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EDITED BY G. STANLEY HALL.
VOL. I.
METIHoDS OF TEACHING HISTORY.
BY
Dat. G1. DiESTERWEG, PoROESSORS HERBiERT B. ADAMS,
C. KC. ADAMS, JOHN W. BuRGESS, E. EMERTON,
W. F. ALLEN, AND MR. TH-OMAS
WENTWORTHa H11GNiSON.


BOSTON:
BY GINN, HEATH, & CO.
1 8 83.


PUBLISHED




s/41 /C, /I 3
COPYRIGHT, 1883,
BY GINN, HEATH, & CO.


J. S. CUSHING & Co., PRINTERS, 115 HIGH STREET, BOSTON.




IN1DEX.


PAGE
V


INTRODUCTION
By the EDITOR.


PART I.
INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.......
By Dr. G. DIESTERWEG. Translated from Diesterweg's Wegweiser zur
Bildung fir Deutsche Lehrer by MINA WESSELHOEFT.
CHAP. I. The Meaning of History.
II. On the Use of History......
III. Introduction........
Modes of writing history: -
(a) Genealogy.
(b) Chronicle.
(c) Memoir.
(d) That form which follows the development
of ideas.
(e) Philosophical history.
IV. Limit of Subjects......
(a) Ethnographic.
(b) Monographic.
(c) Biographic.
(d) Conditions and deeds.


1
1
29
47


62


V. Arrangement of the Material....   73
(a) Progressive chronological.
(b) Progressive.
(c) Grouping: commemorative days, wars,
arts, laws, etc.




iv


INDEX.


PAGE
VI. Manner of Treatment and Tendencies.  82
VII. Outlines of Instruction in History. 110
VIII. Means of Instruction...... 143
PART II.
CONTRIBUTIONS BY EMINENT AMERICAN TEACHERS
OF HISTORY.
I. SPECIAL METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY... 149
By Professor HERBERT B. ADAMS, Johns Hopkins University.
II. ON METHODS OF TEACHING HISTORY.... 171
By Professor C. K. ADAMS, of Michigan University.
III. THE METHODS. OF HISTORICAL STUDY IN COLUMBIA
COLLEGE........183
By Professor JOHN W. BURGESS, of Columbia College.
IV. THE HISTORICAL SEMINARY IN AMERICAN TEACHING 191
BY Professor E. EMERTON, of Harvard University.
V. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.... 201
VI. WHY DO CHILDREN DISLIKE HISTORY?... 205
By THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON.
PART III.
By Professor W. F. ALLEN, of Wisconsin University.
I. GRADATION AND THE TOPICAL METHOD OF HISTORICAL STUDY........   1
II. HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES..   9
III. HISTORY TOPICS........ 79




INTRODUCTION.
THIS book was intended to be the first of a series entitled
a Pedagogical Library, devoted to methods of teaching,
one volume of which was to be occupied with each of the
more important branches of instruction in grammar and high
schools. The design and plan of the work was not to produce systematic treatises, and still less to develop anything
ultimate or absolute in method; but to gather together, in
the form most likely to be of direct practical utility to
teachers, and especially students and readers of history,
generally, the opinions and modes of instruction, actual or
ideal, of eminent and representative specialists in each
department. The present volume has been an unremunerated work of love on the part of each writer, and the appearance of subsequent volumes in the series is not yet assured.
It should be added that the contribution of each writer was
made without knowledge of what the others had written.
Nowhere have the educational value of history and the
methods of imparting it to the young been so long and
minutely considered as in Germany; and, after careful comparison, it was decided that, despite his obscure and often
confusing style, which renders an entirely satisfactory translation quite impossible, the monograph of Diesterweg pre



vi


INTRODUCTION.


sents a better and more comprehensive view of the questions
which interest German teachers than any other.       Besides
this, however, teachers in whom     a methodic interest has
been awakened will find many useful hints in the following
pamphlets: -
Grundziige der Historik.
Von Prof. Georg Gottfried Gervinus. Leipzic, 1837. pp. 95.
Der Geschichts-Unterricht in der Schule, seine lM2Igel und ein Vorschlag zu seiner Reform.
Von Prof. Friedrich Karl Biedermann. Braunschweig, 1860.
pp. 45.
Grundriss der Historik.
Von Prof. Joh. Gust. Droysen. Leipzic, 1868. pp. 38.
Wie ist der Unterricht in der Geschichte mit dem Geographischen
Unterricht zu verbinden.  Dargelegt an der Darstellung der
Mark Brandenburg. Eine Anleitung fir Lehrer und reiferen
Schiilen. Mit Karts.
Von Prof. Rudolph Foss, Realschule Director. Berlin, 1874.
pp. 48.
Die Geschichte in der Volkschule.  Von der Diesterweg-Stiftung in
Berlin prdmiirte Concurrenzschrift.
Von F. Muster, Hauptlehrer in KOln. KOln, 1876. pp. 78.
Die Neuere und Neueste Geschichte auf Gymnasien.
Ein Votum   von Prof. F. L. W. Herbst, Recter der Kon.
Landeschule Pforta. Mainz, 1877. pp. 40.
Die Culturgeschichtschreibung; iAre Entwickelung und ihr Problem.
Von Dr. Friedrich Jodl. Halle, 1878. pp. 124.
Friedrich Christoph Schlosser und ueber einige Aufgaben und Principien der Geschichtschreibung.
Yon Ottokar Lorenz, Wirkl. Mitgleid der K. Akademie der
Wissenschaften. Wien, 1878. pp. 91.




INTRODUCTION.


vii


Ueber der Geschichts-Unterricht in einer Volkschule von acht Klassen.
Ein methodischer Versuch.
Von H. Nohascheck. Mainz, 1878. pp. 38.
Erziehung und Geschichte.
Ein Vortrag von Prof. Dr. M. Lazarus. Breslau & Leipzic,
1881. pp. 51.
Bemerkungen ueber den Geschichtlichen Unterricht. Beigabe zur dem
"Hilfsbuch filr den ersten Unterricht in alten Geschichte."
Fur Lehrer der Geschichte an Hoheren Schulen.
Von Dr. E. F. Oscar-Jagen. Wiesbaden, 1882. pp. 47.
See especially De L'enseignement Supe'rieur de l'histoire en Allemagne. Revue de L'instruction publique en Belgique, 1882. pp. 18-79.
Also, L'enseignement Superieur de l'histoire a Paris. Revue Internationale de L'enseignement, 1883.  p. 742.  Both by Prof. P.
Frddericq.
See also, Alte und neue Ansichten ueber die Ziele des GeschichtsUnterrichts. Von Dr. F. Noack. Pddagogische Archiv, 1883, Apr. 6.
Der Lernstoff in Geschichtlichen Unterricht. Von E. Stutzer. Ibid.
2 Aug.
Many of the systematic German treatises on pedagogy
also contain suggestive chapters on sections devoted to the
didactics of history; of these, Kehr and Schrader deserve
special mention.
History was chosen for the subject of the first volume
because, after much observation in the schoolrooms of many
of the larger cities in the eastern part of our country, the
editor, without having a hobby about its relative importance
or being in any sense an expert in history, is convinced that
no subject so widely taught is, on the whole, taught so poorly.
Most text-books now in use are dry compilations, and yet
are far more closely adhered to than even the best should




viii
* *
Vlll


INTRODUCTION.


be in this department. Teachers of history generally give
instruction also in several other often unrelated branches;
and, worst of all perhaps, history is crowded into a single
term or year. Two radical changes, which have long since
been found practicable in schools of corresponding grades in
Germany, are greatly needed here. First, there should be in
all the larger towns special teachers, who should go from
room to room, or from one schoolhouse to another, and give
instruction in history alone. They might qualify and be examined in higher and higher grades of work, and this would
tend to give to their vocation a professional spirit and character. It is not impossible that, eventually thus, the way into
the professors' chairs in our colleges and universities might
be as open to teachers here, who have worked their way up
through such an apprenticeship, as it is in Germany. The
teacher's mind must be kept saturated with its spirit, stored
with copious illustrations of its varied lessons, by wide and
diligent reading, or history cannot be taught effectively to
the young. The high educational value of history is too
great to be left to teachers who merely hear recitations, keeping the finger on the place in the text-book, and only asking
the questions conveniently printed for them in the margin or
back of the book, - teachers, too, who know that their
present method is a good illustration of how history ought
not to be taught, and who would do better if opportunity
were afforded them. Nowhere is so much of the time spent
on text-books by pupils lost on school artifacts, mistaken
for perplexities inherent in the subject itself. When we




INTRODUCTION.


ix


reflect that what men think of the world depends on what
they know of it, it is not surprising that the wider altruistic
and ethical interests, which it is a special function of history
to develop, rarely become strong enough to control narrower
and more isolated and selfish aims in life.
Secondly,. the time devoted to historical study in the public schools should be increased. So slow is historical comprehension, and so independent of all cram-work, that even
the time now given to IHistory would probably be more advantageously used if distributed over more months or years, by
devoting to it a correspondingly less number of hours per
week; though this could not be said of most studies, and is
not true of the examinable elements in this. We have not
yet in this country considered the problem of adapting historical material to the earlier phases of the development of
the childish mind from the first years of school life, as Ziller
and his pupils, especially Rein, Pickel, and Scheller, have
done in their recent Pddagogische Studien. The child's love
of stories, they hold, is the earliest manifestation of historic
interest, and should be developed by systematic story-telling,
which, since the much-lauded invention of Herr Gutittenburg,
has become a lost art. So important is this art, that normal
schools should give special training in it, and it should be
made, with respect to young classes, the culmination of
pedagogic skill. These writers have selected and arranged
twelve of Grimm's tales, and would bring nearly the whole
work of school the first year about these, upon the principle
of the well-known concentration method of the late Professor




x


INTROtDUCTION.


Ziller. They are to be told and retold, and then reproduced
by the children item by item, and moral and religious sentiments, as well as all manner of material information and
illustrative object-lessons, made to centre about them. The
next year connected stories from Robinson Crusoe are treated
in the same way, till the child comes to almost identify itself
with the hero, and repeat with him the slow progress, not
unlike that of the race, from destitution to comfort and comparative civilization by the use of pdwers which every child
feels itself possessed of and as competent as Robinson to
put forth under like circumstances for his own amelioration.
Later select tales from the Old Testament are made the focal
points of the school work. Thus the unity of the child's
mind is secured from distracting special studies, which with
advancing school years become more and more independent
and isolated. Selections from the Odyssey, the Norse sagas,
tales from Shakespeare, Herodotus, Livy, Xenophon, etc.,
follow, - all stimulating the historical sense, and creating
centres of interest before technical instruction in history
begins.
A teacher who has a prescribed period of history in which
to qualify pupils in a given time should elect a method with
the greatest care. For certain periods and for certain ages
it may be best to group all the material about the biographies
of eminent men; for others, about important battles; while
a purely pragmatic narrative may again be most effective.
With somewhat older children, the investigating method,
which follows the order and describes the process of search




INTRODUCTION.


xi


and discovery of historic facts; or the discussive method,
which applies a body of historic material to the determination or elucidation of a problem of the present; or the other
presentative methods which Droysen has enumerated, may
have peculiar pedagogic merit. No rules can be laid down
here or anywhere in pedagogy to be followed blindly. What
is essential is that the teacher shall know and ponder many
good methods, so that he may have a wide repertory of
means from which to choose the best for the attainment of
his ends.
A purely colorless presentation of facts, such as used to
be postulated, is clearly impossible for the average teacher,
and, could it be secured, would rob his instruction of most of
its value and interest, - and yet it is the safest of all ideals.
Teachers of the grades here contemplated seem just now
peculiarly liable to hobbies which sometimes actually deform
the pupil's historic sense, and illustrate the danger of great
ideas to minds not well disciplined for them. Some who
have very lately caught the national idea of Freeman, Stubbs,
etc., do scanty justice to Norman influence in English history. Others, who have realized the pregnant sense in which
" history is past politics," forget the other sense in which
the history of the world has been at nearly every point
very different from the history of the conscious purposes
of the leaders in its movements, and that "while men
thought they were doing this thing by these means, it was
soon seen that they were really doing quite other things
by very different means." Physical geography, as impor



X11


INTRODUCTIONS


tant perhaps for a correct understanding of historic events
as some knowledge of the senses and the brain is for
mental science, is very apt to be too much neglected or,
though far more rarely, to be made too prominent. History,
a wise teacher has said in substance, is neither a theophany,
or a series of special providences, nor a play of absolute
ideas on the one hand, nor the product of material necessity
on the other. This dualism is not normal, and a true pedagogy, like a true philosophy of history, will tend to reconcile
and not to emphasize it. If a teacher feels the need of a
philosophy of history as a background for his methods and
as a safeguard against one-sidedness, he will hardly find a
saner one than in the chapters of the third volume of Lotze's
Microcosm, which opens up a broad and safe middle way
between extremes, like those of Hegel and Helwald; but
let him remember that philosophic ideas, while they may
often enliven historic work, are dangerous if premature, and
should be made centres of historic interest only quite late in
the pupil's mental development.
G. STANLEY HALL.




INSTTTCTION IN HISTORY.
CHAPTER I.
The Meaning of History.
TOT only a theoretical, but a practical interest as well,
seems to demand that a treatise on I Instruction in
History" should begin by a reply to the question, What is
"History"?   Since it must be irksome to the thoughtful
student of pedagogy to consider the details of any subject
before he has learned to comprehend all its principal features,
it does not seem at all advisable to omit this reply when so
vast a subject as history is to be discussed. But, least of
all, can the question be ignored when, in our day, it is
said of this science, on no mean authority, in spite of its
Herodotus and Thucydides, Polybius and Tacitus, its
Machiavelli and Puffendorf, Macaulay and Leopold von
Ranke, and in the very face of the profound and systematic
research, and of the brilliant authorship of its exponents,
that, "any author who, from indolence of thought or from
natural incapacity, is unfit to deal with the highest branches
of science, has only to pass some years in reading a certain
number of books, and then he is qualified to be an historian;
he is able to write the history of a great people, and his work
becomes an authority on the subject he professes to treat."
And, further, that, "for all the higher purposes of human
thought, history is still miserably deficient, and presents that
confused and anarchical appearance natural to a subject of




2


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


which the laws are unknown, and even the foundation unsettled."
The novice may well feel dismayed in regard to his
chosen science, if, in accordance with the ancient definition
of history as a confused mass (d/aEooso ZXk), he has observed certain phenomena of literature and of state instruction belonging to a period now happily passed. I will here
merely mention Csesar Cantu's Universal History for Catholic Germany, in a stately array of volumes, and the address
of Minister von Miihler, in a session of the Diet, on the
10th of December, 1868, -an address which did not find
its echo in so-called pious circles alone.'
According to one opinion, history is first to be raised to
the rank of a science, by applying to it the method of the
natural sciences, and thus finding its laws of development
by the observation of analogous phenomena; according to
the other, it follows that history, as a science, is entirely
out of the question in treating of just those events that
concern us most, and the importance of which affects our
time. On this view, it is not only for modern history since
the Reformation that Clio would wear a double face, - one for
the Protestant, and another for the Catholic; but the opinions of Cesar Cantu and Fr. W. Giesebrecht concerning the
struggles of the middle ages, between emperors and popes,
would be equally justified. John Gustav Droysen has been
most prominent in the work of setting forth these views in
opposition to Buckle. With regard to this second theory,
I shall confine myself, for the present, to recalling L. von
Ranke's modest words, spoken by him at the beginning of
his historic labors: " I will only relate how it really was."
Now, then, what is the meaning of " History"? Although
history and nature are often directly contrasted, yet there
1 Buckle, Hist. of Civilization in England, Vol. I., pp. 3-5.




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


3


is no doubt that the ordinary use of language does not admit
of such a contrast when the terms are to be employed in
detail.
We do not only speak of the history of a person, of a
nation, of the human race; not only may every object of
human activity, every thought, every idea, - the realization
of which the human mind has seriously attempted, -have
its history; not only may we have a history of agriculture
and trades, of manufactures and commerce, of war, of law,
of science, art, and religion; but the use of language carries
us even beyond the domain of the human mind. The sportsman is interested in the history of the winner of a race, and
Loffler has even written a history of the horse. There is
doubtless a history of wine. The Kohinoor has its history,
as has the diamond generally; and the history of the origin
of minerals, like that of our globe, furnishes geognosy and
geology with exclusive material for investigation. As the
physician finally writes the history of his cases, so in the
various domains of organic nature the history of development of organic beings plays a principal part. To judge
by this use of the word, the domain of history may extend
to everything that has ever transpired on earth. Just as
the life of an individual, of a nation, of the human race,
belongs to history, so do the processes of inanimate nature.
Nor does the original Greek model anywhere point
to a contrast between nature and history; for the Greek
[o-ropLa, from i3eiv, with Herodotus, the father of history,
means "to learn by investigation."  He calls his work an
a7ro'3ELt$t roopirl', "'an exposition of that which has been
learned." Not until later, when, in view of the mass of
collected material, the personal form  of investigationthat of questioning people, travelling, and seeing placesbegan to be of secondary importance, did the aoropi'a assume




4


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


the objective form, corresponding to our conception of " past
events. "
Neither the modern use of the word, therefore, nor that of
the original Greek, implies a contrast between nature and
history. The expression Icrrop'a means, first and foremost,
" investigation"; then its results, pertaining to everything
concerning mankind, as well as to nature outside of man.
History, in the Greek sense, is the idea of everything
that can be learned by investigation; and according to
our idea, of all that has happened. Buckle, then, seems to
be in the right when he assumes the meaning of history and
nature to be so identical that history is open to the severe
reproach of having remained far behind its twin sister,
natural science; and that it must speedily adopt the principles of investigation applied to the natural sciences, in
order itself to be elevated to the rank of a science, and at
last endeavor to place the phenomena of human life upon the
sanme level with those of external nature. The scientific
method might likewise advance materialistic arguments, in
order to extend its dominion into the realm of history, if
the unconscious logic of language should seem an insufficient
guarantee.
What if the phenomena of nature were repeated in exact
parallels in history? A germ breaks the crust of mother
earth, with the inherent predisposition to become an oak.
First of all, it depends upon a favorable environment for
the fortunate, vigorous, and harmonious development of its
powers; it thrives, and soon repays its debt to its surroundings; it lends shade, and with its companions attracts refreshing moisture to the spot, and breaks the force of the
wind. What further illustration is needed?  The poets of
all ages have pictured it sufficiently.
A similar process takes place with an infant. The develop



THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


5


ment of inborn qualities, acting and being acted upon by its
surroundings, will also determine the sequence of phenomena
in him. A proof that this parallel holds good beyond the
-mere expression of poetic fancy may thus be stated: The
importance of history appears to require that its phenomena
should be physically connected. Government by fixed laws
is the fundamental trait of nature. Do chaos, chance, and
the caprice of fate reign in the life of individuals, of nations,
of mankind? Why the thankless task of losing one's self
in chaos? In that case, historical recollections would be
mere pastime for children, who admire the changing colors
of a kaleidoscope in the evolutions of time.
Our statesmen, too, in cabinet and parliament might retire,
and the pedagogue shake off his cares with a sense of relief;
for who can struggle against what a caprice of fate may
bring to-morrow? An example quoted from Buckle's "History of Civilization" may be cited here. In Part II. of Vol. I.,
" History of the French Intellect from the Sixteenth to the
Eighteenth Century," he discusses the tardiness of intellectual development in France as compared with that of the
English, and on p. 92 he arrives at this result: "' It is clear
that the French knew less, because they believed more."
The implied law may be more distinctly indicated as follows:
"It is clear that their progress was checked by the pre7
valence of those feelings which are fatal to all knowledge;
because, looking on antiquity as the sole receptacle of wisdom, they degrade the present to exalt the past," etc. Or,
expressed more tersely as an historical law: The progress
of science is retarded by a state of feeling which overrates
the past.
Setting aside the merit or demerit of this law, other
examples can be cited: Inactivity weakens the intellect and
energy of a nation; or, continued wars develop the brutal




6


INSTRUCTION IX HISTORY.


passions of a nation. Further: When two nations about
equal in numbers are merged one in the other, the higher
civilization of the more advanced nation asserts itself,
even though it has been conquered. According to Horace,
" Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam, rectique cultus pectora roborant."  Thus history seems to be not without
laws.
So far, no difference between the domain of natural science and that of history has appeared. No such difference
appears in the use of language; human development does
not lack a close contact with the conditions of nature, nor
do natural objects lack historical phases.
The use of the word " history," for events in the existence
of the human race alone, seems to be due to the fact that
the interest in them is the most ancient, the most comprehensive and intense, so that the term has arisen de majori.
And yet.what a difference between the interest in an historical subject and in one from natural science! When, for
instance, the tyranny of the Decemvirs is described, or the
death of Virginia; and when, on the other hand, the suboxide
of nitrogen is being characterized, a difference is at once
apparent; namely, this: The question is not of a species of
Virginias, but of a distinct individual; on the other hand, we
are not interested in any particular particle of gas that
puts a person into a happy frame of mind, but in the kind
of gas and its constituent parts and properties generally.
Again, the investigator may be tracing either a tribal migration or the natural history of a bird of passage. In one
case, we are attracted by the individual fate of the Goths,
Longobards, Vandals, and Franks; and, in the other, by the
habits of the swallow species generally.
In the first instance, we are attracted by what is individual;
in the second, by what is general; and we find the term




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


7


" history" simply to cover the whole range of phenomena, -
the events in the existence of the human race as well as
those in the domain of nature.
Every individual change, whether recognized in all its
parts as the result of fixed natural laws or not, lies within
the domain of history. Natural science begins by the recognition of equal conditions, based on analogous, and yet
individually distinct, phenomena.
An historical reflection would be this: A remarkable tree
in my neighborhood arouses my interest, and I relate when
and by whom it was planted, how fast it grew, how luxuriantly its branches developed, what has happened to it,
when it was felled, and to what uses it was finally put. If
I mention facts of natural history at the same time, —for
instance, why it throve so luxuriantly, - these would only be
a means of explanation; but in this case by no means the
ultimate purpose. My reflection would belong to natural
science, if, taking the same object, I drew the attention of
the scholar to the graining of the wood, the bark, the leaves,
the blossoms, and its size, for the purpose of making him
familiar with the species. In this case I set the individual
aside, and touch only upon what is general. Here the explanation of why the tree throve luxuriantly would be a
chief object of inquiry, pointing to the establishment of a
law. Buckle, however, thinks that in nature, as a whole, we
overlook the emotional interest inspired by a single tree or
animal, that we have overcome the surprise caused by thunder and lightning, and that we have for the time forgotten
our care in regard to the fruits of the field, having arrived
at general laws. We are also to make abstractions from
our interest in the human individual, and in the individual
nation, and our interest must be fixed on the underlying
laws in order to raise history to the level of a science.




8


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


However plausible this demand may seem, I fear the new
science would fall a prey to ridicule. The results Buckle
wishes to give to the world have either been long since
reached, or can be reached by the present methods; they
would differ in form only, and certainly not to their advantage.
A brief explanation will show this. Every change on
earth must have its natural cause. Let us take an example
which, according to the current use of the term, belongs to
" history," and one that belongs to science. I see that my
thermometer has risen one degree within the last hour.
Why? Because the air has grown warmer, and the quicksilver has expanded.
In the year 1830 Belgium separated from Holland. Why?
Because the Belgians considered themselves oppressed by
the Dutch.
In each of these examples a law can be formulated from
the cause: -
1. Increase of warmth in the surrounding atmosphere
causes quicksilver to expand.
2. Oppression of one people by another rouses a desire
for separation in the oppressed.
The general law appears as the cause when we regard the
individual fact.
The law in natural science corresponds to the reason or
cause in history. When the naturalist closely observes and
experiments, lays down general laws, and raises human phenomena to a level with physical ones, the historian, on the
other hand, seeks by investigation to establish the course of
events, and to deduce them from his reasons. If he has
succeeded in this, then he has found the law which governs
all similar conditions. The difficulty with history, however,
is this: that in their main points conditions never are equal.




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


9


The year 510 among the Greeks, and 510 among the Romans,
however tinged by Greek influences, yet what a difference
between them! Nor is there less between the tyrannies of
the Cypselides in Corinth, and that of Pisistratus in Athens;
between the Roman campaigns of Frederic I., and the Italian
wars of Frederic II.; the struggles for liberty of the Spaniard, and those of the Germans. I should feel curious about
the basis of an historic law taken from the year 510 among
the Greeks, which would prove the absolute necessity of
banishing the Roman kings. If we take a larger number of cases into consideration, and abstract their dissimilar characteristics, we gain a formula so meaningless as
justly to cause ridicule when compared with the apparatus
used to demonstrate it. For instance, excessive oppression
exercised by a ruler, especially a usurper, rouses the intention to banish the despot. Here, excessive is a relative
idea; oppression alone does' not suffice; the intention, unless
carried out, is ill itself too unimportant a condition; the
ability to carry it out is doubtful, as despots have powerful
means, both intellectual and physical, at their command.
Nor is there any force in Buckle's law, above stated; for
what does it mean to " overrate the past." This idea is
just as relative as the expression too large or too strong, that
might occur in similar attempts; and its meaning can only
be gathered from each separate case, which is to be explained by the law.
The kind and variety of historical conditions, then, make
it possible to establish laws only in the most general and
trivial forms; as, for instance, in a battle the numerical
preponderance on one side requires an equivalent surplus of
some kind on the other side, in order to determine whether
the chances are equal. The labor of framing such laws
will be worthless in proportion to the increasing difference




10


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


of the conditions. Continuous progression in the history
of the human race exists only in so far as a new generation
retains its connection with the previous one; just as a
psychological law that applies to the age of boyhood cannot apply unmodified to manhood, so many a law deduced
from the past must lose its force for the present. If in a
former period the proposition held good, that the sterility
of a country has an unfavorable influence on the prosperity of its inhabitants, this proposition is no longer tenable as soon as the art of extracting valuable ores from the
earth becomes known.
The audacity of Buckle's undertaking is shown plainly in
view of the material for investigation at our command, as
compared to former material for investigation in the natural
sciences. We are then to treat of the laws of development
of the genus humanum, of which different species exist; for
instance, the species Aegyptica, Persica, Judaica, Graeca,
Romana, Germana, Galica, etc., every species containing
a large number of individuals.  The inductive method,
however, requires a great number of analogous cases from
which similar phenomena must be deduced, and applied pars
pro toto to the formulation of general laws. But where in
the domain of history can we find this large number of cases?
Evidently among individuals only. I am therefore enabled
to establish the laws of development of the different species,
and thus of the genus humanurn. But this is the business
of anthropology, and thus the parallel with inanimate nature
is exhausted. Buckle does not demand the laws of development of individuals of the species Romana, etc., but those
of the species Romana itself; and yet the species Romana,
as such, existed in a single specimen only. The species
Germana, Gallica, Britannica, as well as the life of the
whole genus humanum, occur only in one, and not even in a




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


11


completed, course of existence. The scientist would beware
of formulating laws of development for a newly discovered
organism before this has at least completed its existence,
and a number of specimens have been observed; nor should
the historian be censured if he does not undertake romantic
flights into nebulous regions, but confines himself within the
limits of fact.
The scientific work of the historian lies in quite another
direction. Droysen correctly says, in his above-mentioned
work on history, that the province of historical science is to
comprehend while investigating. The province of natural
science, on the contrary, is to reduce individual phenomena
to general laws, and to explain individual phenomena by
means of such laws.
The scientist must content himself by establishing the laws
which explain individual phenomena, even if it is impossible
for him to comprehend the process. Some one telegraphs
from London to New York, for instance. The law by means
of which the operation is possible is known; but to comprehend the process by which thousands of miles are traversed
in a second is impossible to the human mind. The fall of an
apple is explained by the earth's attraction; yet the process
is not understood. We can comprehend external things only
in so far as their impressions upon us are capable of conveyance to our consciousness. From these impressions we can
derive a law; but for following the electric current, and comprehending gravitation, analogous processes are wanting in
ourselves. Bernstein rightly says: "' Natural science spends
all its energies on the discovery of the forces of nature, which
are entirely concealed from our senses. No one has seen the
force of gravitation discovered by Newton, or perceived it
with any of the senses; we recognize its effect in the material
world, but the force itself is only an explanation of the phe



12


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


nomena by the intellect." It is otherwise with regard to history. In so far as non-intellectual processes are concerned,
its phenomena are treated as natural laws, and do not attract
the interest of the historian at all. If the powder was wet
before the battle, and useless, the sword dulled by blows,
and the general killed by the ball of the enemy, these phenomena are valueless to the historian, being mere physical
processes, and can only receive consideration in so far as
they have influenced moral and intellectual conditions in the
broadest sense. The moral and intellectual development of
nations and the human race, as represented by individual
aspirations, deeds, and conditions, is the true object of investigation for the historian, and to this end his desire to
comprehend must be directed. In the broadest sense, such
work is possible for any one, since all are endowed with
moral and intellectual capacity. By means of it I am enabled
to understand the process in the soul of Achilles at the death
of Patroclus; of Harpagus at his repulsive meal; of the Italians during Barbarossa's Roman campaigns; of our fathers
in the trying time of 1813. We can also comprehend more
complex processes, like the influence of Greece and the East
on native Roman customs, the causes of the catastrophe at
Jena, and the enthusiasm of Arnt and Jahn for the unity
and freedom of Germany, because our intejlectual and moral
capacity admits the reproduction of the same ideas and
emotions.
The degree of comprehension, however, is dependent upon
the abundance, delicacy, and energy of reciprocal action,
which, in Schiller's well-known words, we have experienced
in our intellectual contact with mankind.
This faculty of comprehending historical events might, if
necessary, furnish us with as great a number of laws as the
scientific treatment of history could demand. It has been




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


18


pointed out above, how, in establishing special processes, the
law appears as cause; how it happens that, in observing some
special process, the naturalist is exposed to the error of
post hoc, ergo propter hoc. Until Torricelli's time it was held
that, when drinking, the liquid entered the cavity of the
mouth in consequence of the horror vacui;. a vacuum was
created and filled by the liquid. Therefore, the vacuum was
the active cause. It was an error for which the naturalists
of those times cannot be blamed. A similar error would be
impossible to a conscientious historian, for the reason that
the activity of the human mind repeats itself in him, and
enables him in each case to distinguish the active cause from
accidental conditions. Whoever reads Fichte's addresses to
the German nation, and is familiar with the state of the
times, is in no doubt as to the motive which inspired them.
The hand of France weighed heavily on' Prussia; Fichte
was lecturing at a Prussian university, and drew a salary
from the state. He came in contact with the most prominent men of his time, yet his motive was not his position
as lecturer, nor the influence of his friends; but it was
the protest of his national pride against the degrading oppression of the nation. In other cases, the cause may be
doubtful, and its comprehension can then only be reached by
the closest investigation of character, and of the modes in
which it displays itself. Comparison with similar characters
will, perhaps, furnish a clue as to the course of investigation
to be pursued; the psychological comprehension of one process facilitates that of an analogous one, but the psychological construction, as it were, of a peculiarly phenomenal
character in an individual or a nation cannot be established
by traits it has in common with any number of other characters, as a non-intellectual process can be physically construed by means of natural laws. But, when a single case




14


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


has been comprehended, it necessarily follows that as general and definite a law has been given as science can possibly
require. Therefore, the comprehension of another mind can
only be effected in us in so far as human minds are organized alike, and we really comprehend only then when we can
reproduce cause and effect in our own mind as it exists in
the mind of another. We can comprehend the fable of the
Kyffhauser because we can reproduce the same impressions
in ourselves which Barbarossa's heroic greatness, his death
in a foreign land, and the distress that followed, aroused
in the hearts of the German people in the state of development they had then reached. If we all reach this comprehension, the psychological process is as convincingly manifest
as the proposition that twice two is four.  This general
comprehension proves the correctness of the law, that, when
a hero like Barbarossa dies far from his people, and distress
ensues to them in consequence, such an hero becomes an
object of tradition among his people in later times, provided
this people has arrived at the same stage of development
the Germans had reached at that time.
It is shown by this example why the formulation of such
laws is not attempted. The sufficient cause can be distinguished from accessary conditions; but in what way can x
and y (Barbarossa's personality and the condition of the
people) be defined with precision, and how can these qualities be shown to coincide with Barbarossa's, and with the
stage of development of the Germans?  The result, intellectually, would be the same as if all the important points
were set forth and united in order to bring about the comprehension of the whole course of events; that form, however, would be fatal to all historic interest.
If we briefly sum up the result of the foregoing investigation once more, it has first been shown that neither our




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


15


own use of language nor that of the Greeks confines the
province of history to events in the life of mankind; that
the principal aim of the investigation of natural science is to
raise vital phenomena to physical ones, and that the finding
of laws is likewise of importance to the life of mankind.
To discriminate between history and science according to
the subject-matter is therefore erroneous. The difference
seems rather to consist in this,- that history traces individual
development, and natural science progresses to general laws.
Buckle's demand might, therefore, be modified thus: as
the history of individual phenomena in the inanimate world
is formulated into laws by natural science, so the history
of human phenomena must be reduced to laws, thereby
making it more fruitful,.and raising it to the rank of a
science. But it was then pointed out, that, notwithstanding
this, great and comprehensive laws relating to the history of
human development cannot be established on account of
the difference in kind and degree of the phenomena, and
that a task is demanded of history which it cannot accomplish owing to the want of material, a task which natural
science has been equally unable to accomplish.
Natural science, aside from characteristics of language,
species, variety, etc., defines the course of development of
an individual within the species and variety; anthropology
in its different branches does the same for the human race.
To establish laws of development, when we have but a
single specimen which has not even completed its course
of existence, is a task which natural science, in a history
of the animal and vegetable kingdom, notwithstanding its
Darwin, has yet to accomplish before the same demand can
be made upon a history of the development of the human
race.
But the method of natural science is not needed, in so far




16


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


as we treat of the vastly varied manifestations of the human
mind as they appear in history, since in mental processes
we are able to discriminate between the active cause and
chance in every separate case by means of our own intellectual organization; and where our knowledge of facts is
deficient, we recognize the cause to be wanting, and do not
require comparison with analogous cases in order not to
mistake a well-known accident for the active cause. As
soon as cause and effect are comprehended, this act of
comprehension is a guarantee that a similar case will have
like results; and thus we have found the law for all similar
cases.
The historian, however, avoids the formulation of such
laws, as the same case is never repeated; but his mind has
acquired the faculty of comprehending similar cases, and
the general law of their occurrence, by first comprehending
a single one.
So much may be said here of Buckle's attempt, whose
alluring theory would most confuse a studious teacher.
At the same time it is an advantage to have read his work;
for, in spite of its defective theory, there are but few who
will not read it without being carried away from time to
time by the brilliancy of the author.
THE SECOND OBJECTION which, if consistent, denies the
possibility of history as a science, was this, that a Protestant must necessarily take a different view of certain portions of history from a Catholic. More than any other time
the present demands a definite answer to this thesis. As
long as the state surrendered the spiritual control of the
schools to the church, and a rationalistic spirit pervaded the
Protestant as well as the Catholic church, it could be left to
the scientific whim of the historian and the pedagogue to
decide whether, strictly speaking, an objective treatment of




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


I7


history was possible; but when, after continued subservience
of the school to the church, the toleration of the century
finally ceased, and theologians of both churches by consent
of the rulers availed themselves of the intellectual impulse
received by the whole nation from the great writers of the
eighteenth century - roused as it was by the stormy close of
its last decade — to infuse new life into their dogmas and
systems. When, finally, adherents of each faith taught their
dogmas everywhere for the greater glory of God, ordaining
that the Catholic or Protestant faith should be upheld in the
schools according to the status of parishes or ' the original
disposition of founders," this God-fearing activity soon
drove the objective teaching of history from the field.
This period too passed by. The self-conscious display of
power and assumed supremacy of Rome, in the reconstructed empire, convinced the government that it was an error to
encourage views diametrically opposed to each other in the
state, with the result that one view, by virtue of the divine
right with which it claimed to be invested, refused obedience to
state laws. The inexorable course of history brings common
law into use, and the paragraph declaring schools to be state
institutions is again in force. The state rescinds the mandate, which to its great injury it had entrusted to the church,
in order to infuse its own spirit into the schools. Of what
nature should this spirit be, and what ideas will it represent
opposed to both contending parties? Religious persecution
after the manner of the seventeenth century is out of the
question in our state; so is compulsory religion by the aid of
schools.  Forcible means lose their effect in the course of
time. Let the state proceed with all the severity of its laws
against their violators, to check the first onslaught, as has
been done; let it leave off qncouraging the secret dissension
of the churches, as it still does: it will yet be unable to sup



18


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


press the notion of papal power that has once seized the
masses, who are not wanting in able leaders, because ideas,
received like convictions by the masses, cannot be suppressed by chastisement; they only gather strength in the
conflict.  Thus the march of Henry IV. to the gates of
Rome did not strike a blow to papal supremacy; the resolutions passed at Carlsbad involved the best men of the
people in criminal suits, but their ideas of German unity
now live in the heart of the sovereign as well as in that of
the simple rustic. Just as the ultramontane and orthodox
parties owe their influence to the intellectual labor of decades, so only will persistent and energetic intellectual work
revive our civic consciousness, and save our country from
the dangers with which increased religious dissension might
threaten us. What should be the watchword of an activity
which of course will not be agreeable to religious fanaticism,
because it attempts to check its growth, though it does not
intend to tamper with individual religious convictions? A
watchword which ensures this, ensures equal rights to all,
and may be proclaimed with the certainty which the consciousness of truth and even-handed justice gives.  The
maxim must be to lay the foundations of national unity in
the minds of the people.
While, hitherto, religious tendencies controlled the educational institutions of the nation with sectarian rigor, henceforth the feeling must be inculcated, that the same moral
principles are common to all, whether Protestants, Catholics, or Jews. Hitherto salvation was sought by forcing
a series of dogmatic ideas into the childish mind as first
and highest truths, allowing all non-believers to seem groping in darkness; the consciousness must now be roused that
we all have the same organs for acquiring knowledge, and
cherish the same desire for truth. If hitherto the treatment




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


19


of history served the purpose of crediting one's own religious
party with all the approbation of the Divine Ruler of the
world, and burdening the other with final condemnation on
the judgment day, the educator of the present must henceforth endeavor to follow the traces of actual events with unswerving truthfulness, and thus furnish material for youthful
judgment by making clear the deeds of opposing factions,
leaving history itself to pronounce the final verdict, while he
himself remains silent where that has not yet been rendered.
His aim must be to develop the faculty of independent
judgment in his pupils, and not to defraud the rising generation of the teachings of history by anticipating them with
his own opinions, because these opinions should never usurp
the unbiased verdict of history. In short, the present convulsions in our national life compel the state, if it does not
yield voluntarily, to carry on a war of extermination with a
part of its citizens; or else to avoid making party views
the basis of youthful education, but instead to fall back
upon the firm natural foundation of the original faculties
common to mankind. It must not plant the strife of manhood in the breast of the. boy, without giving him the
consecration and dignity needful for the battle- his conscious convictions. It must take the German boy as he is,
not as he ought to be ten years hence. He wants first to
learn and to understand; in time, grown enthusiastic for
truth and right, he will learn to hate treachery and deceit;
but he still lacks every qualification for judging sectarian
differences.
Before any one is consciously a Catholic or a Protestant,
he is a human being; and national German pedagogy has
always demanded a general human education, though long
pursued in majorem (lei gloriam. The inexorable progress
of history has indeed taught the state that the ideal standard




20


INSTRU(CTION IN HISTORY.


created for itself by the art and science of pedagogy is equally
demanded by the vital interests of the state.
In the forty-fourth assembly of German naturalists and
physicians, Virchow declared, "It is the work of the near
future, now that the unity of the German empire has been
established, to establish an inner unity also,- not only an
inner unity that removes the political boundaries of nationality and centralizes power, but a real unity of minds, and
the occupation of common intellectual ground by the many
members of the nation."
If, then, the task is allotted to natural science to aid in
bringing about the inner unity of the nation, it is worth
while to examine whether its twin sister, the science of history, will not recognize its mission toward the same end.
To be sure, the historian is not in as advantageous a position as the scientist who has the object of investigation
before him, while history can only be reproduced from an
image reflected by another observer of the actual past. We
can only imagine the Peloponnesian wars by allowing the
accounts of Thucydides, Xenophon, and Plutarch, as they
existed in their minds, to impress our own. The Thirty
Years' War can only be depicted from the peculiar reflexes
it has produced in Kevenhiller, Chemnitz, Puffendorf, and
other entirely diverging minds.  Besides, the picture we can
make for ourselves is so fragmentary that we must draw
upon our imaginations to unite it, in order to see the scene
of events like a familiar landscape,- mentally to grasp and
comprehend all the conditions on the basis of which the historical development takes place; further, to understand the
events themselves according to their inner progression, to see
their results, and comprehend the changed order of things,
the phases of which impel the human mind to new and different deeds. Neither should the character of men of past ages




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


21


remain a collection of scattered notices, but they must rise
living before our eyes; the voice of the investigator thus
makes itself distinctly heard in the concert of actual events.
Would this disqualify history as a science? is it a fable convenne, or, according to the momentary point of view, a fable
disconvenne intended at the word of command to glorify the
dynasty of a ruler, or to scourge the selfishness of crowned
heads; to illustrate popular sovereignty, or to ridicule the
mob? shall it secure abject adhesion to the doctrine of
Luther, or to those of the infallible pope? in short, is history a lofty goddess who looks benignly down on those who
worship her, or has Clio a wax nose which the orthodox
Lutheran bends upward, the Ultramonantane downward, the
conservative to the right, and the liberal to the left? Fortunately, the aims of science are sufficiently defined.
The course of the world's events, the process of national
and human development, has been one and the same; the
reformation took but one course, the French revolution one
form only, from the etats gyneraux to the execution of Louis
XVI. Of two modes of writing history, one at least must be
falsified or incomplete; it would be strange if two persons
of equal discrimination, and furnished with equal means for
investigation, did not arrive at a certain ideal coincidence
upon the same phase of events, provided they fulfil the first
condition of any science, which is, to tell the truth, whether
it is pleasant or not, and whether or not it suits the views
of one's own religious or political party.
It is not necessary to develop all the preparations and prescriptive rules that German historic investigation employs
to throw light on the past; the material furnished to the
inquirer by the remains of the useful and ornamental
arts, of laws and customs, of literatures and historical
documents; its sources of a subjective or pragmatic char



22


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


acter, its criticism with its manifold views, its modes of interpretation by the necessary connection of events, by their conditions, by psychology, and by the form of ideas, - in view
of all this it can only be said that, if history has occupied itself
so long and successfully in elaborating periods the phases of
which no longer concern our age, its ideal sense to desire
nothing but the truth must be sufficiently strengthened to say
to a satellite of Rome or Wittenberg, who dares invade its
province, noli turbare circulos meos.
The science of history furnishes no rule for writing a
history best suited to this faction or that. Whenever chronicles are imperfect, and the connection of events cannot be
established, a subjective activity of course begins; but that
writer is outlawed who seeks to answer the all-prevailing
question in history, How did the historical fact originate?
otherwise than according to general psychological and dynamic laws. The question whether or not he sanctions that
fact does not concern him; to inquire whether the fact is
useful or pernicious to the present, is not his affair; he need
only trace its effects in the time in which it occurred. He
must not attempt the analysis of an historical character with
a prejudice for or against, nor with the intention to prove any
particular view of it. First of all he must seek to comprehend
it, and regard events from its original point of view. Good
and evil tendencies, elevating and depressing thoughts, he will
find in characters as well as in actions; important and inspiring traits in abundance, because platitude finds no place in
the memory of posterity. He need not fear therefore that
his moral sense will not be gratified, but his aim is simply
to penetrate to the fact. William von Humboldt justly says:
" As philosophy searches for the cause of things, art for the
ideal of beauty, so history searches for the reflex of human
fate in undimmed truthfulness, lifelike vigor, and untarnished




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


28


purity, comprehended by a mind so thoroughly bent upon
the subject, that views, feelings, and all claims of personality
are lost and resolved in it; for it is the desire for facts which
he is to rouse and inspire." 1
Let the point of view be briefly stated which most distinctly
and with a certain pious emphasis appears as the opponent of
objective history. It has been distinctly proclaimed by the
principal advocates of the regulative party that the aim of
studying history must be to find Divine revelation in history;
indeed, they say that without God, history cannot be comprehended at all.
It cannot be denied that for temperaments religiously
inclined there is a desire to lift the soul to God when
contemplating certain portions of history, as well as when
viewing the general development of the human race.     How
natural is a sense of gratitude to the Most High for the succor brought by the Great Elector; for the Russian winter of
1812; and most certainly the inscription, " afflavit deus et
dissipati sunt," was written by Elizabeth of England from
the very bottom of her heart.
As the individual man in a review of his life, or the citizen
in looking back upon the history of his country, so the historian, when recalling the great turning-points in the history of
mankind, may be filled with awe and with gratitude to a higher.
power of which he feels conscious. Yet it must be borne in
mind that the introduction of the idea of Providence into history will further it as little as it does natural science. For,
1 Gervinus says: " Let him reserve his judgment, however simple and
direct, and return to the modest condition of wishing to be everything, and
to seem nothing; he shall be big with wisdom, as Bacon says, but not act
as midwife to his own wisdom " (Grundziige der Historik).
Herder's remark is still more forcible: "Most pragmatic histories - and
to this category belong the histories advocating special views - are defiant
lies; to them the past is a rubbish heap on which they crow."




24


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


if the intervention of Providence is shown in history,- and
according to my view it can be recognized, - it is not evident
in a supernatural manner by the violation of his own laws,
but by means of them.  The destruction of the Armada in
Philip's time, the defeat of Napoleon in 1812, was not the
result of a hand stretched from heaven, like the death of the
Greeks before Troy by ayavoit fpEXC'Eo-c- of Apollo, but by the
familiar means of storms at sea, and the cold of winter, and,
similarly, if ideas are correctly called the motive force of
events by our historians, then these ideas manifest themselves in quite a human way, like that of papal supremacy
or that of Roman imperialism in the German nation, and
those of legitimacy, popular sovereignty, universal empire,
or national unity in France. At first they appear unconsciously and scarcely perceptible in the spirit of a people, or
perfected, like Pallas from the head of Zeus, and are hurled
by some genius among the masses.  It often remains unexplained in history why at a certain period, in defiance of
human power, some great event transpires, some genius or
idea appears. To take a Divine Providence for granted here,
would not further our knowledge, is inconsistent, and even
seems like an abuse of the Divine name. Supposing, in the
future, meteorology proved the severe winter of 1812 to be the
result of a law. We cannot help regarding every event in
history as emanating from a Divine will, and the question
arises whether the imperceptible transition from one condition
to another is not the most astounding. To accept a special
Providence leads us to abandon the search for a controlling
law, and to forego all deeper knowledge. It is clear from
the above that the idea of a Providence can be derived from
the development of history by any one who feels the need to
do so; but constituent or enlightening force it has none. In
history, God speaks only by humanly comprehensible acts or




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


ideas, for his thoughts are acts and ideas; the faithful, indeed,
will comprehend God most truly, and will recognize and serve
him best by fathoming the objective course of events, and by
striving with this treasure of experience which has been gained,
to promote and attain the highest aims of life. If then, it is
the task of the historian to depict the actual facts of the past,
while entirely abnegating his subjective point of view in the
very midst of the struggles of his time; if further,' the introduction of the idea of a special providence in history is
not demanded by the subject, a view of history seems possible which imposes no restraint upon any growing convictions,
nor on those already formed. Such a treatment of history
might lay claim to become an educational medium for the
entire youth of Germany, of whatever religious persuasion,
and bring about national unity as far as it is possible.
It may be asked whether that which is possible for science is also possible and needful for schools; a few remarks
will serve as rejoinder to certain objections that may easily
be raised.
It is certain that if every public school teacher cannot find
time to devote himself to the labor of investigation, he does
recognize it to be his duty to follow the progress of science;
so that, as the historian sees the mind strengthened by scientific discipline to receive the actual truth, the teacher may
be led in the same direction by the fact that he sees the eyes
of boys of every persuasion fixed confidingly upon him, and
it becomes his duty to give to youth the divine thought revealed in history, pure and undefiled, not arbitrarily adapted
and perverted to partisan uses. Lastly, in religious instruction of whatever persuasion, outside of school, doctrinal
ideas may do their best to prevail, but the common public
school finds its labor allotted on the common ground of
national life alone. Let sectarian discord confine itself to




26


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


its own limits, the school must refuse it admittance; its form
of worship is to educate youthful generations to become
capable and useful members of the confederation of nations.
It has so far been shown, first, that the spirit of history
is not to be looked for in the establishment of laws; second,
that history as a science exists independently of religious or
political interference. The next step is by unbiased investigation of whatever material history offers, to arrive at the
positive points of its meaning.
The method of natural science, as we have seen, can only
be applied in the domain of human phenomena in so far as
there is a regular recurrence of similar phenomena somatologically or psychologically, or in a close union of the two.
These phenomena however belong to anthropology.   The
development of the human mind, on the other hand, is unique
of its kind, in so far as the life of individuals is concerned;
but for the vital acts which the human mind has accomplished
for itself and its surroundings, from the beginning of the
human race, through a series of successive generations to the
present, - no proof is required.
Let us see how the development of mankind proceeded.
Man enters life as the most helpless of beings. What the
first human beings brought with them were needs and faculties; but faculties so manifold and capable of such development, that even now, after the lapse of thousands of years,
their final perfection seems to the human understanding to
lie in the distant future. The desire to satisfy wants seems
the prime motive in man for the development of his faculties.
At first they were those wants upon which his physical existence depended; but his daily endeavors in this respect, to
pluck fruit from the trees, and to draw water, arc not sufficient to make him an object of historical investigation.
That is the life of the Negritos and AIoskos, and history




THE MEANING OF HISTORY.


27


leaves these to themselves. A higher plane is reached when
a number of families under one chief or elder rove over the
steppes with horses and cattle, settling first here, then there,
according to the season or the abundance of pasturage, to
secure their existence. But even the Nomad has no peculiar
development; one tribe lives like another; to-morrow is like
to-day.
This period too is prehistoric; but since the Nomad only
attains that point of development which is peculiar to the
whole race, he is a subject for anthropology.
We can only speak of history where individual development is in question; for a people does not become historic
until it emerges beyond the general course of development
into special phases. The first external condition is to settle
in fixed habitations, no longer making its stay depend upon
the gifts of the soil; nor without labor, but by labor compel —
ling the chosen spot of ground to yield, and making nature
subservient to man's wants. By fixed habitations mankind
has gained the point from which it can progress to those
conditions of order which concern his well-being.
The desire for uncontested possession gradually begins to
develop from the unregulated struggle for pasture land, sustained by common law. Its violation gives rise to a wish for
superior power to subdue lawlessness, —the power of the
state. Boundary feuds with neighbors, invasion of foreign
hordes beget the endeavor to maintain the homestead undiminished and undisputed.
In the warring elements mall recognizes higher powers,
and wishes to propitiate them by gifts, so that they may be
always favorable to him. He offers them the fruits of the
field, and listens to the venerable men who admonish him,
and seeks to attract the deity to his country by erecting the
grandest temples for its abode.




28


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


In this way the ideas which mankind has in common
originated and grew. The noblest part of intellectual labor
was directed toward the end, so to develop the conditions of
existence that the loftiest conceptions of reason seem to
have their abode on earth in the most perfect form. With
this step a people is lifted above the vegetative existence of
the species; many nations may share it; every nation thus
advanced strives according to its capacity and conditions to
realize its own ideas in its peculiar way. By this means it
enters the precincts of history. But historical interest does
not so much consist in the fact that a people has intellectual
capacity, but in the special manner in which its national life
has developed.    The prestige of historical dignity in the
present equally depends upon devotion to an idea.     Where
irresponsible nomad life prevails, anarchy rules; or, where
-robber hordes infest the mountains, there we find mere animal
life.  Where on the other hand a people further develops its
peculiar gifts in the service of reason, it constantly adds its
contribution to the divine spectacle the Lord of the heavens
and the earth has created in the unfolding of the human
mind. We will therefore designate as the task of history: To
become the exponent of, and bring to our comprehension, the
development of the human intellect up to the present time,
in the prosecution of its labors and the realization of its
ideas.1
It follows from this what nations we have to deal with in history. A
number of nations in spite of belonging to the genus humanum have no
place in history. If we concede a preference in treatment to certain nations like the Greeks, Romans, Germans, French, English, etc., it is given,
because firstly, they have most fully accomplished the inborn task allotted
to man, of developing human interest; and secondly, because those nations
form the links as it were il a course of development, in so far as the historical life of a people in its contact with another acts as an incentive:
Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Germans; and thirdly, because they form a serial development which loads up




CHAPTER II.


On the Use of History.
IT seems useless on the one hand to lose a word in regard
to the use of history, as its widespread study among scholars
as well as teachers is sufficiently known.     On the other
hand, the inquirer is met by the well-known words of the
Chevalier de Panat: " Ils n'ont rien appris ni rien oubli6 ";
and Hegel says in his Philosophy of History, p. 9, "What
history and 'experience teach us is this, that nations and
governments have never learned anything from history, nor
have they acted according to precepts derived from it.
Every age has such peculiar circumstances, is such an individual condition, that it must be judged in this condition,
and by it, and can only be so judged of."
Certainly, no one will to-day commit the folly of allowing
a success or an error of the past to serve as a standard of
judgment for the present.    But those who generalize these
words to this, that the teachings of history have shown themselves as perfectly useless in regard to the conditions of the
present, seem partly to commit the error of ascribing      an
to our own point of view. The preference we give is herewith exhausted,
but not the material. The science of history has representatives that
extend their investigations to the nations most remote from us, to wherever the peculiar development of human intellect is recognizable; while
revealing new aspects of mind, of which our inmost life consists, history
completes that which in the course of events was omitted in our development; adding to that of the Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans,
also that of the Hindoos, Iranians, and Mongols, thus giving us a broader
basis upon which to continue our own development.- (Wm. von Humboldt
on the Kcawi langugae, XVII.)




30


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


intenser influence and wider spread to the study of history
than it enjoys; their demand, too, seems partly unfair. For
the teachings of history to subdue passions susceptible to no
precept, or to overthrow dogmas that have gradually become
flesh and blood, as it were, is a demand not made upon any
science. But whether this handmaid of truth refuses her
services to him, who, unprejudiced, seeks nothing but the
truth; whether with her aid the blind outbreaks of passion,
or dogmatic religious and political fanaticism cannot be anticipated, on that point let us for a while reserve our judgment.   But of~ this let us first take notice, that whoever
undertakes to treat exhaustively of a disputed question,
must, in order to be armed for the future, go back to its
origin, and follow all its changes to the present.
It is not our intention to write a panegyric on the " teacher
of wisdom." But when the attempt has been made on the
other side, and was considered necessary, to mould all historical material for schools very effectively in favor of certain views, it may seem proper to investigate what use can
be derived from history by itself, without special adaptation.
Let us suppose the recollection of the past to be extinguished with reference to the present; what would be the
consequences? Man doubtless would be left entirely to the
momentary impressions made upon him by external objects,
-a slave to outward objects; individuality would be entirely
wanting in that sovereignty of consciousness which recognizes the spirit and rejects all seeming.
What confusion would be caused in the heart of human
society, if evils are to be corrected, imperfections made perfect. Experimenting as thoughtless as ever occurred in a
/mob revolt would ensue, and quiet progress could not be
reached until the sum of aims, power, and means resolved
itself by the test of time into solid and evanescent elements.




THE USE OF HISTORY.


31


Earlier unsuccessful attempts would be repeated, to meet with
the same fate. The system of the middle ages might gain
proselytes to-day, and on the other hand the realization of
4galit4, fraternite, liberte'! be striven for as it existed in the
revolutionary sense of 1789. The political economist might
find the system of substitutes and the hire of mercenaries
more rational than general compulsory military service;
to another to be constantly under arms, and self-help might
seem the proper remedy for the insecurity of the streets.
Unexpectedly some one who does not intend it might find
himself on the way to Canossa; and even now, some one who
has the success of national government at heart might advocate religious dissension as the ultimate aim of state schools.
The man who has once simulated honesty might again
deceive his fellow-citizens; the speaker who often persuaded
his hearers to folly might again display his eloquence.
Every historical aim is justified to a certain extent, and according to circumstances an individual may occasionally
judge its causes correctly; but opinions so arrived at can
only become common property in the course of time.
If this general meaning of history is made convincingly
clear, then the separate elements of the practical, intellectual
as well as moral education can be proved at which the study
of history aims.
The mental faculty, to use a popular phrase, which is most
constantly taxed and made use of is the imagination; for
neither the whole of anything in question is ever sensuously
perceptible in a single space of time; nor, indeed, are any of
its phases of development.  The entire substance of our
thoughts is known to spring from our sensuous perceptions
of the external world, as well as of those within ourselves.
It now becomes necessary to combine into new and manifold
forms the views we have so far arrived at by the guidance




32


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


of the historian; they must be different in quality, and extend in scope far beyond the horizon of sensuous perceptions; processes must be imagined of an external as well as
an internal kind that the sensuous eye has never perceived.
In the reconstruction of a past world, in living over its phases,
the imagination has abundant material for practice. If the
pictures thus created lack the freshness and definiteness of
a sensuous view, they have the advantage of mobility in
their combined elements over those of reproduction from our
own sensuous perception; they give freedom and elasticity
to the mind, and enable us by original productiveness intellectually to reconstruct the world of the future.  Further:
while the mind follows the history of mankind as a whole, as
it appears in the history of its various representatives, the
nations of the earth, it becomes familiar with the views and
ideas that are important to them as a totality.
By means of history these ideas arrive at the greatest possible psychic development. I can reach them more quickly if
I receive their definition from some learned man and impress
them upon my memory; but ideas without individual views
of them are void. They are only fruitful if I arrive at them
by exertion, - work for them. Everywhere and at all times
we are met by individual phenomena in history like the
Egyptian state in the time of Rameses, Menephta, Psammetich, Necho, etc.; the Athenian state in 594, 480, etc.;
the states of the Germans French, and English, each one distinctive in each period. In countless separate views we find
the same idea underlying. Similar elements are merged into
one idea; dissimilar ones separate, but memory retains them.
When the fecundity of developing ideas depends upon the
wealth of views gained, this demand is fulfilled. This, too,
is the case with the ideas of Nature, country, climate, etc.,
law, society, liberty, religion, courage, manliness, justice,




THE USE OF HISTORY.


883


patriotism, and self-sacrifice, with those of art, science, commerce, industry, enterprise, etc., as with their negatives.
Unconsciously and without exertion the boy enjoys all the
results the labor of his forefathers has achieved. In so far
the child itself seems endowed with higher truth, higher
goodness, and higher beauty than a genius of the past. But
in the realm of development, possession without toil means
nothing; exertion everything.  If the intellectual possessions of the present are not to melt under our hands, they
must be acquired anew; first of all, ideas.  " What you
have inherited from your fathers, acquire it, in order to possess it."
The mind derives an equal gain from the observation of
developments. If I have learned to comprehend one process
thoroughly, then the comprehension of a similar second process becomes easier; a third one will be easier still. When I
have arrived at the understanding of the historical development of the laws of Solon, as for instance, the conditions
that led to them, the conflicting interests, the statesmanlike
plan, the ways and means of executing them, their separate
aims, and their success, then I have gained in practical
preparation for other achievements in proportion as the
material contents of the latter and my developed mental
activity are capable of entering as integral parts into other
occurrences; in this case principally into legislative activity.
(Benecke.)
The comprehension of an excellent plan of battle enables
me to understand a second; the comprehension of a work on
any subject facilitates the mastery of another similar one,
and thus it is with all historical subjects.
The nature of a country seems of far-reaching influence on
the development of a people; the formation and kind of
soil, the wealth of navigable streams, its coast and climate.




84


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


If this influence is clear to me in regard to one or two
nations, I am in the case of a third all the more capable of
understanding and establishing the facts independently, and
eventually to recognize what natural direction its endeavors
would take for the future. Further: in order correctly to
understand and appreciate a deed, a phase of progress of
general importance, the precise fundamental outlines of the
conditions must be established upon which the reorganization took place. Having succeeded once in reaching a comprehensive view, and uniting all its relative phases in one
picture, the mind will not a second time encounter the difficulty
of having to avoid narrowness of judgment, and narrowness
in attempts at original production. Finally, when the human
mind has entered into the various activities for supplying
primitive needs, providing food, shelter, and security; or
obviating primitive evils, like failure of crops, floods, and
sterility of the soil, by discoveries and inventions; then the
observer gains insight into vast plans and arrangements, and
the intermediate stages of achieving them, and will in future
grasp all these phenomena more easily.
The intellectual labor of man takes a higher flight, and
hand in hand with it the development of the observer, as
soon as man strives to reach conditions beyond his immediate needs; when freed from the daily struggle for existence,
man undertakes to achieve conditions far exceeding all former experience; be it in the fields of science to approach his
ideal of truth; be it in the province of art to realize his
idea of beauty, or in a practical direction, not only to realize the ideality of one individual, but to mould the condition of millions of others, in one respect at least according to
the highest view possible to the spirit of the age: as, for
instance, the freedom of a nation, and inviolability of state
boundaries; security of national development against native




THE USE OF HISTORY.


35


and foreign enemies; the welfare of the people by giving play
to all the forces of national life in lawful liberty, and as a
means to the end the plans developed by the inspiring genius
of a Fredric William, a Fredric, a Stein, and others.
We often complain that many a man is impractical who
has arrived at a ripe moral judgment and is filled with the
noblest aims. Want of skill in the business routine of conventional local forms, and trifling means, the use of which
must be learned by practice, are not in question here, but the
want of knowledge of successful intellectual means is meant,
and the faculty of calculating their results. At every progressive step history inquires into the why and wherefor, and
into the inner connection of different plans or processes in
their direction toward an ideal end. Whether we go back
from the event to its inception, or from the plans forward to
the end to be reached, the cause or plan may be developed
as follows: The mind will practically gain in the sense indicated; in the first instance by a series of causes, in the
second by their reverse, a series of means to ends.
When, as above suggested, an observer of the historical
development of the human race becomes familiar with the
thoughts, the conception and achievement of which has
hitherto been. the work of the human mind, and always will
be in its progress to perfection, an abundance of new instruction arises to him from the observation of the representative of historical labor, man himself. To the intellectual
education of man are added the fruits of observation gathered
from every variety of the human mind. The soul of Achilles
and Thersites, of Leonidas and Epiphaltes, Socrates and
Meletos, Alexander and Herostrates, Jesus and Barchochba,
Sulla and Caesar, Augustus and Marc Aurelius, Theodoric
and Belisar, Otto and Berengar, Henry IV. and Gregory, of
the Fredrics, Innocent, Luther, and Loyola, Gustavus Adol



36


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


phus and Wallenstein, of the great Elector, and Maximillian
of Bavaria, Fredric and Lessing, Schiller, Goethe, Stein,
Fichte, Arndt, etc., all these pass before our minds in their
individuality. We contemplate the thoughts and sentiments
of all these men, and by virtue of the inborn instinctive apprehension of man, we can comprehend them. If we succeed
with one, we shall succeed more easily with another, and we
acquire the fundamental condition necessary to all judgment
in regard to other individuals,- the faculty of understanding others.
But the light which has come to my mind, and illumines
the minds of others for me, is still more richly reflected,
because whatever has sprung from general human emotions
are points of enlightenment for the forms of my own mind,
giving me self-knowledge through knowledge of others, and
knowledge of others through self-knowledge.  A  second
advantage arises from difference in the degrees of development. If we have acquired our knowledge of various characters only by hasty contact with others, our faculty of judging mankind is not adequate to the present culture of the
race. We should find ourselves largely influenced by a shallow, commonplace standard. But, if we move in a high
intellectual and moral sphere, how great will be our advantage; while in either case our standard will not be above
that of our surroundings.
Humanity, as it falls within the observation of a single
individual, only forms a part of the complete development of
the race. Even if we had in the present been able to contemplate the most perfect personality, still there was but one
Fredric, but one Stein, one Goethe, and one Schiller. The
great characters of all times can only furnish the true standard to correspond with our age, and the persons of the
present; but not in the sense of nil admirari alone.




THE USE OF HISTORY.


37


Imagination can create a standard of immeasurable height
which we cannot reach, and in its flight may also lose the
standard of its individual weakness.  Together with selfknowledge, history teaches us what degree and scope of perfection the intellectual power of one human being can attain;
so that, while on the one hand it elevates our judgment above
the level of the commonplace, gives us instead of an imposing unreality, the higher aims of mankind as its aim; on the
other it restrains us from weakly criticism and enervating
complaint. It neutralizes our admiration for the commonplace, but wins recognition for the weaker power that toils
for the good of the whole, while it ridicules boastful vainglory. It also sows the seeds deep into the mind from which
just admiration of human ideals is to spring.  It will be
readily perceived that to comprehend different individualities in one's nation lays the foundation for national pride,
and guards against national vanity; to this we will return
later. After attempting to point out the direct influence
which the comprehension of the contents of historical movements and their representatives exercise upon the observer,
let us also allude to the' increased distinctness of the impression which may result from the form of the historical development.
The warring of One against all, that raged before permanent governments were established, breaks out anew among
nations that do not recognize a higher authority that peacefully regulates their claims; in a nobler form this warfare
continues in the free contest of minds within the limits of
established law. It often happens that opposing forces are
equally justified in their demands, as when the swords of
one party maintain the integrity of their country, and those
of the other their claims upon its territory.  Neither is
struggle wanting in the free national life of a well-ordered




38


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


state, carried on by the weapons of intellect, and elevated,
at least among the noblest of the champions, from a conflict
of interests to a contest for principles.  What principle
seems best adapted to mould the future of a people ideally,
is the question. To this the honest conviction of one man
answers thus; that of another, apparently equal to the first,
gives a contrary reply. Contest in the battle-field as well
as in council taxes our powers to the utmost; it is there
that the highest manly virtue is developed, and those ideas
finally prevail which are most fully adapted to the inmost
wants of the time, and therefore stir the moral faculties of
mankind most persistently and deeply. It will be written in
flaming characters in the future, who has erred and who has
not; where wrong prevailed and where enlightenment.
The great result to be gained by the observation of scenes
like these is that the mind learns to view the same thing
from different sides, to form purer and higher conceptions of
truth, and to establish profounder convictions, beside freeing
the powers of the future from the necessity of exhausting
themselves in the removal of errors already overcome.
It seems almost superfluous to waste time on the moral
culture which the study of history affords. For, if the history of mankind-is not a confused mass of accidents, but a
partly conscious and partly unconscious endeavor toward
attaining greater completeness in the circumstances of life,
progressing from the supply of a momentary want to the
realization of ideas, then he who follows the course of this
development, and has realized it in himself, as it were, must
arrive at the high moral status of one who engaged with
youthful enterprise in the work before him, in manhood saw
the breadth and depth of humanity unfold itself to his view,
and strove to make its lot happier; who now, on the brink
of eternity, inspired with immortal thoughts, sees the commonplace reduced to its true insignificance.




THE USE OF HISTORY.


39


Is there more required than the contemplation and comprehension of moral effort in order to appreciate and love it?
Two horsemen are seen dashing across the battle-field; one
toward the raging battle, the other turning his back upon the
tumult; is there a proof needed even for the simple mind
of a child to show who was in the right, whose example
should be followed? An unspoiled normal human being will
take part for the good against evil without hesitation, if his
interests and passions are not involved; he will feel himself
attracted by the one and repelled by the other. Providence
has so created him; and it is no merit of his, that being so
created, he cannot do otherwise. Far behind him lies the
actual occurrence of the historical events that occupy him.
Undisturbed by base inclinations, his moral sense will be
strengthened by them; from an inherent necessity of nature
he experiences an enlargement of his inner life by contemplating a noble act, and is depressed by a base one. The
emotions caused by similar actions on one side or the other
combine to produce a consciousness in him of the moral value
of modes of actions, and the value of their fruits, according
as their effect upon his mind is transient or lasting, is intellectual or physical. In this way a general moral standard is
developed from the true gradation of values to the summit
of ideas.  It follows from this that moral culture will be
mainly limited to the virtues demanded by public life and
those which it causes to flourish: this is the object of contemplating an historical personage. It may amuse us for a
while to turn from great public events, in order to follow
the details of private life, and thus to approach the human
side of an heroic character; still, that seems more like a
digression. The impressions of life as a whole, and of an
effort made for the good of the whole, flow into the heart in
rich abundance. Every event is regarded in its relation to




40


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


the whole; and, in this light, indignation at a deed that panders to selfishness must increase, even if the cunning of fate,
as it were, uses it to feed the stream of general development.
The moral sense revels when an individual soul dedicates
itself to the service of the whole, ready for every sacrifice,
even that of life itself.  Patriotism, unselfish devotion,
sacrifice for an idea, - when do these move the human
heart more deeply than when, in the general struggle of
human forces, they have found an abiding-place in beings
human like ourselves, and the last breath of the heroes who
died in their service was an Io, triunmphe!
What more effectually shows the superiority of substance
over shadow; what more closely identifies truth with life,
than the crucial test of history? If the tree of human progress shall grow, manly worth must assert itself in every generation. The glory that surrounded the age of Louis XIV.
was revealed in its true worth in the 18th century. Just as a
generation which boastfully rests its greatness on the achievements of its forefathers is exposed in all its hollowness, so
it is with an individual. The favor of persons and influence
may momentarily lift even a weakling to prominence, but
they cannot endow him with the power which alone holds out
in the labor, the combat, and storm of the life which makes
history. If delusions at first artificially kindle enthusiasm,
depression is sure to follow; but the fulness of healthy
emotion, which leads to the contemplation of true greatness,
will beget hatred of wrong and love for the enduring power
of right.
Intellectual activity is the first requirement of historical
progress.  If this generation were languidly to fold its
hands in its lap in spite of a thousand years of ancestral
labor, the nation would at once plunge into a condition that
might induce the historian rather to turn a new leaf and
employ his pen on the history of the Madagasses




THE USE OF HISTORY.


41


The foresight given us by historical study will indicate
national decline as the result of indolence; progress as that
of activity. In so far even the success of a moral monstrosity
will exercise a moral influence, -fas est ab hoste doceri.
Who will feel inspired by the moral worth of a Sulla, or
Richard III.? At the same time the impression we get of
them is not wholly revolting; the designing wisdom and undaunted energy, upon which their part in history is founded,
must be taken into account, and impresses this lesson upon
the mind,- that right and a good conscience require manliness in their responsible champions.
But does not evil in history have a demoralizing influence?
Ought not the good always to be rewarded and the bad to be
punished according to divine justice? Whoever is met by
this question might be puzzled to find a proper answer from
among phases of history within his scope. History conducts
us over this obstacle by other paths than those of religion,an obstacle which doubtless frequently wrecks undeveloped
moral aspiration. History accustoms man to see the life of
an individual everywhere in relation to the whole; many
times it rouses those loftier emotions within him which selfsacrifice awakens when contrasted with selfishness. It prepares him to understand that higher happiness attained by
those who devoted themselves to the service of an idea, and
found their greatest satisfaction in that devotion, greater
even than the happiness which the favor of circumstances
might have lent to their material lives, and this leads to the
comprehension that in such a life a good deed carries its
own reward.
But history also affords the satisfaction of knowing that
the ideas advanced by vigorous advocates have at last triumphed in defiance of every obstacle, and have immortalized the noble men who fought, suffered, and died in their




42


INSTRUCTION IN HISTOR~Y.


defence. There is finally nothing left but to point out what
influence the study of history has upon the mind in developing Justice.
The child enters from its birth into fixed views; as it grows
in understanding, its own views are necessarily moulded
by the influence of his surroundings. It acquires readymade opinions without exertion.  A general human view
gives way more and more to that of party. It acquires
blind prejudices of class, of faction, and of religion, and
the result is injustice toward those of other modes of thinking. It is the mission of history first and foremost to help
that which is generally human to assert its rights, to initiate
a rejuvenation of thought, and secure for justice its place in
the struggle of factions. Of course it is not that method of
history which regardlessly attempts to prove a tendency in
any one direction, unwilling to say "' just how it has been ";
nor that which tries to show a semblance of truth by occasional words, such as, "' Of course we recognize," etc.; but
that which simply puts the question, How did this or that
historical phenomenon originate? How on the basis of this
or that general human faculty did certain views arise? What
circumstances developed it into fixed opinions? To what
extent did it find faithful advocates? What historical influence did it exercise on the progress of events? When all
these and similar questions are answered, it is to be hoped
that the fruits of the investigation will be the foundation of
full and determined party convictions.  The partisan will
never be stronger than the man in one who honors conviction
and moral force even in an opponent.
History may be all the more active in its attempts not to
allow justice to remain a mere locus in morals, or a sigh of
the oppressed, because it affords a wide range of activity
to the mind, into which prejudice cannot easily enter. Of




THE USE OF HISTORY.


43


course, it is important to our civilization that Athens, and
not Persia,- that Scipio, and not Hannibal, - conquered in
the past; but it will not require much effort to estimate
Darius, as well as Hannibal, according to his human worth.
If, when contemplating this material, the desire and faculty
have been roused unbiased to hear and understand each
party, which requires a really judicial procedure, then the
power will be gained, while judging nearer events, to repress
blind fanaticism, and arrive at truly exalted opinions, -at
knowledge of one's opponents and recognition of their weaknesses as well as of their powers; justice will be done to
enemies, especially to those, who, in spite of insurmountable
differences of opinion, should be our friends by virtue of a
common language, common nationality, and a common government.
If we have hitherto spoken of education for an ideal
activity, for justice, etc., this should be regarded merely as
an example of a more extensive influence of history. As a
distinct conception ordinarily becomes an example regulating
the conduct of others;l for instance, a scientific combination of unusual perfection simultaneously develops into a
model, constantly present to our minds, and into a lively
impulse which will not let us rest until we have expressed
other trains of thought in the same form, so likewise does
this process manifest itself in practical affairs.
If we see upon the domain of legislation, of science, of
literature, or of art, an image of perfection for its own era
in the life, taken as a whole, of an individual or a nation
(simple and restricted as the features of that era may be
when compared to those of to-day), the example thus furnished us, if clearly and powerfully apprehended, will vigorously impel us to mould the present to a similar perfection.
1 Bencke I., ~ 12.




44


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


To this extent the influence of the remotest past extends
to the distant future, and contributes to the education of the
human race through its own activity in the service of the
good, true, and beautiful.
Win. von Humboldt says, in his above-mentioned work:
" The value of history is not confined to its detached examples or warnings, which often mislead, and seldom instruct.
Its true invaluable merit is to enliven and purify the mind
for practical action, more through the form which is connected with events than through the events themselves; to
prevent it from wandering in the region of mere ideas, and
yet to control it by ideas: but while we often follow the narrow path between the opposing errors, constantly to remind
us that we can effectively take part in the course of events,
only by clearly recognizing and resolutely maintaining the
essential aim of the ideas prevalent at the moment." And
further on he says: "' The business of the historian, reduced
to its last and simplest form, is to represent the struggles of
an idea to gain a foothold in reality."
If this is the essence of history, then its results may coincide with Schiller's advice:"Drum paart mit eurem sch6nsten Gliick
Mit Schwarmers Ernst des Weltmanns Blick."
If the preceding pages have correctly described the advantages which the essence of history spontaneously offers to
its observers, it needs no editing in usum Delphini for our
German boys (except the mere helps to understanding it,
expected from the teacher), in order that the lessons it
imparts to them may be such as to forward our national
welfare.
The German boy will then learn to reconstruct in imagination the distant scenes of antiquity, that he may also judge
the history of his own country with reference to its local




THE USE OF HISTORY.


45


conditions. He will learn to know and to comprehend the
natures of various portions of humanity, in order to understand his contemporaries.
He will learn to grasp general relations and their effects
upon man, in order to comprehend the situation of his countrymen, and penetrate into the possibilities of the future.
He will learn how man can modify the conditions surrounding him, in order hereafter, by word and deed, to aid his
country in weal and woe.
He will penetrate to the comprehension of historical ideas,
and trace their progress to realization, in order some day
vigorously to grasp the ideas of his own time; but he will
also learn to sympathize with every German boy in universal
indignation at evil deeds, and in rejoicing at every good and
noble action. From the great thoughts and ideas of such
men who have devoted themselves, regardless, to the service
of ideas, even if they erred, and must be sought in a hostile
camp, he will imbibe enthusiasm and confidence to do his
best in life for what he recognizes as truth.
He will learn to judge and appreciate his future opponent
according to the circle of ideas in which he finds him, in
order hereafter nobly to carry on the strife himself.
Before all, he will learn to love and practice truth and
justice, even to his enemies; and while the strife of men is
raging about him, and the truth is obscured by the whirling
dust, he will see it pure and undimmed, and on his future
entrance to the scene of action he will raise the strife of ideas
to a higher plane, or aim at a higher unity. But he will not
lose the teachings of history, and learn to hate his fellowcitizen in blind fanaticism; nor will he learn to condemn
differences of opinion before he learns to understand them,
- not hear, as Socrates complains, arTEXv^s 'pru1rv KarTyopvvTra a7roXoyovfLEvov ov8ev6; (those who deliver their accusations
to empty air where there are none to defend).




I
46           INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.
I *hen, perhaps, we shall approach the goal pointed out by
the author of the first part.
Happy the people upon whose nature the sense of fellowship, and the feeling of nationality, are so deeply stamped,
that they overcome and reduce to subordination any diversities which may yet remain, even those which lie deepest, -
diversities of education, of rank, of religion itself. How
fortunate for Germany if every German Catholic cared more
for every German Protestant than he did for the Catholic of
another country; and vice versa, of course. All would then
combine to maintain the good possessed by their country in
common, and to win what it still needs.




CHAPTER III.


Introduction.
BEFORE any definite advice in regard to the teaching of
history is discussed, it seems advisable to take a view of the
foundations upon which the theory of instruction must rest.
The time is past when it seemed sufficient to train the public
school teacher according to a given rule. He undervalues
his task if he does not arrive at conscious convictions in
regard 'to the exercise of his art, - in teaching history, perhaps, more than in other branches; for just as, thirty years
ago, Loebell denied the existence of an historical method, we
cannot to-day point conclusively to a " generally known and
recognized method of teaching history." Every one must
carefully reflect in order not to waver from one seemingly
plausible method to another, soon to forsake that also. In
order not to run the risk of finding ourselves quite lost amid
the confusion and rhetorical kinds of treatment to which this
important part of our subject has too often been subjected,
or not to refuse to treat it at all, discouraged by the vagueness and ambiguity of the expressions, which are frequently
praised or blamed only according to the diversity of meaning
attributed to them, a few words on the various forms of
historical transmission may be here added, as well as on
the limitation of the material for purposes of instruction;
further, its arrangement, and finally on prescribed methods
and tendencies.




48


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


I. THE VARIOUS CLASSES OF HISTORICAL WRITING.
In characterizing the various kinds of history, we will follow the expositions in Gervinus " Grundriss der Historik."
The first 'form in which history is transmitted is that of
genealogies, such as those recorded by Manetho of the Egyptian Pharaohs, or those of the Jews, or of the German
States, as they have from time to time been impressed on
our minds to quicken our religious and patriotic sense. The
second form is that of the chronicle or annals, a mechanical
recital of contemporary facts in chronological order; only
outward acts, without reference to motives are observed,
and divine interference replaces natural causes. In ages of
national progress this develops into popular history. National consciousness when aroused requires the recollection
of the past, like a self-made man who follows up his hitherto
remote family history.
One might take various chronicles as a basis, and give a
series of stories from the life of a nation in chronological
order, and under favorable circumstances with an external
connection. The founding of the Roman republic is represented by the story of the portenttum, the mission to Delphi,
the besieging of Ardea, the outrage to Lucretia, and the
revolt.  These previous events, however, do not in themselves sufficiently explain why such consequences must almost
inevitably follow; for have not similar horrors been perpetrated without similar consequences? More modern events
can be similarly represented; Napoleon I., Jena, Auerstitt;
the reforms of Stein and Sharnhorst; the winter in Russia;
the I' Appeal to my people "; battles, etc. All these events
are connected; but even if the events and deeds of these
men are inspiring, they furnish no insight into the reasons of
this internal progress as it resulted from the combined and




INTRODUCTION.


49


opposing action of existing forces. As these stories derive
their interest from their national character, it is of no consequence whether they are important or not. They will all
be magnified by national feeling instead of being dwarfed by
a general view of humanity. Livy and Johann von Mfiller
offer examples of this method of writing history. The third
form is that of the memoir. Stein in his well-known memorial of April, 1806, in which he undertook to point out
the evils of cabinet government to the king, presupposed
a knowledge of the circumstances as they had previously
existed, and as they were still in practice between the king
and his ministers, and merely mentioned them. His immediate object was to explain the causes of the former and
present procedure, and point out their advantages and disadvantages.
Accordingly, a memorial does not narrate but presupposes
the relation of facts: it simply reasons on historical events,
strives to derive all these 'circumstances from their sources,
to refer the actions of persons to their motives, to explain
their decisions, and throw light on the results; consequently
it has the form of moral and political instruction. The Stein
memorial, however, represents a certain ideal of its kind.
Most men are wanting in largeness of historical view. A
memoir is confined to a narrow circle of the present, and
mostly seeks the reasons for its phenomena in the present,
and searches for the most hidden details within this limit;
"it hears the grass grow," as the saying is, and is quite
capable of explaining the policy of Pericles from motives of
ambition and the love of power.
As national history is connected with chronicles, so is the
memoir with the pragmatic form of written history.  The
definition of pragmatic history is generally taken from
Polybius.  Brought with thousands of his countrymen to




50


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


Rome, he saw how the history of all nations, the olKov/iiEV7,
converged toward one point; that the fate of Carthage and
all countries west of Italy centred, and that of the eastern
countries began to centre, in the Roman empire.
(Pol. I. 3. )  "In early times all events were detached, —
since those times history begins to unite as into one body,and all events move, as it were, toward one point."
( I. 4.) " History therefore should permit us to survey at
one glance the course which Fate has taken to bring all
events to completion.'
(I. 2.)   But the Romans, after subjugating, not merely
single districts, but nearly the whole world, have erected
an empire of such power that their fellow-men must be as4
tounded at it, and posterity will never be able to exceed it."
In detail this will be more plainly shown by our work, which
will at the same time prove of what great and manifold use
7rpayuatKK7 to-ropta can be to those eager to learn. The pragmatic form of historical writing accordingly has for its object
to exhibit the relation of events in their tendency to an end
which has been ordained for history by Providence.  It
endeavors to show by what means hitherto this end has been
gained, and by so doing at the same time to instruct the
learner on the proper modes of procedure for the future.
It is easily seen that this method of Polybius can be
applied to other ages, and will be preferred when the historian individually regards an event, either as controlling all
others, or even specially important.  A  contemporary of
Innocent III. might have related events since the birth of
Christ as converging only toward the supremacy of Roman
theocracy, and have pointed out to the initiated the ways
and means of extending it still farther.
As the form of the memoir can be employed to impart
instruction on the separate questions and aims of the pres



INTRODUCTION.


51


ent, so pragmatic history regards all preceding historical
development as a background of action for the attainment
of a single aim.
However many advantages attach to the pragmatic form
of treating history, there is an objection to which it may
easily be exposed, -a twofold error to which it must be
subject. The danger consists in this, that it represents all
development as simply the result of the conscious intentions
and actions of men, while other forces are not considered.
(See below, fourth form.)  For example, "the Romans have
erected an empire of such power," etc.
The error is, firstly, this, that the pragmatic writer under-, takes to make an aim which lies entirely in the present appear
as the converging point to which all preceding development
has tended; as Polybius, for instance, at the time of the
ancient supremacy of Rome, which in a distant future will
appear only as a single phase in a series of developments,
parallel with many other series which at the moment were
less predominant. Secondly, the entire series of events is considered only in one of its relations, - that is, with reference to
the assumed end, - and not in its natural complexity; thus
many phenomena tending to this end cannot be suitably connected with the remainder. Polybius hardly mentions social
phenomena at all.1
That form of writing history which exhausts its subject
and is satisfactory not only at a special period, one in fact
that does not impress a transitory character upon historical
science, is not therefore adapted to the pragmatic form of
writing history.
1 A treatment of history is equally subject to this error, which uses history
as a background for the "Kingdom of God" on earth according to the
Protestant or Catholic dogma. " Profane " painting and sculpture, political activity, etc., will receive no consideration in a narrative based upon
the principle of church history.




52


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


The writing of pragmatic history may also be understood in
another sense, which explains the censure or praise it has received from different quarters. Gervinus thinks that a purely
fictitious narrative cannot fail of a didactic result, - still
less so historical writing which deals with actual man; and
that, if the didactic mode of expression be regarded as in fiction compared with an objectional kind of historical writing,
therefore, the true sense of the pragmatic method is not to
be looked for in Polybius, but in the great Italians, Paolo
Sarpi, Guicciardini, and Davila, and is characterized by its
derivation from the memoirs of a time abounding in such
writings, and its nature is, " to explain psychologically, and
with reference to human motives, the occasions and defects
of historical occurrences."  He does not heed how small a
measure he is applying to the great march of historical events
in attempting to explain human affairs by the petty motives
of individuals.'
Others, again, understand by pragmatic history that which,
avoiding the mere recital of disconnected facts, or a series
of loosely arranged narrations, and likewise avoiding abstract
reasoning, seeks to explain historical phenomena from their
ultimate natural causes, whether human or superhuman.
This last approaches the fourth form of treating history.
The pragmatic conception of history, in the sense applied to
the epithet by Gervinus, suggests the notion of rowing entertained by a child whose first view of an oarsman is obtained
over a dike which intercepts his view of the water, and who
1 The writer of popular history is concerned with the early period of
national development, which exhibits the whole mass of the people in
action. and concerns itself with the nature, gifts, the character and the
exploits of individuals. On the other hand, the pragmatic writer originates in a later period when national power is weakened, and when the
course of events is controlled by individuals of superior ingenuity, who
conduct affairs by ingenious means; by intrigue, calculation, and diplomacy.




INTRODUCTION.


53


consequently imagines that similar movements would enable
him to glide over his native meadows.
The pragmatic writer, in the wider sense, resembles the
observer who stands at the point for which a boat is making,
knowing the power of the stream, and all the reefs and shallows of the channel, and now watches the crew battling its
way among them. What if we entered the boat ourselves,
and shared the struggle, the fear, and the hope that inspires
the seamen to reach their destination.
To follow the stream of history consciously, it does not
suffice to comprehend human endeavor alone, nor do we reap
the iight harvest if we coolly watch the work from a distance.
All active and creative forces of history are to be kept in
view, and their study forms the special province of the historian (W. von Humboldt). "' Human efforts, even those of
the mightiest, are often defied by other forces. The form and
structure of the soil most effectually influenced the history of
the valley of the Nile; the peculiarity of climate, the history
of the Balkan peninsula, the occupations of the Peloponnesians, their laws, the mental constitution of the Italians, defied
the genius of a Hannibal; the intellectual activity and peculiarity of the Germans defies foreign or spiritual oppression.
The influence of art and science bore its part in reviving the
progress of our people. The constitution of Old England
rejected the government of the Stuarts as a heterogeneous
element. But why, above all, did the heroism of Coriolanus
find no abiding place in Rome; why did the honorable Brutus
stain himself in vain with the blood of his friend, or the high
tribunal with that of the Nazarene? Was it an accident in
human fate that Barbarossa's brilliant grandson saw his
life's happiness wrecked at Firenzuola. Was it an accident
that Luther escaped the stake at which Huss was sacrificed?
Did Prussia owe it to the favor of nature alone which pro



54


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


duced a Fredric, that it did not succumb to a world in arms?
Was it only the Russian winter, or the valor of the Prussians
of 1806, that overthrew the universal empire of Napoleon?
Was the success of 1870 due alone to Moltke's genits? and
where does a young nobleman and diplomat learn to write a
style which our first authors may justly envy?  Simple as
well as reflecting faith says: God has given it; God has
ordained it! Historical science, while honoring God in all,
searches for agents which Providence has used, and above
all points to one creative force, - the historical idea!
The term is no longer as vague as it might seem to many,
even if Gervinus writes in 1837: ' The significance and
effectiveness, even the mere existence, of such ideas has
mostly escaped the insight of historians and critics."
W. von Humboldt, in his excellent essay on the work of
the historian, says: " If the historian has analyzed, singly
and in connection with eacli other, the sum of creative forces
directly presented by events, there remains a powerfully
active principle which, though not directly manifest, yet lends
impulse and direction to those forces and ideas, those namely,
which according to their nature lie beyond the finite, but
still permeate and rule the world's history in all its parts.
This idea finds expression in a twofold manner: first, as a
tendency, which, though unimportant in the beginning, becomes gradually visible, and finally irresistible, and seizes
many men in different places and under different circumnstances; secondly, as an expression of force, which in its
extent and dignity is not to be inferred from its accompanying circumstances."
A few examples may be mentioned: In Sparta, the idea of
Peloponnesian, and, subsequently. Hellenic leadership; in
Athens, the idea of civic equality. to which first royalty, and
then aristocracy, falls a victim; the idea of Tyranny, which




INTRODUCTION.


55


became paramount in Argos, Corinth, Sicyon, Megara, and
in Athens, as well as in other places. Likewise, the idea of
national leadership on the part of Athens awakened by the
Persian war; the ideas of artistic production, especially in
the age of Pericles; and later, Greek unity under Macedonian
leadership, for the conquest of Asia.
In Rome, the same idea of civic equality in its struggle
during two centuries; the idea of the universal Roman
empire; the idea of autocracy over the citizens of Rome in
the last century of the republic; the religious ideas of
Mohammedanism, like those of Christianity, for the extension
of the faith; the idea of the Roman empire among the Germans; the idea of papal sway as the representative of God
on earth; that of German citizenship; of the Reformation;
princely power; that of liberte, fraternity, egalitd; that of
German unity and liberty; that of freedom of conscience;
equality before the law, etc. In the struggle of such similar
ideas as these against opposing and often declining tendencies the history of the world was shaped.
It would be a misconception of the truth to attribute a
predominant character of selfishness to such tendencies. It
is in the nature of the thing that the representatives of similar ideas were at first individuals or classes who expected
an improvement of their condition from the advanceient of
their idea. Even a Fredric, who was weary of ruling slaves,
and perhaps looked with discouragement to the future, did
not alone take the initiative of inaugurating an era of freer
development.
The Genesis of the above and kindred ideas, on the whole,
is probably this, that existing circumstances produce a sense
of discomfort and dissatisfaction; gradually the thought of
how to remove it, in what direction to steer, takes hold of
those most nearly concerned; to this question the common




56


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


conscience finds the response of a moral justification which
points to a common goal, and converts and elevates selfishness into public spirit. This, and the consciousness of acting
with and for a great idea, creates an impulse, and the enthusiasm and the readiness to sacrifice individual existence for
the idea.
Certain it is that undisguised selfishness largely clings to
the idea, and only noble natures feel Inobly in this way, and
are its true supporters; 1 without them the selfishness of the
masses would be physically crushed like a Catalinian conspiracy, by the egotism of the strongest; or, when the parties are equally matched, afford a spectacle like that of the
time of the thirty Tyrants in Athens.
While the pragmatic writer makes a final historical result
the aim of his investigations, and retrospectively gathers
facts from the range of phenomena which have influenced
that final result, the historian of ideas begins his work at
the source of development, with the appearance of the historical idea, and follows it through its struggles and victories
to old age, after the accomplishment of its work in order
then to trace the new forces that enter the lists against the
effete forms and prepare themselves for dominion.
While the pragmatic writer looks more to the outward
result of the active forces, from this point of view choosing
and discarding from among his material, the historian of
ideas follows the force, the activity of which actually constitutes history, and therewith has a safe standard by which
1 Lazarus, on "Ideas in History," page 73. It is certainly possible for
a statesman, even without ideal sentiments, to aid in introducing ideal institutions; but then he should not be regarded as their originator; those are
in fact to be so regarded who demand such institutions, and whom his
selfish interest requires him to gain over or pacify. But the creation of
moral or practical institutions of ideal worth, by mere chance, is as probable as the production of statues and pictures by chance would be in art.




INTRODUCTION.


57


to distinguish the important from the unimportant. Further,
while the pragmatic historian follows out an external result
he is apt to ascribe an undue influence to human actions,
while the historian of ideas takes the true propulsive power
as the groundwork of his delineation, and on this basis alone
human aspirations, thoughts, and labors receive just appreciation.
An idea not alone directs the volition of an age; it likewise begets the power for its own realization. What gave
its creative character to the age of Pericles? what their
unflinching fidelity to the first Christians, and their ardent
zeal to the priesthood of Gregory? whence did the Hussites
draw their distinctive force? whence Luther and Loyola their
power? what again inaugurated a literary epoch in Germany,
and strengthened the arms of our forefathers in 1813, and
of our brothers in 1870?  Did the mothers of those periods
happen to ripen the germ so rich in talent, receptivity, and
power? Did exactly those generations enjoy exceptionally
good training?  As young Themistocles was transformed
when the fame of Miltiades revealed the ruling idea of his
age to him, and Falstaff's comrade was changed when he
encountered the rebel Percy, so each one has experienced
within himself what manner of man he was when vegetating in the commonplace routine of daily life, and what when
realization of an idea quickened his endeavors. It was in
this way that the fugitives of Jena became the heroes of
Leipsic, - solely by the force of an idea.
We have thus far become acquainted with four modes of
writing history: (1) Genealogy. (2) The Chronicle, which
records events only in the order of their appearance; and,
springing from this, popular history, which, based on chronicles, furnishes a more outwardly connected history of a
people.  (3) The Memoir which discusses the causes and




58


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


results of a single historical fact, and the pragmatic form of
history hence derived which regards an objectively or subjectively important phase of the present as the point toward
which all previous activity of mal has been directed, and
generally making only a didactic use of this activity for
human affairs.   (4) The form  of history which directs its
attention to the ideas which successively originate, regarding
them as the forces which control epochs, quicken them, and
in their sequence represent the principal revelations of the
human soul.'
It would far exceed our allotted space to treat at all exhaustively of the historical idea, - of the causes which promote its origin, of the union in it; of necessity and freedom,
and the conditions of a powerful development of ideas in a
people.  This must be left to the study of works upon the
subject (W. von Humboldt, Gervinus, Lazarus2), and individual reflection.
It will be well to point in the beginning to an error the
historian or student may fall into who views universal history
according to ideas,- it is that of allowing ideas to overshadow historical life. We conceive ideas to be a power that
directs and stimulates the will, but it only becomes effective
and attains a brilliant development when individuals profoundly and energetically accept them. Far, therefore, from
ignoring the spontaneous activity of the individual in history,
the historian of ideas must insist upon it; he is only required not to regard human power as all-sufficient.  But, if
1 See Droysen's Historik, on the "Development of Ideas in the Origin
and Growth of History."
2 Lazarus on "Ideas in History." The extent and energy with which
ideas are comprehended furnishes the standard of education; the fervency
and strength of will in devotion to ideas furnishes sentiments; and both
constitute the individual character of man. The standard of ideality is
likewise that of individuality.




INTRODUCTION.


59


it were his intention to neglect no force, - least of all, that
which is most important for the comprehension of events,he is at the same time so far from looking upon human
actions as a puppet-show, that it is his immediate object to
bring to light the true effects of human activity, and rescue
it from the illusions of the commonplace.
As a further guide, we will mention the classification of
historical forms which Hegel gives in his Lectures on the
Philosophy of History, published by his adherents.  He
dwells upon one point of distinction, which is also well worth
notice in teaching history; but for the rest, his ideal — the
much talked of philosophical view of history - may be entertaining as a brilliant exposition, but it should be kept out of
the school-room.
Hegel first points out the difference between an original
and a reflective treatment of history. In the former, the
mind of the author becomes identified with the spirit of the
subject and the age which he describes; of this kind are
Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon's and Caesar's Commentaries, -all simple chronicles an(d memoirs, and all contemporary history, in fact. In the latter form the mind of the
author is far in advance of the spirit of the age which he
describes. As a poet invests the characters of an historical
drama with the spirit of his own time, so Livy makes the
Romans of the sixth and seventh centuries speak like the
lawyers of his day.
This suggests the remark, that in order to become familiar
with the spirit of any age we must read its contemporary
authors.
After Hegel has characterized the subdivisions of reflective
history, compilations, pragmatic and critical forms, and
special histories (those of art, law, etc.), he turns to the
philosophical treatment of history, that is, to the treatment
which a thinker should give it.




60


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


As an explanation of the difference between the abovementioned fourth class of history and the philosophical view
of it, the following may be added: -
Ilegel designates the ultimate aim of the world to be the
mind's consciousness of its freedom, and by this the actual
existence of freedom itself. The difference between Oriental,
Roman, Greek, and Christian history he maintains to consist
in this, that the Orientals only know that one is free (despotism); the Greeks and Romans only knew that some were
free (hence slavery); the Germanic nations alone arrived at
the consciousness, through Christianity, that man as man
is free; that universal history should have for its substance
the development of the self-conscious mind. The Hindoos
were an example of the dreaming mind, the spirit being resolved into the highest source. The world of inner consciousness was first revealed to the Persians in material
antithesis to the universe in light.               k
Among the Jews, the antithesis to the universal is spiritually
conceived, - in the one spirit, Jehovah.
In Egypt, the mind begins to emerge from the life of
nature.
In Greece, the mind was introspective, -it overcomes
that which is special, and by so doing frees itself.
Among the Romans, the mind, he says, was resolved into
generality, which makes mind itself universal.
In Christianity, the mind first withdraws into pure introspection in communion with the universal; then follows the
reconciliation, which is the introspective mind transforming
the world.
However freely the mind may soar above matter in this
attempt, a view of this kind will hardly be an advantage to
historical culture. It is certainly correct that development
of mind forms the substance of history, and yet W. von




INTRODUCTION.


61


Humboldt's remarks in regard to that view: ''Philosophy
dictates an aim to events; this search for final causes, however they may be deduced fromnt the being of man and nature
itself, disturbs and falsifies all independent opinion on the
peculiar, working of forces. Teleological history (reXos, an
end) will therefore never reach the living truth of the destiny
of the world's events, because the individual is always made
to culminate within the space of its brief existence, and
therefore cannot vivify the final aim of events, but seeks it
in rigid conditions and the notion of an ideal whole, be it in
the gradual cultivation and peopling of the earth, the increasing civilization of nations, the close uniting of all in the
final attainment of a perfect condition of society, or in any
such idea."
There is, therefore, a wide distinction to be made between
this philosophic view of history and the above one of taking
historical ideas as a basis. The latter traces the ideas which
at first unconsciously, then consciously, have given epochs
their direction, worth, and power; the former discusses the
relation of successive phenomena according to a standard of
present development.




CHAPTER IV.


Limit of Subjects.
AFTER discussing the various kinds of history above, we
must now consider more or less thoroughly those parts of
history by means of which pedagogues have thought to
arrive at a practical solution of their problems. From the
whole which is to be simplified by selections, let us proceed
to the groups by which we are to simplify. - Universal history furnishes the complete organism of history: "Through
what phases did man pass before he advanced from an unsocial dweller of caves to the brilliant thinker and polished
man of the world?" Universal history answers this question. - No less conspicuous is the contrast offered by the
same generation in different countries. Here two distant
nations divided by an ocean are made neighbors by their
wants, industries, and political ties; there the inhabitants
of opposite shores of a stream are insurmountably separated by different liturgies. Universal history explains these
facts.
The task of universal history therefore is to portray the
development of mankind in all its historical elements, as far
as possible, from its earliest beginnings to the present.
The writer of universal history as such takes no interest
in a people or in an age, except in so far as this people and
this age have played some distinct part in the growth of
conditions directly or indirectly affecting humanity as a
whole.
1 What is the meaning of universal history and for what purpose do we
stLudy it? - SCHILLER,




LIMIT OF SUBJECTS.


63


The ethnographic form of history occupies itself with the
development of one people, whose history it traces with reference to the ideas peculiar to that people; considering
foreign incidents and ideas only in so far as their influence
upon the history of the people in question is a decided one.
But it is evident that the pedagogue in making his plans
must take into account the character of his subject.  We
see at a glance that the ethnographic treatment appropriate
to antiquity - the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans -
must be modified as we approach the middle ages, and still
more when we arrive at modern events, until it begins to
resemble the style of universal history. This is required by
the gradual increase of the reciprocal relations between different countries due to the universal character of Christianity
and to the consequent influence of nation upon nation.
Universal history was further divided into political history
and the history of civilization,1 and comprised under the first
that series of developments which resulted from the actions
of the representatives of the national will, whether in regard
to its inner conditions, - in which the question by what factors
popular will is to be represented often plays a special part,and in regard to the relations of a state to its neighbors.
By the history of civilization has"been understood that series
of developments which, though standing in reciprocal relation to public events, resulted from private activity among
the people, whether for perfecting the material foundations
of life,- agriculture, trade, and commerce, - or in regard to
the intellectual ones, - religion, art, and science. But there
can be no doubt that the terms thus chosen are not adequate
to the spirit of the subject, nor even in the main to the actual intention of their authors.
1 In this sense the often quoted contrast between church history and profane history seems to be obviated.




64


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


Were we to accept the antithesis literally, the terms seem
to originate in a prejudice, the philanthropy of which, to be
sure, cannot be denied. But what shall we say to statements like these (compare History of Civilization of Modern
Times, by 0. Henne-am-Rhyn): "The history of civilization
regards political events only as struggles for the possession
of power, as mere expressions of a human passion, the thirst
for power, which, according to circumstances, is united with
ambition or avarice.  All these struggles do not advance
mankind, add nothing to their improvement, and not only do
not further ideas of the good, true, and beautiful, but do
their utmost to obstruct them in their beneficial effect on
mankind."   With the above let us contrast the words of
Gervinus: " Active life is the centre of all history; therefore history was always understood to be political history,
and rightly, because man's whole power is concentrated
upon active life."
These views may be explained as a wholesome reaction
against the exclusive and equally narrow consideration of
political history so long in vogue. We are as much as any
one for educating the mind, for ennobling it, and nourishing
it by the contemplation of civilizing activity in the shadow
of peace; an activity which is the true fibre in the national
tree of life.
In our time the slaughter of battle certainly excites more
horror than admiration, and increases the desire for the
peaceful emulation of nations; but we should be blind to
reality if we altogether denied tie importance of battles and
political agitation to the history of civilization. They are
important, and not only in the limited sense, that every misfortune nerves our strength.
When a civilized people is able and willing to protect its
independence against barbarians, - if Germany rises in de



LIMIT OF SUBJECTS.


65


fence of its national possessions, independence, dignity, and
honor, against foreign power; if the Geomori prepared to
wrest their rights from the Eupatrides, the citizen from the
noble, the prince from the feudal baron of his time, the
people against absolutism, - such efforts cannot be set aside
by such phrases as, " struggle for possession," "luxury and
power combined with either ambition or with avarice"; the
causes, motives, and consequences belong to the province of
civilization, and teach lessons enough.  Inertness at such
times is a crime that at once results in ruin to civilization;
its opposite is manliness, which is the principal element of
civilization. The antithesis implied by political history and
history of civilization is therefore false.  The essence of
all history is history of civilization, and it is equally onesided to attempt the separation of private or of public activity from the organism.l
If the endeavor to limit the material of universal history
resulted in the history of one nation and its ethnographic
treatment, a further limitation takes place by the monographic treatment common to all sciences. It selects a
phase of history and sets it before us as a complete whole
according to its origin, its course, its consequences.  According to Droysen's " Grundriss der Historik," it shows
how a historic phase in its inception and growth has accomplished itself, and, as it were, has intensified till it works
its way out, producing its own genius.
This method derives its origin and value from the consideration that it is more instructive and attractive to treat one
phenomenon thoroughly than a series superficially, although
it sacrifices a number of important facts which lie outside of
its domain, in favor of less important circumstances which
1 Compare Zeiss, " Text-book of General History from the Standpoint of
Civilization."




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INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


are required for its comprehension. Still, one important
practical advantage is thus gained, - the faculty for a clear
and distinct view of the whole, - and its application is all the
more important owing to the limited amount of time allotted
to instruction in history. It is well to treat epochs embracing the most important historical ideas in the height of their
development monographically, and to drop those which include the decline of one, and the yet undeveloped vigor of
another.
If historic monography give the development of conditions
dependent on a single train of thought, historical biography
in the same way gives the development of a historic personality. According to Droysen, the biographical form shows
how the genius of historic development pre-determines the
existence, deeds, and suffering of a person from the beginning, how it manifests itself and bears testimony to it. To
us, however, it seems as if this definition appertained only
to personalities whose genius originated the idea that ruled
their age.
The use of biographies for teaching history has found
many advocates. A biography, it is claimed, can be more
easily comprehended than a complicated monograph describing relations in spite of the prevailing unity of thought. Of
course, popular monographs and ethnographic history can
only be contrasted with popular biography (for example, the
works of Herodotus, and Pertz's " Life of Stein"), for this
reason, that the comprehension of what is new can only be
based on previously-acquired notions; a child brings little
judgment for the comprehension of general conditions, but,
on the other hand, the inner life, feelings, and circumstances
of other individuals find much better illustration in the child's
own mind, and thus awakens its interest and its capacity of
comprehension.




LIMIT OF SUBJECTS.


67


But the value of biography must not be overrated in view
of the total aim to be reached, and various objections to its
extensive employment can be and have been raised.  The
principal aim, after all, is interest in and comprehension and
judgment of facts; although for historical culture the comprehension of others, especially distinguished characters, is
not to be undervalued, being besides one of the objects to
be attained, if the standpoint of the valet for whom no
master is a hero is to be overcome.
Now, to exhibit the state of affairs in a certain completeness or definiteness of form would be beyond a biographical
plan, and a sketch of it is only necessary, in so far as it
concerns the subject of the biography, with his actions and
feelings. It also has the defect of frequently exhibiting the
facts in an incorrect historical light.  Sympathy for the
person often conflicts with historical judgment, and often
occasions a want of the completeness afforded by the development of the whole. Themistocles, Cimon, Alcibiades, the
later position of Camillus, and the attitude of Scipio minor,
Cicero's life, may awaken sympathies which we must historically condemn. The history of Coriolanus taken by itself
would lead to tle condemnation of the unwashed plebeians,
but the course of events condemns him. Besides, a history
consisting of biographies offers too much material from
private life, to the detriment of more important things.
Further, A. Petsch has pointed out that neither the advantage of distinctness nor that of unity of action belongs to a
'" History in Biographies," as has been asserted; that neither
the person nor the character is the concrete, but the fact and
the action; an historical character cannot be directly viewed,
but only deduced from the separate actions of the persons by
means of abstraction; as far as unity of action is concerned,
he holds the acting person to be an unfitting link to combine




68


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the separate actions, as one person may be active in many
directions, and greatly change his activity at different periods
of life,- a unity of historical facts is arrived at when these
have a causative connection; cause and effect, principal and
dependent circumstances, plan, hindrance and help.  But
whatever is remarkable in history, he says, is done by individuals, or by the many under individual leaders. A principal person will always appear, as a matter of course, leading
or urging the remainder, if not personally active. Finally,
he says, a history in biographies is nonsense, because it
compels us, instead of a drama, to read each part by itself;
so that to comprehend the parts of Xerxes, Themistocles,
and Aristides, the unlucky king of the Persians must take
the trouble of three journeys to Greece.
A history in biographies, therefore, in its strictest sense,
he thinks, is to be rejected. The demand that history must
be biographically treated is correct, he admits, but does not
clearly define the older formula that 'I For the first instruction
in history, only stories from history are adequate."
But do not let us forget that the purely biographical form,
within certain limits, has its claims to attention, in so far as
it is an important object to comprehend the principal personages of history.
In other respects, " History in Biographies " is an impossible idea. It is a mistaken undertaking to abstract in usuzm
delphini from the once recognized nature of a thing. The
form of biographies corresponds to the nature of states and
traditions; now, a historical personage can, may, and shall
have its biographer; but, to combine another purpose with
it, the teaching of history itself is an incongruity.
Let us have one or the other. Either pure biography, adding
from history whatever is suitable to the plan of the biography.
without wanting or attempting more; or history, and then




LIMIT OF SUBJECTS.


69


with all possible distinctness, clearness, and vividness, and
all the aids which pedagogic art affords, which includes
extensive considerations of the personal element; develop
events according to the spirit of history, the status quo, with
its imperfections; the developing idea, its chief representatives; its dramatic progress, with the cause of action of the
principal persons, the issues evolved from its causes; the
new state of affairs.
The general phases will gain much in clearness, interest,
and freshness if they are shown variously reflected in the
mind of the principal advocate of an idea, as he perceives it
a thought growing more distinct and urgent in his mind;
progress and obstacles of the action, viewed from the standpoint of the hero, and reflected in the changing emotions
which he undergoes; likewise, the issue and its consequences
must not be given in the weakened reflection that results to
the narrator after centuries, but in that which must have
existed for those directly concerned (comp. above, original
and reflected history).
A still more decided instance of the personification of
generalities is given us by Livy (II. 23), in his story of the
Centurion, to illustrate the condition of the people before
the first secession.  Imitation would not He difficult if a
supposed case were taken to represent the mass.
It has further been considered necessary, in view of the
contrast between conditions and actions, as it appears in
history, to make some choice. Director Schubart, in the first
edition of his "Guide," recommends for the beginning a
study of national conditions and circumstances, together
with general views as the object of instruction.
It cannot be doubted that in this case there is an attempt
to substitute the earlier and still customary recital of princes
and wars, but that its value has now become purely historical;




70


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for, with respect to the progress of comprehension, the end
has been put in the beginning. It is the most difficult task
to make the national state and conditions of things clear and
interesting to a beginner. It can best be done by showing
them in their growth founded on historical action, - thus it
was earlier, thus later, -because it is growth, and not being,
which constitutes the essence of history. But, by no means,
general sketches in the style of our ' guides";- is a boy to
learn osteology before he has seen the body in the fulness of
vigorous action?
The insistance on " deeds and words" from    another
quarter seems far better adapted to the elementary stage.
This mode is certainly more correct, in contrast to the onesided description of conditions, and of the silent, half-unconscious influence of circumstances which gradually asserts
itself onward to a display of reasoning and opinions, and the
employment of statistic material and general sketches.
It would, again, be an error to employ and delineate deeds
and words detached from concrete conditions, particularly
because the modes of action of the most widely differing
times and circumstances appear in the light of one standard
only, - either in that of reason alone, in regard to the success of an intention, or in a purely moral aspect in reference
to the general moral law.
The first standard is vicious, and leads to the worship of
the idol " Success "; the second is narrow. Surely every
action is subject to general moral law, and a wholesome
moral sense must be allowed to assert itself in the face of
the most desirable and brilliant success. The maxim, that
" the end justifies the means," would require the annihilation
of the Germanic mind to establish itself. And yet history
does not pass the same judgment upon the Stuarts when
they resisted the rights of Parliament as upon the Great




LIMIT OF SUBJECTS.


71


Elector when he opposed the East Prussian Diet.  ro condemn or to justify the one or the other according to the laws
of morals would be as impossible as it would be sophistical.
To judge everything by a single standard would be entirely
unhistorical. The right inferences can only be drawn from
the special circumstances, the relative necessities, and the
idea.
Even here the nature of history cannot be ignored without
detriment; the same considerations hold good as above; a
characterization of the status quo, with its motives, must
necessarily precede the principal actions as clearly as possible, and often some act or experience may serve as an
example. Comprehension of the new order of things can be
obtained by the terse and vivid description of preceding
actions.
If the principle of instructing by words and deeds is correct, they must not be isolated, but in the connection demanded by the inner sequence of ideas. For example, the
deeds of Marius, considered by themselves, create a thoroughly false historic opinion; to correct it, we must add the
sufferings of one of the populares before 133, the endeavors
of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, the proceedings of the
optimates, and the first years of the Jugurthine War, etc.
Finally, it was thought advisable to select prominent traits
of character from general history, and first to delight the
youthful mind by these; but if used by themselves they
will serve as anecdotes merely, and spoil the taste of the
little ones. If they are used according to their purport to
illustrate peculiar phases or persons, one must resolutely
enter into the full significance of the age to be explained,
which in its simplest outline will convey an impression of
the iron sternness which stamps the course of human events.
If the foregoing discussion is briefly summarized, we find




INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


chronicles to have the advantage of originality and simplicity; their defect consists in that they are only able to
give the external connection of events. The same defect is
peculiar to the national mode of writing history (Livy), and
originally answers only for the author's own age.
Pragmatic history seems comprehensive in regard to the
influence of human activity, but restricted in regard to the
deeper causes of development, - which we might designate
as those of national psychology, -but likewise restricted in
so far that it considers the fulness of the past as a mere
step to the concrete phenomenon of the present (Polybius);
this, too, is originally adapted only to the age of the author.
The treatment of history according to ideas, penetrating
even the relatively ultimate natural causes of historic phenomena, seeks to obviate the one-sidedness of pragmatic
treatment, and, far from undervaluing the wealth of real
life, it strives to win just appreciation for the endeavor of
man in the development of his personality, his ideal labors
and institutions.  But that too is originally only for the
author's own time.
As regards the limitation of historical material, we find
that its peculiar nature admits of ethnographic treatment
only for the nations of antiquity; that an approach to
universal history is demanded by the middle ages, and still
more by modern times. The monographic form will be useful in the study of epochs which are filled with important
ideas, and the biographical form must not attempt more
than it is able to do. Finally, neither political history nor
the history of civilization, neither conditions nor deeds, form
antitheses from which any advantage can be obtained for
pedagogic use.




CHAPTER V.


Arrangement of the Material.
As far as the arrangement of material is concerned, the
endeavor to proceed from the easy to the more difficult, from
the near to the remote, has called forth several suggestions
(among others, see Prange's essay on History in the fourth
edition of the 'T Wegweiser'). One says the course of instruction must simply conform to the given order of the
material. Since history represents existence from primeval
beginnings to the present, so in teaching the material must
be arranged in progressive chronological order.
A second suggestion affords more freedom. It starts from
the pupil's point of view, and begins with the present, ascending step by step to the past; for instance: (1) from 1815
to 1875; (2) from 1789 to 1815; (3) from 1648 to 1789;
(4) from 1517 to 1648, etc. This is the regressive method,
after completing which we are again to descend from the
creation of the world to our own time.
A third proposal is to separate the confused mass of
phenomena into distinct groups, arranging them   partly
around national commemorative days, partly according to
intellectual notions, such as growth of the state, succession
of wars, the growth of constitutions, the development of
domestic, civic, and ecclesiastical life, industries, commerce,
and art; biographies which at the same time become a centre
of descriptions of circumstances, and for explanations of
relations, or of the nearer and remoter group of historical
phenomena, are to be classified with reference to the interest
and comprehension of the child.




74


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


1. Pictures from domestic life. )
2. Pictures from social life.  Biographical.
3. Pictures from political life.
4. Pictures from state and national life.
5. Pictures from religious life.
6. Pictures from the domain of art, science, inventions,
and discoveries.
Finally, in a chronological survey of the history of mankind, everything is combined, historical ideas forming the
basis of division. This is called the grouping method.
Owing to limited space, the following remarks need only'
be added.   Prange's essay, mentioned above, treats the
subject more fully.
First, we will touch upon the grouping, then upon the
regressive method.
It may be remarked, in regard to groupings around the
memorial days of the nation: (1) That we, as Germans, have
scarcely any memorial days, except the 18th of October and
the 2d of September, and perhaps a few more days of battle
which we could stamp as such. But, since it is undoubtedly
our duty to occupy a general German point of view, we
must ask: (2) Is any one date so important, - does it contain such elements of inspiration,-that because we are
annually to commemorate a few important days of national
glory, we must present a heterogeneous mass of historical
events to suit the almanac? Is history, then, only a series
of disconnected stories? In view of the above plan, one is
inclined to wish that important events were unimportant, in
order not to be grouped with our memorial days, but to
be followed in their proper order, to be better understood in
the end.
The above proposal was made by F. Stiehl, the well-known
author of our school regulations. The same author proposes
to divide the remaining historical matter into certain distinct




ARRANGEMENT OF THE MATERIAL.


75


groups, -constitution of states, wars, etc. It cannot be
denied that it is a great source of knowledge, and a constant
incentive to study, to follow even a single series of historical
developments; and we are inclined to wonder that not more
than one person has suggested a treatment of history according to comprehensible groups. Instead of continually shifting
from one subject to another, as is demanded by the strict chronology of chronicles offered to us in some modern histories,
let the mind be concentrated upon a single series of developments: it will grasp the changes produced in the course of
time, and is necessarily led to recognize their active causes.
This is an impression every one must have had who has
worked out even one special question in history.
But this method cannot form the foundation of historical
composition, for the reason that it can only be advantageously
carried out on the basis of a general treatment of history;
hence, for example, the alternation of forms of government
may easily be recognized; but this succession of phenomena,
apart from a recognition of its causes, is no more instructive
than the mere enumeration and explanation of royalty,
aristocracy, and democracy. The reasons of the change in
this case, as in others, extend from individual human action
far into the development of the whole; and, therefore, the
knowledge of this development of the organic'whole must
precede the knowledge of any single member, if possible,
by gathering what is scattered under one head, yet observing
a distinct grouping as far as is consistent with a proper
degree of attention to cause and effect.
Dr. Fr. Haupt tried another method of grouping, by
marking the above classification of the literature adapted
to the youthful understanding.  The distinctions between
the first three classes may be of service if history is to be
taught from early childhood; but should instruction in his



76


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


tory not begin before the ninth or tenth year, these limits
would long have been overstepped by individual experience,
tales, and familiarity with legends,- to exact so precise a
graduation of instruction would be pedantry.
With regard to the others, it may be doubted whether
ideas relating to religion, to art, or even to science, are more
foreign to the comprehension of a child, so far as it can be
reached at all, than those of foreign and domestic politics.
But even admitting this, the difference is not so great that it
is necessary to treat of foreign politics ab ovo usque ad mala,
- from Kodrus to Ducrot, - before taking up religion,
science, and art; the same objections that can be made to
the first method of classification can also be made to this.
To the regressive method we object, on the ground that it
would be normal if history were nothing but a collection of
generally comprehensible stories. In that case, those should
be told first, which, according to time and place, seem least
remote to the child. Now, it happens that an historical idea
engenders manifold impressions, as we may observe daily,
and each of these branches puts forth twigs. It is not to
be supposed that any one who wishes to understand the
characteristics of a tree, and watch its growth, will seat himself in its leafy top. Even though we are no longer doubtful
concerning the idea which has inspired our century more
and more since 1809, still the various phases of it that must
be realized are so complicated that endless explanations
become necessary in order to make it at all clear, supposing
the pupil's head to be a tabula rasa as far as previous history
is concerned. Moreover, at the outset of each period the
status a quo requires such an abstract account of the circunmstances that the undeveloped intellect of the pupil cannot
comprehend it.
Dr. F. Jacobi defends the regressive method by the addi



ARRANGEMENT OF THE MATERIAL.


77


tional argument that even pupils of fourteen in the classes
of the higher public or polytechnic schools are not capable
of comprehending the depths of history.
Certainly not! but, on that account, to abandon a safe
position, to favor methods that do not encourage profound
work, is especially to be regretted at the present, where
certain evidences reveal a great want of independent historical opinion, and raise the demand for higher schools.
Lastly, we canhot agree with the ingenious combination
of Fr. Kapp of the grouping and regressive methods, so
that the faults of the regressive proceeding seem largely
obviated. We are to begin with the present, at the same
time observing the principle of progression from the simple
to the compound. We are to begin with some account of
persons who live, or who have lived, in the native town of
the pupil, deriving this account from tradition as well as
from family or parish records. Biographies from the history
of races and nations follow in the second year. The second
step is to treat the history of European states ethnographically. The third step is to include universal history chronologically; and in order to make the inner connection of cause
and effect more apparent, all that has hitherto appeared detached is to be combined, etc.
The most difficult part, however, is to make the inner
connection; to begin with the most important part in the last
stage would be to presuppose the knowledge of everything
pertaining to fact in order thoroughly to discuss the inner
connection. We fear that this last course would turn out a
very abstract one; and the inner connection, instead of being
based on a concrete individual view of the subject, would
amount to little more than vague imaginings, or a mere
repetition ad verba magistri.
It seems important to the comprehension of the inner




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INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


connection earlier to employ a certain preparatory course.
When a personal deed is graphically described, - an event,
a series of homogeneous phenomena, an aspiration, a situation or circumstance, or geographical conditions, etc., -so
that the listener receives an impression corresponding to
the individuality of the subject, he becomes capable of
understanding the same inmpression made on others, and
eventually of comprehending an opposite or modified one on
differently constituted minds. Still, if the above-mentioned
condition has been fulfilled, the events as they appear in
the order of their origination will be combined by the mental activity of the hearer, and often even their consequences
will be divined.  The successful repetition of individual
combination which can be awakened in the earliest stage
by gentle hints, must prove such a healthy stimulus to the
historic sense, that it would be a pity to apply it last, and
thus imperfectly to accomplish the task in view. We will
refer once more to the above example.  To facilitate the
comprehension of the inner connection of Roman History,
from the middle of the last century but one to the last century of the republic based on the previous wars, I picture
the social condition of Rome as indiviclually, personally,
and as graphically as possible. I tell about Sempronius
Gracchus, his rogations, the fights and his death; about
Caius Gracchus and the reaction of the optimates; the
Jugurthine war with its corruption; the wars with the Cimbri and Teutons, and the attitude of the people; likewise
about Marius, Saturninus, Glancia, etc.  Does it require
more than the impression produced upon the hearer by this
graphic description to comprehend the Gracchii? more than
a vivid picture of the events that accompanied the fall of
Tiberius, in order to read the soul of Caius? does it require
more than a few examples of the lawless proceedings of




ARRANGEMENT OF THE MATERIAL.


79


the optimates to comprehend their fury, or more than a
description of the misery, the hopes, and the abuse of the
common people, to comprehend their attitude in the war with
the Cimbri, and the growing tendency to autocracy, etc.?
As soon as the narrator has himself arrived at relative
clearness concerning the inner connection, and concentrates
his narrative upon the chief points in the march of events,
the arena is opened to his youthful hearer upon which he
can attempt historical comprehension, and can practise,
strengthen, and develop it.
This arena, however, is not afforded by either the grouping or the regressive method of teaching, nor by a combination,of the two.  These methods either presuppose a
general connection, or postpone it altogether. The first is
unnatural; and to the second Lessing's remark can be aptly
applied: " An elementary book must on no account contain
anything that hinders or belates the child's access to the
important parts in reserve; but, on the contrary, all access
to these must be carefully kept open."
Nothing therefore remains but to make the progressive
course of history, in its essential features, the modus procedendi of instruction; but in such a way that the aims and
advantages of the regressive method are kept in view.
Of course the mechanical chronology of history is not to
be taken as a standard, in order not to leap from foreign
politics to scientific activity, then to art and domestic policy,
in the order of the almanac. The grouping method proposed
to give each series of developments as a whole. This was not
admissible, because what it gained in compactness it lost in
making clear its progress in reciprocal action with the whole.
It would be interesting, in the course of the progressive
method, to keep the separate phases of development in view,
and to follow each phase as long as the course and character




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INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


of its phenomena is not changed by the general development.
It would be erroneous to pursue the religious development
from 1400 to 1532 uninterruptedly, and to ignore the discoveries; it would be equally wrong to digress from the
death of Albrecht Direr to the Diet at Speyer, and from
that to the achievements of Pizarro. The discoveries must
be so graphically described before the Reformation, that when
this is reached some idea of their importance in regard to it
has already been given. Nothing but fragments for memorizing would be obtained if in the grouping method the discoveries were aphoristically introduced as one of the causes
of the Reformation.
The regressive and grouping-regressive method failed because its starting-points were complicated, and obstructed
thorough comprehension too long; but it had this advantage,
that it awakened the pupil's interest in his surroundings, and
was calculated to strengthen direct individual views, which
are the primary foundations of youthful comprehension. The
more vivid and abundant the views are which the boy forms
from the life and actions of the men about him, the more
easily he will be able to realize remoter events. For no one
can conceive the exploits of Pelides and the adventures of
Odyssus without combining and applying elements of his
own conceptions of the present to the past.
It would be advisable, while teaching the geography of
his home and surroundings, to draw the child's attention to
the people as well, and to complete the purely geographical
element by that of practical life, in order to create a new
ground of comprehension for the work of Phidias and Appelles, by familiarity with the lroductions of native architects
and painters. It is, of course, impossible to give a lifelike
impression of certain kinds of historical events; modern arrangements and modes of pjroceeding seem so complicated,




ABRANGEMENT OF THE MATERIAL.             81
that, to make them clear, even by the most vivid description, would be more difficult than a fanciful account of an
analogous, but simpler event, of the earliest ages.
Still, it is well to encourage personal inspection of comprehensible objects out of school in every possible way. In
school, instruction in history can count upon object-lessons,
reading, and geography, etc., as important preparation;
and, in turn, the endeavor of history-teaching must be to
bring the events of the past into animated contact with the
impressions of the present. If, finally, the regressive method
proceeded from the present, the progressive method must
endeavor to reach the present in order not to erect a barrier,
just before reaching its goal, that checks the spontaneous
flow of thought that turns to the past in order to understand
the present, and to the present in order to comprehend the
past.




CHAPTER VI.


Manner of Treatment and Tendencies.
ON the whole, the progressive method has been a field
for the most varied endeavors to adapt history to youthful
capacity, or mould it to conform to the spirit of the times.
The attempts can be divided into two classes:
The first class can be called purely pedagogic. Pursuing
it scientifically, it looks upon history as that which it is, and
seeks the ways in which it can gradually be made more and
more clear to the child; it is confident of producing more
satisfactory results in the child's mind the more profoundly
and clearly it has grasped the spirit of history, and has developed it from elementary conditions, not attempting to
reap any other fruits than those of an intellectual, aesthetic,
and moral nature, which result spontaneously from the spirit
of history; no others, in fact, than simply those that have
always sounded the praises of history as the teacher of mankind, and to which the Germany of to-day returns with
growing zeal.
The second class pursues special aims of religion or politics. Upon this view it is a vague and unsatisfactory object
to make the educated boy clear-sighted and intelligent, and
zealous to follow the course which he considers the right one,
to the best of his ability. His inclination and endeavors
must necessarily move in the direction of those principles
which happened to be approved as requisite to salvation.
Perhaps there has been no difficulty in putting these tendencies into operation in the history-teaching of our public
schools. A choice must be made from an infinite mass of




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES. 83


material which at first appears chaotic. More extensive
compilations than needful are in possession of the educated
laity. The contrast between the elementary and scientific
method was easily employed to remodel the material quite
independently of the scientific standard; " the moral obligation of the public school" offered a convenient pretext to
introduce the dogmatic element. The province of the public
school is of no more actual importance than appears comprehensible to any one who had attended it and made strictures
on the teachers. Finally, the desire of each faction to win
supporters for the future gives the movement an active impulse, - with the best possible intention, of course! For
the Orthodox, Protestant, or Catholic certainly sees salvation in the binding force of his dogma, as does the Freethinker in freedom of thought, the royalist in absolute monarchy, and the democrat in parliamentary government.
We cannot give the contents of various works for the first
class, but hope to aid the reader by a summary of the suggestions they contain. In the fourth edition of the "Wegweiser" Prange enters more fully upon the subject.
Notwithstanding this, it is to be regretted that the public
school did not possess independence enough to reject all
sectarianism, and to give every just claim its due within its
limits.
The entire domain of history lies before us, from its primeval beginnings to our time, with its infinite depths and complexity of the developing phenomena of life; and on the
other side stands a little fellow of eight or nine to whom a
comprehension of history is gradually to be communicated.
It was generally believed, according to the increasing difficulty of forming this comprehension, to point to its progression in three different directions:
1. In regard to the heroes of history.




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INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


2. In regard to the different kinds of historical phases of
development.
3. In regard to the connection of the different phases
with each other, by means of which the organism of an
historical development as a whole is first created.
In the first division the progression is to be made from the
history of the individual to the history of a nation, and from
that to the history of the human race, —biography, ethnography, and universal history.
In the second, progress is from the "public occurrences
resulting from political life and reacting upon it," - changes
attracting great temporary attention,- and from internal conflicts, to the entire series of internal political relations, the
noiseless development of constitutions and of legislation, and
subsequently the various social phenomena lying without the
political field properly so called (Lobell, p. 6), and from the
natural connection of things with their inner often hidden
connection, in order to comprehend events as a chain of cause
and effect. As far as biographical instruction is concerned,
its defects have already been pointed out; not much is to be
gained by it for the comprehension of history itself, if attention is concentrated on separate individuals, and if general
events, with which the hero is not directly concerned, are
jumbled in regardlessly, a false light is thrown on the whole.
Besides, O. Wilmann, another authority, has recently opposed biography.   Carl Peter says (" A  Proposition to
Reform our Gymnasia," Jena, 1874, p. 35), "We are of
opinion that the biographical view should be made prominent, especially in the lower classes. But mere biography?
How many historical personages are there, we ask, of
whom we possess sufficient details to furnish a biography
adapted to boys? But if they are to be historical personages,
biographies of men who have really had a decided influence




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES. 85


on events, and especially on the development of their people
in regard to politics, how is a boy to understand such biographies, if he is not familiar with the ground these men
occupy, etc."?
Still instruction in biographies has many 1 good results to
show. But we must ask, Why?
No general ideas have, as yet, been of any interest to the
boy; even esprit de corps, in the class, is hardly to be expected at this age. The natural selfishness with which the
child refers everything to itself is only qualified by an interest in his family and his playmates. His sympathies are all
individual ones.
Now, it would be altogether inappropriate suddenly to
make interest in a community the chief feature of a course
of instruction, and we could only console ourselves with the
same reflections which we are apt to make at too early a
promotion to a higher class, - he will make it up when the
class reviews.
It seems essential to pay particular regard to this interest,
for the genius of history does not consist in a succession of
changes here and there, but in the modes and causes of the
changes, especially of the development of a single thing, or a
single form, or a single organism greater or smaller, as the
case may be, to which all events must be referred; but the
organism of the individual is more nearly the one which the
child can understand, and in which it can take an interest.
Without this central figure, we should have nothing but
stories of the anecdotal kind to rouse the interest, unless a
special part is assigned to this discipline out of school.
Concerning the objections of C. Peter, it is easily understood that a man's life in all its bearings cannot be comprehended by a boy, and the object consequently should be to
1 Compare the above-mentioned treatise.




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INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


make certain portions of it comprehensible; and it will be
important in picturing the groundwork of the historic act to
make full use of the personal element. This seems less difficult, since, in the general whole, only one side is to be considered, namely, that of the total development in so far only
as it concerns an historic act, and not the total development
itself in all its relations; the groundwork can therefore be
pictured more vividly and in detail, and the personal interest
in the hero will promote comprehension of the merely circumstantial.
In regard to the question, How many historical personages
there are of whom we know details sufficient to furnish biographies adapted to boys? we think that, first, the use of too
many biographies alone will keep us too long from the principal task; perhaps, too, it will be well at this stage not to
lay too much stress on details from private life, although
characteristic traits, especially from the youthful days of the
person described, will be in place. The principal aim must
be to follow the hero to the very centre of his historical importance, to sacrifice much that is unimportant, and to
employ the time and power of the scholar in making him
follow up the hero in his great activity by every means of
detailed description. Among the other events only those
should be chosen that are easy to comprehend and actually
serve to characterize the hero.
The first question, then, for the teacher who undertakes
a biography would be this: In what deed or deeds was the
historical importance of the hero shown? The second: Is it
of a nature to be explained to a boy? Thirdly: Can it be
tolerably well explained? what are the circumstances that
preceded the deed? Fourthly: What the idea that inspired
the hero?  Fifthly: What were the dramatic details of his
personal activity at its climax?  Sixthly: What the conse



MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES.  87


quences? Seventhly: What was his origin, and what the
circumstances of his youth?  Eighthly: What were the
prominent individual traits of his character? in what deeds
and words were they expressed?
It would be erroneous to attempt to give a kind of chronicle of his life: this would be giving quotations and not an
individual sketch. From the answers to the foregoing questions, the picture of a life could be drawn with due regard,
of course, to chronological order, which would make the
pupil familiar with the character, bringing all the circumstances to bear upon the characterization of the hero, and
giving an insight into historic activity.
We will finally point out that this personal narrative of
a historic character contains the elements for a poetic coloring of the sketch. Accordingly, such biographies would so
much the more naturally approach the style of those generally
recognized introductions to history, tales, and legends. The
form and coloring of such biographies would be identical
with that of the legends, but the manifold domains of the
actual world would furnish the substance.
With this limitation, historical biography seems admissible
at a very early age, - different characters, different ideas of
development, different kinds of historical activity, but on
no account only those of the soldier and statesman, are
brought into notice. From this stage, the comprehension
of history as an organic whole is still a long way off.
Ethnography and universal history in themselves define
their limits for pedagogic use. It is, of course, understood
that a complete course of universal history is out of the
question in public schools, and instruction in history would
have to be dispensed with altogether, if universal history
were required at the outset. To his fourteenth year the boy
requires concreter ideas than those of all mankind by which
to follow the thread of development.




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Dreary and abstract tabular arrangements would, perhaps,
be the only means of reaching the goal in appearance; while,
on the other hand, a certain regard to the elements of universal history cannot be dispensed with, for the simple reason
that we have stated above, that for centuries no state, and
especially not Germany, has had an isolated development
that would make an ethnographic treatment of its history
possible.
The political life of the Israelites, Greeks, and even that of
the Romans, which are those among the ancients we chiefly
study, had a prevailing character of exclusiveness; but
doubtless, even here, the condition of foreign nations must
be mentioned that came in contact with them, in so far as
dramatic interest and historical influence demand it.
The element of universal history enters far more into the
history of each separate nation since the spread of Christianity. The ethnographic view is to be kept in sight in so far as
Germany was the centre of interest and the representative of
development; in so far, too, as foreign events must be taken
into account when they begin to exercise their influence upon
Germany, even if we must go far back, chronologically; but
the tribal migrations, Mohammedanism, Papacy, and Italian
affairs, the conquest of Constantinople, discoveries, foreign
art and science, the monarchical absolutism of France, the
Russian colossus, the parliamentary system in England, the
French revolutions and subsequent Napoleonism, the commerce and inventions of England and America and the North
American Union, and finally the foreign influences of our
age, which acted upon Germany,-to ignore all these would
be in direct contradiction of the organic course of events,
and in contradiction to the universality of the German character, which was ever ready to appreciate foreign merit, to
learn from foreigners, and which, in its modesty has attained




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES.  89


a height of civilization, and, though late, a political influence,
which warrants every one who calls himself a German in
smiling at the national arrogance of others. If the national
pride of Germany is to be strengthened in schools, - and it
seems almost necessary to do so, - then spend more time in
teaching to comprehend our national advantages, which lie
deeper than battle cries and the roll of drums; let the manifestations of German mind, German science and art be
taught, and leave others to their stupid national narrowmindedness.'
If we object in this respect to national narrowmindedness,
we cannot, on the other hand, agree with L6bell's standpoint
in his " Sketch of a Method of Historical Instruction in
Gymnasia," p. 13. The preference which should doubtless
be given to one's own nation must consist in greater explicitness of detail, but not in any special prominence given to
the plan of the history.
We consider that the interests of pedagogy and of the
nation make this prominence desirable: first, because humanity, as such, is too vague an idea for a boy to take al
interest in as the exponent of development; and secondly,
the concentration of interest upon national history is the
preparation for patriotic sentiment in the present.
A second plan, as we saw above, was to proceed from the
events resulting from political life and influencing it, - the
changes that attract great public attention, - to the domestic
affairs of state as a whole, to the peaceful development of
constitutions and legislation, and from those to the different
social phenomena beyond the actual political sphere.
1 Ten years ago Duruy approved a French reader, for the elementary
schools of France, which began: " La nation fran9aise cst la plus grande ]a
plus genereuse, la plus polie de tout l'univers;" and continued throughout
in this strain.




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Lobell here, with his usual terseness, expresses what others
designate as political history and history of civilization.
The inaccuracy of expression, which has been discussed
before, we set aside.  What is understood by it is first
battles, wars, treaties of peace, inner political struggles, the
histories of princes, and then industry, agriculture, commerce,
religion, science, and art.
But it seems that this view is far more the slave of historical tradition than the offspring of pedagogy and science.
That chroniclers have almost exclusively considered the most
prominent events, and those which are most significant in
their immediate consequences, is owing to the natural limitation of their task.
An act, the most far-reaching in its influence on civilization, done by one man, and very gradually asserting itself,
must escape their observation. Must we follow his example,
when science has long since taught us that the tragedies of
JEschylus and Sophocles are equal in their imperishable glory
to the battles of Marathon and Salamis; that the image of
enterprising Alcibiades pales before that of Socrates; that
the codex Justinianus was far more important in its results
than the campaigns of Belisarius, not needlessly to mention
the birth of Christ; that the migrations of Byzantine scholars
to hospitable Italy far exceed the deeds of Mohammed II.
and of Solyman in importance; that with Fredric the Great,
the names of Lessing, Schiller, and Goethe are mentioned
when the causes of our national greatness are discussed;
that the heroes of our time, without envy, call Fichte and
Arnt, German science and public education, the powers without whose help they could not so successfully have wielded
the Prussian sword in the council of European powers?
Besides, what is it that makes the battles of Marathon and
Salamis, and even the Peloponnesian war, the war of Boeotia




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES.  91


and Corinthia, and the Theban wars, with all their unpleasant
details, objects of such deep interest? Is it only the victorious struggle against overwhelming numbers in the one
case, or stratagem in war or politics in the other? It was
because in the others the combatants were Greeks, the representatives of ennobled culture, manly freedom, and the everyouthful representatives of ideal civilization. Of what importance to us are the combats of barbarians on the Asiatic
or African plateaus. If Russia attacks Kiva, we are mainly
interested in Russian territorial aggrandizement; among the
Greeks, we take a psychological interest, even in a Thersites
and a Cleon.
If, then, silently developing civilization plays so large a
part in history that the forces which shape the world cannot
be compared with it, that the most famous deeds without it
do not have half its significance, the utmost necessity alone
could lead us to ignore it completely in a course of history.
But this utmost necessity does not seem to exist. We consider sketchy abstract and condensed descriptions of manners
and customs useless; neither does an)y one believe that a boy
has any deep insight into matters belonging to science and
art; but in the same limited measure in which he is to gain
an insight into foreign and domestic politics, he will likewise
gain it for the silent processes of civilization, - even more
readily perhaps, because, in the first instance he views the
movement of a complicated whole, in the other the activity
of one individual only. A boy may not be able to grasp the
idea of the beautiful, but he is not equally far from comprehending the mind of a statesman. This obstacle only is
made apparent because the material for domestic and foreign
politics, simply viewed by means of the chronicler's labor,
and that of contemporary and popular writers, is ready for
school use almost like a doctrina parata; the silent mark of




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civilization, as it has been brought to light by science, requires
to be simplified by pedagogy itself.
Because this simplification is still largely wanting, there is
all the more room for the hope that ' the importance of the
history of civilization" will no longer be an empty phrase,
nor a mere interrogation mark, as soon as it is fully recognized, and capable men undertake the labor of popularizing.1
In certain respects this will not be difficult. The progress
from nomad life to agriculture, the irrigation and draining of
the soil, improvement in industries and commerce (barter
and sale), and of inventions, can be more advantageously
made use of than by a mere indication or summary statement, if special attention is directed to the actions concerned
in the result. Religious sentiments and views cannot furnish
further occasion for doubt if an explanation of their origin
is attempted. Even scientific and artistic activities are not
such absolutely incomprehensible spheres for the youthful
mind.   The contrast of seeming and being occurs in the
elements of mathematical geography, and is exhibited in an
infinite variety of other examples wherever the heuristic form
of teaching is in vogue.  Search for the truth will no longer
be so incomprehensible an idea, and the difference between
the old error and the new truth often be grasped; and if the
words he discovered must often take the place of a scientific
deduction, yet as complete a view of scientific as of political
activity may be attained. That object-teaching must prevail in art is a matter of course.
The distinctions relating to long periods of time are certainly comprehensible, -Egyptian and Greek temples; Egyptian and Greek sculpture; Egyptian and modern painting;
between Giotto and Raphael, etc. Technical activity can
1 Compare the excellent descriptions of Egyptian civilization, for instance, by Fredr. Schmidt, in his " Universal History."




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES.  93


be described much more easily than political activity. Characteristics of the artists will be found in abundance; and if
the development of the sense of beauty is considered in the
whole plan of instruction,- in gymnastics, drawing, writing,
and singing, - an approach to artistic perception will have
been made, as soon as the boy turns from the conventional
statues of Egyptian temples to the form of Pallas and
Olympian Zeus; from the massive Theban column to the
grace of the Ionic pillar. That much of the poetry of antiquity can be made familiar follows from the general human
contents of true poesy, and a glance into the public schoolreaders confirms it. Besides the epic, lyric poetry will furnish many contributions; and if the story of the drama has
been previously told, a feeling can be awakened for the art
of JEschylus from the report of the Messenger from Salamis.
Finally, the demand for the due consideration of History
of Civilization meets the views regarding the difference between original and reflected history, which Hegel and more
modern thinkers have emphasized. In the former, the spirit
of subject and object are identical; in the latter, they differ.
If our art of narrating to young people must be derived from
Herodotus, and Xenophon and Livy must always be attractive to the young, why not interweave selected portions of
these authors into the history lessons, in order to blend some
parts of the progress of civilization with politics, especially
as it is difficult to change from our style of speaking to that
of a time long past?
We cannot, therefore, agree to any plan that proposes to
exclude the " silent work of civilization" from an elementary
course, in spite of undeniable difficulties, owing to the want
of practical preparation; but it is in reality as comprehensible
as it is necessary. In former times, the histories of wars and
princes were more to the purpose, when subjects were to be




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trained to self-sacrificing obedience. To-day, when the people no longer exist as misera contribuens plebs, but, with all
due deference to their, sovereign, are called upon to take
part in the public administration, to recognize its united
force, and comprehend the fundamental conditions of its
own welfare, it must no longer be contented with half its
due, and allow the other half to play the part of Cinderella.
Thirdly, it was desired that external facts should first be
taken just as they present themselves to the observer; connectedly only in so far as an obvious connection results as a
matter of course from the simplest view of these facts; and
that not till then is thought to be brought to bear upon them,
which, in seeking their hidden connection, aims at combining
distant occurrences, and at comprehending events as a chain
of course and effect. Neither does this contrast seem to be
admissible.
In regard to the first point, we must observe that it rather
commends the principle of superficiality in regard to the connection of things. Of what use is the teacher if he does not
try to direct the mind of the pupil to that " which is not
directly comprehended, and resulting as a matter of course
from the simplest view of facts "? Must that which is immediately evident or what is concealed be regarded as wholly
incomprehensible? Is the teacher to do nothing to impart a
better comprehension? Is continued dwelling on that which
is a matter of course a preparation for future comprehension of the less obvious? At once to comprehend events in
their totality as a continuous chain of cause and effect will,
of course, be impossible for beginners; but, perhaps, even
here it will be possible to adhere to the historical principle in
various phenomena, and by this means to advance gradually
to general comprehension.
Attention, solely directed to the connection which results




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES.  95


as a matter of course, leads the teacher, with an almost
psychological necessity, upon very dubious paths, and has
resulted, if we are not mistaken, in a treatment of history
for boys from eleven to fourteen years old, for which the
poor boys are to be pitied. In traditions and biographies
the little fellows are given something for their hearts and
imaginations; those more advanced are taught actual history,
and are gradually made familiar with its deeper meanings,
till they obtain a rich store for mind and memory.
But the intermediate stage! That is considered the period
when memory is strongest and most receptive. This must
be made use of; this can be exercised! And now memorizing is the order of the day; committing the whole outline of
history, with all external events and their natural connection,
to memory, in order later to make use of all these details to
get a total impression of historical development.
It is certainly true that at this period the most important
facts must be permanently impressed upon a boy's mind;
but the question is, whether, going farther in this direction,
justice is done to the subject or to the boy. It must not be
forgotten that every impression a boy of twelve receives has
a peculiar tenacity; and the question must be decided whether
disconnected details suffice for the boy at that stage of his
development, and whether they are of such decided importance when compared with a higher aim.
The answer must be in the negative. The time of tales
and legends and disconnected narratives is past. The boy's
immediate surroundings are no longer objects of lively curiosity to him.' " Impressions made upon the senses are now
gradually taking the subordinate part of a means of transition,- a mere medium for inward activity. Whatever the
child sees causes him to remember similar things he has
1 Bencke, Erziehungslehre, I., p. 15.




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seen or heard of before, and easily to forget the momentary
impression; sometimes it excites him to form plans for future
action, or it is a preparation for future circumstances and
events in his life. At the same time, the impressions offered
by his usual life are nearly exhausted, and the impulse is
naturally created artificially to extend them. This impulse
the teacher must meet and gratify to the best of his ability,
so that the foundation of wider views and applications from
these impressions may be reached. In this way the child is
constantly gaining an individual and connected life."
The author further says: " During the same period, from
the eighth to the fourteenth year, the power of understanding, comprehending, thinking, - the faculty of developing
general truths from special ones, - begins to awaken and
assert itself."
From these words, which have been taken from a general
description of periods of development, with no special reference to historical instruction, it follows in connection with
what was previously said: (1) that without vivid impressions no inner progress of a boy of this age can be expected; (2) that as a result of the exhaustion of impressions of
the senses, the sensitiveness for other views of the external
world is especially strong; (3) that the faculty of presenting
distant events to the imagination like present ones has been
extensively developed by the narration of tales and legends;
(4) that impressions become more and more an instrument
for inner activity in combining details.
What form must instruction take that only admits the
connection that naturally results? and what form has it taken
in many cases?
Its characteristics are -and I hope I am not overstating: -
1. A series of external events, without inner connection,
only combined by the unity of person, place, time, and
manner.




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES.  97


The same person, at the same place, at the same time;
or, then, likewise, etc.
2. The inclination arises to supplement, by material for
study, what has been neglected in the way of inner comprehension. As for the want of a higher standard, there is
nothing to define the important and unimportant: much of
the latter is preserved in an endeavor to attain relative completeness. That which is important will be hampered in
detail and clearness in favor of a statement like this: In this
year there was also war with the Volsci.
In a word, instead of an abundance of vivid impressions,
which it is the inner impulse of the boy to combine, he is
given nothing but a mere catalogue presenting only limited
views, and many bare facts with no inner connection.
Under these circumstances it is not surprising that the boy
has an aversion to history lessons, in spite of his desire to
learn; if, likewise, memorizing becomes the rule, even for
the young man in the higher classes, and if in the most
favorable case he takes with him into life many scraps of
knowledge, but few ideas on which to found opinions of his
own, if private reading and other branches of instruction
have not in a measure made up for it.
It seems erroneous, therefore, in the stage of instruction
which succeeds that of biographies, to consider only the
connection that naturally results. As soon as instruction in
history begins, the object must be, even with boys of ten years
old, to keep the subject in view according to its scientific
character, and to lead to this view in the most elementary
manner by means of simple conceptions; and by this means
to bring to the comprehension not only the silent labor of
civilization, but its deeper connection. In what manner this
is to be done will be discussed later.
Next to the three above-mentioned methods for the use of




98


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history in schools, by which teachers at present are largely
guided, a suggestion of a purely pedagogic character deserves
especial notice. It was introduced long ago, when, however,
it found little application, but seems to be gaining ground at
present.
The contrast between original and reflected history has
been frequently alluded to above. The proposal referred to
was made in the Society for Pedagogy, conducted by Herbart, 1802-9, at Gottingen.1  "Instruction in history must,
if possible, be combined with the reading of classical works,
to derive life and clearness from them." Carl Peter had
already demanded a return to original sources in his work,
" Der Geschichts Unterricht auf Gymnasien"; so, likewise,
in his latest work, "Reform der Gymnasien," often allotting
to the lowest classes the methodical memorizing of the elementary parts, -names, dates, and detached facts, -besides
the detached treatment of selected parts; goes on to say in
regard to the upper classes, p. 69: "' If in our gymnasia2 a
further step is to be taken, this can only be done by neglecting the unattainable end of complete historical knowledge,
and our chief endeavor to introduce the scholars to a thorough
knowledge of one subject or another, based upon their own
investigation and reflection, and at the same time to attain
the chief end of all, - an historical sense, and that of developing their historical judgment. This again is only possible
if the teacher reads original authors with them, and treats of
them with a view to this purpose."
Professor Ziller, and after him 0. Willmann, enlarge upon
this suggestion for ancient history. The former has the plan
1 Dr. Otto Willmann, in his " Elementary Instruction in History."
2 We hope it will be justifiable in this, as well as in other places, if we
occasionally refer to suggestions made for gymnasia. We wish to present a new idea, even if it can only be used with modifications in a public
school.




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES.           99
for gymnasia of reading tales and Robinson Crusoe in the
preparatory schools with boys of from six to seven years
old; the book of Moses in the eighth and ninth years; selections from the Odyssey (Nostas, according to Kirchhoff) in
Greek; likewise, in the original, Herodotus in the eleventh
year; in the twelfth, Anabasis; and Livy at thirteen. For
Real (not classical schools) and public schools, a translation
of the Odyssey, and other legends; then Herodotus; later,
Anabasis, and Livy in translations. For the public schools
biblical history is the main topic with which profane history is
to be connected. Willmann edited a "Reader from Homer";
P. Goldschmitt, one from Herodotus; in Berlin, "Stories
from Livy." But an essential part of Willmann's plan is the
treatment of the extracts in the first place, - a general view of
each section is appended to 'the narrative. If, in the narrative from Herodotus, Croesus has been spoken of, Solon, the
Medes and Cyrus, the Jews, Cambyses and the Egyptians,
or Darius, the Scythians and lonians, of Marathon and Salamis, etc., the other part furnishes a systematic combination
of the conception. In regard to occupations and manner of
living, attention is paid to pastoral life and agricultural life,
industry, trade and commerce, and the army; in regard to
the state, the forms of autocracy, aristocracy, and democracy;
further, the different empires, the various alliances among
states, the various arts and sciences, etc. Antique remains
of every kind are pointed out, and parallels given -with facts
within the knowledge of the pupils.
Secondly, three divisions are to be observed in teaching: —
1. Every reading lesson must be prepared before it is
read in the class, - analytical discussions must precede, in
order to husband the pupil's knowledge, and to make him
understand what follows, and comprehend it with advantage
to himself, etc.
*   e i  i*.
*  0  * * a *  @




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2. Every reading lesson, after sufficient preparation, is
connectedly read by the teacher in the tone of a narrative;
for, like the whole book, each part of it is to make an effective total impression.
3. Then the substance of the lesson is treated like a
natural object, which, after having been looked at as a whole,
is separately examined, in order to mature the impression of
it. What is new will be recognized as such (synthetic results)
and subjoined to what has preceded.
Who can deny that these suggestions offer great advantages? To return to the freshness of original sources, -the
direct entrance into another world, which in its peculiarity
seems more comprehensible than that which surrounds us,
though its forms are separated from us by thousands of
years. Further, the rational treatment, which attempts to
bring partially obscure impressions to conscious clearness.
This seems open to the following objections: -
1. Reading takes the place of speaking.  The former
may be given the preference by him who wishes to pursue
some special study, particularly an adult. If the interest is
to be held, and vivid impressions produced; if the inner life
is yet to be awakened, ex tempore speaking will ceteris paribus
be best; conticuere omnes intentique ora tenebant.
2. The use of original sources, with a certain exclusiveness, ignores the work of science, which is superior to the
statements of a single source, because it correctly establishes
facts, and gives a deeper insight into the whole.
3. The silent work of civilization is naturally too little
considered in original sources.
4. The proposed method of discussion aims more at a
systematic combination of that which is or was, than at the
idea and comprehension of its growth; it has a statistical
more than an historical character.
At *  **  *




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES. 101


But, aside from that, the use of original sources, as well
as catechizing generally, is by all means to be commended.
Finally, we will mention the proposal of closely combining
history and geography.
On the whole, we can confirm to-day what Prange says in
the fourth edition of the "Wegweiser."  "At present this
attempt has not yet been successfully carried out, and the
public-school teacher has no text-books at all to help him
that can be recommended." Besides, political conditions
within the last ten years were not very favorable to the
establishment of purely didactic principles, especially in the
province of instruction in history.
Prange expresses himself concerning the necessary requirements for combining geography and history, the further aim
to be accomplished, as follows: I' While Alexander von
Humboldt spent a lifetime in seeking to penetrate the influence
which the forces of nature exercise upon organic and inorganic bodies generally, under the most varied conditions,
especially upon man and the history of his race, it was reserved for C. Ritter to prove a law of necessity which identifies human life with the nature which supports it, and to
designate the earth as the important foundation, as an integral condition, for the development of national relations.';
"It requires a philosophical mind for a thorough and manysided pursuit of this great idea of the connection between
history and geography, which has originated in recent times."
It does not suffice for the present advanced demand that
every historical fact shall be referred to its geographical
basis: no sensible teacher of history is likely to omit all
reference to the scene of action. He, at least, briefly characterizes the country or district in which the historical events
to be discussed transpire, and to make the most of those
principal geographical points which have had a part in de



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ciding them. But this does not fully suffice to carry out
Ritter's idea, which proposes to blend all geography, in its
present perfected form, with the whole province of history,
without curtailing the didactic principles recognized for each.'
E. Kapp, in his "Guide to Elementary Instruction in History and Geography," has the end in view of closely uniting
these two branches of instruction. In his preface to the
seventh edition he says, that the right method consisted in
steadily following the peculiar inward movement of the subject. To do this it is necessary to get at the idea of it: we
should be perfectly clear as to what course of scientific development history and geography have taken until they became
what they now are. In Herodotus, history and geography
were united; he was the father of geography as well as of
history. These two branches are to be separated in a subsequent period, and developed in their details. In the third
period, they again approach and supplement each other.
For this reason history and geography were taught combined in the lower classes of the gymnasia; separated in the
middle classes; while instruction in the upper classes was
to prepare, by the method of comparison, for the unity of a
rational treatment, which was to extend beyond the province
of school. This sequence, he says, corresponds to the comprehension of the different periods of human development,
impressions, ideas, and thoughts. The impressions of the
original chronicler; ideas arising in the reproduction of the
impressions of others; thoughts, in so far as the comprehension of the inner nature of the subject, or its consideration
of it, is concerned.
This may suffice to suggest the nature of the method. It
does not directly concern our work to treat of both branches
1 Compare E. Kapp's "Comparative Universal Geography," and W.
Assmann's " Handbook of Universal History."




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES. 103


of instruction in connection, and in their influence upon one
another: in our present province geography is an auxiliary
science. It now remains briefly to touch upon the abovementioned tendencies of a religious and political nature.
In regard to the first, we can refer in part to the discussion
of the question: Is an objective science of history possible?
For the present we will merely meet some objections that
were made in regard to public schools. The good faith of
partisan views may be freely recognized; the objectionable
means, and all the misfortune which was occasioned by the
outward development of partisan principles, with their attacks
upon the dignity and freedom of conscience of men who were
exposed to them by their connection with the schools, shall
not deter us from our purpose.
In the House of Representatives, on the 10th of December,
1868, Minister Von Muihler expressed himself to this effect:
that, if a teacher could not testify with all his heart, " I am
a disciple of this master who has entered the world," that
universal history cannot be taught beyond the time of the
Emperor Augustus. Further, the expedient would be necessary in mixed schools to give only names and dates in regard
to the Reformation,- withholding all criticism so long as the
history of the Reformation was not to be taught separately
to children of different religions,- and its inner history must
be left to religious instruction.
A number of teachers from Berlin sent a petition to the
House of Representatives at that time, with the following
objections: In the non-sectarian school the material for
instruction in history must be shorn of its noblest impulses.
That acquirements were not so much an object, but the personal will of the pupil must be influenced in order that he
may be educated. On that account the heroes of history
must not be considered by themselves, but in their relation




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to a definite ideal, -that is, to Jesus Christ. Further, the
non-sectarian school must exclude all material the treatment
of which would offend the adherent of either church. The
history of the Reformation would be out of the question
unless history were falsified; for neither the shortcomings of
the Catholic Church in Tetzel's sale of indulgences could be
mentioned, nor Luther's heroic greatness be truly described,
nor could the Protestant principle which inspired rulers and
people be explained, much less inculcated, etc.
For particulars of the transaction, we refer to the article of the late A. Petsch, in  Luiben's Jahresbericht," Vol.
XXI., p. 479.
We have only the following reply to make: —
Since the establishment of a universal system of law, the
public school has become a national school, as the church
proved incapable of properly providing for public education.
The impartial state, unmoved by sectarian prejudice, - may
we soon say empire, -has not only the right, but the duty,
to encourage national unity, and to allow free play to discordant opinions only after laying the foundation of union.
It must be left to religious societies themselves to make
propaganda and to give moral effect to their peculiar ideas.
The teacher of history, accordingly, whose business it is
to serve his nation, and not to represent himself or any particular sect or party, must not choose the result of his
religious and political experiences, expressed in his sectarian
or partisan position, as the guiding principle of his explanations. He is rather to leave every religious or political
dogma in possession of the rights which it has gained by
honest conviction, and to render diverging opinions compresible; to recognize tle influence on the work of the nation,
and thus to give a truthful view of the fundamental principles
required for the formation of a well-grounded faith.




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES. 105


Above all, he can and must point out the idea, the form,
and activity of Christianity in the past wherever and however
it was prominent; but his personal view in the present,
whether or not he sanctions the faith of the past, is irrelevant. He must further point out and explain the different
forms of Christianity as they arose, - of Roman Catholicism,
Arianism, Pelasgianism, and other* manifestations of it;
further, of Protestantism, showing its spread and activity.
The teacher himself is to abstain from every opinion, be it
according to his personal views or according to the tenets of
his church, as to whether the idea is correct or not; it wholly
escapes his moral judgment, since every idea is moral in its
nature. But he can freely deliver his general moral opinion
wherever a departure from the general moral standard is
apparent in the conduct of the representatives of an idea.
The Protestant idea remains intact in spite of Luther's
coarseness, Philipp's bigamy, and Swedish intemperance, as
does the Hussite and Catholic idea in spite of the Hussite
atrocities and the vice of the clergy in the fifteenth century.
The state is not interested in any dogma; it only concerns
itself with developing the moral and intellectual powers of
its citizens in this life. The public-school teacher must apply
the general moral standard, May an action develop on a
Catholic or Protestant, a pantheistic or atheistic, basis of
faith, or from any other form of ideas?  That story of Lessing's about the three rings, which he has put into the mouth
of Nathan the Wise, must serve as a guide to teachers. The
conscious conviction of what religious views are to be
adopted must be developed in the family and by religious
instruction. It is the duty of the public school to lay a common moral and intellectual foundation, which attacks the
blind hatred of sects and parties at the very root, and
deepens and ennobles religious convictions, leading to the




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realization of the words, "This commandment give I unto
you, that ye love one another."  Love is only possible when
founded on respect; and this is only obtained on the basis of
comprehension.
In regard to the objections contained in the petition, we
will briefly remark: -
It is the mission of every historical ideal to aid in elevating
the moral understanding, -thus it is also that of the historical
Christ; and a constant allusion to the dogmatic creed of the
narrator is not necessary to this end, because the historical
importance of this ideal is conspicuously shown in the historical facts.
A. Petsch has pointed out that every historical hero must
first be contemplated by himself before he is regarded in his
relations to another ideal; but then this parallel persistently
carried out would meet with pedagogic objections.
The parallel would in most cases need a great deal of
explanation, -for example, Christ, Charlemagne, Torquemada, Luther, Loyola, Fredric the Great, Goethe, Bliicher,
-and, according to the view of the petitioners, it would
always follow that, compared with Christ, all these heroes of
history were unprofitable servants. A moral influence of the
historical personage would of course be out of the question.
Instead of this belittling criticism, and in view of the moral
development of the pupil, it is best to take the average of
human greatness in the age in which it existed as the
standard, in order to reproduce in the pupil the ethical impression made upon the hero's contemporaries.
It is hardly deserving of remark, that the view of eliminating everything that might offend sectarian opinions is
erroneous. Catholic as well as Protestant authors testify to
the evils of the Catholic Church in Tetzcl's time (Bellarmin
and others). They must be mentioned in order to explain




MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES. 107


the advent of Luther; but it is a different thing whether I
explain Luther's position psychologically, thus: the evils of
the church, and the appearance of Tetzel, led him to take
the following steps; or, according to the opinion of the petitioners, state that Luther's procedure was necessary and
right.  The first is historical fact; the second, dogmatic
opinion.  The former way would be simply historical; the
latter.might be defined as Protestant dogma, proved by
history adapted to the creed.
To make the Protestant principle clear and comprehensible
is just as much a duty as it is to explain the Catholic principle, and make its reality clear.  Not concealment, but
actual truth, is the mission of history.
If the chairman of a commission is able, impartially and
truthfully, to report on the views of a minority, or a judge
to sum up the evidence of the prosecution and defence, then
the instructor in history who is conscious of the dignity of
his task will do no less than give historical views to his pupils,
even if he does not sanction them, - all the more as the historical issue largely makes it unnecessary for him to give any
opinion at all. Should the judgment of history still be suspended, then let the teacher also pause there, where only the
narration of the actual known reality is expected of him,
however decided his opinions as a citizen may be, and which,
as a citizen, it is his duty to entertain.
The year 1870 has helped us over a second tendency which
proposed a special adaptation of history. It had its origin
in the political reaction after 1848, which would not hear of
German unity and freedom. It gave rise, if not to the idea,
at least to the expression, of " Prussian nationality," and
Professor Pierson demanded for the higher schools what the
"' Regulations" attempted to inculcate in the public schools;
that is, Prussian citizenship in exclusive contrast to Germanism.




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Since the year 1870 has reconciled Prussian discipline to
the Germanic idea, this exclusive tendency may have retired
to the uttermost corner of the upper house, and elsewhere
into the narrow conservative circles of Prussian, Bavarian,
and Wtirtemberg nationalities. The charm of United Germany moves the inmost fibres of our hearts; and the idea of
German unity will probably only perish with the present and
coming generations. Still we cannot depend upon its influence as upon a physiological process that naturally completes
itself; but we must see that it enters the head and heart, and
finds intellectually vigorous and manful representatives. The
effectiveness of any idea depends upon this.
Accordingly, more than ever before, we must regard Germany as a whole in the study of history, as well as in the
present. But there is nothing incompatible in the attentive
sympathy with those events of the past to which we are led
by the natural love for our immediate home, and likewise by
the consciousness of advantages peculiar to the race and to
the section to which each individual belongs, - of course not
in its separate existence, but in relation to the derided
" great German fatherland."
The characteristics of our people point in two different
directions: both must be considered, and both need training.
The common trait of our nation is the comprehension, unenvious recognition, and even overrating of foreign advantages;
it will resist every attempt to instil an obtuse national conceit, like that of our Gallic neighbors, as foreign to its
nature. That which is generally human in our methods of
thought and feeling will keep us from the error of being
blind to our national faults. On the other hand, the trait of
individual independence in thought and feeling prevents us
from attempting unification and centralization in our existence as a state, like that of our western neighbors. Self



MANNER OF TREATMENT AND TENDENCIES. 109


government is, therefore, the watchword of our home policy,
- even that of Prussia, - and every race and every part of
the empire should become conscious of its special powers.
But the waiting, and the wars of the past, and the storm
and victory of the present, have taught us, even with this
dual national trait, not to forget the uniting link which
closes the chain of wall within which our national strength
can develop undisturbed, - the combining of the whole
nation to a confederation of states. If the warning, which
history has recorded with a thousand years of bloodshed in
Germany's book of fate, should be again unheeded, and the
idea for which our heroes of the sword and the pen have
labored, consciously and unconsciously, - the idea for which
our fathers and brothers suffered imprisonment, exile, and
death, - should find only a weak race of Epigoni, then this
age would do. well to hide its existence from the historian of
the future.
Instruction in history must do its share to keep the idea of
nationality alive, to follow the history of the whole of Germany to the present time, to picture the miseries of the past
and the successes of our time; the minds of rising generations
must be steeped in the genius of German modes of thought,
and make them conscious by thorough comprehension of the
works, the deeds, and the dignity of the national spirit, and
to found their national pride on these, and not by boasting
of what is native and detracting from what is foreign; they
must take the attitude of a man who is conscious of his useful endeavor, and who unhesitatingly appreciates the merit
of others.




CHAPTER VII.


Outlines of Instruction in History.
AFTER first attempting to establish the purely scientific
character of history; and after having found the principal
feature of historical life to be the formation of circumstances
from ideas in contrast with a vegetating existence; and after
having undertaken to investigate its educational value morally
as well as intellectually; after having viewed the different
ways of writing history, and the limitations for pedagogic
purposes of what seems chaotic material, and giving the
pedagogic arrangement of historical matter; and, finally,
after making suggestions for the most effectual and natural
progress, based simply on the progressive method, it now
remains to draw positive conclusions and establish principles.
There are two questions specially to be answered:1. What parts of history shall be taught in the public
schools?
2. How shall it be taught?
In regard to the first question, and in accordance with the
diversity of the actual conditions, we begin with the most
important.
1. Teach German history.
The aim of all instruction can only be the knowledge and
comprehension of German history. This needs no explanation. For, as each human being can only give a complete
form to his existence by reason of the development of his
faculties, so a nation can only reach it by keeping and cherishing its fundamental characteristics as they are developed
in its national history, either flourishing vigorously or as




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY. 111


bringing severe punishment for their neglect. Neither need
we harp upon " love of country," " the constant readiness
and intention to further the happiness, honor, and freedom
of one's country from inherent and irresistible impulse; and,
if necessary, to make every sacrifice for it."
2. Teach those parts of the history of foreign nations, the
ideas of which have had special influence on German history.
German history seems vague and incomprehensible, or
appears falsified, without the knowledge and understanding
of the various ideas which, originating with other nations,
have influenced German life.  Mere abstract allusions to
Greek art, Roman law, and the French or English conception
of the state, would not aid in its comprehension; they would
be wanting in the essential demands of historical representation. To explain these ideas, and even closely to trace the
reproduction of their originals on German soil, would yield
a very imperfect result. We must go back to their source;
and those parts of foreign history are, therefore, to be traced
that contain the ideas whose influence was active in the destiny of Germany, either promoting or hindering it. Among
well-known examples, we will mention the religious ideas of
the Israelites; Christianity. Moreover, from Greek history
the manifestations of the free occidental as contrasted with the
oriental mind, as it displays itself in the legislation of Solon,
and gloriously asserts itself in the Persian wars. The form
of ideas among the Greeks in the province of government,
art, and science (Scolasticism, the events leading to the
Reformation, the literature and archeology of the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries); parts of Roman history, on account of its influence upon state and civic law; from oriental
history, on account of Mohammedanism (the Crusades, etc.);
from the history of the Latin races, on account of their influence on religious, artistic, and political ideas; Romish




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papacy; Italian art; Spanish asceticism; French absolutism
and ideas of liberty; constitutional ideas from English history (German parliaments), etc.    Every idea, of course,
given objectively, without unfavorable criticism.
3. In non-German history give the preference to that of
the Greeks and Romans.1
What justifies this preference, even for our public schools?
It cannot be the imitation of the spirit of our gymnasia,
because the public schools must dispense with all formal
discipline derived from the classical languages. The reasons
for and against must be considered without prejudice, and
may be these:1. The history of those nations is simpler and more
transparent than that of modern times, - simpler, for this
reason, that it principally represents the history of one city;
the currents flow from the market-places of Athens and
Rome and return to them; what was a defect in political
development is an advantage to our pedagogy, because interest in the other parts of Greece does not divide our attention,
which remains concentrated upon the attitude of the leading
city. It is easy to see that a general view is impeded by the
view of the growing series of political problems which present themselves, recurring in the progress of development
(contests between rulers and ruled, church and state), by the
growing organization of various departments of public life,
and by the consequent division of labor. What a contrast
in antiquity to the complexity of German affairs!
Ancient history is more transparent for this reason, that
affairs of state were transacted in the market-place, and not
in the cabinet and at the green table.
1 We do not here or elsewhere consider the history of the Jews, notwithstanding its great importance for the religious phases of German history,
because it will always remain an object of religious instruction, sectarian
or unsectarian.




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


113


2. Those times had the advantage of classical historians,
who were aided by the circumstances above mentioned.
Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Caesar, Livy,
and Tacitus, —even if our historical writing may be considered superior, -these writers will, in their peculiarity,
not merely pass for chroniclers of ancient times.
Accordingly, the history of Greece and Rome may be considered as preparatory to German history, so much the more
as it describes the principal features of every national life,
consequently of our own, -such as, for instance, the attitude
of the state to its neighbors, perfecting of its inner constitution, the field of art and science in the occidental spirit, -all
simply and transparently set forth in the light of classical
history. The preparatory problem that might be proposed
in parts of German history, namely, that of passing from
special races or states to the history of the empire, however
unsuccessful the attempt may have been, is solved by ancient
history, which has a historical right to regard the history of
the whole from the point of view of the separate leading
states. Greek history is, therefore, to give the preparatory
foundation to history, because ideal personality of a purely
human character predominates in that free state.
3. The Greeks were yet free from the one-sidedness produced in progress by the necessary division of labor; free
from the artificial character with which personality was necessarily invested by the later development of formalism; free
from the antithesis between the divine and human, energetically urged by the church which produced a St. Simeon
Stylites; free from a constant humiliation and the depreciation of human virtue; their gods were only a higher kind of
men; and, finally, they were free from that servility which
flourished at the court of Louis XIV.
If it is the mission of Germany in universal history to




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forbid judgment of the individual, according to the standard
of Germanic events; if the Germans must reduce their own
estimate of their customs, institutions, and deeds to the
standard of humanity at large, in order that they may not
merely imagine themselves great between Memel and ll, but
be great in the domain of humanity, then Grecian ideality
should form the contemplation, the entrance to the history
of their national life. In this way we arrive from the history
of a people at the history of mankind.
4. Teach historical life in its totality. Do not neglect the
history of the " silent work of civilization," nor give historical
life detached from its natural foundations.
The first is necessary in order that the future citizen may
not only at times, -when military service or his vote is in
question, - but always, consider himself as a part of the
whole, and be satisfied to do so. For the greater part of
the time the citizen shares the silent work of civilization. He
must learn to comprehend it historically, in order to develop
the incentive toward perfection in his own province, by following progress step by step to its culmination in the present,
and thus to become familiar with the fundamental conditions
of progress. Secondly, he must comprehend the importance
of his work for the whole, and the importance of the whole
for his work, equally with the whole organism of national
life, as it lives by the combined activity of the most various
callings. One of the fruits of so tracing the genius of history
would be to spare the future some unpleasant phenomena of
to-day, such as the unjustified conspicuousness of certain
classes of callings, educated as well as illiterate.
But not only the silent work of civilization must be considered, but the whole field of natural conditions.
Every one not only understands that the intellectual life of
man, as of nations, depends upon the influences of his own




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


115


nature as well as of that which surrounds him; but all those
attempts at civilization are justly despised and abhorred that
are in opposition to nature. We despise the narrowness that
misunderstands or ignores the laws of nature, and despise
the waste of noble strength on ignoble aims; and we hate
the obtuseness that attempted, and still attempts, to instil
unsound views into its own nation.
In order to make the desire for the attainment of a natural
development common property, it is necessary to understand
historical phenomena from their natural foundations. Without this foundation historical deeds would seem like expressions of arbitrariness of human or divine origin, or like an
unmodified expression of force, which would lead our energetic imitative faculty to useless aping under irreconcilable
circumstances, and yet serve as an excuse to languid indifference for rejecting every precept on historical ground of
dissimilarity of circumstances. The method of historical
narration is identical with that of practical life,- it demands the establishment of actual conditions as its starting
point, on which intellectual labor is based, according to the
energy of special faculties, the most important of these
conditions being those of external nature. If the historical
work is to be recognized among its natural conditions, this
presupposes a knowledge of the natural conditions to a certain extent. Before I can comprehend the effect of a thing
I must know the thing itself. Physical and astronomical
geography, anthropology, natural history (of minerals,
plants, and animals), must furnish the elements for comprehending even the history of ancient Egypt. When these elements have brought to our comprehension the beginnings of
agriculture, the formation of the monarchy of the valley of
the Nile, the despotism of the Pharaohs, the origin of their
structures, the peculiarity of their hieroglyphics, and their




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religious conceptions, elements will still be wanting from domains that form the transition, as it were, from negative to
historical life; and their importance is to be seen by the forethought which Fredric William and Fredric II. devoted to them
when it was necessary to revive an exhausted state, - the
elements of technical knowledge, of commerce and industry.
In what way are these elements to be acquired? If we
should reply, " The ideas of all these things are partly acquired in daily life, and partly they are to be gained in the
study of history itself," we should say either too much or
too little.
Too little, if we suppose that an approximate idea of
all these things sufficed for the fruitful comprehension of
the growth of civilization. Of what use is it to a child,
even if it has repeatedly seen a canal, to be told that
the valley of El Fayum was intersected with canals by the
Egyptians, provided with a lake and pyramids?  It would
be a statement in the outline style, and in itself, without any
of that intellectual interest which is peculiar to historical
individualization. It is therefore not adapted to the childish point of view, to attempt to give a comprehensible idea
of the inner growth of the state in connection with such
statements.
It would be necessary to trace the work of civilization with
more interest, and proceed from the idea of level areas to the
physical conditions of building canals, and their specialty
in this locality. The same must be done with the numberless
ways of tilling the soil, of industry, of skilled trades and
commerce. The reason why mere statements from the history of civilization were deemed sufficient, was probably
hitherto owing to the want of interest and the consequent
uselessness of the present methods of treating the history
of civilization. The boy is abnormal who would not fling




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.  117


all this rubbish of detail into a corner for the deeds of
Themistocles.
Too much would be said, if we left the absorbing pursuit
of natural and material conditions to instruction in history
alone.
By this demand, historical material will be so extended
as far to exceed the time allotted to a history lesson. The
creditable endeavor for the successful teaching of history
begets the danger of absolving the whole of universal history
in chronological statements, which oppress the boy like a
physical burden, instead of inspiring him.
The means to avoid this lie in the practical organization
of all instruction as an aid to history, either in a close combination of the above-mentioned branches with history, as
recommended by 0. Willmann, in his excellent essay on
"Elementary Instruction in History," p. 73, or in a wellarranged order of tasks that sufficiently prepare for the history lessons, so that the pupil can attack the peculiarities of
the history to be taken in hand, well fortified by his knowledge of the elements from his other branches of study.
A second means of avoiding the danger of crowding the
material, and so destroying all the educating influence of
history, lies in the proper selection of individual nations in
history.
In order to establish this, the question must be answered,
How shall history be taught?
The first answer is simply this:
1. Teach history according to historically active ideas.
The genius of historical ideas has already been referred to
in connection with William von Humboldt's " Protlem of
the Historian."  This theme has been more fully treated by
M. Lazarus in his excellent treatise on " Ideas in History,"
p. 47. He says: " In the realm of ideas we distinguish two




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kinds,- ideas of comprehension and active ideas. The first
are thoughts reflected from that which is and acts; the second are formative conceptions, by which one form of being
and action is converted into another. In the first case, reality is the antecedent which is to be comprehended in thought;
in the second, the thought is the antecedent which is to be
realized in an object."  On p. 48: "Active ideas distinguished as ideas of obligation and ability: the former are the
moral ones, the latter the Aesthetic ones; to these religious
ideas are joined in a peculiar way."
Those may be specially designated as historical ideas,
whose appearance, prominent development, or characteristic
dissemination, form distinct epochs in the history of mankind, having materially changed its modes of life.
But if, as we have explained above, it is by means of these
ideas that human life becomes historical in contrast to the
purely natural needs and impulses of man which are repeated
with unrecorded sameness, we must, of course, keep them
closely in view, if we wish to penetrate the genius of history
in learning and teaching; that we must take them as guides
if we wish to separate the vast material afforded even by the
history of a single nation, according to its important and
unimportant matter.
It must not be believed that an Idea is so abstract a product of thought, that its introduction into the public school will
prove a vain attempt. There have been many nations to
whom the word Idea was unknown, who nevertheless were
devoted to ideas, either in their leaders, or as a mass.
" In reality, ideas seem much more like feelings, impressions, notions."  Even if a nation did not possess the scientific consciousness of the genius of an idea, yet they possessed ideal aspirations as the power whence they derived
direction and force. These alone constitute their historical




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.  119


life; these should also be developed in the young as the
power which gives force and direction; by means of them
the comprehension is to be revealed of personalities, of works
of art and science, of social, legislative, political, moral, and
religious institutions, as they arose under the influence or
ideas. Marriage and the family; administration of the laws
for the protection of property, of honor, health, and life;
communities, states, and alliances of states; churches, societies for charities and social purposes of every description, -
these are expressions of ideas or means for their realization."
Ideas are the elements which elevate historical events
into the lofty sphere of morals.  All mundane things are
imperfect; all historic developments bear the germ of decay
within them. Were we to confine ourselves to those developments which have been reached, our ethical sense would be
disappointed in almost every way; But neither would reality
be fully expressed. Though the march of the Medes was
over the bodies of the Spartans at Thermopyle; though the
Nazarene was crucified, and his teachings made an object of
hatred by priestly ambition, the historical deed still remains
to humanity on account of its inherent idea. Although the
Athenian constitution opened an arena to Hyperbolos, the
struggles of the patricians and plebeians finally surrendered
the state to the optimates for plunder; although the Roman
invasions exhaust Germany, and the peace of Hubertsburg
left Prussia its original boundaries, but covered with ruins,
yet the ideas of civil liberty, the universal aims of the
empire, the integrity of the state, surround even the imperfect developments of reality with a sublimer glory. They
lived in the makers of history, they created devotion to their
cause in its representatives, and gave birth to historical
deeds; therefore, they must guide us in the study of history.
Two points appear combined in the active idea. Man creates




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subjective images of perfection from the depths of his intellectual life, which vary according to the degree of his capacity
and development, and his peculiar circumstances, -but subjectively images of the most perfect reality for each individual.
The thought does not remain abstract, because it contains
the desire for its realization, by transforming the existing
condition of things. The consciousness of being active for
the highest ideals sharpens our understanding and gives us
courage.  To observe how our fellow-men, in their onward
progress, undertake to mould human affairs according to the
notions that seem to them most exalted, is that which transfigures commonplace reality and creates enthusiasm in man,
which Goethe considers the best part of history.
It is, therefore, important in two directions that a pedagogic treatment of history should make use of ideas: first,
in order to sift historical material; and secopdly, to define
the ethical point of view.
Concerning the choice of material, some have considered
themselves justified in their suggestions by Luther's words,1
to take "what was necessary for an honest life," and chose
~pretty stories to make morals clear and impressive.  This,
evidently, would not be history, but morals in historical
examples.
Others have recommended our own history in uninterrupted
chronological order, after the manner of Livy and Johann
von Miller, whether history of our own country in a narrower
or extended sense.   But in this way unimportant matter,
that does not cultivate the mind nor lift up the heart, must
be mingled with the important, weakening its impression and
1 "For, whatever philosophy, wise men, and all reason can teach or
invent as useful to lead an honest life, that history gives us mightily in
examples and stories, placing it before our eyes, as it were, as if we were
present seeing everything happen that teachings have first conveyed to our
ears by words."




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hampering the vivacious clearness of the manner in which it
is told, or else the personal opinion and incidental knowledge
of the teacher decide between the important and unimportant,
unless some principle derived fiom the genius of history is
taken as a guide.
Others, again, were biased by the one idea which they
happened to serve at the time; and according to this idea
they wanted, and still want, to determine the choice of subjects from the past. One put forward a religious idea, either
Protestant or Catholic, to the detriment of all other ideas,
and everything was to conform to church history according
to the prevailing sectarian view.  Another was addicted to
monarchial absolutism; and the history of princes and wars,
according to him, was to furnish most of the material; as if
the Hohenzollern and many other princely German families
had not also played famous parts in the general arena of mankind. Neither the imperial German dynasty nor the Christian
idea requires a mutilation of history to givet t importance.
Some, finally, have allowed the classic standard of historical works to determine their choice of historical selections.
But if the close of the middle ages and modern times have
not yet crystallized into a classic form of historical literature,
it is still impossible for the present to do without the prevailing ideas of those periods.
We must, therefore, in our choice, first keep the active
historical ideas in view, —no little task if the above-mentioned words of Gervinus are true (Grundziige der Historik,'
1 " The significance... of these ideas has mostly escaped the insight of
historians and critics; but not the right tact of mankind. Where such
ideas suddenly revealed the ways of Providence with special emphasis, by
suddenly prescribing new departures to mankind; where, according to
Lessing's view, the education of mankind entered upon great and new
epochs, all men make use of the ideal modes of explanation, - as, for example, the appearance of Christ, calling him the embodied word of the
Deity," etc.




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66).  And yet it is a necessary task, since "historians as
well as artists produce caricatures if they only draw separate details of events in their apparent order" (Wm. von
Humboldt).    German history, the intellectual substance
of which is principally under consideration for our public
schools, is, above all, to be viewed with regard to these
ideas.  Each one will have to work them      out anew for
himself.  Ideas least of all admit of communication.   The
following ones may be mentioned as well-known examples:In the manners and customs of the Germans, according to
Tacitus, we find a product of the ideas which were active in
early times. The freedom of man, the dignity of woman
(compare Oriental customs with this); in their spontaneous
union in commonwealths and farming communities, in the
development of their courts of justice, the free choice of
leaders, etc.  Their oppression by the Romans leads to the
manifestation of the idea of national freedom (the battle of
Armenius); the thought of securing it produces national
alliances. The same idea combined with ideal notions of
better dwellings gives the chief impulse to the Germanic migrations.1 Later, the organization of the new states according
to martial merit (the feudal constitution); the Christian idea
in Romish formulation makes headway, especially in France;
its penetration to the heathen districts of Germany; defence
of the Christian idea and Frankish government against the
Germans and Mohammedans; the further advance of Romish ideas into the empire of the Franks (clergy and laity,
1 To avoid possible misunderstandings, let us point out that an idea can
only assert itself in connection with nature, wherefor a number of exciting
causes can be shown or presumed in regard to these phenomena. Overpopulation, unfavorable natural phenomena, etc., may have cooperated
in these cases, —the intensity of the universal character of the impulse
was due to the idea.




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retirement from the " world"); Romish hierarchy; Romish
scholasticism in establishing the Christian dogma with the
help of ancient science; appearance of the idea of the
Roman empire under Charlemagne; autonomy of Germanic
tribes under dukes, - on this basis the idea of imperial unity
for national security under King Henry I.; universality of
the Roman empire of German nationality by Otto I.; idea of
representation of Christ on earth by the Romish bishop, with
authority in spiritual as well as in temporal affairs (Gregory
VII. and Innocent III.); idea of liberating the Holy Sepulchre; victory of the papal idea over that of Roman imperialism; strengthening of the territorial unity, of the independent principality, of free citizenship; artistic form of popular
traditions,- the service of princes, chivalry, and of God in
the domain of literature, and religious ideas in architecture
and painting; increased national consciousness as opposed
to the universality of papacy, in consequence of the transfer
of the papal residence to Avignon; (meeting of the electors
at Rome;) idea of pure science, by the revival of classic
studies,-impulse given to invention and discovery; idea
of reforming the Church on a purely scriptural basis; regeneration of the affairs of the Romish Church; struggle and
compromise of the two ideas; perfecting of territorial supremacy in Germany; the idea of the state embodied in the
person of the prince (l'6tat c'est moi); the idea of the Prussian state,- the prince is the first servant of the state, almost exclusive representation of the national idea (the Great
Elector, and Frederic II.); pietism opposing rational orthodoxy; revival of literature, like that of science, under the influence of Greek and English ideas; rationalism in religion;
ideas of popular freedom opposed to feudalism influenced by
the American Declaration of Independence, the French
Revolution; re-awakening of German national feeling under




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Napoleonic oppression, - idea of general school and military duty; the effect of ideas in the war of liberation against
Napoleon; the Holy Alliance under the influence of Metternich; alliance of the absolute patriarchal state with church
orthodoxy; the people take part in the conduct of state affairs
in he smaller states after the English model; in Germany
the idea of civic and religious liberty asserts itself forcibly,
together with that of national consciousness in 1848; opposition from the alliance of throne, feudalism, and the church;
reconciliation of monarchical principles and those of popular
liberty, in the service of the national idea; emancipation of
the fourth estate from the pressure of capital; the idea of
autonomy of the church as opposed to the idea of loyalty to
the state, and state supremacy in so far as the development
of civilization is concerned.
Secondly, the treatment of history according to ideas
makes clear our ethical standpoint.
It is generally acknowledged that historical phenomena
are not to be judged merely by the rules of ethics. By that
means the greatest minds would be subjected to a most ridiculous and pedantic standard. When Brutus kills Caesar,
it is doubtless an unpardonable murder; still it must be differently judged from the bloody deed of a bandit.
If Sulla sacrifices thousands of the Marian faction, and
Charlemagne four thousand Saxons, even the latter action,
like the first, excites our moral indignation; and it would be
poisoning sound moral feeling if we condoned the slaughter
of masses, as it has been condoned, by such phrases as " instruments of Providence," etc. Still, both actions must be
judged of from a different moral aspect, -here, an impelling idea, which is certainly criminal in its choice of means;
and in the other case, a cruel act of cool, calculating, factional selfishness. But, if history of a sectarian or political




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.  125


kind proposes to let the idea which it defends serve to palliate
crimes, or even to excuse them, and takes pains to condemn
the misdeeds of the opposing party with evident relish, then
history is not made the teacher of justice, but a corrupter of
national morals.  The historic idea was subjectively the
most ideal end of the endeavors of its supporters. Accordingly, whoever wishes to depict reality must depict its
strengthening and inspiring impulse in all its purity and
force. The writer's own ideal is of no account whatever,
because it is for him to say: " They were filled with this
idea, and such or such circumstances led them to it."
If the writer has satisfied historical justice, and his endeavor is to measure every deed by the same moral standard,
then nothing will prevent him from pointing out every deviation from the categorical imperative, and emphasizing it as
such, whether in his own or the opposite party. An idea
will never suffer by severe moral criticism of the unjust actions of its adherent; or at least, it will not suffer more than
it deserves; but, on the whole, a special moral criticism of
historical events is not to be commended. The logic of facts,
the alternation of noble and mean actions, and the relations
of separate actions to the welfare of the whole, are the elements by which the pupil will be educated to form independent opinions. The moral impression will be best produced
by the teacher whose own character represents moral dignity,
whose tone and words indicate the relation of what he teaches
to his own moral conviction thus exciting the moral judgment
of his hearers.
2. Try to make historical ideas understood by showing their
effect, and thus develop ideal impulses in the pupils.
The time is not long past, when even our most scholarly
institutions had no special instruction in history, but were
satisfied with whatever historical knowledge the scholars




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derived from other branches.' Comenius, in his plan of
instruction for the Latin school, finds no room for history.
Loke recommends teaching chronology together with geography, -without which history would be confusing, —
and history might at first be taught by means of the
Latin classics. Even with a further advance in the nonclassical studies, only natural sciences, geography, and
mathematics, were considered; in boarding-schools, there
was occasionally a reading-room  for journals. This was
changed when the consequences of the French Revolution
challenged the thought of every patriot. Under this influence, a special place was made in schools for instruction in
history. Soon the danger threatened - as we are warned by
a well-known circular of Minister von Altenstein- of burdening the pupils with a load of facts, from mistaken thoroughness.
It is clear that the same impulse and the same danger
threatens the public school of to-day. Since the whole nation is called to take part in the work of government and has
a decisive voice, and especially since the cry has been heard
above party din, that independent judgment must be more
cultivated in the masses, the extent to which history is taught
in schools no longer suffices for the masses that have lived
along under the patriarchal care of the state and ecclesiastical authority. The remedy is to separate the important from
the unimportant, according to a fixed principle, by ideas, as
we have seen above, - the most important subjects must be
given with sufficient detail to make them interesting. Lazarus,
in his above-mentioned treatise, p. 18 (compare also " Zeitschrift ffr V6lkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft," vol.
II.), has pointed out the changes which the detached facts of
history do or can be made to undergo in narration. From
1 Compare Wiese's " German Letters on English Education," p. 97.




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.  127


the mass of records, scattered notices, and single observations, the historian constructs a whole which, indeed, wholly
changes and dignifies the mass of separate impressions, but
retains their meaning (condensations).  But a greater number of impressions that have been produced can be repeated in such abridgment that the few notions separately given,
without offering the concentrated substance of the mass,
are calculated again to remind of the whole memoranda.
An example of a " condensation" would be a compact review
of some literary publication; a memorandum, the summing
up of a judge in a case.
Both kinds of abbreviations occur in the province of history; but the use of both kinds would be out of place in the
public school. The condensations would contain the development of history in a brief outline, with a faithful recital of
its deeper contents and its realization.  The memorandum
has essentially the character of tables and outlines: these
separate statements more in chronological order than in one
of ideas, are merely a reminder of the information furnished
by the teacher.  Neither mere condensations nor mere memoranda can be of any use to the pupil. The " condensations"
are too abstract for the pupil, therefore vague; and the memoranda are mere fragments.   Both forms of abridgment presuppose a certain amount of knowledge of the actual reality.'
If the investigator progresses from vivid details to a condensation of the contents of ideas, the public-school teacher
must return from the idea to the separate phenomena, in order
to make them clear and impressive, by a proper selection of
1 Good use can be made of condensations in the upper classes of gymnasia. I have myself experienced how much even there their success depends
upon preparation and a historical view in those classes. The material offered us, in excellent condensations, that still retain their place in my
library, delighted the majority; still, many were absolutely indifferent
to it.




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separate facts. In attempting to secure the advantages of
the scientific view possible in his own age, he must not neglect the advantage which the contemporaries of the events
described enjoyed in the vigor of the impressions received
by eye-witnesses.
Every means must therefore be employed in narrating to
bring stirring events vividly before our own eyes. The local
peculiarities must be depicted geographically and topographically, and the exceptional conditions that gave the impulse;
the characteristics of the active persons; the peculiar form
of the leading idea, and the immediate plan for its realization; the actual course of events; the reasons for the decision; the contrast between the earlier and the later condition.
In like manner, whether by ancient remains, or in the facts
of nature which influence the actual result (configuration of
the land, etc.), we are always to avail ourselves of modern
information, especially in the realm of the silent work of
civilization. Where these are insufficient, and this will often
be the case, a clear view must be obtained by pictures, or,
drawings by the teacher: in literature, parts of the original
may be used to make the understanding clear. Necessarily,
we are also referred to records of eye-witnesses or contemporaries, -that is, to original sources.
Two points particularly should be regarded in delineating
history: a certain epic breadth, and that of individual expression from which the general idea receives vitality and
interest.
Thomas Arnold, the famous master of Rugby, recommended the reading of a small portion of history each time,
but to study this exhaustively by means of original sources.
It is certain that if we had to choose between an endless
knowledge of dates and facts or formulas of ideas on the one
hand, and on the other of only a single idea gained by comprehension, the latter is decidedly, to be preferred.




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.  129


3. Do not fail to make use of appropriate passages from
historical sources.
After what has been said above, no special modification of
this maxim is required. Originals reproduce the fresh impression of events almost at first hand; they are stamped
with the views of their time, and unconsciously reproduce
its characteristics. A reader, compiled from original sources,
is therefore to be recommended.
But it should not attempt to offer all the material to be
used; for the principal authority, especially for beginners,
must be the teacher himself. Historical science should not
be lost to the school; the development of nations should be
represented according to the scale of historic knowledge
science has elaborated. A single original is only one, although an important, element of this knowledge. Originals
may serve largely as means of explanation, and characteristics of their times, and it is to be regretted that they have
been neglected too long in instruction as such; but too much
must not be demanded of them now.   (Compare V., " Means
of Instruction," Preface.).
Added to this, the most interesting reading of a serious
event cannot replace verbal narration to a child; and the
vividness which springs from the intellectual attainments of
the teacher would be too much restricted if the reading-book
is to be made the centre of gravity, in spite of all the discussions that can be brought to bear on it.
4. Do not arrange the material chronologically, but allow
each development series, to stand by itself. Do not attempt to
make only each separate development series clear by itself,
but also their effect on each other; and finally put separate
events in connection with the whole.
The chronicler adheres slavishly to the order of time, what
annually happens in state affairs, foreign or domestic; he




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records, passing from one domain to another, dividing attention, and without heeding the internal connection of events
in each domain, nor the reciprocal action of different domains.
It has been shown above that historical development can
only be observed in one representative,- the business of history is to treat " change in similarity."  But what the man
can grasp as a living unit is a fragmentary shadow to a child.
The child regards a single personality as a unit; after that,
the family; for a profounder intelligence, the separate features of social activity form their means of transition to the
state and people; then comes the state; then humanity.
The changes that may take place in a single department
of state affairs must be considered first and kept in view, -
outward security; public administration of justice; the field
of industrial labor, of art, science, etc. But even these
branches prove to be collective activities, - architecture,
painting, poetry, etc. The consideration of historical development, however, demands that the same comprehensible notion should appear in the same relation during the
account of earlier and later events.
In so far the grouping method is right. What seems wrong
in it, is its adherence to one development series through long
periods of time. When knowledge of the inner connection
is to be considered, and comprehension of forces, we should
rather break off there where another domain begins to exercise a leading influence. To relate the wars of the Great
Elector, for instance, without having explained his efforts
for the revival and improvement of the industrial condition
of the land would be useless. The pupil cannot understand
the strength of the Brandenburghers against the French and
the Swedes, until he has received a vivid impression of the
increase of their prosperity conferred upon them by their
prince.




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As far as an arrangement is concerned in regard to the
silent work of civilization and of political activity, it is
shown in the above example how wrong it would be always
to assign to the former the place of an appendix. That
which has always exercised a leading influence on other
domains should take precedence.
All the advantages of the grouping method, however, can
be reached by preparatory ' discussion" (see above 0. Willmann):, the charm of newness is not alone to absorb the
child's interest; the way must be opened in which its interest
in historical development can find scope. If, therefore, I
turn to a new development series, - perhaps from war to
agriculture and commerce,- then the " preparatory discussion" must resume the thread of the same development series,
however briefly, which was interrupted before; for example,
the learner must be reminded of the condition of agriculture and commercial activity at the time when the subject
was previously dropped, before the new activity for the improvement of the same branch of industry is discussed.
By thus taking up the thread of the subject again, we gain
two things. In the first place, the " inner" connection (see
Lobell above) can be earlier shown; and secondly, the way
is opened for specific historical interest.
When the character of a war has been clearly described,
its locality, the enmity of the nations, aid the tax upon the
national strength, then the impression the pupil has received
will give him the inner connection that exists between the
two development series, - the external circumstances and
the internal culture of the state.
The impression which we ourselves have received from the
struggles of the Hohenstaufen makes it easy to connect with
this the bloom of the poetic life which produced a Walter von
der Vogelweide; the disgrace of 1806, the reciprocal action




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which forever unites the names of Arndt, K6rner, and
Schenkendorf, with our War of Liberation.
The second advantage consists in comprehending the different culminating points of a development series, the circumstances that have checked or furthered it, and by drawing
attention to the course of procedure of human labor by which
development progresses. The preparatory discussion, however, will not suffice for the attainment of the end which we
have designated above as the principal outcome of the study
of history for the foundation of " life as a whole."
Circumscribed conditions, only single series of developments in narrative form, can first be given to a boy. Different development series can be connected in the manner
we have mentioned, - a reference to the whole must never
be omitted. By this means, however, the boy's mind is not
yet fully opened to the whole as a unit of manifold forms of
ideas. The way to the heart here, too, is through the head.
National sentiments that are deeply rooted in the heart, and
outlive momentary paroxysms of patriotism, can only be
established by learning to comprehend German life in its
historical development as a whole.
To this end an examination is necessary at the close of
every period, which must not consist in aimless questioning
about scattered facts, but in a way that makes the highest
demands on the teacher. If he has hitherto been obliged to
attain the utmost clearness in regard to the separate developments by means of study and thought, and subsequently
to work out their inner connection of neighboring series in an
elementary form, it is now his task, after arranging his plan,
to make it comprehensible in so far as it is now necessary to
combine the elements into a single picture, - to create German history (and one reaching the present time) out of
German stories. The conditions prevailing in the different




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.  133


domains of history at the beginning of each period are to be
placed side by side, each one characterized clearly and decidedly, all contained in the notion: The condition of Germany; the most influential idea in its effort at realization
takes the lead; other ideas appear, either approving or opposing; each seeks its justification by claiming to promote
the welfare of the country. Low characters also appear;
but, in spite of the craft of their cunning, they produce nothing lasting. The action proceeds in the conflict of ideas,
the intellectual aim being ever the country's welfare, and the
decision of the conflict- whether comedy or tragedystrengthens and purifies the national impulse. The intellectual and moral result of such examination will be especially
dependent on two conditions of preparatory work: first,
upon the power and vivacity of the mental pictures that have
been produced in the child's soul, in delineating the separate
phenomena, so that their reproduction takes place easily and
gladly; and secondly, upon the firmness of the chronological
structure which alone makes a well-planned connection and
combination of events possible to the scholar.
5. Of whatever part of Germany you treat, begin first with
the history of all Germany; carefully consider within this limit
what the home, in a narrower sense, has to show in active ideas
for the common country and all mankind.
Since 1870, no lengthy defence of this proposition is required.
We have likewise pointed out above that the pedagogic
maxim of ' proceeding from that which is near to that which
is distant," should not be interpreted to mean a beginning
with one of our many German fatherlands. When a description of the neighborhood has made the pupils familiar with
the nearest surroundings, when among the traditions and
biographies of crowned and uncrowned heads noteworthy




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phenomena of the native province have found their place,
the interest in the immediate home has been sufficiently
gratified.
If the context of the traditions and biographies does not
point to the destinies of all Germany, they may precede all
stories of that kind. But where properly so-called history
is in question, this, of course, precludes a beginning with
special history.
In the preparatory course of ancient history, the child's
horizon has been sufficiently enlarged in accordance with the
historical organism. To teach a special history in German
history - even that of Prussia -before treating the whole,
would be like examining one member of an organism before
looking at the organism itself as a whole. Every individual
German state has received more from the whole country of
German intellectual work than it has been able to give; and
the knowledge of all the reigning princes, the time of their
reign, their government and court-festivals, their spouses
and mistresses, could not indemnify the German boy for the
loss he would sustain in the knowledge of such men and
deeds as are famous in all Germany.
Yet a specially careful consideration of important phenomena nearer home are not only not excluded, but are to be
recommended.
The German is peculiar in his way. Uniformity of life
and labor is distasteful to him. Let the Prussian, Saxon,
Bavarian, and Suabian be conscious of his own special
achievements. The German, even since the reconstruction
of the empire, must not lose the advantage over other and
more homogeneous nations, which lies in the variety and
complexity of mental and practical development; still the
school must take care that the German's comprehension and
sentiment for the whole will, in future, oguard all Germany




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.  135


against the disgrace that mars too many pages of its history.
Therefore let it be German history, and never a special history
that is to represent a whole.
6. Create a desire for historical reading.
The general demand, that instruction must be interesting,
should hardly be mentioned here. It would be an anachronism in so far as a method of teaching is privileged if it only
gives a stimulus. It follows, therefore, that this should be
a quality of the above suggestions, in which the demand was
met by combining reflective with pictorial characteristics.
It is easy to see how the success of instruction in history
can be aided by private reading, if the teacher devotes proper
attention to it. Good stories attract a boy. It would only
be necessary to procure books, to mention them in the lessons, and read from them; finally, to give them to the boy,
and remind him of his reading by pointing out of what use it
will be to him in his lessons.
Each one should be provided with an historical reader,
which would have a threefold purpose: first, it will make the
boy familiar with finished historical representations by original authorities which often unconsciously become a model
for his own style; in the second place, it is to afford him
constant opportunity for private reading; and thirdly, later
it is to give a constant stimuJus to historical reading.
It must contain examples from the best original writers,
and the best popular works derived from them. They must
be examples that will be no more likely to become obsolete
than Schiller's poems, and the source should be given where
more such good things can be found. The school library
should be provided with good translations and popular accounts of original works, which must be kept before the
school, and the reading matter made use ofo The historical
reader should, by no means, contain all the material, even




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approximately, which the teacher is about to make use of,
and he is therefore not bound by it in his narration. The
plan for carrying out the lesson he will be obliged to make
himself by the help of a guide to history, and form the narrative himself, based upon his own research, and adapted to the
capacity of his hearers.  Thorough work is demanded of
him, but he will enjoy free intellectual labor, since he is not
a slave to the guide which he employs. Whatever he has
chosen and worked out he will be able to use most advantageously.
7. Practise the scholars in free repetition of the teacher's
narrative. Let the most important dates be mentioned in connection with the lesson, and fix them indellibly on the memory
by constant repetition.
It would be sul)erfluolls to insist on the advantage of impromptu speaking for readiness and clearness of thought in
practical life. What better material for practice 'next to
German than that of history! After the teacher has told a
story, volunteers are called for to repeat it; the timid should
be encouraged; the forward or inattentive should be brought
to order by not helping them out. At the end of the lesson
they must be questioned on the chief points of what has been
related, and required to write them out, and one or two dates
must be kept in view for repetition as the foundation for a
number of slowly but constantly accumulating facts. In
spite of Gutenberg's invention, there seems no better way of
aiding the memory and leaving the teacher at liberty. The
boy's memory must have some support; the general plan is
that of recalling the principal points during every free discourse, and every one knows by experience that writing them
down is of greater use than mere reading over. As there
are but a few words to write, it will not be encroaching on
the allotted time, and the reproach of the dictating method




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCT10N IN HISTORY.  137


cannot be made to the proceeding. By the aid of these principal points the boy will become more and more capable of
recalling his history at home, in so far as it was made clear
and interesting to him, and he will give evidence of it in his
next lesson.1
The few facts for constant repetition must be underlined
and entered by themselves on the last pages of the book.2
8. Choose your material with a view to the person,- the
scholar; and equally with a view to the object, - history;
finally, with respect to external circnumstances.
The difference in thle latter hardly admits of a precise
grading of the lessons. The intermediate schools of one,
three, four, and six classes, of course, aim at very different
results. It certainly required a good deal of national indifference, want of judgment, and sectarian narrowness, to
divide a school of two classes into two schools of one class
each according to religious beliefs; to put children of twelve
and children of eight years old - who have hitherto been
instructed by two separate teachers - together in such a
manner that now each teacher has children of eight and
twelve to instruct, and hastens from one to the other, not to
1 Compare Fleckeisen and Masius's new Yearbook, etc.,*l1875, II., p. 100.
2 We will refer to Lobell's architectural schedule here, which proposes,
instead of the imperfect "mechanical chronological table," to substitute
a schedule which comprehensively groups the principal features of a
development. The arrangement in Peter's table for Roman and Greek
history is already an improvement:EXTERNAL HISTORY.       |       INTERNAL HISTORY.
It would be necessary to give a survey of the whole development in tabular
form.
Whatever stands in columns contains the principal features of a single
series of developments formed by the struggle of an idea. The various
series of developments, as they exhibit themselves in a nation, are placed
side by side, according to the synchronistic principle, as shown in the wellknown synchronistic tables for political history.




138


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


mention the subdivisions at all.  Perhaps the knowledge
that more than formerly is now required of general public
education, will also restore the division of labor in schools.
We can, at least, discuss the order of the lessons, first
reminding the reader that this limitation, caused by unfavorable circumstances, is concerned with only the quantity, not
with the quality of the instruction in history. If, according
to William von Humboldt, history "is of no use by its separate examples of what should be followed and what avoided,"
but "its true and infinite utility is to excite and purify the
mind, more by the form connected with events than by the
events themselves"; if, according to Gervinus, "a work on
history is not intended to furnish separate precepts, but to
teach mankind to comprehend the real world as a whole."
If the most valuable material in history is the influence of the
moral, intellectual, and practical element 1 if, according to
the words of the first author,2 "to plunge into the subject
and lose one's self, is to gain one's self," it is plain that
neither disadvantageous circumstances, nor consideration for
the mass of material, should induce us to slight ideas, nor to
resolve universal history into detached stories and anecdotes,
nor to bury the plenitude of real life in abstract condensations; and finally, to renounce all practical advantages
arising from it for a dreary collection of facts. The difference between the profundity of the subject and the immaturity of the scholar demands a clearness and an epic breadth
that should not be curtailed in the least. For everything
depends upon the completeness and interest of the historical
pictures, because later they constitute the elements of all
historic thought, - they are the historical multiplication
table.


1 Compare above on the use of history.
2 Wegweiser, I., "Rules for the Instruction of the Teacher."




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.  139


Therefore, only limitation of the quantity, never of the
quality. The idea which strives to shape actual life, the
personality and the procedure of its champions, must always
be presented in lifelike clearness to the mental view, or else
we must give up-the educating influence of history.
From these previous discussions it follows what order of
lessons we consider the right one. The first step would offer
tales and legends; then tales of adventure, which is the first
introduction into practical life and a help in comprehending
the most elementary civilization, which is not yet included in
the records of history, and is nevertheless demanded for the
comprehension of historical work. This first step is concluded by biographies -which pretend to be only biographies
- with a certain poetical coloring. They find their elementary limitation and importance in that they, aside from single features, clearly and minutely depict the summit of ideal
activity, thereby early making the pupil familiar with ancient
as well as modern heroes, and, at the same time, affording
a cursory view into the centres of the manifold labor of
civilization, public as well as private.
Actual history is begun at ten years of age, after a study
of the neighborhood and surroundings have not only familiarized the child with the country, but also with the people of
the neighborhood, according to their position and occupation,
as far as possible. While, until now, the purely biographical
treatment prevailed, and tales, legends, travels, historical
biographies served the preliminary purpose of arousing a
sense for general relations by means of interest in persons.
These relations now appear as the units in which developments take place. The most prominent work of the ideas of
the ancients, whether only of generally human or specially
national significance for our time, must be given; and Roman
or Greek state and national history should, by no means, be




140


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


attempted. The unpleasant parts, characterized by weakness and vagueness of ideas, may be left untouched. Only
the final deterioration of Greek and Roman affairs must be
shown, as an introduction to the dawn of German history.
In German history, likewise, single series of developments
must be followed first, and those, of course, which represent
the principal ideas in the depth and variety of which our national greatness consists. At the end of important periods,
these must be combined to form a chapter of German history.
Foreign ideas that influenced the shaping of our circumstances must be traced to their sources. In the luminous
picture that reflects our national advantages, the dark shadows must not be omitted that are now gradually yielding to
the vigor of the national idea of unity.
Not to carry history up to our times would, to-day, be a
national crime; we owe it to our heroes, whether they live
or sleep in French earth. Not to progress to the present
would make all study of the past almost useless. History is
to give an ideally practical education for the present and for
the future. The weapons of Achilles might be borrowed by
any one from the past; but, without knowledge of the developments to the present, he would be fighting in the dark with
them. Shall it be left to accident or to the care of one individual to make up what is wanting?  Experience has taught
us how many are able to do so. Why shall the rising generation learn everything, except the foundation on which it
stands? Perhaps, because recent history cannot be taught
objectively enough. But will it be taught more objectively
in the light of faction and a party press? If the teacher has
disciplined his mind, as in duty bound, objectively to represent the reality of past times, he, foremost among his fellowcitizens, will be qualified for the objective comprehension and
representation of modern ideas. It had some meaning, when




OUTLINES OF INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.  141


a reactionary government, in attempting to restore the patriarchal conditions of old, gave history the Holy Alliance for a
keystone. Since the passage of the indemnity law, it would
be absurd, even for a conservative, to think of such a limitation. Neither does the complexity of recent history any
longer offer insurmountable difficulties.
The treatment of former periods will have afforded sufficient preparation to make the more and more universally
historical character of recent times understood, without loss
of unity to the picture.
Many analogous events which serve to complete the picture have already been clearly represented, so that but a
brief characterization is required to give an impression of
them and make their effect understood. If, in the public
school, the chief picture must always appear vividly and in
detail, the less important parts can now certainly be managed by means of condensations. Accordingly, the external
course of instruction would be this:
The nearest source of material for historical instruction for
the scholar is the teacher. He narrates, producing the picture of the past in the mind of the boy, the ideas and its
representations, and the procedure which gave it form. The
scene of the event is eventually to be drawn on the blackboard, and the scholar made to copy it on the slate or with
a lead-pencil. The teacher's judgment and the scholar's
expression of countenance will show where new ideas and
impressions must be explained before they can be utilized.
They will be comprehended by the heuristic method, by the
help of modern illustrations, and by recalling what has been
taught before, etc.
After the narration is finished, questions are briefly put
about the principal points. Volunteers are first called upon
to repeat the stories. Toward the end of the lesson the prin



142


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


cipal points are aphoristically written down, to serve for
recapitulation at home; the principal facts emphasized. The
next lesson begins with a repetition of the principal points.
A detailed repetition of the story follows two or three times;
meanwhile another scholar draws the scene of action on the
blackboard. Corrections of both follow, and general catechizing allows the class to participate. The teacher asks if
any one has read something special in regard to the event;
if it has been done, the pupil is asked to relate it, or to give
details. The transition to new matter is introduced by referring back to similar events, and resuming the thread of a
former series of developments, exciting interest for the new.
The principal parts of what has gone before must always
be repeated unaided by the pupil, forward and backward,
until they have become his inalienable property.
At the end of every period of history, the stories are united
into a whole.
In view of the demands made upon the public-school teacher
by a single branch of instruction, who does not feel the truth
of Gervinus's words: " Whoever has weighed the demands
of history and yet attempts it, must have the courage of
the moth and not fear to burn his wings for love of light"?
Still, it seemed right fully to make those demands, following
the example of that Theban who flung the standard into the
enemy's midst, in order to leave no doubt of the direction.
But if the thought still remains, that it will be impossible
sufficiently to imbue the child's soul with the depth of historical life,- the comprehension of which, according to a wellknown authority, is the business of men,- the cry that is
heard everywhere for higher schools must also be raised on
this side.




CHAPTER VIII.


Means of Instruction.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
BEFORE we recommend works upon this subject, we will
briefly state our views in regard to the use of these auxiliaries
in the public school. Much detailed criticism will thus be
spared the author, who does not wish to withhold his full
appreciation of the learning and pedagogic skill of tlhe writers of text-books, etc., when he says that something must be
left out here or added there in order to reach desired results.
This procedure, certainly, according to his view, is largely
to be recommended.
That position is now abandoned which only regarded the
record of wars and kings as the sole material for teaching
history. The demand was justly made that special attention should be given to that which was of importance to the
entire political and national life.
A history of the royal house becomes the history of the
Prussian, Bavarian, and Saxon states and people, and finally
German history. This has greatly increased the material,
and, at the same time, given it a higher aim. Formerly, this
material consisted of the knowledge of single individuals and
their deeds, and the aim was the inculcation of the maxims:
Fear God and honor the king; The subject must trust God
and His government. It now comprises the whole domain
of national history, and its aim is the development of historical opinion; for each one, to a certain extent, must bear a
part in the work of the nation, and find a-support in his own
judgment against the influence of the demagogy that has




144


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


ruined many a state.  But pedagogic authors, in attempting
to write a German school history, undertook a hopeless task
in so far as they strove for completeness in regard to matter
and uniformity of detail.  History is called a concentrated
experience, and rightly. Still, it seems impossible to reproduce the experience of at least a thousand years in some five
hundred history lessons.
The fruits of individual experience ripen slowly: therefore
has the historian so far outstripped the experienced teacher,
that he can comprehend the accumulated experience of an
active lifetime in a few hours?
The'historian's skill certainly reproduces the development
of one year in so condensed a form, that we can become familiar in a comparatively short time with its most striking
events. But, as soon as the matter has been so closely condensed that we can no longer follow the inner movement of
forces, and no longer understand the course of development
from causes, then all experience ceases. We then see only a
series of events worth knowing, but we remain unprepared
in face of the problems and demands of the present.'
The demand has, therefore, long since been made to drop
the less important for the important; but the sum of important events is so great, and the bloody struggle of two ideas
alone, in the space of three decades, brings forth so many
important phenomena, that among these again a selection
must be made if historical comprehension, which is the school
for historical opinion, is to be reached.
The proper title for most compendiums of history, containing what we have suggested as the proper material, should
1 It is evident how much the compendious writing of history promotes
subjectivity. Since it is not made possible for the pupil to gather his own
experience, the temptation arises to force individual experience and an
individual point of view upon him.




MEANS OF INSTRUCTION.


145


be, " Stories of the Most Remarkable Events in German
History."
Its indisputable advantage will consist, firstly, in this, that
the boy will become familiar with the most notable persons
and events in history; and secondly, if the work is enlivened
by specially interesting traits, it will also enliven the youthful mind.
If this solves the problem of the public school, then these
books fulfil their purpose, and the teacher has nothing to do
but keep alive the memory of bygone events, and do away
with an unseemly ignorance, especially in regard to the history of his own people. This, too, can be accomplished by
reading history.
If more than this is to be accomplished, if a growing comprehension of historical developments and mental products is
to be attained, - which only thrives on the basis of a deeper
comprehension, - and, with them, create an enthusiasm for
ideas that are struggling to assert themselves, as well as for
their champions, and likewise a sense for the forces that are
active in history, it will be necessary to follow in the footsteps
of Thomas Arnold by taking out the most important points
and working to the depth of things; showing the past like the
life of the present, as a picture of living, striving, scheming,
and acting human beings, but not by attempting to distil the
labor of historical minds during fifty years into the concentrated experience of five hours. The reading of history
must be stataric before we pass over to cursory reading; not only the results of historical work must be given,
but historical work itself must be traced: it should not suffice to cite a summary statement, first, as a reason for, and
then as a reason against; not make the general simply retreat this time owing to the weakness of his forces, and
another time make him victorious in spite of it.




146             INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.
That would be teaching history dogmatically and not rationally.
A mere succession of facts is soulless, mechanical work.
More dignity is given to the memories of the past, if, in the
smoothly-elaborated detail of the " how" of events, attractive and inspiring personal traits are interwoven. But does
an author produce any other effect than that of a mere collection of facts, if, retaining the form, he despatches the
"wherefore" with such general reasons that, psychologically,
there are no reasons at all for the pupil, - that is, no key to
the comprehension of that which is to follow.
If the statement occurs in an otherwise excellent collection
of historical stories, " The English did not offer much resistance; they lacked unity and force," or, " the unaccustomed
climate had very much thinned the ranks of the Crusaders,"
then want of unity and force, and the unaccustomed climate,
have the form   of reasons, but are comprehended only as
abstract notions by the boy.  It requires a vivid picture; he
must see isolated detachments fighting here and there, and
observe how discouraged and paralyzed the prominent figures are in their isolation; he must be given a climatic idea
of Syria, if those reasons are really to be reasons for him.'
If this is really so, then the uniformity of detail must be
1 0. Yiger, in the Preface to his "Punic Wars," remarks: "Down to
our day, we are accustomed to see historical matter thrown into the form
of universal history; and the force of this habit is so strong, that we guilelessly accept universal history in countless text-books and readers for
intermediate and elementary classes, for girls' schools, for boys of fourteen, and even for boys of nine years old. Annually, we see those strange
books appear in abundant new editions, that, with enviable ingenuousness,
are called "Guides," "Sketches," and "Abridgments of Universal History for Lower Gymnasial Classes," etc. Gradually we are giving up this
folly, and making a more modest, and certainly a more fruitful, departure
on the principle that the way to that which is general is through that which
is special, etc.




MEANS OF INSTRUCTION.


147


given up, even in regard to important events, and the monographic element must prevail; the choice must be made,
guided by historical ideas: that event, or rather that period,
must be kept in view in which the idea most actively appears.
This material must be treated thoroughly with a certain epic
breadth; and those events which cannot be thoroughly treated,
should not be dwelt on.
As their comprehension cannot be given in a few words,
they are only to be reduced to mere indications of the situation in which the events to be fully described take place.
If the choice of material follows in this way, it is clear why
we scarcely consider the use of a printed " Guide " desirable.
Aside from the assistance which the memory receives from
writing down what is given, and with regard to the freedom
of the teacher in the treatment of the matter, but few notes
need be taken when following this method.  For the greater
completeness of comprehension is the most effective aid to
memory. Of course, if, in that uniform treatment of history,
the deeds of the past are specially to be recalled, then such
an accumulation of disconnected details naturally ensues
that a printed "' Guide" advantageously replaces a tedious
dictation.  If less stress is laid on a series of disconnected
facts than on the comprehension of the principal phases,
next to those facts which must be mentioned as the foundation for the principal action, the few principal points of the
detailed explanation will suffice.l
Let the reading of the pupils be an aid to their memory in
history. It is the teacher's duty to rouse and stimulate a
love for it. The reader which is used in school must facili1 It is scarcely necessary to point out that a monographic treatment is
advantageous to the teacher; that a sense of scientific freedom overcomes
the pedantic view, and removes the well-merited reproach: "He knows
a little of everything, and nothing thoroughly."




148


INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.


tate this. It should contain a series of detached stories of
remarkable events; they must be easy to comprehend and
attractive. The more laborious intellectual work of showing
their connection is not the object of the book. It must be
the chief aim of the teacher, on the other hand, to let the pupil
arrive at the true comprehension of history at those points
where ideas culminate. As he must treat certain portions
thoroughly; and a small portion lightly, we must consider
authorities on history, scientific works, and monographs as
our principal pedagogic aids; these will give insight and
afford comprehension. The teacher's most individual task
will be, in every case, to find the form of presenting his subject best adapted to his pupils based upon his pedagogic
experience and insight, aided by popularized works.  Such
reading-books would be best for the scholar which contain
stories, either detached or connected, not hard to understand,
and told with a certain epic breadth that boys like:I. We will mention tales, stories of the Robinson-Crusoe
type, and legends (compare p. 111).
II. Selections from historical literature, partly from original sources and partly from modern works, given in connection with the sequence of events.
III. We will subjoin a list of such works as are to serve
our purpose of instruction.




SPECIAL METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY1
AS PURSUED AT THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY
AND AT SMITH COLLEGE.
0
THE main principle of historical training at the Johns Hopkins University is to encourage independent thought and
research. Little heed is given to text-books, or the mere
phraseology of history, but all stress is laid upon clear and
original statements of fact and opinion, whether the student's
own or the opinion of a consulted author. The comparative
method of reading and study is followed by means of assigning to individual members of the class separate topics, with
references to various standard works. These topics are duly
reported upon by the appointees, either ex tempore, with the
the aid of a few notes, or in formal papers, which are discussed at length by the class. The oral method has been
found to afford a better opportunity than essays for question
and discussion, and it is in itself a good means of individual
training, for the student thereby learns to think more of substance than of form.    Where essays are written, more time
1 This article contains extracts from a paper on "History: Its Place
in American Colleges," originally contributed in October, 1879, to The
Alumnus, a literary and educational quarterly then published in Philadelphia, but now suspended and entirely out of print. A few extracts have
also been made from an article on "Co-operation in University Work," in
the second number of The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical
and Political Science. But the body of the article is new, and was written
by request, for the purpose of suggesting to teachers how the study of History might be made more interesting and vital by beginning upon home
ground, with the investigation of local life and its widening relations.




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SPECIAL METHODS OF


is usually expended on style than on the acquisition of facts.
If the student has a well-arranged brief, like a lawyer's, and
a head full of ideas, he will express himself at least intelligibly, and clearness and elegance will come with sufficient
practice.  The ex tempore method, with a good brief or
abstract (which may be dictated to the class) is one of the
best methods for the teacher as well as for the student. The
idea should be, in both cases, to personify historical science
in the individual who is speaking upon a given topic. A book
or an essay, however symmetrical it may be, is often only a
fossil, a lifeless thing; but a student or teacher talking from
a clear head is a fountain of living science. A class of bright
minds quickly discern the difference between a phrase-maker
and a man of ideas.
As an illustration of the kind of subjects in medieval history studied in 1878, independently of any text-book, by a
class of undergraduates, from eighteen to twenty-two years
of age, the following list of essay-topics is appended: —
1. Influence of Roman law during the middle ages. (Savigny,
Sir Henry Maine, Guizot, Hadley.)
2. The kingdom of Theodoric, the East Goth. (Millnan, Gibbon,
Freeman.)
3. The conversion of Germany. (Merivale, Milinan, Trench.)
4. The conversion of England.  (Bede, Milnan, Freeman, Montalembert, Trench.)
5. The civilizing influence of the Benedictine Monks. (Montalembert, Gibbon, Milman.)
6. Cloister and cathedral schools.  (Einhard, Guizot, Mullinger.)
7. The origin and character of mediaeval universities. (Green,
History of England; Lacroix; various university histories.)
8. Modes of legal procedure among the early Teutons. (Waitz,
J. L. Laughlin, Lea.)
9. Report of studies in "Anglo-Saxon Law."  (Henry Adams
et al.)




HISTORICAL STUDY.


151


10. Origin of Feudalism. Feudal rights, aids, and incidents.
(Guizot, Hallam, Stubbs, Digby, Maine, Waitz, Roth.)
11. Evils of Feudalism. (Authorities as above.)
12. Benefits of Feudalism. (As above.)
13. The Saxon Witenagemot and its historical relation to the House
of Lords. (Freeman, Stubbs, Hallam, Guizot.)
14. Origin of the House of Commons. (Pauli, Creighton, and
authorities above stated.)
15. Origin of communal liberty.  (Hegel, Stadteverfassung von
Italien; Testa, Communes of Lombardy; Wauters, Les libertes communales; Stubbs, Freeman, Guizot, et al.)
At Smith College, an institution founded at Northampton,
Massachusetts, by a generous woman, in the interest of the
higher education of her sex, the study of history is pursued
by four classes in regular gradation, somewhat after the college model.  The First, corresponding to the "Freshman"
class, study oriental or ante-classic history, embracing the
Stone Age, Egypt, Palestine, Phoenicia, the empires of Mesopotamia and ancient India. This course was pursued in
1879 by dictations and ex tenmpore lectures on the part of the
teacher, and by independent reading on the part of the pupils.
The first thing done by the teacher in the introduction to the
history of any of the above-mentioned countries, was to explain the sources from which the history of that country was
derived, and then to characterize briefly the principal literary
works relating to it, not omitting historical novels, like Ebers'
"Egyptian Princess," or "Uarda."   Afterwards, the salient
features, in Egyptian history, for example, were presented by
the instructor, under distinct heads, such as geography, religion, art, literature, and chronology. Map-drawing by and
before the class was insisted upon; and, in connection with
the foregoing subjects, books or portions of books were recommended for private reading. For instance, on the " Geography




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SPECIAL METHODS OF


of Egypt," fifty pages of Herodotus were assigned in Rawlinson's translation. This, and other reading, was done in the
so-called " Reference Library," which was provided with all
the books that were recommended. An oral account of such
reading was sooner or later demanded from each pupil by
the instructor, and fresh points of information were thus continually brought out. The amount of positive fact acquired
by a class of seventy-five bright young women bringing together into one focus so many individual rays of knowledge,
collected from the best authorities, is likely to burn to ashes
the dry bones of any text-book, and to keep the instructor at
a white heat.
As an illustration of the amount of reading done in one
term of ten weeks by this class of beginners in history,
the following fair specimen of the lists handed in at the
end of the academic year of 1879 is appended. The reading was of course by topics: -
EGYPT.
Unity of History (Freeman).
Geography (Herodotus).
Gods of Egypt (J. Freeman Clarke).
Manners and Customs (Wilkinson).
Upper Egypt (Klunzinger).
Art of Egypt (Liibke).
Hypatia (Kingsley).
Egyptian Princess (Ebers).
PALESTINE.
Sinai and Palestine, 40 pages (Stanley).
History of the Jews (extracts from Josephus).
The Beginnings of Christianity, Chap. VII. (Fisher).
Religion of the Iebrews (J. Freeman Clarke).




HISTORICAL STUDY.


153


PHOENICIA, ASSYRIA, ETC.
Phoenicia, 50 pages (Kenrick).
Assyrian Discoveries (George Smith).
Chaldean Account of Genesis (George Smith).
Assyrian Architecture (Fergusson).
Art of Central Asia (Liibke).
In the Second, or "Sophomore" class, classic history was
pursued by means of the History Primers of Greece and
Rome, supplemented by lectures and dictations, as the time
would allow. The Junior class studied mediaeval history in
much the same way, by text-books (the Epoch Series) and
by lectures. Both classes did excellent work of its kind, but
it was not the best kind; for little or no stimulus was given
to original research. And yet, perhaps, to an outsider, fond
of old-fashioned methods of recitation, these classes would
have appeared better than the First class. They did harder
work, but it was less spontaneous and less scientific. The
fault was a fault of method.
With the Senior class the method described as in use at
the Johns Hopkins University was tried with marked success. With text-books on modern history as a guide for the
whole class, the plan was followed out of assigning to individuals subjects with references for private reading and
for an oral report of about fifteen minutes' length. The class
took notes on these reports or informal student-lectures
as faithfully as on the extended remarks and more formal
lectures of the instructor.  This system of making a class
lecture to itself is, of course, very unequal in its immediate
results, and sometimes unsatisfactory; but, as a system of
individual training for advanced pupils, it is valuable as a
means both of culture and of discipline. Contrast the good
to the individual student of any amount of mere text-book




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SPECIAL METHODS OF


memorizing or idle note-taking with the positive culture and
wide acquaintance with books, derived in ten weeks from such
a range of reading as is indicated in the following bond fide
report by one member of the Senior class (1879), who afterwards was a special student of history for two years in the
"Annex" at Harvard College, and who in 1881 returned to
Smith College for her degree of Ph.D.   First are given the
subjects assigned to this young woman for research, and the
reading done by her in preparation for report to the class;
and then is given the list of her general reading in connection with the class work of the term.  Other members of the
class had other subjects and similar reports:I. —SUBJECTS FOR RESEARCH.
1. Anselm and Roscellinus.
Milman's Latin Christianity, Vol. IV., pp. 190-225.
Ueberweg's History of Philosophy, Vol. I., pp. 271-385.
2. Platonic Academy at Florence.
Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo di Medici, Vol. I., p. 3Q et seq.
Burckhardt's Renaissance, Vol. I.
Villari's Machiavelli, Vol. I., p. 205 et seq.
3. Colet.
Seebohm's Oxford Reformers.
4. Calvin.
Fisher's History of the Reformation (Calvin).
Spalding's History of the Reformation (Calvin).
D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation, Vol. I., book 2, chap. 7.
5. Frederick the Great.
Macaulay's Essay on Frederick the Great.
Lowell's Essay on Frederick the Great.
Ency. Brit. Article on Frederick the Great.
Menzel's History of Germany (Frederick the Great).
Carlyle's Frederick the Great (parts of Vols. I., II., III.).
6. Results of the French Revolution.
French Revolution (Epoch Series).




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II. -GENERAL READING.
Roscoe's Life of Leo X. (one-half of Vol. 1.).
Mrs. Oliphant's Makers of Florence (on cathedral builders, Savonarola, a Private Citizen, Michel Angelo).
Symond's Renaissance (Savonarola).
Walter Pater's Renaissance (Leonardo da Vinci).
Hallam's Middle Ages (on Italian Republics).
Benvenuto Cellini's Autobiography (about one-half).
Burckhardt's Renaissance (nearly all).
Vasari's Lives of the Painters (da Vinci, Alberti).
Lowell's Essay on Dante.
Carlyle's Essay on Dante.
Trench's Mediaeval Church History (Great Councils of the West,
Huss and Bohemia, Eve of the Reformation).
Fisher's History of the Reformation (Luther).
White's Eighteen Christian Centuries (16th).
Macaulay's Essay on Ranke's History of the Popes.
Lecky's European Morals (last chapter).
Seebohm's Era of the Protestant Revolution.
Froude's Short Studies on Great Subjects (studies on the times
of Erasmus and Luther, the Dissolution of the Monasteries).
Spalding's History of the Reformation (chapter on Luther).
Carlyle's Essay on Luther and Knox.
Hosmer's German Literature (chapters on Luther, Thirty Years'
War, Minnesingers and Mastersingers).
Gardiner's Thirty Years' War.
Morris's Age of Anne.
George Eliot's Romola (about one-half).
Hawthorne's Marble Faun (parts).
It is but fair to say in reference to this vast amount of
reading, that it represents the chief work done by the abovementioned young lady during the summer term, for her class
exercises were mainly lectures requiring little outside study.
The list will serve not merely as an illustration of Senior
work in history at Smith College, but also as an excellent




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guide for a course of private reading on the Renaissance and
Reformation. No more interesting or profitable course can be
followed than a study of the Beginnings of Modern History.
With Symond's works on the " Renaissance in Italy," Burckhardt's " Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance" (English translation), and Seebohm's "Era of the Protestant
Revolution" (Epoch series) for guide-books, a college instructor can indicate to his pupils lines of special investigation more grateful than text-book " cramming," more inspiring
than lectures or dictations. The latter, though good to a
certain extent, become deadening to a class when its
members are no longer stimulated to original research, but
sink back in passive reliance upon the authority of the lecturer.  That method of teaching history which converts
bright young pupils into note-taking machines is a bad
method. It is the construction of a poor text-book at the
expense of much valuable time and youthful energy. Goethe
satirized this, the fault of German academic instruction, in
Mephistopheles' counsel to the student, who is advised to
study well his notes, in order to see that the professor says
nothing which he hasn't said already: -
Damit ihr nachher besser seht,
Dass er nichts sagt, als was im Buche steht;
Doch cuch des Schreibens ja befleisst,
Als dictirt' euch der Heilig' Geist!
The simple-minded student assents to this counsel, and says
it is a great comfort to have everything in black and white,
so that he can carry it all home. But no scrap-book of facts
can give wisdom, any more than a tank of water can form
a running spring. It is, perhaps, of as much consequence to
teach a young person how to study history as to teach him
history itself._           _
The above notes were written in the summer of 1879, and




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were published in October of that year, after the author's
return to Baltimore. Subsequent experience at Smith College, in the spring terms of 1880 and 1881, when the lecturer's four years' partial connection with Smith College
terminated, showed the necessity of a reference library
for each class, the resources of the main collection in the
reading-room having proved inadequate to the growing historical needs of the college. Instead of buying text-books,
the members of each class, with the money which text-books
would have cost, formed a library fund, from which a book
committee purchased such standard works (often with duplicate copies) as the lecturer recommended. The class libraries were kept in places generally accessible; for example,
in the front halls of the " cottage " dormitories. Each class
had its own system of rules for library administration.
Books that were in greatest demand could be kept out only
one or two days. The amount of reading by special topics
accomplished in this way in a single term was really most
remarkable. Note-books with abstracts of daily work were
kept, and finally handed in as a part of the term's examination. Oral examinations upon reading, pursued in connection
with the lectures, were maintained throughout the term, and,
at the close, a written examination upon the lectures and
other required topics, together with a certain range of optional
subjects, fairly tested the results of this voluntary method
of historical study. The amount of knowledge acquired in
this way would as much stlrpass the substance of any system
of lectures or any mere text-book acquisitions as a class
library of standard historians surpasses an individual teacher
or any historical manual. This method of study is practicable in any high-school class of moderate size. If classes
are generous, they will leave their libraries to successors,
who can thus build up a collection for historical reference




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SPECIAL METHODS OF


within the school itself, which will thus become a seminary
of living science.
A development of the above idea of special libraries for
class use was the foundation in Baltimore, at the Johns Hopkins University, in 1881-2, of a special library for the study of
American Institutional History by college graduates. There
was nothing really new about the idea except its application.
German universities have their seminarium libraries distinct
from the main university library, although often in the same
building. In Baltimore the special library was established
in the lecture-room where the class meets. The design of
the collection was to gather within easy reach the chief
authorities used in class work and in such original investigations as were then in progress. The special aim, however,
was to bring together the statutory law and colonial archives
of the older States of the Union, together with the journals
of Congress, American State papers, and the writings and
lives of American statesmen. The statutes of England and
parliamentary reports on subjects of particular interest were
next secured. Then followed, in December, 1882, the acquisition of the Bluntschli Library of three thousand volumes,
with many rare pamphlets and Bluntschli's manuscripts, including his notes taken under Niebuhr the historian, and
under Savigny the jurist. This library of the lamented Dr.
Bluntschli, professor of constitutional and international law
in Heidelberg, was presented to the Johns Hopkins University by German citizens of Baltimore; and it represents, not
only in its transfer to America, but in its very constitution,
the internationality of modern science. Here is a library,
which, under the care of a great master, developed from the
narrow chronicles of a Swiss town and canton into a library
of cosmopolitan character, embracing many nations in its
scope. Into this inheritance the Seminary Library of Ameri



HISTORICAL STUDY.


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can Institutional History has now entered. Although the
special work of the Seminary will still be directed toward
American themes, yet it will be from the vantage-ground of
the Bluntschli Library, and with the knowledge that this
great collection was the outgrowth of communal studies
similar to those now in progress in Baltimore.
A word may be added in this connection touching the nature
of graduate-work in history at the Johns Hopkins University.
What was said in the early part of this article applied only
to undergraduates, who develop into the very best class of
graduate students now present at the University. The idea
of a co-operative study of American local institutions, by
graduate students representing different sections of country,
evolved very naturally from the Baltimore environment. G erminant interest in the subject originated in a study of New
England towns, in a spring sojourn for four years at Smith
College, Northampton, Mass., and in summer tours along the
New England coast; but the development of this interest was
made possible by associations in Baltimore with men from
the South and the West, who were able and willing to describe
the institutions of their own States for purposes of comparison with the institutions of other States. Thus it has come
about that the parishes, districts, and counties of Maryland,
Virginia, and the Carolinas are placed historically side by
side with the townships of the West and the towns and parishes of New England; so that, by and by, all men will see
how much these different sections have in common.
There is a great variety of subjects pertaining to American
local life in its rural and municipal manifestations. Not only
the history of local government, but the history of schools,
churches, charities, manufactures, industries, prices, economics, municipal protection, municipal reforms, local taxation, representation, administration, poor laws, liquor laws,




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labor laws, and a thousand and one chapters of legal and
social history are yet to be written in every State. Johns
Hopkins students have selected only a few    topics like
towns, parishes, manors, certain state systems of free schools,
a few phases of city government, a few French and Indian
villages in the North-west, certain territorial institutions, Canadian feudalism, the town institutions of New England (to a
limited extent); but there is left historical territory enough
for student immigration throughout the next hundred years.
The beauty of science is that there are always new worlds
to discover. And at the present moment there await the
student pioneer vast tracts of American institutional and
economic history almost as untouched as were once the forests of America, her coal measures and prairies, her mines
of iron, silver, and gold. Individual and local effort will
almost everywhere meet with quick recognition and grateful returns. But scientific and cosmopolitan relations with
college and university centres, together with the generous
co-operation of all explorers in the same field, will certainly
yield the most satisfactory results both to the individual and
to the community which he represents.
It is highly important that isolated students who desire to
co-operate in this kind of work should avail themselves of the
existing machinery of local libraries, the local press, local
societies, and local clubs. If such things do not exist, the
most needful should be created. No community is too small
for a book club and for an association of some sort.  Local
studies should always be connected in some way with the life
of the community, and should always be used to quicken that
life to higher consciousness. A student, a teacher, who prepares a paper on local history or some social question, should
read it before the village lyceum or some literary club or an
association of teachers. If encouraged to believe his work




HISTORICAL STUDY.


161


of any general interest or permanent value, he should print
it in the local paper or in a local magazine, perhaps an educational journal, without aspiring to the highest popular
monthlies, which will certainly reject all purely local contributions by unknown contributors. It is far more practicable
to publish by local aid in pamphlet form or in the proceedings of associations and learned societies, before which such
papers may sometimes be read.
From a variety of considerations, the writer is persuaded
that one of the best introductions to history that can be given
in American high schools, and even in those of lower grade,
is through a study of the community in which the school is
placed. History, like charity, begins at home. The best
American citizens are those who mind home affairs and local
interests. " That man's the best cosmopolite who loves his
native country best." The best students of universal history
are those who know some one country or some one subject
well. The family, the hamlet, the neighborhood, the community, the parish, the village, town, city, county, and state
are historically the ways by which men have approached
national and international life. It was a preliminary study
of the geography of Frankfort-on-the-Main that led Carl
Ritter to study the physical structure of Europe and Asia,
and thus to establish the new science of comparative geography. He says: "' Whoever has wandered through the valleys and woods, and over the hills and mountains of his own
state, will be the one capable of following a Herodotus in his
wanderings over the globe."  And we may say, as Ritter
said of the science of geography, the first step in history is
to know thoroughly the district where we live. In America,
Guyot has represented for many years this method of teaching geography. Huxley, in his Physiography, has introduced
pupils to a study of Nature as a whole, by calling attention




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to the physical features of the Thames valley and the wide
range of natural phenomena that may be observed in any
English parish. Humboldt long ago said in his Cosmos:
"' Every little nook and shaded corner is but a reflection of
the whole of Nature."  There is something very suggestive
and very quickening in such a philosophy of Nature and history as regards every spot of the earth's surface, every
pebble, every form of organic life, from the lowest mollusk
to the highest phase of human society, as a perfect microcosm, perhaps an undiscovered world of suggestive truth.
But it is important to remember that all these things should
be studied in their widest relations. Natural history is of
no significance if viewed apart from Man. Human history is
without foundation if separated from Nature. The deeds of
men, the genealogy of families, the annals of quiet neighborhoods, the records of towns, states, and nations are per se
of little consequence to history unless in some way these
isolated things are brought into vital connection with the
progress and science of the world. To establish such connections is sometimes like the discovery of unknown lands,
the exploration of new countries, and the widening of the
world's horizon.
American local history should first be studied as a contribution to national history. This country will yet be viewed
and reviewed as an organism of historic growth, developing
from minute germs, from the very protoplasm of state life.
And some day this country will be studied in its international
relations, as an organic part of a larger organism now
vaguely called the World State, but as surely developing
through the operation of economic, legal, social, and scientific forces as the American Union, the German and British
Empires are evolving into higher forms. American history in its widest relations is not to be written by any one




HISTORICAL STUDY.


163


man nor by any one generation of men. Our history will
grow with the nation and with its developing consciousness
of internationality.  The present possibilities for the real
progress of historic and economic science lie, first and foremost, in the development of a generation of economists and
practical historians, who realize that history is past politics
and politics present history; secondly, in the expansion of
the local consciousness into a fuller sense of its historic worth
and dignity, of the cosmopolitan relations of modern local
life, and of its own wholesome conservative power in these
days of growing centralization.  National and international
life can best develop upon the constitutional basis of local
self-government in church and state.
The work of developing a generation of specialists has
already begun in the college and the university. The development of local consciousness can perhaps be best stimulated
through the common school. It may be a suggestive fact
that the school committee of Great Barrington, Mass., lately
voted (Berkshire Courier, Sept. 6, 1882) to introduce into
their village high school,' in the hands of an Amherst graduate, in connection with Nordhoff's " Politics for Young
Americans" and Jevons' "Primer of Political Economy,"
the article upon " The Germanic Origin of New England
Towns," which was once read in part before the Village
Improvement Society of Stockbridge, Mass., Aug. 24, 1881,
and published in the Pittsfield Evening Journal of that day.
Local demand really occasioned a university supply of the
article  in question.  The possible connection between the
1 The catalogue of the Great Barrington High School (1882) shows that
the study of history and politics is there founded, as it should be, upon a
geographical basis.
2 Johns IHopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science,
II. " The Germanic Origin of New England Towns."




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SPECIAL METHODS OF


college and the common school is still better illustrated by
the case of Professor Macy, of Iowa College, Grinnell, who
is one of the most active pioneers in teaching I thle real
homely facts of government," and who in 1881 published a
little tract on Civil Government in Iowa, which is now used
by teachers throughout that entire State in preparing their
oral instructions for young pupils, beginning with the township and the county, the institutions that are " nearest and
most easily learned." A special pupil of Professor Macy's
-Albert Shaw, A.B., Iowa College, 1879 - is now writing
a similar treatise on Civil Government in Illinois, for school
use in that State. There should be such a manual for every
State in the Union.
But the writer would like to see a text-book which not only
explains, as does Principal Macy, " the real homely facts of
government," but which also suggests how those facts came
to be. A study of the practical workings of local government and of the American Constitution is the study of politics which every young American ought to pursue. But a
study of the origin and development of American institutions
is a study of history in one of its most important branches.
It is not necessary that young Americans should grapple with
"the Constitution" at the very outset. Their forefathers
put their energies into the founding of villages, towns, and
plantations before they thought of American independence.
Their first country this side of the Atlantic was the colony;
in some instances, the county. It is not unworthy of sons
to study the historic work of fathers who constructed a nation
upon the solid rock of local self-government in church and
state.
If young Americans are to appreciate their religious and
political inheritance, they must learn its intrinsic worth.
They must be taught to appreciate the common and lowly




HISTORICAL STUDY.


165


things around them. They should grow up with as profound
respect for town and parish meetings as for the State legislature, not to speak of the Houses of Congress. They should
recognize the majesty of the law, even in the parish constable
as well as in the high sheriff of the county. They should
look on selectmen as the head men of the town, the survival
of the old English reeve and four best men of the parish.
They should be taught to see in the town common or village
green a survival of that primitive institution of land-community upon which town and state are based. They should
be taught the meaning of town and family names; how the
word "town" means, primarily, a place hedged in for purposes of defence; how the picket-fences around home and
house-lot are but a survival of the primitive town idea; how
home, hamlet, and town live on together in a name like
Hampton, or Home-town. They should investigate the most
ordinary things, for these are often the most archaic. For
example, there is the village pound, which Sir Henry Maine
says is one of the most ancient institutions, "older than the
king's bench, and probably older than the kingdom." There,
too, are the field-drivers (still known in New England), the
ancient town herdsmen, village shepherds, and village swineherds (once common in this country), who serve to connect
our historic life with the earliest pastoral beginnings of
mankind.
It would certainly be an excellent thing for the development of historical science in America if teachers in our public schools would cultivate the historical spirit in their pupils
with special reference to the local envihfonment. Something
more than local history can be drawn from such sources.
Take the Indian relics, the arrow-heads which a boy has
found in his father's field or which may have been given him
by some antiquary: here are texts for familiar talks by the




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SPECIAL METHODS OF


teacher upon the "Stone Age" and the progress of the
world from savage beginnings.  Indian names still linger
upon our landscapes, upon our mountains, rivers, fields, and
meadows, affording a suggestive parallel between the ' exterminated" natives of England and New England. What a
quickening impulse could be given to a class of bright pupils
by a visit to some scene of ancient conflict with the Indians,
like that at Bloody Brook in South Deerfield, Mass., or to
such an interesting local museum as that in Old Deerfield,
where is exhibited, in a good state of preservation, the door
of an early settler's house, - a door cut through by Indian
tomahawks. A multitude of historical associations gather
around every old town and hamlet in the land.
There are local legends and traditions, household tales,
stories told by grandfathers and grandmothers, incidents
remembered by "the oldest inhabitants."  But above all in
importance are the old documents and manuscript records of
the first settlers, the early pioneers, the founders of our
towns. Here are sources of information more authentic than
tradition, and yet often entirely neglected. If teachers would
simply make a few extracts from these unpublished records,
they would soon have sufficient materials in their hands for
elucidating local history to their pupils and fellow-townsmen.
The publication of such extracts in the local paper is one of
the best ways to quicken local interest in matters of history.
Biographies of "the first families," of the various ministers,
doctors, lawyers, " Squires," "'Generals," "Colonels,"
college graduates, school-teachers, and leading citizens, —
these are all legitimate and pleasant means of kindling historical interest in the community and in the schools. The
town fathers, the fathers of families, and all their sons and
daughters will quickly catch the bearings of this kind of historical study, for it takes hold upon the life of the community




HISTORICAL STUDY.


167


and quickens not only pride in the past but hope for the
future.
In order to study history it is not necessary to begin with
dead men's bones, with Theban dynasties, the kings of
Assyria, the royal families of Europe, or even with the presidents of the United States. These subjects have their importance in certain connections, but for beginners in history
there are perhaps other subjects of greater interest and vitality. The most natural entrance to a knowledge of the history
of the world is from a local environment through widening
circles of interest, until, from the rising ground of the present, the broad horizon of the past comes clearly into view.
There is hardly a subject of contemporary interest which, if
properly studied, will not carry the mind back to a remote
antiquity, to historic relations as wide as the world itself. A
study of the community in which the student dwells will
serve to connect that community not only with the origin
and growth of the State and Nation, but with the mothercountry, with the German fatherland, with village communities throughout the Aryan world, - from Germany and
Russia to old Greece and Rome; from these classic lands to
Persia and India.  Such modern connections with the distant Orient are more refreshing than the genealogy of Darius
the son of Hystaspes.
I would not be understood as disparaging ancient or oldworld history, for, if rightly taught, this is the most interesting
of all history; but I would be understood as emphasizing the
importance of studying the antiquity which survives in the
present and in this country. America is not such a new
world as it seems to many foreigners. Geologists tell us
that our continent is the oldest of all. Historians like Mr.
Freeman declare that if we want to see Old England we must
go to New England. Old France survives in French Canada.




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In Virginia, peculiarities of the West Saxon dialect are
still preserved. Professor James A. Harrison, of Lexington, Virginia, writes me that in Louisiana and Mississippi,
where upon old French and Spanish settlements the English
finally planted, there are " sometimes three traditions superimposed one on the other."  Men like George W. Cable and
Charles Gayarre have been mining to good advantage in
such historic strata. If American students and teachers are
equally wise, they will look about their own homes before
visiting the land of Chaldeea.
The main difficulty with existing methods of teaching history seems to be that the subject is treated as a record of
dead facts, and not as a living science. Pupils fail to realize
the vital connection between the past and the present; they
do not understand that ancient history was the dawn of a
light which is still shining on; they do not grasp the essential idea of history, which is -the growing self-knowledge of a
living, progressive age. Etymologically and practically, the
study of history is simply a learning by inquiry. According
to Professor Droysen, who is one of the most eminent historians in Berlin, the historical method is merely to understand
by means of research. Now it seems entirely practicable for
every teacher and student of history to promote, in a limited
way, the " know thyself " of the nineteenth century by original investigation of things not yet fully known, and by communicating to others the results of his individual study.
The pursuit of history may thus become an active instead of
a passive process, - an increasing joy instead of a depressing
burden. Students will thus learn that history is not entirely
bound up in text-books; that it does not consist altogether
in what this or that learned authority has to say about the
world. What the world believes concerning itself, after all that
men have written, and what the student thinks of the world,




HISTORICAL STUDY.                169
after viewing it with the aid of guide-books and with his own
eyes,-these are matters of some moment in the developmental
process of that active self-knowledge and philosophic reflection which make history a living science instead of a museum
of facts and of books " as dry as dust." Works of history,
the so-called standard authorities, are likely to become dead
specimens of humanity unless they continue in some way to
quicken the living age. But written history seldom fails
to accomplish this end, and even antiquated works often continue their influence if viewed as progressive phases of human
self-knowledge. Monuments and inscriptions can never grow
old so long as the race is young. New meaning is put into
ancient records; fresh garlands are hung upon broken statues;
new temples are built from classic materials; and the world
rejoices at its constant self-renewal.




I
It




ON METHODS OF TEACHING HISTORY.
THE teaching of history, in common with instruction in
all other systems of organized knowledge, should be
carried on with three more or less distinct objects in view:
the nature of the facts involved, the relations of those facts,
and the proper methods of investigation. Though it is not
possible in practice to separate these three objects completely
one from another, yet each should receive its due proportion
of attention, and should receive that attention in its appropriate place. First of all, therefore, the teacher of history
is called upon to decide which of these three objects he ought
with any given class to keep most prominently in view. The
answer of this question involves nothing less than a determination of the proper succession of historical studies.
This order of succession would seem to be fixed by nature.
It is certain that we must know something of the existence,
if not, indeed, of the nature, of any given order of events
before we can apprehend very clearly the relations of those
events to one another. Indeed, it may be said that the beginning of all organized knowledge is the acquisition of a certain
number of facts and truths. These facts, moreover, must
not be limited in range to a single portion of the subject we
are to study. They must be comprehensive in their scope.
We must know something of the heavens as a whole before
we can well understand the double stars or even the moon.
We cannot appreciate the significance of a missing link until
we have learned something' of the chain of which that link is




12


ON METHODS OF


supposed to form a part. We shall be unable to explain the
jubilant prosperity of a great and growing city unless we
have acquired considerable knowledge of the region of which
that city is the political and commercial centre. Thus we see
that there is a certain necessary order of succession, an order
which seems to be founded in the law, so well formulated by
Herbert Spencer, "there can be no correct idea of a part
without a correct idea of the correlative whole."
It is of course true that we learn something of individual
facts before we can advance to a comprehension of a series.
In a certain sense, therefore, we must proceed from the individual to the general. But it is also true that before our
knowledge of the individual can be complete, we must have
acquired some knowledge of the series of which the individual forms a part. The proper order of study, therefore,
would seem to be definitely fixed at our hand. We should
begin with such individual facts as form the strategic points
of historical progress, and should dwell upon them only so
far as to fix their general character and importance in the
attention of the pupil. We should then proceed to a study
of the relations of those facts in the development of society.
This done, we are ready to advance to the third stage of
our study, - a more careful investigation of the individual
elements of social and political life, with a view to revealing
the sources of their influence and power.
Having determined so much in regard to the proper order
of studies, we are ready to address ourselves to the question
of methods. But at the very outset we are confronted with
a somewhat formidable difficulty. In the present condition
of schools in the United States, there is actually, and perhaps necessarily, a broad distinction between what is desirable and what is practicable. It is probably not too much
to say that the introduction of methods of ideal excellence




TEACHING HISTORY.


173


in the teaching of history would involve a revolution in our
schools which the public at present is scarcely ready even to
consider. But however much we may be obliged to fall short
of what we could desire, we shall always find it profitable to
keep our eyes fixed upon the highest ideals. First of all,
then, let us provide a standard of measurement by inquiring
what is desirable.
In a school where all branches of instruction are properly
distributed and organized, the pupil may profitably receive
his first lessons in history when he is nine or ten years of
age. But a careful distinction must be made between receiving the first instruction in history and beginning the
study of it. At this age the pupil acquires information, not
through his own unaided effort, but almost exclusively through
the effort of the teacher. A mother has no difficulty in teaching her child the story of Joseph or Samuel, and a teacher
properly qualified for his vocation ought to have no more
difficulty in teaching the story of Pyrrhus or Martin Luther.
Indeed, it may be said that there are only two requisites of
success. The teacher must know the story, and he must
understand the art of telling it in such a way as to make an
impression by it. That such methods, under favorable circumstances, are entirely practicable has been clearly demonstrated in the German gymnasia. In these schools, where
history has been taught with greater success than anywhere
else in the world, a teacher who has been especially trained
for his work takes the lowest grade of pupils over the whole
range of general history in this way. The course is almost
exclusively biographical. Indeed, it is little more than a
succession of stories told with the especial aim of making a
deep impression upon the mind of the child concerning some
of the most important of the great characters of history.
Such a course, continuing for two years at the rate of two




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ON METHODS OF


lessons a week, will be found to have given the pupil considerable knowledge of a vast number of valuable facts. And,
best of all, the method by which this information has been
acquired, so far from taxing the strength or wearying the
attention of the scholar, has been to him a positive source of
recreation and pleasure.
At the age of about twelve the pupil is ready for a more
substantial diet. The teacher now takes him once more over
the same ground, but with a somewhat different object in
view.  The scholar can now put facts together, and can
understand something of the relations of cause and effect.
In the former course he listened to the story of Hannibal:
now he is ready for the story of the Second Punic War. A
little pamphlet, usually prepared by the teacher and made up
almost exclusively of names and dates, is put into the hand
of the pupil merely to assist him in recalling what the teacher
has said.  Here, as in the former course, the knowledge
acquired comes chiefly from the teacher. Tie system keeps
clearly in view the fact that the pupil is not yet ready for that
development which results from hard study. It never ceases
to remember that at least three-fourths of all the time spent
by a boy of twelve in trying to learn a hard lesson out of
a book is time thrown away.   Perhaps one-fourth of the
time is devoted to more or less desperate and conscientious
effort; but the large remaining portion is dawdled away in
thinking of the last game of ball and longing for the next
game of tag. A true system must make a constant endeavor
to turn these demoralizing moments to profitable account.
In this effort the German system is the most successful for
the reason that instead of leaving the pupil to the meagre
resources of his own thoughts, it occupies his attention with
direct instruction in the form of attractive and profitable narration. The result is that, through a judicious exercise of this




TEACHING HISTORY.


175


kind of economy, the German pupil at the age of fifteen or
sixteen has been able to complete two distinct surveys of universal history. In the two or three years following, he is
able to supplement the knowledge already obtained in a
variety of ways. He may be directed in a careful study of
the history of his own country, an outline of which he has
already obtained; or may make an elaborate examination of
some important period like that of the Reformation or the
French Revolution.
Such, stated in general terms, is the preparation in history
which the German student receives before going to the university. It is founded in a philosophical appreciation of the
needs and the capabilities of the pupil, and is undoubtedly.~1e best that has ever been devised. It is equally adapted
to the wants of those two classes of pupils into which every
secondary school is divided. It is the best preparation for
those whose scholastic studies are to terminate with the preparatory school; and the best for those who are to carry forward their studies in a university course.
The student who has received this preparation goes to the
university at about the age of nineteen. He is now ready for
the more careful and philosophical study of individual nations
and of individual periods. In his future studies he will
devote himself chiefly to the relations and significance of facts
rather than to the mere existence of facts themselves. Two
ways are open to him: he can attend courses of lectures,
and he can become a member of an historical seminary.
But, wherever he goes, he will usually find that the object
is to make a very careful study of some limited period, or of
some limited phase of historical development. In the lecture-room he will find that the work done by the professor
has for its highest object the opening of avenues of research
and the guiding of the student in certain methods of thought




176


ON METHODS OF


and investigation. In the seminary, the student will be directed here and there by the professor, with a view to avoiding gross errors, but the investigator will be left to work out
his results mainly in his own way. Before he has advanced
very far in carrying on his investigations, he will almost inevitably arrive at the conclusion that the historical seminary
is to the study of history, what the laboratory is to the study
of the natural sciences.
But as soon as we attempt to compare this ideal with the
methods that now generally prevail in the United States, we
find more points of difference than points of similarity. In
the preparatory schools of Germany, every teacher of history
is required to have received especial training by thorough
courses of historical study, such as those given in the gymnasium and in the university. In the best of the preparatory
schools in America, on the other hand, history is often taught
by persons that have received no especial training for the
work whatever. Not only have the teachers, as a rule, received inadequate outfit, but they are generally so burdened
with other work, and so wearied by it, that they are quite
incapable of repairing any defects that under more favorable
circumstances might be removed. In Germany, moreover,
history is made a constituent part of the regular intellectual
nourishment of the pupil during the whole of the time of his
preparatory work. In America, on the contrary, it is generally crowded into one or two terms, or, at most, into a single
year. There is a strong analogy between the proper methods
of feeding the body and the proper methods of feeding the
mind. The arrangement of the studies in many of our
schools suggests the propriety of eating roast beef and plum
pudding five days in a week for six months, and then abstaining from it altogether for five or six years. The effect
of such a system upon the appetite and the digestion would




TEACHING HISTORY.


177


doubtless be very much like the effects of a similar policy in
matters of education. Moreover, the teacher in America is
often expected to teach not less than twenty-five or thirty
hours a week, while, of the teachers in Germany, scarcely
more than half of that number is required. But, if we demand twice as many hours of the teacher, we strike the balance by requiring only half as many hours of the pupil. In
America, the number of lessons per week for each pupil is
about fifteen; while in Germany the number regularly required is from thirty to thirty-five. Thus, in the fashion of
Charles Lamb, we preserve the equation by multiplying the
lessons of the teacher and dividing the lessons of the seholar
by two.
These comparisons are enough to show that nothing less
than a revolution will make our teaching of history equal to
that which we find in Germany. Such a revolution we may
not look for at present. But we can at least inquire what
improvements are practicable without interference with the
general organization of our schools.
In the first place, some amelioration is possible in the use
of the ordinary text-book. In many schools the so-called
Weaching of history is literally a mere hearing of recitations.
I have heard of a person, by courtesy called a teacher, who
habitually kept his finger upon the line in the text-book before
him, and limited his instruction to the work of correcting the
trifling variations of the pupil from the phraseology of the
text. Here, the function of the teacher was merely that of a
watchman; though this method prevailed in a school that
called itself a university. I have no hesitation in expressing
the opinion that the total result of such an exercise on the
mind of the pupil is more injurious than beneficial.  The
mere memorizing of dry facts and assertions affords no intellectual nourishment, while it is almost sure to create a dis



178


ON METHODS OF


taste for historical study, and, perhaps, will even alienate
the taste of the scholar forever. The first of all endeavors,
therefore, should be to put life and action into what, as it
stands, is a mere bundle of dry bones.
This can be done in two ways. The information of the
teacher may be used to illustrate what is set before the class
as a lesson. Questions hinted at in the lesson may also be
assigned the class for personal investigation.  The first
method will always be used to some extent by every efficient
teacher; but it will not ordinarily be found sufficient. A far
more helpful reliance is the method of personal research.
The nature of the questions assigned must, of course, depend
on the intelligence and advancement of the class. But even
with a class of beginners, more is likely to be accomplished
by assigning certain topics than by assigning certain lessons.
Questions selected with due reference to the resources of the
school library are likely to prove a far more profitable means
of real advancement than any slavish dependence on even the
best of text-books. The most successful instruction I have
ever known in any preparatory school was carried on without
any text-book whatever.
But if these methods are the most efficient in the preparatory schools, they are even more emphatically to be recommended in our colleges and universities. Perhaps in neither
grade of instruction would it ordinarily be quite safe to abandon the text-book altogether. But the text-book should be
looked upon as an assistance, rather than as a means of support. The student ought not to be encouraged to rely on
any one book as an unquestionable authority. The habit of
consulting different authors on every question of importance
should be early acquired and should be constantly stimulated.
For the accomplishment of these ends it will ordinarily be
found, I think, that the most successful instruction is made




TEACHING HISTORY.


179


up of a judicious combination of the text-book, the lecture,
and the method of personal research.
When the college student is ready to begin his studies in
history, he is not yet prepared for the most advanced work.
He is deficient in two very important qualifications. In the
first place, he is not in possession of a sufficient number of
important historical facts; and, in the second, he is not yet
sufficiently familiar with what may be called the methods and
laws of historical development. To supply these deficiences
should be the object of the earlier historical studies during
the undergraduate course.
At the outset the student may be presumed to have some
knowledge of general history, and of the history of his own
country. This may be a somewhat violent presumption:
but it is probably not wise to occupy the time of the undergraduate with such elementary studies as are taught in all the
best of our high schools and academies. Better results are
likely to follow from devoting our energies to an examination of such selected periods and nationalities as hold out the
most credible assurances of profit.
But what periods shall be selected, and how shall the
instruction be given?
Studies in the history of our own country and in the history of England should doubtless occupy the foremost place;
but they should not crowd out studies of a more general nature. I cannot better point out what I think these studies
should be than by indicating what is done at the present time
in the University of Michigan. Some years ago a course was
provided for, by means of which two lessons a week for one
year are devoted to a study of the Political and Social History
of England before the close of the Napoleonic Wars. Another
course of two lessons a week, for half a year, is devoted to a
study of the Reforms in the English Government during the




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ON METHODS OF


present century. This is supplemented by a course of two
lectures a week, for half a year, on The Theories and Methods of the English Government. In American History, a
course on The Political and Social Development of the Colonies is followed by two courses on The Constitutional History
of the United States since the close of the Revolutionary
War. These courses in American History occupy the student once a week during half a year, and twice a week during a whole year. Of a more general nature, and for the
purpose of giving broader views of the laws of historic development, one course is given on The History of Political and
Social Institutions, one on The General History of Europe
from the Reformation to the French Revolution, one on The
History of Civilization in the Middle Ages, and one on
The Rise and Development of Prussia.  Not all of these
courses are absolutely prerequisite for admission to the more
advanced work of the historical and political seminaries,
but they may all be regarded as preliminary to it. Crowning the work of the whole are three seminaries, one being
devoted to a study of the Political Institutions of England,
one to those of America, and one to Comparative Methods
of Local Administration.
What has already been said will afford sufficient answer,
perhaps, to the question of method. But a single illustration will probably give a more definite idea. The lecture of
to-day, in the course on the History of Institutions, happens
to be devoted to a study of Roman Provincial Administration. The following topics were assigned to the several
groups of the class for the lessons of next week: " What
light is thrown on Roman Provincial methods by Plutarch's
Life of Lucullus?"  "What by Cicero's oration against
Verres?" "What by Guizot's essay on the Regime Municipal "  "What by Arnold's chapter on ' The System of




TEACHING HISTORY.


181


Taxation?'"   In this manner a class may easily be led
through their own researches to see how completely the systematic practice of injustice finally dissolved all the bonds
that bound the Roman provinces to the general government.
This accomplished, the downfall of the Empire is no longer a
question that will give any difficulty to the student.
The work of the historical seminary is of a higher order.
Each class consists of not more than about ten members, and
each meeting is not less than about two hours in length.
Each of the questions given out for investigation is such as to
occupy the attention of the student during at least half a year;
and all of the questions are designed to be of such cognate
significance as to be of interest to all the members of the class.
At the weekly meetings each member gives an account of his
own investigations, and listens to such inquiries and suggestions as may be made by the teacher and the other members
of the class. The titles of two or three papers prepared during the present semester will be enough to indicate the nature
of the work done. Among others, essays founded on original research have being written on "A History of the
Appointing Power of the President"; " A History of the
Land Grants for Education in the North-west"; and " Criminal Legislation in New England during the Colonial Period."
It need not be added that this is true university work of a
high order.  Of course such studies are impracticable,
except in an institution where large liberties in the way of
elective courses are given, and where preliminary historical
studies are begun early in the student's collegiate career.
But my own experience leads to the belief that if the student
enters upon the proper antecedent studies in the second year
of his course, he may be brought in the fourth year to a grade
of work which need not shrink from comparison with that
carried on in the universities of the old world.








THE METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY AND RESEARCH
IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE.
TN order to a clear presentation of this subject, one which
1ishall escape the possibilities of a misunderstanding, it
will be necessary to describe briefly the general peculiarities
of the educational system of that complex of institutions to
which the name Columbia College is now attached. The
most general principle of that system distinguishes the College into two parts; viz.: the Gymnasium, the College according to the old signification of that name in the United States,
- as we term it here, the School of Arts, and the graduate
and professional courses, the University. This distinction,
however, is, without further explanation, liable to a misconception; for the last year of the School of Arts, what is generally known as the College senior year, is counted to the
University in the non-professional courses of the University,
-those courses which,.in a German University, would be
placed under the Faculty of Philosophy. It is at this point,
viz., the beginning of the senior year in the School of Arts,
that the courses of study become purely and wholly elective,
and the methods of instruction purely and distinctively those
of the University. This year, with two graduate years,
forms the University period for the students who pass from
the School of Arts into the University, or who come from
other Colleges at the end of their junior year. If, however,
they be graduates of other Colleges, in which the courses
of the senior year correspond to, or are an equivalent for,




184


METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY


the courses in the School of Arts, they are admitted to the
second year of the University.
If, now, the reader will keep this distinction and these
explanations clearly in mind, a full comprehension of the
methods of historic study and research at present followed
in Columbia College will be easily and rapidly attained.
In the Gymnasium, - the first three years of the School of
Arts, - the method is, of course, the gymnastic method,
and the purpose sought the gymnastic purpose: that is, the
daily drill upon text-books and hand-books of history by
recitation, question and answer, as required studies, for the
purpose of fixing and classifying in the mind of the student
the elements of historical geography, the chronology and
outward frame of historic events, the biographies of historic characters, and the definitions of historical terms and
expressions. This is, of course, the indispensably necessary preparation for every student who would come with a
properly disciplined historical memory, stored with a sufficient amount of elementary historical data, to the work of
the University in this branch. If this be not properly accomplished, the foundation for everything further is wanting, and the instruction received in the University will be
to a large degree unappreciated, to say the least. I would
venture to assert that to all persons who have taken any
part in the attempt to develop a University in the United
States the want of a true gymnastic training in the elements
of knowledge has appeared a inost crying one. And if,
while so many of our Colleges, both great and small, are
affecting to despise their gymnastic calling, and seeking to
become Universities through the fallacious process of simply
making their gymnastic studies elective and optional, some
Apostle of the Gymnasium would arise and found Academies
which would stand true to the gymnastic method and pur



IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE.


185


pose, such an one would do for the development of the true
University a far greater work than the College which ceases
to be the one thing without becoming the other.
On the other hand, the methods pursued and the purposes
aimed at in the University courses of history are more complex, as well as different, and therefore require a more minute presentation. In the first place, attendance upon these
courses is purely optional with the student. There would be
a great loss both in the quantity and quality of the instruction were the professor obliged to accommodate himself to
the level of hearers whose tastes and talents were not in the
line pursued; and, on the other hand, it would be an unnatural limitation upon, if not a total destruction of, individual
genius, were the student of the University not permitted to
construct the combination of his studies for himself. The
discipline and general elementalry instruction of the Gymnasium ought to have developed in his own consciousness a
better knowledge of his own intellectual peculiarities than
any other person or body of persons can have. If it has
not, then it will not matter much, as a general rule, where
he may fall. Consideration for him who has no genius at all
must never lead us to abandon the method in the University
for the cultivation of a true intellectual peculiarity; for
without such a development there can be no advance in the
discovery of new truth or in a fuller comprehension of old
truth. It is this consideration which has led the authorities
in Columbia College to permit the University students of
history not only to select what courses they may choose in
history, but also to combine therewith such courses in philology, literature, philosophy, natural science and law as they
may desire. Our experience in the working of the method
has hardly yet been long enough to pronounce with confidence upon results. So far as my own observation reaches,




186


METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY


however, I feel entirely satisfied that the comprehension of
history has been greatly broadened and deepened by the
variety of combinations into which it has thus been brought,
and I cannot but believe that the other elements of the combinations have experienced a like advantage.
In the second place. The method of instruction in the
University branches of history is chiefly by original lecture.
And this for two reasons: the one relating to the professor,
the other to the student. The University professor must be
a worker among original material. He must present to his
student his own view derived from the most original sources
attainable. He must construct history out of the chaos of
original historic atoms. If he does not do this, but contents
himself with simply repeating the views of others, it is
probably because he is not capable of it; in which case he is
no University professor at all, but at best only a drill master
for the Gymnasium. While the University student must
learn among his first lessons that truth, as man knows it, is
no ready-made article of certain and objective character,
that it is a human interpretation, and subject therefore to
the fallibility of human insight and reasoning, — one-sided,
colored, incomplete. Unless this thought be continually impressed upon him by the method of the instruction which he
receives, he will, to a greater or less degree, make dogma of
his learning, and this is the negation of progress in the wider
and more perfect comprehension of truth. Now instruction
by means of the text-book in the University has always the
tendency to the production of this result, - unless, perchance, the professor uses the text more for the purpose of
confuting than teaching, in which case he is really lecturing
and not hearing recitations. What is contained in a book
which has been studied by classes gone before has, in the
mind of a student not yet accustomed to sharp criticism, too




IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE.


187


large a presumption in its favor. He is too ready to acquiesce in its propositions, and let memory act where the more
difficult processes of criticism and judgment should be called
into play. On the other hand, when he has the person of
his author always before his eyes, observes his weaknesses
as well as his strength, then the true scholastic skepticism
and belligerency will be aroused, and criticism, judgment,
reasoning, insight, be developed.
Third. But this is only what might be termed the outward
form of method generally. As to the internal principles or
purposes of our method of historical instruction in particular,
we seek to teach the student, first, how to get hold of a historic fact, how to distinguish fact from fiction, how to divest
it as far as possible of coloring or exaggeration. We send
him, therefore, to the most original sources attainable for his
primary information. If there be more than one original
source upon the same fact, we teach him to set these in comparison or contrast, to observe their agreements and discrepancies, and to attain a point of view from which all, or if this
is not possible, the most of the evidence may appear reconcilable. And we warn him not to accept a statement not
well authenticated for a fact, upon the principle that it is far
better for the historical investigator to think that he does not
know what he may know than to think he knows what he may
not know. We undertake, in the second place, to teach the
student to set the facts which he has thus attained in their
chronological order, to the further end of setting them in
their order as cause and effect. And we seek to make him
clearly comprehend and continually feel that the latter process is the one most delicate and critical which the historical
student is called upon to undertake, in that he is continually
tempted to account that which is mere antecedent and consequent as being cause and effect. It is just in this process,




188


METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY


of course, that the true historical genius most clearly reveals
itself. It is just in this process that genius is most necessary to accomplish anything valuable. It is therefore most
difficult to formulate rules upon the point for the direction of
the historical student who may have no genius for his work.
What we most insist upon, however, is a critical comparison
of the sequence of facts ifi the history of different states or
peoples at a like period in the development of their civilizations. If this be done with patience, care, and judgment,
the student who possesses a moderate degree of true logic
will soon learn to distinguish, to some extent at least, antecedent and consequent merely from cause and effect.
Fourth. After the facts have been determined and the
causal nexus established we endeavor to teach the student to
look for the institutions and ideas which have been developed
through the sequence of events in the civilization of an age
or people. This I might term the ultimate object of our
entire method of historical instruction. With us history is the
chief preparation for the study of the legal and political sciences. Through it we seek to find the origin, follow the
growth and learn the meaning of our legal, political, and
economic principles and institutions. We class it therefore
no longer with fiction or rhetoric or belles-lettres, but with
logic, philosophy, ethics. We value it, therefore, not by its
brilliancy, but by its productiveness.
Lastly. We would not consider the circle of our method as
complete, did it make no provision for the public practice of
the students. To this end we have established an Academy
of the historic, jural, and political sciences, composed of the
graduates of the University in these branches. Before this
body, in its regular weekly meetings, each member has the
opportunity and assumes the duty of presenting one original
work each year. The work is then the property of the Acad



IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE.              189
emy to publish or preserve in its archives as it will. The
best production of the year in the Academy, as adjudged by
the University Faculty in these departments, is rewarded by
a prize lectureship in the University. In this manner we seek
to make our students not simply pupils but co-workers,
not simply recipients but givers with interest upon what they
have received and to open the way for genius, talent, and
industry in these branches to positions from which they may
be employed in the further development and expansion of
these departments.
As I indicated above, we have hardly yet had sufficient
experience with our method and system to pronounce definitely and finally upon results. They have not yet made
their cycle.  But we are satisfied with the progress, and
encouraged by the prospects.
JOHN W. BURGESS.
COLUMBIA COLLEGE,
April 27, 1883.








*


THE HISTORICAL SEMINARY IN AMERICAN
TEACHING.
THE American student of history matriculated at a German university is almost certain to suffer for a time
under a sense of disappointment. He finds a place in the
lecture-room; he admits, from the outset, the power of the
men to whom he listens; he devotes himself faithfully to his
note-book; but he begins very soon to wonder if this is all.
For him, individually, nobody seems to care. No one knows
whether he is present or absent at lectures; he is called to no
account for what he may be learning. His professor quotes
a multitude of books, but he feels weighed down, crushed
under the burden of this mass of knowledge, which seems
to roll itself up before him ever increasing as time goes on.
He almost wishes he had stayed at home and read books a
few years longer. And yet it is just because he had come
to feel vaguely, but powerfully, that book-reading was not
what he needed, that he has come over here to Germany to
find some better way of working.
At length, as he makes acquaintance with his fellow-students, he begins to hear the strange word " Seminar," and
remembers seeing on the programme of studies something
about " Gesellschaften," or " Uebungen." Putting this and
that together, he inquires further, and learns that he is at
last close upon the goal towards which he has long been unconsciously tending. It dawns upon him that, here at last,
a wheel within wheels, is the true motive power of the historical department. Here is that element of personal guid



192


THE HISTORICAL SEMINARY IN


ance he has thus far so painfully missed. Here he may
become something more than a mere listener, a fellow-worker
in a worthy undertaking.
The German " Seminarium " (training-school), "Gesellschaft" (society), or " Uebung" (exercise), is an institution
of recent growth. It began about fifty years ago with an
effort made by Leopold von Ranke, then instructor at the
University of Berlin, to gather about him a few of his more
earnest pupils, for the purpose of study and practice in the
methods of historical investigation. These pupils, such wellknown men as Waitz, Giesebrecht, Wattenbach, and Sybel,
becoming the historical professors of the next generation,
carried with them to various universities the Seminarium as
their most effectual means of spreading that gospel of absolute historical accuracy and honesty received from  their
master. Now, in the third generation, their pupils all over
Germany are widening and strengthening it, so that it is not
too much to say that at present the main life and vigor of
all German historical work is to be sought in these comparatively obscure groups of students.
The method followed in their exercises varies with the instructor, but in general it consists of the preparation of careful studies upon minute points of historical inquiry and criticism. Topics occurring in the instructor's own work, or
suggested by current criticism within the given field, are
assigned to each student at the beginning of the year. His
duty is then to collect all available material on his topic, to
weigh its value, to subject it to thorough criticism according
to accepted canons of judgment, to compare conflicting statements, in short, to ascertain, as nearly as possible, the exacft
truth, or the closest probability. Then he is to embody the
results of this comparison and criticism in a narrative,
properly and clearly written, which is to be read before the




AMERICAN TEACHING.


193


class, criticised by some member especially detailed beforehand, and also by other members of the class, and by the
instructor. The standard held before the class is absolute
correctness. The criticism is severe and without consideration.
It is my purpose to inquire how far and with what hopes
of usefulness this institution may be introduced into our
American teaching. Its chief value is one which it shares
with all other forms of practical instruction from the objectlesson of the kindergarten, up to the laboratory-work of the
advanced student in natural science.' It frees the student
from the depressing influence of mere acquisition from books.
If we recognize a two-fold purpose in education, to give
power of work as well as quantity of information, we must
adapt our methods of instruction to this double end. We
must plan our teaching so that the student shall come out
from its influence stronger to attempt any new piece of work,
wiser in selecting his topics for study, more capable of commanding all his resources. If he has made this gain, the
quantity of actual facts he may have absorbed is comparatively unimportant. Thus far this principle of education has
only been fully recognized by us in America, in so far as
natural science is concerned. We have now laboratories for
teaching chemistry, physics, zoology, botany, and geology.
It would seem ridiculous in these days to suggest the possibility of any really valuable teaching in any one of these
departments, without putting into the hands of the student
the tools of the profession he is studying. Yet it is but a
few years since this state of mind began to prevail. Formerly
it sufficed for the student in chemistry to learn that putting
this and that together in given quantities produced this
result. Now this would seem as useless a process as to tell a
carpenter's apprentice that a saw applied in such a way to a




194


THE HISTORICAL SEMINARY IN


board would convert it from one piece into two. He must
take the saw in his own awkward hands and make many a
ragged cut, and perhaps spoil many a saw-blade, before he
reaches perfection in his art. The student in chemistry must
handle and break test-tubes for himself, must burn his
own fingers, produce his own abominable smells, before he
grasps the spirit of his science. The student in botany must
go out himself into the fields, must hold the flower and the
microscope in his own hand, if his learning is to be anything
more than a dreary enumeration of facts which the observation of other men has put together for him. Thus far we
have gone in science. Every one recognizes the truth of
these propositions.
But now are not these illustrations of a great general law
of education? Do they not declare that in moral science, as
well as in physical, the practical method of instruction is the
only effectual source? I believe that underneath all schemes
and devices and systems and theories of education, there lies
one single great principle, - that one learns, in any true sense
of the word, only that to which he puts the whole force of
his own mind. We might throw away all our machinery, and
still the man who should put the force of his mind upon the
similarities of structure in flowers, could produce a system of
botany. Without a laboratory or a book, the human mind
would be capable of results, great because original, if it
should turn itself with single devotion to dissecting animals,
breaking and comparing stones, watching the developments
of foetal life, or following out any other of those processes by
which our present knowledge of the material world has been
gained.  And, conversely, given all our magnificent machinery of instruction, and the mind which does not apply
itself to the problems before it, which is content to simply
absorb what is offered to it without vigorous action of its




AMERICAN TEACHING.


195


own, may pass through the mill from hopper to bin, without
any change, excepting that like the grain it has grown smaller
in the process.  I take it that one very strong reason for
the popularity of physical science in these latter years is
found in its method of study. The senses are reached more
easily than the reflecting powers. Minds to which history,
philosophy, law, seem mere accumulations of learning in
books, - learning which is to be got at only by years of reading and remembering, - are attracted instantly by the manual
processes which introduce them into the study of natural
law. And, until lately, they have been justified in supposing that all those branches of study which they somewhat
sneeringly perhaps designate as culture studies, were nothing
but masses of fictitious learning, founded upon nothing and
leading to nothing.
If we think for a moment of the slough into which the
study of language had fallen twenty-five years ago, and out
of which it has not yet wholly freed itself, we can understand why the phrase "classical study" had come to be
almost a reproach. What has redeemed linguistic study from
its downfall has been the use of new methods, practical
methods in acquiring language, and the application of this
acquired knowledge to the discovery of new truth in archaeology, ethnology, and in every other branch of human learning. Now, instead of aimlessly cramming a Greek grammar
into their pupils, enlightened teachers are teaching them to
read and write Greek, then to use Greek, and thus to love and
appreciate Greek. Or if we glance at political science, we
find that where twenty-five years ago there was one teacher,
now there are a dozen, and we see again that men are learning no longer by studying so many pages a day out of a
book, but by putting their own powers of mind upon questions whose solution can be reached by no other process.




196


THE HISTORICAL SEMINARY IN


Wise teachers of philosophy are forcing their students to
grapple with problems of the mind, and so giving them
power to follow and appreciate the work of those who have
gone before.
Thus, everywhere we see the conviction gaining ground
that the method of practice is the only effectual method.
Laboratories in natural science, the " natural method" of
learning language, instruction by topics instead of by textbooks, - all these are parts of one movement towards a higher
and more effectual standard of instruction. How does it stand
now with history? Perhaps more than any other study, history
has suffered, and is suffering, from that misconception I have
alluded to, that it means only a dreary mass of facts, dates,
and events, strung along like so many beads on a chain, and
with no more distinction in value or meaning. It is the
rarest thing to find a man who has any idea whatever about
the materials of historical writing, or of the methods used in
dealing with these materials. Even educated men are inclined to regard history as a collection of stories merely,
more or less entertaining to read, but not having any really
serious bearing upon the present active life of men. That
there is a science of history, with its apparatus, its schools,
its devotees, and its great results, already reached, is an extremely unfamiliar fact.
And here again I apprehend that the error is to a considerable degree justified by experience. History has been taught
very badly in America, or rather, to be honest, it has rarely
been taught at all. In the great development of educational
methods since the war, it has been one of the departments
most slowly and imperfectly recognized as worthy a place
of its own. Even now independent chairs of history exist
in but very few American colleges, and the proportion of
time given to its study is absurdly inadequate. No serious




AMERICAN TEACHING.


197


knowledge of history is required for entrance into our colleges, so that a considerable part of whatever teaching they
may offer must needs be elementary. Our subject stands,
therefore, in need of fair representation. It must be placed
before the country in such a light as shall clearly show it to
be worth all the care that can be bestowed upon it. It must
be made clear that the claim of history to rank among
sciences is founded in fact - the fact that it has a scientific
method. To illustrate and enforce this truth is the mission
of the historical "Seminar" in America. Let us consider
some of the conditions of its success. 1. It must consist
of picked men. This is not a method adapted to every
student. The recitation in elementary, and the lecture in
advanced, teaching must still remain as the chief means of
reaching great masses of students. The members of the
practice-course, as I prefer to call it, must be men of exceptionally good preparation for this work, usually equipped
with some considerable general knowledge of history, but
especially strong in foreign languages, in order that all possible tools may be available for their use. 2. Its numbers
must be small, no more at least than can be comfortably
seated about a table, so that the relation of pupil and teacher
shall be as informal as may be. The students must be in
every way encouraged to feel that they are alone responsible
for the success of their work, that they are investigators
whose results may find a place in the world's record of learning, as well as those of any other men. The teacher must
here cease to lay down for their acceptance the products of
his own labor; he must become their guide only, enforcing
always the lesson that their work alone can bring them substantial rewards. Thus, teacher and students become a
working body together, with a definite purpose, with wellunderstood ways of work, and with a common enthusiasm.




198


THE HISTORICAL SEMINARY IN


3. The subject selected for treatment must be one which
lends itself readily to the purpose of the practice-course,
one in which, above all else, the material is accessible in a
shape convenient for handling. The history of Europe since
the Reformation, for instance, would be an extremely difficult field from which to select a period or a group of topics
suitable for such study as this, by an American class. The
invention of printing caused such an enormous increase in
the mass of historical material that it would be next to impossible for any one here in America to make any thorough
study of any period since that event, without consulting
material in European archives and libraries. On the other
hand, antiquity, the middle age, and the life of our own
country, offer material of the most inviting sort. Practically,
all that has been preserved of ancient and mediaeval records
now lies before us in printed volumes, easily accessible, while
the records of our own history, not as yet collected into any
one publication, are more tempting than any others to the
love of discovery which marks the true historic spirit. Observing these conditions as to material both in student and
topic, there seems no valid reason why any American teacher
of history, who is convinced of the value of such work,
should not establish a practice-course as an adjunct to his
lectures and recitations. Let me repeat that these latter
have their place, and cannot wisely be done away. The unfavorable criticism upon the German method of the Seminar
has been that it tended to emphasize so strongly minute
details in investigation as to narrow and obscure the vision
of the future historian. Doubtless here is a danger, but we
may well ask, upon what are the broad and brilliant generalizations of the dramatic historian to rest, if not upon the
most patient and minute labor in collecting, comparing, and
weighing the material out of which, in the last resort, all




AMERICAN TEACHING.


199


historical knowledge must be drawn. If these are feeble
and uncertain, the fabric reared upon them must be unstable,
and must some day fall. The temptation, especially of the
young American, is to accept what is written. Nothing can
so well correct this tendency as to put into his hands the
means of controlling what other men have written by comparing it with the very sources from which they have drawn
their conclusions. Only in this way can he rise out of the
state of blind receptivity into that of vigorous and independent action. No study can ever again be quite the same to
him when he has once seen for himself something of the
processes by which books are made.
Quite apart from all considerations of gain to the student
is the relief and advantage which a class of this kind brings
to the instructor. This is manly work. He feels himself
here no longer the pedagogue laying down the law, but an
overseer guiding the action of intelligent workers. It is not
for him to inform them, but for them to inform him, while it
is his part to see to it that they apply their powers in such a
way as to insure the value of their results. There is a tendency among some educators to depreciate the value of
original work by young scholars. They say it must needs
be crude, and therefore useless. A wiser view is, that only
through these first attempts at original effort can a man hope
to make the most effective use of his powers when they shall
have become mature. The evil with us is not that our boys
begin to create too early, but too late. If every student,
from the first moment that he learns anything, were compelled to reproduce it in proper shape, he would find himself
in college vastly better equipped for the actual grappling
with new truth than be now is.
The principle of study I am here advocating is no longer
on trial as an experiment in America. It has come to stay.




200


THE HISTORICAL SEMINARY.


I am not going too far, I think, in calling it the foundation
of the Johns Hopkins University system, and the main
source of the wonderful creative vigor already developed by
that young institution. Other colleges are following. In
all, perhaps, a half dozen can show some form of this practical instruction in moral science.  And the development
must go on. Libraries must become the laboratories in these
sciences in which the head plays the most important part.
The library must cease to be the store-house for books and
become the working-place where the historian, the philosopher, and the philologist of the future are to get their most
effectual training.
Not until men come to see that history has a true scientific
method of its own will it take its stand as one among the
all-essential studies in any scheme of collegiate instruction.
The name "' Seminarium," which I have rendered trainingschool, suggests the future of our study. Trained men cannot fail to secure respect for their profession, and trained
men will be the first and most convincing result of the practice-course.




PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY... |
A  KNOWLEDGE of the structure of the earth on which
we dwell should underlie and precede all our studies
of history and political science. We have been accustomed
to study mind psychologically, without studying the body in
which the mind dwells. So we have considered the historical
movements of man without considering the theatre on which
he moves. Edition after edition of the historical atlases of
the learned German, Von Spruner, was published, with most
elaborate and exact maps of Greece, of the Roman Empire,
of mediaeval Europe, Germany, Italy, etc., but not a single
map showing geological formations. A clearer understanding of the importance of the physical structure of the earth
would have made his maps much better than they are.
It is needless to say that in any exposition of these relations, constant use must be made of maps; in fact, the work
cannot be carried on without them. The difficulties in the
way of preparing such representations are great, for we need
to exhibit each portion of the earth's surface as something
cut out by the hands of a sculptor, which has a distinct physiognomy, to be recognized and known as definitely as our
own physiognomies are known. The most direct method
is by the relief map or atlas. But the difficulty of representing a solid upon a plane surface has been to some extent
overcome, different elevations being represented by different
colors.




202   PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.


Observe some of the things which a good physical map of
the United States tells us. You see a long extent of seaboard, with mountains receding from the coast. When the
first settlers landed, they found a wall, from 3500 to 7000
feet high, hemming them in. We see here the door through
which the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad goes west; also
the path of the Erie Canal.  We see where the Pennsylvania people found a path over the mountains, and others
after them. Without a physical map of North America, the
unity of the French dominions, Canada and Louisiana, would
hardly be discerned; with such a map, this unity is made
strikingly evident, and the process of acquisition becomes
clear. A glance at the broad basin of the Mississippi, as represented upon such a map, will show that it was predestined
to become one of the greatest granaries of the world. The
history of the peculiar attitude of California during the civil
war can be studied only in the light of its physical relations
to the rest of the Union. Thus, the history of this country
was largely written before man came here. It is written on
the map, and every citizen ought to have it written on his
mind. Every student of political history or political econony
should understand these great physical features of his country, not only in broad outline, but in detail.
As examples of exposition of our physical geography, one
may mention Professor Shaler's chapter in Winsor's forthcoming Narrative and Critical History of America, the
prefatory chapter in Palfrey's New England, and Professor
Whitney's chapter in the Guide-Book to the Yosemite, and in
Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States, whose maps
also are highly useful.
If we turn to Europe, the connection between physical
geography and history is presented in the same striking way,
and in even greater variety. Observe on any relief map how




PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.


203


manifestly the plain of Lombardy and Venetia, carved out
at the base of the enormous wall of the Alps, seems formed
to be the garden of Europe and the theatre of wars. As for
Greece, it is no exaggeration to say that he who does not
understand its physical conformation can have no proper
conception of its political history. The connection between
the two is admirably displayed in the opening pages of
Curtius' History of Greece, and in a delightful chapter
in Taine's Lectures on Art, in which book a similar service
is also done for Flanders.   Also of note is Professor
Conrad Bursian's essay, Ueber den Einfluss der Natur des
Griechischen Landes auf den Charakter seiner Bewohner, in
the Jahresberichte of the Geographische Gesellschaft in Miinchen, 1877. Further west, notice the remarkable cut from
the Mediterranean to the North Sea (the valleys of the
Rhone and Rhine), which made a Lotharingia possible. A
relief map of France makes clear the reasons for the directions taken by the several invading tribes in 406 A.D. The
position of Belfort, commanding the upper Rhine valley,
explains the vigor with which it was defended in 1870; we
see, too, why Germany fixed her boundary where she did.
Again, in England, who does not know, to mention one
illustration only, how decisive was the influence of such
geographical features as the great forests upon the course of
the English conquest of Britain?  (See Guest's Origines
Celticae, 1882, Green's Making of England, and Professor
Pearson's valuable Historical Maps.) For similar illustrations, one may consult with profit Professor Archibald
Geikie's paper on The Geological Influences which have
affected English History, in Macmillan, March, 1882. If
we turn to Asia, the connection between its great plains
and the careers of its great conquerors could scarcely be
more evident than it is.




204   PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.


All these are isolated and random illustrations. Indefinitely multiplied, as they might easily be, they would irresistibly force the conviction that the influence of physical geography upon history is a matter which no one can afford to
neglect, and that a teacher of history who does not make frequent use of physical maps commits a grave error.
It may not be amiss to mention that prominent among the
standard works of general scope which may be used in such
studies are, beside the books of Ritter and Peschel, Professor
Guyot's Earth and Man, G. P. Marsh's The Earth as Modified by Human Action, and Frederick von Hellwald's Die
Erde und ihre Vblker. Into the minor literature it is impossible here to enter (an important specimen is Wilhelm Roscher's Betrachtungen iiber die geographische Lage der grossen
Stddte, in his Ansichten, I., pp. 317-363), but it can be
found, clearly arranged, in the bibliographical lists in successive volumes of Petermann's Mittheilungen, the best of
geographical journals. An index to the maps in Petermann
is now appearing in the Harvard University Bulletin. As to
wall-maps, the most useful are perhaps the new  Kiepert
series and Professor Guyot's.




WHY DO CHILDREN DISLIKE HISTORY?
IT has always seemed to me creditable to the brains of
children that they dislike what we call the study of
history.  It is surely unfair to blame them, when they certainly like it quite as well as do their parents. The father
brings home to his little son, from the public library, the
first volume of Hildreth's United States, and says to him,
"' There, my son, is a book for you, and there are five more
volumes just like it."  Then he goes back to his Sunday
Herald, and his wife reverts to But Yet a Woman, or Mr.
Isaacs; both feeling that they have done their duty to the
child's mind. Would they ever read through the six volumes
of Hildreth consecutively for themselves?
Yet it needs but little reflection to see that no study is in
itself- apart from the treatment - so interesting as history.
For what is it that most interests every child?  Human
beings. What is history? The record of human beings,
that is all.
We are accustomed to say, and truly, that every child is a
born naturalist. But where is the child who would not at any
time leave the society of animals for that of human beings?
Even the bear and the raccoon are not personally more interesting to the country boy than to hear the endless tales of the
men who have trapped the one and shot the other. The boy
by the seaside would rather listen to the sailors' yarns than
go fishing. Even stories about animals must have the human




206    WHY DO CHILDREN DISLIKE HISTORY?


element thrown in, to make them fully fascinating; children
must hear, not only about the wolf and his den, but about
General Putnam, who went into it; and they would ratherhear about Indian wars than either, because there all the participants are men. The gentlest girl likes to read the Swiss
Family Robinson, or to dress up for a " centennial tea-party."
But early Puritan history is all Swiss Family Robinson with
many added excitements thrown in; and the colonial and
revolutionary periods are all a centennial tea-party. If we
could only make the characters live and move, with their own
costume and their own looks, in our instruction, they would
absorb the attention of every child.
It is idle to say, " But children prefer fiction to fact."
Not at all; they prefer fact to fiction, if it is only made
equally interesting.  The test is this.  Tell a boy a story,
which he supposes to be true, and then disclose that it is all
an invention. If the boy preferred fiction to fact, he would
be pleased.  Not at all; he is disappointed.  On the other
hand, if, after telling some absorbing and marvellous tale,
you can honestly add, " My dear child, all this really happened to your father when he was little, or to your respected
great-grandmother," the child is delighted.
In truth, the whole situation, in respect to history, is
described in that well-known conversation between the English clergyman and the play-actor.  "Why is it," asked the
clergyman, " that you, who represent what everybody knows
to be false, obtain more attention than we who deal in the
most momentous realities!" "It is," said the actor, 'because
you represent the truth so that it seems like fiction, while we
depict fiction in such a manner that it has the effect of
truth."
The moral of it all is, that the fault is not in the child, but
in us who write the books and teach the lessons. History




WHY DO CHILDREN DISLIKE HISTORY?           207
is but a series of tales of human beings. Human beings
form the theme which is of all things most congenial to the
'child's mind. If tile subject loses all its charms by our
handling, the fault is ours, and we should not blame the
child.
THos. WENTWORTH HIGGINSON.








GRADATION AND THE TOPICAL METHOD           OF
HISTORICAL STUDY.
FOR instruction in history, as in other branches, there
are three distinct periods to be considered: childhood,
school-life, and college-life. For the first of these I have
nothing to offer beyond the excellent remarks made by our
author on page 139. What the child needs is to have the
imagination quickened, and the memory stored with incidents
and associations. It is not so necessary that there should
be any definite plan or order in the acquisition of these
interesting stories, great names, and important events. The
mind merely needs to have associations and memories of
these; their arrangement will come later.
Formal instruction in history, he goes on to say, may
begin at about the age of ten; but the length of time that it
is to be kept up differs very greatly with different pupils, and
it is obvious that we cannot advantageously lay out the same
course for those who are to go to college, those who are to
pass through the high school merely, and those who have to
be satisfied with a grammar-school education. The beginning, however, must be nearly the same with all, and it will
be found that the longest course will, in the main, coincide
with the shorter ones, so far as they go.
All alike must begin with the history of their own country,
and with this a considerable proportion of the pupils must
be content. So far there is no difference of opinion. When,
however, we pass to the next stage, and ask what branch of
history should follow that of the United States, the answers




2


GRADES AND TOPICS IN


would be various. The usual practice is to take up General
History at this point; but I think the practice is not a wise
one. Very few pupils at this age have a sufficiently developed historical sense to follow intelligently the fortunes of
several nations side by side, now studying the separate history of each country independently, then passing to the complicated international relations, which make up the current
of modern history. In antiquity there was but one empire
at a time. General history is, therefore, the separate histories of Egypt, Assyria, Persia, etc., taken up successively.
In modern times these separate histories have to be taken up
contemporaneously. There is no one thread to be followed,
but a multitude of threads to be woven into a connected whole;
and my experience is, that an attempt to do this, with only
the preparation that the study of United States history gives,
results, for most scholars, in a bewildering confusion.
Our author lays down the correct principle on page 146:
" The way to that which is general is through that which is
special."  General history cannot be profitably studied until,
first, the historical imagination has been trained and the historical sense developed by abundance of stories, and by
instruction in national history; and, secondly, at least one
of the separate threads has been traced by itself, and a certain degree of familiarity thus gained with the leading events
which are to come under consideration. The separate annals
of at least one country should be studied before general history is begun. Which country should be selected for this
purpose for American schools can, of course, be no question.
American citizens need to know the history of England next
to that of their own country. I should even desire that a
second thread should be taken up by itself - in the history
of France or Germany-before general history is studied;
but this is not essential.




HISTORICAL STUDY.


3


Further details must depend upon the extent of the course
and its object. If there can be but one term's work, besides
United States history, I would have the history of England.
If there is plenty of time, I would have ancient history,
English history, and French history all precede general history, or, if need be, take its place.
But I can conceive of something better even than this.
To go back to our first question: What does the American
boy really need, who is to have only one term of history
before he goes out into the world, and becomes an American
citizen?  Would not everybody admit that, while the Plantagenets are of more importance for him than the Hohenstaufen, and Oliver Cromwell than Gustavus Adolphus, the
events and personages of the last hundred years are of more
importance than either?
Let us pass now to the college course. Only a very small
proportion of our people go through a college course, and of
these only a small proportion - under our present system
of elective studies - take any extended course in history.
Here, too, I have tried a good many experiments, and have
arrived at a scheme which appears to answer my requirements very well.
The field of history is so vast and varied that it is impossible, in any college course, to treat all the subjects that
deserve to be taken up. All that we can do is to lay out a
course, or a number of courses, which appear to meet, as a
whole, the needs of the largest number, and which will allow
selection, in accordance with tastes, to those who do not care
to take it as a whole.
We require for admission, in the classical courses of this
University, ancient history, the history of the United States,
and the history of England. We are able, therefore, to take
for granted something of an acquaintance with the leading:...  -...



4


GRADES AND TOPICS IN


events and characters of ancient and modern times. The
only history which is required in our curriculum is a term of
United States history for the juniors of the classical department. Besides this, there are three elective courses, each
carried through the year: one as a full course, the others as
half courses.
In laying out this work, we are not limited, as in the
common schools, by the necessity of considering what is
most essential for those who are soon to leave school. We
are not to lay out a single course which all must follow, but
a series of courses, which may be taken either in whole or in
part, according to individual tastes. Even here, however,
there is a natural order which should be insisted on, so far
as possible, for those who take the whole course. We must
begin with what is most indispensable. It is all very well
to say that dates and dynasties are of only secondary
importance, and that it is the history of ideas and of
social progress that we want. There can be no history without dates and dynasties. They are to the nobler parts of
history what the skeleton is to the body. All the beauty of
the body and all its seeming energy are in the external parts;
but what would they be without the framework of bones? So,
in history, we can have no sure and adequate comprehension
of the movement of the great forces of society, without the
skeleton of the history of events. Noow, all events take
place in two relations, - time and place. The indispensable
foundation of history is, therefore, a knowledge of chronology,- of historical distances, - and of historical geography,
in connection with the changes of empire. Territorial and
dynastic history - the study of the successive empires and
dynastic powers of the world —forms the first course,
which should precede the others.
Next to the knowledge of empires, the most necessary,




HISTORICAL STUDY.


5


if the least important branch of history, comes the study
of the organized action of mankind. The study of institutions, of their organic relation to one another in constitutions of government, and of the political conflicts that have
grown out of these, forms naturally the second course.
After this, and not till then, the history of thought, of society, of ideas, can be profitably taken up. We have thus
three independent courses, affording an approximately complete survey of the field of history, or at least preparation
for further independent study. But although this is the natural order of study, it is not necessary to adhere to it overscrupulously. The student has already, in a general way,
studied the dynastic history of Greece, Rome, and England;
has thus acquired a consecutive, if partial, view of ancient
and modern times. He is, therefore, prepared to take up
the special study of the institutions of Greece and Rome,
with which, moreover, he is already somewhat familiar from
his classical studies, without waiting for the extended course
in dynastic history. He may even, without great disadvantage, pass at once to the study of medieval and modern
institutions.
As to method, I have also experimented a great deal. For
college classes-elective classes especially —nothing seems
to me a greater waste of force than to spend the hour with
a text-book in my hand, hearing the students repeat what is
in the book. Lecturing, however satisfactory in the German
universities, I do not find suited to the wants of my students
as a regular mode of instruction. For suggestion and for
review it may be employed with great advantage; and for
regular instruction in fields in which there is no suitable textbook, I am often obliged to have recourse to it. But it
requires, to be efficacious, constant questioning, thorough
examinations, and occasional inspection of note-books.




6


GRADES AND TOPICS IN


In the method which I have at last settled upon, my aim
has been to get some of the benefits which students in the
natural sciences acquire from work in laboratories. Students of the age andl maturity of juniors and seniors can get
the greatest advantage from historical study by doing some
independent work akin to laboratory work. I would not be
understood as claiming that this is original investigation, in
any true sense of the term. Laboratory work in chemistry
or physics is not original investigation, neither is the study
of topics in history. The object, it must be remembered, is
education, not historical investigation; and the object of the
educational process is not merely to ascertain facts, but even
more: to learn how to ascertain facts. For the student, as
a piece of training, historians like Prescott and Bancroft
may stand in the place of original authorities. To gather
facts from them, really at second hand, has for the student
much of the educational value of first-hand work. Of course,
there is a difference in students, and the work done by some
is of a much higher grade than that of others. For the best
students it easily and frequently passes into the actual study
of authorities at first hand.
In studying by topics I always desire that the class should
have a text-book- a brief compendium- upon which they
are liable to be questioned and examined, and which will
serve at any rate as a basis and guide of work. My method
is then to assign for every day - as long beforehand as possible-special topics to two or three students, which they
are to study with as great thoroughness as possible in all the
works to which they have access, and present orally in the
class, writing out a syllabus beforehand upon the blackboard.
If they write out the topic, and depend upon a written paper,
they are much less likely to be certain of their ground and
independent in their treatment.




HISTORICAL STUDY.


7


The topical method here described is successful in proportion to the abundance and accessibility of books of reference. In American history it works best, and here I employ
no other. In the dynastic history of ancient and modern
times, it is satisfactory in most cases. I combine with it
constant map-drawing, and the preparation of a synchronistic chart. In the more advanced courses, owing to the
deficiency of good books of reference, it is necessary to
abandon the method, or combine it with lectures, recitations,
and written essays. It is, of course, impossible to assign
topics which cover the whole ground. It is possible, however, to select for this purpose all the names and events of
first importance, and it is one of the advantages of the topical method that it thus affords an opportunity to emphasize
those facts of history which most need emphasis. It is the
special function of the teacher to supplement the topics, to
point out their relative importance and their connection with
one another, and to help the students in acquiring a complete and accurate general view.








PART I.
HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.
1. PRIMITIVE SOCIETY.
C. F. Keary. The Dawn of History: An Introduction to Prehistoric Study. L.* Mozley & Smith. $1.50.
tE. G. Tylor. Early History of Mankind. N.Y. Holt. $3.50.
tId. Primitive Culture. 2 v. N.Y. Holt. $7.00.
tId. Anthropology. N.Y. App. $2.00.
Mr. Tylor's books present the best picture of primitive society,
and summary of the present condition of the inquiry.
tSir John Lubbock. Pre-historic Times. N.Y. App. $5.00.
Chiefly devoted to archaeology.
Id. Origin of Civilization. N.Y. App. $2.00.
-  H. Spencer. Ceremonial Institutions.  App. $1.25.
tId. Political Institutions. App. $1.50.
These works describe the evolution of governmental institutions.
* In this list only books in the English language are given, with the
exception of a few of prime importance. Works written in a foreign language, whether in the original or translated, are indicated by a dagger (t).
Books of especial importance are indicated by the double dagger ($).
Abbreviated titles are given, except where the full title contains a description of the book. In the abbreviations, App. stands for Appleton; B., for
Boston; Ber., for Berlin; C., for Cassell; C. & H., for Chapman & Hall;
Ch., for Chicago; E. & L., for Estes & Lauriat; Ed., for Edinburgh; H., for
Harper; L., for London; Lip., for Lippincott; Longm., for Longmans; Lp.,
for Leipsic; L. & B., for Little, Brown, & Co.; L. & S., for Lee & Shepard;
M., for Murray; Macm., for Macmillan; 0., for Osgood; P., for Paris; Ph.,
for Philadelphia; Put., for Putnanms; R., for Roberts; Scr., for Scribner;
S. & E., for Smith, Elder, & Co.; W. & N., for Williams & Norgate. E.S.
stands for Epochs Series (Scribner); and Soc., for Society for the Diffusion
of Christian Knowledge (Young).




10 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


tL. H. Morgan. Ancient Society. N.Y. Holt. $4.00.
The best analysis of the structure of primitive society, based
upon an intimate knowledge of the institutions of the North
American Indians. The later portions less reliable.
J. F. McLennan. Studies in Ancient History. L. Quaritch.
Controverts Mr. Morgan's theories, and finds the origin of the
family in marriage by capture.
W. EHearn.  The Aryan Household. L. Longm. $6.40.
The most complete treatise upon the structure and development
of primitive society.
Fustel de Coulanges. The Ancient City.t  B. L. & S. $2.00.
A remarkable book, affording the best key to the origin and
much of the history of the Greek and Roman institutions.
tSir H. S. Maine. Ancient Law: its Connection with the Early
History of Society, and its Relation to Modern Ideas. N.Y.
Holt. $3.50.
Invaluable as an introduction to the history of institutions.
Id. Village Communities. N.Y. Holt. $3.50.
This work introduced the theory of village communities to the
English public.
tld. Early History of Institutions. N.Y. IIolt. $3.50.
Devoted especially to the early institutions of Ireland.
Id. Dissertations upon Early Custom and Law. N.Y. Holt.
A collection of essays and lectures.
tE. de Laveleye. Primitive Property.t  L. Macm. $3.50.
The most complete elaboration of the theory of primitive community of property.
Sir A. C. Lyall. Asiatic Studies. M.
Papers full of valuable observation and study.
E. Nasse. Agricultural Community of the MiddleAAges.t W. & N.
The theory of village communities applied to England.
D. W. Ross. Early History of Land-holding among the Germans.
B. Soule & Bugbee.
Controverts the theory of village communities.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 11


John Fenton. Early Hebrew Life. L. Triibner.
A. F. Bandelier. On the Art of War and Mode of Warfare among
the Ancient Mexicans. -On the Distribution and Tenure of
Land, etc. - On the Social Organization and Mode of Government, etc.
Three papers of great value, reprinted from the reports of the
Peabody Museum of Ethnology for 1877-8-9.
J. J. Bachofen. Das Mutterrecht.t Stuttgart. 1861.
A pioneer work; treats of inheritance in the female line, as an
institution of primitive society.
See also the following articles: by E. Nasse, in Cont. Rev., May,
1872, upon Village Communities; by J. F. McLennan, in Fortn.
Rev., 1866, upon Kinship in Ancient Greece, and in 1869-70,
upon Worship of Animals and Plants [theory of totems]; by
F. H. Cushing, in the Atl. Monthly, Sept. and Oct., 1882, upon
the Nation of the Willows [the Zufiis of New Mexico]; by W.
F. Allen, in Penn Monthly, June, 1880, upon the points at issue
between Mr. Morgan and Mr. McLennan.
Authorities.
Books of travel, etc., containing graphic and accurate accounts of savage
and barbarous society.
Herbert Spencer.  Descriptive Sociology. - Div. 1: Uncivilized
Societies; Div. 2: Ancient Mexicans, etc. 8 parts, each $4.00.
A classified collection of facts.
L. H. Morgan. Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human
Family. Vol. XVII. (1870) of the Smithsonian Contributions.
A very extensive and remarkable collection of facts.
Id. League of the Iroquois. Rochester. 1851.
tF. Parkman. The Oregon Trail. B. L. & B. $2.50.
Perhaps the most vivid picture of Indian life.
jDavid Livingstone. Missionary Travels and Researches in South
Africa. H. $4.50.




12 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


H. AI. Stanley. Through the Dark Continent. 2 v. H. $10.00.
G. Schweinfurth. The Heart of Africa. 2 v. H. 98.00.
t W. G. Palgrave. A Year's Travel in Arabia. Macm. $2.00.
J. A. McGahan. Campaigning on the Oxus. H. $3.50.
Contains an excellent account of nomadic life.
$Lord Pembroke. Old New Zealand. L. Bentley.
Contains a forcible picture of the evils worked by contact with
civilization.
H. Rink. Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo. Ed. Blackwood.
tG. W. Dasent. Story of Burnt Njal. Ed. Edmonston. $7.50.
Presents a vivid picture of early German society.
tHomer's Iliad, translated in prose by Lang, etc.; and Odyssey, by
Butcher and Lang. Each, $1.50.
A portrayal of early Greek society and institutions.
D. M. Wallace. Russia. Holt. $2.00.
Contains the best account of the Mir, or Russian village community.
A. J. Evans. Through Bosnia and Herzegovina. Longm.
Contains a description of the Slavonian family communities.
J. W. Probyn. Systems of Land Tenure in Various Countries. C.
$1.75.
The essays upon India, Germany, and Russia, describe systems
of land community.
Sir J. B. Phear. The Aryan Village in India and Ceylon. Macim.
$2.25.
See also the publications of the American Bureau of Ethnology, the
Peabody Museum, the American Archeological Institute, and
kindred institutions; and the list of books upon the Indians
of America.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 13


2. MYTHOLOGY.
MIax Miiller. Chips from a German Workshop. 5 v. N.Y. Scr.
$10.00.
These essays laid the foundation for the study of comparative
mythology and folk-lore.
tC. F. Keary. Outlines of Primitive Belief. N.Y. Scr. $2.50.
Especially of the Greeks, Hindoos, and Scandinavians.
J. A. Hartung. Die Religion und Mythologie der Griechen.t 4 v.
Lp. Engelmann.
The first volume contains perhaps the best introduction to the
study of mythology.
Sir G. W. Cox. Introduction to Science of Comparative Mythology
and Folk-lore. Holt. $2.50.
tid. Mythology of the Aryan Nations. Longm. $4.50.
A comparative view of the Indian, Greek, and German systems
of mythology.
John Fiske. Myths and Myth-Makers. Houghton. $2.00.
A popular account of the way in which myths are formed.
A. S. Murray. Manual of Mythology. N.Y. Scr. $2.25.
Chiefly devoted to that of Greece: with illustrations.
tL. Preller. Griechische Mythologie.t Ber. Weidmann.
tId. Romische Mythologie.t Ber. Weidmann.
Preller's are the best and most compendious treatises.
tJ. Grimm. Teutonic Mythology.t 2 v. L. Bell.
An exhaustive and invaluable treatise.
R. B. Anderson. Norse Mythology. Ch. Griggs. $2.50.
D. G. Brinton. Myths of the New World. Ph. Watts. $2.00.
Ethnic Religions.
C. P. Tiele. History of Religion. Houghton. $3.00.
The best work of a general character.
J. F. Clarke. Ten Great Religions. Houghton. $3.00.
A popular comparative view of the principal ethnic religions.




14 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.:Hibbert Lectures: -
1878. Max Miiller. The Origin and Growth of Religion, as
illustrated by the Religions of India. Scr.
1879. P. Le Page Renouf. Id., Ancient Egypt. Scr.
1881. T. W. Rhys-Davids. Id., Buddhism. Put.
1882. A. Kuenen. National Religions and Universal Religions.:Non-Christian Religious Systems. Soc.
Monier Williams. Hinduism.
T. IV. Rhys-Davids. Buddhism.
R. K. Douglas. Confucianism and Taouism.
J. H. TV. Stobart. Islam and its Founders.
Sir William Muir. The Coran.
IS. Johnson. Oriental Religions: I. India; II. China. Houghton.
5.00.
A. Barth. Religions of India. Houghton.
O. Keitner. Buddha and his Doctrines. L. Triibner.
J. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism. Houghton.
J. Legge. Life and Teaching of Confucius.
M. Ilaug. The Religion of the Parsis.  Houghton. $4.50.
tC. P. Tiele. Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamnian Religions. Part I.: Egypt. L.
See also articles by Monier Williams, on Indian Religious Thought,
Cont. Rev., 1878, and on Religion of Zoroaster, 19th Cent., Jan.,
1881; by W. F. Allen, on the Religion of the Ancient Greeks,
N. Am. Rev., July, 1869; and the Ancient Romans, July, 1871;
by Jas. Darmesteter, in Cont. Rev., Oct., 1879, on Supreme God
in Indo-European Mythology; by J. N. Hoare, in 19th Cent.,
Dec., 1878, on Religion of Ancient Egyptians; in Edin. Rev.,
Oct., 1881, on the Koran; by K. Blind, in N. Amn. Rev., Oct.,
1872, on the German World of Gods; by F. Lenormant, in Cont.
Rev., 1880, on the Eleusinian Mysteries; by C..: Newton, in




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  15


19th Cent., June, 1878, on the Religion of the Greeks as Illustrated by Inscriptions.  For the truest conception of Greek
mythology: Ruskin's Modern Painters, Part IV., Chap. 13.
Authorities.
Sacred Books of the East.  11 vols. Macm.
The Elder Edda. L. Triibner.
The Younger Edda. Ch. Griggs.
3. HISTORY OF SOCIETY.:H. Spencer. The Study of Sociology. App. $1.50.
VW. Bagehot. Physics and Politics. $1.50.
Analyzes the causes of progress.:A. Comte. The Positive Philosophy.t 2 v. App.
The second volume contains an application of the positive philosophy to historical phenomena.
F. Schlegel. The Philosophy of History.t
Id. Lectures on the History of Literature, Ancient and Modern.t
These old works are still unsurpassed in their field.
R. Flint. The Philosophy of History in France and Germany.
Baron de Mrontesquieu. The Spirit of Laws.t  Cincinnati.
A work of great insight, first published in 1748.
tJ. W. Draper. The Intellectual Development of Europe. 2 v.
H. $3.00.
tH. T. Buckle. Introduction to History of Civilization in England.
2 v. App. $4.00.
Draper and Buckle write from the point of view of the controlling influence of physical causes.
G. P. Marsh. Man and Nature. Scr. $2.00.
Treats of the influence of man and the earth upon each other.
A. Blanqui. History of Political Economy in Europe.t $3.00.
Sir T. E. May. Democracy in Europe. 2 v. Longm.
E. Viollet-le-duc. The Habitations of Man in all Ages.t L. Low.




16  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


4. GENERAL HISTORY.
W. Oncken. Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen.t Ber.
G. Grote. 300 marks.
A series of works by writers of high authority. The following are
already published: G. F. Hertzberg, Hellas und Rorn; Das
Rimische Kaiserreich.    F. Dahn, Urgeschichte der Germanischen und Romanischen Vdlker. AI. Philippson, Zeitalter Ludwigs XIV.    A. Stern, Revolution in England. A. Bruckner,
Peter der Grosse. W. Oncken, Zeitalter Friedrichs des Grossen.
* E. A. Freeman. General Sketch [in Freeman's Hist. Series]. Holt.
$1.00.
The best brief outline of general history.
d Idc. IIistorical Geography of Europe. 2 v. [vol. ii., maps]. $12.00.
An elaborate and accurate work; the best there is.
Leopold von Ranke. Weltgeschichte.t      3 vols. already published.
A summary of the best results of scholarship by the greatest
living master.
K. von Spruner.   Handatlas der Geschichte.t   In three parts.
1. Atlas Antiquus.
2. Europa. Revised by Th. Menke.      [English edition by W. &
N., ~4 14s. 6d.]
3. Asia, Africa, America, and Australia.
Altogether the best and completest historical atlas.
IN. Bocillet.  Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire et de Geographie.
P. Hachette.
TId. Atlas Universel d'Histoire et de Gdographie.
These works of Bouillet are the best books of reference.
J. Haydn. Dictionary of Dates. App. $6.00.
The best brief compendium of chronology, revised to 1883.
H. B. George. Genealogical Tables. Macm. $3.00.
The best in English.
TS. Willard. Synopsis of History.   App.
Chronological and genealogical tables of the highest merit.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  17


C. K. Adams. Manual of Historical Literature.    IL. $2.50.
The best guide to historical reading.
TV. F. Allen. Reader's Guide to English History. B. Ginn, Heath,
& Co.
With a supplement giving brief references to the history of
other countries and periods.
See also articles by E. A. Freeman, in Fortn. Rev., May, 1881, on
the Study of History; by J. Gairdner, in Cont. Rev., Oct., 1880,
on Sources of History.
Periodicals.
tHistorische Zeitschrift. By H. von Sybel. Miinchen (bi-monthly).
The oldest and leading historical periodical.
tRevue Historique. By G. Monod and G. Fagniez.t P. (bi-monthly).
Especially valuable for its survey of current historical literature.
Mittheilungen aus der Historischen Literatur.t     By F. Hirsch.
Ber. (quarterly).
Consists exclusively of book reviews.
Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissenschaft. Ber.
An annual review of historical literature.
Das Historische Taschenbuch. Lp.
An annual collection of historical essays.
The Antiquary. Published by Elliot Stock. L. (monthly).
Devoted to antiquities rather than history.:The Magazine of American History.    (Monthly.)   N.Y. Barnes.
A periodical of high excellence.
The American Antiquarian. By S. D. Peet. Ch. (quarterly).
Devoted to the entire field of antiquities.
Besides these, several of the State Historical Societies publish
periodicals or regular volumes of Transactions.




18  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


5. ANCIENT HISTORY..
TPhilip Smith. A History of the World. Ancient History. 3 v. App.
$6.00.
The best English history of antiquity.
A. IH. L. Heeren. Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse,
and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity.t 6 v. Ox.
An old but valuable book.:G. Rawlinson.   A Manual of Ancient History.    H. $1.25.
A careful and accurate compendium, with abundant references
to authorities and special treatises.
P. V. N. Myers.   Outlines of Ancient History.  H. 1882. $1.75.
A good compendium for non-classical readers.
E. A. Freeman. Historical Essays. Second Series. Macm. $3.50.
This series is devoted to ancient history.
J. J. Winckelmann. History of Ancient Art. 2 v.t     0. 89.00.
The starting-point of study in the history of ancient art.
tF. con Reber.  History of Ancient Art.    H. $2.50.
An excellent compendium, well illustrated.
G. G. Zerffi.  Manual of the Historical Development of Art. L.
Hardwicke.:S. R. Koekler.   Illustrations of the History of Art.   Series 1:
Ancient Architecture, Sculpture, etc.     B.   Prang.    1879.
Series 5 contains the History of Painting.
K. O. Aiiller. Ancient Art and its Remains.   L. Quaritch.
The German edition is accompanied by two vols. of illustrations.
W. C. Perry.   Popular Introduction to the History of Greek and
Roman Sculpture.    Longrn. $12.00.
A. S. 1S Murray. History of Ancient Sculpture.  M.
James Fergusson. History of Architecture. 2 v. M. $24.00.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 19


Ancient Classics for Modern Readers. Lipp. $1.00.
Twenty-eight small volumes, containing excellent short accounts
of the principal authors.
Classical Writers. Edited by.. R. Green. App. 60 cts.
A similar series, containing fewer treatises, but of the highest
excellence.
IV. C. Wilkinson.  Preparatory Greek Course in English. N.Y.
Phillips & Hunt.
Especially adapted to non-classical readers.
W. Smith. Dictionary of Antiquities. M. $6.00.
Id. Dictionary of Classical Biography and Mythology. 3 v. M.
$18.00.
Id. Dictionary of Classical Geography. 2 v. M. $12.00.
Id. Classical Atlas. M. $40.00.
The most complete works of reference. Smaller works are:A. Rich. Iictionary of Antiquities.
W. Smith. Classical Dictionary. H.
E. Guhl and W. Koner. The Life of the Greeks and Romans. L.
Chatto & Windus. $4.00.
— ~6. ORIENTAL HISTORY.:1I. Duncker.  History of Antiquity. 6 v.t L. Bentley. $50.00.
Covers only the oriental period, but is the best compendium for
this period.
F. Lenormant and E. Chevallier. Manual of the Ancient History
of the East.t  2 v. L. Asher. 1869. $5.50.
F. Lenormant.  The Beginnings of History.t   Scr. $2.50.




20  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


G. Rawlinson. The Origin of Nations. Scr. $1.50.
tfd. The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World
[Chaldea, Assyria, Babylon, Media, and Persia]. Dodd, Mead,
& Co. $6.00.
Id. The Sixth Great Monarchy [Parthia]. Dodd, Mead, & Co. $2.00.
Id. The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy [Sassanidme]. $4.00.
Id. History of Ancient Egypt. 2 v. B. Cassino. $4.00.
All Canon Rawlinson's works are marked by learning and ability.
They are written from the point of view of the absolute authority
of the Hebrew scriptures.
tS1. Brugsch Bey. Egypt under the Pharaohs. 2 v. AM. $12.00.
The best history of Egypt, by one of the most distinguished
Egyptologists.
tSir J. G. Wilkinson. The Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Egyptians. 3v. M. $33.00.
The standard work upon the subject.
4H. Ebers. Egypt.
Also an illustrative work of the highest excellence..H. Ezwald. History of Israel. 5 v. Longm. $26.00.
By the greatest authority upon Hebrew history.
H. H. Milman. History of the Jews. 3 v. N.Y. Widdleton. $5.25.
A popular work.
J. H. Allen. Hebrew Men and Times. R. $1.50.
E.H. Palmer. History of the Jewish Nation; from the earliest
times to the present day. Soc. $1.50.
C. R. Conder. Life of Judas Maccabeus [New Plutarch]. Put. $1.00.
tA. P. Stanley. History of the Jewish Church. 3 v. Scr. $7.50.
J. Kenrick. Phoenicia. L. Fellowes.


See also series of articles by R. Stuart-Poole in Cont. Rev., 1878-79,
on Ancient Egypt.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  21


A uthorities.
Records of the Past. 6 v. L. Bagster. $18.00.
Ancient History from the Monuments. 6 v. Soc. Each, 75 cts.
I. P. Cory. Ancient Fragments. L. Reeves.
7. HISTORY OF GREECE.
tGeo. Grote. History of Greece. 12 v. H. $18.00.
The most complete history; from a liberal point of view.
Connop Thirlwall. History of Greece. 2 v. H.
An excellent and scholarly work.:Ernst Curtius. History of Greece. 5 v.t   Scr. $10.00.
The best German history; a book of eloquence as well as
scholarship.
Sir G. W. Cox. General History of Greece. H. $1.25.
The best short history.
Wm. Smith. History of Greece. B. Ware. $2.00.
The American edition, edited by Pres. Felton, contains important
additions, bringing it down to the present century.
Id. Smaller History of Greece. H. 60 cts.
T. T. Tinlayenis. A History of Greece from the Earliest Times to
the Present. 2 v. App. $3.50.
Interesting as the work of a native Greek, and covering the
period of modern history.
C. C. Felton. Greece, Ancient and Modern. 2 v. Houghton. $5.00.
The best popular work on the history, literature, etc., of Greece.
E. A. Freeman. History of Federal Government. Vol. I. Macm.
$7.00.
This, the only volume published, is chiefly devoted to the
Achaean League.
W. W. Lloyd. The Age of Pericles. 2 v. M. $6.00.
Id.  History of Sicily to the Athenian War. M.




22  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


The following belong to the series of Epochs of ancient history: -
S. G. W. Benjamin. Troy. $1.00.
Sir G. W. Cox. The Greeks and the Persians. $1.00.
Id. The Athenian Empire. $1.00.
C. Sankey. The Spartan and Theban Supremacies. $1.00.
A. M. Curteis. Rise of the Macedonian Empire.    $1.00.
C. Peter. Chronological Tables of Greek History. Macm. $3.00.
J. P. Mahaffy. Social Life in Greece. Macm.
W. A. Becker. Charicles. L. $3.00.
A tale illustrating manners and customs.
TW. Mure. Critical History of the Language and Literature of
Ancient Greece. 5 v. Longm. $35.00.
This is the principal work; a good short one is -
J. P. Mahaffy. History of Classical Greek Literature. H. $4.00.
8. ROMAN HISTORY.
Th. Mommsen. History of Rome. 4 v.t Scr. $8.00.
The best history of Rome; reaches B.c. 46.
W. Ihne. History of Rome. 5 v.t    Longm. $30.00.
Gives less attention than Mommsen to legal and economical
causes; is also more favorable to the Carthaginians. Reaches
B.C. 78.
Thos. Arnold. History of Rome. App. $3.00.
Of high literary merit, but based upon Niebuhr in its view of
Roman institutions, and therefore largely superseded by later
researches. Reaches B.c. 202.
Chas. lMlrivale.  General History of Rome. App. $1.25.
The best short history of Rome, reaching to the fall of the
western empire, A.D. 476.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.                23
IL. G. Liddell. History of Rome. H. $1.25.
Of a good deal of literary merit, founded chiefly upon Niebuhr.
Reaches B.c. 30.
WV. Smith and E. Lawrence. Smaller History of Rome. H. 60 cts.
An excellent sketch, reaching A.D. 476.
A. Schwegler. Romische Geschichte. 2 v.t Tiibingen. 1853-58.
$4.70.
An exhaustive cyclopedia of Roman history, indispensable for
the student; reaches B.C. 390. A fourth volume, by O. Clason
(Ber., Calvary), reaches B.C. 328.
7'. H. Dyer. The History of the Kings of Rome. Lip., $5.00.
Maintains the traditionary view, against Niebuhr. The same
view is presented with great learning and brilliancy by
Fr. Dor. Gerlach and J. J. Bachofen.   Geschichte der Romer.4
Basel. 1851. Vol. I., $2.60.
The first volume, containing the history of the kings, is the only
one ever published.
V. Duruy. History of Rome. 6 v.t    L. Kelly [now publishing].
Magnificently illustrated; a work of high merit.
tGeo. Long. The Decline of the Roman Republic. 5 v. L. Bell.
$28.00.
An exhaustive collection of facts from B.C. 154 to 44, accompanied with acute criticism.
$Chas. lIlericale. History of the Romans under the Empire. 7 v.
App. $14.00. New edition, 4 v., $7.00.
From B.C. 60 to A.D. 180. The best account of the period between
Mommsen and Gibbon.
R. Congreve. The Roman Empire of the West. L. Parker. $1.75.
By an eminent positivist.:J. R. Seeley. Roman Imperialism. R. $1.50.
Three lectures on the establishment and decline of the empire.
tEdw. Gibbon. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire. 6 v. Lip. $12.00.
The Students' Gibbon. H. $1.25.
Gibbon is an indispensable guide for the twelve centuries from
the accession of Commodus to the fall of Constantinople.




24  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


A. J. iMason.  The Persecutions of Diocletian. L. Bell. $3.50.
An attempt to vindicate Diocletian.
l Thos. Hodgkin. Italy and her Invaders. 2 v. Macmr. $8.00.
A history of the Visigoths, Vandals, and Huns.
C. Kingsley. The Roman and lthe Teuton. Macm. $1.75.
TV.. E. I. Lecky. History of European Morals, from Augustus to
Charlemagne. 2 v. App. $3.00.:The following belong to the series of Epochs of Ancient History: -
William Ihne. Early Rome. $1.00.
R. Bosworth Smith. Rome and Carthage. $1.00.
A. H. Beesly. The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla. $1.00.
Chas. Melerivale. The Roman Triumvirates. $1.00.
T7. W. Capes. The Early Empire. $1.00.
Id. The Age of the Antonines. $1.00.
I W. S. Teuffel. History of Roman Literature.t  $7.50.
The best German work. The best English works are: -
$G. A. Sincox. History of Latin Literature. 2 v. H. $4.00.
IC. T. Crutwell. Hiistory of Roman Literature. Scr. $2.50.
An excellent short manual is
L. Schmitz. History of Roman Literature. $1.25.: Th. MIommsen and J. 3Iarquardt.    Handbuch der Romischen
Alterthiimer. 7 v.t   Lp.  Hirzel.  Vol. I., $4.40; Vol. II.,
Aleth. 1, $4.80, Aleth. 2, $3.30; Vol. III., not out yet; Vol. IV.,
$3.30; Vol. V., $4.05; Vol. VI., $4.05; Vol. VII., $6.60.
Mominsen's part is Staatsrecht; Marquardt's, Staatsverwaltung.
Neither is yet complete. This is the greatest work on Roman
antiquities, superseding the earlier work by Becker and Marquardt (5 v. Lp.).
W. A. Becker. Gallus. $3.00.
A treatise on antiquities in the form of a tale.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  25


L. Lange. Romische Alterthiimer. 3 v.f Ber. Weidmann. $8.45.
This work, which is rather historical than systematic, reaches
B.C. 30.
W. Ramsay. Manual of Roman Antiquities. L. Griffin. $3.00.
Excellent when written, but now antiquated in many parts.
J. R. Seeley. First Book of Livy. Macm. $1.50.
The introduction to this work contains the best discussion in
English of the institutions of the period of the kings.
F. W. Newman. Regal Rome. N.Y. Redfield. 1852. 63 cents.
Contains much interesting matter.
R. F. Leighton. History of Rome. N.Y. Clark & Maynard. $1.44.
A school history, but contains the most complete statement in
English of the latest results of scholarship.
W. T. Arnold. The Roman System of Provincial Administration.
Macm. $1.75.
V. Rydberg. Roman Days. $2.00.
Art and life under the empire.
Wm. Forsyth. Life of Cicero. Scr. $2.50.
A good work; even better is that by:Anthony Trollope. 2 v. H. $3.50.
It is distinguished for vivid and correct portraiture. Its view is
favorable to Cicero.
J. A. Froude. Caesar. Scr. $2.50.
Brilliant, but not always accurate. It presents the most eulogistic view of Caesar's character and career. The same view is
presented in the Life of Julius Caesar ascribed to the Emperor
Napoleon III. [2 v. Scr.]
E. S. Beesly. Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius. L. C. & H. $2.00.
Able and interesting, by a distinguished positivist, in defence of
these three characters. Tiberius also finds a defender in
F. Huidekoper. Judaism    in Rome.   [Note G.]   N.Y. Francis.
$2.25.
Thos. De Quincey. The Cesars. Houghton. $1.50.
An entertaining sketch.
Earl Stanhope. Life of Belisarius. L. $3.50.




26  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


MIontesquieu's Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, translated
by John Baker. App. $2.00.
An old work of much value.
See article by Goldzwin Smith in Cont. Rev., May, 1878, on the
Greatness of the Romans.
A uthorities.
Translations of the classic authors may be found in Bohn's Classical
Library, republished by Harper; besides these, we will mention
Herodotus, - Oriental history, and the Persian wars, - translated
by Geo. Rawlinson. 4 v. $10.00.
Thucydides, - Peloponnesian War, - translated by B. Jowett.
Macrm. $8.00.
Xenophon, — continuation of Thucydides, and expedition of Cyrus
the Younger. $2.00.
Livy, - Roman history, - [to 390] translated by Geo. Baker. N.Y.
Worthington. $7.50.
Finely illustrated.
Polybius, - the chief authority for the Second Punic War, - translated by Hampton.
Sallust, -Jugurthine War and Conspiracy of Catiline, -translated
by A. W. Pollard. Macm. $1.60.
Caesar,- civil and foreign wars, from B.c. 58 to 45. $2.Ou.
Tacitus, - the Roman empire, A.D. 14 to 70, with some interruptions,- translated by Church and Brodribb. Macm. $2.00.
Suetonius, - lives of the Caesars, - translated by Thomson. $1.75.
Plutarch, — biographies, - translated by A. H. Clough. L. & B.
$3.00.
Josephus,- Jewish wars. $2.00.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  27


9. MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY.
tH. Hallam. Middle Ages. 3 v. N.Y. $5.25.
A sound and scholarly work, incomplete in certain parts (e.g.,
the north of Europe), and superseded in others by recent investigations, but still indispensable.
tF. Guizot. Lectures on the History of Civilization in France and
in Europe. 4 v. App. $5.60.
Likewise indispensable, and still containing the best view in
English of feudal society.
J. Balmes. -European Civilization.t  Baltimore. Murphy. $3.00.
A comparison of Protestantism and Catholicism in their relation to civilization, by a Catholic writer.
F. Ozanam. History of Civilization in the Fifth Century.t Lip.
$3.50.
A work of eloquence and spiritual power.
C. J. Stille. Studies in Mediaeval History. Lip. $2.00.
An excellent course of lectures; especially good in the history
of civilization, less satisfactory in that of institutions.;A. ~1. Curteis. History of the Roman Empire. Lip. $1.50.
From A.D. 395 to 800; with good maps. The best brief sketch
of this period.
tR. W. Church. The Beginnings of the Middle Ages. [E.S.] $1.00.
Covers a somewhat later period; from A.D. 500 to 1000.
P. Lacroix. Manners, Customs, and Dress in the Middle Ages.t App.
$12.00.
Td. The Arts in the Middle Ages.t App. $12.00.
Id. Science and Literature in the Middle Ages.t L. Bickers. $12.00.
Finely illustrated works, of the highest value.
E. L. Cutts. Scenes and Characters in the Middle Ages. L. Virtue.
$5.00.
With good illustrations of manners, customs, etc.
J. J. Sheppard. The Fall of Rome and the Rise of the New
Nationalities. N.Y. $2.50.
A good manual for students.,.E. A. Freeman. Historical Essays. Series 1 and 3. Macm. $3.00.
Series 1 treats of mediaeval history; Series 3, of Eastern Europe.




28  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


V. Rydberg. Magic of the Middle Ages.t   Holt. $1.75.
oH. von Sybel. History and Literature of the Crusades.t  C. & H.
10s. Gd.
J. F. Mllichaud. History of the Crusades. 4 v.t  N.Y. Redfield.
$3.75.
Sir G. IV. Cox. The Crusades. [E.S.] $1.00.
G. Z. Gray. The Children's Crusade. Houghton. $1.50.
Michaud's is the standard history of the crusades; Cox's, the
best short sketch; Sybel's work presents the best results of
scholarship.
C. Mills. IIistory of Chivalry. 2 v. Ph. Carey & Lea. $1.25.
The standard work upon the subject.
E. Viollet-le-duc. Annals of a Fortress.t  B. $5.00.
By a distinguished architect and historian.
E. L. Cutts. Constantine. Soc. $1.05.
Id. Charlemagne. Soc. $1.05.
F. C. Woodhouse. Military Religious Orders of the Middle Ages.
Soc. $1.05.
Excellent books of a popular character.
A. L. Koeppen. The World in the Middle Ages. 2 v. App. $3.00.
A thorough and accurate geography of the middle ages, with an
atlas.
F. de Coulanges. Institutions Politiques de l'Ancienne France.t
2 v. P. Hachette. $5.25.
A brilliant but not always trustworthy description of political
society in the beginning of the middle ages.
W. Smyth. Lectures upon Modern History. B. Mussey.
IT. Arnold. Lectures on Modern History. App. $1.50.
These courses of lectures are old, but valuable.
T. II. Dyer. History of Modern Europe. 5 v. Bell. $22.50.
The best work, extending from 1453 to 1871.
C. D. Yonge. Three Centuries of Modern History. App. $2.00.
A popular and interesting sketch.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  29


James White. Eighteen Christian Centuries. App. $2.00.
An entertaining popular outline of history from the Christian era.
tA. H. L. Heeren. Manual of the History of the Political System
of Europe and its Colonies.t  $1.50.
Id. Historical Treatises.t  $5.00.
Heeren's writings are of the highest excellence.
E. J. Payne. History of European Colonies.     [Freeman's Hist.
Series.]  Holt. $1.10.
F. C. Schlosser. History of the Eighteenth Century.t 8 v. C. & H.
10. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
TH. H. Milman. The History of Christianity from the Birth of
Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire.
3 v. N.Y. Armstrong. $5.25.
tId. History of Latin Christianity. 8 v. N.Y. Armstrong. $14.00.
The best general history of the church in the middle ages;
reaching the end of the pontificate of Nicholas V., 1455.
J. C. L. Gieseler. A Text-book of Church History.t 5 v. II. $5.25.
The standard complete history of the church.
J. Alzog. Manual of Universal Church History.t 3 v. Cincinnati.
Clarke. $15.00.
From a Catholic point of view; fair and learned.
J. J. I Dllinger.  The First Age of Christianity. 2 v. $6.00.
Also by a Catholic of great learning and reputation.
E. Re'nan. [Hibbert Lect., 1880.] The Influence of the Institutions, etc., of Rome upon Christianity. W. & N. $3.50.
F. D. Maurice. Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First
and Second Centuries. {Macm. $3.50.
J. H. Newman. Historical Sketches. 3 v. L. Pickering. $6.00.
Chiefly connected with church history.
R. C. Trench. Lectures on Medimeval Church History. Scr. $3.00.
A good popular sketch.




30  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


C. Hardwick. A History of the Christian Church. Middle Ages.
Macm. $2.25.
Id. The Reformation. Macm. $2.25.
Excellent compendiums of handy reference.
A. R. Pennington. Epochs of the Papacy. L. Bell. 10s. Gd.
A book of much merit; from the point of view of the Church of
England.
J. F. Clarke. Events and Epochs of Religious History. Osgood.
$3.00.
J. H. Allen. Christian History in its Three Great Periods. 3 v. R.
$3.75.
Academic lectures.  Early Christianity; the Middle Ages;
Modern Phases.
H. C. Lea. A History of Sacerdotal Celibacy. Lip. $3.75.
Id. Studies in Church History [Temporal Power; Benefit of Clergy;
Excommunication]. Ph. Lea. $2.75.
Id. Superstition and Force [Wager of Law and Battle; Ordeal;
Torture]. Ph. Lea. $2.50.
Books of sound and independent scholarship.
T. Greenwood. Cathedra Petri. 6 v. L. Dickinson & Higham.
$3.00.
A political history of the Papacy, ending 1420.
M. Creighton. The Papacy during the Reformation. 2 v. Houghton.
$10.00.
The two volumes published extend from 1378 to 1464.
Sir J. Stephen. Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. Longm. 7s. 6d.
A. F. Villemain. Life of Gregory VII.t 3 v. Bentley. 26s.
J. C. _Morison. Life and Times of St. Bernard. Macm. $2.00.
Baron Huibner. Life and Times of Sixtus V't Longm. 24s.
The Fathers for English Readers. Soc. 10 v. Each, 75 cents.
The Conversion of the West. Soc. 5 v. Each, 60 cents.
Two series of small works of merit.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  31


The Reformation Period.
G. P. Fisher. History of the Reformation. Scr. $3.00.
An excellent work.
~:L. Hdusser. Period of the Reformation.t   N.Y. $2.50.
A course of lectures of high scholarship and historic insight.
MA. J. Spalding. History of the Protestant Reformation. Baltimore.
Murphy. $3.50.
By the Catholic archbishop of Baltimore. See also his Miscellanies. 2 v.:F. Seebohm. History of the Protestant Revolution. [E.S.] ~1.00.
A compendium of great accuracy and value.
J. H. Merle D'Aubigne. History of the Reformation.t  5 v. N.Y.
Carter. $4.50.
Ultra-Protestant in tone.
~^  L. von Ranke. History of the Popes.t  3 v. L. Bell. $3.75.
The best history of the period of the Reformation, from a political point of view.
C. Beard. [Hibbert Lect., 1883.]  The Reformation of the 16th
Century in its Relation to Modern Thought. W. & N. 10s. 6d.
J. H. Treadwell. Martin Luther and his Work. [New Plutarch.]
Put. $1.00.
l. B. Drummond. Erasmus, his Life and Character. 2 v. S. & E.
D. Strauss. Ulrich von Hutten.t   L. Daldy. 10s. 6d.
H. Morley. Clement Marot. 2 v. C. & H. 18s.
K. Benrath. Bernardino Ochino of Siena.t   L. Nisbet. 9s.
R. C. Christie. Etienne Dolet. Macm. $5.00.
These are persons whose lives illustrate some special phase of
the Reformation.
P. Sarpi. Iistory of the Council of Trent.
Ranked by Macaulay with Thucydides.
J. A. Wylie. History of Protestantism. 3 v. C. $15.00.
See essays on Luther by Stephen, Carlyle, Froude, and Mozley; also
his Table Talk, and Erasmus' Colloquies. A life of Luther, by
Peter Bayne, is in preparation; also a translation of Kostlin's
popular work, to be published by Scribner.




32  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


For Reference.
W. Smith. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. 2 v. M. $7.00.
Id. Dictionary of Christian Biography. 2 v. M. $11.00.
P. Schaff.  Religious Encyclopaedia [based on that of Herzog].
3 v. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. $6.00.
11. HISTORY OF ENGLAND, IRELAND, AND SCOTLAND.
David Hume. History of England. 6 v. Lip. $6.00.
In elegant style, with strong Tory bias; is excellent in social
history, but lacks accurate scholarship.
J. Lingard. H-istory of England. 13 v. $20.00.
A Catholic work, able and scholarly. This, like Hume, comes
down only to 1688.
C. Knight. The Popular History of England.    8 v. Ph. $10.00.
Liberal in tone, with abundant illustrations.
tJ. R. Green. History of the English People. 4 v. H. $10.00.
The best history of England; its fault is in disregarding too
much the chronological order.
Id. A Short History of the English People. H. $1.75.
An earlier work of similar character.
JI. F. Bright. English History for the Use of Public Schools. 3 v.
N.Y. Dutton. 17s.
An excellent work; especially good for reference. Both Bright
and Green have numerous maps and genealogical tables.
J. S. Brewer. The Student's Hume. H. $1.25.
More than an abridgment. The editor has added accuracy and
liberality of tone.
The Pictorial Iistory of England. 8 v. ~5.
A work of solid merit, with numerous illustrations.
Sir James lMackintosh. History of England.
In Lardner's Cyclopaedia.
Miss E. Thonpson.     History of England.     Holt.   [Freeman's
Historical Series.] 80 cents.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  33


tJ. H. Burton. History of Scotland. 8 v. and index. Ed. Blackwood.
Each, 7s. Gd.
The best history of Scotland.
Miss 11. Macarthur.   History of Scotland.  Holt.   [Freeman's
Historical Series.] 80 cents.
E. M. Robertson.  Scotland under her Early Kings.    2 v.  Ed.
Edmonston. 36s.
Reaches the end of the thirteenth century. Able and scholarly,
but confused in arrangement.
W. F. Skene. Celtic Scotland. 3 v. Ed. Edmonston. Each, 15s.
The most complete work upon Scottish antiquities.
tC. G. Walpole. The Kingdom of Ireland. H. $1.75
An excellent history of Ireland, with very good maps; reaches
1800.
W. Dolby. History of Ireland. N.Y. Virtue. $10.00.
J. H. McCarthy. Outline of Irish History. Baltimore. Murphy.
75 cents.
X fMrs. E. S. Armitage. The Childhood of the English Nation. Put.
$1.25.
An admirable sketch; reaches 1199.
E. A. Freeman. Old English History. Macm. $1.50.
The Anglo-Saxon period; originally written for the young.
Id. Short History of the Norman Conquest. Macm. 60 cents.
tId. History of the Norman Conquest. 5 v. and index. Macm.
$20.00.
Mr. Freeman's greatest work, and the best history of the period.
Id. History of William Rufus. Macm. $8.00.
A continuation of the above.
A. Thierry. History of the Norman Conquest.t    2 v. L. Bell.
Each, 3s. 6d.
Brilliant, but resting upon unsound theories.
C. Elton. Origins of English History. L. Quaritch. $8.00.
A work of great learning and research; embracing the Celtic
period and the Anglo-Saxon conquest.




34  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


tJ. Rhys. Celtic Britain. Soc. 75 cents.
By an eminent Celtic scholar. It gives a history of the Celtic
nationalities of Britain through the eleventh century.
tGrant Allen. Anglo-Saxon Britain. Soc. 75 cents.
The author opposes Freeman's view of an exclusively Teutonic
character of the English nationality.
tJ. R. Green. The Making of England. H. $2.50.
Describes graphically and in detail the events of the Anglo-Saxon
conquest and the Heptarchy.
J. M. Kemble. The Saxons in England. 2 v. L. Quaritch. 24s.
Old, but full of valuable material.
Thos. Nicholas. Pedigree of the English People. Longm. 16s.
Argues for a large Celtic element in the English people.
E. Guest. Origines Celticae. 2 v. Macni. $9.00.
An unfinished work containing papers of remarkable merit,
especially in relation to the Anglo-Saxon conquest.
J. M. Lappenberg.   History of England under the Anglo-Saxon
Kings. 2 v. L. Bell. Each, 3s. 6d.
Id. History of England under the Norman Kings. 15s.
Scholarly works, but partly superseded by later writers.
W. Longman. Lectures on the Early History of England. Longm.
15s.
C. H. Pearson. England during the Early and Middle Ages. 2 v.
L. Bell. 14s.
Reaches death of Edward I.; of great value in political and
constitutional history.
Id. Historical Maps of England. L. Bell. ~1 11s. 6d.
Illustrates especially the social and political condition of the
middle ages. Contains material not to be found elsewhere.
W. H. Blaauw. The Barons' War. L. Bell. 10s. 6d.
An excellent monograph on the times of Montfort.
Greatest of all the Plantagenets. L. Bentley. 12s.
A history of Edward I.; very eulogistic, but on the whble sound.
$ W. Longman. History of the Life and Times of Edward III. 2 v.
Longm. 28s.
The most important work for the history of England in the
fourteenth century.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 35


tC. H. Pearson. English History in the Fourteenth Century. L.
Rivingtons. 3s. 6d.
An excellent short history.
G. M. Towle. History of Henry V. App. $2.50.
Miss C. A. Halsted. Richard III. Ph. Carey.
An attempt to vindicate his character.
Jas. Gairdner.  Life and Reign of Richard the Third.    Longm.
10s. 6d.
Sustains the traditionary view.
$J. A. Froude. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the
Death of Elizabeth. 12 v. Scr. $18.00.
Reaches only 1688. A fascinating narration, friendly to Henry
VIII.; deficient in judicial qualities.
Miss Lucy Aikin.    Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizabeth.
Longm. 3s. 6d.
An old but valuable book.
tL. von Ranke. History of England.t 6 v. Macm. $16.00.
A work of the highest value and importance; embraces the
sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries..S. R. Gardiner. History of England: 1. From the accession of
James I. to the disgrace of Coke, 2 vols.; 2. The Spanish
marriage; 3. Under the Duke of Buckinghamn and Charles I.,
2 vols.; 4. Personal government of Charles I., 2 vols.; 5. Fall
of the Monarchy of Charles I., 2 vols. Longm. Each, 12s.
Mr. Gardiner is the highest authority upon this period. A new
and cheaper edition of the combined work is now publishing.
Earl of Clarendon. History of the Rebellion. 6 v. Ox. ~1 2s.
The author, as Sir Edward Hyde, was a leading actor in the
events.
tB. M. Cordery and J. S. Phillpotts. King and Commonwealth.
Ph. Porter & Coates. $1.75.
An excellent sketch; from 1603 to 1660.
F. Guizot.   1. History  of the English    Revolution  of 1640;
2. England under Oliver Cromwell, 2 v.; 3. Under Richard
Cromwell, 2 v.; 4. History of Monk.t L. Per vol., 3s. 6d.




36    HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.
A. Bisset. History of the Struggle for Parliamentary Government
in England. 2 v. 24s.
Id. History of the Commonwealth of England from the Death of
Charles I. to the Expulsion of the Long Parliament by Cromwell. 2 v. 30s.
An able exposition of the parliamentary side.
J. Forster. The Arrest of the Five Members by Charles I. M. 12s.
Id. The Grand Remonstrance. MI. 12s.
TF. von Raumer. The Political History of England during the 16th,
17th, and 18th Centuries. 2 v.t ~1 10s.
By a distinguished German historian.
IT. B. Mlacaulay. History of England. 5 v. II. $2.50.
Strongly Whig; a brilliant work; unfinished; covers the reigns
of James II. and William III., with a general sketch of that of
Charles II.:Sir James MAackintosh. History of the Revolution of 1688.
An able work; also Whig. Unfinished.
C. J. Fox. IIistory of James II. Scr. $1.25.
J. IH. Burton. History of the Reign of Queen Anne. 3 v. Scr.
$13.50.
Whig; by the author of the history of Scotland.
Earl Stanhope. History of the Reign of Queen Anne. 2 v. M. 10s.
Id. History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of
Versailles [1713 to 1783]. 7 v. M.
These two works give the history of the eighteenth century from
a Tory point of view.: W. E. H. Leccy. History of England in the 18th Century. 4 v.
App. $9.00.
Not yet finished; from a Whig point of view.
J. Ashton. Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne. Scr. $9.00.
Graphic and accurate.
J. A. Froude. The English in Ireland in the 18th Century. 3 v. Scr.
$3.00.
Written with a strong English bias.
J. Adolphus. A History of England from the Accession of George
III. to 1803. 7 v. Each, 14s.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  37


W. Massey. A History of England during the Reign of George the
Third. 4 v. Each, 6s.
Massey is Whig; Adolphus, Tory.
Miss H. Martineau.   History of the Peace [to 1854]. 4 v. B.
Walker. $10.00.
S. Walpole. History of England from the Conclusion of the Great
War in 1815 to 1841. 3 v. Longm. ~2 14s.
TV. N. Molesworth. History of England from 1830 to 1874. 3 v.
C.& H. $6.00.:J. McCarthy. History of Our Own Times. 2 v. H. $2.50.
H. I. Hozier. Invasions of England. 2 v. Macm. $8.00.
IS. R. Gardiner. Introduction to English History. [In English
History for Students.] N.Y. Holt. 80 cents.
R. Pauli. Pictures of Old England.t Macm. 6s.
Belonging to medieval history.
Miss C. AI. Yonge. Cameos from English History. Macm. $5.00.
Four series, covering mediseval history.
J. Gairdner and J. Spedding. Studies in English History. Ed.
Douglas. 12s.
Belonging to the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries.
A. C. Ewald. Stories from the State Papers. Houghton. $3.00.
Belonging to the same period.
T. B. Macaulay. Essays. 4 v. Houghton. $5.00.
Devoted chiefly to modern English history.
J. S. Brewer. English Studies. M. 14s.
tJ. E. T. Rogers. History of Agriculture and Prices. 4 v. Macm.
$23.00.
Covers the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth' centuries.
F. Seebohm. The English Village Community. Longm.
W. Cunningham. Growth of English Industry and Commerce. C.
$3.00.
C. Hole, Genealogical Stemma of the Kings of England and
France. Macm. Is.




38  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


$Epochs of Modern History. Scr.
TV. Stubbs. The Early Plantagenets. $1.00.
TV. VWarburton. Edward III.,$1.00.
J. Gairdner. The Houses of Lancaster and York. $1.00.
31. Creighton. The Age of Elizabeth. $1.00.
S. R. Gardiner. The Puritan Revolution. $1.00.
E. Hale. The Fall of the Stuarts. $1.00.
E. E. 3Morris. The Age of Anne. $1.00.
J. MlcCarthy. Epoch of Reform. 1830-1850. $1.00.
Epochs of English History. E. & L. 50 cents each.
F. York-Powell. Early England [to 1066].
L. Creighton. England a Continental Power [to 1066].
J. Rowley. The Rise of the People and the Growth of Parliament
[to 1485].
I3. Creighton. The Tudors and the Reformation [to 1603].
B. 1. Gardiner. The Struggle against Absolute Monarchy [to
1688].
J. Rowley. The Settlement of the Constitution [to 1778].
O. TV. Tancock.  England during the American and European
Wars [to 1820].
T. Arnold. Modern England [to 1875].
Biographies.
tAlfred the Great. By R. Pauli.t Scr. $2.00.
Id. By Thomas Hughes. [Sunday Library.] Macm. $1.75.
St. Anseli. By R. TV. Church. [Sunday Library.] Macmi. $1.75.
Id. By M. Rule. [Catholic.] 2 v. L. Paul. 32s.
Becket. Articles by J. A. Froude, Nineteenth Century, 1877.
Id. By E. A. Freeman [in reply; more favorable], Cont. Rev.,
1878.
Richard Cceur de Lion. By G. P. R. James. 2 v. Scr. $2.80.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 39


tSimon de Montfort. By R. Pauli.t L. Triibner. 6s.
Id. By G. TV. Prothero. [More a history than biography.] Longrm.
9s.
fWyclif. By G. Lechler.t 2 v. L. Paul. 21s.
Lives of English Popular Leaders. By C. E. MJaurice. 1. Stephen
Langton; 2. Tyler, Ball, Oldcastle. L. King. Each, 7s. 6d.
Historical Gleanings.  By J. E. T. Rogers. 1. Walpole, Adam
Smith; 2. Wyclif, Laud, Wilkes, Horne Tooke. Macm. 1st,
$1.50; 2d,,$1.75.
Whittington. By W. Besanf and J. Rice. [New Plutarch.] Put.
$1.00.
Sir Walter Raleigh. By E. Edwards. 2 v. Macm. $9.00:Bacon. Py J. Spedding. 2 v. Houghton. $5.00.
For the Period of the English Revolution.
Strafford. By Miss E. Cooper. 2 v. L. Tinsley. 30s.
Eliot. By J. Forster. 2 v. C. &.II 14s.
tCromwell. By Thos. Carlyle. [Letters and Speeches.] 5 v. Scr.
$18.00.
tId. By J. A. Picton. C. $2.50.
Id. By Paxton Hood. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. $1.00.
J. B. M'ozley. Essays. [Strafford, Laud, Cromwell.] 2 v. L. 24s.
Three English Statesmen. By G. Smith.   [Pym, Cromwell.] H.
$1.50.
Statesmen of the Commonwealth. By J. Forster. $2.25.
Chief Actors in the Puritan Revolution By P. Bayne. L. Clarke.
12s.
tMilton. By D. Masson. 6 v. Macm. $34.00.
Contains a minute history of the times.
W. Carstares. By R. H. Story. Macm. $3.00.
A prominent actor in the Scotch union.
Marlborough. By W. Coxe. 3 v. L. Bell. Each, 3s. 6d,




40  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


Sir R. Walpole. By A. C. Ewald. C. & H. 18s.
C. E. Stuart. By A. C. Ewald. 2 v. C. & H. ~1 18s.
Lord Shelburne. By Lord E. Fitzmaurice. 3 v. Macm. 16s.
IC. J. Fox. By G. O. Trevelyan. H. $2.50.;William Pitt. By Earl Stanhope. H. $2.50.
Id. By Goldwin Smith. [Three English Statesmen.]   H. $1.50.
Lord Campbell. Lives of the Chief Justices. 4 v. L. & B. $7.00.
Id. Lives of the Chancellors. 10 v. L. & B. $17.50.
Mrs. A. Strickland. Lives of the Queens of England. 6 v. Lip.
$12.00.
A. C. Ewald. Representative Statesmen. [Strafford to Palmerston.]
2v. C. & H. ~14s.
C. A. Sainte-Beuve. English Portraits.t Holt. $2.00.
D. 0. Maddyn. Chiefs of Parties. [Fox, Pitt, etc.] 21s.
History of Religion.
tR. W. Dixon. History of the Church of England. 2 v. Routledge. Each, 16s.
The most thorough and important work; not yet completed.
TJ. H. Blunt. The Reformation of the Church of England. 2 v.
N.Y. Young. $8.50.
The best complete history; extends from 1514 to 1662. From the
point of view of the Church of England.
J. J. Blunt. Sketch of the Reformation in England. Young. $1.50.
An excellent short sketch.
Cunningham Geikie.   The English Reformation: How it came
about, and why we should uphold it. App. $2.00.
A popular and rather one-sided work.
W. Cobbett. History of the Protestant Reformation in England
and Ireland. N.Y. Sadlier. 75 cents.
A violent attack upon the English Reformation, by a nominal
Protestant. For the Catholic view, see Lingard and Spalding.
F. Seebohm. The Oxford Reformers. Longrn. 14s.
Diocesan Histories [Canterbury, Durham, etc.]. Soc.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 41


Constitutional History.
W. Stubbs. Constitutional History of England. 3 v. Macm. $7.80.
$H. IHallam. Constitutional History of England. 3 v. N.Y. Armstrong. $5.25.
T. E. May. Constitutional History of England. 2 v. N.Y. Armstrong. $2.50.
These three works form a connected series, Hallam beginning
1485, where Stubbs ends, and ending 1760, where May begins.
Sheldon Amos. Fifty Years of the English Constitution. L. & B.
T.P. Taswell-Langmead. Constitutional History of England. $7.50.
The best compendium of the subject.
P. V. Smith. History of English Institutions. Lip. $1.50.
A good short work, with a peculiar arrangement.
E. A. Freeman. Growth of the English Constitution. Macr. $2.00.
H. Adams [and others].  Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law. L. & B.
$4.00.
M3. M. Bigelow.  History of Anglo-Norman Procedure.  L. & B.
$5.00.
Sir Jas. Stephen. History of the Criminal Law of England. 3 v.
Macm.
See also the following articles: by J. E. T. Rogers, on The Black
Death, Fortn. Rev., 1866; the Peasants' War, id.; History of
Rent in England, Cont. Rev., April, 1880; by F. Seebohm, on
The Black Death, Fortn. Rev., 1865-66; by Grant Allen, Are we
English? in Fortn. Rev., Oct., 1880 [presenting Celtic argument]; by F. Harrison, on Law of Treason, in Fortn. Rev.,
Sept., 1882; by Goldwin Smith, on the Greatness of England, in
Cont. Rev., Dec., 1878; by F. Seebohm, Historical Claims of
Tenant Rights, in 19th Cent., Jan., 1881; also on Land Tenures
in England and in Ireland, in Fort. Rev., 1870; by R. D. Osborn,
Another Side of a Popular Story [India], in Fort. Rev., Aug.,
1882.




42  HISTORICAL LITERATURE ANID AUTHORITIES.


Authorities.:J. Bass Mullinger. Authorities [in English History for Students].
N.Y. Iolt. $1.80.
A compendious view of the principal authorities.
tC. K. Adams. Questions and Notes on English Constitutional
History. Ann Arbor. Sheehan.
A complete and accurate guide to the authorities. A less full
guide will be found in Prof. Short's Reference Lists, referred to
elsewhere.
Jas. Gairdner. Early Chroniclers of Europe. England. Soc. $1.20.
An interesting account of the English chronicles. Translations
of most of the chronicles will be found in Bohn's Library. Bell.
Froissart's Chronicles [fourteenth century]. N.Y. Leavitt & Allen.
$12.00.
J. E. T. Rogers. Loci e libro veritatis. Macm. $2.75.
Belongs to the fifteenth century.
Id. The Paston Letters. 4 v. L. Arber.
A collection of family letters, of the time of the War of the
Roses.
D'Ewes' Autobiography and Correspondence. 2 v. L. Bentley.
~1 8s.
The Fairfax Correspondence. 4 v. L. Bentley. ~3.
S. Pepys. Diary and Correspondence. Scr. $2.00.
J. Evelyn. Diary and Correspondence.    Scr. $1.75.
These two works present a vivid picture of society in the last
half of the seventeenth century.
H. Walpole. Letters. 9 v. Scr. $33.75.
Full of information for the middle of the eighteenth century.
Cobbett's Parliamentary History, continued in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates.
Rymer's Foedera [collection of treaties].
The publications of the Master of the Rolls.
The publications of the Camden Society, and similar societies.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 43


12. HISTORY OF FRANCE.:F. Guizot. History of France.t  8 v. $40.00.
Handsomely illustrated. The best large history of France in
English.
4G. TV. Kitchin. History of France. 3 v. Macm. $7.80.
The best English work.
H. TV. Jervis. Student's History of France. H. $1.25.
An excellent small work, with instructive illustrations.
J. Michelet. History of France. 2 v.t  App. $4.00.
Very learned, and very brilliant, but too abounding in theory.
F. Guizot and G. Masson. Concise History of France.t    E. & L.
$3.00..P. Lacombe. The Growth of a People.t   Holt. $1.00.
An admirable work, descriptive of the development of the nation.
Parke Godwin. History of France. Vol. I. H. $3.00.
An excellent history of the period before Charlemagne. No
other volumes were published.
H. Martin. History of France (during the reigns of Louis XIV.
and Louis XV.).   3 v.t  B. E. & L. $16.50.
Martin's is considered the best history of France.
Sir Jas. Stephen. Lectures on the History of France. H. $3.00.
An admirable commentary upon French history.
Miss C. M. Yonge. History of France.   [Freeman's Hist. Series.]
Holt. 80 cents.
F. Guizot. St. Louis and Calvin. [Sunday Library.] Macm.
D. F. Jamison. Life and Times of Bertrand du Guesclin. 2 v.
Lip. $14.00.
Janet Tuckey. Joan of Arc. Put. [New Plutarch.] $1.00.
Harriet Parr. Life and Death of Jeanne d'Arc. 2 v. S. & E. 6s.
T. Willert. The Reign of Louis the Fourteenth. Put. $1.50.
Sft. M. Baird. History of the Rise of the Huguenots. 2 v. Scr.
$5.00.
The best history of the subject.
W. Besant. Coligny and the Failure of the French Reformation.
[New Plutarch.] Put.




44  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


Duc d'Aumale. History of the Princes of the House of Condee. 2 v.
L. Bentley. 30s.
L. Ranke. Civil Wars and Monarchy in France.t     H. $1.50.
Lady Jackson. The Old Regime. Holt. $2.25.
A vivid picture of society under Louis XV.
Duc de Broglie. The King's Secret (Louis XV.).t 2 v. C. $5.00.
Has special reference to Polish affairs.
G. Masson. Early Chroniclers of Europe. France. Soc. $1.20.
Memoirs of Commines (Louis XI.), Sully (Henry IV.), and others.
Revolutionary Period, etc.
A. Young. Travels in France during the Years 1787-89. 2 v.
The best contemporary picture of the condition of France before
the Revolution.
A. de Tocqueville. The Ancient Regime.f    H. $1.50.
An analysis of the political condition of France at the same time.
C. D. Yonge. Life of Marie Antoinette. H. $2.50.
A popular work.
H. Vizetelly. Story of the Diamond Necklace. Scr. $2.25.
A vivid picture of society under the Old Regime. See also
Carlyle's essay upon the same subject.
C. K. Adams. Democracy and Monarchy in France. Holt. $2.50.
An excellent sketch of recent French history.
H. A. Taine. The Ancient Regime.f     Holt. $2.50.
Id. The French Revolution. 2 v.t    Holt. $5.00.
Not so much history as commentary; very unfavorable to the
revolutionists.
tH. V. Sybel. History of the French Revolution. 4 v.t M. 48s.
The best and most important history.
I'. Carlyle. History of the French Revolution. 3 v. Scr. $2.40.
Remarkable for graphic power.
Edmund Burke. Reflections on the French Revolution.
A bitter attack upon the revolution while still in progress;
replied to by -
Sir Jas. Mackintosh. Vindiciae Gallicae.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 45


A. Thiers. The French Revolution.t 4 v. App. $8.00.
Id. The Consulate and Empire.t    5 v. Claxton. $12.50.
Thiers' works are written from an intensely French point of
view. His excessive laudation may be balanced by -
Sir A. Alison. History of Europe from 1789 to 1815. 8 v. H.
$16.00.
Strongly Tory.
4P. Lanfrey. History of Napoleon I. 4 v.t Macm. $12.50.
An incomplete work. Impartial in tone, but severe in judgment.
See also Channing's article on Napoleon Bonaparte.
W. Hazlitt. Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 3 v. Lip. $4.50.
Perhaps the best English work favorable to Napoleon.
H. Van Laun. The French Revolutionary Epoch. 2v. App. $3.50.
Comes down to 1870, but is much fullest in the earlier parts.
C. A. Fyffe. History of Europe (beginning 1879).    2 v. Holt.
Vol. I., $2.50.
tMrs. B. 31. Gardiner. French Revolution. [E.S.] E. & L. $1.00.
Presents the results of the latest scholarship.
W. 0. Morris. The French Revolution and First Empire. [E.S.]
Scr. $1.00.
Valuable for an admirable bibliography by Hon. A. D. White.
J. Wilson. Studies of Modern Mind and Character. Longm. 20s.
Contains some excellent essays on French revolutionary history.
W. F. P. Napier. History of the War in the Peninsula. 5 v. N.Y.
Armstrong. $7.50.
Earl Stanhope. The French Retreat from Moscow. M. 7s. 6d.
This volume contains other valuable historical essays.
C. Adams. Great Campaigns [1796-1820]. Ed. Blackwood. 6s.
C. C. Chesny. Waterloo Lectures. Longm. 10s. 6d.
Dorsey Gardner. Quatre-Bras, Ligny, and Waterloo. Houghton.
$5.00.
The best popular history of this campaign.
Louis Blanc. History of Ten Years. 1830-40. L. ~1 6s.
By a radical republican.
A. de Lamartine. History of the Revolution of 1848. Scr. $1.40.
Lamartine was at the head of the provisional government.




46  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


Memoirs of Mad. de Remusat.t    (1802-8.)  App. $2.00.
A graphic picture of the court of Napoleon, by one of Josephine's
maids of honor.
Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand and Louis XVIII. (1814-15.)
Scr. $1.00.
Especially in relation to the Congress of Vienna.
13. SPECIAL HISTORIES.
fThe following series of works (Lip.) form   a connecting link
between medieval and modern history: -
J. F. Kirk. History of Charles the Bold. 3 v. Lip. $9.00.
W. H. Prescott. History of Ferdinand and Isabella. 3 v. Lip. $4.50.
WI. Robertson. History of Charles V. 3 v. [Edited by Prescott.]
$4.50.
W. H. Prescott. History of Philip II. 3 v. [Unfinished.] $4.50.: The following works (H.) form a good continuation:J. L. Motley. Rise of the Dutch Republic. 3 v. H. $6.00.
Id. History of the United Netherlands. 4 v. H. $8.00.
Id. John of Olden-Barneveldt. 2 v. H. $4.00.
J. Van Praet. Essays on the Political History of the 15th, 16th,
and 17th Centuries. L. Bentley.
W. lMenzel. History of Germany.t 3 v. L. Bell. $4.20.
The best large work in English.
J. Sime. History of Germany. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] 80 cents.
Bayard Taylor. History of Germany. H. $1.75.
C. T. Letois. History of Germany. II. $1.50.
Both these short histories are based upon that of Muller.
t TV. Coxe. History of House of Austria. 3 v. Bohn.
A book of great accuracy and value.
T. L. Kinsgton-Oliphant. History of Frederic II. 2 v. Macm.
A valuable contribution to the history of the thirteenth century.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 47


T. Carlyle. History of Frederick the Great. 6 v. H. $7.50.
A work of great industry, but in Carlyle's worst style, and
unduly laudatory.
Due de Broglie. Frederic the Great and Maria Theresa.t L. Low.
30s.
In the time of the First Silesian War, 1740-42.
W. Spalding. Hist. of Italy and the Italian Islands. 3 v. H. $2.25.
A good compendium; more recent isW. Hunt. History of Italy. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] Holt. 80 cts.
J. C. L. de Sismondi. History of the Italian Republics. H. 75 cts.
An abridgment of the author's large work.
tJ. A. Symonds. Age of the Despots. Holt. $3.50.
The best history of Italy in the last century of the middle ages.
With " The Revival of Learning " and " The Fine Arts " it forms
a series entitled " The Renaissance in Italy."
T. A. Trollope. History of the Commonwealth of Florence. 4 v.
Macm. $10.00.
Mrs. Oliphant. The Makers of Florence. Macm. $3.00.
Sketches of Florentine history in the close of the middle ages.
Id. Francis of Assisi. [Sunday Library.] Macm. $1.75.
R. TV. Church. Dante. Macm. $1.75.
Contains a translation of the treatise " De Monarchiat'
A. v. Reumont. Lorenzo de' Medici.t 2 v. S. & E. 30s.
A scholarly work, superseding that of Roscoe.
P. Villari. Niccolo Machiavelli and his Times. 2 v.t L. Paul. 24s.
An important contribution to the history of the 15th century.
W. R. Clark. Savonarola. Soc. 3s. 6d.
J. Burckhardt. The Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance
in Italy.t 2 v. Dodd. $7.50.
P. Colletta. History of Naples. 2 v. Ed. Edmonston. 24s.
W. C. Hazlitt. History of the Venetian Republic. 2 v. L. 28s.
J. T. Bent. Genoa. L. Paul. 18s.
An interesting work, but badly arranged.




48  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


J. A. Wylie. History of the Waldenses. C. $1.25.
A good popular work.
J. Bigelow. Molinos the Quietist. Scr. $1.25.
Episode of religious history in the seventeenth century.
Count Balzani. Early Chroniclers of Europe. Italy. Soc. $1.20.
S. A. Dunham. History of Spain and Portugal, 5 v. H. $3.75.
An old but good work.
J. A. Harrison. Spain. B. Lothrop. $1.50.
Excellent in parts, but of unequal merit.:H. Coppee. History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors.
2 v. L.& B. $5.00.
An excellent history of Spain during the middle ages.
Miss C. Al. Yonge. Christians and Moors in Spain. Macm. $1.25.
A sketch of a popular character.
J. A. Conde. History of the Arabs in Spain. 3 v. Bohn. $4.20.
An old standard work.
Life of Saint Teresa. Macm. $2.00.
E. C. Otte. Scandinavian History. Macrm. $1.50.
The best work; another is -
P. C. Sinding. History of Scandinavia. Pittsburgh. Haven. $3.50.
E. G. G  eijer. History of Sweden. L. Whittaker. Vol. I., Ss. 6d.
T. Carlyle. Early Kings of Norway. H. $1.25.
Voltaire. History of Charles XII.t  Houghton. $2.25.
With many inaccuracies in detail, a book of positive historical
merit.
4A. Rambaud. History of Russia.t 2 v. E. & L. $11.00.
A work of the highest merit.
W. R. S. Ralston. Early Russian IIistory. L. 5s.
Four lectures of great value.
Frances A. Shaw. Brief History of Russia. 0. 50 cents.
S. A. Dunham. History of Poland. L. 3s. 6d.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  49


Jas. Fletcher. History of Poland. H. 75 cents.
Hungary and its Revolutions [with life of Kossuth]. Bohn. $1.40.
H. Zschokke. History of Switzerland.t Armstrong. $1.50.
Harriet D. S. Mackenzie. History of Switzerland. B. Lothrop.
$ 1.50.
T. C. Grattan. History of the Netherlands. H. $1T00.
C. 2M. Davies. History of Holland. 3 v. L. Willis. 36s.
J. Geddes. Administration of John De Witt. Vol. I. H. $2.50.
The period of the invasion of Holland by Louis XIV.:G. Finlay. History of Greece, from its Conquest by the Romans
(B.C. 146) to the Present Time (1864). 7 v. Macm. $17.50.
A work of the highest merit and authority.
L. Sergeant.  New Greece. C. $3.50.
Sir E. Creasy. History of the Ottoman Turks. Holt. $2.50.
E. A. Freeman. The Ottoman Power in Europe. Macm. $2.00.
Freeman's view is less frie-nly than that of Creasy.
J. Blochwitz. Brief History of Turkey. 0. 50 cents.
There is a history of the Turks in Vol. II. of J. H. Newman's
Historical Sketches.
tSir W. Muir. Life of Mahomet. S. & E. 14s.
Id. Annals of the Early Caliphate. S. & E. 16s.
W. Irving. Mahomet and his Successors. 2 v. Put. $2.00.
tR. Bosworth Smith. Mohammed and Mohammedism.
E. A. Freeman. History of the Saracens. Macm. $1.50.
A book of merit, but old.
S. Ockley. History of the Saracens. Bohn. $1.40.
A fascinating narrative.
R. D. Osborn. Islam under the Arabs. Longm. 12s.
Id. Islam under the Caliphs of Bagdad. Seeley. 10s. 6d.




50  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


E. H. Palmer. Haroun al Raschid. [New Plutarch.] Put. $1.00.
A. Crighton. History of Arabia. 2 v. H. $1.50.
James Mill. History of British India. 9 v. ~2 16s.
The standard work. Excellent short ones areWW.. Hunter. Short History of India. $6.40.:J. T. Wheeler. Short History of India. Macm. $3.50.
L. J. Trotter. History of India. Soc. 10s. 6d.
R. G. Watson. History of Persia.   S. & E. 15s.
H. H. Howorth. History of the Mongols from the Ninth to the
Nineteenth Century. 3 v. $28.00.
D. C. Boulger. History of China. 2 v. L. Allen. $14.40.
-4 —
14. NINETEENTH CENTURY.
R. Mackenzie. The Nineteenth Century. L. Nelson. $1.00.
An excellent general sketch.
Memoirs of Prince Metternich.   (1773-1815.)t  2 v. Scr. $5.00.
Valuable in the diplomatic history of the time.
Sir A. Alison. History of Europe from 1815. 4 v. H. $8.00.
A work of great literary merit, written with a strong Tory bias.
Memoirs of Baron Stockmar. 2 v. L. & S. $5.00.
Baron Stockmar was a leading adviser of Prince Albert.
Cardinal Wiseman. The Last Four Popes. [Pius VII., Leo XIt.,
Pius VIII., Gregory XVI.] L. Hurst & Blackett. 5s.
G. S. Godkin. Life of Victor Emmanuel II., First King of Italy.
$2.00.
N. W. Senior. Journals Kept in France and Italy. 2 v. L. Paul.
24s.
Mr, Senior's journals and letters are full of intelligent and instructive observations upon current history.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  51


L. v. Kossuth. Memoirs of My Exile. App. $2.00.
Francis Deak: an Hungarian Statesman. Macm. $3.00.
Chas. de Mazade. Cavour. Put. $3.00.
tJ. R. Seeley. Life of Stein. 2 v. R. $7.50.
Id. Life of E. M. Arndt. R. $2.25.
Id. Lectures and Essays. Macm. 10s. 6d.
Jos. Mazzini: His Life and Writings. Houghton. $1.75.
J. G. L. Hezekiel. Prince Bismarck. Fords. $3.50.
J. Klaczko.  Two Chancellors.   [Bismarck and Gortschakoff.]
Houghton. $2.00.
W. Bagehot. Biographical Studies. Longm. 12s.
Lord Stratford de Redcliffe. The Eastern Question. M. 9s.
A. W. Kinglake. The Invasion of the Crimea [1854]. 4 v. H.
$8.00.
H. M. Hozier. The Seven Weeks' War. [1866.] Macm. $2.00.
A. Borbstaedt and F. Dwyer.  The Franco-German War [1870].
L. Asher. 21s.
A military history; popular illustrated works are -
Edmund Oilier. The Franco-German War. 2 v. C. $7.50.
Id. The Russo-Turkish War. 2 v. C. $8.00.
F. V. Greene. The Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey
in 1877-78. App. $6.00.
With atlas of maps.
T. W. Higginson. Brief Biographies. Put. $1.50 a vol.
1. English Statesmen. By T. W. Higginson.
2. English Radical Leaders. By I'. J. Hinton.
3. French Political Leaders. By Edw. King.
4. German Political Leaders. By Herbert Tuttle.


See also lists 11 and 12, England and France.




52  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


15. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.:Geo. Bancroft. History of the United States. 10 v. (to 1783),
$25.00; two additional vols. to 1789, $5.00.
The standard work; democratic in tone. Centenary edition (to
1783) in 6 v., $13.50; complete edition now publishing in 6 v.,
$15.00.
TR. Hildreth. History of the United States. 6 v. (to 1820). H.
$12.00.
Sound and generally accurate; Federalist in proclivities.
Geo. Tucker. History of the United States. 4 v. (to 1841). Lip.
$10.00.
A Southern view; begins with the Revolution
Wm. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay. Popular History of the United
States. 4 v. Scr. $24.00.
Handsomely illustrated. The early parts are the best.
B. J. Lossing.  Cyclopedia of United States History. 2 v. H.
$12.00.
A valuable book of reference, but badly arranged.
S. G. Drake. Dictionary of American Biography. Houghton.. J..Lalor. Cyclopadia of Political Science. 2 v. published. Ch.
Cary. Each, $6.00.
J. Winsor. Memorial History of Boston. 4 v. 0. $25.00.
A collection of monographs by various writers.
Mrs. Martha Lamb. History of New York. 2 v. Barnes. $20.00.
A work of very great merit.
J. C. Ridpath. Popular History of the United States. Cincinnati.
Jones. $3.00.
The best history of an intermediate size.
S. Eliot. History of the United States (to 1850). B. Ware. $1.35.
Very judicious and accurate, but dry.
J. A. Doyle. History of the United States. [Freeman's Historical
Series.] Holt. $1.00.
An excellent English work.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 53


R. Mackenzie. America. L. Nelson. $1.00.
Another good English work, embracing all America.
J. T. Short. Historical Reference Lists. Columbus. Smythe. 40 cts.
Chiefly having reference to American history.
J. T. Short. North Americans of Antiquity. H. $3.00.
The best book upon the ethnology, etc., of the Indians.
J. W. Foster. Prehistoric Races of the United States. Ch. Griggs.
$3.00.
The best work upon American archaeology.
G. E. Ellis. The Red Man and the White Man. L. & B. $3.50.
F. A. Walker. The Indian Question. $1.50.
G. W. Manypenny. Our Indian Wards. Cincinnati. Clarke. $3.00.
Mrs. Jackson (H. H.).  A Century of Dishonor. H. $1.50.
IH. H. Bancroft. Native Races of the Pacific States. 5 v. San
Francisco. Each, $4.50.
A cyclopedia of information.
H. R. Schoolcraft. Indian Tribes of the United States. 6 v. Lip.
$75.00.
Contains much information, with much useless matter.
G. W. Williams. History of the Negro Race in America. 2 v.
Put. $7.00.
Colonial Period. 1607 to 1763.
Jas. Grahame. History of the United States of North America.
4v. L. ~2 10s.
A fair and friendly English account, reaching 1776.
E. D. Neill. The English Colonization of America. L. 14s.
Of especial value for the Middle States.
$H. C. Lodge. Short History of the English Colonies. H. $3.00.
An excellent compendium, arranged by colonies.
tJ. A. Doyle. English Colonies in America. Vol. I. Holt. $3.50.
Vol. I. contains the Southern colonies. It is a very good work.
F. F, Charlevoix. History of New France.t 6 v. N.Y. $45.00.




54  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


tF. Parkman. France and England in North America. 7 v. L. & B.
Each, $2.50.
1. The Pioneers of France in the New World.
2. The Jesuits in North America.
3. The Discovery of the Great West.
4. The Old Regime in Canada.
5. Count Frontenac and New France.
The Conspiracy of Pontiac. 2 v.
A series of the highest excellence.
T. Mante. History of the Late War in North America. L. 1772.
An authentic account of the French and Indian war.
tJ. G. Palfrey. History of New England. 4 v. L. & B. $14.50.
The best history of New England.
Massachusetts and her Early History. L. & B.
An instructive series of lectures by different persons.
Peter Oliver. The Puritan Commonwealth. L. & B. $2.50.
Hostile to the Puritans.
J. H. Trumbull. The True Blue Laws of Connecticut and New
Hlaven, and the False Blue Laws, invented by the Rev. Samuel
Peters. Hartford.
JR. Frothingham. Rise of the Republic. L. & B. $3.50.
A history of the growth of the sentiment of union.
E. G. Scott. The Development of Constitutional Liberty in the
English Colonies of America. Put. $2.50.
tJ. G. Shea. Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley.
$6.00.
Indispensable to the student of western history.
R. Blanchard. Discovery and Conquests of the Northwest. Ch.
MacCoun. $3.00.
Mrs. Anne Grant. Memoirs of an American Lady. Albany. Munsell.
$3.00.
A graphic picture of life in Albany before the revolution.
See also articles by T. W. Higginson, John Fiske, and Edw. Eggleston
in Harper's Monthly and the Century for 1882 and 1883.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 55


Revolutionary Period.  1763 to 1789.
tJ. Winsor. Handbook of the American Revolution. Houghton.
$1.25.
An exhaustive list of authorities.
J. M. Ludlow. The War of American Independence. E. & L. $1.00.
An English work belonging to the Epochs Series.:G. W. Greene.   Historical View of the American Revolution.
Houghton. $1.50.
An instructive series of lectures.
Id. The German Element in the War of Independence. Houghton.
$1.50.
tB. J. Lossing. Field-book of the Revolution. 2 v. H. $14.00.
A description of the battle-fields, etc.
H. B. Carrington. Battles of the Revolution. Barnes. $6.00.
By an army officer; with plans of battle-fields, etc.
Thos. Jones. New York during the Revolutionary War. 2 v. App.
$15.00.
By a Tory; its unfairness shown by H. P. Johnston.
L. C. Draper.   King's Mountain and its Heroes.    Cincinnati.
Thomson. $4.00.
A valuable monograph.
W. L. Stone. Border Wars of the American Revolution. 2 v. H.
$1.50.
C. W. Butterfield. The Washington-Irvine Correspondence. Madison (Wis.). Atwood.
An important work for the history of the North-west.
W. H. Trescot. Diplomacy of the Revolution. App. 75 cents.
A. S. Bolles. Financial History of the United States. (1774-1860.)
2 v. App. $6.00., $G. T. Curtis. History of the Constitution. 2 v. H. $6.00.
L. Sabine. History of the American Loyalists. 2 v. L. & B. $7.00.
A work of great merit and value.
v Familiar Letters of John and Abigail Adams. Houghton. $2.00.




56  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


Period of the Republic.
J. B. McMaster. History of the People of the United States. App.
$2.50.
Only one vol. published; gives special attention to social history.
Jas. Schouler. History of the American Republic. Washington.
Morrison. $5.00.
Two volumes published, reaching 1817.
W. R.I Houghton. Hist. of American Politics. Indianapolis. Neely.
With numerous illustrative diagrams.
A. W. Young. The American Statesman. N.Y. Goodspeed. $5.00.
Contains a good summary of congressional debates, etc.
E. Williams. Statesman's Manual. N.Y.
tAlex. Johnston. History of American Politics. Holt. $1.00.
A brief compendium of high merit.
J. Marshall. Life of Washington. 2 v. Ph. Claxton. $6.00.
Contains the best political history of Washington's administration.
W. H. Trescot. Diplomatic History of the Administrations of
Washington and Adams. L. & B. $1.25.
fH. von Holst.  Constitutional History of the United States. Ch.
Callaghan. $11.50.
The three volumes published reach 1850.
H. Adams. Documents Relating to New England Federalism.
$4.00.
Throws much light upon the history of the party.
B. J. Lossing. Field-book of the War of 1812. H. $7.00.
G. W. Cullum. Campaigns of the War of 1812-15. N.Y. Miller.
$5.00.
By an army officer.
R. Johnson. History of the War of 1812. Dodd, Mead, & Co. $1.25.
A shorter and popular work.
Theodore Roosevelt. The Naval War of 1812. Put. $2.50.
An accurate and impartial account.
R. S. Ripley. The War with Mexico. 2 v.
W. G. Sumner. History of American Currency. Holt. $3.00.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.  57


The First Century of the Republic. 1876. H. $5.00.
A valuable collection of essays surveying the period.
T. H. Benton. Thirty Years in the United States Senate. 2 v.
App. $6.00.
Covering the period from 1821 to 1851.
Nathan Sargent. Public Men and Events. 2 v. Lip.
Reminiscences from 1817 to 1883; Whig in tone.
H. Wilson. History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power. 3 v.
Houghton. Each, $3.00.
W. H. Prescott. History of the Conquest of Mexico. 3 v. Lip.
$11.50.
Id. History of the Conquest of Peru. 2 v. Lip. $3.00.
A. Helps. The Spanish Conquest of America. 4 v. H. $6.00.
C. A. Washburn. History of Paraguay. 2 v. L. & S. $7.50.
See also Carlyle's article on Dr. Francia.
C. R. Markham. The War Between Peru and Chili, 1879-82.
N.Y. Worthington.
The Civil War.
TComte de Paris. History of the Civil War. 3 v. published. Ph.
Porter & Coates. $3.50 a -vol.
The best history of the war, so far as completed.:Campaigns of the Civil War. Scr. $1.00 per vol.
1. J. G. Nicolay. The Outbreak of Rebellion.
2. M. F. Force. From Fort Henry to Corinth.
3. A. S. Webb. The Peninsula.
4. J. C. Ropes. The, Army under Pope.
5. F. W. Palfrey. The Antietam and Fredericksburg.
6. A. Doubleday. Chancellorsville and Gettysburg.
7. H. M. Cist. The Army of the Cumberland.
8. F. V. Greene. The Mississippi.
9. J. D. Cox. The Campaign of Atlanta.
10. Id. The March to the Sea.
11. G. E. Pond. The Shenandoah Valley in 1864.
12. A. A. Humphreys. The Campaigns of Grant in Virginia.




58  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


The Navy in the Civil War. Scr. $1.00 per vol.
1. J. R. Soley. The Blockade and the Cruisers.
2. Daniel Ammen. The Atlantic Coast.
3. A. T. M1Iahan. The Gulf and Inland Waters.
These fourteen small vols. are all by persons specially qualified
to write upon their subjects, and form an admirable condensed
history of the war.
Supplementary volumes:F. Phisterer. Statistical Record of the Armies of the United
States.
A. A. Humphreys. Gettysburg to the Rapidan.
J. W. Draper. History of the American Civil War. 3 v. H. $10.50.
With an introduction upon the influence of physical causes upon
American history.
H. Greeley. The American Conflict. 2 v. Hartford. Case. $10.00.
Jeff. Davis. Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. 2 v.
App. $10.00.
A. H. Stephens. Constitutional View of the Late War between the
States. Nat. Pub. Co. $5.50.
These two volumes, by the president and vice-president of the
Confederacy, present the Southern view. See also -
E. A. Pollard. The Lost Cause. N.Y. Treat. $5.00.      and
J. E. Johnston. Narrative of Military Operations. App. $5.00.
A. Badeau. Military History of U. S. Grant. 3 v. App. $12.00.
W. T. Sherman. Memoirs. 2 v. App. $5.50.
W. Swinton. Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac. N.Y.
Richardson. $4.00.
For original documents:The War of the Rebellion. Published by Congress.
Frank Moore. The Rebellion Record. 12 v. Put.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


59


Histories of the States.*
Maine. By W. D. Williqmson. 2 v. Hallowell. $9.00.
New Hampshire. By Jeremy Belknap. 3 v. B. $7.50.
Vermont. By Zadock Thompson. Burlington. $4.50.
Massachusetts. By J. S. Barry. 3 v. B. $8.50.
Rhode Island. By S. G. Arnold. 2 v. App. $6.00.
Connecticut. By B. Trumbull. 2 v. New Haven. $9.00.
Id. By G. I. Hollister. 2 v. New Haven. $5.00.
New York. By J. R. Brodhead. 2 v. H. $6.00.
New Jersey. By J. 0. Raum. 2 v. Ph. Potter. $6.00.
Pennsylvania. By Robert Proud. 2 \. Ph. $12.00.
Id. By W. H. Egle. Harrisburg. $5.50.
Maryland. By J. L. Bozman. 2 v. Baltimore. $5.00.
Virginia. By R. R. Howison. 2 v. Richmond. $6.00.
North Carolina. By J. W. Moore. 2 v. Raleigh. $5.00.
South Carolina. By D. Ramsay. 2 v. Charleston. $4.00.
Id. By W. G. Simms. N.Y. Redfield. $2.25.
Georgia. By W. B. Stevens. 2 v. Ph. $5.00.
Florida. By G. R. Fairbanks. Lip. $2.50.
Alabama. By A. J. Picket. 2 v. Charleston. $7.50.
Mississippi. By J. F. H. Claiborne. Jackson. 2 v. $7.00.
Louisiana. By C. Gayaire. 3 v. N.Y. $12.00.
Texas. By H. Yoakum. 2 v. N.Y. Redfield. $8.00.
Tennessee. By J. G. M. Ramsey. Lip. $2.50.
Kentucky. By Humphrey Marshall. 2 v. Frankfort. $14.50.
Ohio. ByJas. W. Taylor. [Unfinished; ends 1787.] Cincinnati.
$6.00.
Id. By J. S. C. Abbott. Detroit. $4.00.
Indiana. By John B. Dillon. Indianapolis. $3.00.


* For this selected list I am principally indebted to Mr. D. S. Darrie,
Librarian of the Wisconsin Historical Society.




60  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


Illinois. By A. Davidson and B. Stuve. Springfield. $5.00.
Michigan. By Jas. V. Campbell. Detroit. $4.50.
Id. By J. H. Lanman. H. 75 cents.
Minnesota. By E. D. Neill. Minneapolis. $2.50.
Wisconsin. By W. B. Smith. [Unfinished.] Madison.
Kansas. By D. W. Wilder. Topeka. $5.00.
Missouri. By W. F. Switzler. St. Louis. Barns. $2.50.
California. By Franklin Tuthill. San Francisco. Bancroft.
Oregon. By W. H. Gray. Portland. $4.00.:American Commonwealths. Houghton.
Virginia. By John Esten Cooke.
History of the Pacific States. By H. H. Bancroft [now publishing].
San Francisco. Bancroft.
Biographies.
George Washington. By W. Irving. 5 v. Put. $5.00.
Alexander Hamilton. By J. T. Morse. 2 v. L. & B. $4.50.
John Adams. By J. Q. and C. F. Adams. Lip. $2.00.
Thomas Jefferson. By H. S. Randall. 3 v. Lip. $9.00.
Id. By Jas. Parton. Houghton. $2.00.
Benjamin Franklin (autobiography). By J. Bigelow. 3 v. Lip.
$7.50.
Id. By Jas. Parton. 2 v. Houghton. $4.00.
General N. Greene. By G. W. Greene. 3 v. Put. $12.00.
Israel Putnam. By I. N. Tarbox. Lockwood, Brooks, & Co. $2.50.
F. W. Steuben. By Fred Kapp. H.
f Patrick Henry. By W. Wirt. Ph. Claxton. $1.50.
Timothy Pickering.  By O. Pickering and C. W. Upham. 4 v.
L. & B. $14.00.
James Madison. By WT. C. Rives. 3 v. L. & B. $10.50.
John Jay. By Wm. Jay. H.
Gouverneur Morris. By Jared Sparks. L. & B.
William Pinkney. By Henry Wheaton. $1.25.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 61


Albert Gallatin. By H. Adams. Lip. $5.00.
George Cabot. By H. C. Lodge. L. & B. $3.50.
Aaron Burr. By Jas. Parton. 2 v. Houghton. $4.00.
Andrew Jackson. By Jas. Parton. 3 v. Houghton. $6.00.
Daniel Webster. By G. T. Curtis. 2 v. App. $4.00.
Josiah Quincy. By Edmund Quincy. 0. $3.00.
W. L. Garrison. By 0. Johnson. B. Russell.
W. H. Seward. By F. W. Seward. App. $4.25.
Charles Sumner. By E. L. Pierce. 2 v. R. $6.00.
James Buchanan. By G. T. Curtis. 2 v. H.
Abraham Lincoln. By H. J. Raymond. N.Y. Derby. $1.50.
Id. By C. G. Leland. [New Plutarch.] Put. $1.00.
Library of American Biography. Edited by Jared Sparks. 10 v.
H. $12.50.
Theodore Parker. Historic Americans. [Washington, Jefferson,
Franklin, Adams.] B. Fuller. $1.50.
TAmerican Statesmen. Houghton. Per vol., $1.25. Contains: -
Alexander Hamilton. By H. C. Lodge.
J. Q. Adams. By J. T. Morse.
J. C. Calhoun. By H. von Holst.
Andrew Jackson. By W. G. Sumner.
John Randolph. By H. Adams.
James Monroe. By D. C. Gilman.
Thomas Jefferson. By J. T. Morse.
Daniel Webster. By H. C. Lodge.
See also the next list.
Authorities.
W. Bradford. History of the Plymouth Plantation. $2.25.
Alex. Young. Chronicles of Plymouth.
Id. Chronicles of Massachusetts. 2 v. $5.00.
Records of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay.
Edited by J. W. Thornton.




62  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


John Winthrop. History of New England. 1630-49. 2 v. $5.00.
By the first governor of Massachusetts.
Thos. Hutchinson. History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
$4.00.
The author was lieutenant-governor of the colony, and a strong
Tory.
Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New
York. 11 v. Albany. Published by the State.
American Archives. Edited by Peter Force.
American State Papers.
Congressional Documents, etc.
Elliot's Debates [of the Constitution]. 5 v. Lip. $12.50.
Annals of Congress.
Archaeologia Americana.
T. H. Benton. Abridgment of Debates of Congress. 1789-1856.
16 v. App.
The Federal and State Constitutions, etc. Compiled by B. P. Poore.
Washington. 1878.
Treaties and Conventions, etc. Washington. 1871.
Life and Writings of George Washington. 12 v. H. $18.00.
Life and Works of John Adams. 10 v. L. & B. $30.00.
Works of Alexander Hamilton. 7 v. N.Y. Trow. $21.00.
Letters and Other Writings of James Madison. 4 v. Lip. $16.00.
Writings of Thomas Jefferson. 9 v. Lip. $23.50.
Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin. 10 v. Ch. $20.00.
Papers of James Madison. 4 v. Ph. $16.00.
Works of Daniel Webster. 6 v. L. & B. $18.00.
Life and Works of John C. Calhoun. 6 v. App. $15.00,
Works of Henry Clay. 6 v. $18.00.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 63


16. SELECTED LIST OF HISTORICAL NOVELS, POEMS, AND PLAYS,
ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY.
A. Lang. Helen of Troy. (Poem.)
W. Morris. Jason. (Poem.)
Id. The Earthly Paradise.
A collection of poems narrating Greek and German legends.
C. Kingsley. Andromeda. (Poem.)
A. C. Swinburne. Atalanta in Calydon. (Poem.)
B.C.
15th century.-Ebers. Uarda [Rameses II.].
6th century.-Id. Daughter of an Egyptian King.
5th century.-Landor. Pericles and Aspasia.
2d century.- Ebers. The Sisters.
1st century.- Shakespeare. Julius Cesar (Drama).
A.D.
1st century.-J. F. Clarice. Thomas Didymus.
Philochristus. Onesimus.
Bulwer. The Last Days of Pompeii.
2d century. —Ebers. The Emperor [Hadrian].
Cardinal Newman. Callista.
Cardinal Wiseman. Fabiola [The Catacombs].
3d century.- Mrs. Htunt. The Wards of Plotinus.
W. Ware. Zenobia. Aurelian.
4th century. —Ebers. Homo Sum [330, Sinai].
V. Rydberg. The Last Athenian [361].
5th century.- C. Kingsley. Hypatia [Alexandria].
Wilkie Collins. Antonina, or the Fall of Rome.
8th century.- G. Freytag. Our Forefathers: Ingraban.
10th century. - Scheffel. Ekkehart [The Monks of St. Gallen].
Taylor. Edwin the I air (Drama).
11th century.-Bulwer. Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings.
Kingsley. Hereward, the Last of the English.
12th century.- Scott. The Betrothed. The Talisman. Ivaihoe.
Lessing. Nathan the Wise (Drama).




64  HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.


12th century. - The Luck of Ladysmede.
E. E. Hale. In his Name [Waldenses].
13th century. —Shakespeare. King John (Drama).
C. Kiingsley. The Saints' Tragedy.
G. P. R. James. Forest Days [Simon de Montfort].
Mrs. Hemans. The Vespers of Palermo (Drama).
14th century. - Schiller. Wilhelm Tell (Drama).
Bulier. Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes.
Taylor. Philip van Artevelde (Drama).
Shakespeare. Richard II. (Drama).
15th century. —Id. Henry IV., V., VI. Richard III. (Dramas).
Schiller. Die Jungfrau von Orleans (Drama).
Scott. Fair Maid of Perth. Quentin Durward.
Anne of Geierstein.
Bulwer. The Last of the Barons [Warwick].
C. Reade. The Cloister and the Hearth.
Geo. Eliot. Romola [Savonarola].
16th century. - Shakespeare. Henry VIII. (Drama).
Scott. Marmion. Lady of the Lake. Lay of the Last
Minstrel (Poems). - The Monastery. The Abbot. Kenilworth.
Kingsley. Amyas Leigh, or Westward Ho!
Schiller. Maria Stuart (Drama).
Goethe. Egmont (Drama).
17th century. -Scott.  Fortunes of Nigel.  Legend of Montrose.
Woodstock. Peveril of the Peak. Old Mortality.
- Rokeby (Poem).
Manzoni. The Betrothed [Milan, 1628].
Schiller. Wallenstein (Drama).
Shorthouse. John Inglesant.
Browning. Strafford (Drama). The Ring and the
Book (Poem).
Ainsworth. Old Saint Paul's.
Auerbach. Spinoza.
Blackmore. Lorna Doone.
18th century.- Thackeray. Henry Esmond. The Virginians.
Scott. Rob Roy. The Heart of Midlothian. Waverly.
Redgauntlet.




HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 65


18th century. - Browning. King Victor and King Charles (Drama).
Dickens. Barnaby Rudge (1780).
LMiss Burney (3Mad. D'Arblay). Evelina.
Revolutionary epoch: —
Victor Hugo. Ninety-three. Les Miserables.
Mrs. Gaskell. Sylvia's Lovers.
Geo. Eliot. Adam Bede.
Blackmore. The Maid of Sker. Alice Lorraine.
Dickens. Tale of Two Cities.
Erckmann-Chatrian.  The. States General.  The
Country in Danger. Madame Therese. Year
One. Citizen Bonaparte.
Miss Roberts. On the Edge of the Storm. Noblesse
Oblige.
Fritz Reuter. In the Year Thirteen.
Erckmann-Chatrian. The Conscript. The Invasion
of France. The Siege of Phalsburg. Waterloo.
American History.
17th century.- Longfellow. The Courtship of Miles Standish.
Hlawthorne. The Scarlet Letter.
Paulding. The Dutchman's Fireside.
Miss Sedgwick. Hope Leslie.
Whittier. Mogg Megone.
18th century.- Simms. The Yemassee (S.C., 1715).
Longfellow. Evangeline (Poem).
Mrs. Stowe. The Minister's Wooing.
J. E. Cooke. The Virginia Comedians.
Cooper. Leather-Stocking Tales.
Revolution.- Cooper. The Spy. The Pilot.
Kennedy. Horseshoe Robinson.
Winthrop. Edwin Brothertoft.
Simms. The Partisan, etc.




PART II.


BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING IN CONNECTION
WITH CLASS WORK.*
1. GENERAL HISTORY.
E. Clodd. The Childhood of the World. App. 75 cents.
Id. The Childhood of Religions. App. $1.25.
Designed to give children correct notions of primeval times.
J. Bonner. Child's History of Greece. 2 v. H. $.50.
id. Child's History of Rome. 2 v. H. $2.50.
Mirs. C. H. B. Laing. The Seven Kings of the Seien Kills.  Ph.
Porter & Coates. $1.00.
Id. The Heroes of the Seven Hills. Ph. Porter & Coates. $1.25.
These two hooks contain the legends of early Roman history.
Chas. Dickens. Child's History of England. $1.00.
J. Bonner. Child's History of England. II.
S. hR. Gardiner. English Iistory for Young Folks. Holt. $1.00.
A work of the greatest soundness and accuracy.
r L. Creighton. Stories from English History. L. Whittaker.
J. R. Green. Readings in English History. Macm. $1.50.
Sir TV. Scott. Tales of a Grandfather.
Stories from Scotch and French history.
Sarah Brook. French History for English Children. Macm. $2.00.
An admirable book with good maps.
Miss C. S. Kirkland. Short IHistory of France. Ch. Jansen. $1.50.
S. Lanier. The Boys' Froissart. Scr. $3.00.
A selection of the best stories from the prince of chroniclers.
Belt and Spur. Scr. $2.00.
Stories from the mediaeval chronicles; excellently illustrated.


* In this list I have derived much assistance from "Books for the
Young," by Miss C. M. Hewins of the Hartford Library.




BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING.


67


G. 3I. Toowle. Heroes of History. [Marco Polo, Vasco da Gama,
Magellan, Pizarro, Drake, Raleigh.] L. & S.
An excellent series of biographies. Each, $1.25.
Historical Biographies. Rivington. Each, $1.00: -
Simon de Montfort. By M. Creighton.
The Black Prince. By L. Creighton.
Sir Walter Raleigh. By L. Creighton.
Marlborough. By L. Creighton.
M. J. Guest. Lectures on English History. Macm. $1.50.
Good for young people above the age of children.
Mrs. M. E. Green. The Princesses of England. 6 v. Each, 10s. 6d.
The Young Folks' History. E. & L. Each, $1.50. Includes:-. America. By H. Butterworth.
Russia. By N. H. Dole.
Queens of England. By Rosalie Kaufman.
Mexico. By F. A. Ober.
England, Germany, France, Greece, Rome, and Bible History.
By Miss Yonge.
A. J. Church. The Last Days of Jerusalem. L. Seeley. $2.00.
J. Abbott. Biographies of Famous Persons (about thirty in all). H.
Each, $1.00.
Brooke Herford. The Story of Religion in England. Ch. Jansen.
$1.50.
Thos. Archer. Decisive Events in History. C. $1.75.
Handsomely illustrated.
Mrs. H. R. Haweis. Chaucer for Children. L. Chatto & Windus.
$2.25.
Id. Spenser for Children. $3.75.
Beautifully illustrated; instructive for manners, costumes, etc.




68      BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING


2. AMERICAN HISTORY.
N. Hawthorne. True Stories. [Grandfather's Chair, etc.] Houghton. $1.00.
The early history of New England.
C. C. Coffin. Old Times in the Colonies. H. $3.00.
Id. The Boys of '76. H. $3.00.
Id. The Building of the Nation. H. $3.00.
Id. The Boys of '61. H. $3.00.
A handsomely illustrated series of works.
E. Eggleston.  Famous American Indians.    [Montezuma, Pocahontas, etc.]  N.Y. Dodd, Mead, & Co. Each, $1.25.
M.Schele de Vere. Romance of American History. Put. $1.25.
J. D. Champlin. Young Folks' History of the War for the Union.
Holt. $2.75.
An excellent book, well illustrated.
' J. Bonner. Child's History of the United States. 3 v. H. $3.75.
Mrs. A. S. Richardson. History of Our Country. Houghton. $4.50.
T. W. Higginson. Young Folks' History of America. L. & S. $1.50.
Bonner's is designed for younger children than the others;
Mrs. Richardson is superior in narration; Higginson in completeness of view.
Id. Young Folks' History of Explorers. L. & S. $1.50.
- C. H. Woodman. Boys and Girls of the Revolution. Lip. $1.25.
J. K. Hosmer. The Color Guard. B. Fuller. $1.50.
Id. The Thinking Bayonet. B. Fuller. $1.75.
Belong to the war of the rebellion.
C. K. True. Life of Captain John Smith. N.Y. Phillips & Hunt.
$1.00.
Centenary History of the United States. N.Y. Barnes. $5.00.
An excellent family history.




IN CONNECTION WITH CLASS WORK.


69


3. MYTHS AND LEGENDS.
5N. Hawthorne. Wonder-book. Houghton. $1.00.
Id. Tanglewood Tales. Houghton. $1.00.
Tell the story of several Greek myths in a charming manner.
Chas. Kingsley. The Heroes. Macm. $1.50.
The Greek heroic legends.
Thos. Bulfinch. The Age of Fable. L. & S. $2.50.
A new edition, well illustrated, edited by Rev. E. E. Hale.
C. Witt. Classical Mythology. Holt. $1.25.
Not a complete mythology, but a collection of legends, with
their explanation.
A. J. Church. Stories from Homer. L. Seeley. $2.00.
Id. Stoiies from- Virgil. $2.00.
Id. Stories from the Greek Tragedies. $2.00.
Id. Stories [of the East] from Herodotus. $2x.00.
Id. Stories from Livy. $2.00.
Id. Stories of the Persian War. $2.00.
Id. Travellers' True Tales from Lucian. $2.00.
Id. Heroes and Kings. $2.00.
f. Frere. Eastern Fairy Legends. (Old Deccan Days.) Lip. $1.25.
A. B. Mirford. Tales of Old Japan. Macm. $2.00.
W. E. Griffis. Japanese Fairy World. $1.50.
P. W. Joyce. Old Celtic Romances. $3.00.
J. F. Campbell. Popular Tales of the West Highlands. 4 v. Ed.
Edmonston. 32s.
'W. R. S. Ralston. Russian Folk-tales. N.Y. Worthington. $1.50.
W. H. J. Bleek. Hottentot Fables. L. Triibner. 3s. 6d.
J. C. Harris. Uncle Remus. [Negro stories.] App. $1.50.
I. W. Longfellow. Hiawatha.    (Poem.)  $1.00.




0       BOOKS FORt COLLATERAL READING


Thos. Bufinch. Legends of Charlemagne. L. & S. $3.00.
Id. The Age of Chivalry. [King Arthur.] $2.50.
\  C.H. Hanson. Stories of the Days of King Arthur. L. Nelson.
$1.50.
S. Lanier. The Boys' King Arthur. Scr. $3.00.
Id. The Boys' Mabinogion.    Scr. $3.00.
Admirable collections of old legends.
J. & W. Grimm. German Popular Tales. Macm. $2.00.
G.   I. Dasent. Popular Tales from the Norse. Ed. Edmonston.
$2.50.
A. & E. Keary. Heroes of Asgard. Macm. $1.00.
*.  iWgner. Asgard and the Gods. Lip. $2.50.
Id. Epics and Romances of the Middle Ages. Lip. $2.50.
Interesting and handsomely illustrated works.
H. W. lMabie. Norse Stories retold from the Edda. R. $1.00.
R. B. Anderson. Viking Tales of the North. Ch. Griggs. $2.00.
Miss A. A. Woodwzard [Auber Forestier]. Echoes from Mist-land.
Ch. Griggs. $1.50.
A pleasing presentation of the story of the Nibelungs.
Jas. Baldwin. The Story of Siegfried. Scr. $i.00.
Id. The Story of Roland. Scr. $2.00.
F. Mallet. Northern Antiquities. Bell. $2.00.
An old but valuable work.
Sir G. W. Cox and E. H1. Jones. Popular Romances of the Middle
Ages. Holt. $2.25.
A valuable collection of legends.
S. Baring Gould. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages. Lip. $2.50.




IN CONNECTION WITH CLASS WORK.


4. TALES ILLUSTRATING HISTORY.
Miss Yonge. Historical Dramas [at several epochs].
Is.
Mirs. Charles. Early Dawn.   [A series, covering
several centuries.] $1.00.
10th century.- lmiss Yonge. The Little Duke [Richard the Fearless].
$1.25.
Crake. Edwy the Fair. Soc. $1.00.
11th century.- Id. Alfgar the Dane. Soc. $1.00.
Id. The Rival Heirs. Soc. $1.00.
Id. The Andreds-weald. [Norman conquest.] $1.00.
Edgar. Danes, Saxons, and Normans. $3.00.
12th century.-Ballantyne. Erling the Bold. [Iceland.] $1.25.
13th century.- Edgar. How I Won my Spurs. $3.00.
Miss Yonge. Prince and Page. [Edward I.] $1.25.
14th century.-Miss Aguilar. Days of Bruce. $1.00.
Miss Yonge. Lances of Linwood. [Edward III.]
75 cents.
15th century. — Miss Yonge. Caged Lion. [James I. of Scotland.]
$1.25.
Howitt. Jack of the Mill. [Henry V.] $1.75.
Edgar. War of the Roses. $1.20.
Miss Yonge. Dove in the Eagle's Nest. [Maximilian.]
1$1.00.
Miss Aguilar. Yale of Cedars. $1.00.
16th century.- Mrs. Charles. Sch6nberg-Cotta Family. [Luther.]
$1.00.
Miss Manning. Household of Sir Thomas Moore.
$1.00.
Id. The Faire Gospeller. $1.00.
Id. Colloquies of Edward Osborne. [Edward VI.]
75 cents.




72     BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING.


16th century. -Miss M~anning.  Good Old Times.    [Auvergne,
1549.] 7s. 6d.
Alrs. Charles. The Martyrs of Spain. [1561.]$125
Id. The Liberators of Holland.
3lissYonye. Chaplet of Pearls. [Charles IX.] $1.50.
Id. Unknown to History. [Mary Queen of Scots.]
$1.50.
17th century.-lMarryat. Children of the New Forest. $1.25.
JMrs. Davis. Diary of Lady Willoughby. $3.00.
Miss Manining. Married and Maiden Life of Mary
Powell [wife of John Milton]. $1.00.
~Macdonald. St. George and St. Michael. $1.50.
Mars. Charles. The Draytons and Davenants. $1.00.
Id. On Both Sides of the Sea [continuation]. $1.00.
Miss Manning. Cherry and Violet. $1.00.
Id. Deborah's Diary. Is.
Id. Jacques Bonneval. [The Dragonnades.] 75 cts.
Henty. The Cornet of Horse. $1.50.
18th century. - Mrs. Charles. Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevylyan. $1.00.
Miss Manning. Old Chelsea Bun-house. is.
Miss Mlartineau. Peasant and Prince. [Louis XVII.]
50 cents.
Mliss Tytler. Citoyenne Jacqueline. $2.00.
Mrs. Charles. Against the Stream. [Wilberforce.]
$1.00.
19th century.-Miss Yonge. Kenneth. $1.00.
Henty. The Young Buglers. [Peninsular war.]
$2.25.
Miss Manning. The Year Nine. [Andreas Hofer.]
7s. 6d.




PART III.


SCHOOL     TEXT-BOOKS.
1. GENERAL HISTORY.
W. Swinton. Outlines of History. $1.66.
J. J. Anderson. New General History: 1. Ancient; 2. Modern.
N.Y. Clark & Maynard. $1.92.
Marcius Willson. Outlines of History. N.Y. Ivison. $1.66 and
$2.49.
Miss Emma Willard. Universal History. N.Y. Barnes. $1.87.
S. G. Goodrich [Peter Parley]. Pictorial History of the World.
Ph. Butler. $1.46.
Miss ~M. E. Thalheimer. Outline of General History. Cincinnati.
Van Antwerp. $1.40.
M. J. Kerney. Compendium of Ancient and Modern History.
Baltimore. Murphy. $1.25.
Swinton's is the most successful general history for schools;
Anderson and Thalheimer are compendious but bare; Willson
and Miss Willard are larger works; Kerney is Catholic.
R. H. Labberton. Outlines of History, $2.00. - Questions on History, $1.75.- Historical Atlas. Ph. Claxton. $3.50.
An original and admirable method of instruction, but too extensive for most schools.
W. F. Collier. Great Events of History. N.Y. Barnes. $1.40.
An excellent outline, but in too fine type.
A. Gilman. First Steps in General History. Barnes. $1.25.
A short and agreeable outline.
E. A. Freeman. History Primer of Europe. App. 45 cents.




74


SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS.


2. ANCIENT HIISTORY.
Miss JMi. E. Thaiheimer.    Ancient History.   Cincinnati.  Van
Antwerp & Co. $1.87.
- An excellent work, but too large for most schools.
Brief History of Ancient Peoples. N.Y. Barnes. $1.17.
Accurate and interesting; well suited to the school-room.
R. F. Pennell. Ancient Greece. B. Allvn. 60 cents.
Id.  Rome. B. Allyn. 60 cents.
Good and accurate compendiums.
History Primers. Edited by J. R. Green. App. Each, 45 cents.
Greece. By C. A. Fyffe.
Rome. By MI. Creighton.
Classical Geography. By H. 1F. Tozer.
Old Greek Life. By J. P. Jlfahaffy.
Roman Antiquities. By A. S. Wilkins.
0. Seeman. Mythology of Greece and Rome. H. 60 cents.
E. ill. Berens.  Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece.       N.Y.
Clark & Maynard. $1.08.
Seeman's is best in connection with the history of art; Berens',
for interest of narrative.
Classical Atlas. B. Ginn & Heath. $2.30.
Students' Atlas of Classical Geography. Put. $1,50.
Johnston's Wall-maps of Classical and Scriptural Geography. B.
Ginn, Heath, & Co. 10 maps, $5.00 each.
Guyot's Classical Wall-maps. Scr. 3 maps, $35.00.
3. MODERN HISTORY.
Brief History of Modern Peoples. N.Y. Barnes. $1.17.
3Miss iM. E. Tialheimer. Mediaeval and Modern History. $1.87.
Id. History of England. $1.17.
The best history of England for common schools.




SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS.


75


David Morris. Class-book History of England. App. $1.25.
A larger work, also excellent; well illustrated.
Miss Annie Wall. History of England. St. Louis. Jones. $1.00.
A good short work.
E. M. Lancaster. Manual of English History. N.Y. Barnes. $1.17.
Well written, and provided with good apparatus.
W. M. Lupton. Concise English History. R. $1.50.
Crowded with names and dates; very useful for reference.
Mrs. Markham. History of England. App. $1.30.
A well-known English school-book.
Brief History of France. N.Y. Barnes. $1.17.
A book of great merit.
J. Micielet. Modern History. Macm. $1.10.
Excellent, but too crowded with names and dates.
Students' Atlas of Historical Geography. Put. $1.50.
C. S. Halsey. Chronological and Genealogical Chart of the Rulers
of England, Scotland, France, and Germany. B. Ginn, Heath,
& Co. 55 cents and $1.10.
There are no wall-maps of Modern History, except the German ones
of Bretschneider.
4. AMERICAN HISTORY.
D. B. Scott. School History of the United States. H. 80 cents.
Excellent, especially for arrangement.
J. C. Ridpath. History of the United States. Cincinnati. Jones.
$1.00, $1.50, $3.00.
Illustrated with serviceable diagrams.
J. J. Anderson. Pictorial School History of the United States.
N.Y. Clark & Maynard. $1.44.
Well arranged and illustrated, but dry.
Marcius Willson. History of the United States. N.Y. Ivison. $1.25.
A work of solid merit, but rather heavy.




76


SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS.


Emma Willard. History of the United States. N.Y. Barnes. 88 cts.
An interesting work, rather too detailed.
C. A. Goodrich. History of the United States of America. B. Ware.
$1.30.
Well adapted to nemoriter recitation.
B. J. Lossing. Outline History of the United States. N.Y. Sheldon.
$1.11.
Entertaining and well illustrated; too crowded with detail.
G. P. Quackenbos. Illustrated School History of the United States.
App. $1.25.
Very well written, but poorly arranged.
Miss M. E. Thalheimer. Eclectic History of the United States.
Cincinnati. Van Antwerp. $1.17.
With very good maps and illustrations.
Excelsior Studies in the History of the United States. N.Y. Sadlier.
$1.25.
A Catholic work; also has excellent maps.
A. H. Stephens. Compendium of the History of the United States.
N.Y. Hale. $1.50.
From a Southern point of view.
J. W. Leeds. History of the United States of America. Lip. $1.54.
Especially full in the history of civilization.
Several of these authors have more than one work, adapted to
schools of different grades. Besides these, there are smaller
works: -
Brief History of the United States.  N.Y. Barnes. $1.17.
Well arranged and written.
W. IL. Venable. History of the United States.  Cincinnati. Van
Antwerp & Co. $1.00.
A good book, with excellent maps.
A. B. Berard.  School History of the United States. Ph.     Cowperthwait. $1.10.
A book of great merit, written in an interesting style.




SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS.                       77
S. G. Goodrich. Pictorial History of the United States. Ph. Butler.
$1.46.
Entertaining, but badly arranged.
L. J. Campbell.  Concise School History of the United States. B.
Ware. 87 cents.
Based upon the work of C. A. Goodrich.
W. Swinton. Condensed School History of the United States.
N.Y. Ivison & Co. $1.04.
A brief skeleton of events.
J. C. Martindale. History of the United States. Ph. Eldredge. $1.17.
Of the same general character.
Primer of United States History. N.Y. Armstrong. 50 cents.
With very good historical maps.
E. Abbott. Paragraph History of the United States. 50 cents.
Id. Paragraph History of the American Revolution. 50 cents.
J. J. Anderson. United States Reader. N.Y. Clark & Maynard.
$1.30.
Well-selected extracts from historians, poets, and orators, illustrating the history of the United States.
L. H. Porter. Outlines of the Constitutional History of the United
States. Holt. $1.50.
Contains many valuable and interesting documents.








HISTORY TOPICS.
ANCIENT HISTORY.
I. ORIENTAL PERIOD, TO B.C. 500.
1. Egypt and Palestine. —a. The Mediterranean system of
lands. b. The valley of the Nile (with map). c. The early empire;
the 4th and 12th dynasties. d. The Hyksos. e. The 18th and
19th dynasties. f. The 26th dynasty. g. The Hebrew monarchy.
Solomon, B.C. 1000. h. The kingdoms of Israel and Judah. - i. The
exodus of the Israelites. k. ZEthiopia. - Map: The Mediterranean
sea; the Orient; B.c. 1500.
2. The Orient.- a. The Chaldean empire. b. The Assyrian
empire. c. Babylon. d. Media. e. Asia Minor; the kingdom of
Lydia. f. Cyrus; the Persian empire.   g. Darius Hystaspes;
n.c. 500. h. Phoenicia; Tyre and Sidon. - i. Cyprus. k. Armenia.
1. Cambyses in Egypt. — Map': B.c. 650 and 600.
II. GRECIAN PERIOD. B.C.. 500-300.
3. Greece. -a. The geography and races of Greece. b. The
Greek colonies.  c. The Spartan hegemony.   d. The Persian
invasion.  e. The Athenian empire; the -age of Pericles. f. The
Peloponnesian war. g. Epaminondas; the hegemony of Thebes.
h. Philip of Macedon.- i. The return of the Heraclidae. k. Themistocles. I. The battle of Marathon; of Salamis; of Leuctra.
m. The peace of Antalcidas, B.C. 387.- Map: Greece; the Orient;
B.C. 500.
4. The Macedonian Empire. - a. Alexander; the conquest of
Persia. b. The expedition to India. c. Greece after Alexander.
d. The Achaean league.  e. The kingdom of Pergamus. f. The
Seleucidse; the kingdom of Syria. g. The Ptolemies in Egypt;
Lagidse. h. The Parthian empire; Arsacide. —i. The battle of
Ipsus, B.C. 301. k. The 2Etolian league. I. Agis and Cleomenes.
-Map: B.C. 275.




80                   HISTORY TOPICS.
III. ROMAN PERIOD. B.C. 300 TO CHRISTIAN ERA.
5. Italy.-a. The geography and races of Italy.   b. The
Etruscans. c. MIagna Graecia. d. Rome under the kings. e. The
hegemony of Rome in Latium. f. The capture of Rome by the
Gauls, B.C. 390.  g. The Latin war, B.c. 340.  h. The Samnite
wars. i. The war with Pyrrhus. -. The 2Equians and Volscians.
1. The conquest of Veii.  m. The Caudine Forks; B.C. 321. -
Map: Italy; B.C. 500 and 275.
6. The Conquest of the World. -a. Carthage and the First
Punic vtar.. The Second Punic war; Hannibal. c. The Macedonian wars. d. The war with Antiochus. e. The conquest of
Spain. f The wars of Pompey in the East. g. The conquest of
Gaul.  h. The Social war, B.C. 90. —i. The battle of Cannae;
of Cynoscephalae. k. The Ligurians. 1. The Ilyrians. m. The
Numidians. n. The Maccabees. - Map: B.c. 200 and 100. List
of the provinces in the order of their acquisition.
IV. ROMAN EMPILE. THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO A.D. 500.
7. The Early Empire. - a. The civil war of Caesar and Pompey.
b. The Second Triumvirate.  c. Augustus; the Empire; B.C. 27.
d. The wars with the Germans. e. The conquest of Britain. f The
destruction of Jerusalem, A.D. 70. g. Trajan; A.D. 100. hi. Marcus Aurelius, d. 180. - i. Relations with Parthia. k. Mauretania.
1. The defeat of Varus by Arminius, A.D. 9. —Map: B.c. 27;
A.D. 14 and 100. Genealogy of the family of Augustus.
8. The Later Empire.- a. Septimius Severus; A.D. 200.
b. Diocletian; A.D. 300.  c. Constantine the Great, d. 337. d.
IHonorius; A.D. 400.  c. The new Persian empire; Sassanidae.
f. Palymra; Zenobia. g. The battle of Hadrianople, 378. h. The
Alemanni.-zi. Aurelian, d. 275. k. Julian the Apostate, d. 363.
1. Theodosius the Great, d. 395.  m. Constantinople. - Map:
A.D. 350 and 400.
9. The Migrations of the Barbarians.- a. The Visigoths
(West Goths); Alaric, d. 412. b. The Vandals; Genseric, d. 477.
c. The Burgundians. d. The Angles and Saxons. e. Attila and




TMEDIEVAL HISTORY.8


81


the Huns. f. Odoacer; the fall of the Empire, 476. g. Theodoric
the Ostrogoth (East Goth), d. 526. h. The Lombards; Alboin, 568.
-i. Stilicho, d. 408. k. The battle of the Peoples (Chalons), 451.
I. The GepidEe. - Map: 420 and 476. List of the barbarian kingdoms in the order of their settlement.
MEDI}EVAL HISTORY.         A.D. 500-1500.
I. TaHE FRANK PERIOD. A.D. 500-900.
10. The Merovingian House. —a. Clovis; A.D. 500. b. Justinian and his conquests.  c. The Slavs and Avars.   d. Pope
Gregory the Great; A.D. 600. e. Heraclius, d. 641. f. Mohammed
and his successors. g. The Ommeyades, 661. h. Austrasia and
Neustria. i. The hegemony of Northumbria. - k. Belisarius, d. 565.
1. Penda of Mercia, d. 655. m. The Scots and Picts.- Map: 510
and 565.
11. The Carolingian House; A.D. 752.- a. Pipin of Heristal;
A.D. 700. b. Leo the Isaurian, d. 741. c. The battle of Tours, 732.
d. The kingdom of the Asturias. e. The Abassides, 750. f. Charles
the Great; A.D. 800. g. The treaty of Verdun, 843. h. The Normans. i. Alfred the Great; A.D. 900. — k. The hegemony of Mercia.
1. Egbert of Wessex, d. 836. mi. Harold Haarfager, d. 936. n. The
kingdom of Scotland.- M]ap: A.D. 750 and 843. Genealogy of the
Carolingian house.
II. PERIOD OF GERMAN ASCENDENCY. A.D. 900-1250.
12. The Saxon House; A.D. 919.-a. Otto the Great; emperor, 962. b. The kingdom of Burgundy. c. The Capetian house,
987. d. St. Stephen of Hungary; A.D. 1000. e. The Macedonian
dynasty. -f. The Russian monarchy. g. The Fatimites in Egypt.
i. The Danish conquest of England, 1016.- i. Gorm the Old of
Denmark, d. 936. k. St. Olaf of Norway. I. The kingdom of Bulgaria. m. The Saracens in Sicily.- Map: A.D. 1000. Genealogy
of the Saxon house.




82


HISTORY TOPICS.


13. The Franconian House; A.D. 1024.- a. Henry IV. of Germany; A.D. 1100. b. Pope Gregory VIL, d. 1086. c. The Norman
conquest of England, 1066.  d. The Norman conquests in Italy.
e. Alfonso VI. of Castile, and the Cid. f. The Almoravides in Spail.
g. The Seljukian Turks. h. The first crusade, 1096. —i. Sancho
III., the Great, of Navarre, d. 1035. k. The States of North Africa.
1. The Concordat of Worms, 1122.-!Map: The countries about the
Mediterranean; A.D. 1100. Genealogy of the Franconian house.
14. The Swabian House (Hohenstaufen); A.D. 1138. —
a. A contest with the Welfs. b. The Lombard league. c. The
kingdom of Sicily; 1130. d. The third crusade, 1189. e. The fourth
crusade, 1204. f. Pope Innocent III.; A.D. 1200. g. The house
of Plantagenet; 1154. h. The kingdom of Portugal; 1139.- i. The
Almohades in Spain. k. The second crusade, 1147. I. The mark
of Brandenburg.?m. The duchy of Austria. a. Henry the Lion.
-M3ap: Germany; A.D. 1138; Europe; A.D. 1200. Genealogy of
the Welfs,
15. The Great Interregnum; A.D. 1250. —a. Frederic II.,
d. 1250. b. Rudolf of Hapsburg, d. 1291. c. Ottocar II. of Bohemia, d. 1278. d. St. Louis of France, d. 1270. e. Ferdinand III.
of Castile, d. 1252. f. The Teutonic knights. g. The Albigensian
crusade. h. Genghis Khan, d. 1227.- i. The seventh crusade, 1270.
k. Iceland.- Map: Spain in 1050 and 1250. Genealogy of the
Hohenstaufen.
III. PERIOD OF FRENCH ASCENDENCY. A.D. 1250-1500.
16. The Fourteenth Century, to 1328. —a. Philip IV., the
Fair; A.D. 1300. b. The house of Anjou in Naples. c. Venice.
d. Genoa.  e. The Popes at Avignon. f. The independence of
Scotland. g. The Swiss confederacy. h. Casimir the Great of
Poland, d. 1370. i. Louis the Great of Hungary, d. 1382. —k. The
conquest of Wales. 1. Henry VII. in Italy. m. Louis IV. and
John XXII. - Mp: Germany; A.D. 1300. Genealogy of the house
of Anjou.
17. The Hundred Years' War, to 1360.-a. The house of
Valois.  b. The treaty of Bretigny, 1360.  c. The Jacquerie.
d. The house of Luxemburg in Germany. e. The house of Palme



MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.


83


ologus in Constantinople. f. The Ottoman Turks. g. Tamerlane,
d. 1405. h. The duchy of Milan.- i. Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, d. 1354. k. Stephen Dushan of Servia, d. 1356. —Map:
France in the 14th century. Genealogy of the house of Valois.
18. The Great Schism; A.D. 1378. - a. The rival "obediences," Rome and Avignon. b. The council of Constance, 1414.
c. The Hussite wars. d. The civil wars of Armagnac and Burgundy. e. Henry IV. of England; A.D. 1400. f. Joan of Arc, d.
1431. g. The Hanseatic league, 1360. h. The union of Calmar,
1397.- i. Philip van Artevelde, d. 1382. k. The battle of Agincourt, 1415. I. Pedro the Cruel of Castile, d. 1369. m. The battle
of Nicopolis, 1396. - Map: 1400. Genealogy of descendants of
John II. of France.
19. The Fifteenth Century, to 1483.- a. Louis XI., d. 1483.
b. The duchy of Burgundy. c. Charles the Bold, d. 1477. d. The
wars of the Roses.   e. The capture of Constantinople, 1453.
f. The revival of learning. g. The discovery of the East Indies.
7. The invention of printing. -. John Hunyady of Hungary,
d. 1456. A. Scanderbeg, d. 1467.  1. The kingmaker Earl of
Warwick, d. 1471.-3Map: The east of Europe. Genealogy of
descendants of Edward III.
20. The End of the Middle Ages, to 1517.- a. Ferdinand'
and Isabella; A.D. 1500. b. The house of Aragon in Naples.
c. The Italian expedition of Charles VIII., 1494. d. Florence.
e. The house of Tudor, 1485. f. The league of Cambrai, 1508.
g. Ivan the Great of Russia, d. 1505. h. The discovery of America, 1492. - i. Pope Alexander VI., d. 1503. kA. Francesco Sforza,
d. 1466. 1. Gonsalvo di Cordova, d. 1515. m. The Holy League,
1512. - Map: Italy in the 15th century. Genealogy of Charles V.
(his parents and grandparents).
MODERN HISTORY.         FROM 1500.
I. PERIOD OF RELIGIOUS WARS.     1500-1650.
21. The Reformation Period, 1517-55. —a. The Ladies'peace
[of Cambrai], 1529.  b. The peace of CAteau-Cambresis, 1559.
c. The Schmalkaldic league. d. The peace of Augsburg, 1555.




84


HISTORY TOPICS.


e. The duchy of Prussia. f. The house of Austria. g. The knights
of St. John. h. Gustavus Wasa; king, 1523.- i. The battles of
Marignano and Pavia. k. The field of the cloth of gold, 1520.
1. The sack of Rome, 1527. m. Andrea Doria, d. 1560. n. The
seizure of the three bishoprics, 1552. o. The battle of Mohacs,
1526. p. The duchy of Florence, 1531.- Map: 1500.
22. The Spanish Supremacy; to 1598.-a. The revolt of
the Netherlands, 1572. b. The Invincible Armada, 1588. c. The
Huguenot wars, 1562-72.   d. The war of the Henries, 1585.
e. The annexation of Portugal, 1580. f. Pope Sixtus V., d. 1590.
g. Mary Queen of Scots, d. 1586. h. Henry IV. of Prance; A.D.
1600, —i. The battle of Lepanto, 1571.  k. Sir Philip Sidney, d.
1586. 1. Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, d. 1592. m. Ivan
the Terrible, d. 1584. n. The edict of Nantes, 1598. - Map of the
Spanish possessions. Genealogy of the house of Tudor.
23. The Thirty Years' War; to 1648. —a. The Cleve succession. b. The war in Bohemia. c. Gustavus Adolphus, d. 1632.
d. Wallenstein, d. 1634. e. The peace of Westphalia, 1648. f. Cardinal Richelieu, d. 1642. g. The English revolution. h. The house
of Romanof. - i. The Donauworth affair, 1607. k. The independence of the Netherlands, 1609. I. The war with La Rochelle.
in. The independence of Portugal, 1640. n. The colonization of
America. o. Transylvania. - Map: 1648.
II. PERIOD OF DYNASTIC WARS.
24. The Age of Louis XIV.; to 1697.-a. Louis XIV.;
A.D. 1700. b. The peace of the Pyrenees, 1659. c. The treaty of
Nymwegcn, 1678. d. The treaty of Ryswick, 1697. e. The English revolution of 1688. f. Frederick William, the Great Elector,
d. 1688. g. The treaty of Oliva, 1660. h. The treaty of Carlowitz, 1699.-i. The invasion of the Netherlands, 1672. k. The
devastation of the Palatinate, 1688.  1. The triple alliance; Sir
William Temple, 1668. m. John Sobieski, d. 1696. n. The war
of the Fronde. — ap: The countries about the Baltic, 1660.
Genealogy of the house of Stuart.
25. The Eighteenth Century; to 1763.- a. The treaty of
Utrecht, 1713. b. The pragmatic sanction. c. The treaty of Aix



MODERN HISTORY.


85


la-Chapelle, 1748. d. The treaties of Paris and Hubertsburg, 1763.
e. Charles XII. of Sweden, d. 1718. f. Peter the Great of Russia,
d. 1725. g. Frederick the Great of Prussia, d. 1786. I7. The
English empire in India. - i. Cardinal Alberoni, d. 1752. k. The
quadruple alliance. I. The family compact. n. The treaty of
Vienna, 1738.  n. The treaty of Nystadt, 1721. o. The kingdom
of Prussia, 1701. p. The kingdom of Sardinia, 1720. - Mal): The
east of Europe, 1750. Genealogy of the Spanish succession.
III. REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD.
26. The French Revolution; to 1799. —a. The first parti.
tion of Poland, 1772.  b. The national assembly, 1789. c The
declaration of Pilnitz, 1791.  d. The legislative assembly, 1791.
e. The national convention, 1792. f. The first coalition, 1793.
g. The second and third partitions of Poland, 1793 and 1795.
h. The peace of Basle, 1795. -i. Count Mirabeau, d. 1791. k. The
battle of Valmy, 1792. 1. The American revolution. n. Catherine II. of Russia, d. 1796.- Mcap: Europe in 1789. Genealogy of
the house of Romanof.
27. The Wars of Napoleon; to 1815.-a. Napoleon Bonaparte; A.D. 1800. b. The armed neutrality, 1800. c. The treaty
of Luneville, 1801. d. The peace of Presburg, 1805. e. The confederation of the Rhine, 1806. J. The peace of Tilsit, 1807.
g. The peace of Sch6nbrunn, 1809. h. The peace of Vienna, 1815.
-- i. The duchy of Warsaw and kingdom of Poland. k. Napoleon's
continental system.  I. The French annexations in their order.
-Map: 1800;,1810.
28. The Period of Peace, 1815-1848.- a. The holy alliance,
1815.  b. The French revolution of 1830. c. The kingdom of
Belgium, 1831. d. The kingdom of Greece, 1831. e. The extinguishment of Poland, 1831. f. Mehemet Ali, d. 1849. g, The
war of the Sonderbund, 1846.- h. The opium war, 1840. i. The
Afghan war, 1839-41. lD. The French occupation of Algiers, 1830.
I. Prince Metternich, d. 1859. -  ap: Europe in 1820. Genealogy of the Bourbons.
29. The Second Empire; to 1870.- a. The French revolution of 1848. b. The Hungarian revolution.  c. The Crimean




86


IHISTORY TOPICS.


war, 1854. d. The Sepoy revolt, 1857. e. The Italian war, 1859.
f. The Schleswig-Holstein war, 1861. g. The seven weeks' war,
1866. h. Count Cavour, d. 1861. i. The revolution in Rome.
k. The revolution in Venice.  I. The Greek revolution, 1862.
m. The Mexican empire, 1863.- Mlap: Italy in 1850 and 1870.
30. The German Empire. - a. The Franco-Prussian war, 1870.
b. Prince Bismarck.  c. The Turko-Russian war, 1876. d. The
Afghan war, 1878.   e. The Greek question. f. The Spanish
republic, 1873.  g. The Egyptian troubles, 1882. —h. The Abyssinian war, 1867.  i. The Zulu war, 1878.  k. The French in
Tunis, 1881. 1. The Dalmatian revolt, 1882. -Map: Germany i
1860, 1866, and 1871.
AMERICAN HISTORY
INTRODUCTION.
1. The Discovery of America.- a. The fifteenth century;
formation of States. b. The renaissance. c. The great discoveries and inventions. d. Commerce with the East in the middle ages.
e. The Portuguese navigators. f. The voyages of Columbus.
g. The Cabots.
2. Relation of American to European History. - a. 16th
cent.; rivalry between Spain, France, and England.  b. 17th
cent.; ascendency of France and Holland. c. Thirty years' war;
rise of Sweden. dl. The Puritan revolution in England.  e. The
revolution of 1688. f. 18th cent.; rivalry of France and England.
g. The French encyclopaedists.  h. Reaction of America upon
Europe.  i. Federalist and republican sympathies.
3. Spanish Explorations and Colonies within the Limits of
the United States.- a. De Soto's expedition, 1539.  b. Coronado's expedition, 1540.  c. Cabrillo's expedition, 1542. d. explorations and settlements in Florida.
4. French Settlements in North America. -a. Cartier's
discoveries. b. The Huguenots in Carolina.  c. The settlement
of Acadia, 1604.  d. Champlain's discoveries and settlements.
e. The discovery of the Mississippi, 1673.




AMERICAN HISTORY.


87


PERIOD OF COLONIZATION. 1607-1688.
5. Virginia and Maryland. - a. The London company and
the Virginia charter. b. The Maryland grant. c. The government of Virginia. d. Bacon's rebellion, 1676. e. The controversy
with Clayborne. f. The nature of proprietary government. g. The
Puritan revolution in Maryland.
6. The Dutch Colonies.- a. The Dutch land grants. b. The
Jerseys.  c. The Pennsylvania boundary.   d. New  Sweden.
e. The controversy with Connecticut.  f. The nature of the
royal province.
7. New England.- a. Patents and charters in New England.
b. The settlement of Massachusetts bay. c. The nature of charter
government. d. Territorial history of Maine and New Hampshire.
e. The New England confederacy. f. The Indian wars. g. The
Quakers in Massachusetts. h. The blue laws of Connecticut.
8. The Southern Colonies. —a. Locke's plan of government.
b. The colonization of Georgia. c. The Huguenot refugees.
9. Chronological Review of the Period. -a. Order of settlement of the colonies. b. Map of the colonies in 1688. c. History
of religious toleration.
PERIOD OF COLONIAL LIFE. 1688-1763.
10. New   France and Florida.-a. Extent of French and
Spanish occupation. b. Wars of Count Frontenac. c. The North
American Indians.
11. The Revolution of 1688.-a. The new charter of Massachusetts. b. Leisler's rebellion.  c. Salem witchcraft.  d. Sir
Edmund Andros.
12. King William's and Queen Anne's Wars. —a. The war
of the Spanish succession. b. The treaty of Utrecht, 1713. c. Sir
William Phips, d. 1695. d. The changes in colonial government.
13. Wars of George II. —a. The seven years' war. b. The
treaty of Paris, 1763. c. Hostilities in 1754 and 1755. d. The
campaign of 1758. e. The conquest of Canada. f. Franklin's
plan of union, 1754. g. The conspiracy of Pontiac, 1763,




88                   HISTORY TOPICS.
14. Review of the Period.-a. MIap of the colonies in 1763.
b. Nationalities in the colonies.  c. Education.  d. Industry.
e. Slavery.. Literature. g. Church organizations.
REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 1763-1789.
15. 1763 to 1770.- a. The navigation acts and writs of assistance. b. The stamp act, 1765. c. The congress of 1765. d. Acts
of Grafton's administration, in relation to America. e. Troubles
in New York. f. Affairs in the South. g. The British administrations. h. James Otis, d. 1783.
16. 1770 to 1774.-a. Lord N6rth's financial acts and the
Boston tea-party.  b. The acts of parliament of 1774.  c. The
Continental congress of 1774. d. The Boston massacre, March 5,
1770.  e. The burning of the Gaspe, June 10, 1772. /. Patrick
Henry, d. 1799. g. Samuel Adams, d. 1803.
17. 1775. —a. The acts of congress.  b. Hostilities down to
June. c. The battle of Bunker Htill, June 17. d. The expedition
to Canada. e. George Washington, d. 1799.
18. 1776. —a. Acts of independence and union. b. The siege
of Boston. c. Military operations about New York. d. Washington in New Jersey. e. The military organization.
19. 1777.-a. Burgoyne's expedition.  b. The occupation of
Philadelphia. c. The operations in the South, 1774-77. d. The
Conway cabal. e. The finances of the war. f. The treaty with
France, Feb. 6, 1778. g. Benjamin Franklin, d. 1790.
20. 1778 and 1779. —a. The battle of Moanmouth, June 28,
1778. b. Sullivan's expedition against the Six Nations, 1778. c. The
expedition of George Rogers Clark, 1779. d. The capture of Stony
Hook, July 15, 1779. e. The operations about Savannah. f. John
Paul Jones, d. 1792.
21. 1780. -. The battle of Camden, August 16. 6. The battle
of King's Mountain, October 7.  c. The capture of Charleston,
May 12. d. Arnold's treason.
22. 1781.- a. The battle of Cowpens, January 17. 1. Greene's
retreat, and the battle of Guilford, March 25. c. Campaign of
Gen. Greene after Guilford.  c. Campaign of Lord Cornwallis.
e. The siege of Yorktown. f. Marquis Lafayette, d. 1834.




AMERICAN HISTORY.                     89
23. Close of the War.-a. The armed neutrality.    b. The
treaty of peace. c. The Newburgh addresses. d. The formation
of state governments. e. The cession of the public lands.
24. The Confederacy, 1781-89.-a. The articles of confederation. b. The financial troubles.  c. Shay's rebellion. d. The
ordinance of 1787. e. The formation of the constitution.
25. The Constitution.-a. The distinctive features of the
constitution.  b. The establishment of the new  government.
c. Settlement and early history of Kentucky.  d. The Vermont
controversy. e. Formation of state government in Tennessee.
26. Review of the Period. —a. Hamilton's theory of government. b. Madison's theory of government. c. Luther Martin's
theory of government.  d. Party divisions at the close of the
period.
PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 1789-1876.
I. FOREIGN RELATIONS, TO 1820.
27. Washington's First Administration, 1789-93.- a. The
amendments to the constitution.  b. The legislation of the first
congress. c. Hamilton's financial policy. d. The Indian troubles.
e. A permanent seat of government.
28. Washington's Second     Administration, 1793 -97.a. Jay's treaty, 1795.  b. The French complications.  c. The
whiskey insurrection, 1794. d. Washington's farewell address.
e. Alexander Hamilton, d. 1804.
29. John Adams' Administration, 1797-1801. -a. The war
with France. b. The alien and sedition acts. c. The Virginia
and Kentucky resolutions. d. The presidential election of 1800-1.
e. The schism in the Federalist party; the Essex junto.
30. Jefferson's First Administration, 1801-5. —a. The purchase of Louisiana, 1803. b. The war with Tripoli, 1801. c. The
north-western territory. d. The amendment to the constitution.
31. Jefferson's Second Administration, 1805-9. — a. Burr's
conspiracy, 1806. b. Relations with France and England. c. The
embargo; 1807.
32. Madison's First Administration, 1809-13.-a. Causes




90


HISTORY TOPICS.


of the war of 1812.    b. The Indian hostilities; Tecumseh.
c. Naval operations in 1812.  d. Iull's surrender, August 16.
33. Madison's Second Administration, 1813-17.- a. Campaigns on the northern frontier. b. Military operations in 1814.
c. Jackson's campaigns in the South.   c. Naval operations.
e. The attack upon Washington and Baltimore. f. The Hartford convention, 1814. g. The treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814.
h. The war with Algiers, 1815.
34. Monroe's Administration, 1817-25.-a. The Missouri
compromise.  b. The purchase of Florida, 1819.  c. The Seminole war. cl. The settlement of the northern boundary.
35. Review  of the Period.- a. The era of good feeling.
b. The bank of the United States. c. Tariff legislation until 1815.
d. Foreign relations. e. Slavery and the slave-trade.
II. ECONOMIC QUESTIONS, TO 1845.
36. John Quincy Adams' Administration, 1825-29. —a. The
Panama congress and the Monroe doctrine. b. Georgia and the
Creek Indians. c. The tariff of 1828.
37. Jackson's First Administration, 1829-33. —a. Nullification.  b. The anti-Mason party.  c. Black-hawk's war, 1832.
d. The "kitchen cabinet." e. John C. Calhoun, d. 1850.
38. Jackson's Second Administration, 1833-37. —a. The
removal of the deposits. b. the anti-slavery movement. c. The
farewell address. d. The Seminole war. e. The French spoliation claims.
39. Van Buren's Administration, 1837-41. -a. The subtreasury. b. The crisis of 1837. c. The repudiation movement.
d. The affair of the Caroline.
40. Harrison and Tyler's Administrations, 1841-45.-a. The
Webster-Ashburton treaty, 1842. b. The tariff of 1842. c. The
annexation of Texas, 1845.  d. Dorr's rebellion, 1842.  e. The
Mormon troubles in Illinois, 1844. f. Daniel Webster, d. 1852.
III. THE SLAVERY CONTROVERSY, TO 1876.
41. Polk's Administration, 1845-49. — a The campaigns of
the Mexican war. b. The occupation of the Pacific coast. c. The




AMERICAN HISTORY.


91


treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1848. - d. The north-western boundary. e. The tariff of 1846. f. The Wilmot proviso.
42. Taylor and Fillmore's Administrations, 1849-53. —
a. The omnibus bill, 1850. b. The free-soil party. c. The fugitive-slave law.  d. The Japan expedition.  e. The correspondence of Webster and Hiilsemann. f. Henry Clay, d. 1852. g. The
Cuban filibusters.
43. Pierce's Administration, 1853-57.- a. The Nebraska
bill, 1854.  b. The know-nothing party.  c. The Gadsden purchase. d. Diplomatic relations with Great Britain. e. The Ostend
manifesto.
44. Buchanan's Administration, 1857-61. -a. The Kansas
question. b. The Dred Scott decision, 1857. c. The personalliberty bills. d. The Mormons in Utah. e. The acts of secession.
f. John Brown, d. 1859.
45. Lincoln's Administration; to July, 1862.- a. The peninsular campaign. b. Operations in the West until Shiloh. c. The
capture of New Orleans. d. The Merrimac and Mlonitor. e. The
arrest of Mason and Slidell. f. The national bank system.
g. The policy towards slavery. h. The constitution of the Confederacy. i. Operations on the seaboard.
46. Lincoln's Administration; July 1862, to Jan. 1864.a. Pope's campaign. b. McClellan's Antietam campaign. c. Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville.  d. Murfreesboro'.  e. Gettysburg. f. The opening of the Mississippi. g. Chickamauga and
Chattanooga. A. The emancipation proclamation.
47. Lincoln's Administration, 1864-65.-a. Grant's campaign in Virginia. b. Sherman's campaign in the South. c. Hood's
advance into Tennessee. d. The Shenandoah campaign. e. The
Confederate cruisers. f. The policy towards the seceded states.
g. The sanitary commission. h7. The Freedmen's Bureau.
48. Johnson's Administration, 1865-69.-a. Reconstruction.
b. The impeachment of the president, 1868. c. The purchase of
Alaska, 1867. d. The constitutional amendments.
49. Grant's Administration, 1869-77.- a. The Santo Domingo treaty, 1870. b. The resumption of specie payments. c. The
Geneva congress, 1872. d. The Cr4dit Mobilier.




92                    HISTORY TOPICS.
50. Review   of the Period.-a. The tariff question. b. The
slavery controversy. c. The public lands. d. The Indian policy.
e. The civil service. f. The Pacific railroad. g. The fisheries.'M1Iaps: 1688, 1763, 1783, 1803, 1820, 1850, 1876. List of the states
admitted to the union, with dates.  List of the vice-presidents,
with state, full name, and date. List of the secretaries of state,
with same.
























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