a struggle for the supremacy, the highest Cau- vividness of imagination, and a patience:of casian type of manhood may assert and main- research, in the Oriental, which, combined tain its superiority over the Mongolian. But with our quickness of perception and capacity in the meantime, by the mere fact of contact, for logical deduction, will produce intellectwe shall have adopted some of their habits ual abilities of the very highest order. and ways; we shall look at life more from But the future man of the American Rethe Oriental stand-point, and the absorption public will be a thoroughly composite being. of the Oriental race into our own nationality It is not simply the union of the Mongolian will be, not an amalgamation, butan incorpo- and Caucasian types to which we are to look ration of the elements of each into the other, forward, but an agglomeration of almost all a fusion. There will be a long time required races and nationalities to make up the coming to accomplish this. The Chinese is the most man. The old English stock of New England, impassible of mortals. It will be years, Virginia, and the Carolinas, already blended scores of them, perhaps, before you can really with Huguenot, Norman French, Irish, Scotget at his feelings and emotions, his beliefs tish, Welsh, German, French, Danish, Swedand disbeliefs. Their morality is not of the ish, and Norwegian blood, will receive from highest order, for what there is of it is based the Canadian French on the one side and tl4 on motives of self-interest and not on the de- Hispano-Americans on the other, an accees sire to please God. For the most part the sion of French, Spanish, and Portuguese Chinese, though professedly Buddhists or blood not wholly free from an admixture~ iE Fo-ists, or adherents to the old Sin-tii reli- all degrees with the Northern Indin,^: the gion, have very little idea of the existence of Aztec, and the Negro races, and. tJese, with a Supreme Being, or of any responsibility to the blending in our own Soathere. and Southhim. They worship their ancestors and burn western States with the African stock, and incense to them; they have their religious the combination in the not distant future of expressions, which are used at all times; if Chinese, Japanese, Iindoo, Malay, and Polythey are of the learned class, they profess to nesian, will give to the average American of be disciples of Confucius and Mencius, and a hundred years hence, a darker complexion quote their excellent and virtuous precepts; and very different intellectual and moral but of the God who enlightened the mind of characteristics from those which we possess their great reformer, they have no knowl- to-day. Still we have faith in the predomedge. Truthfulness, strict honesty, and inance of the Anglo-Saxon type, if not in straight-forwardness, are not, to so great an numbers, at least in sway over the hundreds extent as they should be, the prevalent vir- of millions who will then people this broad tues of this people. On the other.hand, their land, Its resolute will, its ability for governpatient assiduity in labor, their faithfulness ing and controlling, its rare executive power, and precision, and their imitative capacity, and its high intelligence, secure for it here, can not fail to excite our admiration and ap- as on the Eastern continent, the position of proval. In the way of filial regard and rev- the foremost nation of the earth in all the erence, we have much to learn from-the Chi- highest qualities of manhood. tnese; and if, in turn, they acquire from us It is impossible to predict how far the great some of the more chivalric virtues, in which and rapid influx of Orientals, with their, low 31 516 APPENDIX. and false estimate of woman, may affect the except Alabama and a part of Louisiana, social position of woman in this country in there was no public school system of much the future. But for that we should regard it value, and owing to the prevalence of the as absolutely certain, whether female suffrage plantation system it seemed impossible to prevailed or not, that in business, in all the sustain one; a large proportion of the poorer lighter mechanical employments, and in in- classes, and, with few exceptions, all the tellectual and social life, her position would slaves, grew up entirely unable to read or be much higher than now, and her compen- write. There was some provision for higher sation for labor more just than it has been in education, but it was only available for the the past; but the Chinese will, to a certain most part by the families of the wealthy or extent, come in competition with women in middle class. With the war came a great those employments hitherto regarded as es- change, as manifest in the Northern as in the pecially feminine, and accustomed to regard Southern States, though operating somewhat women in their own country as almost slaves, differently in the two sections. Throughout they may retard in some measure the progress the Northern and Western States, there was of those reforms which would prove really an almost simultaneous impulse for the better beneficial to the sex. endowment of old, and the establishment on It will be seen, then, that we can not re- a firm basis of new institutions of higher edgard the social and political progress of the ucation. Congress made very large grants country for the next hundred years without of lands (30,000 acres for each Senator and some apprehension. The millennium, in so- Representative) for the founding in each State cial life at least, is more than a hundred years or attaching to some College or University away, we fear, and though we may be ap- already organized, of an Agricultural and proximating to it in time, we can hardly Mechanical College or Department; men of hope that the reign of peace and good-will large wealth gave vast sums for endowing old will come when there are so many discordant or new colleges, universities, or professional Alements in society to oppose its approach. and scientific schools; the condition of the freedmen and their children, and the families of poor whites in the South, and their great need of education, attracted the attention of CHAPTER XII. Congress and led to the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau, which in six years exEDUCATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS PROGRESS pended for educational purposes more than IN THE FUTURE, twenty-three millions of dollars; religious and That we are destined to be a well-educated benevolent societies established schools, suspeople in the not distant fiture, does not tained teachers, and expended between four admit of a doubt. The advancement of all and five millions of dollars in free schools for educational measures and institutions during these classes, and Mr. Peabody crowned the the past decade has never had a parallel in work by his two munificent gifts, from which the world's history. Previous to 1860, the there will probably be realized eventually New England and Middle States had very about three and a half millions of dollars for well organized systems of public schools, schools in the South. Aside from the Agrithough the character of the instruction was cultural College land grants, and the expendmuch below what it should have been; the itures of the Freedmen's Bureau, there was Western and one or two of the Southern raised by private contributions and donations States, with their ample provision of school for educational purposes, between 1863 and lands and their system of school taxes, were 1870, more than $25,000,0Q0. The course laying broad and deep the foundations for a of instruction in most of the larger colleges school system, whichshould in a few years and universities was extended, and scientific furnish the means of obtaining a good En- and professional schools of engineering, minglish education to all the youth of the State, ing, agriculture, mechanism, technology, geand a few of them had connected their high ology, paleontology, music, astronomy, and schools- colleges, State universities, and nor- the fine, arts, were added to them. The mal and professional schools, with their public medical, law, and divinity schools were reorschool system. As yet, these school systems ganized, enlarged, and more amply endowed. were working imperfectly, but every year In the South, the plantation system having they were making progress. In the South, to a considerable extent given place to farms APPENDIX. 517 of smaller extent, a public school system was university, the privileges which the State or organized in most of the States and its en- General Government offers should be bedowment begun. In the North and West a stowed alike on both sexes. The mixed colnew impulse was given to public school in- lege plan, (that of having both sexes in the struction, and by the organization of normal same class and taking part in the same recischools within reach of most of the teachers; tations,) is the preferable one, and should be by the elevation of the character of the acad- generally adopted; but where for any cause emies and high schools, and the development, this is impossible, we hold it to be the duty and where it was necessary, the reorganiza- of the State to provide a course of instruction of the State Universities, the system of tion for girls equally thorough, and provided free education, from the primary school, step with all the appliances of illustration, with by step, up to the university and professional that which is furnished for boys. The State schools, was perfected. Of course, in the can not with propriety make any distinction early working of this vast machinery there is between its sons and daughters, in the matter considerable friction, and unceasing vigilance of education; both are entitled to the best. is necessary lest at some point there should Private institutions of learning which do not be a lowering of the standard or careless and and never have received any aid fiom the inefficient teachers should injure the prosper- State, are of course at liberty to limit their ity of the work. In the schools of higher instruction to either sex, but the number of education, and especially in the agricultural these is very few. and scientific schools, the progress has Other means of education there are whose been almost too rapid to be safe; so many promotion will enure to the intellectual new professorships have been created, all growth and advancement of society, and the demanding a high order of talent and ex- present condition of these promises well for tensive and profound learning, that it has the future. Prominent among these are great been very difficult to obtain fully qualified consulting and lending libraries. The growth men to fill them. This difficulty, however, of these within the past ten years has been will soon be obviated, for there are men very remarkable. In 1860 there were but enough in training who will soon be compe- three in the United States which numbered tent to occupy these positions with ability 100,000 volumes or more, viz., Harvard Uniand success. Much progress has been made versity Library, the Boston City Public Liin the effort to elevate teaching to the dig- brary, and the Astor Library in New York. nity of a profession, and the compensation There are now seven libraries possessing over of the teacher is advancing fiom year to year. 100,000 volumes each, viz.: The Library of This work of education must and will go Congress, having nearly or quite 200,000 volon, increasing in magnitude with each year. nimes; Boston Public Library, about 165,Congress, in 1868, established a Bureau or 000; Astor Library, 145,000; Harvard UniDepartment of Education, which has charge versity Libraries, 160,000; Mercantile Liof the national interests of the subject, and brary, New York, 116,000; Athenaeum this Department, though somewhat modified Library, Boston, 108,000; Philadelphia Lifiom its original plan, still exists, and will brary Co., Philadelphia, 103,000. Nine or doubtless do much good. In the future there ten others range from 50,000 to 90,000 volshould be, and with the dense population nines. Many of the colleges, State, historthere doubtless will be, a system of education ical, and other scientific societies and professo complete that every boy and girl can have sional schools have large collections of books the opportunity of a free education up to the on special topics, nearly exhausting these highest studies which they possess the ca- topics; thus the State Library of New York pacity to acquire, and up to a certain limit, has over 80,000 volumes, its specialties being perhaps that of our ordinary grammar Law and American History. The Union schools; it should and probably will be made Theological Seminary, N. Y., the Rochester compulsory upon parents and guardians to Theological Seminary, and the Chicago Baphave their children instructed. If with this tist Theological Seminary, have for their spean educational qualification were to be re- cialties, Systematic and Polemic Theology, quired of every voter, the eagerness for edu- Ecclesiastical History, and the Early Fathers cation would be greatly increased and the of the Church. The American Bible Society, perils of the government lessened. the American Bible Union, and Princeton In the high school, the college, and the Theological Seminary, with the addition of 518 Ar'PENDIX. Mr. Lenox's library, are particularly rich in doubtful whether, in proportion to the popueditions of the Bible and in works on Bib- lation, Christianity will be as much in the lical Literature. We might go on with the ascendancy then as now. The membership catalogue, ad infinitum, but it is sufficient, of all the professedly Christian (including the perhaps, to say, that the time has passed Roman Catholics and the non-evangelical dewhen it is necessary for the student to go to nominations) churches of the United States Europe to consult the great libraries there on is now, in round numbers, about 8,500,000O any subject, except perhaps the local history or a little more than one-fifth of the popula, of some of the smaller European States, or tion; it is usually estimated, and probably on questions of Oriental philology. This ac- correctly, that the number of adherents to cumulation of valuable books is destined to each denomination is, including all ages and continue and increase. In all the great Eu- both sexes, about three for each member; so ropean book-sales, where the treasures of ages that we should have about 25,500,000 adare exposed for sale, American buyers are herents to the churches, which numbered, as sure to be present and are the most eager as above, 8,500,000 members, or of both memwell as judicious purchasers. The year 1970 bers and adherents, 34,000,000, leaving will find at least half a dozen libraries of a 8,000,000 or thereabout with no religious million volumes, not largely made up of rub- connection. bish, as- many of the great European libraries We do not share the apprehensions o0 are, but well and judiciously selected, and some, that the Roman Catholic church will from twenty to forty libraries of half a million ever gain the ascendancy here. On the con or more volumes; while every considerable trary, we believe that it has already reached city will have its library of from one hun- very nearly its highest point. Its growth has dred thousand to two hundred thousand. been almost wholly by immigration, the few Institutions of a special character, such as converts it has made from our native-born Agassiz's Museum of Comparative Zoology, citizens by no means compensating for its the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, losses by the defection of Catholic immitIhe Academies and Lyceums of Natural His- grants or their descendants to Protestantism tory, the American and the National Acad- or infidelity. They had a large proportion emies of Science, the American Association of the early population of Maryland, Louisfor the Advancement of Science, the Social iana, Missouri, and Michigan. Within forty Science Association, the Philological Socie- years past there have been nearly 4,000,000 ties, Geographical, Antiquarian and Historical Catholic emigrants to this country from IreSocieties and Scientific Institutes, have each land, England, Belgium, Germany, France, an important influence on general education. Spain, and Italy; these, with their descendSo, too, in a humbler but perhaps not less ants, should make not less than 10,000,000 effective way, do the Lyceums, Institutes, reared in the Catholic faith, in this country; and Mercantile Associations, most of which yet to-day, counting all their nominal adherhave libraries, courses of lectures, and classes ents, they do not number 4,000,000. As one otf instruction connected with them. Many of their archbishops said, not long since, they of the Young Men's Christian Associations lose one-half of the second generation and have also these features, which materially aid three-fourths of the third. The emigration in the education of young people. These from Ireland, though temporarily quickened, organizations are destined to grow in the is nearly over; the inducements not being future, and asthe population becomes more sufficient to induce the remaining population dense, no town will be without some literary to leave their native island; the emigration or scientific institution. It is to agencies of from the South of Europe has never been this sort that we look in part to mantain the large, and much of it is hardly nominally ascendancy of the Anglo-Saxon race in the Catholic; that from Germany is now more intellecttal and moral control of the nation. from Protestant than Catholic States, and the And what of the religious eharaeter of the Scandinavians now coming hither in large nation a hundred years hence? The ques- numbers are all Protestants. The concenion' is a difficult one to answer. So many tration of these Catholic emigrants in large elemenits of opposition to the Protestant towns has given the impression that they posCristianity which has:earacterized the na- sessed much greater strength than was actutin in:all its past growth, wilt probably ally true,. So soon as they cease to be rein comet to the surface sthat it is exceedingly forced by immigration, they will cease to APPENDIX. 519 grow. The. genius of our government is not The danger to the religious well-being of favorable to the development of Catholicism. the country seems to us to lie in an entirely Its freedom leads very many of the immi- different direction. The influx of Asiatics grants, and still more of their children, to fiom Eastern Asia-Chinese, Japanese, Mathrow off the trammels of that faith, and to lays, Hindoos, &c.-which there is every reathink for themselves. Our system of public son to believe will be rapid and constant, will education tends in the same direction, not by bring us in contact with systems of religion any teaching of dogmas opposed to Cathol- entirely new to the great mass of our people. icism, but by its tendency to develop free Buddhism, the most accommodating of faiths, thought. Desirous of retaining their power yet the most persistent in its adherence to its over the children of Catholic families, and as great cardinal principles, of a strict Theism, many others as they can draw into their own of the transmigration of souls, of the necesschools, their bishops and clergy have begun, sity of works of merit both to placate the of late, to clamor for the division of the pub- Deity, and to attain to the condition of nirvlic school moneys to their own and other vana, or perfect absorption in the Divine life, sectarian schools, that they might be able to and its intense fatalism, is to try its influence sustain larger and better schools for teaching over the human heart in direct contact with the Catholic faith. Their demand will not Christianity on this continent, to an extent prevail, nor would it help them as much as which, has not been witnessed in any other they think if it did, for an education which land or at any former time. When brought leaves the mind untrammeled by sectarian- into contact with Catholicism in the East, the ism or partisanship, is too absolutely neces- two have coalesced, and in the end Buddhism sary to the citizens of a free government to has triumphed. To Evangelical Protestantbe dispensed with. ism it has always maintained the bitterest But if the growth of Catholicism is checked, hostility. We have no fear that the Buddr will that of the Protestant churches be hin- hist priests will make any considerable numdered as well? We think not, for these rea- her of converts from our Caucasian race, sons: Protestantism is more in accordance though they are shrewd and astute, and have with a fiee government and with our national proved very formidable reasoners; they may traditions; its individualism and the rivalry convert some of our transcendental philosof the different denominations makes it more ophers, who regard any other creed as preferaggressive than Catholicism; the more evan- able to Christianity, but it is the fear that gelical denominations have gained largely in they will retain to a large extent their influthe past from the rising generation, from the ence over the Chinese and Japanese and their irreligious, and from the Catholic immigrants; descendants, who will migrate hither in such its zealous advocacy of education, intelli- numbers. gence, humanity and morality, have corn- Of all the religious systems of which Asia mended it to the thoughtful portion of the has been so prolific for past ages, none has irreligious; and it sways a large influence been found so difficult to eradicate from the among the wealthy, intelligent and refined. mind as Buddhism. Buddha Sakyamuni, its The literature, the history, and the science founder, was one of the wisest and most exof the country are essentially Protestant and emplary reformers of the East, and his influunder Protestant influence. The annexation ence has been perpetuated, and his system of countries now professedly Catholic, such extended in its influence till it is to-day the as Mexico, Cuba, St. Domingo, and the Cen- nominal religion of at least four hundred tral American States, could not essentially millions of souls. Its tenets are so admirably modify the position of affairs, as they would adapted to the natural tendencies of the hunecessarily remain in a territorial condition man heart, and tend to foster its pride and for some years, till they could be prepared to self-righteousness to such an extent that it is understand and adopt our views of govern- far more difficult to reach a Buddhist than ment, and the substitution of complete reli- the worshipper of any other faith. It would gious freedom for an established church, seem at first view that it would be a much would let in Protestantism upon them rather greater labor and one likely to be more unthan give them the opportunity of exerting successful, to break up the bondage of caste, any very powerful Catholic influence upon and lead the Hindoo to abandon his religious the United States. system, so skillfully constructed, identified at 520 APPENDIX. all points with his daily life, and interwoven but at present we shall not receive many imwith a literature of great beauty and elo- migrants from that quarter. quence. But the chains of caste have been Otherforms of heathenism will also be broken by many thousands of Hindoos of all likely to come in with the inflowing tide of castes, and Brahminism abandoned, many of Asiatics. Brahminism, with its union of inthe Brahinins of highest rank having, under tellectual activity with the most horrible rites the teaching of the missionaries, become of paganism; the bloody and detestable idolthemselves preachers of Christianity. In atry of the Malays, and the pure deism of the Burmah, Siam, China, and Japan, a few Parsees, will each find their way to our thousands (hardly more than three or four) shores. There will need to be a greatly inof Buddhists have, after more than fifty years creased amount of Christian activity, or this of assiduous and patient labor, been con- fair land will retrograde into idolatry and verted to Christianity. atheism. We believe that the Christianity If, as is probable, the year 1970 shall find of our time, even impaired as it is by fortwo hundred millions of Asiatics on this con- malism, fashion, the love of money, and the tinent, we fear that fifty millions of them will want of an elevated and earnest faith in God, still be followers of Buddha Sakyamuni. will yet triumph in the struggle. To this Yet it is possible that we underrate the influ- end it is gratifying to see that there is a growences which may be brought to bear on them, ing tendency to union among Protestant deand the potency of the truth when skillfully nominations hitherto separated only by trivial directed against error. Buddhism has never differences of opinion. In union there is undergone any such test of its vitality, and strength, and while it is not probable, and if it begins to yield, its downfall will be cer- perhaps not desirable, that a complete fusion tain and speedy. Buddhism is, indeed, not of all the Protestant churches should take so vital a faith with the Chinese as with the place, since they will do better to work in Japanese. Among the latter it is identified harmony so far as they can, than to attempt with their government, the Mikado or Spir- a union which radical difference in their views itual Elnperor being one of the four or five would make necessarily incomplete. Still IDalai Lamas, or incarnations of Buddha, there is great need that their action hencefound in Asia. There is, even among the forth should be more harmonious than in the Japanese, a considerable amount of idolatrous past, and that in the fierce struggle to come worship, Sin-tiism, as it is called, intermin- between light and darkness, Christianity and gled with their Buddhism; but the Japanese heathenism, there should be no bickering are, in their way, a religious people. The and no conflict between the different corps Chinese, on the other hand, are by no means which make up the Christian army. The unanimous in their regard for Buddhism. victory of one division should be recognized While it is the religion of the government, as the victory of all. It may well happen and professedly of the high officers of state, that the great struggle between the powers and the mandarins, a large majority of the of evil and good, predicted in prophecy and higher classes are really atheists, having no apocalypse, and but imperfectly understood belief in a God, and maintaining, as their only even at the best, may occur on our own concode of morals, the oft-repeated maxims of tinent, and in the coming century. Here in Confucius and Mencius. These maxims are our great central plains, or on our Pacific many of them excellent in character, and in- slope, the hosts of error, Gog and Magog and culcate the highest morality in the abstract, their followers, may assemble for spiritual but the assent to them is for the most part and possibly for physical conflict; and if we rather formal than hearty. The lower classes, read aright the inspired predictions, for their from whom mainly our first immigration will final rout and overthrow. Whenever and come, worship their ancestors, and have small wherever that final conflict shall occur, the idols representing them in theirhouses; they battle, though brief, will be fierce, and the are, moreover, very generally Tau-ists, Tau- contest more bloody than has ever before ism being a low form of idolatry prevailing in been known. The various forms of error will China before the introduction of Buddhism, be united in the struggle for existence and and still having a strong hold upon the more for the overthrow of their persistent foe, and ignorant and degraded. In Southwestern they will not relinquish the conflict until China, Mohammedanism prevails extensively, they are completely and forever overthrown. APPENDIX. 521. We do not, then, regard the future as so, most wholly unopposed. If the Christianity dark in its religious aspect as our words of the coming time is as active as it should might at first seem to imply. There will be, it will accomplish more for the Christiandoubtless be more heathenism here than ization of the world through its struggles there is now, but it will only be because it is with heathenism here, than it ever could by transferred from Asia, where it now riots al- sending its missionaries to other lands. CHAPTER XIII. CONCLUSION. THE HISTORY OF A DAY IN 1970. In no way, perhaps, can we give our taken a part in political affairs and now readers a more vivid idea of the changes represents the City of LaPorte in Conand extraordinary progress of the nation gress. It is late in June, and Congress in the next hundred years than by trans- not being in session, he is at -home porting them in imagination to the and looking after the interests of his home of a wealthy citizen of one of the extensive business. We find him, in great central cities of the Continent and the early morning, at his country seat, accompanying him in the day's duties, about sixty miles from LaPorte, on the pursuits and pleasures. slopes of the Uintah'Mountains, overLet us then introduce to the reader looking the glorious North Park. His the Honorable Enrique Chang Marston, country seat is a large, finely planned the head of the great forwarding house building of reddish sand stone, and, of Marston, Sih-Wali & Villanova of with its towers, its gracefully curved LaPorte, the largest city of the central roof, and its numerous slender spires and region, and the entrepot of the mining minarets has a decidedly ornamental products of Colorado, Wyoming and appearance. The furniture is luxurious, Eastern Utah. LaPorte is a city of a but at this season of the year great million inhabitants, situated at the june- pains is taken to give the impression of tion of five or six lines of railway, which c olness, for though the location is high, connect it with all sections of the Conti- the Summer sun is fiercely hot at midnent, and by means of its pneumatic day. The nights are however, delicioustubular routes, it has a constant and ly cool. Mr. Marston is a somewhat early rapid interchange of the products of the riser, and the musical tinkle of a chime mines, the fertile- fields of the region of small silver bells summons him and about it, and the immense manufactories his family to breakfast -at seven o'clock. which make it a busy hive with the The breakfast room, carpeted over its East and the West. Its daily shipments encaustic tiling with the finest of Chinese for Asiatic ports are enormous, and for matting, is cool and still. The well European markets are hardly less con- trained Chinese servants, each at his siderable. The house of which Mr. place awaits the master's coming. The Marston is at the head has its branches table of richly inlaid wood is covered and correspondents, at Yedo, Shanghai, with a ramie table cloth, of the most Melbourne, Bangkok and Calcutta, as brilliant whiteness and exquisite pattern well as at New York, Havana, London, but so strongly resembling silk that Paris and Constantinople. Mr. Marston only a practised eye can detect the as his name would indicate, is on his difference. The dishes are of the most father's side, of Anglo-Saxon stock, but delicate porcelain, the manufacture of mingles in his ancestry also,Spanish and of the skilled Japanese artisans at the Chinese blood. Highly educated and great porcelain factory of New Kanyearly trained to business in which he asawa in California. The gold and has achieved a great success, he has also silver service which though tasteful, is 522 AP P E -D IX. not intended for display, was manufac- nople. The leader of the late conspiracy tured in LaPorte from Colorado gold. to assassinate our gracious Emperor The chairs. are of bamboo but of Michael I, who was arrested some time American manufacture. The walls are since and proved to be a Turk and a painted in a rich maroon fresco, and professed descendant of Abdul Aziz, the hung with some exquisite pictures, last Sultan of this Empire, yesterday was mostly of Rocky Mountain Scenery, subjected to the punishment of the though one or two betray their owner's knout three hundred blows being orpassion for hunting. But the family dered, but he died at the two hundred have already assembled at the table, and sixteenth. Potchefstroem, TransMr. Marston in a richly embroidered vaal Republic, 4 P. M. We have full silk robe. suggestive both in its form and reports of the terrible battle fought figures of the traces of Chinese blood of yesterday, at Sebale between the great the wearer. Madame, a stately Spanish negro army of Mosilikatse IV, and our looking lady, with still much of her troops under General De Groot. Mosiliyouthful beauty, in an orange tinted katse, certainly the ablest Sultan the robe with black trimmings, of the ex- Matabele have ever had, led his troops quisite ramie grass and an opening rose in person, and made some magnificent of brilliant tint carelessly nestling in a charges on Gen. De Groot's position, but coil of her intensely black hair. The it was too strong for them to carry, and children, two sons and two daughters, in the final charge Mosilikatse was all under the age of fourteen are neatly killed instantly by a shell, and his but not showily dressed. The breakfast soldiers becoming panic struck fled in is simple but nutritious, and in ample every direction. It is said that over quantity, bread and cakes of wheat, twenty thousand were killed. This will millet and rice, pure golden butter and end the war. Lahore. Punjaub, 3 P. M. olive oil equally pure, from Southern A fierce but indecisive battle took place California, antelope steaks, of which his yesterday about twenty miles from this park enables him to afford a supply; city between the Turcoman army comsome broiled sage hens, and pickled manded by Russian officers and our Sikh olives, with bananas, oranges and figs force led by General Graham. The from Arizona constitute the repast. Tea Sikhs retained the field though with and coffee are both served, the former heavy losses. The whole Punjaub is from California, the latter from Southern ablaze with excitement and the invaders Arizona, and both of the best quality. will be speedily driven out. Peking, 2. By the plates of both master and P. M. The Son of Heaven has gramistress are placed copies of the six- ciously promised to grant a constitution o'clock Laporte papers, and ere they rise to his faithful subjects. Yedo, 1 P. M. from the table the seven o'clock issue is Complete religious toleration was probrought in. Some of the items (all of claimed over the whole Empire at which are reduced to the utmost brevity mid-day to day. Melbourne, 1.30 P. M. of expression) will appear strange to us. Centralia,the last organized state of our Let us cull a few from the latest paper. Australian Republic, celebrates to day Paris, 12 A. M. The Commissioners its twentieth anniversary. Rio Janeiro, have at last agreed upon measures for 10 A.M. The jubilee of the Brazilian the consolodation of Spain with the Republic celebrated yesterday,was admirFrench Empire. Rome. The fifteenth ably conducted throughout. Senhor anniversary of the organization of the Algarzo, Secretary of State, delivered an Italian Republic is now being celebrated eloquent oration on the life and times of with great pomp. London. The Presi- Dom Pedro II, the second Emperor of! dent of the British Republic has just Brazil. Valparaiso, 2 P. M. The revoluproclaimed a complete amnesty to all tion in favor of monarchy here seems to the Irish insurgents. St. Petersburg. be gaining strength. Senor Montle has Ivan Sergievitsch Alexandrevitsch, said proved himself as daring, and he may to be the last survivor of the Romanoff be as successful, as Napoleon III was a prinees. died in this city this morning in hundred and twenty years ago. IIonogreat poverty and suffering._Constanti- lulu, 12 M. We have just learned that A-PPENDIX. 523 the sea is flowing into what was the era- roughfare into a more quiet street of ter of Mauna Loa. News enough, the residences. Here, again, the street is reader will say, for one day. But our wide, and paved with the same noiseless friends, the Marstons, are accustomed to pavement. The houses are not built on these startling items of intelligence, and lots 20 by 100 feet, but each has from 50 take them very quietly; though once or to 100 feet front, and the lot has a depth twice, as he meets with something which of 150 feet. The dwellings are in a may affect his widely extended,commer- great variety of styles, but usually not cial enterprises, Mr. Marston shrugs his exceeding three stories in height. None shoulders, and his face flushes slightly. of them are of the high stoop, basement Breakfast and family worship over. dining room, and sub-cellar style, so (for the great merchant is a religious much in vogue in Eastern cities, and man,) the servants are called, and re- though in some of them the elevators ceive their orders for the day, and the are introduced, in general there is but father and children prepare to go to the little need of the incessant travel up city-the former to his warehouse, the and down stairs which is indispensable latter to their schools. Walking briskly in the houses of our great cities at the to the gate of the park, they enter a neat present day. Pleasant small gardens, station, and at once take their seats in with one or two shade trees of wide elegant, well lighted cars, which are ven- spreading branches, surround each house. tilated, as well as propelled, by com- One of these villas though of much pressed air, and are driven at a speed of more than the ordinary dimensions, is about 120 miles per hour toward La- the school at which the Misses Marston Porte. In thirty-five minutes they are are in attendance. Surrounded with at their destination, and the father and flowers, and fruit and shade trees, with children part to go their several ways. ample ventilation and everything to As we accompany them invisibly, let us make study delightful, it looks like a note the appearance of the city. The place where intellectual improvement streets are broad, and paved in the car- might be attained without great weaririage way with a slightly elastic compo- ness to the flesh. sition, which is yet too dense andfibrous Leaving this we turn through another in its structure to permit of its being street which leads us toward the block ground to powder by the attrition of on the great thoroughofare in which the wheels, and it is scrupulously clean warehouse of Marston, Sih-Wah and The sidewalks are broad, and covered Villanova is situated. This cross street from building to curb-stone with an ar- is inhabited evidently by families of the tificial stone, with shallow grooves, to working classes. The buildings are prevent slipping, and having the appear- lofty, seven and eight stories, and each ance of sienite. No detached pieces or family has its tenement on a flat or sinjoints expose the unwary pedestrian to gle floor. Through the centre of each the danger of -stumbling; and the. neat- building runs a broad hall with its wide ness and cleanliness of this, as well as the staircase, giving access to the tenements, carriage way, gives the street a cheerful each of which has its own door and appearance. The streets we pass at first door plate at the landing on that floor. are lined with great warehouses, not with Every appliance, we are told, for maflat, meaningless fronts, like many of king each tenement thoroughly isolated the warehouses of our eastern cities, but and complete in itself is resorted to. with a fine regard to the effects of light There are no dark rooms. The warmand shadow, which, in that bright, clear, ing and ventilation is perfect, and is the sunny atmosphere is even more necessary same for the entire building. Neither than in the eastern cities. The ware- cooking nor the washing of clothes is houses seem built expressly for the great- permitted in the tenements; but a est possible convenience of doing busi- kitchen on a large scale, buying everyness, and answer their purpose perfectly. thing at wholesale and furnishing food Of their interiors we'will speak bye-and- at actual cost, supplies wholesome food, bye. Meanwhile, with the young Misses the families selecting from the great Marston, we turn: out of the great tho- variety of dishes at much lower rates 5~-~24 APPENDIX. than they could prepare it for them- Chee, when did you order the five thouselves. One of these is attached to sand chests of tea from Santa Barbara?' every second building. The food is sent "Yesterday morning, Sir." "Has it by dumb waiters to each of the tene- come?" "It came last night, Sir, and ments. The ground floor is arranged was hoisted in this morning;" reads, as an immense laundry where the "Five hundred bushels of wheat, (yet women of e.ch family do their washing we have that,) one thousand barrels of at stationary tubs, hot and cold water flour. Henry, the flour in from San being furnished to them, and the clothes Francisco?" "Not yet, Sir. We shall dried and partly pressed by steam. probably get it by noon." "One hunEverything is scrupulously clean about dred bags of Carolina rice." "How these tenements, and the numerous about that, Ceasar. What is our stock children, though dressed in very plain of rice?" "Fourteen hundred bags, clothing, are neat and healthy looking. Sir." "That will do." "Fifty rolls The best of these tenement buildings Chinese matting." "H-ave we any in have elevators to facilitate the passage stock, Charlie?" "Not a roll, Sir." up and down from the lofty stories. "Order five hundred rolls from San Many of the inhabitants indicated by Francisco, to be forwarded to-day."their features and figures, and a few by "Yes Sir." Passing over half a dozen their dress, their Chinese origin, but letters Mr. Marston opens one containthese were as cleanly, courteous and well ing a long order-he reads, " One hunbehaved as the others. dren and fifty cases of prints. Are Turning again into the great thor- there so many in store, Ezekiel?" "Yes oughfare we enter the warehouse of Sir, over three hundred." "Twenty Marston, Sih-Wah and Villanwa. In cases Nankin cottons. That invoice common with other buildings of its in, Ting-Chee?" "Yes Sir, came yesclass it has a light but strong verandah terday." "Teni cases Japanese silks. projecting half the width of the side- (I saw them come in this morning.) walk of some light but not easily corro- Seventy-five cases Ramie cloths. Thomded metal, sustained by brackets, and as, are we not nearly out of REamlie colored above a delicate neutral tint to cloths?" "Two hundred cases only, protect the occupants of the house and Sir." " That will do. Six cases Paterson customers as well, from sun and rain. silks." "Our manufacturers there are Each story is protected in the same way. behind their orders, Sir," says one of the The warehouse is substantially built,f clerks, respectfully. "Telegraph them a delicate buff sand stone, abundant in to hurry up," replies Mr. Marston. The the adjacent Uintah Mountains, and has conversation is still going on, interrupevery convenience for facilitating the ted by hasty memoranda, as we turn transaction of business. Mr. Marston, away. We look through the eight flo)rs himself an accomplished business man, ot the immense warehouse; everything has trained his partners and his whole has its place and its superintendent, and force into the- habit of transacting the the amount of stock on hand in each deentire business of the day in eight partment at nine o'clock every morning, hours; but every moment of those eight is reported to the clerk of that departhours is actively occupied, and there are ment. After a little time we enter the no drones in the establishment. As we counting-room again, and find the senior enter lie is occupied with his mail, giv- partner proposing to his juniors some ing orders and asking questions of his great commercial enterprise involving clerks, making memoranda on each ten or twenty millions of dollars, with letter with almost lightning like rapid- the same coolness and composure with ity for the guidance of the correspond- which he would propose a trip to San ing clerks. We listen-he reads-" One Francisco. His partners are well trained hundred hogsheads of sugar." "James, business men, and endowed with nearly Was that sugar ordered from Vera Cruz as much enterprise as their chief, but one on Mond.ay?" James, "Yes Sir." "Has of them ventures to say, "But what if it arrived?" "It is now unloading, Sir," it should turn out badly, Mr. Marston?" -a word or two on the order. "Sie- There are no ifs about it," is the reply, "I have looked it over in all its bear APPENDIX. 525 ings and know it will be a success." fresco and glass and many-hued win"Yes," is the reply of the cautious dows, are retail liquor stores, and their partner, "still, if it should —" "We proprietors are as eager as they ever can stand the loss," is the reply of the were to make money out of the ignorant, senior. "The matter is settled, then, I the innocent, the social and the unwary. suppose," Mr. Marston continues; "will A building more pretentious than the you draw up the papers, Mr. Villanova?" rest, displays its archltectural beauties " I will, Sir," was the reply. " By the and excites our attention by its statuary way, Mr Si-Wah, do you attend'change and its lavish adornments. We notice to-day?" "Yes Sir." "We had better the sign, "Gentlemen's Social Club purchase two millions U. S. bonds of Room," and enter. We find first a A. D. 20C0, I think, if they do not go magnificent billiard room in which are above 127." " I will buy them, Sir." a few players, and being asked signifiAfter a temperate lunch and conver- cantly if we will go farther, we are sation with some of the new customers ushered into a dining room where the of the house, Mr. Marston withdraws tables are laden with the choicest for an hour or two to his private office viands which the continent can afford, to attend to his correspondence. Mean- and are invited to partake without while, as we purpose to accompany him charge. Declining the invitation, we again to his home after business hours, are admitted to a third room heavy with we will occupy ourselves in looking perfumes, and where soft, artificial light about the city for awhile, and learning and forced ventilation give one the imwhat we may of its character and pression of some fairy palace, and find position. It was folly to expect perfect that we are in the finest gambling hell peace, order and propriety in any large on the plains. Large parties of eager, city this side the millenium, and though livid, anxious looking men surround the this city of LaPorte has many good tables, hazarding their all upon the cast qualities, and is in some respects a model of a die; ever and anon one throws up city, yet we shall doubtless find some his hands, the blood rushes to the pale things in it not to our fancy. We pass forehead, he clasps his head as if in along the great central artery of trade frenzy and rushes from the room. Peruntil we find that some dwellings of haps a few minutes later we hear the great elegance are mingled with its discharge of a pistol, and wonder if it stately shops and warehouses. Glanc- has anything to do with the scene we ing in at some of the great retail marts have just witnessed; but those desperate of trade, we find richly dressed women players at the table do not notice it. shopping, and mingled with them occa- We go out and find in the hourly journal sionally in plain and perhaps uncouth that Mr. -, rendered desperate by attire, the wife or daughter of some losses at the gaming table, committed successful miner from the mining dis- suicide at 3 o'clock. tricts of Wyoming, Idaho or Colorado. We have had enough of this, and The pretty and tastefully dressed shop- strolling up the street thoughtfully, we women, (for in these retail stores there turn into one whose architecture and are no male clerks,) have not lost the arrangements seem new to us. We have art of commending their goods by all passed numerous churches, of various the maneuvers which they think will be religious denominations, their tall spires successful, and the unwary purchasers poining toward heaven, or their stately find themselves beguiled into buying towersgiving evidence of their substanmore than they want, by their skillful tial character; but here we come upon and plausible commendations. another edifice which seems a place of At the corners, Cheap John s, some of worship, yet differs from the others. We them Chinese, cry their wares and en- look more closely and find it a temple deavor to beguile passers by, by the for the worship of Buddha, and within narrative of some never-ending, still its portals is a large and well executed beginning story. Those magnificent bronze statute or image of Buddha stores with easy entrances fitted up with Sakylamnni in his official robes, with mirrors and pictures, and glittering with the lotus, in his hand, and that expres 52-6 A P P E ND I X. sion of profound and serene repose liquor and opium has rushed out and is which characterises all the best images running amokl, striking and stabbing of him. We do not care to linger at his with his gleaming Kriss,every one in worship which seems to us more than his way. Yet farther on the Hindoo, usually dull and dreary, and passing sleek, graceful, and eminently handsome on. we come to a temple to Sin-tti the in form and feature. but treacherous Japanese divinity, who shares with and deceitful, bows very humbly and Buddha the reverence of that people. obsequiously, but it would not surprise His worship is more distinctively idola- us to know, that in one of his fits of trous than that of Buddha, and while jealousy against Englishmen and Amerthere is something interesting, there is icans, he had assassinated some friend of also much that is ludicrous, and not a ours to whom he had been equally obselittle that is sad, in this worship of wood quious and polite. and stone. We are in the Japanese We turn away a little disgusted with quarter of LaPorte, and we find here this city, which a few hours before we and there elegant cottages, with inscrip- had thought such a model. It is evitions indicating that they are "tea dent that LaPorte is not a city of the houses." The "Social Evil" among the saints, unless it be that "Latter Day" Japanese has not so many revolting fea- kind which a hundred years before had tures as among our professedly more made a neighboring city a by-word and highly civilized people; but we decline a reproach. Returning to the wareall invitations to enter, and pass on. house we find Mr. Marston ready to go The begging nuns, pretty, after the ori- home by the open railway, the cars of ental style, and very winning in their which are driven by the new motor, ways, next accost us, and ask that we whose wonderful power and freedom will visit their halls and witness their from danger, are just beginning to make dancing, and perhaps contribute some- it popular. He says very pleasantly to thing toward giving their patron god- a friend whom he has invited to accomdess a new silken suit; but we are hard pany him, that going by this route he hearted, and do not think their patron will have an opportunity to see somegoddess much more destitute of "some- thing of the beauties of the landscape. thing to wear" than her devotees before We enter the car, and it begins to move us. We have had enough of the Japa- almost immediately; the speed increases nese quarter and turn away to retrace with great rapidity, but without the our steps towards the great thorough- short, quick puffs, or the jerky motion, fare; but in so doing we have entered of the old time locomotive. Before we the purlieus of the lowest classes of the have had time to be conscious of the Chinese, Hindoo, and Malay population. change, our speed has increased till it is Here is an opium shop, and on benches terrific. trees, buildings, and towns under the verandah lie ghastly-looking are passed so swiftly that it is vain to men and women, under the influence of attempt to distinguish them. The landthe potent drug. They seem dead, and to scape, whose beauties we were to notice, have died in horrible agony; but soon has become an undistinguishable plain, one of them, and presently another. the eye can only rest in looking to the raises his head, and propping. it up with far off hills, and even these approach one hand, looks around with an idiotic and recede too rapidly to be comfortable. expression, and calls in utter wretched- Yet amid it all there is no rocking or ness for more of the poison. If denied swaying of the cars, as there was in the he presently raises up again, and may days of steam. We ask the reason and commit murder or become a violent are told that, high as is the rate of speed, maniac. A little farther on a crowd are the train is balanced and kept in place gatllered, who suddenly start and fly for by a sort of quasi-connection with a their lives. A stalwart Malay, whose middle rail. In thirty minutes after face is so malignant with all evil pas- leaving LaPorte, we are set down at the sions that it would make a capital study station nearest Mr. Marston's house, a for Gustave Dore in his next picture of distance of sixty miles. Mr. Marston Satan, and who is maddened with vile rallies his friend on his enjoyment of the APPENDIX. 527 landscape, and promises to show him reservoirs to furnish water sufficient for some of its beauties in his own carriage. the entire estate whenever and wherever Entering this, which is in waiting, the it was needed, and that now his crops party are presently set down at the door of wheat, millet, dourra maiz,, and of the villa. other agricultural products are so enorAs it yet lacked more than two hours mous that he hardly knows what to do of sunset, the carriage is retained at with them. the door and, after a brief delay, Mr. and Returning to the mansion, the closing Mrs. Marston, with their guests, drive hours of day are passed in high social over a superb road to the brow of the enjoyment. The dinner, at seven o'clock, mountain overlooking the magnificent isi luxurious without ostentation. SalNorth Park, one of the grandest land- monl from Oregon, caught thirty-six scapes in the whole eastern slope of the hours before, and sent in ice; the deliRocky mountains. After contemplating cious blue fish of the Atlantic coast, its beauties for some time from different brought fresh in like manner; the great points, they turn southward and drive turkey of the plains, the acknowledged for a little distance through one of the monarch of the gallinacious tribes; a passes of the Uintah range, and cross saddle of elk venison; a roasted ham. of the Green river —already a considerable the grizzly bear, now becoming very rare stream-on a fine suspension bridge. in the mountains; piquant sauces, the Descending from the carriage, the whole genuine trepang or birds' nest, now party look over the railing of the bridge found in:the caverns of the Queen Chardown into that deep, dark canon, even at lotte Islands, and numberless delicacies this point two thousand feet below them. devised by the skill of their accomplished its black waters striking on either side cook and confectioner, make it a repast the perpendicular walls of rock which which brings enjoyment without glutshut them in. t6ny. Coffee and chocolate were served, Again entering the carriage, they come and bottles of the choicest wines of Calto the reservoir ponds and the acequias, ifornia stand in the cooler, but neither which Mr. Marston has had constructed host nor guest desired them. for the irrigation of his estate. He ex- The evening would have been dull plained to his friend that when he pur- had music been wanting; but in this the chased it, this was mostly a barren des- Marston family are adepts. All joined sert, covered with the sage or grease in some sweet, new songs, while Mabush; that several efforts had been dame accompanied them on the organmade to reclaim it, but unsuccesfully, piano, a new combination of string, reed and that taking advantage of a perren- and wind instruments, whose soft and ial stream higher up in the mountains, delicious tones delighted all ears. So he had obtained an ample supply in his ends a day in June, 1970. INDEX ACCORDION, the, 483. Barley, production and geographical distribution of, 78. Adriatic, the (steamer), picture of, 237. Batchelder, John, sewing-machine patent o, 414. Aged and infirm, houses and asylums for the, 454. Bay State Mills 308. Agricultural books, 98. Beads, glass, manufacture of, 405. Agricultural exhibitions, the first, 25; benefits of; 26; fruit Beam engines. 252. culture increased by, 84. Beans, production and exports of, 79. Agricultural implements in old times, 20, 24, 26; improve- Bean's sewing-machine patent, 414. ments in, 80-37; manufacture of in Illinois, 76. Beaver cloth, 805. Agricultural literature, progress of, 97. Bedford hog, the, 63. Agricultural newspaper, the first, 25. Beech-nut hog, picture of, 61. Agricultural periodicals, 97-8. Bee culture, 90. "Agricultural Repository," 97. Beeswax and honey, production of, 90. Agricultural societies recommended by Washington, 24; first Belting, rubber, manufacture of, 411. establishment and increase of, 25; results of, 26; publi- Berkshire hog, picture of, 62. cation of the proceedings of, 99. Berlin decree, the, 189-40. Agricultural wealth of California, 68; of the United States, 6S. Bernard, General, 177. Agriculture, history of, in the United States, 19; of the Beverly, Mass., first cotton mill at, 277, 280. Indians, 21; exhaustive system of, 22; primitive con- Bigelow's power loom for carpets, 306. dition of, a century ago, 22; efforts for the improvement Black Hawk horses, origin and qualities of, 54. of, 24; stimulated by foreign demand, 71; by canals and Black River canal, 185. railroads, 72; total value of the products of, 76; scientific Blackstone canal, 190. discoveries relating to, 99; prospects of, 101; annual Blanchard, Thomas, hat-felting process of, 849. value of, 157 (table); use of steam in, 263. Bleaching, improvements in, 276; of ootton goods, 288; of Albany, penitentiary of, 4-9. paper stock, 297. Allen, Horatio, account of his first locomotive trip, 245. Blodgett & Lerow, sewing machine of, 414. "American Agriculturist," 98. Blowers for steamboats. introduced by R. L. Stevens, 241, American bottom. first settlement of the, 74. Blue grass, Kentucky, 80. "American Farmer," 97. Bock, Henry, tambouring machine of, 414. American Watch Company, 371. Bohemia, m mufacture of glass in, 899. Americus, large ox, 48. Boilers, water gauges for, 229; pumps connected with, 283; Ambler's mowing machine, 85. act for the inspection of, 242; stationary, bad manageAmoskeag Locomotive Works, 246; illustration of, 24. ment of, 254; inspection law required for, 255, 268. Amoskeag steam fire engine, 260. Bones for manure, 100. Andrews, Dr., permutation lock of, 897. Bony fish, for manure, the taking of, 385. Annealing, process of, 402. Book farming, prejudice against, 25. Apples; primitive culture and use of, 81; thirty good native Books, agricultural, 98. varieties of, 82; at the South, 82. Boots and shoes, importations and manufacture of, 316; mannApple trees in California, 88. facture of, in Massachusetts, &c., 324; by machinery, Apricots in California, 83. 825; qualities and prices of, 825. Arkwright's cotton-spinning invention, 10S, 275. Boston, export of apples, 82; lumber business of, 97; railroad Astor, John Jacob, 139; the fur trade of, 344. enterprise of, 192, 197; clothing trade of, 310; shoe trade Atlanta and West Point railroad, 205. of, 324; ice trade of, 8S7,'388; glassworks in, 899; Prison Atlantic, first crossing of the, by steam, 180. Discipline Society of, 439; hospitals of, 449; dispensaAtlantic slope, area of the, 101. ries of, 452, 453 (table). Auburn prison, silk manufacture in, 395; trial of solitary Boston and Maine railroad. 197. confinement in, 436. Boston and Providence railroad, 197. Axes, manufacture of, 841. Boston Locomotive Works, 246. Ayrshire cows, good milkers, 49; importations of, 50. Bottles, manufacture of, 405. Ayrshire bull, portrait of, 45. Boydell's engines, 264. Bradshaw, John. sewing-machine patent of, 414. Bakewell, improvement in the breeding ofcattle by, 89. Bramah lock, the, 397. Baldwin, M. W., engine builder, 246. Brazil, export of flour to, 107; cotton imported from, 117. Baldwin's steam car for cities, 251. Breadstuffs, fluctuations in European demand for, 71. Ballast, use of, in railroad construction, 195. Breaking machine, the, 302. Baltimore, the oyster trade of, 3S5; hospitals of, 449. Breech-loading weapons, 332. Baltimore and Ohio railroad, 192; account of, 203, 245; pre- Breed, definition of, 41. mium for coal-burning engine offered by, 246. Breeding, two modes of, 40. Baltimore and Susquehanna railroad, anecdote of the first Bricks, early importation of, 856; material of, 357; manufao. engine on, 251-2. ture of, 358; machines for, 358.. Baltimore clippers, 162. Broadcloth, the fulling of, 802-3. Bank of England, 145. 151. Brooks Brothers, clothing establishment of, 810. Bankrupt law, operation of tnle, 152. Brooklyn, boiler explosion in, 254; hospitals of, 449; disperBanks, multiplication of, 143,151; failure of, 151 saries of, 454. Bark, oak and hemlock, 819. Brooklyn Ship Timber Bending Company, 267. INDEX 529 Brooklyn Water Works, pumping engine at, 258. with, 164; land transportation in, 172; American steam.. Brown, Noah, 240. ers in, 231. Brown stone houses, 359. Chincha islands, guano obtained from, 100. Brussels carpet, 807. Chouteau, Pierre & Co., fur traders, 845. Buckskin gloves, 826, 827. Cigars, manufacture of, in Hamburg, 87. Buckwheat, production and geographical distribution of, 78; Cincinnati, pork-packing in, 65; early steam transportation land cleansed by its cultivation, 78. of, 181; railroad connections of, 205; steam fire engines Buffalo robes, 845. at, 259; hospitals of, 449. Buildings and building material. 853. Cities, street railroads in, 223; plans of steam cars for, 251'; Bunker, Elias, sloop of, 178; captain of the Fulton, 179. prisons in, 489. Burr & Co., hat body manufactory of, 849. Civil engineering, American triumphs in, 230. Butler, Charles, 208. Clark, G. B., mulberry plantation of, 394. Butter, great production of, from 783 cows, 89; from an Ayr- Clay for brick, 858. shire cow, 50; production of, per cow, in different States, Clay, Henry, importation of Herefords by, 48; compromise 51. tariff of, 147. Byfield breed of hogs, 64. Clearing house, exchanges at the, 160. Clermont, the, Fulton's first steamboat, 179. Calico printing, 276; improvements in, 277; processes of, Clinton, De Witt, 72, 184. 288; statistics of, 290. Clipper ships, 162; in the California trade, 167. California, domestic animals in, 68; agricultural wealth of, Clocks, early manufacture of, 868; wooden and brass, process 68; agricultural development of, 77; fruit and wine of, of making, 869; exportation of, 870. 83; vintage and silk culture of, 102; gold discovered in, Cloth, home-spnn, 301. 154; capital and goods sent to, 155; routes to, 224. Clothing trade, the, rise and growth of, 309; management of, Caloric engine, the, 270-71. 309-10. Camden and Amboy railroad, 202. Cloth manufacture, wool used for, 302. Canada, operation of the treaty with, 156. Cloth printing, 804. Canadian ponies, origin of, 53. Cloths and cassimeres, imports of, 312. Canal up the Potomac projected by Washington, 71. Clover and grass seeds, production of, by sections, 79. Canals, American, 178, 184; mode of constructing and ope- Coal discovered in Pennsylvania, 190; quantity of, transportrating, 185-6; principal, table of, 190; of New York, ed, 219; public works built for, 220. financial results of. 190; for coal transportation (table), Coasters, travelling by, 179. 190; sensation produced by, 191. Cod fishery, the, mode of conducting, 3878-81; illustration of, Candy and confectionery, 392. 3880. Cane, sugar. See Sugar cane. Ccelebs, short-horn bull. 47. Cane carrier, the, description of, 128. Cole's "American Fruit Book," 84. Cannon, improvements in, 834; metal for, 8835; casting, 335; Colles, Christ'r, first steam engine in America built by, 227. proving, 836. Colling, Charles and Robert, breeders of short-horns, 89. Caoutchouc. See India-rubber. Colonies, the American, restriction of commerce and manuCarding, hand, picture of, 299. factures in, 1388; trade of, with the West Indies, &c., 134; Carding machine, improvements in, 276; operation of, 287; fisheries of, 185; table of exports from, in 1770, 136; the introduction of, 301. revolution in, 137. Card-making machine, 276, 801. Coloring matters, 203. Cards, wool, 800; machine for making, 801. Colt, Samuel, invention of the revolver by, 831; the manufacCarhart's melodeons, 4384. tory of, 8831. Carpenter & Plass's pumping engine, 268. Comet, the, second western steamboat, 239. Carpets, use and manufacture of, in America, 306; kinds of, Commerce, foreign, of the United States, history of, 104-5; 306, 807; quantity of, made in New York and Massachu- colonial, restricted by Great Britain, 133-7; with the West setts, 808. Indies, 184; effect of the revolution upon, 187; activity Carriages, manufacture of, 860; materials of, 861; illustra- of, after the war of 1812, 143; after the revulsion of 1887, tions of, 363-6; process of making, 367; statistics of. 868. 152; table of, for 70 years, 157; remarkable advance of, Carrying trade in colonial times, 185; during the French 168; of the great lakes, 186-7. wars, 188; English decree against the, 139: cessation of, Commercial disasters, table of losses from, 152. 140. Conant, J. L., sewing-machine patent of, 414. Car-springs, rubber, 411. Conestoga horses, 54. Cartwright, power loom of, 108, 276. Conestoga wagon. 184. Cary's boiler, 244, 259. Connecticut, the clock business in, 868-70; silk culture and Cast iron, best metal for guns, 885. manufacture in, 898. Cattle two centuries ago, 20; cruel treatment of, 20, 23; in Conner, James, fire-proof chest made by, 396. Virginia, the first in the United States, 87; laws for the Cooking by steam, Papin's account of, 266-7. preservation of, 87; in the other colonies, 837, 838; Danish, Cooks', Messrs., carriage manufactory, 361; picture of, 866. in New Hampshire, 88; native sources of, 38; mode of Corlies' sewing-machine patent, 414. -keeping in Virginia, 88; increase in the average weight Cooper, William, invention of, for enamelling glass, 405. of, 40; two modes of improvement of, 40; native, not a Corliss and Nightengale's stationary engines, 253, 254. race or breed, 41; selection of, for breeding, 42; progress Corn, Indian, native mode of cultivating, 21; Ojibway legend in the qualities of, 47; statistics of, 47, 51; importations of the origin of, 68; first cultivation of, by the colonists, of improved breeds of, 47-50. 69; early exports of, 69; census statistics of, 70; increased Cavalry, diminished importance of, 828. exportation of, 70; table of exports of, 71; late introducCayuga and Seneca Lake canal, 184. tion of, into the West, 75; exports of, to Great Britain, Census of 1860, tables, 169-70.. 1840-1858, 158. Census statistics, imperfection of, 73. Corning and Sotham, of Albany, importation of Herefords Central railroad of New York,.200; of New Jersey, 202; of by, 49. Pennsylvania, 203; of Virginia, 204; of Georgia, 205; of Cornish engines, 258. Illinois, 205; of Michigan, 208. Corn laws, English, repeal of, 158, 157. Champlain or Northern canal, 184. Cotswold sheep, picture of, 57. Charcoal roads, 176. Cotton, the demand for, 106; the high prices of labor snsCharleston, railroad connections of, 205. tained by, 106; the most important article of export, Cheese, great production of, from one farm, 89; production 107; importation of, into England, 108; improvements in of, per cow, in different States, 51; whole amount of, 51. the manufacture of, 108; increase in exportations of, 109; Chemung canal, 185. prices for different qualities of, 109; increase in American Chenango canal, 185. consumption of, 110; raw and manufactured, decline in Chicago, rise and growth of, 75; preeminent as a grain depot, cost of, 110; first cultivation and exportation of, 111; 75; statistics of the grain trade of, 76; preeminent as a picture of cleaning, by hand and by the gin, 112; progress lumber market, 96; receipts of lumber at, 96; effect of of the production of, since the invention of the gin, 118-16; railroads upon the grain trade of, 220 (table); general rail- monopoly of the foreign market for, 117; sources of the road business of, 221 (table); steam elevators of, 264. supply of, 117; qualities of, from different countries, 118; Chickering, Jonas, manufacture and improvement of the process of cultivating, 120; high prices maintained by, piano by, 483. 122; effect of the war upon the production of, 124; efChickering's piano-forte manufactory, picture of, 852. fects of, upon American commerce, 141; exports oft Childers, trotting horse, portrait of, 56. 1790-1859, 158; the transportation of, favorable. to railChina, American cotton goods sent to, 107; former course ot roads, 205; effect of railroads upon, 220 (table); raw, trade with, 146; English war with, 164; Aumerican treaty divisions of, 286; for paper-making, 293. 530 INDEX Cotton clothing, demand for, 157. restrictions of, upon colonial trade, 133, 139; loss of the Cotton gin, invention of the, 111; 277; description of the,.1ll; naval supremacy of, 143; Bank of, 145, 151; warehouse pictutre of a, 112; infringements of the patent for, 113; system of, 146; short harvests in, 152; navigation laws effect of, upon production, 113. of, 161; cotton manufactures in, 275. Cotton noodas, importation of, 105; sent from the United Eolodicon, the, 433. States to China, 107. Ericsson's screw propeller, 167, 180, 240; steam fire engine, Cotton manufactures, progress of, 274; inventions in, 275-6, 259; caloric engine, 270-71; turreted war steamers, 338. 286; table of dates of, 277; in the United States, 277,.280; Erie canal, construction of the, 72. 166, 184; effect of the in 1809, 281; protective duties on, 283; table of, in 1831, opening of, 180, 181; enlargement of, 186; effect of, on 283; returns of, in 1840, 284; table of, in 1860, 285; the western New York, 186. processes of, 286-290; exports and imports of, 290; table Erie railroad, account of'the, 200. of the progress of, 290. Essex, the, 338. Cotton plant of Europe and America, 110. Essex hog, improved, picture of, 62. Cotton States, the, progress of the population of, 116; supe- Evans, Oliver, 228, 229; "Orukter Amphibolos" of, 285 (pie. riority of the climate and labor of, 119. ture), 243; on steam wagons, 244. Cotton yarn, prices of, 110. Eve, J., cotton gin of, 113; rotary engine of, 253. Cows in New England at its settlement, 19; in Virginia, 23; Everett, Edward, anecdote of, about American ice in India, in Virginia, not housed nor milked in winter for fear it 389. would kill them, 38; in Rhode Island in 1750,39; great Exchanges at the New York clearing house, 160. prices for, in England, 40; selection of, for breeding, Explosions, steam, 242. 42; treatment of, in New England, 42; comparative Export, three chief articles of, 107. statement of the products of, 51; proportion of, to popu- Exports, table of colonial, 136; of domestic, 141, 158; of Amerilation, in the States, 51. can, British, and French, 1800-1865, 168. (See Imports Cranberry, culture of the, 84. and exports.) Creampots (cows), 47. Crchie, the, 454 Factory operatives in New England, 282. Credit, system of, 148; evils of, 148. Faile, Edward G., Devon cow and bull owned by, 44,46. Creole cane, origin of, 127. Fairbanks, W. W., engine builder, 246. Crocheting machine, Thimonier's, 414, Farmers, their primitive condition a century ago, 22; their Crompton's mule spinner, 108, 275-6. fear of innovation, 23; influence of the Revolution upon,.Crooked Lake canal, 185.'24; backward in joining agricultural societies,125; their "Cultivator," the, 98. improvement by means of, 26. Cumberland national road, the, 174,177. "Farmers' Cabinet," 98. Currency, inflation of, 146. Farming in America in early times, 19; by the Indians,,21; Currier, operations of the, 319. by the early settlers of Illinois, 74, 75. Curves in railroads, 193-4. Farm implements, general account of, 26. Cushing, Caleb, treaty with China negotiated by, 164. Farms, number and value of,.in the United States, 102. Cutlery, American manufacture of, 339; grinding and polish- Fawkes engine, the, 264. ing of, 340; statistics of, 342. Felting, the process of, 304-5; of hat bodies, 349. Cut-off, steam, the theory of the, 232-3; experiments upon Finkle & Lyon's sewing machine, illustrations of, 418. the, 272. Fire-arms, introduction and improvements of, 328; illustrations of, 329-30. Dahlgren, Captain, improved guns of, 835. Fire engines, steam, 244; origin and kinds of, 259. Darker's steam car for cities, 251. Fish, eating of, at stated times, decreed by Queen Elizabeth, Darlington railroad, 191. 162. Davis, Phineas, coal-burning engine built by, 203, 246. Fisher, steam carriages built by, 244. Davy, Sir Humphry, 99. Fisheries, colonial, 6f New England, 135; growth of the, 162; Deer skins as a medium of exchange, 844. account of, 377; European, importance of, 378; American, Delano, Jesse, fire-proof chests of, 396. 378; of the lakes, 385; statistics of the, 386. Delaware and Hudson canal, 185; enlargement of, 186. Fishing bounties, the, 162, 878. Delaware and Raritan canal, 190, 202. Fitch, the fur of the, 347. Delaware and Schuylkill Company, 173. Fitch,,John, picture of the steamboats of, 226; first condensDenison, E. B., on American locks, 398. ing engine built by, 227; his boats, how propelled, 229; Detectors, low-water, 270. the honor due to, 234; picture of his propeller, 235. Devonshire cattle, qualities and importations of, 49. Flat boats on the western rivers, 165, 180, 182, 234 (picture). Dewsbury trade,;the, 315. Flax and hemp, culture of, 89; statistics of, 90. Dismal Swamp canal, 173. Flax-seed, exports of, 89. Dispensaries in the United States, 452; in New York and Flint glass, 404.'Boston, 453 (table). Flock paper, 298. Dix, Dorothea L., efforts of, in behalf of the insane, 442. Flora, short-horn cow, 47. Dowley, L. A., importation of Herefords by, 49. Florida, sugar-cane cultivated in, 127. Donkey engine, the, 241; use of, 260, 263. Flour, early exports of, 73;'trade of Chicago in, 76; demand Double Duke, short-horn bull, portrait of, 48. for ~Southern, 107; exports of, 1831-1838, 148; to Great DIowning's "Fruit and Fruit Trees of America," 84. Britain, 1840-1858, 158; and provisions, 1790-1858, 158; Drawing frame, the, 287, 302. effect of the Western' railroad upon the trade'in, p97; the Dressing machine, invention of the, 276. grinding of, 432. Dummy engine, the, 250. Floyd gun, the, 837. Dunderberg, the, 338. Fly frame, the, 287. Dwellings, number and value of, 354; improved style of 855. Food, importation of,. Into, England, 71. Dynamometer, the, 176. Forest trees of the United States, 91. Dyeing of cotton goods, 289; of woollens, 301, 803; of leather, Fortunatus or, Holderness, short-horn bull, 48. 8320. Foundling hospitals, 454. Dye-stuffs for woollens, 304. Fourdrinier machine, the, 295. Foster, Wm., first importer-of merino sheep, 59. Eagle Cotton Mill, Pittsburg, 284. Fowls, foreign varieties of, 90-91. E:ast Indies, cotton imported from, 117:inferior quality of, Fox, silver, fur of the, 845. 118. France, revenue from: tobacco in, 85; ~imports of cotton Into, Eggs, consumption of, 90. 109; free trade with, 138; effect of the revolution of 1848 Eg)ypt, one of the chief sources of cotton,- 117. in, upon commerce, 154; system of roads in, 174. Elevators, the, of Chicago, 76. Free-trade treaty between France and England, 138. Electro-gilding, 377. French, D., steamboat built by, 239. Electro-plating, 872; illustrations of, 873-6. Fruit, former and present importance of, 81; native varieties ]Eliot's "Essays on Field Husbandry," 97. of, 82; production of,'82; at the South, 82; iincreasing Embargo, the, of 1808, 140 effects of, 142. exportation of, 88; no danger of a glut of, 83;' inCalifor]Fmnigration into the United States explained, 106; to the nia, 83; imports: of, from tiet Mediterranean, 88; censua United States from Germany, 146; of planters to the statistics of, 84. west, 152; from New England tothe westi188; of foreign Fruit-raising, works on, 84. paupers, 446; Commissioners of, 446. Fruit trees, annual sale of, 82. Engineers, steam, 254,268; advice to,270. Fuel for locomotives, 249; economy in, 2O;'for'btatuiulry Efgland, importation of food into, 71; cons iptiourn f tobc- engines, 256. co in, 87; sources of the' cotton suppy' of, 11, 275, 277; Fulling-mill, the, 80, INDEX 531 Fulton, Robert, first steamboat of, 165,179, 229, 236 (picture); Hiawatha, legend of, 68. builds steamboats at Pittsburg, 2.39; steam battery Hides, sources and statistics of, 317; kinds of, 317-18; prep. built by, 241. aration of, for tanning, 318, 320, 321; growing cost of, 323. Fulton, the, navigation of Long Island Sound by, 179-80. Hinckley and Drury, locomotive builders, 246. Fur, hat bodies formed from, 805. Hittinger, Cook & Co.'s portable engine, 255; hoisting enFurs, kinds and comparative value of, 345; table of, 346; gine, 256. preparation of, 347. Hobbs, A. C., lock-maker, 397, 398. Fur trade, history of the, 343. Hogs, illustrations of, 61, 62; first importations of, 63; first attempts at improving, 64; most profitable at the West, Gallatin, Albert, on cotton manufactures in 1809, 281. 64; proper mode of breeding, 64; mode of killing and Gayler, C. J., fire-proof safes of, 396. dressing at Cincinnati, 65; packing, 66; products of, 66; "Genesee Farmer," 98. statistics of, 66, 67. Genesee Valley canal, 185. Hoisting engines, 256. George's Banks, cod fishery of, 881; halibut fishery of, 382. Holland, S., on the mode of ascertaining horse-power, 228. Geor.etown and Pittsburg caual, 188. Holly on the caloric engine, 271. Georgia, colonial exports of, 137; railroad system of, 205; Holly, of Seneca Falls, rotary engine of, 252-3; pump of, silk culture in, 393. 260, 263. Gibbs, James E. A. See Willcox & Gibbs. Homes and asylums for the aged and infirm, 454. Gilding metals, various modes of, 372. Honey, production of, 90. Girard, Stephen, 139.' Hops, culture of, 88; improvements in the management of Glass, importance and uses of, 398; history of, 399; statistics 88; inspection and classification of, 89; fluctuations in of, 400; materials of, 400; process of manufacturing, 401; price of, 89; statistics and geographical distribution crown, 401; cylinder, 402; window, consumption and of, 89. imports of, 403; plate, 403; grinding and polishing, 403; Hopper, Isaac T., prison associations organized by, 440. silvering, 404; bending, 404, flint, 404; colored, 405; Horizontal steam engines, 252. enamelled, 405; soluble, 405, bottle, &c., 405. Horrocks, loom patented by, 276. Gloucester, Mass., the mackerel business of, 383. Horse railroads in cities, 223. Gloves, skins for, 318; kinds and manufacture of, 326. Horse-power of steam engines, how obtained, 228. Glucose or girape sugar, 180. Horses, improvement-of, in half a century, 52; first importaGold, discovery of, in California, 154; effect of, on the price tions of, 53; increase in speed of, 53; favorite varieties of labor, 107; as an article of export, 157. of, for the road, 54; at the South, 54; statistics of, 54;, Gold's steam-heating apparatus, 265. kinds used by the early colonists at the West, 75. Goodale and Marsh's steam excavator, 264. Horticultural societies. 81. Goodyear, Charles, invention of vulcanized rubber by, 410. Horticulture, works on, 84. Government reads, 177. Hose, rubber, manufacture of, 411. Governor, the, of steam engines, 233. Hosiery and fancy knit work, 808. Grain, trade in. at Chicago, &c., 76. Hospitals in the United.States, 449; in New Yorlk,. B!oston, Granite for building, 359. and Philadelphia, table of, 450. Grapes in California, immense growth of, 83. Hospitals for the insane, 440; convention, ofsuper-.ntendents Grass and hay crop, importance of the, at the North, 79. of, 442; cost and accommodations of, 443 - table of, 444. Grasses first cultivated in New England, 20; progress in the Houses, materials of, 356; building, of, sand. peculation ina, cultivation of, 80. 357. Grass seed, production of, 79. Hovey's "Magazine of Horticulture? 84, Gravel roads, 176. Howard, E., originator of American watch-making, 370. Gray, William, the ships of, 139. Howe, Elias, Jr., invention of' he, sewing machine by, 414; Grazing in Texas, 102. proceedings of, 419; income of, 421; manufactory of, 429., Great Britain, inadequate home production in, 71; trade Howe, John J., pin machines of, 380. with, after the revolution, 138; comparative area of,.157; Hudson river, navigation of, 234.; steamboats on, past and corn and pork exported to, 158; commercial advantages present, 240. of, 161; sources of the cotton of, 275, 277; progress ol Hudson river steamboat, picture of, 194. manufactures in, 290. Hudson's Bay Company, 843, Great Eastern, the, 241. Humanitarian and corrective institutions, 435. Greenough, J. J., first sewing-machine patentee, 414. Hull, Jonathan, 240, 243. Greenville and Columbia railroad, 205. Hussey's reaping machines 35. Greenwood, Miles, 259. Grice and Long's steam car for cities, 251. Ice, uses of, 386; the trade in, 387; mode of cutting and Grover & Baker's sewing machine, invention of, 419; de- storing, 388; wastage of, 389. scription of, 424; warehouse of, 428. Ice-houses, construction of, 388. Guano, introduction and use of, 100. Ichaboe, the, and other guano islands, 100. Gulf region, the, area of. 101; grazing in, 102. Illinois, settlement of, by the French, 74; by revolutionary Guns, manufacture of, 334. (See Cannon.) ecldiers, 75; rapid agricultural development of, 75; manGutta percha, manufactures of, 411. ufacture of agricultural implements in, 76; public improvements of, 189. Halibut fishery, the, 882; growth of, 383. Illinois Central railroad, history of, 205; working of, 206., Hall, Adam, truck frame in front of the engine used by, 246. land department of, 207. Hamburg, manufacture of cigars in, 87. Imports and exports, table of, 1790-1807, 140; 1808-1820,142,' Hamilton, report of, upon manufactures, 141, 280, 300, 8316. after the w~ar of 1812, 143; table of, 1821-1830, 145; 1831-. Hamlin, Emmons, improved melodeon of, 434. 1840, 147; of certain articles, 148; 1841-1850, 153; 1851Handles of cutlery, 341. 1860, 156; for 70 years, 157. Hanks. William, silk produced by, 373. India, cotton imported from, 117; exports and imports of cotHannibal and St. Joseph railroad, 209. ton and cotton goods, 158; muslins of, 274; America irce Hanson, Timothy, propagator of timothy grass, S, in, 387, 389. (See East Indies.) Hargreaves' spinning jenny, 108, 275. Indiana, internal improvements of, 189. Harrow. improvements in the, 32. Indian corn. See Corn, Ifdian. Hat bodies, process of manufacturing, 349. Indians, agriculture of the, 21; their astonishment at- sight of liats, woollen, manufacture of, 305-6; early manufacture of, a plough, 22. 348; superiority of American, 349; improvements in India-rubber, source, uses, and manufacture of, 406, illustramaking, 349. tions of, 407-8; vulcanized, how made, 410; articles made Hay, importance of, at the North, 79; progress in the pro- of, 411; imports and exports of, 412; growth of the manduction of, 80; statistics of, 80; advantages and disad- ufacture of, 412. vantages of, 80; geographical distribution of, 81; im- Infants, institutions for the care of, 454. proved quality of, 81. Innovation, fear of, in farming, 23. Heating by steam, 265. Insane, the, former treatment of, 440; first efforts for the " Hell-gate" passage, 179. amelioration of, 441; hospitals for, in the United States, Hemp, culture of, 89; at the West, 90. 441, 444 (table); improvements in the treatment of, 448. Herd, discoverer of timothy grass, 80. Insanity, American works on, 442. Herefords, improved by Tomkins, 40; imported into Ken- Interest, made high by cheap lands, 103, tucky by Henry Clay, 48; characteristics of, 49; other Ireland, Indian corn introduced into, 153; famine in, 164; importations of, 49. prison system of, 438. Herring fishery, the, mode of conducting, 381. Iron, imported, compared with that of Pennsylvania, 105. gerring, Silas C., manufacturer of fire-proof safes, 897. Iron-clad war-steamers, 3353 32 532; - INDEX Ironsides, the, 338. Lowell, Mass., manufactories of, steam used in, 268; origin Isherwood, Chief Engineer, steam experiments of, 272. of, 282 factory system of, 285. Italy, importation of rags from, 292. Lowell and Jackson, power loom of, 281; cotton mill estab. lished by, 282. "Jacketing," 269. Lowell locomotive shop, 246. Jackson, Patrick S., 281; Lowell originated by, 282. Lumber, the trade in, 188;. for building, sources and supply Jails, county, 438; defects of, 439. of, 356, 357. James, William T., 246. Lumber business, the, 91; in Maine, 92; at Green Bay, 96; James I,, " Counterblast to Tobacco," 85. statistics of, 96. James River Cotton Mill, 284. Lunatics. See Insane. James River and Kanawha Company, 190. Lynn, shoe manufacture of, 324. James Steam Mills, engines used in, 253. Jay, treaty concluded by, 139. Macadam roads, 176. J. C. Cary, the, steam fire engine, 244. Machinery, benefits of, 269. Jenks, ring spindle of, 286. Machines, exportation of, prohibited by England, 281. Jenny, Devon cow, portrait of, 44. Mackerel fishery, the, mode of conducting, 383. Jeromq, Chauncy, manufacture of clocks by, 869. McLean Asylum, the, 441, 449. Jerome Manufacturing Company, 370. Magic lock, the, 398. Jersey cows,'value of, as milkers, 50; diffusion of, 50. Mail service of the United States, 174; contracts, 177. J. G. Storm, the, steam fire engine, 244. Maine, account of lumbering in, 92-6; prison system of, 436. Johnson and Morey, sewing machine of, 414. Malthus, theory of, disproved, 36. Jones, H. C., burglar-proof lock of, 397. Manchester Company, the, cotton fabrics made by, 284. "Journal of Prison Discipline," 440. Manning, William, patentee of the first successful mowingmachine, 185. Keel boats on the Ohio, 165, Mansfield, Conn., silk culture in, 893. Kentucky, importation of short-horns into, 47; their improve- Manufactures, comparatively small exports of, 107; Northern, ment there, 48; Herefords imported into, by Henry Clay, at the South, 122-3; colonial, home restriction of, 133; 48; thorough-bred horses in, 54; blue grass, 80. rise of, 144; in New England, 146; progress of, 1820-1830, "Kettle-bottoms" (vessels), 163. 147; competition of home and foreign, 154; annual value Kip-skins, definition and sources of, 318. of, 157; exports of, 1807-1859, 158; increase of, 159; use Knives, manufacture of, 340, 341. of steam in, 268; systematizing of, 361. Knowles, John, first sewing machine invented by, 413. Manure, early neglect of, 23; artificial, 100; the taking of bony fish for, 385. Labor, high wages of, 103; at the South, cheapness of, 119; Maple sugar and molasses, production of, 130. comparison of free and slave, 120. Marble for building, 859. Laclede, St. Louis founded by, 343. Marietta, Ohio, brig built at, 165. Lake cities, 166. Marten, stone, fur of the, 847. Lake region, area of the, 101 Maryland, cotton mills in, 285. Lakes, the great, steamers and tonnage on, 166; ship-building Mason, Captain John, Danish cattle imported by, 37. on, 167; navigation of, 186; tonnage on, 187; first steam- Mason, William, locomotive builder, 246. boat on, 239; fisheries of, 385. Mason & Hamlin's organ harmonium, &c., 434. Lamb-skins, uses of, 318; treatment of, 320. Massachusetts, Agricultural Society of, 1792, 25; introduction Lancaster gun, the, 334. of cattle into, 37; introduction of horses into, 53; of Land, how cleared by the Indians, 21; exhaustive cropping sheep, 59; wool-growing unprofitable in, 60; production of the, 22; effect of the cheapness of, upon wages and of fruit in, 82; law for the inspection of hops in, 89; railinterest, 103; speculation in, 147-8, 187; public sales and road system of, 196; cotton manufacture in, 284; table of grants of, 157, 207. woollen manufactures of, 312; boot and shoe manufacLand grants to railroads, 207. ture of, 324; mackerel fishery of, 383; the ice business Lard, preparation and disposition of, 66; exports of, to Great of, 387; silk bounty Of, 394; prison system of, 438; GenBritain, 1840-1858, 158. eral Hospital of, 449. Lardner, remarks of,' on England's self-superiority, 234; on Matanzas, the, propeller, 240. the speed of locomotives, 249. Mauch Chunk railroad, 192. Lard oil, manufactuie and uses of, 67. Maumee river, fisheries of the, 885. Latta's steam car for cities, 251; steam fire engines, 259. Maysville road veto, 177. Ledter, 316; tables of manufactures of, 316, 326; kinds of, McCormick's reapers, 85, 836..838; treatment of, after tanning, 8319. Melodeon, the, 433. Leather splitting machines, 323. Memphis and Charleston railroad, 208. Lee & Laxned's steam fire engines, 244, 259. Mercantile agency, statistics of the, 159. JZeeghwater engine compared with that of Brooklyn Water Merino sheep, first exhibition of, 25; importations and InWorks, 2~58. crease of, 59. Lenses, manufacture of, 405. Merrimac and Monitor, encounter of the, 838. Leopold and Treyithick, inventors of the high-pressure en- Merryman, John, of Baltimore, his herd of Herefords, 49. gine, 229. Mexican war, the, 164. Libraries, township and district, 99. Mexico, ancient use of cotton in, 274. Liebig on manurig, 100. Miami canal, 188. Lillie's safes, 897. Michigan, railroads of, 208. Lime, building, q:aaiities.and sources of, 358. Michigan, lake, first steamer on, 166. Liverpool and Manchester railway, 192. Michigan, UT. S. steamier, experiments upon, 272. Live stock, number and value of, in 1850, 1860, and 1866, 102. Middlesex canal, 173; (See Cattle-Stock.) Milk, yield of, by an Ayrshire cow, 50; value of Jerseys Livingston, Chancellor, introducer of the grass-fed hog, 64; for, 50. monopoly of the Lower Mississippi trade claimed by, 181; Miller, E. L., builder of the first successful American locomoopposed railroads, 197; associa ed with Fulton, 239. tive, 205. Loaf sugar, how made,:92%. Mills, flour and grist, 431; statistics and operation of, 431-2. Locks, burglar-proof, 397-8. Mini6 rifle, the, 328. Locks, canal, 185; inclined planes substituted for, 186. Mink fur, 347. Locomotive, the first, picture.of, 194; coal-burning, invention Minnesota, railroad system of, 207. of, 203; the first successful American, 205; premium for, Mississippi, the, fiat boats and steamers on, 181-3; navigation 246. of, 234. Locomotive engines, principles of, 196; history of, 243; ex- Mississippi railroad, the, 208. periments with, 244; the first in the Uni od States, 245; Mississippi valley, &c., area of, 102, manufactures and exportation of, 246; 4ifference between Missouri, railroads of, 209. English and American, 249; cost, proper construction, Mobile, hospitals of, 452. and speed of, 249; running expenses of, 250,. Mobile and Ohio railroad, 207. logging operations in Maine, 92-6; at Green Bay, 96, Mohawk and Hudson railroad, 197, 245. Long and Norris, locomotive builders, 246. Mohawk Valley railroad,'picture of the first locomotivr Long Dock, the, at Jersey City, 202. on, 194. Long shawls for men's use, 308. Molasses, how drained from sugar, 128; maple,' 130; use Looms, hand and power, picture of, 278.. (See Power loom.) of, 891. Loper propeller, the, 167.' Monitors, the, 838. Louisiana, sugar cane cultivated in, 127, Moody, Paul,,282; inventions of, 286, INDEX 533 Mordecai, Major, experiments of, on velocity of shot, 387. Oneida canal, 185. Morgan horses, origin and character of, 54. Opium war, the, in China, 1634. Morocco leather, 318; tanning of, 320. Optical instruments, glass for, 404. Morris and Essex canal, 190. Orange and Alexandria railroad, 204. Morris, Gouverneur, the Erie canal projected by, 178; report Orchard grass, 80. of, upon connecting the lakes and the Hudson, 184. Orchards, planting of; 81. Morrison's steam crane, 265. Orleans, the, first western steamboat, 239. Morus multicaulis speculation, the, 90, 394. Oscillating steam engines, 252. Mould-board, the, improvements in, 30,31; Jefferson's treatise Orukter Amphibolos, the, picture of, 235; account of, 248. on, 31. Oswego canal, 184. Mowatt, John E., towboat business established by, 241, 243. Otter, sea, the fur of the, 845. Mower, Excelsior, picture of, 33. Oxen, New England working, superiority of, 42. Mowing machines, 35; utility and economy of, 36. Oyster trade, the, 884. Mulberry, culture of and speculation in the, 3934. Oysters, planting and breeding of, 384. Mule spinner, the, 275; picture of, 279. Mummy cloths, material of, 275; used to make paper, 293. Pacific Fur Company, 344. Mungo, manufacture and uses of, 315. Pacific railroad, demand for the, 224; acts for and progress of Muscovado sugar, 128. the, 225; of Missouri, 209. Musical instruments, manufacture of, 433. Pacific slope, area of the, 101; agricultural production of Mutton raising profitable at the East, 60. the, 102. Paddle wheel, the, 240. Nap, the, of cloth, how formed, 303. Panama railroad, 224. Narcotics, kinds used in different countries, 85. Panic, the, of 1837, 151. Nasmyth, J.. on Colt's revolver factory, 331. Paper, importance and first manufacture of, 291; materials Native cattle, not a race or breed, 41; improvement of, 42; for, 292-3; machinery for, 295; sizes of, 296; process of at the West, 47. making,.296; hand-made, 297; census statistics of, 298. Naval gunnery, changes in, 337, 338. Paper-hangings, manufacture of, 298. Naval power of the United States, 143. Paper-soled shoes, 326. Navigation, equality in, obtained by the United States, 171-2; Papin, Denis, his account of cooking by steam, 266-7; of the internal, in early times, 178. safety-valve, 267. Navigation act, the, 145. Parkersburg branch railroad, 204. Negroes, lucrative employments of, 115; condition of, at the Paterson, locomotive works of, 246. South, 119-21. Patersons, the, of Baltimore, 139,140. Nelson, short-horn bull, 48. Patterson, Mr., of Baltimore, breeder of Devons, 49. Newark, carriage-making at, 862. Patton stock of cattle, 47. Newbold, Charles, first patentee of a cast-iron plough, 31. Paul's patent for carding cotton, 108. Newell's burglar-proof locks, 397. Pauperism, treatment of, 445; increase of, from immigration, New England, early farming in, 19; by the Indians, 21; the 446; in New York, table of, 451. cattle in, 19, 20; introduction of cattle into, 37; decline of Peach trees in California 83. sheep-raising in, 59, 60; why wheat is not a prominent Peaches, perfection of, at the South, 82. crop in, 73; rye profitable in, 78; fisheries and colonial Pear orchards in Mississippi and Georgia, 82; in Massachutrade of, 135; emigration from, to the West, 188; railroads setts, 83. in, 196-7; locomotive shops in. 246; cotton manufactures Pear trees, profit of, 83; in California, 83. in, 281; factory operatives in, 282; fisheries of, 378. Pease and beans, production and exports of, 79. "New England Farmer,'S98. Peel, Robert, calico printing by, 276. New Hampshire, importations of Danish cattle into, 87, 88. Peltry, 347. (See Furs.) New Haven, the oyster business of, 385.'Penitentiaries, city, 439. New Haven Clock Company. 370. Penknives, blades of, 340. New Jersey once preeminent in wheat raising, 73; prison Penn Cotton Mill, Pittsburg, 284. system of, 486. Pennsylvania, railroads and canals of, 188-9; line of improveNew Jersey Central railroad, 202. ments of, 202; coal transportation of, 219-20; cotton mills New Orleans, hospitals of, 452. in, 284; silk production of, 393; glass manufacture of, New Orleans, Jackson and Great Northern railroad, 208. 400; prison system of, 435; insane hospitals of, 441, 442 Newspapers, quantity of paper required for. 298. (note). New York, Agricultural Society of, 1791, 25; introduction of Pennsylvania railroad, 203; curves and high grade of, 230. cattle into, 37; of horses, 53; of sheep, 59; four-fifths of Penobscot, logging boom on the, 94. the taxes of, paid by agriculture, 77; road system of, 175; Perkins, Jacob, 277. 301. canals of, 184; railroads of, 197; table of woollen mann- Permutation locks, 397. factures of, 312; tanneries in, 317; leather manufactures Perry, the fleet of, 166. of, 326; number and value of dwellings in. 354; amount Petersham cloths, 306. of building materials used in, 360; carriage-making in, Petershamn Morgan, horse, portrait of, 55. 362; prison system of, 436. Philadelphia, locomotive works of, 246; benefit of the staNew York city, great fire of 1835 in, 148; shipping at, 1850- tionary engine to, 271; boot and shoe manufacture of, 1865, 168; omnibuses and horse railroads in, 223; cloth- 324; dwellings in, 355; carriage-making in, 362; silk ing trade of, 309; leather trade of. 317; fur trade of, 346; manufacture in, 395; Prison Society of, 43940; hospitals the hat business in, 349; Prison Association of, 439-40; of, 441, 449; dispensaries of, 452. relief of the poor in, 448; hospitals of, 449, 450 (table); Piano, the, American manufactures of and improvements ins pauperism in, 451 (table); dispensaries of, 452,453 (table); 433. other institutions of, 454-5. Pickering, Col. Timothy, breeder of the Woburn hog, 64. New York Central railroad, 200. Pierce, of Troy, air-tube patent of, 256. " New York Farmer," 98. Pinel, Philip, reform of the treatment of lunatics by, 441. "New York Herald," engines used by, 269. Pine lumber, classification of, 94. Norris locomotive engine works, 246. Pine woods hog, picture of, 61. Norris, Lee, India-rubber invention of, 409. Pins, manufacture of, 889; American improvements in, 890, North and South, no competition between, 121. Pistols, revolving, 331; breech-loading, 338. North Carolina, colonial exports of, 136. Pittsburg, glass manufacture of, 899. North River boats, 180. Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroad, 208. North River of Clermont (steamboat), picture of the, 286. Plank roads, 176. Northwest Fur Company, 343. Plaster of Paris, use of, for safes, 896. Nurseries and foundling hospitals, 454. Plating, processes of, 372. Nurseries, fruit, in the United States, 82. Plough, astonishment of the Indians at first sight of a, 22. " Plough, Loom, and Anvil," 98. Oats, production and geographical distribution of, 78. Ploughs, early scarcity and inefficiency of, 27; description of Ogeechee canal, 190. various kinds, 27-30; inmense saving from the improveOhio, increase in the value of stock in, 50; canal system of, ment of, 30; cast-iron, invention and manufacture of, 81;: 188. patents for, 31; steam, 263-4. Ohio Company for Importing English Cattle, 48. Plum trees in California, 83. Ohio river, navigation of, 165; drainage of, 166; the first Plush, silk, for hats, 850. steamboat on, 239. Pomological Society, American, 82. Omnibuses in New York, 228; introduction and increase Poor, relief of the, systems of, 445; comparative statistics of of, 860, 447 (table); associations for, 446, 448. 534 INDEX.Population, excess of, in Europe, over production, 71; pro- Rotary steam engines, 252. gress of, in the United States, 132, 144. R. R. Cuyler, the, propeller, 240. Pork, packing of, 66; classification and disposition of, 66; ex- Russia, few roads in, 172. ports of, to Great Britain, 1840-1858, 158. Rum exported from the colonies, 185. Portable steam engines, 235; for farmers, 263, 264. Rye, diminished cultivation of, 77; total product of, 77; Postage, reduction of, 179. profitable in New England, 78. Post-office Department, early operations of the, 174. Potato crops in Great Britain, failure of, 133. Sable, Russian and Hudson's Bay, 846. Potatoes, production and exports of, 79. Safes, fire-proof, history of, 395-7; burglar-proof, 897. Poughkeepsie, pin manufactory at, 39). Safety valve, use of the, 229; account of the, 233; Papin's acPoultry and eggs, 9J. count of the, 267. Poussin, Capt., 177. Sailors' Snug Harbor, the, 455. Powell, of Philadelphia, importer of short-horns, 48. St. Anthony, Minn., lumber business at, 257. Power loom, invention of the, 276; picture of, 278; Lowell's, Salmon fishery, the, 882. 281; for woollens, 802; for carpets, 806. Sanders, Col., of Kentucky, importation of cattle by, 47. Prairie whales," 163. Santee canal, 178. Preble, Commodore, 165. Savannah, railroad from, 205. Preserves, preparation of, 892. Savannah, the, first ocean steamer, 180. Prince & Co.'s melodeons, 484. Schffer, materials for paper used by, 293. Prince lRupert's drops, 4, 2. Schnebley's patent for reaping machine, 85. Printing of calico, 276; of cloth, 834; of carpets, 307, 808. Schuylkill and Susquehanna Company, 178. Print works, cotton, 288; statistics of, 290. Scissors, manufacture of, 840. Prison discipline. See Prisons. Scott, John, asbestos safe of, 397. "Prisoner's Friend," the, 440. Screw propeller used by John Fitch, 229. Prisons, State, solitary plan of, 485; silent, 486; comparison Screw propellers, on the lakes, losses of, 166; introduction of, of the two, 437; intermediate, 488; county, 438; city, 180. (See Propellers.) 439; societies for the improvement of, 439-40. Scythes, the manufacture of, 842. Products of the soil, 68. Sea island cotton, 111; its production stationary, 117. Propeller, the first ever built, picture of, 285. Seamen, American, impressed by England, 139. Propellers, lake, character of, 187; packet, between Philadel- Sewing machines, history of, 413; patents for, 414; illustraphia and New York, 190; origin of, 240; advantages and tions of, 415-18, 421-2; growth of the manufacture of, disadvantages of, 241. (See Screw propellers.) 419; combination of patentees of, 420, 421; classes, opeProtective policy, the, 144, 152. ration, and description of, 421-7; applications of, 428; Providence, cotton mill at, 280. sales and manufactories of, 429; process of manufactuProvisions and flour, exports of, 1790-1859,158. ring, 429. Prussian blue, how made, 67. Sewing silk, American, 895. Public improvements, early, 173. (See Canals, Railroads, &c.) Sharp's rifle, 832; manufactory for, 883. Pump, force, for steam engines, 255. Sheep, first exhibition of merino, 25; importations of, 59; Pumping engine of the Brooklyn Water Works, 258. statistics of, 59, 60, 63; decrease of, in New England, 59; Pumps, steam, 258; importance'of, 260. increase of, in the South and West, 60; protection of, Pyes' burglar-proof lock, 397. from dogs, 69; most valuable of domestic animals, 60. Sherwood. Benjamin, revolving safe of, 397. Quincy granite, 359. Ship-building, in the colonies, 135; table of, in 1771,162; difQuincy railroad, 192. ferent styles of, 162; increase of, 163; on the lakes, 167; at the West and East compared. 359; table of, 360. Rabbits' fur, 345. Shipping, American and foreign at New York, 1850-1865,168. Race, definition of, 41. Ship Timber Bending Company. 267. Ialfting in Maine, 94. Shoddy, 313; manufacture of, 314; uses of, 815. Rag-pickers, 292. Shoes. See Boots and shoes. Rags, table of imports of, 292; consumption of, 298; substi- Short-horns, great sales of, in England, 40; importations of tutes for, 293; grades of, 293-4; woollen, for shoddy, 47; not suited to New England, 48; improvement of, in 313-14. Kentucky, 48. Rake, hand and horse, 86. Sickle, use of the, 82. Railroad cars, manufacture of, 867. Side wheel, the, 240. Railroad companies, object of, 193. Silk, culture of, 90 tricolor, from Lyons, 154; efforts to proRailroad iron, importation of, 156; quantity used, &c., 219. mote the production of, 393-4; raw, table of imports of, Railroads, 191; the earliest, 192; benefits of, 193; principles 395. of construction of, 193; power on, 196; continuous line Silk hats, process of making, 350. of, from Bangor to New Orleans, 204, 208 (table); land Silks, imports of, 1831-1840, 148; increased importation of, grants to, 207; table of, in the United States, 209-219; 156. financial results of, 219; travel on, 221; horse, in cities, Silk-worms, management of, 393-4. 223; in the world, table of, 224; comparative cost of, 224; Silsby and Mynderse steam fire engine, 260; picture of, 261. early origin of, 244-5; speed on, 249; aggregate saving of Sing Sing marble, 359. time by travel on, 250. Singer's sewing machine, illustrations of, 417; introduction Rails, iron, 195; improvements in, 245. of, 419; description of the manufacture of,429. Eat skins for gloves, 326. Skinner, J. S., agricultural editor, 98. Reaney & Neafy's steam fire engine, 259. Skins and furs used as currency, 75. Reaper, Wheeler's, picture of, 34. Skins of animals for leather, 317-18. Reaping machines, great value of, 82; kind used by the Gauls, Skin-splitting machine, 320. 82; triumph of American, at Paris, 85. Skunk, fur of the, 845. Reed Instruments, musical, 433. Slater, Samuel, cotton machinery introduced by, 280. seed's oscillator, 255. Slatersville, cotton mill at, 280. ltevolution, effect of the, upon commerce, 187. Slave population in the United States, 172. levolver, Colt's, invention and manufacture of, 81; other Slaves, condition of, in the South, 119. patents for, 332. Slave trade, inhibition of the, 141. Ribbons, manufactories of, 395. Slide valve, the, 229. tice, production of, 114-15. Sloops, travelling by, 178. Richelieu, policy of, in regard to tobacco, 85. Small, James, cast-iron mould-boards and ploughs made by, Pidgeley, Gen., breeder of the Woburn hog, 63. 81. lifie, improvements in the, 328; Sharp's, 332; Whitney's, 338. Smith, Adam, upon high wages and interest, 103; on leather, Ring spindle, the, 286. 327. Eoads, state of, half a century ago, 52; origin and progress of, Smith, J. B., paper of, on cotton, 11&. 172; different kinds and systems of, 174; proper con- Soil, products of the, 68; fertility of the, at the West, 74; imstruction of, 175; national, 176-7; of Connecticut, sati- poverishment of the, 87. rized, 192. Sorghum syrup and sugar, 130. Roberts & Rich, safe manufacturers, 397. South, the, no competition with the North, 121; Northern Rodman, Lieut., improvement of, in gun-casting, 886. manufactures in, 122-3; results of the railroads of, 220; Roger & Co., carriage factory of, 862. cotton manufactures at, 284; supply of lumber at, 857; Rogers, Smith & Co., plated goods of, illustrated, 878-6; silk culture in, 893. manufactory of, 377. South America, cotton imported from, 11T. logers Locomotive Works, 246. South American wool, 813. INDEX 535 South Carolina, Agricultural Society of, 1784, 25; colonial Sugar cane, introduction of, 127; varieties of, 127; mode of exports of, 137. cultivating, 128; mills for, 128. South Carolina railroad, 192; account of, 204-5. Sun and planet motion, 230. South Downs, improved Kentucky, picture of, 58. Sunday school, the first in New England, 280. Souther, John, locomotive works, 246. Super-heated steam, 256. Southern staples, 15S. Surat cotton, character and price of, 118. 119. Southern States, the, fruit in, 82; labor of, concentrated upon Surgical instruments, manufacture of, 342. cotton, 110; cotton factories in, 115; character of the Swine, introduction and improvement of, 63. (See Hogs.) climate and labor of, 119. Symington, William, 229. Spear, Mr., safe-filling discovered by, 397. S, ecie, imports and exports of, 145,147,148, 153,156; exports Table cutlery, manufacture of, 840. of, 1821-1859, 158. Tambouring machine. Bock's, 414. Specie circular, the, 151. Tannin, quality and sources of, 819. Specie payments, suspension and resumption of, 151 Tanning, 316; materials for, 319; process of, 821; new proSpeculation, rise of, 147; results of, 151. cess of. 823. Spindles in cotton mills, 286, 288. Tariff, the, effect of, 122; reduction of, 147; of 1842. 152; of Spinning by hand. picture of, 279. 1816-1828, 144-5; table of imports and exports under, Spinning, cotton, 288. 145; on cotton and woollen goods, 283; on woollens, Spinning-jenny, invention of the, 108, 275. 812. Spirits, imports of, 1831-1838,148. Taunton Locomotive Company, 246. Spreading machine, for cotton, 287. Tawing, the process of, 020. Splringfihld, manufacture of guns at, 334. Tecumseh, Devon bull, portrait and history of, 46. Squirrel furs, 347. Tennessee, premium fleece at the London World's Fair, raise( Stafford's breech-loading pistol, 333. in, 60; railroads of, 209. Stages, system of, 174, 178. Terry, Eli, first maker of wooden clocks, 868. Stamp act, the, 187. Texas, grazing in, 102; sugar cane cultivated in, 127. Stationary engines, 252; improvements still needed in, 269; Thimonier, crocheting machine of, 414. universal use of, 271. (See Steam engines.) Thomas's "American Fruit Culturist," 84. Steam, progress of, on the Mississippi (table). 183; advantage Thomaston lime, 8358. of, for city travel, 250; laws of, 256-7; general results of Threshing machine, the. 86. the use of, 268; universal use of, 271; government ex- Timber, varieties of, 94-5; for ship-building, 859; for carperiments with, 272. riages, 362. Steam battery built by Fulton, 241; wagons, advantages of, Timber-bending by steam, 267, 859.'244; fire engines, 244; ploughs. 263; elevators. 264; ham- Time, modes of measuring, 868. mers, 265; cranes, 265; heating, 265; boiling, drying, Timothy grass, discovery and propagation of, 80. cooking, 266; timber-bending, 267; press, the, 269; pack- Tires, American improvement in, 861. ing, vulcanized rubber for, 411. Tobacco, cultivation of, in Virginia, 72; impoverishment of Stearn engine, the, history of, 227; the first in America, 227; the soil by, 80; use of, and opposition to, 85; production wonders of the, 230-31; patents issued on account of, and exports of, 86; proper cultivation of, 86; geographical 231; component parts of, 282; applications of, to naviga- distribution of, 87; manufacture and consumption of, 87; tion, 240. and rice, exports of, 1790-1859, 158. Steam engines, manner of obtaining the horse-power of, 228; Tomkins, breeder of Herefords, 40. low and high pressure, 229; American improvements in, Toucey, lion. Isaac, 273. 230; stationary, different kinds of, 252; improvements Tonnage, American, 140 et seq.; entered and cleared in 1771, in, 253, 269; bad management of, 254; portab'e, 255; 162; comparative table of, 1789-1858,163; of the interior, hoisting, 256; portable, for farmers, 263; objections to, 163; steam, 164; on the lakes, 166 (table), 187; lessened 269; stationary, 271; government experiments upon, by steam and railroads, 167; progress of, 1851-18`8, 167; 272. effect of the war upon, 168; steam, table of, 243. Steali engineers, 254, 268, 270. Tooke's "History of Prices," 109. Steam gauges, kinds of, 229; value of, 270. Trade, domestic, of the United States, 159. Steam tonnage, 164; ocean and inland, 165; table of increase Traders, Indian, (,perations of, 187. of, at the West, 183. Trades carried on in the colonies, 133-4. Steamboat, the first at the West, 165; racing, 183. Trading voyage, course of a, 146. Steamboats, introduction of, 179; speed of, 180; illustration Transportation, means of, 172; reduction of the cost of, 184, and notice of Fitch's, 226, 229; Fulton's, 229; Stevens's, 186, 191, 193. 230; superiority of American, 231; history of, 234;.the Travel, changes in. 181-3, 187, 221, 240; aggregate saving of first on the Hudson. 234; at the West, 239; on the lakes, time in, by railroads, 250; and transportation, improve239; explosion of, 242; act for the inspection of. 242. ments in, illustrated, 371. Steamers, ocean, lines of, 164;'losses of, 165; Western, de- Trotting, popularity of, in the United States, 58. scription of, 183; on the lakes, 187; side-wheel, 241; use Tudor, Frederick, originator of the ice trade, 387. of coal in, 241; iron-clad, 838. Tuke, William, improved treatment of lunatics by, 441. Stearine, uses of, 67. Tunnels in railroads, 195. Stearns & Marvin, safe manufacturers, 897. Turnpike companies, 176; roads, 177. Steel for cutlery, treatment of, 839-40; tempering of; 341. Steers, George, 241. United States, the, area and present and prospective populaSteinway & Sons' pianos, 483. tion of, 101; number of farms and plantations in, 102; Stephenson's locomotives, 245. value of live stock and crops in, 102; high prices in, 103, Stern wheel, the, 240. et seq.; progress in wealth and population of, 132, 144; Stern-wheel boats, 183. condition of, after the revolution, 137; naval power of, Stevens, Robert L., improvements in steamboats by, 230; 143; domestic trade of, 159; table of the growth of, 160; blower introduced by, 241. shipping of, 161; commercial prospects of, 168; table of St. Louis, the founding of, 343; the fur trade of, 344; hospi- railroads in the, 209-219; improvement of, through steam tals of, 452. navigation, 284; freedom of industry in, 339; individual Stock, progress in the raising of, 37; products of, by States industries of, 353; dwellings in, 3854. and sections, 51; in California, 68; total value of, in the United States Bank, 143, 146, 151. United States, 68; proportion of, to the hay crop, in different States, 80. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 197. Stockton gun, the, 334. Velocity of shot, experiments upon, 8837. Stone, building, 359. Vera Cruz, expedition to, under Gen. Scott, 164. St. Paul, the fur trade of, 845. Vesuvius, the, third western steamboat, 239. Strawberries, culture of, 82. Vine, culture of the, in California, 83. Street railroads, advantages of steam on, 250; steam cars Virginia, introduction of cattle into, 37; early mode of keepfor, 251. ing cattle in, 38; introduction of horses into, 53; neglect Stuart's sugar refinery, 892. of wheat in, 72; cultivation of tobacco in, 86; exhaustion Suffolk hog, improved, picture of, 61. of the soil of, by constant cropping, 87; public improveSugar, the culture of, at the South, 115-16; boiling of, 127; ments in, 190; the oyster trade of, 384. yield, profit, production, and consumption of, 129; other Virginia and Tennessee railroad, 204. than cane, 130; imports of, 1831-1840, 148; large impor- Virginia Central railroad, 204. tation of, 156; failure of the Louisiana crop of, 156; comparative consumption of, 391; refined, mode of making, Walk-in-the-Water, first steamboat on Lake Erie, 289. 291-2; superiority of Americah, 392, Wabash and Eric canal, 189. 536 INDEX Wages, high rate of, from cheap lands, 103; affected by the Wheels of steam vessels, 240; of carriages, 861; of railroad European standard, 104; how maintained, 105; by the cot- cars, 367. ton production, 106; by California gold, 107. Whiskey, American, in demand in Europe, 155. Wares, internal production of, 159. White leather, how made, 320. Warehouse system, the English, 146. White River canal, 189. Wagon-making, 367. White Water canal, 189. Watt, James, inscription on the monument of, 227; inventor Whitehead, patent speeder perfected by, 284. of the low-pressure engine, 229. Whittemore's machine for making cards, 801. Waterbury, pin manufactory at, 890. Whitney's cotton gin, 111; effect of, upon commerce, 141. Waltham, Mass., cotton mill at, 282; watch manufacture at, Whitney, Eli, rifle factory of, 833. 371. Wilder, Enos and B. G., fire-proof safe of, 397. War of 1812,143. Willy, patent, for cotton, 287. Washington, advocacy of agricultural societies by, 24; canal Willcox, J. M., paper mill of, 291-2. projected by, 71; interest of, in internal improvement, Willcox & Gibbs's sewing machine, invention of, 420; illus173. tratitns of, opposite 420-21; description of, 425 (third Washington, the steamboat, explosion of, 242. class). Washington Iron Works, portable engine manufactured at, Winans, Messrs., locomotive builders, 246. 255. Wine, production and quality of, in California, 83; census Washington, Pa., sewing silk made at, 893. returns of; 84. Watches, American, distinctive character of, 370; process of Wines, imports of, 1831-1838, 148. manufacturing, 371. Wilton carpet, 307. Watson, Elkanah, first exhibition of merino sheep by, 25. Wilson, Allen B. See Wheeler & Wilson. Wealth, progress of, in the United States, 132, 144; present Woburn hog, the, 63. and prospective, 168. Wolston system, the, of steam ploughing, 264. Weaving, cotton, 288; woollen, 802; carpet, 306. Wood used in house-building, 91; for fuel, 97. West, the, agricultural development of, 74, 75; interior navi- Wood on Railroads, extract from, 198. gation of, 165; ship-building at, 359. Woodward's steam pump, 260, 263. West India colonies shut to American vessels, 163. Wool, exportation of, prohibited by England, 281; American West Indies, the, cotton imported from, 117; trade of the manufacture of, 181, —1850, 800; spinning of, 802; for carAmerican colonies with, 134, 137; cotton first obtained pets, source and preparation of, 807; home-grown, 312-18; from, 275. South American, 818; inadequate supply of, 813. Western railroad of Massachusetts, 193; history and connec- Wool and woollens, statistics of, 60, 63. tions of, 196. Wool-growing in the United States, 59; most profitable at the Whale, white, leather from the, 819. South and West, 60; statistics of, 60. Whale fishery, the, rise of, 135; illustration of, 879; history Woollen manufactures, development of, 300; processes of, of, 885-6; mode of conducting, 386; statistics of, 886. 301; various kinds of, 801-8; census statistics of, 811. Wheat, early cultivation of, 72; subject to great casualties, Women's Prison Association of New York, 440. 73; early exports of, 73; at the West, 74; trade of Chi- Worcester railroad, 196. cago in, 76; total production of, by sections, 77; total Worsted, the manufacture of, 801; zephyr, 808. exports of, 77; in California, 77; exported from the South, Worthington's steam pump, 260, 263. 115; imported from Russia, 148; value of the crop of Wright, L. W., solid-head pin machine of, 890. 1850, 156; exports of, to Great Britain, 1840-1858, 158; Wyatt's patent for spinning cotton, 108. received across the lakes (table), 187. Wheeler's patent reaper, picture of, 84. Yale, Linus, Sr. and Jr., burglar-proof locks of, 898. Wheeler & Wilson's sewing machine, illustrations of, 415-16; Yarn, cotton, prices of, 110; grades of, 288; decline in cost of, invention of, 419; description of, 422-3; manufactory of, 290. 429. Young, Arthur, labors of, 99. Wheeling, glass works at, 400. Young Denton, short-horn bull, 48. INDEX TO COMMENDATIONS. No. 1. President Hobart College, Geneva. No. 29. Secretary Board of Trade, Boston. No. 2. President Indiana State University. No. 30. New Englander. No. 3. President J. Cummings, Wesleyan University. No. 31. Philadelphia Inquirer. No. 4; President Girard College. No. 32. Boston Transcript. No. 5. President Genesee College. No. 33. New York Herald. No. 6. President Cambridge University. No. 84. Boston Post. No. 7. President of Marietta College. No. 35. Principal American Asylum. No. 8. President University of Rochester. No. 86. John D. Philbrick, Sup't Massachusetts Schools. No. 9. President of Brown University. No. 37. Boston Journal. No. 10. President University of Wisconsin. No.. Philadelphia Evening Journal. No. 11. President Columbia College, New York. No. 39. The Homestead. No. 12. President of Tufts College. No. 40. Philadelphia Daily Evening Bulletin. No. 13. President of Dartmouth College. No. 41. Secretary Board of Education, Boston, Mass. No. 14. Chancellor Tappan, Michigan University. No. 42. S. S. Randall, Superintendent New York. No. 15. President Vermont University. No. 43. New England Farmer. No. 16. President of Williams' College. No. 44. Frank Leslie. No. 17. President Trinity College. No. 45. R. G. Dana, Mercantile Agency, New York. No. 18. President Woolsey, Yale College. No. 46. Evening Post, New York. No. 19. John McLean, Princeton College. No. 47. Benson J. Lossing. No. 20. Professor Johnson, Yale College. No. 48. New York Journal of Commerce. No. 21. Professor H. Smith, Lane Theological Seminary. No. 49. W. H. Wells, Chicago. No. 22. Professor W. C. Fowler, Amherst College. No. 50. Harvey P. Peet, Superintendent, New York. No. 23. Professor B. Silliman, Yale College. No. 51. Boston Cultivator. No. 24. New York Times. No. 2. American Journal of Science and Art. No. 25. New York Examiner. No. 53. Springfield Republican. No. 26. New York Observer. No. 54. Isaac Ferris, Chancellor University New York. No. 27. Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. No. 55. J. M. Matthews, Chancellor University, New York. No. 28. Secretary Board of Trade, Philadelphia, No. 56. Professor E. W. Horsford, Cambridge University. EXTRACTS FROM COMMENDATIONS. The following Testimonials must convince contains a great amount and.variety of information, the most s l p n of te m s of printed in an attractive style, on subjects of the the most sceptical person of the merits of highest importance. It is eminently a practical work, this work. We do not remember of ever and brings within the reach of all, stores of knowledoge heretofore inaccessible to most readers. The seeing a list of names attached to any pub- edge heretofore inaccessible to most readers. The novelty of the title, the great truths illustrated and lIcation in this country whose opinions are established, give it increased attractiveness and entitled to more confidence. They were usefulness. The patriot and the philanthropist will be encouraged by its perusal and stimulated to not given hastily, without examination, as greater exertions to secure further progress in all it required about one year to obtain them. ggood things in our country and throughout the PUBLISHERS. The enterprising publisher has not spared expense in the manufacture of the work. The printing and the abundant illustrations are in the highest style No. 1. of rt. One of the best illustrations of " Eighty Years' Progress," would be found in the comparison From A. JACKSON, D. D., President Hobart College, Geneva. of the mechanical execution of this work with that I have examined, as far as time would allow, your of any work issued eighty years ago. new work, entitled " 100 Years of Progress." JOSEPH CUMMINGS, I think it a very convenient book of reference, anl President of Wesleyan University. a valuable addition to our statistical knowledge. 1 have already found it a very useful work to consult, and I gladly add it to our College Library, where it well deserves a place. No. 4. From President of Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa. No. 2. r.Pres t of te I a Dear Sir,-I have been interested and instructed From C.NTT,DD, rsient o te n in State Un- by the perusal of your nationalwork, entitled" 100 I have examined your recently published work Years' Progress" for a copy of which I am indebted Y have examined your recently published work entitled " lo00 Years' Progress;" and from the to your courtesy. examination I have been able to give it, I believe An illustrated history of the various branches of ithat it merits richly the highest commendation. industry and art in the United States, prepared with that it merits richly the highest commendation. the ability and truthfulness which characterizes this The great variety and importance of the subjects, the ability and truthfulness which characterizes this the felicitous style in which they are clothed, and work, will be highly acceptable to all classes of their numerous and beautiful illustrations, render readers. In its artistic and mechanical execution, this work peculiarly attractive. They embrace nothing has been left to be desired. I am not acsubjects of great and universal utility, and deeply quainted with any work in which so much reliable interesting to all classes of community. Every information on so great variety of subjects may be profession and calling in life is here exhibited, with found in so all a compass. It s emphatically a the latest improvements in every department of book for the people. industry and art. The advancement made during Yours respectfully, eighty years, in the American republic, is unparal- WILLIAM H. ALLEN. leled in the history of the world; and will remain a proof to all coming generations, of the blessings of free institutions, and the capability of man, under a system of self-government, for an almost indefinite progress in civilization. This work should No. 5. be in every library, public and private, and in the From the President of Genesee College. hands of every citizen. LIMA,.November 6, With as much care as my time would allow, I have examined the work of Mr. Stebbins, entitled No. 3. " 100 Years' Progress." It contains a large From the President of the Wesleyan University, Middletown, amount of valuable information, in just the form to Conn. be circulated widely among the people. It is in fact I have examined, with much pleasure and profit, a brief and interesting history of our progress as a the work entitled" 100 Years' Progress." It nation, in both science and the arts. I am willing 538 COMMENDATIONS. that my name and influence should aid in its It may be taken up at any time to employ a few circulation. leisure moments, and it serves as an encyclopaedia J. MORRISON REED. for reference. Please accept my thanks for the volume, and I fully concur in the above. my best wishes for. its wide-spread distribution. JAMES L. ALVISON, Yours truly, J. W. ANDREWS. Professor in Genesee College. L. STEBBINS, Esq., Worcester, Mass. No. 8. No. 6. From the President of the University of Rochester, N. Y. From the President of Cambridge University. I have looked over, somewhat hastily, the work entitled" 100 Years'Progress." The plan seems CAMBRIDGE, Oct. 1, to me excellent, the idea of presenting in a short Dear Sir,-I have examined the work called compilation the present state and rate of progress " 100 Years' Progress," with such attention as I of the various industrial arts is one which can not could give it. I am not competent to verify the fail to be thought worthy. In general, the work statements of many parts, but the names of the seems to be successfully and correctly done. In gentlemen who contributed some of the most im- such a work it is impossible to avoid errors, and portant portions seems to be a sufficient guaranty the prejudices and interests of the different comof their accuracy. I have no doubt the volumes pilers may be occasionally seen. Notwithstanding Contain much valuable information on the practical this, the work seems to me well worthy the patron, arts and industrial interests of the country. age of the public. C. C. FELTON. M. B. ANDERSON, Pres. University of Rochester, No. 7. No. 9. From the President of Marietta College, Ohio. From the President of Brown University, Providence, R. I. Dear Sir,-The work on the " 100 Years' Pro- I have examined those parts of the " 100 Years' gress of the United States" was received by mail a few Progress of the United States" on which my studies days since. I have given what attention I could to and observation have enabled me to form an intelliit, and write you now, as I am expecting to be ab- gent judgment, and find, compressed within a smll sent from home for some days. compass, a vast amount of valuable information, The examination of this work has given me much well selected and well arranged. It furnishes ampleasure. The idea of furnishing this most valuable ple means of comparison on the subjects of which knowledge in a comparatively small compass, was it treats, and will, I think, prove to be a valuable a most happy one. As a people we want informa- book of reference. tion-reliable information. We need to know our Very respectfully, your ob't serv't own history, in art and science, as well as in govern- B. SEARS ment. The people of one section should know how those of others live-the progress of one should be made known to all. The idea of the work you have undertaken seems No. 10. to have been well carried out, as well as happily From President READ, University of Wisconsin. conceived. On a great variety of topics, in which I have examined, with a pleasure I can hardly all the peopleare interested, you have furnished a express in too strong terms, your " 100 Years' large amount of valuable information. All, except Progress of the United States." During the few those of the lowest grade of intelligence, will avail days the work has been on my table it has saved themselves of the opportunity to secure this vol- me, in the examination of facts labor worth many ume, and, unlike many books, the more it is exam- me, i the io o. facts, labschool library times the cost. of the volume. For the school library ined the more valuable will it seem. I anticipate the business man, the scholar, or the intelligent for it a wide circulation. family, it will be found a cyclopedia presenting, in I feel great interest i the character of the books a most interesting form, the progress of the various distributed through the country We teach our arts of civilized life during the period of our nationyoung people, at great cost, to read. Many, having al existence. I most heartily recommend the work. acquired the art, have no disposition to use it; and y t others read nothing that has any value. Good Very truly your books, books-not newspapers, they will take care of themselves-should be in every house. Hence, I favor school libraries, as an easy and cheap method 1 of putting good books into the hands of the young. For a like reason I rejoice in the purchase, by fami- From the President of Columbia College, N. Y. lies, of all good works. Sir,-I thank you for the copy of " 100 This work on the Progress of the United States, Years' Progress of the United States," published will serve a most excellent purpose in two ways. by you. COMMENDATIONS. 539 It seems to me of great value as containing in- cently published by you, entitled " loo Years' formation of interest, more or less, to all, and not Progress," for which please accept my hearty easily accessible, except to varied labor and re- thanks. search. It was not to be expected that this work could be The idea, too, of illustrating national progress, made to contain an adequate view of the progress not by war, nor annexation, nor diplomatic legerde- of our country during eighty years. But you have main, but by the advance in the institutions of presented the public with this large work, filled learning, in useful inventions, in the growth of with interesting and valuable matter on this submanufactures, agriculture, and commerce, in all the ject, as much, perhaps, as could be compressed into arts of peace, in morals and civilization, in the it. I. hope this work will find a wide circulation, inner life, so to speak, of the people themselves, and thus become a public benefit in a literal sense. seems to me both original and founded in the true I am very respectfully yours, etc., notion of progress. HENRY P. TAPPAN. I trust you will derive abundant reward for your praiseworthy adventure. Your obedient servant, CH. KING, Pres. of Columbia College. No. 15. Mr. STEBBINS. From the President of the Vermont University, Burlington. I have only had time to dip into your " 100 Years' Progress" here and there. But I have been,No.r 1 2n pleased and instructed, and am sure the book must *O~. 12. be very valuable. My children are very much inFrom the President of Tufts College. terested in it. Yours very truly, January 27 CALVIN PEASE. MR. STEBBINS: Dear Sir, — I was led to expect much from the title of your work, called " 100 Years' Progress," and resolved to give it a careful examination. I have been richly repaid for the No. 16. time thus spent, in the great pleasure and profit I F t P o have derived from its perusal. Heartily thankingrom the resdent of llamsolle you for this generous contribution to generous Dear Sir,-I have no hesitation in saying that knowledge, I trust you may reap a rich reward for the work proposed to be done in the " 100 your efforts. JOHN P. MARSHALL. Years' Progress" has been well done. For those who wish a book of the kind, yours cannot fail to be the book. Respectfully yours, MARK HOPKINS. Mr. L. STEBBINS. No. 13. From the President of Dartmouth College. January 20, L. STEBBINS, ESQ.: Dear Sir,-I received some No. IT. days ago your very handsome work, " 100 From President of Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. Years' Progress of the United States," but have D found leisure only within a day or two to examine Dear Sir, have to thank you for a copy of your its contents. Those persons who have been long- work on the Progress of the United States. It its contents. The perss wt the atreats of some matters with which I am familiar, est on the stage can best appreciate the amazing tand of some with which I am not familiar; but I think contrasts in the state of the country which you I can honestly s ay, w ith regard to both, tha t they are describe, but one who, like myself, can recognize I can honesty say, with regard to both, thatthey are describe,, but one who,7 like' myself; can recognize so presented as to be at once interesting and instructthe history of half the period, can testify to the e p as to bte t e intel reandinstruct faithfulness and fullness of your exhibition of the ive tothe gneral reader. growth and power of this great country. Your obedient servant Accept my sincere thanks for the work, and the SAMUEL ELIOT. opinion that on the subjects treated it will be HARTFORD, October 4, found an invaluable authority by all who study its pages. I trust it may have an extensive distribution. Very respectfully yours, O. P. HUBBARD. No. 18. From Pres. WOOLSEY, Yale College, New Haven, Conn. No. 14. YALE COLLEGE, NOV. 15,'From Chancellor TAPPAN, State University of Michigan M. M L. STEBBINS: Dear Sir,-Your book is a good and useful one, but it is not my practice to" January 25, recommend books. MR. STEBBINS: Sir,-I have the honor to ac- Your obedient servant, lnowledge the receipt of a copy of the work re- T. D. WOOLSEY. 540 COMMENDATIONS. No. 19. and with that fullness of detail which make the work COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY, ) just what it ought to be as a guide to the people. PRINCETON, JRan. 2, t Every young man who wishes to elevate his mind RINETON, Jan. P, by self-culture, ought to read this work carefully. Dear Sir,-Your 100 Years' Progress of Yours respectfully, the United States." I regard as a valuable publica- WILLIA C. FOWLER. tion, richly meriting the attention of the general reader, as well as the more careful examination of the student interested in observing the advancement of our country in the useful arts and learning. Very respectfully yours, 3 JOHN MCLEAN. L. STEBBINS, Esq. From Prof. B. SILLIMAN, Yale College, New Haven, Ct. I have carefully looked through your rich and faithful work, observing the copious tables of contents, glancing at every page of the work, and at all No. 20. the numerous illustrations, with occasional reading From Prof. JOHNSON, Yale College, New Haven, Conn. of paragraphs. A more thorough examination it L. STEBBINS, ESQ.: Dear Sir,-I have examined has not been hitherto in my power to make; but 100 Years' Progress," with interest, especill even this general survey has left on my mind the the excellent chapter on agriculture, In eopinioly decided conviction that you have performed an imthe excellent chapteronagricultureInmy opinion, portant service to your country in thus mapping the work is one of much value, and deserves a portan service to your country in thus mapping wide circulation. Yours, etc., out and condensing and explaining the wonderful S. w. JOHNSON, progress made in this country, during four-fifths of Pf o* A a aa century, in all the mostimportant arts of life. My Prof. of Analytical and Agricultural own recollections-my years having been coeval Chemistry in the Sheffield Scientific with the entire period covered by your work-susSchool of Yale College. tain your statements regarding the extreme simplicity of our early domestic arts-cheap in mechanical aids but prodigal of time. Now productive industry, aided by successful inventions, fills all our regions No. 21. where free labor has full scope for action, with innumerable results which are fully equal to our wants, From Rev. Dr. SMITH, Lane Theological Seminary, Ohio. even in the present crisis, leaving also a large redunMR. L. STEBBINS: MHy Dear Sir,-I have run my dancy of articles for export, especially in the departeyes with great interest over your beautiful work, ment of agriculture, and in not a few important me-'l 100 Years' Progress." It contains, in a condensed chanical arts. yet attractive form, a mass of information touching Your worlk of closely printed pages of double colthe progress and present condition of our country. umns, with a fair paper and a clear and distinct type, It is, moreover, information of which every man, with its numerous engravings, defended also by a at some time, feels the need; and it would be a strong and neat binding, presents a valuable book grand contribution both to the intelligence and of reference; a manual to be consulted by the agripatriotism of our whole population, if you could culturist and artist, as well as by the man of science succeed in placing a copy of it in every family of and the historian of progress. Wishing to yourself the land. I shall place your book on my table for and your worthy coadjutors full success, constant reference. I remain, dear sir, yours very respectfully Wishing you all success in your enterprise, B. SILLIMAN. I am very truly yours, NEW HAVEN, October 8, HENRY SMITH, Prof. Ch., Hist. and Sac. Rhetoric. No. 24. From the New York Times. No. 22. "00 Years' Progress of the United States."-If From Professor FOWLER, of Amherst College, Editor of the at all inclined to doubt that a great deal of useful inUniversity Edition of Webster's Dictionary, Series of Clas- formation may be bound up in a comparatively small sical Books, etc. compass by a judicious compiler, in the very handThe work which you placed in my hands, entitled some work before us, we should find sufficient logic " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," I to make us devout believers. The writers have have taken time to examine, in order that I might ranged through the wild fields of agriculture, comlearn its intrinsic value. I find that the subjects merce, and trade; very little that develops the maselected are such, and the manner of treatment such, terial prosperity of a country, and marks its growth, as to supply a felt want in the public mind, which, has escaped their industrious research. Undoubtin its own progress, was demanding higher and edly, minute criticism might detect slight errors, but better help than it enjoyed before the publication in a work of so comprehensive a character, strict of your work. This might be inferred from the accuracy would seem almost unattainable. The bare mention of the subjects and the authors. These statistics given are full and clearly arranged; the subjects are treated by these writers with that cor- grouping of the subjects, and the evident method rectness of the statement of the general principles; which the authors have observed in the accomplish COMMENDATIONS. 541 ment of their not inconsiderable task, are worthy contain a vast amount of scientific, historical, and of all praise. The work is one which we particu- statistical matter, and which constitute a valuable larly need, as it is a lamentable fact that few people encyclopedia, as well as history of the progress of are so deficient in general knowledge of facts rela- the country, during the last eighty years. Many tive to growth and development of their native of the most extended articles are by eminent sciencountry, as ours. The Englishman generally has tific and practical men, who have devoted themselves an arsenal of statistics at his fingers' ends; he can largely to the subjects on which they have written. tell you when the first shaft was sunk in the first The subjects are not treated briefly, but in detail, mine; when the first loom was erected in Manches- rendering the work valuable as a book of reference ter. The panoply of facts in which' he is arrayed as well as for general reading. Such a review as makes him rather a ponderous and far from spright- we have in this work may well excite wonder, ly companion, at times; but then he always proves gratitude, and hope. The history of no other counformidable as an adversary. Germans, too, have try can furnish a parallel. nearly every thing by rote that relates to their own country. Frenchmen are quick to learn, but they have not very retentive memories generally, and are very apt to forget all, and more, than they once No. 27. knew. It may be urged in extenuation of our na- From Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, edited by I. SMITH Hotional delinquency, as regards a knowledge of our MANS, Secretary of the Chamber of Commerce of the State own country, that our country grows too fast for of New York. our memories to keep pace with it, and that a Yan- " 100 Years' Progress of the United States."-The kee can arrive by guessing at what others, less fa- first eighty years of the national existence were vored in this respect, can only reach by delving in illustrated by no brilliant military exploits, such as authorities; but, on the whole, it is better to trust to for the most part make up the history of most counactual knowledge of facts, and under any circum- tries of the Old World, but the American people did stances such books as these are good things to have not the less on that account assume a marked in the library. character, and a first rank among the nations of the earth. Their success in ship-building and commerce at once placed them on a level with the greatest maritime nations. The inventive genius and untirNo. 25. ing industry of the people soon revolutionized the From the New York Examiner, manufacturing industry of the world, by the ready application of new mechanical powers to industrial "'100 Years' Progress of the United States," by arts; and if the extent and cheapness of land for a eminent literary men, who have made the subjects time supplied the scarcity of labor in agricultural Df which they have written their special study. departments, it did not prevent the multiplication The citizen who desires to comprehend fully how of inventions, which have not only added immensely the country in which we live has, under the foster- to home production, but have greatly aided that of ing influences of a good government, the enterprise European countries. The development of these inof an energetic people, and above all, the blessing dustries forms the true history of American greatof God, grown from a handful of people to one of ness, and the work of Mr. Stebbins has given a the leading powers in the world, should purchase world of information upon each branch of the suband read carefully this work. It is no catchpenny ject, in a most authentic and attractive form. The affair. The men who have prepared the narratives chapters on ship-building, commerce, and internal of progress in the various departments of agricul- transportation, present to the reader a mass of valture and horticulture, commerce, manufactures, uable4nformation as astonishing for the magnitude banking, education, science, art, and the matters of the results produced as interesting in the narrawhich go to make "home" so emphatically an tive. We know of no other work which, in the American word, are not novices, penny-a-liners, who compass of two handsome volumes, contains such write on any or all subjects, with or without an un- varied and comprehensive instruction of a perfectly derstanding of them, for the sake of their daily bread reliable character. They form almost a complete -but men of high reputation, who have made the library in themselves. subjects they discuss the topics of a life's study. Every subject which will admit of it is finely illustrated, and tables of statistics, carefully prepared from the latest sources, show the present condition of each department, and demonstrate, as only figures From the Secretary of Board of Trade, Philadelphia. can, how great the advance which has been made L. STEBBINS, ESQ.: Dear Sir,-I examined with in each. As a work of reference, not less than as a interest the volumes published by you, entitled deeply interesting book for family reading, it will " 100 Years' Progress," and found them particbe a treasure to any household that may obtain it. ularly valuable. The design struck me very favorably, and the execution of the several parts could not have been intrusted to more competent hands. The last eighty years of the history of the United No. 26. States has been one of unexampled progress, and it From the New ork Obis now more than ever important to bring in review before the people of every section the leading facts " 100 Years' Progress of the United States."-the of this marvellous progress. above rather formidable title-page is quite a full ex- Very respectfully yours, position of the contents of this large work, which LORIN BLODGET. 542 COMMENDATIONS. No. 29. very large, but we feel confident that a discrimi From the Secretary of the Board of Trade, Boston. nating public- have not been overestimated. There are among the peculiar characteristics of My Dear Sir, —My many cares just now have our people, wide-spread opinions prevailing, that prevented me from a comparison of the statistical books sold by subscription are of a necessity more matter contained in the " 100 Years' Perogess," expensive than when purchased in a general way with official tables in my possession, as well at the counter of a publishing house. This is evias an examination of some other things, concerning dently an error that could easily be subverted by which authorities differ, but I have found time to a little demonstration, and the publishers' remarks acquaint myself with? the general topics and objects in the preface are to the point, and effective. We of the work, and do not hesitate to declare that I know of hardly any book or books which are withhave not read more interesting pages for years. In- in the reach of every-day life, that we would sooner deed, the best informed among us, cannot, as it advise a friend to purchase. Its value will be unseems to me, fail to find much that is new, while to impaired for a lifetime. the young and to those who lack the means of research, so authentic and well-digested account of our country's "Progress," will be of immense service. We all boast of our wonderful march in cornmerce, in manufactures, in mechanics, and in the No. 32. arts; and here we have it, step by step, in "facts From the Boston Transcript. and figures," and in brief and pithy narrative. " 100 ars' Progress of the Unite s. With all my heart, I hope that the sale will be This work is the result of much carefl reserch, extensive, and that you may be well rewarded for exercised by many minds on a variety of important your outlay of time and capital. subjects. They show the industrial and educational Very truly, your friend,. steps by which the people of the United States have risen from their colonial condition to their L. STEBBINS, Esq., Hartford, Cona. present position among the nations of the world. They give, in a historical form, the progress of the country in agriculture, commerce, trade, banking,,~No. 30^~ omanufactures. machinery, modes of travel and transportation, and the work is intended to be sold by From the New Englander, New Haven, Conn. subscription, and will doubtless have a large circu" 100 Years' Progress of the United States."-In lation. It ought to be in every house in the land. this very large oct3avo work there is presented in a It is more important than ordinary histories of the compact and easily accessible form an amount of country, as it exhibits all the triumphs of the pracvaluable information with regard to the progress ticalmind and energy of the nation, in every dewhich the people of the United States have made partment of science, art, and benevolence It is a in all the various channels of industry since the storehouse of important and stimulating facts, and days when they were British colonists, which is not its interest can hardly be exhausted by the most to be found in any other single work with which persistent reader. we are acquainted. Each one of these subjects is amply illustrated with engravings. The different chapters have been prepared by well-known literary men who have each made the subjects about No. 33. which they have written the study of years. We have examined the work repeatedly and witI much From the N. Y. Herald. care during the past three months, and each time " 100 ears' Progress of the United States," by have been impressed anew with its value. There eminent literary men.-The object of this work, is not an intelligent family in the nation who would as set forth in its preface, is to show the various not be interested and instructed by it, and find it a channels of industry through which the people of most convenient book of reference with regard to the United States have arisen from a British colony every thing pertaining to the industrial interests of to their present national importance. This is done the country. by treating separately the improvements effected in agriculture, commerce, trade, manufactures, ma-____c___ lchinery, modes of travel, transportation, etc. The preparation of these different articles has been intrusted to writers whose pursuits qualified them No. 31. to handle them exhaustively, and the result is the From the Philadelphia Inquirer. assemblage of a vast amount of statistical and Yars' Proress o th Ut tats.- other information which is not to be found in the' 100 ears' Progress of the ited States. o same collective and condensed form in any other any one desiring at a glance a comprehensive view work extant. of the various channels of educational industry in commerce, manufactures, agriculture, statistics, etc., they are invaluable. They are profusely illustrated with elegant engravings in the highest style No 34 of artistic merit. The volumes redound with statistical and miscellaneous information of a standard From the Boston Post. character and permanent value. The expense of " 100 Years' Progress of the United States, publishing a work of this character must have been showing the various channels of industry through COMMENDATIONS. 543 which the people of the United States have arisen No. 38. from a British colony to their present National From the Philadelphia Evening Journal. Importance," is the title of a new and exceedinglyears Progress of the United States by dJ " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," by valuable work. The work gives in a historical form eminent literary men.-The work treats of the vathe vast improvements made in agriculture, com- rious channels of industry through which the people merce, trade, manufacturing, etc., together with a of the United States have arisen from a British large amount of statistical and other information, colony to their present national importance. It It is illustrated with numerous engravings and al- ats of the vast improvements made in agriculture, together forms a most valuable and instructive com- commerce, trade, ma crin machinery, modes C...commerce, trade, manufacturing machinery, modes panion to the writer, the business man, or the of travel and transportation, etc., etc. of travel and transportation, etc., etc. student. No. 39. From the Ho,mestead, Agricultural Journal, Hartford, Ct. No. 35.1 " 100 Years' Progressof the United States."- The From WM. W. TUP.NEP., Principal of the American Asylum title conveys but a faint idea of the great amount for Deaf and Dumb, Hartford, Conn. of information contained in these volumes, and no I have examined your new national work entitled cursory glance can more than convince the reader 100 Years' Progress of the United States," that they possess great value as an encyclopaedia and find that the information it contains on the wide of arts and progress in civilization. The names range of subjects treated of must make it exceeding- of the authors of the more important articles, sevly valuable as a standard book of reference. The eral of whom are known to us personally and highnames of the writers of the different articles afford ly respected, are a guaranty that their work is well a sufficient guaranty that the facts and statements done, and statements reliable. Our limited space may be relied on as correct. I consider the work a forbids an extended notice, but before noticing esvery important accession to this department of pecially the agricultural departments, we must add, literature, and have no doubt that it will find its way that to every one who takes it up it is one of the into the library of every private gentleman- and most fascinating of books, a most remarkable qualevery public institution. ity in a book so statistical in its character. Very truly yours, The article of progress in Agriculture is by Chas. WM. W. TURNER. L. Flint, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, and is a most able and interesting collection of facts in regard to the remarkable progress of this country since the Revolution. No. 36. From JOHN D. PHILBRICB, Superintendent Common Schools, Massachusetts. No. 40. I have examined the " 100 Years' Progress" with From the Philadelphia Daily Evening Bulletin. great satisfaction. I consider it a work of great IR. L. STEBBINS,-After carefully examining your value, and it is one which I should be very unwill- valuable publication, " 100 Years' Progress of ing to spare from my library. It is not only such the United States," and having on various occasions, a book as the literary or professional man would in our professional business, tested its accuracy as like to possess, but it is a book for every household, a work of reference, we are able to bear testimony to and for every school library. its character. No work that we have ever seen gives Very truly yours, such spirited, comprehensive, and correct views of JOHN D. PHILBRICK. the progress of our country in political strength, in commerce, agriculture, manufactures, and all branches of industry and art. The work has been prepared with extreme care; the various subjects are treated with intelligence, and the style of composiNo. 37. tion proves that the writers are men of education, who have thoroughly informed themselves on the From the Boston Journal. subjects they discuss. The illustrations and the " 100 Years' Progress of the United States."-In typography add much to the attractions of a work this elaborate and valuable work the progress of the that should be in the hands of all who take an inUnited States is illustrated by historical sketches terest in the growth of our country, and feel a of the rise and development of agriculture, commerce, patriotic pride in its prosperity. trade, manufactures, modes of travel and transporta- We are very respectfully, your ob't serv'ts, tion. The authors will be recognized as fully com- PEACOCK, CHAMBERS & Co. petent to treat upon the above subjects, and their sketches have great interest and value, as well for the facts which they present, as in illustrating the rapid progress of the United States in all that conduces No. 41. to material wealth and national prosperity. The From the Secretary of Board of Education. work abounds in valuable statistical information, BOSToN, MASS., Sept. 6, and is interesting for perusal, and useful for refer- Dear Sir,-I beg leave to thank you for your noence. ble work entitled " 100 Years' Progress." 544 COMMENDATIONS. After such an examination as I have been able to No. 45. give, I do not hesitate to pronounce it a work of From.. DANA,Mercantile Agency, New York. unusual interest and value. As al depository of facts illustrative of the pro- From a cursory glance at its contents I feel warAs a depository of facts illustrative of the progress of our country in the departments of' industry, ranted in saying it possesses information of much vit is invaluable. value and usefulness to all classes. Its wide circulation, at this eventful period, can- Very respectfully, R. G. DANA. not fail to arouse and deepen that patriotic love of our institutions which is the pressing demand of the hour. Respectfully yours, No 46. J. WHITE, L. STEBBINS, Esq. From the Evening Post, New York. 100 Years' Progressof the United States."-The range of subjects treated in this work is very full; No. 42. the writers upon them are well selected with regard to specialties, and their manner of handling is alFrom S. S. RANDALL, City Superintendent Public Schools, ways interesting, frequently thorough. The sysNew York. tem pursued is not encyclopedic, but historical, MR. L. STEBBINS: Dear Sir,-The great pressure and, so far as possible, exhaustive. The growth of of official engagements has hitherto prevented my our agricultural prosperity, with particular regard acknowledgment of the receipt of the very beauti- to improvements made in breeds and machinery, ful and interesting work published by you-" 100 and the dissemination of scientific knowledge among Years' Progress of the United States." I have not farmers, is well recited, and this department forms had time to peruse them thoroughly, but take great one of the most attractive features of the book. pleasure in stating that, so far as I have looked into them, the plan and general execution of the work seem to me to be admirable, and well adapted to the wants, as well of the rising generation, as of No. 47. our fellow-citizens generally. I cheerfully recom-, te mend it to the favorable regard of school officers, rom J he strin parents, teachers, and others, as a very valuable Sir-I have examined, with great satisfaction compend of scientific and historical knowledge, and your work entitled " 100 Years' Progress of the as a work well worthy of a place in every school United States." It is a work of inestimable value to or private library. those who desire to know, in minute detail, something more of the history of the country than the events of its political and industrial life as exhibited in the politician's manual, and the bold stateNo. 43. ments of the census; especially at this time, when From the New England Farmer, Boston. the civilized world is eagerly asking what we are From the New England Farmer, Boston. and what we have been, that the old governments 100 Years' Progress of the United States."- may attempt to solve the more important question, This volume contains an immense amount of valuable to them, what we will be. Your work, in fact and and interesting information concerning the rise and logical prophecy, furnishes an answer of which any development of agriculture, commerce, trade, man- people may be justly proud. Surely, no nation of ufactures, travel and transportation, the arts, and the earth has ever experienced such bounding other prominent interests of this country. This progress as this; and in the last eighty years, as information is contained in a series of essays by exhibited in your work, we see ample prophecies gentlemen, either and all of whom will be recog- of the future, of strength, influence, leadership nized as competent to illustrate the subject upon among the nations, such as the eye of faith employwhich he writes. ed by the fathers, dimly saw. No American can peruse your pages without feeling grateful for the privilege of being an American citizen. No. 44. I will use a very trite phrase and say, with all From Frank I Leslie. sincerity, I wish your work could go "into every family in our land," to increase their knowledge After copying the entire title-page, the notice pro- and to strengthen their.patriotism. ceeds thus: Yours respectfully, Such is the comprehensive title of an elegantly BENSON J. LOSSING. printed work which covers a very wide range of subjects of special American interest. The work is, in fact, an industrial and statistical history of the country since its independence, encyclopsedic N 48. in character and arrangement, but yet suffi- From the New ork Journal of Commerce. ciently complete for every practical purpose. It " 100 Years' Progress of the United States."may be regarded as an epitome of the publication The plan is extensive, and appears to be judiciously of the Census and the Patent Office, and of the carried out. The work is divided into departments, proceedings of our Industrial Societies, compact in to each of which has been devoted his laborious form, convenient for' reference, and deserving a attention, producing a readable, and at the same place in the hands of every reading and reflecting time valuable and instructive, summary of the adman in the country. vances made. This plan necessarily comprises a COMMENDATIONS. 545 very complete history of the arts and sciences for which we speak, are the years of a nation, or the the past century. In many of them it covers the progress of many millions of individuals, and hence whole period from the earliest time at which they how widely shall we have to open our eyes, if it be were known to man, for the century has been pro- faithfully written, and we would take it all in so as ductive of new arts, and has furnished mankind to recognize the details of advancement made by a with not a few totally new inventions. To digest mighty people. The people, whose brilliant destiny the contents of the book so as to give a reader even is indicated in the above title, are those of the Unia hint of its comprehensiveness would be impos- ted States, and though we are among and of them, sible. unless by long and constant and vigorous pursuit The book is well fitted for the family reading, of the special end, we, ourselves, can have no adeand valuable as a source of interest and instruction quate idea of the real extent of our progress, unless to the young, while in the business office and it be summed up from the material, as well as the counting-room of every merchant, banker, and pro- political history of the period about which we infessional man it would answer a thousand daily quire, in some work or works combining the knowlquestions. edge of many whose observation and reading are large in opportunities and in improvement. We, as a people, are noted in Christendom as havNTo. 49 ing an undue proportion of self-esteem, and.an immodest desire to express it as often as we may find Office of Superintendent of Public Schools, Chicago. an audience. The Americans, we confes, are, in " 100 Years' Progress."-The work which you much, superficial, and their real and unparalleled have prepared with so much care and labor, pre- rapidity of progress is too much and too frequently senting the progress of our country during the last taken for granted as the basis of adulatory discourse; eighty years, is peculiarly adapted to, gratify and and because of this, the old European, familiar from instruct all classes of citizens. No work could be his youth with the fixed sources of his power, and offered to the public at the present time more wor- with ease and grace weighing or rejecting questions thy of a place in family libraries, and school libra- he knows from the outset are or are not determinries, than the one which you now present. able, naturally looks with discredit upon the live Yours truly, Yankee who " guesses" everything, and when urged W. H. WELLS, to state the real ground of his boasting, only covers Sup. of Public Schools. his superficial knowledge of his own country and history by his agility in bombast and fleeing the point in new gratulation and a keen thrust which forces an adverse judgment. And the ignorance No. 50. which leads Americans to a substitution of their From the Superintendent of the Institution of the Deaf and wit, also.leads those of other nations to suspect the Dumb, New York. foundation of their boasted power and national reIt is only recently that I could find time, from sources and importance. the pressure of official duties, to examine the splen- There is but one way to cure this, and that is did national work, " 100 Years' Progress." By eminently practical and desirable. It is for the the way, I observe that, as'you give much infor- people of our country to study their own history mation concerning early colonial times, you have in more thoroughly, and not their political history fact given over two and ahalf centuriesof progress. only, but the history of their material progress. The work strikes me as a production of great value There are few good books in which to find this; but and universal interest. While the statesman will there is one which has been put forth by L. Stebfind a mass of statistical information, which, by its bins, which is especially adapted to this object; and arrangement and the able commentary accompany- a more instructive, interesting, and popular work ing it, will assist very materially in the correct so- is rarely found. lution of many politico-economical problems, men actively engaged in almost any pursuit, agricultural, commercial, mining, education, the arts of design, the mechanic arts, etc., will each find much information, both curious and useful. No. 52. Hoping for your undertaking all the success it From the American Journal of Science and Arts, New deserves, I remain, very respectfully yours, Haven, Conn. HARVEY P. PEET. " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," by eminent literary men.-This compendium of national statistics forms a valuable handbook of reference, to which all who possess it will have frequent ocNo. 51. casion to turn for information in respect to the proFrom the Boston Cultivator. gress and condition of the great elements of growth and development in the history of the United States " 100 Years' Progress."-There is a work which during eighty years past. The value of the book as has been published recently, having the above title, a work of reference would have been much enhanand which, because of these magnificent words, of ced by a more frequent reference to authorities and course, arrests the attention of every wise man. original sources of information. But taken as it is, Eighty years' progress? Eighty years of progress it supplies a great desideratum, and its pains-taking in the life of an individual would make a rare rec- publisher, Mr. Stebbins, deserves our thanks for so ord, pregnant with the most practical and important valuable a contribution to our resources in this deconsiderations; but the eighty years' progress of partment of statistics. K546 COMMENDATIONS. 67 pages, engravings not included. 613 No. 53. No. 56. From the Springfield Republican. From Prof. E. W. HosFoRD, of Cambridge University. Our citizens are offered a large and expensive It is a work of very great value for popular refwork, giving the industrial progress of the United erence. The articles having been prepared by States during the 100 years of their national ex- writers who have made specialties of the subjects istence. It is embellished by numerous engrav- upon which they, have written, are, as a conings, and the letter-press is prepared by writers of sequence, eminently attractive. I find them an eminence in the various departments of which it unfailing source of valuable information and imtreats. It is sold to subscribers only. portant suggestion. In the way of illustrations what could be more significant than the group of agricultural implements of 1790, contrasted with the mowing, reapNo. 54. ing, raking, and threshing machines of 1860; or than thle Franklin printing press as compared with From IsAAc FERRI, D. D., Chanctllor of the University in the Froe printin g p ress? New York. the Hoe printing press? i The author of the article on Steam and Steamehave looked intof the wUork entitled Sts" ad boats, renders a most acceptable service, in placing Years' Progress of the United States," and am on record the just claims of Jo Fitch and Oliver happy to unite with the worthy men who have ex- Evans. amined it, in commending it to my friends. et me conrtute yans. on having found so ^ v.~o^ ^^ ^^^~. BLet me congratulate yu on having found so NEW YoRK. ISaac tFERRIS. NEW YORB. ISAAC FERnIS. many able contributors, and in having procured so valuable a work. No. 55. From J. M. MATHEWS, D. D., Ex-Chancellor of the University in New York. The object of the work is highly commendable; and, so far as I have been able to examine it, has been executed with ability and fidelity. I freely commend it to public patronage. NEW YORK. J. M. M.ATHEWB.