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Geller~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -A ~~~'/~~~~b~~~i~~~e~~~w r c srs a~~~~~~~~~~ss~ ~ ~~ -; —~~~~~~r~~~~;~-~~~~~,~~~,~~~-~~~~-Ami~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I` r F__4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Al N. M FIA FS Tadl~~~~cel -G-,T_ -Alo-Ezr,, Cha,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ppeiij ~~~'I~~~~-~~~-~~~" —~~~~~ —~~~~- ~ ~ r,T- ON-OF:BPLTAIN TY IT,[ c-TEEAR HISTORY OF THE W O R L D FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME. COLLECTED AND ARRPAN'GED FROM' THE BEST AUTHORITIES. BY EVERT A. DUYCKIINCK, AUTHIOR OF "NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY OF EMINENT AMERICANS," " CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LITERATURE," ETC., ETC. f Gorcum, who paintedhistorical pieces have not equally excelled in statuary and landscapes and cattle, and died in 1647; architecture. These arts have been much Cornelius Poelenburg of Utrecht, born in cultivated among the-X, hower er, of late years, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 43 BEL GIUM. B ELGIUM, as a united state, did not death the inheritance of the Low Countries exist'in the middle ages. The country devolved upon the Archduke Charles of of wlhich that kingdom has been formed, was Austria, afterwards Charles V. The relidivided into a number of fiefs, independent gious movement which then agitated Europe of and frequently at war with each other. convulsed this country, which suffered fear Amongst these fiefs may be mentioned the fully under the cruel persecutions and opduchies of Brabant, Limbourg and Luxem- pressions of Charles and his more bigoted bourg; the counties of Flanders, Hainault son Philip II. The attempt to establish the and Namur; the bishopric of LiBge; the inquisition at length roused the people to relordship of Malines, and the principality of sistance, under the leadership of Count BreStavelot. The Belgians took part in all the derode, a descendant of the ancient counts expeditions of those chivalrous times, and of Holland. The insurgents presented to fought in the plains of the East. But in spite Margaret, Duchess of Parma, to whom Philip of the frequent wars in which they engaged, had intrusted the administration of Belgium, they enriched themselves by commerce and a demand for a redress of their grievances industry. Philip the Good, Duke of ]Bur- and the restoration of their rights. To this gundy, united them under his vast power, document they gave the name of the comfprothe bishopric of Liege and the principality m'nse, which was signed by above five hunof Stavelot alone maintaining a separate ex- dred of the nobles and principal men in the istence for more than four centuries.'Under state. On the rejection of this, they drove the Burgundian dominion, the Belgians be- back the inquisitors to Spain, and religious came more and more prosperous; the bril- liberty was proclaimed. This drew down liancy of their f6tes attracted numbers of upon them the wrath of Philip, who sent cavaliers from all parts; whilst industry and the Duke of Alva, at the head of the Spanish commerce grew and prospered. troops, to reduce them to subjection. He But the proper history of this country devastated the country, erected scaffolds in does not commence till the period when it every city, and perpetrated the most cruel came into possession of the house of Austria, atrocities upon the inhabitants. At length by the marriage of the Archduke Maximil- the confederates formed an alliance with the ian, son of the Emperor Frederick III., in Prince of Orange. For many years the con1477, with MIary of Burgundy, only daughter flict was carried on between the states of the and heiress of Charles the Bold. Netherlands, under the house of Nassau, and Maximilian, when his son Phlilip had at- the house of Austria, with varying success. tained his twentieth year, resigned to him The death of Charles II. of Spain in 1700 the government of the states; and at his gave rise to a general war, which extended 4 S HISTORY OF THE WORLD. to almost every part of the world. The lations, to restore it to its ancient importdying king bequeathed his dominions to the ance. By various edicts he announced his Duke of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV., determination to curb the power of the whose ambition had roused the jealousy of priests and to resist the papal encroachthe other European states. This gave rise ments; and even ordered the suppression to the Grand Alliance. The Netherlands of some of the monasteries. These reforms, formed a part of the territory contended for, too abruptly proposed, roused the opposition and again became the theatre of bloody of the priesthood and the superstitious inhabattles and protracted sieges. The peace of bitants, but they were not excited to revolt Utrecht, concluded in April, 1713, terminat- till Joseph began to overturn the civil deed the hostilities. By this treaty the ten partments by a complete change of system. provinces of Belgium, which now assumed The assembly of the states of Brabant then the name of the Austrian Netherlands, were offered a determined opposition to his measassigned to the Emperor of Germany. ures. They refused to vote the supplies, For a considerable time after this, in con- and in 1789 published a manifesto declaring sequence of the weakness of the successors Joseph II. deposed from the sovereignty. of Philip II., Belgium was in such a state During the contests that followed, which of exhaustion, that Holland, to guard itself; were strongly marked by religious bigotry occupied the greater part of her fortresses. and fanaticism, Joseph died on the 20th The emperor had to treat with the states- January, 1791, and was succeeded by his general, and to accord to the Dutch advant- brother Leopold. ages over the Belgians, which excited the Leopold manifested much sagacity and murmurs and threats of the inhabitants moderation in his measures for the recovery both against the emperor and the states- of the revolted provinces. The states-gengeneral; and it was only by extreme sever- eral, on the other hand, occupied themselves ity and the greatest precautions that a gen- almost exclusively in attempts to re-establish eral revolt was prevented. But the pros- the monkish institutions; and having disperity which accompanied the subsequent missed their able general Van der Mersch peace reconciled the Belgian people to the on account of his alleged heresy, their army Austrian rule. became disorganized, and they had the temerThe tranquillity of the Netherlands was ity to reject with scorn the moderate overinterrupted by the war which broke out in tures of the new emperor. The army of 1743; but the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in the imperialists advanced into the provinces; 1748 re-established Maria Theresa in her town after town opened its gates, and a Belgian possessions. IHer good sense and short campaign gave the emperor quiet posgood feelings preserved her from overstep- session of the whole of the provinces. HIe ping the bounds of the ancient laws; and revoked the ordinances of his predecessor her government, which was mild and pru- which had given such offence to the clergy dent, remained popular with the people. and bigoted inhabitants, and re-established She died in 1780, and was succeeded by her the form of government on the footing on son Joseph II. which it had existed under Maria Theresa. Joseph was inaugurated with the ancient These arrangements were scarcely completed formalities, and commenced his reign under when he died, on the 1st of March, 1792. favorable auspices. Anxious to promote the His son Francis II. succeeded to the throne, prosperity of the country, he resolved to de- and under his reign the final separation of liver it from the yoke of Holland, to open the Belgian provinces from the imperial up the navigation of the Scheldt, and by family took place. the introduction of liberal commercial regu- The new emperor, soon after his accession, - HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 45 found himself involved in the war with Europe, and promulgated to the world, revolutionary France, which ended in the'"that Holland, placed under the sovereignty conquest of the Netherlands by the French. of the house of Orange, should receive an See FRANCE. The Netherlands were form- increase of territory." This declaration ed by the French first into the Batavian was made on the 30th of Mnay, and at the republic, afterwards into the kingdom of time received with general approbation, alHolland for Louis Bonaparte; and in 1811, though at a subsequent period it was one of on his abdication, they were annexed to the the principal grievances set forth by the French empire. Belgians in their declaration of independIn 1813, after the battle of Leipzig and ence. The principle thus announced re. Napoleon's evacuation of Germany, the ceived its final sanction by a treaty dated Dutch threw off the French yoke, and re- the 21st of July, in virtue of which Baron called the Prince of Orange, who assumed Vincent was to deliver over to lKing William the reins of government under the title of the provisional power he exercised in Belking. The Belgian provinces were soon gium, upon the following conditions: 1. after abandoned by the French, and fell by That the two countries should form one the right of conquest. into the power of the state, governed by the constitution already allied sovereigns. established in Holland, to be modified by From its position Belgium had been the common consent; 2. That there should be battlefield of Europe in former periods; and no alteration in that part which assured to the' possession of that country by France all religious sects an equal admissibility to' would be of vast importance as an advanced public offices; 3. That the states should aspost, from which she might easily proceed semble in alternate years in a city of ilolto other conquests. The house of Austria, land and in one of Belgium; 4. That all the having always found the Belgian provinces inhabitants of both parts should be alike in a source of trouble and annoyance, was all commercial matters, without any restricready to abandon its claims; trusting there- tion.being imposed on one for the benefit by to secure some advantages nearer the of the other; 5. That the provinces and centre of its power. The Netherlands, if cities of Belgium should be admitted to the united under one power, might be sufficiently full enjoyment of commerce with the costrengthened to become a stronger barrier lonies; 6. That all expenses should be in against France, and the means of securing common, and the debts of the two parts the continuance of that general peace'which should be assumned by the treasury of the was then so much desired, and indeed want- kingdom;'7. That the expense of maintained. Belgium, and the other territorities ing and strengthening the fortresses should near it, the bishopric of Liege, and the be defrayed from the common treasury; duchy of Luxembourg, were considered and, 8. That the cost of supporting the merely as European objects, which were so dikes should be borne by the districts more to be disposed of as would best suit the pur- immediately interested in them; but in case poses of the combined powers, particularly of any great disaster, succors were to be supthat of securing the tranquillity of the great plied by the general government, in the community of nations. It was not, then, same manner as had formerly been practised from any particular'favor'to Holland, or in IHolland. The king of England, by a from any personal regard to King, William, separate treaty, on the 13th of August, though his minister formed one of the as- agreed to give up to the newly-created king sembly, that, in less than two months after of the Netherlands all the conquests made the seizure of Paris, it was adopted as a from the Dutch during the war, with the principle by the representatives of all exception of the Cape of Good Hope, and 16 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the settlements of Demerara, Essequibo and the statistical view given of the kingdomn Berbice, on the continent of South America. was thus represented: The inhabitants of By the treaty of the 21st of July, the the northern division, or what was before governm.lent of the Netherlands accepted, Holland, were, 2,071,181; those of the south on the conditions therein stated, that sov- part, or Belgium, 3,411,082; in all, 5,482,263. ereignty over the Belgian provinces which The votes in favor of the acceptance were the allied powers had offered, not from any stated to be the whole of the northern part, peculiar feeling of regard to the interests of 2,071,181; two-fifths of the southern paxt, King William or of Holland, but as a Euro- who voted by their 529 delegates, 1,364,432; pean benefit, "de pourvoir a l'etablissement in all, 3,435,613. The majority of the Beld'un etat d'dquilibre en Europe, et en vertu gian representatives, who voted three-fifths de leur droit de conquete sur la Belgique." of that part, amounted to 2,046,650; thus The duchy of Luxembourg was not a por- giving in favor of the constitution, or fundation of Belgium, but a part of Germany; mental law, a majority of 1,388,963. and that division was given up to the king We have given an account of this proceedof the Lcw Countries, by the German con- ing, because it was subsequently made one of federation, of which he was a member, not the grievances complained of. The assembly in his regal capacity, but in consequence of had been chosen fairly, and consequently his transferring to Prussia the sovereignties, under clerical influence, which was decidedly hereditary in his family, of Nassau-Ditten- opposed to the toleration of any other party burg, Sigen, Hademar and Dietz. than the Catholic religion. This was proved After the union of the two countries had by a kind of protest issued under the title been settled by treaty, and the whole deliv- of "Jugement Doctrinal des Evecques du ered up to the government of William, it IRoyaume des Pays-Bas, sur le serment pr6was thought necessary to submit, not the serit par la Nouvelle Constitution." In an union itself, but the fundamental law or con- authoritative style it condemns the liberty stitution, to the acceptance of the people. given to appoint persons of any religious That constitution had already been accepted creed to offices of power and trust; and it oy an almost unanimous vote in the northern reprobates the enactment that the Catholic division, but it was deemed necessary to sub- church was to be submissive to the law of the mit it also to the southern division. An as- state, that the other religious sects were to sembly of Notables was accordingly conven- be protected in their worship, that the goved in Belgium, on the same plan as had be- ernment was to have the power to regulate fore been pursued in IHolland. The number all the seminaries of the kingdom, and that of the members of this assembly was 1600, the liberty of the press was recognized. but not more than 1325 attended. Upon This declaration was signed by all the prethe vote being taken, there appeared to be lates, the Archbishop of Malines, and the 529 in favor of accepting the constitution, Bishops of Ghent and of Tournay, and the and 796 against it; and thus, as far as that vicar-general of the chapter of Liege. It is assembly was concerned, the acceptance of natural to suppose that such a declaration the proposed constitution was negatived. must have had great influence with people The government, however, took a different so ignorant and superstitious as the lower view of the subject, founded upon the as- classes of the Belgian population are unismnption, that the union being adopted must versally allowed to be, and averse as they be considered as a fact not to be questioned; had ever been to a connection with the and that this was a question for the united Dutch, who were represented to them as a kingdom, which must be determined by a combination of heretics. The nobles are majority of the whole. For this purposes also said to have been more attached to the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 47 ancient Austrian government; but the mid- ful influence on the issue of the battle of the dle classes were supposed to have more sym- 18th, as it gave time to bring up the whole pathy with the French than with the Ger- of the allied forces, and place them on the man nation and to be peculiarly jealous of field of Waterloo, where the decisive conflict the Dutch. took place which decided the fate of the Whatever may have been the common French empire, and gave a long peace to sentiment, of which it is always difficult to Europe. During the whole of that day the judge, not the least appearance of discon- troops of the Netherlands sustained the chartent was displayed at the promulgation of acter for courage which past oenturies had the constitution, or the public entry made established. There were probably a few inby the king and his family into Brussels. stances of overpowering terror, and some His first efforts there, as they had been in solitary examples of disaffection, arising from Holland, were directed to the means of de- past associations with the French; but the fence; and all due exertions were employed great principle of public duty pervaded the for the purpose of raising an effective and Netherland army, as was proved by the loss numerous army. In this much progress had which they sustained in the battle. The vicbeen made when the intelligence arrived that tory was cemented by the blood of the Prince Bonaparte had escaped from Elba, advanced of Orange, who stood at. the head of his in a sort of triumphal procession through troops throughout the whole of that arduous France, and again assumed the imperial title, day, encouraging them by his cool and deand all the power connected with it. termined conduct. On one occasion he made The alarm and terror created by this event a desperate charge on the enemy, and adhad the effect of, in a great measure, disarm- vanced so far that he was actually in the ing the power of the ecclesiastical fulmina- midst of the French, and in the greatest tions, and uniting all classes with the new danger, when a Belgian battalion rushed forgoverntment in preparing for the contest ward, repulsed the enemy, and, after a deswhich was evidently about to take place on perate struggle, disengaged the prince. From the frontiers of the kingdom. The time the impulse of his gratitude, and his admiraspent by Bonaparte in Paris in organizing tion of the bravery displayed, he tore from his recovered army, and in conciliating the his breast one of the decorations gained by several parties in his capital, was most ac- his conduct in some preceding action, and tively employed by the king in strengthen- flung it amongst the battalion, calling out, ing his means of defence; and a great ad- " Take it, my lads; you have all earned it." vance had been made in his military affairs, This decoration was eagerly grappled for, when it became evident that the first inroad and tied to the regimental standard amidst of the French would be on the side of Belgium. loud shouts of "Long live the Prince!" and An army composed of Dutchmen and Bel- vows to defend the trophy, in the utterance gians, but chiefly officered by the former, of which many a brave man received the was collected and led towards the frontiers stroke of death. A short time afterwards, by the Prince of Orange. When the French towards the close of the battle, the prince entered Belgium, these troops formed the was hit by a musket-ball onthe left shoulder. advance of the allied army. It encountered He was carried from the field, and conveyed the French at Quatre-Bras, and, aided by to Brussels the same evening in a cart, ac the British, resisted during the whole day companied by two of his aides-de-camp, one (the 16tlh of June) the attacks of the left di- of whom, like himself, was badly wounded; vision of the French army, commanded by displaying to those near him as much indifMarshal Ney. The loss of lives on both ference to pain as he had previously shown sides was great; but that action had a power- contempt of danger. 4CII HIS[ORY OF THE WORLD. The battle of Waterloo appeared at the had been the theatre. The king, by his love moment to have consolidated the establish- of peace, and by his activity in whatever ment of the kingdom of the Netherlands. could improve the institutions and the conIt seemed to have attached the military part dition of the country, at first gained a high of the Belgians to the prince who had been opinion amongst those Belgians who were wounded at their head, and who had led able to endure the religious toleration he esthem to that victory which they so mainly tablished; and amongst others.his personal ascribed to their own exertions, as almost to virtues, his domestic habits, and his unweaforget that the troops of any other nation ried industry, as favorable a view was taken had contributed to it. Advantage was taken. of his character as could be formed of one of this feeling to commence the working of who had the misfortune to be a heretic. the new constitution, which had been accept- This last party was soothed, if not reconciled, ed, as before noticed, by a majority of the by the exertions which he made to recover whole kingdom, though rejected by a major- and restore to their churches those pictures ity of the Belgian portion. The solemn in- and other objects of value which had been auguration was held a few weeks after the pillaged by the French and carried to Paris. battle, and much interest was excited by the The naval transaction of the following appearance of the Prince of Orange, on the year, when a squadron of Netherland ships occasion, still wearing his wounded arm in a joined the fleet under Lord Exmouth in the scarf, and with the pallid countenance of an attack on Algiers, was another circumstance invalid. favorable to the consolidation of the new The constitution was then declared to have kingdom; for, although the battle was galbeen accepted by the people, and no allu- lantly fought by Dutchmen, yet the Belgians sion was made to the irregularity of the de- took care, in the exercise of their vanity, not cision, as the objections once urged had to allude to the Hollanders; and as they had arisen from repugnance to religious tolera- forgotten the English at Waterloo, so they tion; those who had urged them being sen- now gladly assumed to themselves the glory sible that any allusions to the subject would of the united victory. The prosperity of have been unavailing amidst the prevailing Belgium made it the chosen residence of military enthusiasm. None was made, but many respectable foreigners, as well as the such were certainly nourished, to be brought place of refuge of others of the most oppoforward at some moment more favorable for site descriptions. The king busied himself making the desired impression. No mur- less in projects to secure popularity, than in murs were heard, and Belgium became, or efforts to benefit the country; and it may appeared to have become, reconciled to the here be proper to notice the institutions arrangement which had been made by the which were either established or armeliorallied powers. ated, and the beneficial consequences they The speedy concentration of the two di- produced. visions was a spectacle viewed with astonish- Under the rule of France, Belgium, like ment, whilst a thousand channels were opened the other parts of the Continent, had suffor the egress of national industry, capital fered severely from the operation of the conand enterprise. Every obstacle seemed to scription laws, which had deprived the colnnave vanished, asperities were softened down try of those active laborers who were necesor concealed, faction seemed dead or para- sary to cultivate the fields. Although peace lysed, and a quiet enjoyment of the present could not restore the great numbers who had formed the only public manifestation. The perished, yet it stopped the farther progress people of Belgium appropriated to themselves of the evil in the Netherlands, by the estab-'he glorious victory of which their country lishment of a voluntary enrolnment for a s nall HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 49 regular army, and of a militia, whose service became crowded with ships from all counwas required only for one month in the year. tries; its warehouses were loaded with coloThe mines felt the benefit of this regulation. nial and other produce; and it advanced The minerals of Belgium consist of coal, iron rapidly to a rivalry with Amsterdam, Rotand calamine. As soon as the union had terdam and Hamburg, in the transit trade to been formed, and laborers became less scarce, the interior of Germany. The king directed a great impetus was communicated to this his best efforts to the state of the roads, the branch of industry; and companies were greater part of which had suffered dilapidaformed, who were most liberally repaid by tion, whilst the cross roads, so important in the profits of their investments in this branch a country chiefly agricultural, were in many of industry, which was augmented from year places scarcely passable. The management to year as long as Belgium and Holland con- of the former was under the general governstituted one kingdom. 3By the excitement ment, whilst that of the latter was superincommunicated to mining, the provinces of tended by the local authorities; but in the LiBge and HIainault, and a part of Namur, first few years of the union the whole were were greatly enriched; and a company form- repaired and placed in the most excellent ed to exploit the mines of Luxembourg were state. The interests oft internal navigation amply rewarded in their labors and their were sedulously watched over by the king. profits, till interrupted by internal commo- The old canals were repaired, the shallow tions. The various branches of manufactur- parts of the rivers were deepened, and new ing industry received a similar impulse, and important water communications were though at first they were checked by the formed. The chief of these, the Canal Guilpeace. The continental system of Bonaparte laume, which extends from Maestricht to had given a factious encouragement to some Bois-le-Duc, was an expensive but highly articles of manufacture, which ceased with beneficial work; whilst that of Antoing in the return of peace; and, till the formation Hainault, that of Charleroy in the province of the kingdom of the Netherlands, many of Namur, and that of Ternuse in Flanders, branches were depressed by the rivalry of have been found in a very high degree beneforeign goods in the markets to which they ficial. Though no longer of any importance had access. But as soon as the junction was to Belgium, it may not be quite out of place completed, a stimulus was given to the manu- to remark, that the spirit of improvement factures, by opening to their goods the mar- which spread throughout the whole kingdom, kets of the East and West Indies, and those was to be seen in Holland in the Grand Caof all countries with which the Hollanders nal of North Holland, which opens to Amhad traded. The iron manufactutres of Lige sterdam a way for ships of the largest size advanced rapidly in prosperity; the woollen to the ocean by way of the Helder, without manufactures of Verviers felt most power- incurring the risks arising from the shoals fully a similar impulsion; and many large of the Zuyder Zee. establishments were formed at Ghent and Some other plans of this kind had been other places, where cotton goods were fabri- decided on, when the disturbances broke cated which rivalled those of England, and out which ended in this disjunction of Belso far surpassed those of France, that much gium from I-Iolland. One of these was to of the goods were sold by the contraband make the river Sambre navigable; the other trade in that kingdom. The opening of the was to form a canal from the Meuse to the Scheldt was the necessary effect of the for-'Moselle, by means of which the prosperity mation of the united kingdom. Merchants of the Duchy of Luxembourg would have from various countries formed establishments been greatly advanced. with large capital at Antwerp; its docks The state of education, from the schools 50 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. for prn'-ary instruction up to the universi- manent tranquillity. At first William gained ties, was in a wretched state when the king the highest applause from his Belgian subascended the throne. In Holland it had jects. The whole kingdom exhibited a show ever been an object of the greatest consider- of bustling activity, if not of prosperity. ation; and it had received from Louis Bona- Amongst the refugees from other countries, parte, during his short reign, a degree of the king and people were spoken of as modperfection which fitted it for reception in els of public and domestic happiness; the Belgium. Normal schools for the instruc- diplomatists joined in the flattery, and prition of teachers were early founded; and as ded themselves on the skill with which they soon as any were found qualified, they were had accomplished the tranquillity of Europe, fixed with moderate stipends in the rural by founding the kingdom of the Netherdistricts where they could be most benefici- lands; and all united in the assertion that ally placed. To such an extent was this the king was much too good for his Belgian plan of organizing primary schools carried subjects. during the first ten years of the reign of For several years this favorable or flatterWilliam, that their number in 1826 was ing state of affairs continued, though thought3329, in which the pupils were taught read- ful people soon discerned, from events unnoing, writing, arithmetic and the system of ticed by superficial observers, the prognostics weights and measures. The numbers of of future disunion. At the earliest meeting pupils in the several schools of Belgium of the representative house, the different Ianwere 156,075 boys and 116,761 girls; in guages spoken by the members caused some Luxembourg the numbers were 19,925 boys difficulties; a Belgian in the discussions and 14,819 girls. speaking in French, and a IIollander replyThe schools for higher instruction were ing in Dutch. Too many of the questions improved, and the number of students in brought forward might be of a local nature; them yearly -increased. In ten years they and in these, as the whole of the Hollanders had risen from 3400 to 7084. There were voted on one side, and the whole of the Belin general the institutions in which the youth gians on the other, the decision was often were prepared for the universities. The dependent on the accidental absence of an king founded a new university at Linge, in individual on the one side or the other. The addition to the two previously existing at equality of numbers between the Dutch and Louvain and at Ghent. Great care was Belgians made it difficult to come to a settaken to procure the most able men in every tlement on such subjects as affected the inbranch of science; and as the country was terests of the two countries in a different or rather deficient in such as possessed eminent opposite way. This was first exhibited on qualifications, it was found necessary to re- the subject of a free trade in corn. The pair.to foreign lands for help. Several were Dutch provinces had never produced suffiinvited from Germany, and others from cient corn for their consumption, but a free France and Italy. No one establishment trade in it had always furnished them with a for education in Europe could boast of more sufficient supply. The Belgian provinces distinguished names than those of the indi- grew more corn than they consumed. As in viduals who filled some of the professors' the other parts of Europe during the last chairs, both in Liege and Ghent. years of the war, the prices of corn had risen Whilst in the united kingdom the surface to an enormous rate, and the Belgian proappeared smooth, and the vessel of the state prietors of land had increased their rents in seemed to be making a rapid progress, an due proportion.. With the return of tranunder-current was perceived to be making quillity the prices of grain and the rents of it. way in a direction not favoralble to per- land were much reduced; and the Belgian HISTORY O0 THE WORLD. 51 members of the assembly desired to impose to a constitution, one of the first stipula restrictions on the importation of grain. tions of which was an equal freedom to all This was naturally opposed by the Dutch religions. members, whose interest was engaged in fa- When Louis Bonaparte became king of vor of low prices, both as regarded the sub- Holland, he sedulously attended to the for. sistence of the inhabitants, and the trade of mation of his army; and when he abandoned. the distilleries. The question was finally de- the tlirone the armed force was so well cided in favor of the freedom of the trade; trained, equipped, and officered, that, on i-e but the contest gave rise to the formation of annexation of Holland to France in 1810, it' two parties, so equally balanced as to make formed a military body equal to any other the decision of many legislative questions de- of the empire in its adaptation to the purperident on accident. poses of war. When that army was transAs the royal authority had been establish- ferred to France, the different grades of offied in Holland the greater part of a year be- cers retained their Dutch rank, and their fore the union with Belgium, it had been former course of promotion. But when the organized without reference to that event. people of Holland rose against France, and Holland had been a shorter period under raised William to the throne, the Dutch reFrench power; and during the prevalence signed their posts in the French service, and of that influence when King Louis filled the repaired to their own country, where they throne, its government. had been carried on were gladly received, and reinstated in the upon the principle of nationality; the fittest rank which they had attained during their men filled the offices in the different depart- service in France. All the generals were ments, and many of them remained un- Dutchmen; but that rank had been acquired changed when Holland became a French in the French service, where, by their mnilidepartment. It was natural that King Wil- tary talents, they had gained high reputaliam should continue such men in their tion, and had been honored and trusted by offices, and that in selecting officers for the the French emperor. The names of the new branches which were to be created, a Dutch officers thus appointed generals by preference should be given to natives, of William are well known. Tindal had been whom there were numbers whose education, raised by Bonaparte to the rank of general, habits, and patriotism had well fitted them and commanded a regiment of his body for the public service. At the union of Bel- guard. Jansens had been distinguished as gium and Holland the whole administration governor of Batavia, and in the.army of the was in the hands of French functionaries, French emperor on the Ardennes frontier. who speedily disappeared. Few men in Bel- Daendels was one of those Dutchmen who gium had been brought up in such a way as had been always placed in posts of the greatto form them for official duties, and those est danger, and had displayed the highest who had sufficient information and capacity skill and valor. Dumonceau, though a Belhad been nominated to employments in the gian by birth, had by his long service in the distant provinces of France. Under these northern provinces become a Dutchmnan, and circumstances, the greater number of officers was highly esteemed in the French army. was necessarily appointed from the northern Chasse, an old officer of Holland when he division of the kingdom. Another cause of was transferred to the French service, be many offices in Belgium being filled by came known by the familiar title of General Dutchmen was, that some of those Belgians Badioznette, and afterwards distinguished to whom offers were made declined to serve, himself by his gallant defence of the citadel on account of the influence of the priests, of Antwerp. which prevented them from taking the oath When men like these returned to theit 52 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. liberated country, and at a moment when It may fairly be presumed, that in the ap. their services were wanted, there were no pointment of officers in the several civil de rivals to compete with them in Holland, and partments, the king had been mainly infiu they were necessarily placed at the ]lead of enced by his view of the capacity of the pertheir profession. Those of the successive sons selected to discharge the necessary du ranks who also returned, as almost the whole ties; for at a subsequent period, when the did, were retained in those ranks in the ar- most scrutinizing activity was exercised to my, formed first in Holland, and afterwards discover grounds of complaint, no accusastrengthened by the addition of Belgians. tions were made of any other fault in the ap The Belgian officers serving in the French pointments than that which related to the army had not been kept apart, but mixed up portion of the kingdom to which the funcwith the Frenchmen. They had formed a tionaries belonged. The king himself was part of the general' conscription; few had active and regular; and being in a great deraised themselves to the rank of officers; and gree his own prime minister, he must have of these only three had attained the grade been peculiarly anxious that the persons unof colonel, no one having risen higher. Be- der him should be adapted to their several ing thus insulated, they had nourished little stations, and certainly under no government or no national feeling; some few tardily re- was more industry exercised or more reguturned to their native country after the oc- larity preserved. eupation of Paris; but many of them re- The subject of religion was one which, mnained in the service, and fought against'above all others, served to produce discontheir country at Waterloo. tent. A set of writers who neither had, nor The other charge of partiality on the part pretended to have, any religious principles, of the king, which ultimately became one of encouraged the government at first in measthe grievances, was, that, in the legislative ures of toleration, according to the fundabody, the number of deputies was as great mental law, and were, or affected to be, vefrom the northern as from the southern divi- hement against the Jesuits, who opposed it. sion of the kingdom, although the number William was no bigot in religion, but it was of inhabitants in the latter was so much his desire to raise the character of the Cathgreater. The foundation of this settlement olic clergy, by imparting to them a more exof the relative numbers was based upon the tensive and better education than had preprinciple of giving legislative power accord- viously been. necessary before entering on ing to the rate of revenue to be extracted from their office. With this view he framed reg. each division, rather than according to the ulations which offended the clergy and the number of the population. The proportion ignorant party who submitted to them, and of revenue raised in Holland was nearly who were at length joined by those who disequal to that raised in ]Belgium; indeed it tinguished themselves as liberals, as soon as was shown, at a subsequent period, to be as they saw that some advantages could be fifteen to sixteen. The rate of revenue per drawn from that union to forward their own head in Holland was sixteen florins and in republican views. Belgium ten florins. Whether the rate of rev- The Catholic clergy in Belgium had subenue or the number of inhabitants be the pro- mitted to the regulation of their affairs which per scale for regulating the proportion of legis- French subjugation had imposed. The vicar lators, is not a subject to be discussed here. of the diocese of Ghent has indeed been unIn the distribution of the higher civil of- willing to allow this; but Baron de Keverrfies of the government, complaints were burg, himself a Catholic, and under the urged and magnified into weighty grievances French regime governor of West Flanders, by the Belgians. I asserts most positively that the imperial in_ J:~~~~~~~~~~~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 53 stitutior.s were observed in Belgium as else- be inducted who had not passed two years where; that the catechism of the empire in the study of the litermw hmanizores before was taught to almost every one; and that his ordination, and appropriated a college at the four articles of the clergy of France Louvain for that purpose, to which was given formed a part of the religious instruction in the unfortunate name of the pkiAlosopilical all the Belgian departments. As soon as the college, a name with good Catholics almost kingdom was established, they brought for- equivalent to infidel or heretic. The preward claims to power which they dared not lates, to counteract this, established seminaeven to whisper under Napoleon, and even ries connected with the cathedrals, in which carried those claims to an extent beyond the pupils were instructed in their humnaniwhat they had been urged for the last three ties. These contravened the design of the or four centuries, and beyond what are ac- king, and were forcibly shut up. It was an knowledged in the Catholic kingdoms of objection to the philosophical college that Europe. the professors of history were not priests, but This extraordinary claim of the church to laymen, and some Protestants. This may a power independent of, and in fact govern- not seem a solid ground of declining to ating the state, would not, on its own account, tend lectures on history; but it was so with have deserved the notice here taken of it. the Catholics; for, as their doctrines rest It was at least quieted by the prudent con- quite as much on tradition as on the I-oly duct of the king, who suffered the Count Scriptures, it was of vast importance that Mean, one of the prelates, upon his nomina- history should be taught by those alone who tion to a seat in the council of state, to swear were orthodox in their opinions. In truth, to the tolerating constitution under a protest, the critical spirit of some of the German pro.. that if the pope should declare the oath to fessors would make sad work with many be contrary to the rights of the church, it parts of the traditions held sacred by the should thereby cease to be binding. The Catholic church. The prelates, in the disking, whilst he adhered to the constitutional cussions on this subject, indulged in language principle of tolerating other sects, extended of a violent kind, and were prosecuted. A his liberality to the Catholic clergy, by in- law enacted by Napoleon was made the increasing the stipends of the inferior orders; strument of condemning one or two of them by making provision for those who, from to banishment, and excited no small degree age or infirmity, were incapable of perform- of hatred amongst their adherents, who, if ing their duty; and by contributing liberally not the most enlightened, were the most nuto the erection or repairs of churches where merous, portion of the inhabitants. These the communal funds were inadequate to the mortifications were increased by circumpurpose. The opposition of the clergy was stances of inferior importance. Some of the for a time dormant; but it was again roused; religious festivals were curtailed, certainly when, at a subsequent period, the leaders of with no views inimical to religion, but to the church formed a junction with the lead- benefit the morals of the people, by lesseners of the French party, and thus placed the ing the number of days that were devoted to lower classes, who could not read their effu- idleness and drunkenness. The architecture oions, but were under the influence of the of the national schools was similar to that priests who spoke to them in Flemish, in a of the reformed places of worship, and the state of hostile excitement towards the gov- youth of the country were forbidden to be ernment. The hostility of the clergy was educated out of the kingdom. These trifles much aggravated by the attempts made to were magnified into matters of plain eviimrprove the education of the priests. The dence of a regular system to proselytise the'king had determined that no priest should whole of the Netherlands. Whilst these 54 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. controversies respecting religion and educa- partisans. The clergy thought that too little tion were carried on, the conduct of the king had been granted to them, and the liberals was applauded and encouraged by the active that too much power was conferred on theil party of the liberals, who represented them order. Conciliatory as this measure was inas proper steps to secure the people from the tended to be, it thus proved nugatory; and insidious attempts made by the Jesuits to several nominations of Belgians to offices olind and cajole them. There was no evi- before filled by Dutchmen had no bettei denuce of any plan of the kind on the part of effect. the Jesuits, and it was only affectation in the Brussels at this time contained a most liberals to insinuate it. It served their turn heterogeneous foreign population, consisting for the time, but was soon forgotten, when of the intriguing and discontented subjects it appeared advantageous for their party of almost every country of Europe. There purposes to join with the most bigoted of were of Frenchmen, regicide conventionalthe Catholics against the government of the ists, exiled Napoleonists and proscribed conhouse of Orange. stitutionalists, besides Italian carbonari, exDuring the whole of the period from 1815 patriated Poles, Spanish liberals, disgraced to 1829 the popularity of the monarch was Russians, English and Irish radicals, and very variable. After the uttering of some visionary students from the various parts of loud complaints, as alleged grievances arose, Germany. As the greater part of these had they seemed to die away and be forgotten; but insecure means of subsistence, and for and, till some new cause supervened, the the most part understood the French lanking was as much respected as his best friends guage, the press groaned with libels, not could wish. At no time, indeed, was his more against the Belgian than against all personal character assailed; and the general other governments, and thus contributed tofeeling in Belgium was, that he always meant wards the production of a high state of powell, but gave too ready an acquiescence to litical excitement. The press of the capital what they tauntingly called the schemes of also furnished cheap editions of such works their JDutch cousins. as, either from their irreligious, immoral, or The king, attacked by two parties, by the democratic tendency, were prohibited in priests, and their bigoted followers on one France; and thus became a nuisance to the side, and by the republicans on the other, regular governments of Europe. The great avowed his intention to act with indifference mass of the population could not be inflamed to all parties in the pursuit of what he deem- by these fire-brands; few of them could read, ed for the general advantage. In conformn- and fewer still could read French. They ity with this disposition a concordat was in were, however, acted upon by other means. 1827 entered into with the pope, by which The Flemish preachers, school-masters and the right of nomination to the bishoprics was confessors, in their several spheres,. were settled. It was provided that each should ready to join in any movement, and were le selected by the pope out of three indi- sure to be supported by the idle, the dissoviduals to be nominated by the king, and lute and the indigent, with which the cities that the education of the priests should be and large towns abounded. To bring the under the control of the prelates; but that whole body of discontent to bear upon the in the seminaries professors should be ap- same point, it was found advisable to form pointed to teach the sciences, as well as the two parties into one; and this was achievwhat related to ecclesiastical matters. This ed by the liberals affecting a zeal for the arrangement was highly satisfactory to the Catholic faith, which they had before treated.ool and thinking part of the community, with contempt and ribaldry. The union. was out was far from pleasing to the extravagant thus formed, meetings of the parties were HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 55 held, the junction was openly announced, These men, with two others, likewise edi and threatenings were promulgated tending tors of journals, were sent to the tribunaA to give confidence to the confederacy, as in which Van Maanen filled the office of.well as to excite apprehension in the king presidingjudge. The prosecution terminlaand his ministers. ted in a sentence of banishment from the This system of agitation was carried to kingdom for the period of eight years; a in extent which no government could behold sentence which brought on the judge the with indifference, however confident in the execrations of the libellous journals,, and elerectitude of its measures. It was attempted vated the prisoners to the rank of martyrs. to oppose the calumniating writers by em- The sentence was put in force by sending the ploying others to counteract their influence; culprits to the frontiers, where they were but the attempt was far from successful, as detained, as neither of the neighboring states in that kind of warfare the assailants have -would admit them. The revolution of July almost always the advantage on their side. occurred in Paris whilst they were in this The avowed object of the liberal writers was state; and the party which prevailed in that to urge the clerical party to make such ex- city allowed them to enter France, and they travagant demands of extensive power as were received in the capital with great apm they knew, if granted, would be the ruin of plause by the propagandists. the royal authority, and if refused, would in- The popular mind in Brussels was highly crease the agitation they had already created. agitated by these trials, which did not operAlthough the whole of the Dutch members ate to restrain the indignant language of the of the representative assembly, and several journals, nor the distribution of the most of the most respectable of the Belgian mein- vehement placards, many of them in the bers, gave a majority in favor of the royal Flemish tongue, in which the minister, Vasl party, yet many of the latter adopted most 1Ilaanen, and the editor of a royalist journal inflammatory language, and, as far as the entitled the National, were held up to the rules of debate allowed, seconded the views public indignation, and threatened with venof the united party of the liberals and bigots. geance. In this state of public feeling, the As the union openly flung defiance at the news of the success of the Parisian people in government, it appeared necessary to bring overturning the throne was received with before the courts of law the most notorious enthusiasm. Numbers of the young propaof the inflammatory writers; and two were gandists from Paris reached Brussels. Asselected as subjects for prosecution before suming to themselves the character of heroes the court of assizes of South Brabant. These of the revolution, and with feelings of disindividuals are thus described by the Baron appointment at the tranquil issue at which de Keverburg. Of the first, Louis de Pot- it had so soon arrived, these young men dister, he says: "Hie had attracted attention played the three-colored cockade in the long before the Belgian agitation by writ- streets and public places; talked loudly in ings, which, in the eyes of the church, were the theatres and coffee-houses; sang the considered very impious, and by all men en- Marseillaise and Parisienne hymns in chorus dorsed with the least delicacy of feeling, with impassioned groups; and dwelt with in very bad taste. What I have to say of enthusiasm on the glories of the republic the second, is still less honorable. M. Fran- and the empire, and the future destinies of cois Tielemans, before the time just men- their "young France." Some of the more tioned, was known only by the benefits which active of the Belgians repaired to Paris, and lie had received, and was still receiving from are said to have sounded the new governthe king, and later, was noxious for his in- ment on the subject of the re-union of their gratitude towards his benefactor." country to F'rance, in the event of the disso H -ISTORY OF THE WORLD. lution of the monarchy of the Netherlands. part of the city, where they piled their These last were, however, mere adventurers, arms in front of the king's palace, and rewho had little or no power over, or inter- nounced all attempts at suppressing the tucourse with, those who were destined to in- mult." fluence the fate of Belgium. By the operations of these two days, the The disturbances which followed at first multitude had in fact gained the mastery may be easily concluded to have been the of the city, and every one in it felt himself result of mere popular excitement, such as exposed to whatever private malice, politiis often seen in large cities. The first symp- cal fury, or the love of plunder, might induce tom of outrage was presented by the audi- the populace to inflict. This moved a few ence of the theatre, on the 25th of August, of the more influential inhabitants to take 1830, after the representation of a piece, the up arms, and to enrol themselves into a iu ette de Portici, which abounded with burgher guard, for the protection of their passages well calculated to kindle a flame lives and property. Within three days, not amongst materials well charged with inflam- less than as many thousand persons, chiefly mable particles. When the curtain fell, the heads of families, had enrolled themselves in excited audience rushed into the street, ex- this corps, and under chiefs of their own seclaiming, " To the office of the National." lection, paraded the streets; so that, if they They ran thither, soon forced in the doors did not put a stop to plunder and destrucand windows, and began the work of de- tion, they at least contributed in some degree struction. They then rushed into the dwel- to contract the extent of the mischief. In ling of the editor, which was speedily de- such circumstances, the actual power within molished, though the obnoxious individual, the city devolved on those who obtained the whose life was threatened, made his escape direction of these hastily organized and unhurt. The house of Van }Iaanen was that scarcely armed citizens. They determined next assailed. It was plundered, and then on resisting the troops, which wekre advancset on fire, and the populace stopped the ing; and the general who comT anded them fire-engine from playing till everything in it having no precise orders from the king to was consumed. The police-office was then act, readily agreed to suspend the march, attacked; the books, furniture, pictures and and entered into a kind of treaty of neutralplate of the chief magistrate were brought ity with the burghers, till they could receive out and burnt in the street; and the hotel directions from the Hague, where the king of the provincial governor shared the same and his family had that year their residence. fate; whilst some private-houses and several The intelligence of these events in the capimanufactories were pillaged, and otherwise tal soon spread throughout the provinces, much dam:ged. Fury, confusion, or terror and in all the large towns, excepting Antwere visible in every countenance, before the werp and Ghent, similar scenes were exhibcivil and military powers made any attempts ited, commencing with plunder and outrages to stop these disorders; and those which by mobs, and settling down into an uneasy were made showed a want either of the cour- but rather more secure state by the instituage or the coolness necessary to act with de- tion of burgher guards. cision. "From this conduct," says an eye- The intelligence from Brussels was quickly witness, "before ten o'clock on the morning communicated to the Hague, but the royal of the 26th, the guards and posts in the cen- councils were divided in opinion. The only tre of the city had been overcome, or had positive demand in Brussels was the dismistranquilly surrendered; and the troops who sion of the minister Van IMaanen and he had been drawn out either retreated to their offered to resign his post. The king is said barracks, or were withdrawn to the upper j to have refused accepting his resignation, tHISTORY OF THE WORLD. 57 whilst the Prince of Orange urged the ac- fixed between Sweden and Norway, with ceptance of it, and the adoption of some whichboth countries were satisfied and bene3other measures of a conciliatory kind. The fited. It was more than intimated to the result of the decision can only be known by prince that the wishes of all Belgium would the, events which followed; and they show be fulfilled if he were elevated to the throne; that neither the adoption of concessions, nor but in answer to such suggestions he firmly the positive use of force, was resolved upon, asked of one of the most influential men at but a course was pursued which, being some that time, "What opinion would you enterundefined medium between the two different tain of me were I to sacrifice the interests paths, ended, as was natural, in converting of my father to my own? What confidence a mere popular riot into a confirmed revolu- could you repose in a man who could cast off tion. It was determined by the council that his allegiance to his king, and that king his the Prince of Orange should proceed to Brus- father, merely to gratify his own ambition a sels on a peaceful commission; whilst the I also am a father," added the prince with command of the army was conferred on his deep emotion, "and am bound to show a brother, and the troops advanced with alac- proper example to my children. Posterity rity from the various parts of Holland, where shall not revert to my name, and revile me they were quartered, and where the most as- as that disloyal Nassau who tore the diadem tonishing zeal was displayed in support of from his father's brow to place it on his the royal authority. own." The prince, however, departed for Brus- At a final meeting held on the 3d of Soepsels, but only furnished with such limited tember, when many members of the statespowers as. in the actual circumstances, were general attended, it was so fully obvious to utterly ineffective. On his arrival at Vil- the prince that nothing but a separate advorde, near the city, he was waited on by a ministration of the two countries would redeputation from the city, composed of some store tranquillity, that he resolved to use his of the most respectable inhabitants, who had influence with his father to accomplish that been nominated at a public meeting of the object; and he received the fullest assurance householders. After some preliminary dis- from the persons present, that they would cussions, the prince courageously resolved unite in the most efficacious measures to ason entering the city with no other suit than sure the dynasty of the house of Orange, and a few officers of his staff. His passage through to protect the territory of Belgium against the streets, crowded with the irregular burgh- any attempts to subject it to France, or any er guard, and a ferocious mob, was attended other foreign power. The prince expressed wvith imminent risk; but at length he reached his determination to use his most powerful his own palace, and commenced a conference. arguments with his father to obtain his asDiscussions were continued for several days sent to this proposal; but expressed his apbetween the prince on one side, and respect- prehension that he should be unable to sucable citizens on the other, which were con- ceed in his endeavors. The prince then ducted with firmness and in a conciliatory quitted the city, carrying with him the respirit by both parties. The substance was spect of all those with whom he had communot a rejection of the royal authority, or of nicated, for the courage lie had displayed, the reigning dynasty, on the part of the citi- for the knowledge of public affairs which he zens, but a separation of the administration discovered, for the cool judgment which he of Belgium from that of Holland. They all exercised, and, above all, for the sense of declared that no wish prevailed for any union parental duty which he had manifested. with France, but only for such a kind of in- Whilst these transactions were passing in dependence for both countries as had been Brussels, the whole country was in a flame; 58 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. in every town the populace were triumphant, outrages which had marked the first days and indulged unrestrained in plunder, to of the explosion. The defenders were thus which, especially in the important city of divided into two parties; but, as usual, the Liege, was added the conflagration of several most violent soon prevailed; and the council valuable manufacturing establishments. The of the rabble soon dispersed that of the officers of the army, with no definite orders burghers (for both had their separate assembhow to act, were paralyzed in some places, lies), seized the arms of the latter, and addin others gave up their arms, and in others ed to them others which had been collected engaged to be neutral. in different parts of the country. The king, amidst the general disorder in Although the states were still sitting at the Belgium, and the most fanatical attachment Hague, the king's army was gradually drawn Jo tlhe royal cause in Holland, had summoned around Brussels. It consisted of 14,000 well the states-general from both divisions to as- appointed troops, under the command of semble at the Hague. The members from Prince Frederick. But the motions of this Belgium, with some slight hesitation, re- powerfu] body were so dilatory, and its whole solved to repair thither, and the assembly operations so unmilitary, that they are diffiwas opened on the 13th of September, by a cult to be accounted for, unless on the supspeech from the king, which was firm and position that the conduct of the king was too temperate, but by no means definite. The conciliatory when force should have been approceedings of this body were dilatory; the plied, and too hostile when conciliation Belgium members were treated with indig- would have been of most advantage to his nity and insult by the populace; and the cause. On the 20th of September the counlanguage of some of the Dutch members ex- cil resolved to take possession of Brussels, pressed vengeance rather than conciliation. and orders were sent to Prince Frederick to The accounts received at Brussels from the that effect. This resolution was taken at the HIague, ~ and the warlike demonstrations Hague in consequence of the information of made by the troops, rekindled and accelerat- numerous emissaries from Brussels, who reped the preparations for defence, and induced resented the inhabitants as eager to receive some approaches to organization. The burg- the troops, and to assist in putting an end to her guards had become tired of military duty, the anarchy and oppression which the mob and being mostly tradesmen living on their were exercising. The most respectable names business, which had now being ruined, they in the city were appended to these represenwere anxious for the return of the tranquil- tations, which were doubtless sincere, but lity upon which their existence depended. came from such as were more prepared to The leaders of the opposition, however, drew enjoy the return of peace and good governfresh recruits of a more determined and more ment than to contribute any share of their reckless description from the rude population personal services to secure these blessings. of the Walloon provinces, from the men em- On the 25th the troops advanced towards ployed in the coal and iron mines, and from the city, and with little opposition occupied the iron forges and other works which had the upper portion or court part of it, which been destroyed or shut up in and around is situated on a hill, by which the whole of Liege. These were, in a great measure, old the rest of the town is commanded. The op and hardy soldiers, who had served in the ponents in the lower part of the city were ranks of Bonaparte's army, and fought in dispirited and disunited and most of the Germany, in' Russia, or in Spain. Their ar- more violent leaders had fled. But the comrival in the capital spread terror amongst the manders of the army. seem to have been peaceable inhabitants, and kindled alarms seized with a panic, or to have dreaded doing lest they should be agair exposed to the too much mischief to the houses and propertg HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 5~ of the more wealthy inhabitants. In the They were for the most part men of c:harsquare, where the troops had been drawn up, acter and property; but amongst them was they were exposed to a galling fire from an De Potter, who had returned as soon as the invisible enemy, who, from the roofs of the danger was over, and had been placed by houses, and from the cellars, picked off the the popular feeling at the head of the body. officers and men without being much ex- Iis power was but of short duration, and heposed to any return from the troops. Instead soon fell int6 utter insignificance, if not conof destroying the houses and buildings which tempt, as did others of the original leaders concealed the assailants, the prince had re- of the insurrection. When those of the repcourse to unavailing negotiations, and, after resentatives who had assembled at the HIague three days of most harassing service, deter- returned home, and their conduct was remined to withdraw his troops. He had the viewed in dispassionate manner, the weight means of stopping all supplies from entering of their character gave them an influence the city, and thus effecting a surrender by star- which proved favorable to the return of vation; or by a bombardment, he might have order. Some of them were added to the easily enforced submission. Why neither of body forming the provisional government, these means were adopted cannot be cer- and they exercised their influence with prutainly known; but the friends of the royal dence, firmness, and integrity. party attribute it to humanity alone. The In the provisional government the state of loss of lives was not very great on the side of parties was singular, from the variety of the king's troops, considering their exposed opinions. De Potter, who looked forward situation, and the number engaged. It is to the dignity of president, advocated a restated in the returns as 138 killed, and 650 publican form of government; Gendebeer, a wounded; whilst of the defenders of the city, decided advocate of democracy, preferred a thlcugn far inferior in numbers, the casu- union with France; whilst Van de Weyer alties were acknowledged by themselves to wished for an independent government, on a be 450 killed, and 1250 wounded. This dis- monarchical basis, with the Prince of Orange parity must be considered as one of the at the head, if he would consent to withdraw many extraordinary circumstances of the altogether from his Dutch obligations, and transactions, and renders the result utterly become exclusively the sovereign of Belgiumn. incomprehensible. The incredible intelli- The plan of Van de Weyer was known to be gence of this repulse was rapidly conveyed favored by all the kings of Europe; and even to the provinces, with great exaggerations; France, at that moment under the pilotage and disaffection, anarchy, and demoralisation of Lafayette, was averse to the entire excluwere spread everywhere. The army retreat- sion of the Nassau dynasty, and sent an agent ed towards Antwerp, which in spite of the to Brussels to forward his views. Gendebeer force near it, soon became involved in con- had visited Paris, and there found little or no fusion. Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, and the disposition amongst the leading people to other towns in that direction, immediately agree to a union with the Belgians, which, became a prey to the revolutionary party, they were aware, would involve them in a and experienced the horrors of anarchy in war with all those powers that had founded the destruction of some of their most exten- the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, sive manufacturing establishments. The uni- solely as a European object and a barrier versal rejoicing of the Belgians did not pre- against France. vent some measures from been adopted to re- It soon became evident in Belgium itself strain outrages. In a few days some indi- that republicanism had made little or no pro. viduals, with the general acquiescence, form- gress. The prevailing opinion was strong in 2d themselves into a provisional government. favor of the Catholic religion, with all its an 60 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. cient powers andl observances, but stronger the citadel, which as the Belgian officers as. still in favor of a nationality independent of sert was without their approbation or knowl all foreign control. This latter spirit contri- edge. On this infraction of the truce, Chasse buted to increase the number of those who ordered two or three guns to be fired from had taken up arms; and by such persons the the bastion facing the arsenal. This being repulse of tile Dutch at Brussels was vainly found ineffectual, the white flag was taken considered as an evidence of the military down; a signal was made to the fleet, conpower of the people. Many of the privates, sisting of eighty vessels of war, in the Scheldt, and a few Belgians of distinction, had been close to the town; and a cannonade and in the army of Prince Frederick; but they bombardment commenced. It was more tersoon left his colors and entered the ranks of rific than injurious, the fire being chiefly ditheir countrymen. The Belgian colors waved rected against the arsenal and the entrepot, on every tower in the country, except those where all the military and naval stores in the of Antwerp and Maestricht, when the former were destroyed; whilst in the latter Dutch army, greatly reduced in numbers as large quantities of sugar, coffee, hides, cloths, regarded subalterns and privates, but with silks, and spices, were burned and buried in the artillery in complete order, withdrew in- the ruins of the storehouses. The firing had to their own territory. continued some hours when a deputation The council of the king at the Hague re- from the city made their way to the citadel, solved on the separation of the two govern- and proposed a suspension of hostilities, which ments into different administrations; but it was instantly agreed to, and the firing ceased. was then too late to produce reconciliation; Never, perhaps, was exaggeration or misrepand an attempt made by the Prince of Orange resentation carried farther than on this occato procure for himself the supremacy of Bel- sion, in the reports printed and circulated gium had no other effect than to beget con- through Belgium; and the effect which they tempt in that country, and to draw upon produced destroyed the last hope of those himself the temporary suspicion of double who wished well to the Orange dynasty. dealing towards his father and his country- Since that event, official accounts made out men in Holland. by the Belgian custom house show, that the The transactions which took place at Ant- whole loss of goods in the stores amounted to werp in October had the further effect of 1,888,000 florins, or ~157,200; whilst the rendering the Belgians still more adverse to damage done to private buildings, and the the Orange dynasty than they had before furniture in them, amounted to 679,466 been. That city was invested by a Belgian florins, or ~59,450. In this the loss of the force, whilst within, notwithstanding the re- public buildings was not included. The numsistance of the armed burghers, the populace ber of the killed was only sixty-eight, of became masters of the place; and the citadel whom seventeen were military men, and the was occupied by a garrison of 8000 good others those of the populace who had caused troops commanded by the bravest of the the calamity. The Dutch asserted that the Dutch officers, General Chasse. A truce fire was confined almost wholly to the spot had been concluded between the adverse where the munitions of war were stored, and parties, and a white flag hoisted from the that the rest of the city was designedly fort; but the Belgian officers were unable to spared. mlaintain it, the populace having begun an As all hope of conciliation was thus deattack an the citadel, though with no other stroyed, the court of the Hague made press. arms than muskets. This was not returned, ing solicitations to the four powers who by but a cannon was brought forward by the treaty had formed the kingdom of the populace, and a fire opened on the gates of Netherlands, to fulfill the obligations imposed HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 61 upon them by the treaty of Vienna of 1815. estimated wealth. Thus, in Luxembourg the But it was soon seen by the answer of Lord poorest province, the qualification was the Aberdeen, the British secretary of state, and payment of taxes annually to the amount of by those of the ministers of the other powers twenty-one shillings and sixpence; but from in succession, that none of them was disposed this the required rate was gradually raised, to make use of any other than pacific incas- till, in Flanders, the richest of the provinces, ures. This proceeding gave rise to negotia- the tax paid required to be six pounds five tions between the allied powers, which were shillings. The assembly was a fair represenchiefly carried on in London, out of which tation of the people of Belgium; for scarcely proceeded numerous protocols, which had no any proprietor was excluded from voting, decisive influence on the course of events. whilst in the larger towns and cities the mere The public affairs of Europe favored the in- populace, from the qualification being higher, dependence of Belgium. All the other powers had not the means of introducing their favorwere in alarm at the recent events in France, ites. As soon as the assembly met the dema. and all feared, not that the scarcely seated gogues, who had contributed to the revoluking would willingly commence a war of tion, became insignificant. De Potter, Thielaggression, but that the democratic party man, and others who had been martyrs and might become sufficiently powerful to com- heroes with the mob, sunk into insignificance. )el him to associate himself with the Belgians, The assembly proceeded to business in a and to bring that country under the power regular manner. Three important proposiof France. The obvious interest of the tions were presented to the congress. The four great powers was tranquillity, and the.first was the declaration of independence, securing of the Continent against Flanders which was voted unanimously; the second, becoming the base of military operations to- proposed on the 22d of November, decided wyards the centre of Europe. If these could against a republic, and in favor of a constitube obtained, it mattered little whether they tional hereditary monarchy, by a majority of arose from the junction or the separation of 174 against thirteen votes, but it did not fix the two portions which had formed the king- on the title of the future chief of the state; dom of the Netherlands. The first meeting the third proposition, brought forward of the ministers of the great powers showed on the 23d, was for the perpetual exclusion that they merely considered themselves as of the Orange Nassau family. This was dearbitrators between the northern and south- bated during two days, and at the close was ern divisions of the newly-dissolved kingdom; agreed to by a majority of 161 against twentyand their first measures were addressed to eight. The object of the minority was to dethe.object of a suspension of hostilities, which lay the proposition till a more cool and diswas to a limited extent acquiesced in by both tant period, and till it could be known parties. whether the revolution which had taken To settle the internal government now be- place would lead to a war against Belgium. came the first object of the Belgians, who Mr. Van de Weyer had, however, returned considered their independence as firmly as- from a mission to London, and it was comsured. A national congress was accordingly monly believed he had ascertained that the assembled at Brussels, consisting of two hun- sentiments of Lord Grey and the new minisdred deputies, chosen in the several provinces, ters were as averse to any warlike interferfrom all tax-paying persons above twenty-five ence as those which had been previously exyears of age, without exception as to religion. pressed by the Duke of Wellington and Lord The qualification for the electors and the Aberdeen. elected was the paying of taxes, which varied It seems probable, that at the period in in the several provinces according to their question the governments of E-lFgland and 62 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. France were co-operating in endeavors to mobbing and plundering which prevailed in place the Prince of Orange on the throne of all the provinces. The necessity for an exeBelgium; even if it could be accomplished cutive power was so strongly felt by the in defiance of the positive declaration of the more reflecting members of the assembly, king his father, who did not scruple to assert, that after several days' preparatory debate, it, "that he would rather see De Potter placed was resolved, on the 19th of January, 1831, on the throne than the Prince of Orange." to proceed to the election of a chief on the But if such was the desire of the two king- 28th of that month. The election of a sovdoms, it was soon discovered to be utterly ereign, or rather of a dynasty, was enough to impracticable, though much time was spent kindle agitation and intrigue; but perhaps under the impression of its feasibility, and less of these than might have been expected much suspicion excited amongst the Belgians was discoverable, from the great number of agailist the sincerity of France. the candidates whose pretensions were urged. Whilst the plenipotentiaries were settling On the day before the election, petitions the most equitable plan for separating the were presented to the assembly in favor of two countries, and had given their views Lafayette, Fabvier, Chateaubriand, the with respect to the boundaries of each, they Prince of Carignan, the Archduke Charles; also adjusted what portion of the debt of the Surlet de Chokier, Charles Logier, and Felix Netherlands should be assigned to Belgium, de Alerode, private Belgians; Prince Otho and what to Holland, fixing the former at of Bavaria, John, duke of Saxony, a prince of 61 parts, and the latter at -.1 parts. These Salm, the Pope, the duke of Nemours, second discussions led to others; and it soon became. son of Louis Philip, and the Duke of Leuchknown, that however independent Belgium tenburg. Besides these, the Duke of Lucca, might become as regarded Holland it was too the Duke of Reichstadt, the son of Napoleon, dependent on the superior power of the Euro- and the Prince of Capua, brother of the king pean kingdoms to be permitted the spontan- of the Two. Sicilies, were suggested. The eous nomination of the individual who was choice of the last was seriously contemplated to become its sovereign. At that time a large, by the French, through Talleyrand; but the perhaps a predominant, part in the assembly Belgians showed no predilection for him, would have preferred one of the Bonaparte although he was not objectionable to any of family; but this, it soon appeared, would not the four powers. Had the Belgians showed be permitted by France. Another part were any decided eagerness for Prince Otho of inclined to select a son of Louis Philip, the Bavaria, it was known that he would have king of the French; but intimations had been recognised by England, France, and been communicated to the prince, that Eng- Prussia; and that he would then have.obland would consider an acquiescence in the tained the hand of the Princess Mary, third project as a sufficient cause of war; and he daughter of the king of the French. But his agreed to the exclusion of his son, but so pri- age, for he was only fifteen, formed an obvately that it was only known to a few indi- jection with the Belgians. The popular viduals beyond the diplomatic circles. The press, decidedly democratic, was most united partisans of the house of Orange took no in favor of the Duke of Leuchtenburg; but open and avowed part in these discussions. its power had been used till it was exhausted; The inefficiency of this representative and, besides, the choice was in better hands assembly to the real purposes of a govern- than those who are influenced by its infiamment was speedily shown in the long and matory declamations. It is remarkable, that bombastical speeches of the members; in the amongst the long list of candidates the name l)bsolute confusion in every department, of Prince Leopold was never once mentioned. whether civil military, or judicial; and in the It has been suggested that England had not HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 63 even then abandoned the hope of fixing the archduke twenty-one. This announcemenJ Prince of Orange on the throne. This would was received with acclamation by the popu have been approved of by-Russia, Prussia, and lace, and with expressions of joy by the parAustria, and by the nobles and wealthier part tisans of the successful candidate, who well of the Belgians, but not by France, as Louis knew his father would not permit him to acPhilip was disposed to fear that the example cept the offered crown. A deputation was of enthroning the son of the deposed monarch despatched to Paris to announce the choice. might hereafter have been taken as a pre- But the throne was refused, and the deputies cedent in favor of the Duke of Bordeaux returned after paying and receiving some unagainst his son in France. meaning compliments. At the eve of the election, however, by The moment was seized by the partisans some strange caprice of circumstances, all the of the Prince of Orange in order to raise a names were withdrawn excepting the two, commotion in his favor. It was a wild prowho, all intelligent persons knew, could not ject, confined to Ghent, Bruges, and Antbe allowed to rule. It was remarked of them werp, where his adherents were numerous, by Northomb, one of the most respectable especially amongst the lower class, who had of the democratic members, that "the Duke been thrown out of employment by the of Leuchtenburgwas essentially anti'French, cessation of commerce and manufactures. without being European, whilst the Duke of The attack on Ghent was speedily quelled, Nemours was so exclusively French as to be and the leader fled; but he was seized on his directly anti-European." It is singular that way to France, and on his person were both these personages had been declared in- found letters from the Prince of Orange, admissible by the conference of the represen- then in London, encouraging the project. tatives of the greatpowers. The name of the This unsuccessful effort, and the evidence of Archduke Charles of Austria was then the prince's participating in it, proved very inbrought forward; but he could only be con- jurious to his cause; and even sober men sidered as a cloak for the partisans of the who had favored him, were disgusted with Prince of Orange, and for other members, who what appeared to them to be an attempt to knew he would not accept the dignity, for the involve the country in a civil war. purpose of reducing that absolute majority On the refusal of France, the assembly, of the whole voters which was necessary to still feeling the want of an executive power, the choice. The votes were taken by ballot, passed an act that the throne was vacant, and the following result appeared when the thereby establishing the monarchical princi. names were drawn from the urn:-The total ple, and then proceeded to the election of a number of voters was 191, and consequently regent as a temporary measure. The choice the required absolute majority was ninety- fell upon Baron Surlet de Chokier, a worthy, six. Nine members being absent, there ap- well-meaning man, of no great abilities, peared for the Duke of Nemnours eighty-nine, who showed little solicitude for the dignity; for the Duke of Leuchtenburg sixty-seven, and on the 25th of February he was installed and for the Archduke thirty-five, so that, in with some parade. Plots and conspiracies fact, there was no election. A new voting were forming around him in every direction, then became necessary, and the second and the demon of civil war was urging on the scrutiny gave a definite result. Another people to mutual destruction. The feeble member had entered, making 192, and con- government of the regent could produce sequently the absolute majority required was neither obedience nor tranquillity within the ninety-seven. The state of the voting then country; and it was threatened by the appeared to be, for Nemours ninety-seven, Dutch, who adhered to their king and his for Leuchtenburg seventy-four, and for the purposes with equal union and ardor. It was 64 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. reported, during the regency, that schemes members repaired to Claremont, and had an for the dismemberment of Belgium were interview with the prince. They explained contemplated by some of the continental their object, and the conditions upon which powers. According to this project, two-thirds they were authorized to offer the crown, and of Flanders, the province of Antwerp, and awaited his reply. It manifested a noble, the northern half of Limburg and Brabant, simple, and frank disposition, and concluded including Brussels, would have fallen to thus: "All my ambition is to contribute to Holland; the eastern part of Luxembourg, the happiness of my fellow-creatures. VWhen with Liege and other territories upon the left yet young, I found myself in so many diffibank of the Meuse and the Moselle, would cult and singular situations; that I have have been transferred to Prussia; and learned to consider power only with a philoNamur, Hainault,'and the west part of sophic eye. I never coveted it but for the Flanders, would have been ceded to France. sake of doing good, durable good. Had not cerIf. this project was seriously entertained, it tain political differences arisen, which appearreceived such discouragement from the British ed to me essentially opposed to the independgovernment, that it was speedily abandoned. ence of Greece, I should now be in that' About the same period, that is, about a month country; and yet I never attempted to conafter the instalment of the regent, extensive ceal from myself the difficulties of my posiplans were formed for a general rising tion. I am aware how desirable it is that amongst the Orange party, in connection Belgium should have a sovereign as soon as with some of the chief officers of the army possible. The peace of Europe is deeply inand the most influential leaders of the burgher terested in it." guards of Brussels. But this came to noth- The deputation returned, and many stormy ing, having, it is said, been discountenanced discussions ensued. Attempts were made by the British minister at Brussels, who saw to defer the election till all differences with no other effect that could arise from it but a Holland were settled; but these were overgeneral European war. It is said that after come by the votes of 137 to 48. The election some discussion respecting Luxembourg, and took place on the 4th of June, when 152 checking the petty hostilities on the frontier, votes out.of 196, four only being absent, dethe British government in April gave up all termined that Prince Leopold should be prohope of establishing the Prince of Orange on claimed king of the Belgians, under the exthe Belgic throne. On the 12th of that month press condition, that he " would accept the a kind of proposition was made by some of constitution, and swear to maintain the nathe influential members of the assembly, and tional independence and territorial integrity." privately communicated to Sir Edward Cust, This choice, though not expressly unanione of the equerries of Prince Leopold, with mous, was such in reality; for of the minorthe design of ascertaining whether the prince, ity of forty-three, nineteen voted on the if chosen, would accept the crown. Leopold ground that the election was premature, fouranswered in the affirmative, but strictly ab- teen voted for Baron Surlet de Chokier, stained from giving any authority to make solely on account of private friendship, and exertions in his favor. HIe was, however, con- thus the real opposition to Leopold consisted vinced, before the election, that a vast ma- only of ten. Though the voting was by baljority of the electors would vote in his favor; lot, yet the vote of every man was known and that he should have all the aid of the and all who dared gave reasons for it, except clergy and the high Catholic nobility, with the ten, who were well known as terrorists. no opposition but from the French and move- Leopold lost no time in repairing to the ment party,.and the few Orangeists that had post to which he was appointed, and, with seats in the assembly. A deputation of four only one aide-de-camp and a few domestics, H.ISTORY OF THE WORLD. 65 landed at Ostend on the 17th of June, and eager for punishing what they denominated proceeded directly through Ghent to the the rebellion, than even the king and his palace of Lacken, near Brussels. He made family. A powerful army was quickly his public entry into that city on the 21st, assembled. It was well disciplined, officered, and was received with cordiality by the and appointed, and furnished with an ample higher classes, and by the populace with loud train of artillery; and yet all was done with aeecclamations. The king took the oath to the so much secrecy, that till that army was constitution; the regent delivered up his ready to advance beyond the frontiers, no power; and the congress was dissolved, to preparation was made to resist it. make way for the election of the members Much dispute has arisen relative to the who were to form the two legislative chamb- right of Holland to commence hostilities ers, as prescribed by the fundamental-laws. I without due notice of the cessation of the The first chamber, or the senate, was to armistice; but, on the other hand, Holland consist of fifty members, chosen for eight maintained that the due notice had been given. years, but one half of them was to be renew- The whole turned on the precise sense of ed at the end of four years. The qualifica- the words " ses moyens militaires," in a note tions were to be, having attained the age of delivered by the Dutch ministers to the conforty years, and paying direct taxes to the ference of ambassadors. The king was ceramount of 1000 florins, or ~84 yearly. The tainly encouraged in the enterprise by the second chamber was to consist of 101 members, stormy scenes exhibited in the Belgian assemrbeing at the rate of one for 40,000 inhabitants. bly between the period of Leopold's election They were to be of the age of twenty-five and the time of his arrival. By the noxious years, to pay annual direct taxes to the influence of the press, such angry passions had amount of ~8, and to be paid at the rate of kindled in every division of society, as seemn200 florins, or ~16, each month during the ed to threaten internal war; but happily a session. They were to be renewed by one most powerful speech of 3Mr. Lebau in favor half retiring at the end of two years, but they of union, and urging the importance of rallymight be again elected. ing round their new monarch, had the effect After a few formalities, and appointing the of producing feelings of tranquillity; though ministers to compose the cabinet, on the no language had power to produce order or choice of which much judgment was exercis- infuse energy, when the time approached foi ed, the king left the capital to visit Antwerp, the exhibition of the one and the exercise of Liege, and other parts of the new kingdom, the other. and was everywhere received with demon- The Prince of Orange having assumed the strations of respect and of loyalty. But command of the Dutch army at Breda, on whilst the proceedings just narrated were the 1st of August, the order to advance was passing in Belgium, a storm was gathering instantly given; and the march of the sevon the side of Holland, which had not been eral divisions commenced the next day. This anticipated, and to meet which no adequate was a complete surprise to the Belgians, who preparations had been made. The Belgians were unprepared at every point to resist a relied on the armistice which the conference disposable army of more than 40,000 men. of the ambassadors had established, and the It is not necessary here to describe the posifew measures which were taken by them dis- tion and the movements of the various corps covered only the confusion and disorder in- on both sides. It was, however, remarked separable from all popular movements. In by military men, that the Prince of Orange Holland, every thing betokened tranquillity, advanced more deliberately than the occaorder, and loyalty. The different orders sion required. Leopold collected his forces, ofthe government and the people were more such as they were, near Louvain, in order to mI.-5 H:ISTORY OF THE,WORLD. cover his capital. In this position the Dutch placed in stations of which they were unarmy, having seized the road which led to worthy, because they had been what was Brussels on the 9th of August, advanced to called distinguished patriots, that is, leaders attack him. The Belgian troops could not of the revolutionary movements; but those stand for a moment against their opponents, active disorganizers were found worse than but instantly fled, throwing away their arms, useless when:energy against an enemy reand escaping in disorder; and a neglect of quired order,: discipline and obedience. By the Dutch, who thoughtlessly left open: a the interference to: protect Belgium against road behind Louvain, alone -prevented Leo- Holland, this farther advantage was gained, pold and his whole staff from becoming pris- that the protecting powers were placed in a oners of war. He, however, made good his position to obtain more weight in the nego~retreat to the capital, upon which all hostili- tiations carried on in the conferences of the ties ceased. As soon:as the movements of ambassadors, and both parties were more the Dutch were known, Leopold appealed disposed to leave the contested points re. to France for assistance. A French army specting boundaries to their arbitration. was cantoned on the frontiers, which, by tele- In forming an army, Leopold was assisted graphic communications, was instantly set in by the French, who, as far as could be done, motion; and intelligence of their advance furnished it with able officers; a want which was formally announced to the Prince of Belgium could by no means supply from the Orange by Lord William% Russell, coupled natives of that country. The partisans of the with an intimation, from the French marshal, Orange family, on this occasion, justified the Gerard, of the determination of the two conduct of King William previous to the powell to enforce the abandonment of all revolution, in having selected few of his offi. military operations. As the French army cers from the Belgians. The selection of rapidly entered the country, the Prince of Frenchmen, they contended, proved that Orange soon saw the necessity of retreating; William was right- in not trusting to officers and a convention was concluded between taken from that division of his kingdom him and the French general, in consequence After the Dutch irruption, Leopold proof which he returned to Holland, and the ceeded with coolness and vigor to restore French repassed the frontier; so that by the order and gain confidence. He kept on the Ist of September both armies had left the best of terms with the most important party, Belgian territory. the Catholic clergy and the Catholic nobilThe cowardly and disgraceful conduct of ity, and avoided any nearer contact with the the Belgic troops was of great benefit to the French party than politeness and civility re-' new government. It showed the reflecting quired. He knew who were the real friends part of the community the folly of trusting of monarchical government, and his best sup. the defence of their country to a host of porters. His marriage with a daughter of popular partisans, too ready to destroy or to the king of the French, who was a Catholic, plunder, but too much inflated by the flat- and the contract that the children of the tery they bestowed on themselves to become marriage should be educated in the Catholic efficient defenders when steadily opposed. faith, were powerful means of attaching to All saw the necessity of confiding in their his throne al those of his subjects who were chief, and became convinced that a regular under the influence of the clergy. The Bel. army must be formed, in which the men gian army, under the French officers, soon should be compelled to obey their officers. attained considerable advancement in organiThe formation of an army was therefore de- zation and discipline. The undisciplined free termined on; but Belgium could not furnish troops were disbanded, and the best of the officers. Most of those appointed had been men incorporated in the regiment of chas HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 67 seurs. Some superior officers were superse- pecuniary coercion, by deducting from the ded, and many of the subalterns dismissed. debt due from Belgium to Holland a sum A military school was established, and a corps weekly till the fortress was delivered up; of sappers and miners with a pontoon bri- but to this France and England objected, as gade raised. leading only to future and tedious negotia. The civil list was arranged with economy tions, during which Rotterdam and Amsterand order, and the other branches of the dam might enjoy those exclusive commercia, public service reformed, and others newly advantages which Antwerp was entitled to arranged. The talents and the integrity of share with them. Leopold, and his benevolent disposition, made Belgium, being wearied with these ena very favorable impression on all that ap- tangled negotiations, and having now creproached him. ated an army of more than 100,000, gave Whilst affairs were thus proceeding within, notice that, unless their territory was evacuthe great work of general pacification was ated before the 3d of November, they would attended to by the members of the confer- use force to compel it. But this would have ence in London. A final decision was come created a war, which all the powers were to on the 15th of -November, expressed in anxious to prevent. On the 22d of October, twenty-four articles. These settled the great a convention was therefore entered into be, point of boundaries, and placed the question tween England and France, which was forthof Luxembourg in a way the most favorable, with communicated to the three other pow. as was thought; for future pacific arrange- ers, of whose passive adhesion they were asment; but, above all, it expressed a deter- sured. mination " to oppose, by every means in their By this convention it was determined, that power, the renewal of hostilities between the if the places assigned by the former resolutwo countries." This arrangement was rati- tions to the respective parties were not given fled by the Belgian and French sovereigns up before the 12th of November, France on the 20th and 24th of November, by the and England would enforce the delivery of British on the 6th of December, by Austria these places. This determination was com-n and Prussia on the 18th of April, 1832, and municated to both nations. Belgium was by Russia on the 4th of May. ready to give up Venloo, which she held; It was important to the allied powers that but Holland positively declined surrenderthe throne which they had established in the ing the citadel of Antwerp. The result was% person of Leopold should be strengthened in that a combined fleet of English and French the views of his subjects, who had sometimes proceeded to blockade the ports of Holland, manifested dispositions to democracy, and at and detain the merchant-ships, whilst France others strong inclinations for a union with prepared an army to besiege the citadel, France, neither of which were deemed com- without allowing the Belgians in any way to patible with the interests of the European interfere in the military operation. The commonwealth. But it could not retain re- siege of Antwerp by the French, as a fine spect if the conditions framed by the found- practical exemplification of science, became ers were to be impugned by the Dutch hold- an object of great interest to the military ing the citadel of Antwerp, whilst they were amateurs of all Europe, who repaired thither still in possession of Maestricht. These con- as spectators. But this is not the place for siderations had their due effect on the con- recording the history of that warlike spectaference, who, on the 1st of October, unani- cle. It was vigorously and skillfully attacked; mously resolved that forcible means were and the defence, which was altogether pas. necessary. They differed in regard to the sive, exhibited a conspicuous example of mneans, the northern courts wishing to adopt fortitude and endurance. The first worksE 68 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. of the besiegers were opened on the 30th of Holland signified readiness tc accept the November, and on the 24th of December treaty of the twenty-four articles. This the citadel capitulated, when the garrison announcement produced an extraordinary marched out, and the French took possession movement in the kingdom, for since the year of the battered fortress, which, on the 1st 1830 Luxembourg and Limbourg were idenof January, they delivered up to the Bel- tified with Belgium, and sent representatives gians. The city of Antwerp was not in the to both chambers; addresses were sent to least injured, as the approaches were carried the government from all parts of the counon upon the opposite side. The French army try, the Brabant colors were hoisted, and the shortly afterwards withdrew from Belgium people were roused by protestations of the to its own territory. The Dutch garrison most energetic kind. Leopold was in the was marched into France as prisoners, on meanwhile obliged to yield to the representhe ground that two forts on the river tations of Prussia and Austria, and in 1839 Scheldt, those of Lillo and Liefenschoeck, the Belgians had to abandon more than onewere still retained by the Dutch. This led third of the provinces of Luxembourg and to long and complicated diplomatic negotia- Limbourg. A subsequent treaty was formed tions, which were at length adjusted, when on the 19th of October, 1842, which had for the captured garrison returned to their own its object the settlement of the debts chargecountry. On the 16th of May, 1833, an in- able against Holland and Belgium. By this definite armistice was agreed upon, and on it was agreed that Belgium should only be the 21st a provisional convention was signed, liable for an annual payment of five millions which preserved the liberty of the Scheldt, of florins, instead of eight millions four hunregulated the tolls of the Meuse by the tariffs dred thousand florins, which had been imof Mayence, maintained the existing terri- posed upon it by the treaty of November 15, torial arrangement, including therein Luxem- 1831. bourg, raised the embargo on the Dutch In the same year was discovered a conships, and set at liberty all the Dutch pris- spiracy to place the Prince of Orange upon oners kept in France since the siege of Ant- the throne. The generals Vandermeer and rwerp. Nevertheless, the house of Orange Vandersmissen were at the head of this still numbered many partisans among the movement. They were tried before the tripeople, and when the' government seques- bunals, and condemned to death, but the trated its possessions in Belgium murmurs king commuted their punishment to twenty were heard in many towns, chiefly at Ghent, years' imprisonment. Vandersmissen effected LiMge, Antwerp and Brussels. The people his escape, and Vandermeer was afterwards thus irritated became violent; at' Brussels pardoned on condition of retiring to America. they pillaged the houses of the principal During the revolutions and insurrections Orangists, and were appeased with difficulty. of 1848, Belgium was one of the few EuroAll the attention of the government of King pean kingdoms in which tranquillity was Leopold was given to the encouragement of maintained, for which it was mainly indebted Belgian commerce, which the revolution had to its constitutional government and the wisalmost annihilated. In 1838 a financial cri- dom and liberality of its sovereign. On the sis endangered the bank, which was con- 11th of October, 1850, the Queen Louise strained to suspend its payments. The gov- died, leaving two sons and a daughter. ernment however, came to its aid, and soon King Leopold died on the 9th of Septemrestored public confidence. ber, 1865, and was succeeded by his eldest On the 14th of Maicl' f the same year,'son, Leopold II. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 69 S WIT Z ERLAN D. r p IIS country was anciently called iel- For nearly half a century after this deel i_ vetia, from its first known inhabitants; sive defeat, the Helvetii confined themselves its more modern name is supposed to be derived to their own country. But the recollection from the canton of Schwytz, the cradle of Swiss of rich pastures and fertile plains outlived! independence. Little is known of the inhab- the terror of the Roman arms, andn made itants of Switzerland till about one hundred them resolve once more to quit their rocky years before Christ, when the Cimbri, a race fastnesses. After spending three years in of barbarians inhabiting the northern regions preparation, they set out with their wives and of the Chersonnesus Cimbrica, now known families, cattle and possessions, led by the as North and South Jutland or Schleswig,- same Divico who had commanded their crossed the Rhine, and extended their con- fathers fifty years before. The number who quests into Gaul. Several of the IHelvetian marched out on this expedition is computed tribes, tempted by the immense spoils gained at 368,000 souls, of whom 92,000 were ableby the Cimbri, entered into an alliance with bodied warriors. them, and carried their united ravages nearly The Roman province of Gaul was at that to the mouth of the Rhone. In this extrem- time under the government of Julius Csesar, ity, the Gauls applied for assistance to the and that consummate general no sooner heard Romans, who speedily sent a powerful army of the emigration of the Helvetians, than he to their assistance, under the command of took effectual measures to defeat their plans. the consul Lucius Cassius. This force, how- After some abortive attempts at negotiation, ever, was suddenly attacked on the banks of he attacked and defeated them in two engagethe Lake of Geneva by the Tigurini, a tribe ments, with tremendous slaughter. Their of the HIelvetii, led by a young general strength and spirit were completely broken, named Divico. The Romans were totally and, overwhelmed with shame and grief, defeated, the consul and his lieutenant, Piso, their numbers reduced to scarcely 100,000: left dead on the field, and the survivors only they returned to their desolated country and permitted to retreat after they had given rebuilt their ruined habitations. In order to hostages and marched under the yoke. Em- watch and overawe them, Csesar erected a boldened by this success Divico rejoined the fortress at Noviodunum(Nyon), on the banks Ciinbri, and with their united forces, crossed of the Lake Geneva, and established sev ral the Alps and entered Italy itself, where, how- other garrisons in different parts of the: ever, they were defeated by Marius with country. tremendous slaughter, and the few who es- The lelvetii were at first the allies of the caped sought refuge among the fastnesses of Roman people, but in the reign of Augustus the Ilelvetian mountains. they were reduced to complete sulbjection, 70 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. and their country remained in the condition Rhaetia and Helvetia. The Franks intro. of a Roman province for upwards of three duced into Helvetia the feudal system and centuries, and underwent various reverses of other peculiar institutions and laws of the fortune, according to the prosperous or Teutonic tribes. To them also, under Clovis, adverse fortune of the empire to which it was the inhabitants were indebted for the adopsubject. When the innumerable swarms of tion of Christianity, which contributed barbarians, issuing from the unknown regions powerfully to the progress of civilization, and of the north and east, overran Italy and de- the revival of the country from its waste and stroyed the Roman empire, Switzerland also desolate state. Switzerland remained subject became their prey. The Goths established to the Franks till after the death of Charle. themselves in that portion of the country magne, when, in consequence of the feuds of vwhich bordered on Italy; the Burgundians, a that monarch's successors, the vast empire tribe of the Wendes, from the shores of the which he had founded was entirely dismenmBaltic, fixed their residence on both' sides of bered, and Switzerland was portioned out bethe Jura, on the Lake of Geneva, and in the tween France, Italy, and Germany. Rhoetia Lower Valais, as far as the Aar; and the Alle- and the country between the Lake of Conmanni took possession of the country to the stance and the Rhine, the Aar and St. eastward of that country, and of great part Gothard, in which German was the current:f Germany. language, were united to Suabia; while The Burgundians having been defeated by Geneva, the Valais, Neuchatel, and the the Huns under Attila, about the year 450, present country of Berne, Soleure,'Fribourg, allied themselves with the Visigoths, a Scan- and Vaud, the districts in which Romance linavian tribe, and adopted the Visigoth was the prevailing language, were united to.hief as their king. They afterwards ex- Savoy, under the denomination of Little tended their dominion into Gaul, along the Burgundy. But this arrangement was of. banks of the Rhone and Saone, and gave short duration, for the disorders and confutheir name to the fine country which still sion produced by the continued wars enabled bears it. After having located themselves in the provincial governors to throw off all alleGaul and in Western Helvetia, a more regu- giance to their feudal superiors, or to secure lar system of society can be clearly traced real independence while yielding nominal among then. obedience. Switzerland was thus divided in The Allemanni more ferocious than the to a great number of petty states, generally Burgundians, devastated the valleys of Hel- engaged in hostilities with each other, and vetia, and reduced the country to a wilder- seldom uniting among themselves unless ness, so that, gradually, vast marshes and when menaced by some great and common forests overspread those parts, at present so danger. Such a case presented itself in the beautiful, around the Lakes of Constance reign of the Emperor Henry I., surnamed and of Zurich. the Fowler. An immense horde of barbarAfter this state of affairs had continued ians, known by the name of Hungarians, issome time, a new swarm of adventurers ob- sued from the east and the shores of the tained the ascendency. These were the Black Sea, and overran Germany and Italy, Franks, another race from the north, who, burning and destroying wherever they came. after traversing the Netherlands, gained pos- In order to protect the inhabitants from the session of the whole of Gaul, and pouring fury of these ruthless invaders, Henry built their resistless myriads into Switzerland, walls around a number of defensible places, forcibly dispossessed the inhabitants, and at to which all, in case of need, might fly for length, after various changes, succeeded in ob- the security of their lives and property. In taining exclusive dominion overthe whole of this manner, Zurich, St. Gall, Basle, and HIS TORY OF THE WORLD. 71 vario Is other places, rose from petty hamlets shot through the heart by the famous Wil to towns of considerable strength and nume- liam- Tell, who thus paved the way for the rous population. About the same period, the deliverance of his countrymen. The common bailiffs of the emperor built and fortified account of his story is, that Tell and his boy Berne, Fribourg, and various other towns. passing one day through the market-place of:A ninth of the free and nobler class of inhab- Altorf, in which was erected by order of itants were required to occupy these national IHermann Gessler, one of the bailiffs of Albert fortresses, and they received the same politi- I., the ducal hat of Austria, that every Swiss cal organization and rights as the more an- who passed by might show the tokens of his cient cities of Germany, This was the first surrender, it was observed that Tell neglected foundation of the class of burghers, who in to uncover his head as he passed beneath the process of time came to be a third estate in imperial symbol of submission. IlIe was the kingdom. In proportion as the wealth seized and taken before Gessler. The Gerand importance of the towns augmented, man tyrant having learned that Tell was anthe citizens were eager to extend their rights excellent bowman, ordered him to shoot an and privileges. They availed themselves of apple from his own child's head under penalty every opportunity to purchase their emanci- of immediate death. He performed the feat. pation from the feudal dominion of the Disappointed and chagrined at his success, bishops, abbots, and monasteries, to whose Gessler demanded why a second arrow was authority they had long been subjected; and still in his quiver. " Had the first hit my boy," in a short time the burghers were able to bid replied Tell, boldly, "the second was dedefiance to the nobles, and even to balance signed for thy heart." The offender was at the political weight of the clergy. once seized, bound, and preparations made The affairs of Switzerland continued in to convey him in a boat across the lake Af this state, without any material alteration, Lucerne to the Castleof Kiissnacht, where until the year 1273, when Rudolph of Haps- Gessler resided, and whither he was himself burg, whose castle was situated in the canton proceeding. One of those sudden squalls, of the Aar, and who besides possessing man- which are so apt to vex inland lakes, overorial rights and great influence in Schwytz, took the boat, unmanned the rowers, and had held the office of imperial bailiff of rendered the craft quite unmanageable. Tell, several towns, was elected Emperor of who was known to be an experienced boatGermany. This prince, though inhabiting a man, was unfettered, the rudder put into distant country, continued throughout his his hand, and immediately, as by magic, the life to be strongly attached to Switzerland. little ship wore round, and stood steadily for He conferred new honors on its nobles, and a fiat shelf which jutted forth on the rocky granted additional privileges to its towns, or margin of the lake. As she neared the shore confirmed those which they already enjoyed. Tell started to his feet, clutched his trusty Rudolph was succeeded by his son Albert, bow, and by a nimble spring gained the rock, whose ambition and rapacity soon alienated and pushed back the boat into the surf. The the affections of both his German and his storm was steadily abating, and Gessler and Swiss subjects. Two of the imperial bailiffs, his men got safely landed. Tell selected a Hermann Gessler and Beringar of Landen- narrow defile where he knew Gesslet must berg, who were appointed over the Wald- pass, and, true to his resolution, shot the statten (the three cantons of Schwytz, Unter- tyrant through the heart. This occurred in walden, and Uri), subjected the inhabitants 1307, and the wars of the Swiss and the Austo every species of insolence and oppression. trians did not terminate till 1499. Tell sinks G0essler, in particular, was guilty of so many from view with this event, and nothing more aets of wanton cruelty, that he was at length i is heard of him, save that he fought at the i] HISTORY OF THE WORLD. battle of Morgarten, and was drowned in Unterwalden, had formed a conspiracy 1350 while fording the swollen river against the Austrian governors; and their Schiichen. measures were concerted with such wisdom, Many modern historians, while admitting and executed with so much courage and inthe unquestionable picturesqueness and beau- trepidity, that: they obtained possession of ty of Tell's stcry, feel bound to reject it as an every fortress of any considerable strength or authentic historical record. In proof of their importance. Shortly after this revolt of the position, they allege that a similar story is forest cantons, the Emperor Albert was mur: told in the Wilki>na Saga, and by Saxo dered by his nephew and some other nobles; Grammaticus, of a Danish king Harold and but his son, Duke Leopold, marched against one Toko. They affirm that substantially the cantons with a powerful army. The the same story occurs in Swiss history as Schwytzers waited his arrival at MIorgarten; early as the twelfth century. And to crown on the slope of the mountain Sattel,: and notthe pile of counter argument, it has recently withstanding the disparity of their forces, been found, they aver, in 1835, that the routed the Austrians with great slaughter on name of Gessler does not occur as an Aus- the 15th of November, 1315.; and it was trian bailiff in the records of that age. In with no small difficulty that the duke himthe face of all this scepticism of Grimm, self escaped, leaving most of his officers, and Ideler, and others, there are nevertheless a an immense number of his soldiers dead number of facts of undoubted genuineness uponthe field. regarding Tell still left, on which the poeti- The three cantons of Uri, Unterwaldeti, cal and patriotic, with Johann von Miiller and Schwytz, having thus by their courage among their number, may erect as trust- and virtue, achieved their independence, worthy a belief as almost any which is dis- held a meeting on the 8th of December, 1315, closed to us by the stern historical muse. at which they entered into a solemn comForemost of those facts is this, that no later pact, and thus laid the foundation of the than 1388, when the celebrated Tell chapel Swiss Confederation. was built, some hundred and fourteen persons In 1332, the inhabitants of Lucerne formed visited the place who had known, the hero a perpetual league with the Waldstatten; himself. Add to this, that all the chroni- and in 1351 the citizens of Zurich, having clers of the time allude to Tell's adventures as thrown off the yoke of the aristocracy, joined something of quite notorious occurrence. the Swiss republic; and, on account of the The story has no doubt received a few em- power and wealth of the town, it was probellishments and perhaps inconsiderable al- moted to the chief rank. Glaris came next; terations, as it has floated down the stream Zug joined the confederation in 1352; and of centuries. All the essentials of the Swiss Berne in the following year. To the latter, hero's adventures are very likely to have in consideration of its importance, was astranspired upon Swiss soil. In truth, the igned the second place of precedence. narrative is (like many other traditions found The above mentioned eight cantons, in the page of history) properly representa- Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zurich, tive, and as such it may well take its place Glaris, Zug, and Berne, remained for more among the semi-fabulous, semi-historical tra- than a century the federative republic of the ditions, of which early history is in a great Swiss. With few interruptions, the republic measure composed. enjoyed tranquillity until the year 1375, Three patriots, whose names are still re- when a mixed English and French army of veredthroughout the republic, Werner Stauff- adventurers, under a French nobleman, acher, from the canton of Schwytz, Walter Enguerrand de Coucy, a cousin of Leopold of Flrst of Uri, and Arnold Mlchthal, from Austria, and married to the English princess HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 73 Isabella, alvanced on the Limmat as far as Abbot of St Gall and the Counts of ToggenWettingen. Surprised, however at night by burg in the east, and the Bishop of Basle and the Swiss, they were dispersed, and the Lord Counts of Neuchatel in the west, were powerde Coucy retreated into Alsace. ful neighbors of the eight Swiss cantons. In Duke Leopold III. of Austria viewed the the north existed still the independent iamextending confederation with jealousy and perial towns of Basle, Schaffhausen, and alarm, and various quarrels having taken Soleure. The year 1415 was famous for the place between him and the cantons, hostili- celebrated Council of Constance. About ties were at length commenced. The duke this time the Swiss Cantons carried their with a numerous force, chiefly composed of arms across the Alps into Italy; but the cavalry, marched rapidly towards the in- troops'of Savoy, crossing the Simplon to terior of the country, and on the 9th of July Domo d'Ossola, drove the Swiss garrison 1386, encountered the Swiss in the neighbor- away. The cantons of Unterwalden and UIri hood of Sempach. The battle was long and having next purchased the town and -valley fiercely contested, but at length the Swiss of Bellinzona, the Duke of Milan sent the patriots gained a complete victory: the celebrated condottieri Pergola, who, after an duke himself was slain, and more than 600 obstinate fight at Arbedo, in June 1422, of the higher and lower nobility, with about obliged the Swiss to recross the St. Gothard. 2000 of their less distinguished adherents, In 1444, Charles VII. of France sent the were left dead on the field. Dauphin Louis, at the head of the ArmagTwo years after the battle of Sempach, the nacs, composed of soldiers of fortune of all Austrians took MN/fels, a small town in the nations, against Basle. The two armies met canton of Glaris. The garrison retreated outside that town, when, after a most desfrom the town as far as Mount Rute where perate fight, in which out of one Swiss divithey biok up a strong position, and awaited sion of 1200 men only ten remained alive, the approach of the enemy on the 9th of the dauphin struck with surprise at the conApril The Austrians maintained the fight duct of the Swiss, concluded a truce and sought for some time with great ardor, but were in their alliance. The house of Austria had, the end overthrown and put to flight. The however, gradually lost nearly all their posbridge of Wesen, on the Linth, was broken sessions in Ielvetia, when in 1467, Duke down by the weight of the fugitives, and Sigismund sold his last remaining property, above 3000 common soldiers, and 183 knights, Wintherthir, to the Swiss, and the patriwere slain in the battle, or drowned in the monial estates of that house, even the castle lake and in the river. These defeats induced of Hapsburg itself passed into the hands of Duke Leopold IV., in 1389, to enter into a the stranger. truce with the cantons for seven years, dur- With the exception of the disputes which ing which the Swiss contrived by various took place between the people of the canton means to extend their territory and to in- Appenzell, and of the Valais and IRhetian crease their power. Alps, with their lords, and of the civil war This truce was renewed in 1394 for twenty which arose between Ziirich and Schwytz reyears more, and was faithfully kept on both lative to the right to some lands, no other sides until 1415. At the commencement of event of great importance occurred in the the fifteenth century, the house of Austria history of Switzerland till the year 1474, possessed yet in Switzerland, Aargau, Fri- when Louis XI. of France induced the bourng, Rapperschwyl, Thurgau, and Win- Swiss to make a diversion in his favor, by terthur. The house of Savoy owned the Pays falling on the territory of Charles the Rash, de Vaud. The Valais and the valleys of Duke of Burgundy, who had advanced to Rhsetia belonged to their feudal nobles. The the very walls of Paris, and threatened Louis 74 tHISTORY OF THE WORLD. with the loss of his throne. This unprovoked The confederates had been faithfully sup. attack induced the duke to offer terms of ported in their wars by the towns of Fripeace to the King of France and the Em- bourg and Soleure, and in 1481 these reperor of Germany, with whom he was at the quested to be admitted into the confederasame time at war; and these monarchs ac- ation. Their request was warmly supported cepted his offer, leaving their late allies to by the town cantons; but the mountaineers meet his whole vengeance as they best might. of the forest cantons objected to it, and the Peace was no sooner concluded, than Charles dispute ran so high that, at a general condetermined to inflict condign punishment on gress of all the confederates, the deputies the Swiss for their unjustifiable aggression, and were at the point of coming to blows, and in the spring of 14T6 he crossed the Jura with the confederation was threatened with dissoan army of 60,000 men. He encountered the lution. This catastrophe was happily averted army of the confederates near the town of by the eloquent remonstrances of a pious Grandson, and after a desperate conflict on hermit, called Nicholas Lovenbrugger. HIis the 3d of March, was totally defeated with simple but pathetic appeal had the effect of the loss of a thousand men. His camp with removing their differences, and Soleure and an immense booty, fell into the hands of the Fribourg were received into the Swiss conSwiss. A few months after, on the 22d of federation. June, he was defeated, with prodigious Upon the death of Louis XI. of France, slaughter, in a second action, near the little Charles VIII. renewed the alliance with the town of Morat; and on the 5th of January Swiss cantons, and received permission to 1477, when the duke was slain in the bat- recruit soldiers among them in exchange for tle of Nancy, the states ef Upper Bur- subsidies. The friendship of the confederagundy agreed to pay the confederates the tion was now sought by many sovereigns, sum of 150,000 florins to make peace with among whom the Pope, the Duke of Milan, them. the house of Austria, and even Mathias of These repeated victories procured for the Hungary were prominent. During the ItalSwiss the reputation of being the best sol- ian wars for the possession of the Milanese diers in Europe; and a considerable number and of Naples, Swiss volunteers were extenof them were hired to fight the battles of sively used. So great became the imporforeigners. The sudden wealth acquired by tance of the confederation, that their offer plunder and pensions excited its possessors of mediation between Charles VIII. and to profusion and extravagance; their morals Maximilian of Austria was accepted, when, became corrupted, and the simple republican by the treaty of Senlis, in 1493, the county honesty almost disappeared. A spirit of cu- of Upper Burgundy was ceded to Maximilpidity and pride displayed itself among the ian. Ludovico Sforza, having usurped the rulers, and dissipation and love of plunder Duchy of Milan, the Swiss were offered the among the people; and the Swiss became districts of Bellinzona, Locarno and Lugano notorious throughout Europe as the hirelings by Charles VIII. to obtain their assistance of any potentate who had battles to fight in the conquest of the Milanese. The canand gold to squander. Domestic troubles tons, with the exception of Berne, having and feuds generally prevailed; the peace accepted the offer, 20,0(0 Swiss troops joined and security of the country were disturbed the French army in Italy. to such a degree by an armed and desperate In the year 1497, the Grisons entered into banditti of disbanded soldiers and idle vaga- a treaty offensive and defensive with the bonds, that in 1480, during the short space confederate cantons. This alliance gave of three months, nearly 1500 assassins and great offence to the Emperor Maximilian, robbers were condemned to death. - who immediately collected his troops, and HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 75 marched both against the Grisons and their Switzerland had scarcely obtained rest Swiss allies. Battle after battle took place, from her political wars, when religious dis. ir all of which, more particularly at Bre- putes arose among the cantons, and converted gentz, Frastenz, Alalserheyde and Dornach, into fierce enemies those who -had lately the Austrians were defeated; and the Em- fought side by side in defence of their libperor, having lost 20,000 of his troops in erties. The unscrupulous- sale of indul3ight months, and finding further exertions gences by the agents of Pope Leo X., in useless, concluded a peace with the Swiss at Germany, Switzerland and the other counBasle in September 1499, by which he ac- tries, led to a searching inquiry into the knowledged their unconditional independence whole of the papal system, and caused vast as a nation. This war, called the Suabian multitudes to renounce altogether the authorwar, was the last the Swiss had to sustain ity of the Church of Rome. In no country for their independence. For three centuries -did the doctrines of the Reformationi create after this date no farther attempts were made a greater excitement, or meet with more against the liberties of the Swiss cantons, zealous supporters, than in Switzerland. The which assumed their station as an independent inhabitants of ZUrich, Berne, Schaffhausen, power in Europe. The towns of Basle and Basle, St. Gall and the Grisons, as well as Schaffhausen were received into the confed- of many parts in the neighborhood of Geneva eration in 1501, and Appenzell was added in and Neuchtel, eagerly adopted the opinions 1513, and completed the number of thirteen of Calvin and Zwingli; while the people of'cuntons, which have constituted the Hielvetic the Waldstitten, and of Soleure and Fribody till within our own times-namely, Zii- bourg, being more secluded and ignorant, rich Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden, the three and more under the control of the priests, Waldstiitten or forest cantons, Lucerne, Glar- continued staunch in their support of the is, Zug, Berne, Fribourg, Soleure, Basle, papal authority. Fierce animosities speedily Schaffhausen and Appenzell. Besides these arose between the reformed and the papal there were various confederates and associates cantons, and various sanguinary wars were who were in alliance with the cantons, and carried on for many years. During these inentitled to assistance in case of foreign attack. ternal broils, the territory of the confederaThese were the Abbot of St. Gall, the city tion was violated, and their rights infringed of the same name, the Pays de Vaud, the without remonstrance; and such was the ditowns of Mulhausen and Bienne, the Grisons vided state of the cantons, that Austria, their and the Valais, the republic of Geneva, and ancient enemy, might perhaps have subdued the county of NeuchMtel. them but for the jealousy of the other great In 1513 the Swiss defended Sforza, whom powers. To prevent this danger, they, in they had the year before installed as Duke concluding the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, of Milan, against France at the battle of formally recognized the independence of the Novara, and another Swiss army invaded Swiss confederation. But though SwitzerBurgundy. After the death of Louis XII. land was thus secured against the invasion of France, Francis I. invaded Italy, and at of any of the greater powers, it continued the battle of Marignano, called the battle of to be torn by internal dissensions. The argiants, defeated the Swiss, who retiredacross bitrary manner in which the large towns the Alps into their own country, and con- levied taxes upon the people of the country, eluded peace the next year with France. In and of the smaller towns and villages, caused the subsequent wars of Francis I., in Italy, great dissatisfaction, especially in the territo. Swiss troops fought in his ranks, and at the ries of Berne and Lucernej and.at length the disastrous battle of Pavia, in 1525, the Swiss peasantry rose up in rebellion against their lost no less than T000 men. rulers; and.it was not until after considera 76 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ble bloodshed that the revolt was quelled, people, and the French rulers made these dis. and several of the chiefs who were taken sensions a pretext for their interference with alive were tried, condemned and executed. the constitution of the country. In this way Scarcely had this insurrection terminated, the bailiwicks of Valtelina, Chiavenna, and when religious quarrels again broke out be- Bormio, which had been for centuries depentween the Protestants and the Romanists. dent on the Grisons, but whom the Grisons Till near the close of the seventeenth century, had obstinately refused to admit to a comSwitzerland was distracted by the dissensions munity of civil and political rights, were inarising from this cause; and in 1703, the corporated with the Cisalpine republic. Inwhole of the Protestant and of the Catholic strrections broke out in several of the cancantons were openly arrayed against each tons, and were rendered triumphant by the other, and a civil war of several years dura- assistance of the French arms. Geneva and tion ensued. The immediate cause of the the Pays de Vaud placed themselves undei war was a quarrel between the people of French protection, and at length the French Toggenburg and their superior the Abbot of armies under Brune and Schauenburg, havSt. Gall, who had endeavored in a fraudu- ing defeated the Bernese army under D'Erllent manner to deprive them of their privi- ach, in 1798, united Geneva to the French leges. Ziirich and Berne took part with the republic, and established the "H felvetic Repeople, while the Catholic cantons espoused pitblic." The inhabitants of Berne, Soleure, the cause of the Abbot. Several battles Freibourg, and especially of the Waldstiitten, were fought, and at length, in 1712, an army made a brave but ineffectual stand in defence of Catholics, 12,000 in number, encountered of their rights and liberties. The most hor8000 B1ernois at Vilmergen. The conflict rible excesses were committed by the French lasted six hours, and in the end the Catholics soldiers; the towns were successively rifled were completely routed, leaving 2000 of their of their public property, and great part of number dead upon the field. A peace was the country was laid waste, and many of the,soon after concluded at Aarau, on terms ad- inhabitants reduced to utter destitution. A vantageous to the victors. new constitution was framed by the French From this period till towards the close of directory, which provided that Switzerland the eighteenth century, the state of Switzer- should form a single republic, one and indiland underwent no material alteration; and visible, under a central government, to be their internal discords paved the way for ex- established at Aarau. The country was diternal aggression, and rendered them an easy vided into twenty-two cantons, and the suprey to the grasping ambition of the French preme authority was committed to two counrepublic. In 1797, the French government, cils and an executive directory, in whom was which had previously interfered in the affairs vested the appointment of prefects and other of Switzerland, manifested a determination authorities for the various cantons, which to take possession of that country, and evi- were thus transformed into departments, with dently sought for a pretence to come to an the loss of their independence as separate open rupture. The Swiss government placed states. After this new constitution was estheir only hope in a passive neutrality, which tablished, a treaty was made with France, in the end proved their ruin. For the sake by one of the articles of which the Swiss re(of peace, they submitted with the utmost public was bound to furnish to its new ally a servility to the imperious and insulting de- force of 16,000 men. Great miseries were mands of the Directory; but their humilia- suffered by the people, from the excesses of tion did not save them from destruction. every kind committed by the French troops, The emissaries of France labored but too and their heavy requisitions and exactions. successfully to incite dissensions among the The small canton of Unterwalden refused HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 77 to swear fidelity to the new constitution of and reflected on their representations, pro' the Helvetic republic; but after a desperate mulgated an act of mediation, which was struggle it was subdued; the inhabitants drawn up with a view of reconciling opposite were massacred without distinction of sex or factions, and of fairly meeting various interage; and that district, once peaceful and hap- ests. It restored the old federative system, py, was left a scene of horrible desolation. but introduced very considerable improveDuring the campaign of 1799, Switzerland ments. The act of mediation was promulwas the theatre of the struggle between the gated 19th February, 1803; and the Helvetic armies of Austria, Russia and France; the general government having been dissolved, Austrians under Hotze; the Russians under and the new constitution put in force, the Suwarrov and IKorsakov; and the French French troops finally evacuated the country. Inder Massena, Molitor, Soult and Lecourbe. When the treaty of Presburg transferred fhe mountain cantons were in consequence the Tyrol from Austria to Bavaria, the Tyutterly ruined, a considerable part of the rolese had every variety of insult and outcountry rendered uncultivated, and the pop- rage to endure from the Bavarians and their ulation reduced to little short of actual star- French allies. The consequence was, that vation. The Helvetic directory was sup- when war again broke out in 1809, between pressed in 1800, and an executive commission France and Austria, the Tyrolese rose to a substituted in its room; and about seven man in the cause of the House of Hapsburg, months after, this commission dissolved the and, putting themselves under the command councils and convoked a new legislature. A of iHofer, an inn-keeper of St.Leonard, in the general diet was called in September, 1801, valley of Passeyr, defeated the allied for the purpose of re-organizing the consti- French and Bavarians in repeated engagetution of the country. Meanwhile the treaty, ments, and at length drove them out of the which was signed at Luneville between Tyrol. Till the close of the war Hofer adFralce and Austria, guaranteed the indepen- ministered the internal government of his dence of the Helvetic republic, and the native country with much ability and integFrench troops were consequently ordered to rity. When the fortune of war again laid evacuate Switzerland. Their departure was Austria prostrate at the feet of Napoleon, the signal for a general revolt. All the old. the Tyrol was once more made over to the factions were awakened afresh. The Pays Bavarians; but it was only after the most de Vaud formed itself into a single republic; heroic resistance on -the part of the mounUri, Schwytz and Unterwalden took up taineers that they were able to make good arms against the Helvetian government; and their footing in the country. IHofer was the towns of Zurich, Basle and Schaffhausen obliged to fly, and a price was set upon his renounced their allegiance. A civil war ap- head; but though he contrived to elude the peared inevitable, when Napoleon Bonaparte search of his enemies for some time, he was offered himself as arbitrator between the at length taken, January 27th, 1810. He contending parties, and ordered Marshal was sent to Mantua for trial by court-martial, Ney to advance with a body of troops to the and was condemned and ordered for execufrontiers of Switzerland to enforce compli- tion within twenty four hours. He died, as ance with his mandates. The existing gov- he had lived, a hero; and the spot where he ernment was dissolved, a provisional govern- fell is still visited by his countrymen as a sament was established, and deputies from all cred spot. The Austrian Emperor Francis the cantons were ordered to assemble at testified his gratitude to Hofer, by ennobling Paris, to deliberate upon a constitution for his family, and erecting a splendid monument their country. Several months were spent to his memory in the church of Innspruck. n debates; and Napoleon, after he had heaid From that time till 1814, Switzerland enjoy 78 HISTORY OF — THE WORLD. ed internal peace; and during the gigantic debates; liberty of the press, subject to fixed wars, which at that momentous period raged laws against libels; inviolalility of person throughout Europe, this country rested in and property, and the right of petition. No security amid the din of battles and the tax to be imposed unless sanctioned by a macrash of falling empires, and made rapid jority of two-thirds in the great council. progress in the arts of industry, and in the The constitution not to be modified until career of intellectualand social improvement., twelve years shall have elapsed from its en. On the downfall of Napoleon, the act of actment; and then any alterations proposed mediation was dissolved; but the integrity in it must be submitted to the approval of of the country was guaranteed by the Con- the primary assemblies of the people. These gress of Vienna, in 1815. The territories alterations in their constitution were peacea. formerly dependent on the Bishop of Basle, bly adopted by the most of the cantons; but which had been annexed to- France, together in some of them popular tumults arose, which with Valais, Neuchatel and Geneva, were were speedily suppressed by the firmness ceded to it as new cantons, and a constitu- and prudence of the Diet. tion, based on the act of mediation, was In 1834, the tranquillity of Switzerlanc framed for the whole cantons, now amount- was endangered by a considerable body oi ing to twenty-two. On the 7th of August, Polish, German and Italian refugees, who 1815, the federal compact was finally signed had taken up their residence in Switzerland, by all the deputies in the diet assembled at In the month of January, some hundreds of Zuiirich. The deputies then repaired in pro- these refugees made a sudden attack on the cession to the cathedral, where they bound dominions of the king of Sardinia, in expectathemselves by a solemn oath, and in the tion of combined attacks and insurrections in name of their constituents, to the faithful other parts of the Sardinian monarchy. The observance of its enactments. Sardinian government made strong remonDuring the fifteen years which elapsed strances to the confederation concerning this from 1815 to 1830, Switzerland enjoyed pro- violation of the neutrality of the Swiss terfound tranquillity. The general condition ritory; and the courts of Austria, Prussia of the country was prosperous, and educa- and other German states, whose territories tion was improved in several districts; but border on Switzerland, joined in these reO thde civil and criminal laws remained in monstrances. After some negotiations, the a defective state; the press was under a strict matter was brought to an amicable terminacensorship, and various anomalies existed in tion by the Swiss governments, promising in the institutions of many of the cantons. Pe- future to send away from their territory all titions were from time to time presented for those who should attempt to disturb the tranthe revision of the constitution of 1814, but quillity of other states. were everywhere rejected by the councils. The new law establishing a system of edThe first alteration of this state of things ucation for the clergy, in 1839, was opposed took place in the canton of Ticino, in May at first by the Protestants, and the governand June 1830, and the example was speedily iment at Zurich was dissolved. Aargau, in followed by all the other representative can- 1844, demanded the expulsion of the Jesuits; tons of Switzerland. A new constitution and in 1848, in order to effect this, bodies of established equality of political rights among armed men, called the Free Corps, were all the citizens of the state; the direct sys- organized in several cantons. The Free tem of electing all the members of the leg- Corps under Colonel Ochsenbein, having inislature, the elections to take place every four vaded Lucerne, were defeated, and in 1846, years; separation of the three powers, leg- a separate league, terned the Sonderbund, islative, executive and j dicial; publicity of was formed by the seven Catholic cantons HISTORlY OF THE WORLD. 79 for a defence against the Free Corps. In to all the cantons. The whole population 1847, the Diet passed a resolution declaring of the thirteen cantons at the close of last the illegality of the Sonderbund and the ex- century, was about 1,000,000; that of their pulsion of the Jesuits. The Federal army, subjects was about 250,000; and that of their under General Dufour, having, in November associates and confederates, and the subjects of that year, defeated the forces of the Son- of those confederates, amounted to nearly derbund at Fribourg and at Lucerne, the half a million more. Altogether, the terriCatholic cantons submitted, the Jesuits were tory belonging to the Helvetic Federal Body expelled, and monasteries suppressed. On contained a population of about 1,700,000. the twelfth of September, 1848, the new By the present constitution, promulgated constitution was promulgated. With the in 1848, the general affairs of the Confederexception of the attempt of a small aristo- ation are intrusted to a National Council, cratic party, to separate iNeuchatel from the members of which are elected for three Switzerland, and to incorporate it with Prus- years, and in the proportion of one to 20,000 sia-an attempt which at once called forth inhabitants; and the council of the states, the strong opposition of the united cantons, composed of forty-four deputies, two for each and which led to the entire separation of canton. Formerly these used to assemble at Neuchatel from Prussia, and its incorpora- Berne, ZUrich and Lucerne alternately, but tion into Switzerland-the cantons have since Berne is now fixed upon as the regular place maintained their internal tranquillity and of meeting. A president of the Federal external independence. During the war in Council and six members, to form an execuItaly, in 1859, between Austria on the one tive government, are chosen by the national hand and France and Sardinia on the other, council and the council of the states together Switzerland maintained the strictest neu- every three years. The two councils also trality. elect the Tribunal Federal, consisting of Switzerland forms the centre where three eleven judges, for three years; and conflicts great continental races meet; the Teutonic between the cantons, and between them and Swiss occupy the northern cantons, the the Federal council, are decided by this high French the western, and the Italians the can- court. Each canton has sovereign authority ton of Ticino and the southern valleys of the in its own affairs, with the exception of cerGrisons; while those speaking the language tain rights which are vested in the federal called Romansch, a dialect somewhat similar power, such as the declaration of war, the to Latin, occupy half the Grisons. conclusion of peace, custom-house duties, Before 1798 Switzerland consisted of a con- post-office, telegraphs, &c. The form of govfederation of states of three very different ernment is republc a, and is vested in askinds:-1, thirteen cantons; 2, the subjects semblies elected by the people, all the male or vassals of these cantons; and 3, the allies population, above a certain age, having a of these cantons. The federal bond uniting vote, without respect of property qualifica. the various cantons was very loose, and there tion. The cantons are subdivided into 177 was no permanent sovereign body, or central districts and 3059 communes. The general government, equally acknowledged by all. desire seems to be towards a greater amount No important question could be decided in of centralization than formerly, but it is still the general diets, unless it had been previ-: thwarted by the private interests and jeal. ously debated and decided on in the councils ousies of separate cantons. They have, how. of each of the cantons. The subjects of the ever, recently adopted a national coinage Swiss were either subjects of certain partic- and system of measures; the coinage being alar cantons, or common bailiwicks subject the same as that of France. 80 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. S PA I XN. HAT the Spanish Peninsula was peo- lona. This conqueror having perished in a pled at a very early period seems a.bun- battle fought with some of the native tribes, dantly certain, but by whom it would be vain was succeeded by his son-in-law Asdrubal, to inquire. The earliest inhabitants whom who built the port of New Carthage, now history makes known to us were the Iberians, called Carthagena. The rapid strides which a race probably of Asiatic origin. At some the Carthaginians had made towards the period lost in the depths of antiquity, the total subjugation of the Peninsula aroused Celts, amid their wide-spread migrations, the fears of the G-reek colonies situated on penetrated into the peninsula; and although the coast of Catalonia and Valencia, and they seem at first to have contended with alarmed those tribes in the interior who still the Iberians for the sovereignty of the soil,: stoutly maintained their independence. Too the two races at length amalgamated, and weak to make head against Carthage thermassumed the common name of Celtiberians. selves, they applied to the Romans for assist-. They were split into numerous tribes or ance. This great nation had long regarded clans, each of which occupied its own par- with a jealous eye the growing prosperity cf ticular territory. its rival, Carthage, and eagerly embraced the The fertility and mineral wealth of the cause of the discontented states. In the country led the Rhodians and Phenicians to character of ally and protector, Rome sent a establish colonies here at a very early period; deputation to Carthage, and obtained from but the Carthaginians were the first to ob- its senate two important concessions; that the tain a firm footing in it. Under the pre- Carthaginians should not extend their context of commerce, they established them- quests beyond the Ebro; and that they should selves on the coast of Cadiz, whence they not disturb the Saguntines and the other pushed their conquests into the interior as Greek colonies. These conditions, however, well as along the coast, till they at length did not correspond with the gigantic designs made themselves masters of the whole of of Asdrubal, whose purpose was to subdue Baetica or Andalusia. The Spaniards were the whole of Spain before Rome could send roused to resistance, but it was too late. succors to theconfederates; but when march Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal, succeeded ing against Saguntum, one of the most flour in overrunning a considerable part of the ishing cities of the Peninsula, and an ally of country, and bringing it, at least nominally, Rome, he was assassinated by a slave; and under subjection to Carthage, 238 B.c. He the chief command passed into the hands of extended his conquests towards Mlurcia, I-Iannibal, then in his twenty-fifth year, and Valencia, and Catalonia, in the latter of greatly esteemed for his valorand his talents. which provinces he founded the city of Barce- After havin& ccnquered thl kingdom of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 81 Toledo, this renowned general laid siege to regarded as a Roman province, received the Saguntum with his whole force, which is name of Hispania, and was divided by the said to have amounted to 150,000 men. The- senate into Citerior and Ulterior, or Hither Romans lost much time in fruitless attempts and Farther, the Ebro serving as a boundary at negotiation, and failed to send prompt suc- beween the two. Each of these was governed cor to its faithful ally. The consequence was, by a prmetor annually appointed by Rome. that after a vigorous defence, the Saguntines The extortions of these functionaries very were so -reduced by hunger and fatigue, that soon became so oppressive to the natives, that they retired from the walls into the centre of they at last resolved on attempting to rid the city, where they amassed all their valu- themselves of their unprincipled rulers. able effects, and everything combustible, in- Viriathus, a native of Lusitania, the most reto one vast pile. -Placing their wives and markable man in the ancient history of Spain, children around it, they themselves issued collected a considerable body of malcontents, from the gates, and plunged, sword in hand, and took the field against the Romans. Not into the midst of the Carthaginians. The only by stratagems and sudden surprises, but slaughter was prodigious on both sides, but in regular pitched battles, he succeeded in in the end the Saguntines were cut off almost foiling the most valiant officers of the Roman to a man. No sooner was their fate known legions. For above eleven years lie bade dein the city than their wives set fire to the fiance to the formidable hosts of the invader. pile, and precipitated themselves and their To subdue him by force of arms was found children into the devouring element. Thus impossible, and the base spirit of Q. Servillperished Saguntum, one of the largest and us Ceepio had recourse to treachery. The most flourishing cities of Spain; and its de- offer of a magnificient recompense stimulated struction may be regarded as the opening of three of the followers of Viriathus to assasthe second Punic-war. Of the contests car- sinate him,, which bloody deed they accomried on between the Carthaginians and the plished whilst he lay asleep. It is some conRomans, till. the final subjugation of the solation to record, that the murderers were former, and the consequent incorporation of disappointed of their reward and dismissed its territories with the Roman empire, an ac- from the Roman camp with insults and cob count will be found under the articles CAR- tempt. The indomitable spirit of independi. THAGE and ROME. We shall here only notice ence which animated the Spaniards was -not, such leading events as are necessary to give however, broken by the death of their great connection to our narrative. leader. The Numantians, in particularj stinl Two centuries were required by Rome to remained fiercely hostile to the Romus, andQ effect the total subjugation of Spain, that is, the destruction of Kumantia was decreed by; from the first invasion of the country by the senate. Scipio iEmilianus, the coaqueror Cneus Cornelius Scipio, in the year 218 n.c., of Carthage, was appointed to the command till the last tribes, the Cantabrians and As- of the legions destined for this serv e,; and turians, laid down their arms to Augustus in the city was closely invested by a powerful the year 19 n.C. No other conquest had cost army. While food was left to the besieged: Rome so much. The numbers who perished they defied all the efforts of the Romans to in the field of battle, and the amount of treas- take their city. Famine however humbled: ure sacrificed, are not to be calculated. At them into submission, and they sued forz the same time, scarcely any other acquisition mercy, but in vain. Driven to d-esperation,was productive of so much advantage to'the the wretched remains of the defenders issued, state from the inexhaustible riches of the from the gates, and fell with fury upon the country. After the destruction of the Car- Roman intrenchments; but they were forcedthaginian power in Spain, this country was back within tile walls. Lmilianus had 82 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. formed the cruel resolution of starving them plains of Munda, gained a bloody but decisinto an unconditional surrender. Rather ive victory over the younger Pompey, who than.yield to this, the Numantians deter- was slain in attempting to effect his escape mined, in imitation of the Saguntines, to from the country. Augustus, the successors make a sacrifice of themselves, and of all that of Ceasar, effectually secured the dominion of was valuable which they possessed. This re- Rome over Spain, having reduced the Assolution they carried into effect under cir- turians, Galicians, and Cantabrians, the cumstances even more shocking than those bravest and most warlike of the native tribes. which accompanied the destruction of Sagun- Spain now began to rest from the continual tum. When the victor entered the city, not wars with which it had been devastated from a human being remained alive to grace his the period of the Carthaginian conquest, and triumph; nothing met his eyes but smoulder- quietly submitted to the domination of Rome, ing ruins and a horrible solitude. This event from which it received its religion, its laws, took place in the year 133 B. c. its manners, and its language. After the destruction of Kumantia, three It has already been noticed that the country fourths of the Peninsula submitted to Rome; was at first divided into two provinces, Ci and nothing very remarkable occurs in its terior and Ulterior, between which flowed history till the time of the civil war between the Ebro as the natural boundary. With the Marius and Sylla. The latter having crushed advance of the Romans the size of the prothe Marian faction, proscribed those who had vinces increased, but it is impossible to define taken a part in it, whom he could not irame- their exact limits before the time of Augusdiately destroy. Among these was Sertorius, tus. This emperor less desirous of effecting who had previously served in Spain as a new conquests than of securing the old, made tribune; a man of great bodily and mental arrangements for improving the condition of endowments, of consummate valor, and ex- the whole Peninsula. Out of the two properience in'the art of war, but whose ambi- vinces he formed three, and gave them the tion was equal to his nobler gifts. Having names of Tarraconensis, Lusitania and Bretica. )escape i to Spain, he - there succeeded in Under the pretext of saving time and trouble gaining over to his interest several of the to the senate, but really for the purpose of ~native tribes, raised a considerable army, retaining power over the whole army in his -and routed the Roman legions in repeated own hands, he undertook the management engagements. He introduced a strict order of two of the provinces, in which, on account of discipline among his troops, founded pub- of the pretended insecurity of their situation, lie schools, constituted a senate in imitation a considerable number of troops was mainof that of Rome, and attempted to establish tained. Only Battica came under the direct in Spain a rival sovereignty to that of Italy. control of the senate. A proconsul, who had But, in the midst of these brilliant though his seat at Hispalis, was installed governor ambitious undertakings, Sertorius was basely of this province, but without any military assassinated by his subaltern Perpenna, in power; whilst in the imperial provinces, a i the year 73 B.. With the death of this legatus Augustalis in Emerita, and a legatus great captain expired the last faint glim- proconsularis in Tarraconensis exercised corn-. mer of national independence. iPompey, complete civil and military authority. Suband afterwards Julius Coesar, reduced most sequently the province conceded to the of the native tribes to subjection. After the senate fell entirely under the sway of the tall of Pompey in Africa, his eldest son se- emperor, when the governor received the 1 lected Spain as the fittest scene for opposing name of proeses or president. The districts tthe dreaded dictator. For the ~turth time, been very extensive, it was found necessary iCmesar hastened to the Peninsula, and, on the to appoint inferior officers; under the le~ate of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 83 Luisitania was placed a vice-legatus militaris, and resisted the encroachments of power on and there were three placed under the con- the rights of the citizens. We pass over a islar legates of Tarraconensis. A legate and number of other subordinates functionaries, a quaestor were subject to the proconsul of whose duties are either imperfectly known, or, Betica. In this manner the country as a where known, of minor importance. whole was divided. Let us now take a All matters not cognizable by the legal glance at the constitution and condition of tribunals, nor affecting the interest of the the towns. emperor, were discussed in the assembly of After the complete subjugation of the the decurions. For all important affairs, such Peninsula, the cohorts, composed principally as those affecting the welfare of the whole disof the natives of the country, were trans- trict, the decurions of the principal city of a planted to the most distant part of the province could call a general assembly, conempire, while Roman legions were sent into cilium, to which the other towns sent pleniSpain to supply their place. No arrange- potentiaries. Long after the comitia had inent could have been made that was better ceased to exist in Rome, the province enjoyed calculated to give a Roman impress to the the privilege of calling together such meetcharacter of the people, and to their manners, ings; and they served at the same time as a customs, and establishments. In the interior means of making known their wants to the of the country, towns purely Roman sprung emperor. up, small tracts of country having been con- Of all the provinces incorporated with the ferred on soldiers as a reward for their ser- Roman empire, there was not one productive vices. Thus the town of Leon is indebted of so much gain, not one in which such infor its name and origin to the seventh legion, exhaustible sources of wealth were discovwhich settled there; and in the same manner ered, as the Pyrenean Peninsula. Mines, arose Emerita Augusta (Merida), Pax Julia rich in the precious metals, satisfied the thirst (Beja), Caesar Augusta (Saragossa), and many of the Romans for gold; and a soil nowhere others. Originally, most of the cities man- surpassed in productiveness filled their granaged their own affairs; but when Caracalla aries with corn. During the republic the declared all his subjects throughout his vast peninsula was laid under the obligation of empire Roman citizens, the constitutions of supplyingthe capital of the empire with the the cities of Spain were made uniform with twentieth part of its corn harvests. The those of the other cities of the empire. price paid for the grain was fixed by the RoRome, the capital, was the great type to man senate itself, a convenient way of ohwhich they all conformed. For purposes of taining cheap provisions. general police, and for the superintendence While Spain continued to be ravaged by of public works, fortresses, entertainments, war, the Romans did not in general bind and the like, radiles were appointed in pro- themselves to a regular system of taxation, vincial towns, whose office, however, was but only drew as much from the peninsula one more of pomp and honor than emolu- as it was convenient for it to pay at the ment. The affairs of the cities were univer- time; but when the conquest of the country sally administered by a council of curia, the was completed, a fixed rate of taxation was members of which, called deugriones, were introduced. Consequently, after Augustus chosen from among the richest and most re- had divided Spain in the manner which we spectable of the inhabitants. As advocates have described, the senate sent qusestors into or defenders of -the people, there were the the provinces to collect the taxes. In those defensores civitatum, who neither belonged provinces placed under the immediate conto the body of the decurions nor to the army, trol of the emperor, there were procurators but formed rather a sort of check upon these, employed; and functionaries of this class 84 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. were also appointed to look after the moneys that there were seven in all. The principal received by the officers of the senate, the cities of these provinces were as follows: of application of the whole being under the en- Baetica, IHispalis; of Lusitania, Emerita; of tire management of the emperor. These pro- Galicia, Bracara; of Tarraconensis, Caesar curators were likewise extremely useful in Augustus; of Carthagena, New Carthage; preventing the subordinates from defrauding of the Balearic Isles, Palma; and of Tingithe emperor. By degrees their number in- tania, Tingis. The first three were placed creased, so that ultimately there came to be under consuls, and the others under presiprocurators, not only for the collective income dents (presides). Spain was subject to the of a province, but for separate branches of prefecture of Gaul, and over these local govthe taxes. ernors was placed a vicar (vicarius), whose In Spain, as well as throughout the whole administration was chiefly confined to civil Roman empire, the taxes consisted of a cap- affairs, and the count (comes), whose funcitation and a land tax; but by degrees, more tions were of a military nature. Sometimes, from the extravagance of the emperors than however, both the civil and military departfrom the necessities of the state, the people ments fell to the vicar. We have yet to came to be burdened with a multitude of mention one important event connected with other imposts. The towns had their own the Roman conquest of Spain, namely, the particular estates and incomes, independent introduction of Christianity into the Penin of those of the government, and which were sula. This took place so early that the unmanaged by the civic authorities themselves. animous voice of tradition has ascribed it to These served to defray the expenses of erect- St. James the elder; and from the same auing public establishments, building fortresses, thority we also learn that St. Paul preached and instituting games. The contribution to "Christ crucified," to the idolators of Spain. tne state taxes paid by the towns was levied Of course little or no reliance is to be placed'by the magistrates from the inhabitants, in on such statements; but whether the aposexact proportion to their wealth; hence the tles or their successors propagated the gospel taxes, although they continued to rise, did in these regions, certain it is that Spain can not press with unequal and crushing weight adduce her martyrs as early as the second upon individuals and classes. Never was century. There is abundant evidence to Spain so wealthy, so populous, and so indus- prove the antiquity of the persecutions sustrious, as during the first centuries of the tained by the Christians of Spain, but our empire. Aqueducts, bridges, amphitheatres limits prevent us from entering into details. and other magnificent' structures, even the The prosperity of the peninsula began to ruins of some of which posterity surveys decline after the death of Constantine, A. D. with wonder, still bear testimony to the flour- 337. A species of tax, introduced by Dioishing condition of the country during that cletian, which was made to fall with paralysperiod. ing weight on the middle or industrious classes, When Constantine the Great assumed the proved so pernicious in its operation, that in purple, important changes were introduced a short time the country presented the melinto the empire. From the province of Tar- ancholy picture of deserted towns, fields lyraconensis he separated the governments of ing waste, fruit-trees uprooted from the soil, Carthagena and Galicia, thus making five that the possessors of the ground miglt lessen provinces in the Peninsula,-Tarraconensis, the value of their property, and thus escape Carthagena, Galicia, Lusitania and Bretica. the taxes; trade and manufactures at a stand; Theodosius the Great erected the Balearic in short, nothing but desolation, poverty and Isles into a province, and the African district misery, everywhere presented themselves, of Tingitania was also reckoned another, so It onl y required a strong impulse from with HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 85 out to overwhelm the whole country in ruins. dred barbarians (418). The result of the The last day of the year 406 marks the pas- war was the subjugation of the Suevi, the sage of the Vandals, Alans, Suevi and other total destruction of the Alans, and the exTeutonic tribes, across the Rhine. From pulsion of the Vandals from Spain (427). this river to the Pyrenees, terror and dismay But the restless and powerful Suevi were announced their approach, death and destruc- scotched, not killed. During the reign of tion marked their progress. For a time this Theodoric, Wallia's successor, they became great barrier of nature and of nations re- formidable alike to the Romans and the strained the roving bands, and the mountain- Goths, and made many important conqnuests passes were at first well guarded. But the in the neighboring provinces. Theodoric prolific fields and wealthy mines of Spain might easily have subdued them, had he not were too rich a prey not to be reached at all been summoned to encounter a far more terhazards. Finding an opportunity, when neg- rible antagonist, the renowned Attila, with ligence had weakened the line of defence his half million of mounted Hiuns. The (409), they burst like a torrent through the death of the Gothic monarch on the plains Pyrenean chain, and poured the tide of de- of Chalons (451), the elevation of his son struction from its base to the Pillars of Her- Thorismund to the vacant throne, his assascules. Native historians of the Peninsula sination by his brothers, and the elevation of describe the ravages committed by these bar- the elder of the fratricides, Theodoric, barians as dreadful and revolting almost be- were events which closely followed each othyond parallel. - The very wild beasts quitted er. The reign of the last-named prince their lairs to prey upon the human species, was diversified by alternate success and distoo emaciated by famine and pestilence to aster. The Peninsula, become one great drive them back. In a word, the country battle-field to three contending hosts, the was turned into a desert; and, satiated with Goths, Romans and Suevi, was plunged carnage and rapine, the barbarians sat down in misery, and, from the Pyrenees to the amidst its ruins and divided it by lot. Bam- sea of Africa, was overspread with innamltica fell to the Vandals, Lusitania to the Al- erable swarms, which, like so many locusts, ans, and Galicia, witha great portion of Leon utterly destroyed the spots on which they and Castile to the Suevi. Tarraconensis settled. While Theodoric was preparing alone seems still to have been retained by the to conduct an army across the Pyrenees Romans. against Remismund, king of the Suevi, he But a fourth people, more formidable than was assassinated by his brother Euric, in his all the rest combined, came to disturb the new capital of Toulouse (466). settlers in their possessions. These were the The reign of Euric was unusually brilliant Goths under Ataulphus, to whom Honorius, and successful. He rendered himself absothe Roman emperor, had ceded the fertile lute lord of the country, by extinguishing provinces of Southern Gaul and the Penil- the dominion of Rome in it, and completely sula. The Gothic monarch espoused Pla- subjecting the Suevi. Euric was the first cidia, the emperor's sister, in 414, and im- legislator of his nation, and the founder of mediately proceeded to Barcelona, where, the Gothic kingdom of Spain; for hitherto however, he was shortly afterwards assassin- the country had rather been overrun than ated. His successor, Sigeric, a detestable subdued. This prince died at Arles, the cap nlorster, shared the same fate; and the elec- ital of his empire, A. D. 483. He was suec tion of the Goths now fell upon Wallia, a ceeded by his son Alaric, a weak sovereign, chief every way worthy of their choice. who, after submitting pusillanimously to Peace being made with Rome, hostilities many indignities, was overthrown in battle, were vigorously commenced against the kin- and slain by Clovis, king of the Franks (506) 86 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Amalaric, the son of Alaric, being a minor, descent on the country, which they effected was for a time superseded by his natural in 711. Roderick marshalled a large army, brother Gensaleic, but ultimately ascended amounting, it is said, to 90,000 men, and adthe throne (522). He was the first Gothic vanced against the infidel. The hosts met king who established his court in Spain. upon the plains of Xeres, where was fought HIe fixed on the city of Seville. From the a battle, so bravely contested on either side, death of this prince (531), till Recared I. be- that it seems scarcely unworthy to have decame king of the Goths (587), a few obscure cided the fate of a kingdom. For three royal names occur, regarding whom it would days, from sunrise to sunset, the embattled be a mere waste of space to enter into de- squadrons fought with equal ardor and obtails. The chief act of this sovereign was stinacy, till victory at last declared for the to reclaim his subjects from the heresy of M1ohammedans. Roderick himself is believed Arianism to orthodox Catholicism. He died to have perished in the conflict, as he was in 601. Of eleven monarchs who followed, never heard of more. By this decisive batoccupying a period of seventy years, none is tle, the Moors made themselves masters of in any way remarkable. In 673, Wamba, a nearly the whole of Spain. The wretched man distinguished alike for wisdom, valor remains of the-Goths retired into the mounand virtue, was raised, by the unanimous tainous parts of Asturias, Burgos and Biscay, voice of the Gothic electors, to the throne, left where they maintained their independence, vacant by the death of Receswind (672). and perpetuated their monarchy. In a few The early part of his reign was spent in years their power began to revive under the quelling intestine war. During the latter renowned Pelagio or Pelayo, a prince of the part of it he successfully cultivated the arts royal blood. But before noticing the exploits of peace, and built a fleet for the protection of this warrior, we shall take a brief view of the coast; a very wise precaution, for tile of the political, civil and religious condition Saracens had already begun to swarm all of the people subject to the Gothic monarchy. over the sea of Africa. Had Wamba been The local divisions of Spain, as already succeeded by monarchs of equal prudence laid down, underwent little or no change unand activity, the Saracenic domination would til some time after the descent of the M]oprobably have been for ever averted firom hammedans. The power possessed by the Spain. In consequence of having sunk into Gothic kings was considerable; but its exera deatlh-like trance, in which state he was cise was greatly controlled by the nobles, in apparelled in the garments of the grave, general a fierce, turbulent and haughty body. Wamba was compelled to relinquish the The jurisdiction of the monarch was not crown (680). confined to affairs purely temporal. He nomOne of the most celebrated names in the inated bishops, presided, if he chose, at ecline of Gothic princes, is that of Roderick, clesiastical tribunals, convoked national counwho ascended the throne in 709. He owed cils, and regulated the discipline of the church. his elevation to a party which rose against Next to the king in. civil dignity were the his predecessor Witiza, whose two sons, with dukes, who appear to have been governors their relations, Count Julian, governor of of provinces. After them came the counts, the Gothic possessions in Africa, and Op. whose jurisdiction is supposed to have been pas, an archbishop, are supposed to have confined to particular cities. A number of aided the Saracens in their design of con- other functionaries were subordinate to these; quering the Peninsula. At all events, the and besides the officers of the crown, each party which they formed against Roderick city or town had its municipal council. Of weakened the Gothic monarchy, and thus course there were regular courts of law in~ave encouragemrnent to the Moors to make a stituted throughout the cormtry, where jus HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 8.A tice was administered; the forms of proced- Spanish historians as having acceded to the ure in these tribunals being much the same throne in 718; Theodomir, the legitimate as those practiced in the Spanish courts at monarch, having ingloriously submitted to the present day, but less tedious. There the yoke of the infidel. Numbers of his was a Visigoth code of laws, partly of Goth- countrymen flocked to his standard, and his ic, partly of Roman origin. If we pass from force became at length so formidable as to the civil to the military state of the country, create alarm in the Saracens. A large army we find that the Goths were a nation of sol- was despatched to the Asturias to crush the diers, the obligation of service being impera- rising insurrection; but in attempting to tive on all freemen. After the Gothic power gain the position where Pelayo and his resowas established in Spain, the constitution of lute followers were strongly posted, the the church underwent important changes. Moorp were repulsed with a slaughter so terThe pope was acknowledged as supreme rible, that for some years they showed no head, and metropolitan sees were formed, inclination to assail their formidable neighwhich exercised an ecclesastical jurisdiction bors. Various successes followed, and the over the suffragan bishops. The bishops Asturias, now left in the undisturbed possespossessed an irresponsible power over the sion of Pelayo and his band, became the rectors, displacing or removing them at pleas- asylum of the liberty and the religion of the ure. The cathedral and parish churches were Christians in Spain. It formed the nucleus in general well endowed; lay patronage ex- of a kingdom, which was destined slowly isted, and monasteries were introduced. As but surely to increase in size fronm 2entury in other countries, the ecclesiastical councils to century, until the invaders were finally were of a threefold description, diocesan, expelled from the Peninsula. Little nmolre provincial and national, convoked respective- is known of Pelayo, than that he gained; rely by the bishop, the metropolitan, and the peated victories over the Moors, and died in king. The Goths present nothing of litera- peace, in 737. He was succeeded by: his ture worthy of particular notice. If we pass son Favila, whose reign was brief and his to the domestic arts, we find still less to ad- end tragical, he having been killed by a wild: mire; in every thing they consulted the use- boar, in 739. The subsequent history of ful in preference to the beautiful or magnifi- Spain is rendered so confused by the numercent. It is therefore to be concluded, that ous kingdoms established by Christians and however devout, temperate, honest and sin- Moors, that some chronological guide is necere the Goths might have been, as many cessary to render it intelligible. We shall historians attest, yet Spain, under their do- therefore present a chronological list of the minion, made little advancement in civiliza- various sovereis who reigned over differtion and the elegant arts. ent parts of the country, which had been The Moors under Tarik and Musa subdued erected into distinct and independent soverthe fairest portion of Spain, including the eignties. The dates given mark the years largest and strongest cities of the kingdom, in which the sovereigns acceded to the with a rapidity which shows how complete- throne; the intervening periods, of course, ly the power of the Goths was broken. Still indicate the duration of their respective many of them preferred independence under reigns. We shall commence with the Mbsevere privations amidst the wild rocks of hammedan succession, as during the earlier the Asturias, to abundance and plenty on centuries the greater part of Spain was sulb the fertile plains of Murcia. At the head ject to the Moors. of those who sought a refuge in this mountain sanctuary was Pelayo, a prince of royal MOHAMMEDAN RULERS OF SPAIN. —COIDOV. Sothic blood, and who is recognized by 1. Enirs.-Tarik ben Zeyad and Mumi.: 88 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ben Nozeir, 711. Abdelasis ben Musa, 714. dalla, 1302. Nassir Abul Giux, brother of the Ayub ben Habib and Alhaur ben Abderah- preceding, 1309. Ismail ben Ferag, nephew ol man, 715. Alsama ben Meik, 721. Ab- Nassir, 1313. Mohammed IV. ben Ismail. derahman ben Abdalla, 722. Ambisa ben 1325. Yussef Abul IHagiag, brother of the Sohim, 724. HIodeira ben Abdalla and Ya- former, 1333. - Mohammed V. ben Yussef, hia ben Zulema, 726. Othman ben Abi 1354. Ismail II. brother of Mohammed, 1359. Neza, Hodeira ben Alhaus and Alhaitam Abu Said, brother-in-law of'Ismail II., 1360. ben Obeid, 727. Mohammed ben Abdalla, Ynssef II. Abu Abdalla, son of Mohammed 728. Abderahman ben Abdalla (second V. 1391. Mohammed VI. son of Yusef II. time), 729. Abdelmelic ben Cotan, 733. 1396. Yussef, brother of Mohammed VI. Ocba ben Albegag, 736. Abdelmelic ben 1408. Muley Mohammed VII. son of YusCotan again, 741. Baleg ben Bakir, and sef III. 1423. MIohammed VIII. cousin of Thalaba ben Sulema, 742. I-usam ben Muley Mohammed VII. 1427. MIohammed Dhizar, 743. Thueba el Ameli, 744. Yus- VII. restored 1429. Yussef IV. Aben A1suf el Fehri, 746. hamar. Mohammed VII. restored a second 2. ]i/ngs.-Abderahman I. ben M!oawia, time, 1432. Mohammed IX. Aben Osmin 755. Hixemrn I. Abderahman, 787. Alhak- (nephew of Mohammed VII.), 1445. Moem ben Hixem, 796. Abderahman II. ben hammed X. nephew of Mohammed VII. Alhakem, 821. Mohammed I. ben Abde- 1454. Muley Ali Abul Ilassan, son of Morahman, 852. Almonahir ben Mohammed, hammed X. 1463. Abu Abdalla, son of 886. Abdaila, brother of the former, 888. Abul Hassan, 1483. Abdalla, el Zagal, broAbderahman, III., grandson of Abdalla, 912. ther of Abul Hassan, 1484. Both princes Alhakem II. son of Abderahman III. 961. survived the fall of Granada, which took ITixem II. ben Alhakem II., dethroned to place in 1491. make way for his cousin Mohammed, but re- KINGDOM OF THE ASTJRIAS AND LEON. stored in 1010; in 1012 finally removed, Pelayo, 718. Favila, son of Pelayo, 737. 976. Suleyman, 1012. Ali ben Hamud, Alfonso, son-in-law of Pelayo, 739. Fruela 1015. Abderahman IV., 1017. Alcassim I. son of Alfonso, 757. Aurelio, nephew ben Hamud, brother of Ali, 1018. Abde- of Alfonso, 768. Mauregato, bastard of rahman V. and Mohammed II. cousin of Alfonso, 774. Bermudo I. nephew of Al]Hixemn II., 1023. Hixem III. brother of fonso, 788. Alfonso II. son of Fruela, 791. Abderahman IV., 1026. Gewahr ben Mo- Ramiro I. son of Bermudo, 842. Ordofno I. hammed, 1031. Mohammed ben Gewahr, son of Ramiro, 850. Alfonso III. son of 1044. Mohammed Almoateded, 1060. Ordoio, 866. Garcia, son of Alfonso III. Mohammed Almosstadir, 1069. Dynasty 910. Ordoio II. brother of Garcia, 914. Fruof the Almoracvides.-Yussuf ben Taxfin, ela II. son of Alfonso III. 923. Alfonso 1094. Ali ben Yussef, 1107. Taxfin ben IV. son of Ordolo II. 925. Ramiro II. All, 1144. Dynasty of the Almohades. — brother of the same Alfonso, 930. Ordoino Abdelhnumen, 1147. Yussef Abu Yacub, III. son of Ramiro II. 950. Sancho I. broson of Abdelmumen, 1163. Yacub ben Yus- ther of the same Ordoio, 955. Ramiro III. sef, 11 78, Mohammed, son of Yacub, 1199. son of Sancho I. 967. Bermudo II. grandAbu Yacub, 1213. Abulmelic, and Abdel- son of Fruela IL 982. Alfonso V. son of wahid son of Yacub, 1223. Almamon and Bermudo II. 999. Bermudo III. son of Abu Ali 1225. Alfonso V. 1027. With this sovereign the KINGDOM OF GRANADA. male line of the house of Leon terminated. Mohammed I. Aben Alhamar, founder of Leon and Castille now formed separate thekingdom, 1238. MohammedIT.benMo- kingdoms, the contemporaneous s)vereigns hlammed. 1273. Mohammed III. Abu Ab- of which were: — HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 89 - L-: INON. - CAdsTILLE". - - - VI. 1234. Thibault II. son of the former, 1026. Sancho el Mayor, king ofht of his o Navarre; first king of 1253. Henri, in right of his wife, who was Navarre; first king of w253.if Cwstille in right of his daughter of Thibault II. 1270. Jeanne, queen W. reTrnnano I. king of Cas- 135. FernandoI. sonofancho. of Philip IV. king of France, 1274. Louis tille- king of Leon in right of his wife. so 065. AlonsoI. son of Ferdi- 1035. Sancho II. son of Ferdi- Hutin,: (king of France), son of Jeanne, nado. 1072. Alfono I son of Fe1305. Philip, brother of Louis (also king 10ao. Alfonso I. son of Ferdinando I. (also VI. of of France), 1316. Charles I. brother of 1109. Urraca. daughter of Ferdlinando I. and Alfonso Philip (also king of France), 1322. Jeanne VII.(also sov. of Leon,) 1126. Alfonso VIT. (the emper- 1126. Alfonso II. (the emperor) II. daughter of ouis Hutin, married to or), son of Urraca. son of Urraca. 1157. Fernando II. son of Al. 1157. Sancho III son of Alfonso Philip count of Evreux, 1328. Charles II. fonso the emperor. the emperor. 1158. AlfonsoIII. sonofSancho son of Jeanne, 1349. Charles III. son of 1158. Alfonso IX. sn of FerdiI. the former, 1387. Blanche, daughter of nando, II. 1214. Enriqne I. son of Alfonso 120. Ferdinando II. son of 1217. Fernando I. son of Al- Charles III. and Juan her husband, son of Alfonso IX. (also king fonso IX. ofLeon, after- Ferdinando I. king of Aragon, 1425. Franof Castille. wards king of Leon. qois Phoebus de Foix, in right of his grandKINGDOM OF LEON AND CASTILLE UNITED. mother, daughter of Juan, 1479. Catherine Alfonso X. son of Fernando III. 1252. de Foix, sister of Phoebus, and her husband Sancho IV. son of Alfonso X. 1284. Fer- Jean d'Albret, 1483. This kingdom united nando IV. son of Sancho IV. 1295. Al- with Castille in 1512. fonso XI. son of Fernando IV. 1312. Pedro the Cruel, son of Alfonso XI. 1350. En-GDOM OF ARAGON. rique II. bastard son of Alfonso XI. 1369. Araonese independence is to be dated Juan I. son of the former, 1379. Enrique from 1035, when Sancho el Mayor, king of II. son of the former, 1390. Juan II. son of Navarre and Castille, divided his states the forrer, 1406. Enrique IV. son of the among his sons. Aragon fell to the lot of former, 1454. Isabel, daughter of Juan II. Ramiro I. 1035. Sancho I. (afterwards IV. and her husband Ferdinando V. (the II. of f NKvarre), son of Ramiro I. 1063. Pedro Aragon), 1474. Juana, daughter of Fer- I. son of Sancho I. (also king of Navarre), nando and Isabel and Philip I. of Austria, 1094. Alfonso I. brother of Pedro (also 1504. king of Navarre,) 1104. Ramiro II. brother:KINGDOlMk OF NAVARRE. of Alfonso, 1134. Petronilla, daughter of Ramiro II. 1137. Alfonso II. son of PeThe first independent count of Navarre The first indepedent count of avarre tronilla, 1163. Petro II. son of Alfonso II. was Sancho Inigo, 873. The kings reported 1196. Jayme I. son of Pedro II. 1213. to have reigned prior to this period are Pedro III. son of Jayme. 126. Alfons Pedro III. son of Jayme I. 1276. Alfonsc entirely fabulous. Garcia I. (Iniguez), son III. son of Pedro III. 1285. Jayme II. of Count Sancho, and the first king, 885. brotherofAlfonso, 1291. Alfonso IV.sonof Sancho I. (Garces Abarca), son of Garcia I. J Jayme II. 1327. Pedro IV. son of Alfonso 905. Garcia II. (el Trembloso), son of IV. 1336. Juan I. son of Pedro IV. 1387. Sancho I. 924. Sancho II. (el Mayor), son Martin, brother of Juan I. 1395. Fernando or grandson of Garcia II. 970. Garcia III. I. brother of Enrique III. lung of Castille, son of Sancho 1035. Sancho III. son of elected 1412. Alfonso V. son of Ferdinauda Garcia III. 1054. Sancho IV. (also I. of I, 1416. Juan II. (also king of Navarre), Aragon), 1076. Pedro I. son of Sancho IV. brother of Alfonso V. 1458. Fernando II. (also king of Aragon), 1094. Alfonso I. (the V. of Castille), son of Juan II. 1497 brother of Pedro (also king of Aragon), 11-4,Garcia IV. 1134. Sancho V. son of AThis kingdom united with Castille in 1516. 1104, Garcia IV. 1134. Sancho V. son of Garcia IV. 1150. Sancho VI. son of Sancho )UNTS OF BARCELONA. V. 1194. Thlibault I. nephew of Sancho During the early period of Mohammedan 90 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. domination in Spain, Barcelona and all Cat- jected the country from the Pyrenees to the alonia were subject to it. In the year 810, Iberas. But he was soon recalled from the however, the Moors were expelled from Peninsula by the revolt of the Saxons. In Barcelona, and a count named Bera, a na- his passage through the mountain defiles, tive of Gothic Gaul, was nominated head the rear of his army was attacked by the cf the independency. The names of his Navarrese, and cut to pieces. 3eccessors eleven in number, are too insig- It seems certain, that from the period nificant to require mention individually. when Charlemagne poured his legions into Alfonso Raymond, the last count, acceded Navarre, he considered the country as a fief to power in 1131. On his death Barcelona of his crown, and thus gave great umbrage was united with Aragon. to the Asturian kings. But the inhabitants of the province, averse to the sway of either, To give a connected history of these va- longed for independence, and this they suerious sovereigns is quite incompatible with ceeded in achieving about the year 885. our limits. We can only briefly describe The rise of this kingdom was another blow those more important transactions affecting to the Saracens. So signal was the successes the whole country, in which the Christians, gained over them by the Christians of Naby wresting portions of soil from the Moors, varre, that in the year 920 not a Mohamncompelled them to retire within narrower medan remained in the whole kingdom limits, and thus circumscribed their power. north of the Ebro. The kings of Asturias Alfonso and Fruela, the sovereigns who im- and Leon also rapidly extended their domediately succeeded Pelayo's son, inflicted minions. Ordofno II. invaded the M1ohamseveral severe blows on the Moors, and medan possessions, and gained many advanoverran a considerable portion of the flat tages. In 932, IRamiro II. made an irruption country. But what proved a more effectual into the states of the enemy, and ruined check upon the Saracens than the arms of Madrid. Arabian writers boast of terrible the Christians, were their own domestic reprisals having been made on the Christians, quarrels. So mutable had been the govern- and assert that Ramiro himself was defeated. ment, that in the space of only forty years The Saracens having invested Zamora, Rafrom the period of their first landing in miro approached with a formidable army. Spain, no less than twenty emirs had been The combatants met, and a battle ensued, called, or had raised themselves, to the seat more obstinately contested and bloody than of power. On the establishment of a mon- any that had been fought since the days of arehy under Abderahman, intestine revolt Roderick. There can be no doubt that was quelled for a time; but a more formid- victory shone on the banners of the Chrisable foe from without made his appearance. tians, but the success was less splendid than This was no other than the celebrated Charle- their writers assert it to be. The accounts magne, who poured his legions over the of all the battles fought between the Moors Pyrenees into the valleys of Catalonia. We and the Christians in Spain are to be reshall not discuss the much agitated question ceived with caution. The Arabian writers, as to the motives which brought this emperor to exalt the prowess of their countrymen, into Spain. He appears to have received exaggerate mere skirmishes into great battles, an invitation from some discontented Moor- and temporary and partial checks into deish governors; and in acceding to their re- cisive victories. In equivocal cases, they quest, he probably also listened to the dictates seem invariably to claim the advantage; of his own ambition. Certain it is that he and where they were defeated, they either entered Spain with a powerful army, and, obscurely hint the fact, or diminish the loss if we can trust his historia. Eginhard, sub- which they sustained. It is to be feared, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 91 that in many instances Christian chroniclers so that at the period of his death, in 1035, are chargeable with similar partiality. he was virtually master of all Christian The reign of Abderahman III. (912) has Spain except Catalonia. Before his death been extolled as the most brilliant period in he divided his states among his sons, and the history of the Spanish Arabs. Commerce Aragon fell to the share of Ramiro. The in flourished, and riches were, accumulated to dependence of Aragon as a separate kingdom an unexampled extent. A powerful navy is therefore to be dated from 1035, the year was formed, and maintained in full activity; in which Ramiro I. obtained possession of the arts and sciences were cultivated with the throne. ardor, because their professors were rewarded About the middle of the eleventh century with princely liberality; many splendid Spain may be said to have been divided into works were undertaken in the towns of two unequal parts by a straight line drawn Mohammedan Spain; and the king himself from east to west, firom the coasts of Valencia was the friend of industry and of merit. Still to a little below the mouth of the Douro. The none of the territories which had been lost in country north of this belonged to the Chrisprevious reigns was recovered, and the tians, who as yet had the smallest and least Christians were gradually becoming more and valuable portion, while all the rest belonged more formidable to the Moors, when Moham- to the Moors. In point of wealth and real mcd, better known as Alnanzor, appeared to power, both by land and sea, the latter were restore the glory of the Saracen arms. I-e much superior to the former; but their perwas an eminent general and an enlightened petual dissensions materially weakened them, Btatesmen, and a patron of the liberal arts. and every day facilitated the progress of the IHis campaigns against the Christians proved Christians. Indeed, had either party been most fatal to them. The towns were ruined, united, the other must soon have been quellthe open country was ravaged, and once ed; but the Christians, although they did not more the mountains of Asturias became the constantly make war upon each other like inaccessible asylum of the native monarchy. the Moors, continued from time to time to At length the three powers, Navarre, Cas- be so embroiled by domestic feuds, as to be tille, and Leon, entered into a confederacy to unprepared for striking a decisive blow with repel the common foe. The armies met at a the combined armies of all the kingdoms; place situated between Soria and 3Medina while the same evils, existing to a still Celi, where a drawn battle was fought. This greater extent amongst the Mohammedans, check, and the fearful loss which he had sus- rendered it impossible for their monarchs to tained, so mortified Almanzor, that he sunk take advantage of the untoward state of the under the weight of his despair, and died, affairs of the Christians. Among the Moors some assert by voluntary abstinence from almost every city was a kingdom; and as food, in the year 1001. An event of some these petty sovereignties supported one animportance to the Christian cause was the other very indifferently, they, one after anerection of Castille into a distinct kingdom, other, fell a prey to their enemies. The raby Sancho el Mayor, king of Navarre, the pidity with which the kingdom of Cordova most powerful prince of his age and country. fell to pieces has few examples in history. Besides Sobrarve, he held the lordship of Alfonso I king of Aragon, also of Navarre, Aragon; and in 1026, in right of his wife, a and for some time of Castille and Leon, is princess of Castille, he became king of that reckoned among the most valiant princes of country. By his conquests he considerably Spain. From his warlike habits he was extended his dominions; and the marriage of surnamed El Batallador. He conquered his son Fernand) to tIe heiress of Leon gave Tudela, Saragossa, Tarragona, Calatayud, hia influence in the affairs of that kingdom; Daroca, Mequinencia, and much of the 92 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. country south of the Ebro. Since the con- Merida, and Seville; and from that year tc quest by the Arabs, he was the first who car- 1248, he successively obtained possession of ried the Christian ensigns into Andalusia. In Toledo, Cordova, the whole of Murcia, Jaen 1134, however, he lost a great battle, and and Seville. The loss of the city of Cordova, either perished in the conflict or -died of which in the eyes of the Mohammedans was grief shortly afterwards. This was a misfor- sacred alike from its magnificent mosque, tune, but the misfortunes of the Christians and from its having been so long the seat of were in general soon repaired, although for their caliphs, was a severe blow to their nearly a century their conquests were less power. About the same time King Jayme, brilliant than those achieved by El Batalla- the greatest name in the ancient history of dor. At the commencement of the thir- Aragon, and surnamed the conqueror on acteenth century, indeed, the Moors gained count of his victories, reduced the Balearic some decided advantages, and reduced sev- Isles, and obtained other important victories. eral important towns. hBut the balance was At this period Mohammedan Spain obeyed restored on the celebrated plains of Tolosa, three sovereigns, who hated each other as where an enormous army of Moors from cordially as they were all detested by the Africa -was nearly annihilated. Alfonso of Christians. Mohammed, who ruled in Jaen, Castille having made some destructive in- was the least powerful, but the most successroads into Andalusia, Mohammed Abu Ab- ful, of these petty kings. He successively dalla, emperor of Barbary, prepared to got rid of his two contemporaries, and fixed punish his audacity. It is related, on credible his court in Granada, resolving if possible to authority, that one of the five divisions of extend, or at the worst to preserve, his new the army which he assembled mustered states against the independent walis or local 160,000 combatants. To meet this over- governors on the one hand, and the Chriswhelming host, the Christian kings, for- tians on the other. Thus the celebrated tunately at this juncture brought to terms of kingdom of Granada was founded in the year amity with one another, united their armies 1238, for that of Cordova no longer existed. at Toledo, where they were joined by nu- During two centuries and a half, this merous volunteers from Portugal and France. Mohammedan state withstood the hostile atOn the 16th of July, 1212, the Christian tacks of its Christian neighbors, and only fell army descended the mountainous chainwhich when all Spain became united under one divides New Castille from Andalusia into sceptre, and was consequently rendered irthe plains of Tolosa, where the Mohammedan resistibly superior to the kingdom of the army was drawn up in battle array. The Moors. conflict which ensued was obstinate and The first king of Granada was equally bloody, but victory at length declared for valiant in war and wise in council, but he the Christians, and its immediate conse- was not in in a condition to contend with quences involved the ruin of the Mohamme- Ferdinand of Castille. He submitted to do dan empire in Spain. The thirteenth cen- homage to him as his vassal; and during the tury is distinguished by other important ad- lifetime of Ferdinand a good uuderstanding vantages gained by the Christians. Ferdin- subsisted between him and Mohammed. But %nd III. king of Leon, afterwards of Castille, in succeeding reigns war again broke out beby his numerous victories made himself lord tween the Moors and Christians. In 1303 of Spain, from the Bay of Biscay to the the strong fort of Gibraltar was reduced by vicinity of the Guadalquivir, and from the Ferdinand IV. king of Castille and Leon. confines of Portugal to those of Aragon and But the reign of this prince was mostly one Valencia. In 1233 he triumphed over Aben'of disaster. An iniquitous league was formnEHiud, king of Murcia, Granada, Cordova, ed by two native princes, who plroposed to HIST-ORY OF THE WORLD. 93 share the kingdom between them. The history. In 1328, however, the kingdoms kings of France, Portugal, and Granada, were again separated, though the sovereigns were not ashamed to sanction this unhal- of Navarre were closely related to those of lowed compact. The king of Portugal in- France. Charles II. surnamed the wicked, vaded Castille, the king of Granada spread his ascended the Navarrese throne in 1349, and ravages into Andalusia, and the fate of Fer- shortly afterwards married Jeanne, daughter linand seemed on the point of being sealed, of King John of France. His reign is one and his kingdom partitioned among the com- of perfidy, intrigue, and dishonorable albined robbers. But dissensions among the liances. Events which belong more immeconfederates, and the want of money, dis- diately to the history of France, led to the solved the league, and saved Spain. The arrest of Charles by the French monarch, greatest battle which had been fought'be- and his detention in prison for several years. tween the Moors and Christians since the He effected his escape, and again resumed mighty African host was destroyed on the his old practice of intriguing, particularly plains of Tolosa, took place in October, 1340, against the king of France. In 1366, he on the banks of the small river Salado. The entered into a league with the celebrated Christians under Alfonso of Castille were a Black Prince of England, for the restoration very small band compared with the enormous of Pedro, surnamed the Cruel, who had been host led by the king of Granada; but the for- driven from the throne of Castille on account mer gained a brilliant victory, the loss of the of his many enormities. The expulsion of this Ioors having been immense. The conse- detestable monster was the act of an indignant quence was the surrender of several fort- nation, which immediately elevated his basresses; and in the following year the des- tard brother Enrique, or HIenry, count of truction of the Mohammedan fleet was Trastamara, to the throne of Castille. The effected by the Christians. exiled king himself appealed in person to the It is now necessary to mention some cir- generosity of the English hero, and the concumstances in the history of Navarre, re- sequence was that the Black Prince led a lative to the intimate connection which so powerful force across the Pyrenees. In his long subsisted between that kingdom and combined army of English and Normans France, and which had a material influence were some of the flower of English chivalry. on the destinies of Spain. The male line of Henry made every disposition in his power, the house of Sancho Inigo, founder of the resolving to hazard all in a battle. The resovereignty, having ended in Sancho VI., collection of the cruelties and oppressions of who died in 1234, leaving no issue, the Pedro's government were a strong stimulus Navarrese elected as their future king Thi- to his followers, and might have insured sucbault, a French prince, and nephew to the cess had he only been opposed by Pedro the deceased Sancho. Of this monarch we know Cruel and Charles the wicked; but he had to little beyond an expedition to Palestine, contend with the victor of Cressy and Poicwhich he undertook along with several tiers. The battle which decided the fate of princes of France. HIis two sons, who sue- the two kings was fought near Logrono, a cessively occupied the throne of Navarre, es- few miles south of the Ebro, on the 3d of poused French princesses, and thus an inti- April 1367. Henry nobly contested the day, mate connection with France was established. as also did his antagonist, who was as brave The relationship between the two kingdoms as he was cruel. The conflict was for a became still more close when Queen Jeanne short time desperate, but it terminated in the gave her hand to Philip the Fair of France. complete discomfiture of Henry, an event In short, Navarre became a province of followed by the immediate restoration of France, and for four reigns has no distinct Pedro to the Castillian throne. His gallant 94 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ally had soon reason to regret his connection sist his weak and flagitious administration. with a prince equally perfidious, debauched, He was formally deposed at Avila, in a very and'bloody. Edward quitted him in disgust, extraordinary manner; an effigy which rep. without receiving payment of the sum resented him being solemnly degraded from promised to the English troops. Pedro, no the royal dignities, while at the same time longer overawed by the Black Prince, who his brother Alfonso was proclaimed king of was as humane as he was valiant, imme- Castille and Leon. Henry was naturally diately set about punishing those whom he anxious to punish the rebels, but they assumn either knew or suspected of having been ed an attitude too formidable for him. Civil zealous in the cause of Henry. His late dis- war produced a total relaxation of the laws grace had sharpened his naturally keen appe- and let loose bands of robbers, who pillaged tite for blood; but we pass over the revolting the open country, and not unfrequently at details of the enormities which he commit- tacked and plundered the towns. In the ted. They produced their usual effects, the midst of these troubles the Infante Alfonso complete alienation of the minds of his sub- died, an event for the present highly favor jects from him, and then a conspiracy to put able to the king. Some attempts to raise the an end to such barbarous tyranny. Henry, Infanta Isabella, his sister, to the throne, who had fled to France, entered Spain with pi oved at first abortive; but she was the per. a small force, which, however, soon became son upon whom the nobles had set their eyes augmented to an army. Tyrants have few as the only legitimate successor to Henry. friends in the hour of adversity, and those who In 1469, was laid the foundation of a union have been bribed by gold or overawed by au- which was to prove of such unbounded adthority to become their pliant tools, are too eas- vantage to Spain. Juan II. of Aragon soily seduced from their allegiance to be trusted licited the hand of Isabella of Castille for his when the day of trial comes. IMohammed V., son and heir Don Ferdinand, king of Sicily. king of Granada, was induced to take the By distributing largesses amongst the Castil. field in behalf of Pedro; but it was less to liaa nobles, and firmly attaching the archaid his ally than to take advantage of the bishop of Toledo to his interest, Juan sueconfusion of the times. - Pedro's army gradu- ceeded in his object. On the 25th of October, ally melted away, and he himself, compelled 1469, the royal pair received the nuptial to flee for shelter to a fortress, and nearly benediction in the cathedral of Valladolid. deserted by his followers, was there shortly The negotiations had been secretly conducted, afterwards slain by the hand of Henry. Al- and the whole affair was brought to a conthough, as we have already noticed, this elusion without the knowledge of Henry or prince was a bastard, yet he quietly ascended his queen, a princess as licentious as himself. the Castillian throne, which he bequeathed She had borne a daughter, the Infanta to his posterity. Juana, whom the whole kingdom supposed, For nearly a century after these events on pretty good grounds, to be the fruit of her took place, the history of Spain presents intrigue with Don Beltran de la Cueva, little or nothing that is remarkable. The count of Ledesma, one of Henry's favorites. continued and petty hostilities between the No sooner was Henry made acquainted with native princes, or between any or all of tliis precipitate niarriage, than he resolved to them and the Moors, merit but slight atten- leave no measure untried for securing the tion. Henry IV. surnamed the Impotent, crown to Juana. IHe caused her to be proascended the throne of Castille in 1454. The claimed heiress of his dominions, and in his misconduct of this prince, a frivolous and last will declared her his successor. But contemptible debauchee, produced a con- popular opinion is too strong even for princes. s]piracy amcngst his turbulent nobles, to re- The country believed her illegitimate, and on HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the death of Henry, in 1474, Ferdinand V. laws, appointing courts and judges in vaiious and Isabella were elevated to the throne of parts of the kingdom. New powers were Castille and Leon, it being stipulated that reposed in this association, so that it became the king and queen should reign ocnjointly. a powerful instrument in the hands of govThe king of Portugal at first espoused the ernment, and alike terrible to robber and cause of Juana; but the alliance was produc- rebel. By this means the territorial juristive of no event of importance, and peace diction of the seignoral nobles was materially was restored between Castille and Portugal abridged, while the royal prerogative was in 1479. The very same year, Ferdinand, greatly extended. The prompt and imparby the death of his father, Juan II., was tial administration of justice restored trancalled to the throne of Aragon. Having re- quillity and order; and it had been well for ceived the homage of his Aragonese subjects the fame of these sovereigns if their salutary at Saragossa, of the Catalonians at Barcelona, severity had been only directed against the and of the Yalencians in the capital of that disturbers of the public peace. But unforprovince, he returned into Castille. tunately they were equally severe against all The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella is who ventured to differ from the established distinguished by great events, events of the faith. Against apostates, all converts who, highest importance, not only to Spain, but after baptism, reverted to Judaism, or the to mankind. It was under their auspices faith of Islam, their hatred was implacable. that Columbus brought a new world to light, Their intemperate zeal led them to establish, and it was by their arms that the power of or rather to re-organize, an ecclesiastical trithe AMohammedans was forever extinguished bunal, which became proverbial throughout in the Peninsula. Their first object was the the civilized world for its enormous cruelties regulation of the government and the en- and injustice. This was the court of inquiforcement of the laws, which, from the li- sition. cense of preceding reigns, had fallen into We now approach what is not only an irndesuetude, or were openly defied. The king portant event in the reign of Ferdinand and and queen were noted for a rigid administra- Isabella, but an era in the history of Europe, tion of justice; neither for money nor favor namely, the conquest of Granada, the last would they spare the guilty; and there was possession of the Mlohammedans in Spain. too much to punish and correct not to give A sovereign so zealous for the Catholic faith their administration a character of severity, as Ferdinand proved himself to be, was not which would have had no existence had the likely to allow such enemies of Christianity country not fallen into a state of civil and to remain long in the Peninsula, if by force political disorganization almost unprecedent- of arms he could expel them; and accorded. The local judges were overawed by the ingly he early turned his attention to the nobles, and extraordinary judges or corregi- subject. Every thing conspired to favor his dors were appointed to see that they did designs; the Moorishkingdom was distracted their duty. This not being found sufficient to and disunited by a civil war between father eradicate an evil which had existed for cen- and son; and Ferdinand having obtained the turies, the aid of the Holy Brotherhood was bull of Sixtus IV. authorizing a crusade, put sought and obtained. This association, which himself at the head of his troops, and entered had existed since the middle of the thirteenth Granada., He continued the war with rapid century, consisted of a number of confeder- success; Isabella attended him in several exated cities and towns, which maintained a peditions; and they were both in consideraconsiderable body of troops, in order to pro- ble danger at the siege of Malaga, an importect travellers and pursue criminals, andtook tant city, which was defended witth great cognizance of all violent offences against the courage, and taken in 1487. Baza was ret 96 H.I.S.TORY OF. THE. WORLD. duced in 1489, after the loss of 20,000 men. first its art and then its fury to accomplish Gaudix and Almeria were delivered up to this object, but with comparativelylittle suCthem by the Moorish king Alzagel, who had cess. Many, indeed, to save their property, first dethroned his brother Alboacen, and af- always dear to an Israelite, outwardly, at terwards been chased from his capital by his leas, embraced the faith of the cross; but nephew. Abdali. That prince engaged in by far the greater number, in profound de. the service of Ferdinand and Isabella, who, spair, and stripped of much of their wealth, after reducing every other place of eminence, took leave of the land of their birth. About undertook the siege of Granada. Abdali' the same time that this decree was promulmade a gallant defence; but all communi- gated, their Catholic majesties concluded an cation with the countrybeing cut off, and alliance with the Emperor Maximilian, and all hopes of relief at an end, he capitulated, a treaty of marriage for their daughter Juana after a siege of eight months, on condition with his son Philip, archduke of Austria, that he should enjoy the revenue of certain. and sovereign of the Netherlands. To this places in the fertile mountains of Apujar- period also belongs the contract concluded ras; that the inhabitants should retain the with Columbus for the discovery of new undisturbed possession of their houses, goods countries; an event which more powerfully and inheritances; the use of their laws, and than any other attracts the notice of posterity the free exercise of their religion. Thus to this splendid reign, and which materially ended the empire of the Arabs in Spain, af- tended to raise the Spanish monarchy above ter it had continued about eight hundred any other in Europe. To Isabella must be years. ascribed the glory of the enterprise, for she Its overthrow was soon followed by the. it was who borrowed the sum of money necexpulsion of the Saracens from Spain. This essary for the armament, and bade the great expulsion, however, was not entirely effected navigator depart. This great queen died in till the 17th century. Vast numbers of the 1504, leaving her daughter Juana, and after Moors, indeed, oppressed by their conquer- that princess her own grandson (the celebrated ors, abandoned a country where they could Charles V.), heirs to the monarchy, but apnot reside with comfort and with freedom. pointing her husband, Ferdinand, regent of From the reign of Ferdinand of Castille, to the kingdom till the majority of Charles. that of Philip III. of Spain, more'than The latter years of Ferdinand's life were 3,000,000 of these people quitted Spain, and. embittered by family dissensions, which broke carried with them, not only a great part of out even before Isabella had breathed her their acquired wealth, but that industry and last. Juana was undoubtedly queen, for thle love of labor.which are the foundation of Salic law, which excludes females, did not national prosperity. exist in Spain. This was well known, and The conquest of Granada was followed by is important, as beating on events which hapthe expulsion of the Jews, under circum- pened in more recent times. Philip therefore stances of great injustice and atrocity. This prepared to enforce his right, while Ferdinunhappy people had engrossed the greater and, fond of power, and backed by the will part of the wealth and commerce of Spain, of his late wife, showed a determination to yet not being allowed to take away the value maintain his positi: n in the kingdom. But of their property in the precious metals, they just as the affairs of Spain were assuming a were compelled to barter it for the produce serious aspect, Philip died, and Ferdinand or manufactures of the Peninsula, and this gradually resumed his authority over the could not be effected except at a great sacri- whole country. Insurrection quailed before lice. One alternative was left them, to em- him, the laws resumed their empire, and brace Christianity. The inquisition exhausted prosperity revisited the peorle.The re ..........----------- --------------- or HISTORY OF: THE WORLD. 97' naining events of: his reign must be briefly the greatest prince: -of his age, and one of summed up,:. He solicited. and obtained the-ablest and best that ever swayed the the hand of:Germaine, niece'to Charles of sceptre of Spain. We shall- now glance at France, in the-hope of leaving a male- heir the civil and politial condition of Spain unto the. throne; but his anticipations were not der the:. Moors and: under theChristians rerealized.:In several:expeditions-to Africa, spectively, from the period Cof the Xoham-: important. conquests. were.made in that coun- rmedan conquest till the death of Ferdinand, try, Algiers,: Tunis an.d other -places. submit- Mohammedan.Spain. originally compreting to become vassals to the king of.Spain., hended nearly nine tenths of the, Peninsula:, In 1511 he. went:to -Italy to assist the.pope M lurcia, which the Arabs call Tadmir, though against the schismatics,. under the protection governed by the Christian Theodomir and of the king:of France, and the emperor. his successor Athanagild, was as much deBut into the intermlinable affairs-of Italy, and pendent on the Saracens as Andalusia or the critical wars carried oniby Ferdinand in INew Castille.,: The districts over which the that country in. defence of his Sicilian and barbarian sway never extended:were the Neapolitan:possessions,: we cannot enter. mountains:of the Asturias,:Biscay,'Navarro This war, however, led to one memorable re- and an angle of Aragon. Thus not only by sult, which was.the conquest- of Navarre. far the greatest, but-infinitely the most valu-. Desirous of carrying hostilities: into France, ble, part of the Peninsula was,omprised in he demanded from.Jean: d'Albret, king: of the Mohammedan kingdom. Under the Navarre, permission to. march his troops viceroys of the Caliphs, and the immediate through that country. The Navarrese re- successors of the first Abderahman, that is, fused, but at the: same: time promised to re- during the first three centuries, it was the main neutral. They broke their engagement, admiration and terror of Europe. The rev, however, and entered into an alliance, offen- enues which the kings of Cordova derived sive and defensive, with:France. Deter- from their ample possessions were doubtless mined to accomplish his end by force, and -immense, and tbis enabled.them to maintain to punish the duplicity:of the Navarrese, not only a large army of native troops, but Ferdinand invaded Navarre, and in a short great bodies of foreign auxiliaries. These time obtained possession of the whole king- mercenary soldiers are supposed, by some of dom, annexing it to that-over which he for- the most distinguished Arabian historians, merly ruled, and successfully defending it to have been the principal cause of the downagainst the invasion of the -French.. This fall of that splendid monarchy. Their spirit was the last great event-of Ferdinand's life, of nationality was not destroyed; it was fosand was one which was fortunate for the tered by transplantation from the original country, as serving to.consolidate its power. soil; the Egyptians in Beja and Lisbon; the After a lingering illness, his death took place Persians in Huete; the Assyrians in Granon the 23d of January, 1516. -In his last ada; the Berbers and Slavones in most of will he declared his daughter Juana: heiress the great cities, especially about the court; to all his dominions, in Spain andaly, and the inhabitants of Damascus, Emessa,: and after her his grandson Charles. Cardinal of Old Palestine, in Cordova, Seville, Niebla,.Ximenes Cisneros was-at the same time ap- MIedina Sidonia and Algeziras, became so pointed sole regent of Castille till the arrival many rival factions,: all eager in the pursuit if his grandson. Ferdinand is justly re- of power, and all mutually hostile. Thcu garded as the founder of the Spanish mon- frequent quarrels occasioned great disastie a archy; and although his character has some in the state, and allowed the ambitious no. dark stains upon it, intolerantbigotry being. less than the desperate a long-continued mi" not the least conspicuous, he was certainly punity. In this distracted state of the king mI.-7 98 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. dom, rebel chiefs contrived to retain and in all the principal cities. Thus learning even to extend their governments; while the was much encouraged; and among these nuChristians, ever ready to take advantage of merous collections of books were many huncircumstances, drove the Saracens from city dred volumes by native writers. So great, to city, and from province to province, till in fact, was the literary reputation of the they finally expelled them from the country. Spanish Arabs, that when the caliph of Egypt After Cordova fell from its proud eminence, desired his library to be arranged and indexes the Mohammedan power declined with great to be made, he confided the task to two inrapidity. The rulers of Toledo, Badajos, dividuals of that nation. These men of Beja, Seville, Ecija, Malaga, Granada, Al- learning comprised historians, poets, gramineria, Lorca, Murcia, Denia, Valencia, Ler- marians, orators, rhetoricians, mathematiida, Saragossa and Huesca, all openly as- cians, astronomers, philosophers, natural and pired to independent sovereignty. Many moral, physicians, lawyers and divines. It of these petty states were annihilated by the was in the physical and experimental sciences king of Seville; but his own, with those that the people most excelled, and that too which still remained, were swept from the at a time when many of the sciences were Peninsula by Yussef, the first emperor of wholly neglected or totally unknown in the the Almoravides. This African dynasty was rest of Europe, Their knowledge of botany again subverted by the still more ferocious was far famed; that of chemistry was still Almohades. In the decline of the latter, nmore so. Indeed, they are to be regarded, the local governors again endeavored to es- if not the founders, at least the regenerators, tablish independent kingdoms. The Moor- of that science in Europe. Their skill in ish domination thus became circumscribed medicine was great; in the mathematiee within the mountainous region bounded by they particularly distinguished themselves; the sea, and by a line drawn from Malaga the improvements which they made in algrethrough Archidona, Loja, Guardia, the Si- bra are well known. Optics and astronomy erra de Cazorla, to the environs of Lorca. were much cultivated by them; nor were This small state was still farther limited by the useful arts less attended to, more espethe succeeding sovereigns of Castille, from cially agriculture, including horticulture Alfonso el Sabio downwards, till, as we have and planting. The mechanical arts and seen, it was finally subjugated by Ferdinand manufactures were also carried to considerathe Catholic. ble perfection by the Spanish Arabs. CoMnIn all the states of Spain, whether Mo- mere was deemed no less worthy of encourhammedan or Christian, the government was agement than domestic industry. The fine absolute, but not despotic. If the Chris- arts, however, were less cultivated; but still tian, as a protection against arbitrary power, all the great cities of Mohammedan Spain, could appeal to the legal code of the country Cordova, Granada, Toledo, Valencia, IUbeda, which he inhabited, the Mohammedan could Coimbra, were deeply indebted to the Mooralso invoke the provisions of the Koran, for ish inhabitants; a fact sufficiently proved by the laws of the followers of the prophet are the remains of their past magnificence, which founded in their religion. Several of the still exist. Mohammedan potentates were the munifi- From the foundation of the Christian. cent patrons of literature and literary men, states, the extent of territory comprised by the names of some of whom are mentioned each was usually variable, dependent alike with respect at the present day. At the on their conquests over the common enemy >close of the eleventh century, Mohammelan and among themselves. The relative extent Spain could boast of seventy public libraries, of each at different periods may be briefly and of colleges, or seminaries of learning, noticed. 1. When Pelayo establishled his lit HISTORY OF THE AWORLD.'99 tie court at Cangus, the Asturian kingdom I which was Jaen, or San Juan de la Pena. oeuld only have occupied the mountainous The conquest of Sobrarve, Ribagorza, and district immediately surrounding that hmn- Pallas, by Ramiro I.; of the MIohammedan ble capital. By Alfonso I. this territory was fortresses from the Pyrenees to the Ebro by extended into Galicia on the west, probably Sancho I.; of Huesca by Pedro; of Tudela, to Aragon on the east, and to the confines Saragossa, Calatayud, Daroca, Mlequinencia, of Toledo on the south. Alfonso III. still &c., by Alfonso I., amplified this little lordfurther amplified the Asturian kingdom, by ship into a considerable kingdom, the capital extending its frontiers to the Sierra de Cu- of which, in 1119, was transferred to Saraenza, in the territory of Toledo; to the Duero, gossa. When Lerida and Fraga were rein Estremadura and Portugal; in one in- duced by the prince of Aragon, the Balearic stance even as far as the Guardiana. The Isles and Valencia by Don Jayme el Concapital regularly continued to shift towards quistador, Aragon became, next to Castille, the centre of Spain as new territory was ac- the most extensive and powerful of the penquired. Thus the Asturian kingdom went insular kingdoms. on increasing till, on the incorporation of The government of all the Christian states Castille with it, and the subsequent conquest was absolute, and in the whole of them latof Andalusia by San Fernando, the capital terly it was hereditary. The powers of the of the monarchy was fixed at Seville. From sovereign varied at different times; latterly the reign of San Fernando may be dated the they became very great. Ile could concede true era of Spanish greatness. Murcia was or revoke, interpret or abrogate laws, declare conquered by his son Alfoulso; and by his war or make peace, appoint judges, levy and successors the Moorish kingdom of Granada exact contributions, and the like. But still was first circumscribed and finally subju- all was to be done accorcling to the ancient gated. 2. Navarre (that is, Spanish Na- form, that is, according to established cusvarre), from its origin to its conquest by Fer- tom. Other restraints were placed upon his dinand V.) underwent little change in its di- power, and it is pretty certain that the Spanmensions; and its capital was always Pam- ish kings were not commonly tyrannical. plona. 3. The Lordship of Barcelona, which The true tyrants were the feudal lords, who for some time continued dependent on the were at perfect liberty to exercise almost Carlovingian princes, comprehended ancient- royal authority within their respective jurisly, not only Catalonia, but likewise Langue- dictions. Of their violence and rapacity doc. The Spanish frontier, however, was there are innumerable complaints in the nasubsequently held as a separate government, tional chronicles, and in the acts of the to which other lordships were subordinate. Cortes. It is worthy of remark, that the The dependence on France was of short du- queens presided with their husbands in the ration> and appears nearly to have ceased to- Cortes, the councils and the tribunals of juswards the close of the ninth century, when tice, and that as judges, not merely as specWifredo II., count of Barcelona, entirely tators. The only great feudatories of the cleared Catalonia from the infidels. That crown, exercising a local jurisdiction, were ruler decrees in the sovereign style, and is the condes, who held different ranks and ellnrecognized even by the French as the founder joyed different degrees of power. But, from of an hereditary state; which continued as the thirteenth century, the governors of pro. independent a sovereignty as any in the Pen- vinces were termed adelantados (now capinsula, till its union with Aragon, about the i tains-general), while those of cities, towns middle of the twelfth century. 4. Aragon and fortresses were known as alealdes. As was at first but a small mountainous region conquest gave the Christians additional terat the foot of the Pyirenees, the capital of ritory, admirals and constables were appolnt, 100 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ed, with power over the affairsof sea and laws, which varied in their spirit according land respectively. Of the dignities,, what- to the liberality of the monarch and therelaever their names might be, most were doubt- tive- importance of the colonies. These fii. less of a mixed nature, partly civil and partly eros were devised with jealous care, to pre military. - But there were functionaries who serve the inhabitants from feudal domination. exercised an exclusively military authority. No baron or noble could settle in a com Among the officers of administration, those munity, unless he abandoned his birthright, of the law must have occupied a prominent enrolled himself among the citizens, and place. The judgment in civil or criminal owned obedience to the local fuero. So many cases properly depended on the counts or. temptations did these new communities previscounts, who sometimes decided themselves, sent, in the shape of municipal posts, that sometimes in concert with men learned in many nobles were known to renounce their the.law, called counsellors, and at otherstimes rank, and class. themselves among. the plethey left the duty to. the ordinary judges.. bians, for the purpose of obtaining them. These counsellors or judges were -expressly The defects of such a system were not long educated for the office, and otherwise well in being felt, and a remedy was provided by adapted& for such:a situation. - The.forms of the introduction of the "Siete Partidas," so proceeding, which were simple and brief,. called from the seven parts into which it is were conducted in public, and the sentence divided. It is by far. the most comprehenwas also openly delivered. From the decis sive code of Spain, being taken from the ion of all the ordinary judges, lay an appeal code of Justinian, the Visigothic, the Fuero to the royal tribunal, which also took cog- Viejo, the local. fueros, as well as from the nlizance of certain offences and cases.. Spain canon law. can boast of an ample body of laws promul-..Passing over the much-disputed question gated during the middle ages. regarding the origin of popular representaAs the circumstances of the country al- tion; in Spain, we find that there were prestered, and the state of society advanced, it ent, at the Cortes held at Leon in the year became necessary to extend or limit the ex- 1188, " the deputies of towns, chosen by lot," isting laws, and to enact new ones. To en- that is, representatives of the people, the courage the cultivation of waste lands, the third estate. On these municipal towns Christian kings promised to the lower orders, many important privileges were conferred by that if they reclaimed unoccupied wastes, successive sovereigns, the direct tendency of formed themselved into small communities, which was to abridge the powers of the fenbuilding villages and towns, and defended dal lords. But even at the brightest period their possessions against the common enemy, of popular representation, which was tie they should enjoy certain social privileges in fourteenth century, the representation was addition to the profits of their industry. Of never definite. Many of the great towns these privileges the most highly prized were neglected to send any deputies at all, and those which rescued the people from the ju- those which did return them appear to have risdiction of their feudal tyrants, which em- observed little proportion in the numbers. powered them to elect their own magistrates, Two was the number which ought to have to form municipal juntas, and to dispose of been returned by each, but some towns sent 3ertain revenues arising from forests and eight, while others of larger size sent only other possessions. It may well be believed one or two. Indeed, it seems highly probathat so brilliant a reward attracted many set- ble that the privilege of sending deputies tlers, who were thus at once raised from the was a favor granted by the sovereign to such yrank of serfs to that of citizens. Such was towns as it was his pleasure to honor. It is ]the origin of many faeros, or provineia. preposterous, therefore, to look upon the W,.,,I HISTORY'OF' T-HE.WORLD. 101 third estate as consisting of::f independent re- remain, particularly: the Poema: del: -did. presentatives of the nation; the -members. The old Spanish ballads are well known, and were little better than nominees:of royalty, celebrated throughout Europe. The scienand their numbers could be increased' or di- tific state of Spain, as compared with the minished, just as it suited the purposes of Mohammedan, exhibits a- lamentable. con government. Much as the popular represen- trast; nor does it appear that in any of the tation of Castille is extolled- by national useful arts of life the Spanish Christians writers, it seems to have been better adapted were equal to the Moors. The most distinfor securing and extending the power of the guished: place in Spanish science during this 3rown, than for protecting the rights -of the period has been assigned to Alfonso XA, surpeople. Under Ferdinand and Isabella the named el Sabio; but even he was greatly ast lingering traces of popular liberty were indebted to the Arabians for the perfection destroyed; but the power: of the other orders -which he attained. The theologians of Spain, 9f the state suffered at the same time a cor- during the middle ages, were more numerous responding diminution, as we have already than all her other writers put together, and noticed. Such is a brief outline of the gov- the writings of many of these shining lights eminent and laws of Castille and Leon, the of the church are to be met with in the limost important of the peninsular kingdoms, braries of Spain.: With regard to religion and almost the only ones in which the reader it- is only necessary to state, that the Catholic will take much interest, or, indeed, regarding faith prevailed in full force, and was characwllich authentic documents remain. It may terized by the darklest bigotry and the fierebe mentioned, however, with regard to the est intolerance, as the doings of the inquisikingdom of Aragon, that, with the exception tion amply testify. 3f the lowest order, the serfs of the soil, the Charles I. (V. of Germany) became king Aragonese possessed a greater share of indi- of Spain on the death of Ferdinand, but a vidual liberty than any other people in the regency had been nominated to govern the Peninsula. The citizens and nobles fre- kingdom until he should attain his twentieth,luently coalesced for the purpose of obtain- year. If the events and transactions in ing fueros or privileges from the crown, and which this monarch was concerned were to when thus united they were generally too be woven into the history of Spain, it would, powerful to be resisted. Hence numerous in fact, be the history of almost all Europe concessions were made by successive sover- during the period of his reign. But our buseigns, and an amount of popular freedom ob- iness is with events purely peninsular; or if tained by the people which frequently threat- others of a more general character are occaened the existence of the monarchy itself. sionally noticed, it will be because they are Catalonia and Valencia were always distinct too closely connected with the former to be from Aragon, both in government and laws. separated without violence. His foreign Each had its Cortes, consisting of three es- wars, negotiations, and other transactions, tates, prelates, nobles and deputies, all no arose from his position as enlperor of Get ess tenacious of their privileges than those many, not from his being king of Spain ff Aragon. and an account of them will be found under Several historians of note, whose works the heads FRANCE, ITALY and ENGLAND, to have come down to us, flourished in the va- which articles the reader is referred. rious Christian kingdoms of Spain during The Cardinal Ximenes Cisneros, to whom the period of Mohammedan domination. the regency had been left by the deceased Poetry sprung up about the middle of the king, was bitterly opposed in his administratwelftl century and some very interesting tion, principally by the nobles of Castille, 3pecimens of these ancient compositions still who, envious of his dignity, displeased with 102 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. his firmness and vigor, and hoping for im- claim to Italy, the Netherlands and Navarre; punity under a young monarch, soon showed so that war was unavoidable, and hostilities a disposition to refuse him obedience. Popu- immediately commenced; an account of lar discontent reached a great height; and which will be found in the articles already as his best measures were misrepresented to referred to. the king, Charles perceived the necessity of The turbulence of the times was not likely making his appearance in Spain, where he to be assuaged by the absence of the king arrived in 1517. Nobles and prelates hast- from his all but revolted territories in the ened to meet their sovereign, and among the Peninsula. Opposition had now degenerated rest the calumniated Ximenes. But that into rebellion; and what before might have sovereign he was not destined to see; he been dignified with the name of patriotism, suddenly sickened and died, not without sus- could only be characterized as crafty schemes picions of poison. Charles brought with of personal ambition. UJnfortunately for the him a multitude of Flemings from the Neth- interests of order, the regency of Castille, erlands, who soon monopolized the principal where disaffection had assumed the most sesituations in church and state, and in all rious aspect, was held by a man, estimable their dealings evinced an unquenchable thirst and virtuous, indeed, but little fitted for such for gold. The favor extended to these for- stormy times. The appointment of this in. eigners so incensed the people, that Charles dividual, Cardinal Adrian, who subsequently found extreme dificulty in obtaining the hom- wore the triple crown, had at the first given age of the Spaniards. Although they swore great offence to the nobles and deputies at allegiance to. him, it was on certain stipu- court; but the king, though solicited, would lated conditions, sufficiently advantageous to not change him for another. The persons themselves. In 1519 occurred an event des- upon whom the fury of the mob fell were tined to exercise great influence over his chiefly the governors and deputies of the future life, over his hereditary states, in fact cities and provinces. Many were massacred, over all Europe. This was his election to open insurrection spread from city to city; the imperial throne of Germnany, left vacant and no species of crime was left uncommitted. by the death of his paternal grandfather In this critical position of the royal cause, it Maximilian. The Spaniards were pleased was fortunate that Aragon, Catalonia, and that this dignity was conferred on their sov- most of Andalusia, stood aloof from the conereign; but as the old grievances continued federation. Had they joined it, the evils to gall them, they were not so dazzled as to might have been long protracted, and the be insensible to their own interests. The whole Peninsula plunged in misery and ruin. leading men of many of the principal cities But the revolted cities followed one another publicly remonstrated with Charles, and it in making their submission to the governwas only by granting certain concessions that ment; and those which did not voluntarily he could keep them froin open rebellion. submit were reduced by the royal troops, His presence having become absolutely ne- no* augmented to a considerable body. An cessary in Germany, he quitted Spain, but attempt of the French king to seize Navarre proceeded first to England to concert with was happily frustrated, so that in 1522 the Henry VIII. the means of humbling the whole country was restored to tranquillity. power of the French king, Francis I. This In July of that year, the emperor, whose monarch had been a candidate for the im- presence had been often requested l y the perial diadem; but, disappointed in his am- royalists, arrived in Spain. It was expected bition, and in hatred of his successful ri- that summary justice would be inflicted on val, he leagued himself even with the ene- those who had taken a prominent part in the Mly of the Christian faith. He also laid recent disturbances; but on this occasion HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 103' Charles showed a degree of clemency almost and recalled Philip from England, he asunexampled in history, very few being con- sembled at Brussels the states of the Netherdemned to suffer. During the remainder of lands. There, amidst the most imposing this prince's reign, the domestic tranquillity solemnity ever witnessed since the days of the of Spain was undisturbed, except by an in- Roman Coesars, he resigned the sovereignty surrection of the Moors, which was soon sup- of the Low Countries into the hands of his pressed. Of two expeditions of the emperor son. With the same august ceremony he reto the African coast, to humble, if not to signed the crown of Spain, and the domextirpate, the Mohammedan pirates, one was inions thereto belonging; and from the monsnccessful, the other disastrous. He cornm- astic retreat to which lie retired he sent his pelled the Grand Turk, who penetrated into resignation of the imperial diadem. The the centre of Europe, to retreat; and took place which he had chosen for his residence his great rival, Francis I. of France, prisoner was the monastery of St. Justus, one of the at Pavia. Such were some of his achieve- most secluded and delightful situations in ments in his foreign wars, by which the fame Estremadura. IHere, employed in religious of the Spanish arms was extended throughout observances, passed the latter years of the Europe. The mines of the west also had be- life of the most powerful sovereign Europe had gun to pour their inexhaustible wealth into the seen since the days of Charlemagne and the country, so that the military and political empire of the west. About six months before power of Spain now attained its zenith, and his death, the gout, to which he had long became a source of uneasiness to other being subject, after a longer intermission than nations. In 1525, Charles married the Prin- usual, returned with a proportional increase cess Isabella, sister of Joam III. king of of violence. I-Iis shattered constitution had Portugal. The issue of this union was, be- not strength enough remaining to withstand sides two daughters, the infant Philip, des- such a shock. It enfeebled his mind as well tined to be no less famous than his father. as his body; and from this period we hardly Charles made an ineffectual effort to procure discern any traces of that sound and masfor him the imperial crown of Germany; but culine understanding which distinguished in 1554, succeeded in obtaining the hand of Charles among his contemporaries. An illithe princess Mary of England. That the beral and timid superstition depressed his nuptial ceremony might be performed with spirit. He had no relish for amusements of greater splendor, he invested his son with the any kind; and endeavored to conform, in his regal title, by abdicating in his favor his manner of living, to all the rigor of monastic Italian possessions, the kingdoms of Naples austerity. He desired no other society than and Sicily, and the duchy of Milan. This that of monks, and was almost continually was but a prelude to a still more extraor- employed in chanting with them the hymns dinary sacrifice. It appears that from the of the missal. As an expiation for his sins, very prime of life the emperor had meditated he gave himself the discipline in secret, with a retreat from the world; and that on the such severity, that the whip of cords which death of his mother Juana, in 1555, he was he employed as the instrument of his punishdetermined on fulfilling his long-cherished ment was found, after his decease, tinged project. -Many reasons have been assigned with his blood. Nor was he satisfied with for this memorable act, but the principal these acts of mortification, which, however cause is to be traced to his supersitious tem- severe, were not unexampled. The timorous perament; something is also to be allowed and distrustful solicitude which always acfor the bad success of his arms during the companies superstition still continued to dislatter years of his reign. Having concluded quiet him, and, depreciating all that he had i truce with Henry, the successor of Francis, done, prompted him to aim at something exs 104 H ISTORY 0TF THE WORLD. traordinary —some new and singular act of ductions in the transatlantic. colonies. But piety which would display his zeal, and merit'the. brightest landscape-. has its masses of the favor of Heaven.-:The act on which he shade.:iThe nobles held a power over the fixed was as wild-and uncommon as any that peole which was often o exercised with viosuperstition ever suggested to a disordered lence,: Favoritism to foreigners was pracfancy. He resolved to celebrate his own obse- tised to- an unprincipled extent, and the sale quies before his death. tHe ordered his of offices became-a branch-:of traffic. Antomb to be erected in the chapel of the mon- other banefulevil was the: multiplication of astery.- His domestics marched thither in religious orders. Lastly: the exemption from funeral procession, with black tapers in their taxation of the nobles and clergy, which hands; and he himself followed in his shroud. threw the whole weight — of public contribn HIe was laid in his coffin with much solemn- tion on: the third estate, increased the disity. The service for the dead was chanted; affection of- that body, and wvas one of the and Charles joined in the prayers which were chief causes of the subsequent decline of the offered up for the rest of his soul, mingling kingdom. his tears with those which his attendants T.he reign of Philip II. commenced in 1556, shed, as if they had been celebrating a real ani extended'to the year 1598. Much of it funeral. The ceremony closed with sprink-was cpied- in foreign wars, to which we ling holy water on the coffin in the usual can oi ly briefly advert. For an account of form, and, all the assistants retiring, the Philip's. long, bloody and inglorious struggle doors of the chapel were shut. Then Charles with his revolted: subjects of: the Low Counrose out of the coffin, and withdrew to his tries, see the article HoLLAND. The circumapartment, full of those awful sentiments stances which led.tothe invasion of Portugal, which such a singular solemnity was calcu- and the annexation: of that kingdom to the lated to inspire.:B13ut either the fatiguing Spanish crown,-will be found fully detailed length of the ceremony, or the impression under the head of. Portugal.- An attempt which this image of death left on his mind, was made by the pope, in conjunction with affected him so much that next day he was France, to wrest. from Philip his Italian domseized with a fever. His feeble frame could inions,:. but without.success. The duke of not long resist its violence; and he expired Alva, the viceroy of Naples, put his troops on the 21st of September, after a life of fifty- in motion,. seized several fortresses of the eight years, six months, and twenty-one days. papal states, and the holy city began to His character has been variously described tremble for-its security. Philip himself inby natives and foreigners; the former can see vaded France, and inflicted a severe blow on little in it to condemn, the latter nothing to Henry under the walls of St. Quentin. The admire. His policy was always close, some- French army under the duke of Guise, was times crooked, and in not a few instances dis- recalled from Italy; and the pope, left at the honorable. IIe was no friend either to civil mercy of the duke of Alva, was compelled to or religious liberty, and may safely be pro- purchase his safety by withdrawing from the nounced a bigot. Under him the condition. French alliance. In 1559, peace was made of Spain was more splendid, perhaps also with France;and Philip having become a more prospercus, than in any prior or -subse- widower, further ratified the treaty by quent reign. Notwithstanding his many marrying Elizabeth, sister of the French w-ars, the people do not appear to have been. king. Buti the. Turks' continued to harass overburdened in supporting them, for.the Naples, although they durst:not make a New World poured its treasures at his feet.' stand:before. the Spanish forces. In 1565, A new impulse was given to national indus- i Philip' assisted the Maltese with 10,000 Spantry by the markets opened for Spanish.pro- lards in the famous siege:which they under HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 104 went from sultan Solyman. Five-years after- to the:mountains, the ancient asylum of wards, the war betweent the Venetian repub- liberty; and in the deep caverns with Mwhich ic and the Porte again brought the Span- they abound they deemed themselves secure..ards into collision with the latter:power, and But thither they were huntedX by the Christhey:had no small share inr achieving: the tians, and, like wild beasts, smoked to death glorious victory of Lepanto.- The MIoham- by fires kindled at-the mouths —of-these submedans, however,: still continued to make:de — terranean:retreats.;-All who:were in arms scents on the Italian coast, and to harass the were cut off in this manner, or by the sword. African possessions of Philip; but, oni the The total expulsion of the: Moriscos, however, whole, the war with:: the misbelievers was did not take place till a subsequent period. hionorable to: the Spanish arms,.-. To some affairs of a private or more trivial We now approach an event of peculiar and nature it is unnecessary to advert, although lasting interest, the projected: invasion of some of them deeply implicate the character England by the famous Spanish Armada. of Philip. This prince died in September, Elizabeth had certainly done: much to pro- 1598, in the palace of the Escurial, of which yoke the resentment of Philip. She had he was the founder, and which is the noblest succored the insurgents of the Netherlands, monument of his reign. By the last of his fomented the disturbances in Portugal, as- four wives, Anne of Austria, Philip left a sisted France, and her naval captains had son, who succeeded by-the title of Philip:II.; ravaged the dominions of Spain in both hem- his other male children preceded him to the ispheres. Philip's patience being exhausted, tomb. Don Carlos, one of these, is generally he prepared a mighty armament for the in- believed to have been murdered by the comvasion of England. A: complete account of niand: of his bloody- and unrelenting father. this famous attempt to plant a foreign stand- The character of Philip was gloomy, stern, ard on her shores, and its disastrous term- and cruel; he was suspicious, dark, and vinination, will be found in the article ENGLAND. dictive, the irreconcilable foe of civil and reA second expedition for:the invasion: of Ire- ligious liberty, for which there can only be land shared the fate of the former; and this brought forward as a palliation his zeal for effectually cured Philip of all ambition to at- what he called religion. But — Philip was tempt the subjugation of the most hated of eminently prudent, attentive to publicaffairs, his enemies. and what he conceived to be the best inThe revolt of the Moriscos occupies a re- terests of his country. It has been supposed markable place in the native annals of that the sceptre of Philip was swayed: over the sixteenth century. These Christianized 100,000,000 of human beings, including the ]Moors still remained Mohamnmedans at heart, population- of all: the foreign possessions of making amends for compulsory apostasy by Spain. At this time the state of the inhabitcelebrating in secret the rites of their re- ants of the Peninsula was one of comparative ligion. It was the jealous policy of Spain to comfort. Agriculture, manufactures, and destroy, if possible, every vestige of their na- commerce, flourished to an extent even tionality. To effect this end the government greater than in the best period of the emhad recourse to severe and unjust measures, peror's reign. Yet all his vast resources, eswhich produced open revolt and civil war in pecially in the N ew World, were unhappily Granada. Dreadful atrocities were com- wasted by Philip-:and his own policy demitted by the Moriscos, and fierce was the stroyed the very foundations on which- they retaliation of the Christians. The war raged rested, and hastened the decay, or. rather with various success for some time, but how ruin, of -the kingdom The measures which the struggle must terminate could never for exercisedso fatal an influenceri over the desa moment be doubtful. The Moriscos fled I tinies of Spain may be- briefly enumerated: 106 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 1. His persecution of the Flemings and Dutch, the proceedings of the court, and murmurs which led to a revolt that 3ost him 150,000,- and complaints to agitate the people, who 000 of ducats. 2. His war with England, no were exhausted of their wealth in supporting less expensive and disastrous. 3. The treasures pantomime and mummery at home, and inisent to support the abominable Catholic quitous wars abroad. The reins of govern league, and wars in other quarters. 4. The ment were surrendered into the hands of subjugation of the Moriscos, and the pro- the Conde de Olivares, a worthless favorite ceedings of the inquisition, by which the An attempt to enforce an obnoxious measure most productive and useful classes of his sub- drove the Catalans to revolt. They sought jects were ruined or expatriated. From these and obtained the aid of France, and this oc-.%nd from other minor causes, notwithstand- casioned a feeble and unimportant war, which ing the enormous revenues and resources of languished till 1660, when peace was conthe kingdom, Philip died insolvent. eluded, but not till Spain had surrendered The greatness of Spain having passed away part of her territory to France. Contempowith Philip II., from this period it declined rary with the origin of the Catalan insurrecwith fearfil rapidity. For a long period tion was that of Portugal, by which the there is little to be recorded beyond the Portuguese freed themselves from Spanish reign of worthless favorites, the profligacy of yoke. See PORTUGAL. During his long reign, courts, and the feeble efforts of a government Philip was frequently at war with England, struck with mortal paralysis. Our retrospect Holland, and France, and every power cornof these reigns will therefore be characterized mitted fearful ravages on his territories, by a brevity corresponding with their im- England took Jamaica during this disastrous portance. The most signal event of Philip and disgraceful period of Spanish history. In III.'s reign was the total expulsion of the Naples a terrible shock was sustained in AMoriscos from all parts of Spain where they 1646, by the insurrection of Masaniello. had sought a home during the struggle re- The circumstances were these. In the year corded in the last reign. The loss to agri- 1647, it was thought necessary to impose culture and commerce, for they were by far some tax upon all fruit sold in the city; which, the most ingenious and industrious portion being in summer the chief food of the poor, of the community, and the blow which would caused great uneasiness, but no immediate be inflicted on the national prosperity by the insurrection. A fisherman, named Masaniello, withdrawal of so much wealth as they pos- whose wife had been recently detected in sessed, were never taken into account by the smuggling some flour into the city, and fined duke of Lerma, the prime ministers, nor any for it, had conceived an implacable hatred of his inquisitorial councillors. Orders were against the suggesters, the farmers, and the issued for their immediate expulsion il collectors of the new tax. lie was a powerSeptember, 1609, and no fewer than 600,000 ful speaker, and a leader of one of the parties individuals were forcibly dragged from their of the populace who had agreed to have a homes, and landed on the African shore, shan fight upon a festival. On that day, the there to be treated even worse, by the most 7th of July, in consequence of a quarrel becruel and perfidious of the human family. tween the tax-collectors and some fruit sellers The foreign transactions of this reign are un- from Puzzuoli, one of whom was a brother-inimportant. Philip III. died in March,1621, law of Masaniello, the latter first roused the leaving his kingdom to a son who bore his populace, and excited them to destroy the name, and also inherited his imbecility. office where the tax was collectedl, and the Philip IV. ascended the Spanish throne in dwellings of those who had proposed or his seventeenth year. Profligate extravagance farmed it. In the course of'the rioting, the ~nd dissipi)at on soon began to characterize viceroy, instead of ordering the Splanish HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 107 guards to suppress the disturbance, fled, and ordering to instant execution, on a gallows was personally insulted; but at length he es- he had erected, those whom he had doomed caped to a sanctuary, where the archbishop to death. It is said that in these summary;oined him, and they conjointly issued a proceedings no innocent person suffered, and notice that all taxes on provisions should, be no guilty person escaped. His grandeur was abolished. Besides this, an attempt was but of short duration. In two or three days made to gain Masaniello by an offer of a pen- he became distracted and delirious, and comsion. -But he refused to accept the offer, de- mitted some most extravagant actions; and claring that if the viceroy kept his word he on the 18th of July he was put to death, would find the people obedient subjects. with the consent, if not by the orders, of the On the following day, however, no taxes viceroy. being abolished, the followers of Masaniello The tumult did not, however, terminfe committed solne violent- outrages, which in- with the death of its author. In the capital, duced the viceroy to enter into a kind of as well as in all the other cities of the king treaty with this leader, who, though half dom, the people rose and drove out those naked and in rags, found himself at the head Spaniards who were found in them. The of 100,000 armed men filled with fury. Some Duke of Guise, who happened to be at Rome, of his followers having been bought over by was induced, at the instigation of the pope, the court, agreed to kill him; and whilst he to offer his services to the Neapolitans against was in treaty with the archbishop, in the the Spaniards; and to this he was further enchurch of the Carmire, the attempt was made; couraged by having some distant pretensions but it failed, and those who were thus shown to the throne. The Spaniards, in the meanto be traitors to their chief were instantly time made a vigorous attack on the city of put to death. The failure of the attempt Naples, but were repulsed by the people, greatly strengthened the power of Masaniello, who thereupon formally renounced their alwho exercised it with much appearance of legiance to the Spanish family. In a short fairness and impartiality. The viceroy was time, however, a new viceroy, Coun d'Oniate, fearful that the French might take advantage arrived from Spain. He took the city by of the commotion and create some annoyance, surprise, made the Duke of Guise prisoner, and therefore hastened to make peace with and-thus frustrated all the designs of France the leader of the insurrection. On the fifth day against the Spanish power in Naples. after it broke out, a treaty was concluded, by But the most calamitous of Philip's transwhich it was stipulated that the taxes im- actions was the war in the Low Countries, posed since the reign of Charles V. should all which terminated in his recognising the inbe abolished; that in future no new taxes dependence of the seven United Provinces. should be levied except by the electors; that Philip died in 1665. His character needs no the people were to elect as well as the nobles; description. Since the days of Roderick the that an act of oblivion should be passed, and Goth, a more disastrous reign than his had the people remain in arms till the ratification not darkened the annals of Spain. 3f the treaty was completed. Charles II., son of Philip IV., succeeded to Great rejoicing followed this arrangement. the throne when only four years of age. As Masaniello having repaired to the viceroy, the affairs of the kingdom were then situated, was appointed captain-general, and induced they were not likely to improve under a child; to change his dress for more appropriate ap- and it was a further misfck.ane, that thiroughparel; he also received a present of a gold out his long reign theking remained little betchain. The following day he began to ter than a child. He was feeble in body, and exercise the authority of a sovereign, judging next to im'becile in mind; in proof of which all crimes. whether civil or military, and it may be mentioned, that he believed him 108 HIIS TORY OF T::HE:-WORLD. self bewitchedand submitted to the exorcisms was pitiable. The army and navy were in a of his confessor with -devout -solemnity. state of utter disorganization; the walls of Lcu his of Frances-who espoused Maria Teresa, towns and fortresses were in ruins the pubsister of Charles II.: by a prior marriage, in lic revenues had dwindled to little more than right of his: wife preferred a monstrous claim a nobleman's -income; and trade, manufacto the Low C untries, and poured his legions -tures, and commerce, had all but ceased to:over the frontier to make it-good. The union -exist. -Another such reign as that of Charles of Sweden, 1Holland and England, to oppose II, would have dissolved the bonds of society. the ambition of the Frenchmen, saved the Charles II.: was succeeded by Philip V.,.whole Netherlands: from subjugation; but by duke of Anjou, grandson to Louis XIV. of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louis retained- France. He was the eldest son of Maria Te. the most valuable of the conquests which he resa, eldest daughter of Philip IV., consehad made. In this reign the complete inde- quently the most- legitimate -sovereign; forI pendence of Portugal was recognised. In Charles left no issue, and before his death he!1672, France invaded Holland, now the ally had subscribtL- an instrument, declaring of Spain, conquered Franche-Comt6, which Philip his successor. The foreign events of belonged to Spain, made some destructive in- this reign demand our first attention. The roads into Catalonia, and reduced some fort-: transactions of the war which was soon deresses in the Low Countries. By the alliance clared against France and Spain, by England, against France, in:which England, Germany, Holland, and the empire, assisted by Savoy, and Spain joined, Louis's career of ambition Portugal and Prussia, are related under the was effectually checked. But subsequent- article BRITAIN. The chief objects of the:ly he reduced Valenciennes, Cambray, St. alliance: were to obtain satisfaction for the Omers, and other places; Ypres and Ghent Austrian claims on Spain, the emperor Leowere assailed w-ith equal success; and a place pold being not only descended from Feron the Catalan frontier also yielded to his nando, brother of Charles V., but whose arms. Most of these places, however, were mother was the daughter of Philip III.; to restored at the peace of Nimeguen in:1678, rescue the Netherlands from France; to preone of the conditions of which was, that vent the union of the French and Spanish Charles should receive the hand of M-aria crowns; and to exclude subjects of the formeJ Louise, niece of the French king. On the from the Spanish possesslotlo in the Wesl death of this princess in 1689, the French Indies. The treaty of Utrecht, which termiagain poured the storm of war over -the fron- nated the differences between the principal tier of Catalonia. Destitute of money and contending powers, was signed in 1713; and of troops, Spain trembled to her most distant in 1715 a permanent peace was concluded extremities. But circumstances of a delicate between Spain and Portugal. By the celenature, into which we shall not enter, in- brated treaty of 1713, Spain was stripped of duced Louis to restore all his conquests at half her European possessions. Philip was the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The health of indeed acknowledged king of Spain and the Charles, always infirm, now rapidly declined, Indies; but Sicily was ceded to the duke of and he expired on the 1st of November, 1700. Savoy; Milan, Naples, Sardinia, and: the He was the last of the Austrian dynasty; and Netherlands, to the emperor; and Gibraltar glorious as the condition of Spain was under and Minorca to the English. The Catalans, its early sovereigns, those who succeeded them who had revolted and joined the allies, were had brought the kingdom to the verge of ruin. likewise guaranteed a general amnesty, but From the accession of the third Philip -it without any stipulations for the preservation had declined, from causes already specified. of their ancient fueros or privileges, which Thte condition to which it was now reduced they had justly forfeited. Philip also r~ HISTORYR OF -THE WORLD. 109 nounced,: both-for-himself and-his successors,'to the hands of his son. in- 1724;- but finding all eclaimns to the- French crown. In return seclusion irksome, he-resumed them again in for this renunciation, he forced rather than: a very -short time. Whatever might be the persuaded. his council to introduce a measure weaknesses of this -prince, he had-a sincere to which: subsequent events in the history of desire for the good -of Spain, and retrieved Spain gave great- importance. This was to it. from hopeless- ruin by several judicious alter the order of succession, and establish a measures which he.introduced, so that the sort of Salic law, by which the most distant country attained a degree of positive: prosmale of the family would' be. ealled- to the in- perity unknown since the days of the second heritance in preference to the nearest female. Philip. The innovation was regarded with discontent. - Ferdinand VI., a mild, prudent, and benefi By the ancient law, which, in default of cent prince, reformed abuses in the adminislirect male issue, called females to the throne, tration of justice and management of the. the monarchy had been formed. By it Ca- finances. He revived commerce, established talonia had been united with- Aragon,- and manufactures, and- promoted the prosperity the latter with Castille; and by it Philip of his kingdom. himself had.inherited the crown. Charles III. succeeded Ferdinand in. 1759. Philip made an unsuccessfil attempt to re- The famous family compact was;concluded cover Sicily, Sardinia, and Na.ples,; for he at Versailles in 1761, among the four kings had -now rendered both his navy and his of the house of. Bourbon. The English, army formidable alike by discipline and alarmed by the naval preparations of Spain, numbers.' His fleet, however, was totally declared war in' 1762,: and took Havana in destroyed off the coast of Sicily, by the Eng. the island of Cuba, and Manilla in the East lish Admiral Byng, in the year 1718. Indies. -Notwithstanding this success, peace By a new treaty in 1720j Sardinia was was hastily concluded at Fontainebleau, in given to the duke of Savoy, and Sicily to the November, by which Havana was restored. emperor; and by the treaty,of Seville, con- In 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from Spain. eluded in 1729, the duchies of. Tuscany, An unsuccessful expedition was concerted Parma, and Placentia, were ceded to Spain. against Algiers in 1775, the particulars ot In 1731, the Spanish king invaded Naples, which it is unnecessary to detail. In the took possession of that kingdom, and- con- war between Great Britain and her Ameriferred it on his son Don Carlos, in conse- can colonies,: Spain, by the influence of the quence of which war was declared between French court, was. induced to take, up arms Spain and the empire in 1733. At the end in support of the latter. At the conclusion of that year the palace at Madrid was con- of that calamitous war, Great Britain, in a sumed by fire, and all the archives relating treaty with Spain, ceded to this-power East to the Indies perished in the flames. In 1739, and West Florida, and the island of-Minorca. hostilities were renewed between Spain and Charles died in 1788, and was succeeded by Britain.; but the only successes obtained by his second son Charles Anthony, prince of the latter power were the capture of Porto Asturias, the eldest having-been declared in Bello by Admiral Vernon, and that of the capable of inheriting the crown. ]Mlani]la galeon- by Commodore Anson.- Charles IV. had not -long been seated on Philip's long and turbulent reign was now the throne before the portentious revolution drawing to a close. In July, 1746, hne was in France involved Europe in a general scene hurried to the grave by an attack of apo- of political and military contest. The king plexy. One memorable event of-his-reign of Spain joined the general. confederacy, remains to b noticed. In imitation of the against the new republic, and in conseqence ~mperor, he resigned the cares of royalty in- was numbered among the objects of its re 110 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. sentment, by a declaration of war in 1793. Spain were annihilated by Lord lNelson ofl The military operations of Spain, however, Cape Trafalgar. After this terrible blow to were extremely languid; and after two cam- the naval power of Spain, nothing of impor paigns, in which she might be said to carry tance took place till 1808, when the liberties on rather a defensive than an offensive war of Spain were subverted by the machinations against the republican armies, she was cornm- of Napoleon. The designs of the French pelled to conclude a treaty of peace, which emperor, long suspected, became sufficiently was signed at Basel on the 22d July, 1795. apparent in 1808. Unfortunately the disBy this treaty the French republic restored sensions of the royal family of Spain were so to the king of Spain all the conquests which favorable to his plans, that they may be said she had made from hini since the commence- to have hurried on their execution. The ment of hostilities, and received in exchange dark and tortuous policy by which he effectall right and property in the Spanish part of ed his purpose, and the course which events St. Domingo. took in Spain, will be found detailed in the This treaty was soon followed by a rupture article FRANCE, so that only a brief notice of with Great Britain. On 5th October, 1796, the leading facts will be given in this place. the court of Spain having published a mani- At this time (1807) the management of state festo against that country, the court of Lon- affairs was in the hands of Don Manuel Godon made a spirited reply; and about the doy, the favorite of Charles IV. and his same time was published a treaty of offensive queen, and better known by the name of the and defensive alliance, which had been con- Prince of Peace.. He had been raised from eluded about two months before, between the humblest station to be the richest and the the king of Spain and the French republic. most powerful subject in the kingdom, and In the war that followed between Spain and to fill its highest posts. Ferdinand, the Great Britain, his Catholic majesty could prince of Asturias, had refused to marry the boast of but little honor or success; and the sister-in-law of this fortunate minion, and to French republic gained little from its new secure himself from his vengeance he wrote ally but the contributions of money which it to Napoleon asking for protection. At the from time to time compelled him to advance. same time he exposed the administration of On the 14th of February, 1797, a Spanish Godoy, in a letter to his father, and refleet of twenty-seven sail of the line was de- quested to be allowed some participation in feated by Sir John Jervis off Cape St. Vin- the government. This so enraged the queen cent, and four of the Spanish line-of-battle that she ordered his immediate arrest; but, ships were left in the hands of the victors. on asking pardon of the king, Ferdinand was From this time to the temporary cessation restored to liberty, not, however, before of hostilities by the peace of Amiens in 1802, Charles had taken the fatal step of appealing there is nothing remarkable in the transac- to Napoleon regarding his son's supposed lions of Spain. treasonable conduct. The emperor of France On the renewal of the war in 1803, Spain was thus constituted umpire between father was again compelled, by the overbearing and son. French troops poured into Spain, power of France, to take an active part which was thrown into a ferment by the ruagainst Great Britain, and fitted out a for- mor that the royal family were preparing to midable fleet, which was united to a consid- fly to America. Popular indignation was erable naval force belonging to the French. kindled against the hated favorite, who The Spanish declaration of war against narrowly escaped with his life. At length Great Britain is dated at Madrid on the 12th Charles abdicated in favor of his son, but of IDecember, 1804; and on the21lst of Octo- two days afterwards privately protested her, 1805 the combined fleets of France and against his wn act, and sent a copy of thil PCI'~,"~ ":II ~ "', ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w' I llI jili,~1 I p r~!-'i - ri _?Lii HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 111 strange paper to Napoleon, who afterwards took possession of the military stores, and made it a pretext for his ulterior designs. issued an order for all males from sixteen to The prince of Asturias, now elevated to forty-five, who had no children, to enroll the throne under the title of Ferdinand VII., themselves in the national armies. On the made his triumphal entry into Madrid. 4th of July the alliance of Great Britain with Shortly afterward he was induced to under- the Spanish nation was proclaimed, and a take ajourney to Bayonne to meet Napoleon, struggle began which terminated in the comnand consult about the affairs of the kingdom. plete expulsion of the French from the PenThis memorable interview took place, and insula. The spirit of the people now seemed to the eyes of Ferdinand were now thoroughly revive again, and when we read the history of opened to the designs of the French emn- this war we are reminded of the old Iberian peror, by finding himself a captive in his resistance to the Roman conquerors. The hands, and his right to be considered king siege of Zaragoza, in 1808; may fairly be comof Spain rudely denied. The rest of the pared with the defence of Saguntum or Nuroyal family eagerly rushed into the snare mantia. When the French were in possesset for them by the master of toils at Ba- slon of the surrounding country, Zaragoza yonne. Here father and son surrendered contained no more than two hundred and the crown of Spain into the hands of Napo- twenty regulars, and was unfortified. Palaloon, by whom it was transferred to.the head fox, appointed governor of Aragon, imof his brother Joseph. But such a moment- mediately took the most energetic meaous event as a change of dynasties, effected sures for its defence. The town was soon under such circumstances, could not take after invested by the French. Their supeplace without rousing every loyal and every rior artillery and science enabled them indignant feeling in the bosoms of the Span- to make themselves masters of nearly halt ish people. No sooner was the fact of the of Zaragoza, when they called upon Palarenunciation known, than the northern prov- fox to surrender. The summons was in these inces burst into open insurrection. Asturias, brief words: "Headquarters, St. Engracia. and Galicia set the example; and it was Capitulation." The response was equally soon followed by almost every part of Spain short: "Headquarters, Zaragoza. War at the not immediately occupied or overawed by point of the knife." An incident of the the armies of France. One of the first steps siege will show the enthusiasm with which taken by the leaders of the insurrection was this declaration was seconded by the inhabito assemble the juntas or general assemblies tants. Augustina Zaragoza, a handsome of the provinces. When these were organ- woman of the lower class, about twenty-two ized, they issued proclamations, calling on years of age, arrived at the Portillo battery the Spaniards to rise in defence of their sove- with refreshments, at a time when not a man reign, and in the assertion of their own inde- who defended it was left alive, so tremenpendence. Besides these proclamations from dous was the fire which the French kept up the provincial juntas, addresses were pub- against it. For a moment the citizens hesilished in almost every province by the lead- tated to re-man the guns. Augustina sprung ers of the popular cause; in particular, the forward over the dead and dying, snatched province of Aragon was addressed by Pala- a match from the hand of the dead artilleryfox, a name celebrated in the annals of the man, and fired off a six-and-twenty-pounder, Spanish revolution, in a bold and spirited then jumping on the gun, made a solemn manifesto. The junta of Seville, which as- vow never to quit it alive during the siege, zembled on the 27th of May, formed itself Such a sight could not but animate with into a supreme junta of government, caused fresh courage all who beheld it. The Za-raFerdinand to be proclaimed king of Spain, gozans rushed into the battery and renewed 112 HISTORY OF- THE -WORLD. their fire with greater vigor than ever, manner in which this celebrated Cortes was the French -were repulsed here, and at all i constituted has been,;a subject of keen disother points, with.great slaughter. This he- putation;: bnt the circumstances in which roism, however, did not avail in the final re the kingdom was placed at the time, rensult.- Overpowered hy-: numbers, the garri- dered it impossible for the members to be son at- length surrendered, hbut not until Pal- -chosen according to the ancient forms. it afox himself was prostrated by fever, and his has -been alleged that: this assembly was of a command-was- reduced to a remnant of 12,- much more popular. and democratic nature 000 men.*' than the regular Cortes, which-is undoubtedThe.details of -the.subsequent- movements ly the fact. It ought to be recollected, howof this: war, in which the English took part,: ever, that the nobles were a suspected body, will: be-found in the history of Great Britain. and therefore the burgesses and others might The loss of the.- royal family, -by which consider tdangerous to admit their voice in they were deprived -of a directing power, a a matter which involved the liberties of the legitimate head to. give the constitutional kingdom. Bnt, we repeat, the situation in stamp to their proceedings, plunged the which Spain stood - at this eventful moment Spaniards in. great difficulties. Unity of -made it a matter of necessity for those who opinion was wanting-in the junta, and: vacil- directed the affairs of the nation, to act as lation and.weakness marked its-proceedings. they. did.. Had-. not the progress of the It was unfortunate, that while one spirit an- French armies dispersed the central junta, imeated the mass of. the people. against the and concentrated the fugitive patriots at CaFrench, many of the. nobles and other in — diz, it is more.than- probable that the Cortes. fluencial individuals had-given in their adhe- would have been assembled according to the sion to the French dynasty. The successes ancient forms, and that the privileged classes, of the latter were attributed, probably not supported by. the majority of the nation, without- some reason, to treachery; and would have defeated any attempt to alter the more than one Spanish- general fell a victim old constitution. But Cadiz offered..to that to public indignation, whether justly or un- party which has since been known by the justly cannot now be known. But whatever name of liberal, the most favorable opporvictories the French gained, they only re- tunity of striking a deadly blow at the very mained masters of the places which they oc- root of monarchical power under which -they: cupied. Avast system ofguerilla warfare had had so long groaned in hopeless yet silent been organized and vigorously prosecuted, restlessness. Cadiz was not only in itself a which served to preserve the energy and place much more democratic than any other confidence of the nation unbroken. The in Spain, but during the usurpation of the guerillas everywhere surrounded and har- French it -had become the asylum of all who assed the French; no line of communication professed liberal principles. As they genwas safe for them -These petty. achieve- erally belonged to that numnerous class of the ments, however, could not compensate for Spanish gentry who look up to the patronage the loss of battles on a large scale, and the of government for the means of subsistence, capture of fortresses, the: strong holds of the the court drew them together from the kingdom. The supreme junta fell under provinces. On the prospect of the political suspicion, and, unable- to sustain the weight changes which the captivity of Ferdinand of government and the storm of public indig- opened to the country, these men attached nation, it was agreed that the.Cortes should themselves to the central junta, and finally be convoked, and a regency appointed. The followed its members in their flight from ~__ _ _ _ _ _ _ Seville to Ctldiz. Hither, too, flocked all * Southev's History of the-Peninsular War. the stragglers of the pllilosophical party; and HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 113 Jn the dissolution of that dull, dilatory knot without distinction, are subject to taxation. )f ill-assorted men, who, under the veil of "The religion of the Spanish nation is, and dignified gravity, had for a time concealed shall be for ever, the Catholic, Apostolic, and their unfitness to direct the nation, the Span- Roman, which is the only true religion." ish speculatists found themselves in the midst " The nation," it is added, "protects it by of a population highly disposed to listen to wise and just laws, and forbids the exercise their doctrines, to approve their views, and of any other whatever." The government constitute them the organs of the new laws of the Spanish nation is stated to be "a ~which were to remodel the kingdom. limited hereditary monarchy." The power The majority of the first Cortes being of making laws is vested "in the Cortes, composed of liberals, the project of a consti- jointly with the king." In describing the tution was immediately set on foot, and a class of Spaniards who enjoy the privileges committee of the ablest members appointed of citizenship, persons "reputed of African to draw up the fundamental code of the mon- origin, either by the father or mother's side," archy. Such a task, at all times arduous, are excluded. A similar exclusion is given was, in the present circumstances of the coun- to Spaniards who obtain naturalization in try, beset with peculiar difficulties. Encour- another country, or who, without leave, abaged by the absence of the king, placed be- sent themselves five years from Spain. The yond any check from the privileged classes only basis for the number of representatives and the weight of the landed property of the in the Cortes is population, to be taken from country, it is not surprising that the framers the census of 1797, till one more correct can of the constitution allowed their zeal to carry be made. For every seventy thousand souls them too far, especially when it is considered there is to be one deputy in the Cortes. The that the Spanish people were almost entirely returns of the members are made by three unaccustomed to the exercise of civil rights. successive elections. Every parish appoints The government was wholly remodelled, so electors for the district to which it belongs. that from being the most absolute monarchy These repair to the chief town of the district in Europe, it became the most strictly limit- to choose another set of electors, who, lastly, ed of all limited monarchies. As this consti- meeting in the capital of the province, make. tution, with the exception of a few altera- the final appointment to the Cortes. Tho tions, is nearly the same as that which was Cortes are triennial. No member can be in force until the late revolution, our intro- elected for two successive representations. ducing it in this place will serve to give No debate can be carried on in the presence greater clearness to the subsequent narrative of the king; his ministers may attend and of events. It was drawn up by 184 mem- speak, but are not allowed to vote. There is bers of the Cortes, on the 18th of March, a permanent deputation,'or committee of the 1812. On the 20th of the same month, the Cortes, composed of seven members, appointregency, which consisted of Cardinal Bour- ed by the whole body, before a prorogation bon and two other apparently incapable in- or dissolution, whose duty is to watch over dividuals, took the oath to maintain it. This the executive, and report any infringement constitution was acknowledged by the allies of the constitution to the next Cortes. It of Spain, namely, Great Britain, Prussia, also belongs to them to convoke an extraorRussia, Sweden, and other states. dinary meeting of the Cortes in the cases By one of the first articles in the code, the prescribed by the constitution. sovereignty is declared to reside essentially The powers of the Cortes were chiefly in the nation, which, being free and inde- these: 1st. To move and pass the laws, and pendent, neither is nor can be the patrimony to interpret and alter them when necessary' of any person or family. All Spaniards, 2d, to adinister the constitutional oaths to -Ea~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 114 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the king, the prince of Asturias, &c.; 3d, to detailed in the constitution: The king may determine any doubt or fact relative to the issue decrees, regulations, and instructions, succession; 4th, to elect a regency, and de- for the more effectually enforcing of the laws; fine its power; 5th, to make the public recog- it is his duty to watch over the administranition of the prince of Asturias; 6th, to ap- tion of justice; he declares war and makes point guardians to the king while a minor; peace, under the control of the Cortes; he 7tI, to approve or reject treaties previous to appoints judges to all the civil and criminal ratification; 8th, to allow or refuse the ad- courts, on the presentation of the council of mission of foreign troops into the kingdom; state; all civil and military employments are 9th, to decree the creation or suppression of of the king's appointment; he presents to all offices in the tribunals established by the bishoprics, ecclesiastical dignities, and beneconstitution, as well as of places of public flees which may be in the gift of the crown, trust; 10th, to fix, every year, by the king's all by the advice of the council of state; the proposal, the land and sea forces; 11th, to king is the fountain of honor; the army an.d regulate the military code in all its branches; the navy are at his command, and he has the 12th, to fix the expenses of the government; appointment of generals and admirals; he 13th, to impose taxes, contract loans, and has the right of coinage, and the privilege of direct every thing relating to the revenue; impressing his bust on the metallic currency 14th, to establish a plan of public instruction, of the realm; the king can propose new laws, and direct the education of the prince of As- or amendments to those in existence. It beturias; 15th, to protect the political liberty longs also to him to circulate or withhold of the press; 16th, to enforce the responsi- the pope's rescripts and bulls. He can choose bility of the secretaries of state, and other and dismiss his own ministers. persons in office. The following checks were imposed on the Laws might be proposed, in writing, by king's authority by the constitution: any one of the deputies. Two days after the 1. The king cannot prevent the meeting motion, the bill is to be read a second time. of the Cortes at the periods fixed by the conIt is then determined whether the subject is stitution, neither can he dissolve them or disto be debated, or to be referred to a commit- turb their sittings; his advisers and abettors tee. Four days after the bill has been voted in such attempts are guilty of treason. 2. If worthy of discussion, it is read a third time, the king should quit the kingdomrr without and a day is appointed for the debate. A the consent of the Cortes, he is understood to majority of votes decides the fate of the bill; have abdicated the crown. 3. The king canthe members present on these occasions must not alienate any part of the Spanish territory. exceed half of their total number by one. 4. He cannot abdicate the crown in favor of The powers of the king were, 1. To sus- his successor without the consent of the Corpend the passing of a law, by withholding tes. 5. He cannot enter into any political his sanction. He could exercise this power alliance, or make commercial treaties, withagainst any decree of the Cortes for two con- out the consent of the Cortes. 6. He cannot secutive sessions; but was compelled to give grant privileges or monopolies. 7. The king his assent if the same law was passed by -cannot disturb any individual in the enjoythree Cortes successively. 2. The executive ment of his property, nor deprive him of his power resided exclusively in the king, and, personal liberty. If the interest of the state extended to whatever related to the preser-' should require the arrest of any individual vation of public order inl the interior, and to by virtue of a royal order, the prisoner milst the external securty of the state, according be delivered over to a competent tribunal to the constitution and the laws. The privi- within eight and forty hours. 8. The king canleges and duties d' the executive were thus not marry without the consent of the Cortes HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 115 he is supposed to abdicate the crown by thority, and violating the constitution re. taking a wife against their will. cently established; and they accordingly re The council of state was composed of forty jected the treaty. They likewise suspended individuals-two bishops, two priests and the king from the exercise of all power till four grandees; the other thirty-two must not he should take the oath which the new conbelong to any of these classes. The members stitution prescribed. He entered the Spanish of the council of state shall be chosen by the territory on the 24th of March, 1814, and king, out of a triple list presented to him took up his residence at Valencia. On his by the Cortes. The councillors of state can- way he had not been slow to discover that not be removed without a trial before the the lower orders were in general indifferent supreme court of justice. Their salary is to the constitution. The fact is, the new pofixed by the Cortes. The functions of this litical principles had scarcely struck root.council of state were to advise the king on among the people; and with a very considall important matters of government, and erable party, consisting of grandees, digniespecially upon giving or refusing his sanc- taries of the church, and others, the king tion to the laws, declaring war, or making was still absolute, and these flocked around treaties. The king, besides, could not bestow their master. In the Cortes itself there was any ecclesiastical benefice, or appoint any a strong body opposed to the new order of judge, but at the proposal of the council of things. A petition, signed by sixty-nine state, who, upon every vacancy, were to con- members, was presented to the king, in fine his choice to one out of three individu- which the Cortes was described as a mere als, whose names they were to lay before his tool in the hands of a republican party, with. majesty. out freedom of debate, and acting under the The laws for the security of personal lib- control of a mob regularly hired to take pos. erty were these: 1. No Spaniard can be im- session of the galleries. Nothing, therefore, prisoned without a summary process, in could be more favorable to Ferdinand's rewhich he is credibly charged with the infrac- suming absolute power. Accordingly, on tion of some law that subjects the offender to the 4th of May, 1814, a decree was solemn. corporal punishment; 2, the arrest cannot ly promulgated, in which the Cortes were take place without the warrant of a compe- declared illegal, and all their laws conso tent judge; 3, prisoners are not to be ex- quently rescinded. Some of the leading amined upon oath; 4, the jailor shall keep a members were arrested, as a prelude to what register of the prisoners, expressing the war- was shortly to happen. Under their usua, rant, and the alleged cause of his confine- leaders, the priests, the lower orders broke ment. out into fierce demonstrations of joy wher The rapid series of misfortunes which had the news of these events reached the chief shaken the imperial throne of France to its towns, and the king proceeded in a sort of foundations opened the way for the return triumphto Madrid. Furtherarrests ofthedep. of the captive Ferdinand to Madrid. The uties of the late Cortes took place; property constitutionalists looked forward to his ap- was sequestrated and papers were seized; pearance in the country with no favorable judges were appointed to try obnoxious memeye, and the arrival of despatches from him bers; but justice proving too tardy for the to the regency threw them into great con- king's eager spirit of revenge, he himself sternation. Ferdinand announced that he pronounced sentence on the prisoners in a had concluded a treaty with Napoleon. This wholesale manner, in open defiance of all law assumption of absolute power on the part of and justice. A few were capitally punished, the king without the knowledge of the Cor- and a great many more were consigned tc tes, was aiming a direct blow at their au- dungeons. The inquisition was restored, 116 HISrORY OF THE WORLD. and was urged to exert its powers against all that time there had been no less than twenty, persons suspected of liberal opinions. 3Monks five changes in the ministry, mostly sudden became once more the sole directors of the and attended with severities. They were king's conscience, and the reign of absolutism produced by the influence of the ccmarilla, and bigotry was completely restored. or individuals in the personal service of the But these arbitrary acts roused the dor- king. Every attempt to save the state was mant spirit of the Spanish people, and a re- frustrated by such counsellors; and the overvulsion of feeling was the consequence. In throw of the government, now apparently vain did the court party silence the press or inevitable, became accelerated by the loss of bribe it into their service; facts which could the American colonies. not be concealed from the people daily plead- The army was the instrument of its fall. ed the cause of liberty. Bribery and venality Amongst the officers several conspiracies had were soon observed Xo prevail around the been organized for the restoration of the new throne; the treasury was completely drained, constitution, at the head of which were Porand the army remained unpaid; while, to lier, Mina, Lacy, and Vidal. Mina had sucadd to the difficulties and dangers of Ferdi- ceeded in making his escape, but the others nand's position, armed bands of guerillas, were taken and executed, their friends at the now become organized banditti, swarmed same time being put to the torture or thrown over the country, setting the helpless magis. into prison. But these severities had no eftrates at defiance, and committing all sorts feet in repressing the discontent of the army; of atrocities. Free-masonry was abolished, for the cause which immediately produced it atd effectually kept in check; but a far more was not removed-the arrears due to the dangerous society, the members of which as- troops still remained unpaid. The money sumed the name of comuneros, was secretly which might have been employed for this formed, and, in spite of the inquisition and purpose was foolishly lavished in fitting out its emissaries, held meetings in most of the an expedition to destroy the liberties of the principal towns, and kept up an active cor- revolted South Americans —by a singular respondence among their lodges. The con- destiny it became the instrument of the overstitution was publicly burned; but this served throw of despotism at home, and the restoraonly to spread disaffection, and to give it an tion of Spanish freedom. The troops which importance in the eyes of the people which were to embark in the autumn of 1819, were it did not formerly possess. Cadiz having indisposed to the American service; and the been fixed on as the head-quarters of the lib- officers, favorable to the constitution of the erals, a regular plan for the overthrow of the Cortes, took advantage of this state of feeling government was there formed, and its secret to effect their own purposes. Whole regiinfluence was extended throughout the prov- ments had determined not to embark; and insee Our nimis do not permit us to men- the commander himself, O'Donnell, Count lion the numerous conspiracies which were del Abisbal, was in the secret. But he discovered, and quenched in blood. They basely betrayed the cause, and had the prinwere sufficient to alarm any monarch but one cipal conspirators arrested in front of the wholly abandoned to the guidance of weak, troops. For this devotion to despotism he wicked, or fanatical counsellors. Those who was rewarded by the court party by being ventured to. remonstrate with the king were removed from the command of the expedibanished or thrown into prison. The promise tion. Such ungrateful conduct towards a which he had made of granting a constitution man who had forfeited his honor to save founded on liberal principles remained unful- them, could not fail to bring the Serviles, as filled, and for six years (1814-1820) Ferdi- they were designated, into general contempt. nand reigned with absolute power. During A favorable opportunity soon occurred foi j HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 117 the liberals carrying into execution the same among a sufficient number of the troops. It plan which had failed through the perfidy of was however an expiring feeling, which O'Donnell. The yellow fever having made could only have been re-animated by a great its appearance at Cadiz, the safety of the leader, but which, in the present destitution troops which were there assembled demand- of the country, a mere breath might exed that they should be removed to some dis- tinguislh. And it was extinguished. Ferditance, thus leaving the members of the secret nand was abandoned by his troops. Even societies and other patriots at liberty to pros- O'Donnell, who had acted the part of a trai ecute their schemes without fear of violent tor to the liberal cause, became one of its interruption. The embarkation of the troops principal supporters. At Ocafia he prohad been fixed for January, 1820; but on claimed the constitution; an event which the first of that month, Riego, who had been produced a great sensation in Madrid. The placed at the head of the insurrection, gained royal palace was surrounded by a crowd, who over several battalions, and proclaimed the called on Ferdinand to accept the constituconstitution of 1812. He arrested Calderon, tion, and he now found that no alternative the successor of O'Donnell, and finally join- was left to his choice. The humbled moning Quiroga, a liberated patriot, at the time arch appeared at the balcony, holding a copy in command of some troops, and the com- of the constitution in his hand, as a pledge of bined force, amounting to 5,000 men, marched his readiness to swear to its observance. This on La Caracea, which was occupied. They occured early in M{arch, 1820. To give effi had previously taken possession of La Isla. cacy and legality to the restoration of the But still the country showed no disposition constitution, it was necessary that the Corto second this bold movement of the army. tes should be convoked, and the oath of the In vain IRiego led a flying column through king to uphold the new order of things taken the provinces, proclaiming the constitution, in their presence. The Cortes assembled o'n and expecting support from the inhabitants; the 9th of July, and all the formalities were few or none joined him. But several fortu- regularly observed. Meanwhile the consti nate/circumstances which occurred at this tutionalsystem had been put into complete time materially contributed to the success operation. During its proclamation at Caol the insurrection. Mlina, who had been diz, a bloody and disgraceful transaction obliged to fly to France, entered the Spanish took place; some of the royal troops present territory of Navarre on the 25th of February, wantonly fired on the unarmed multitude, and a numnerous band immediately surround- and about 500 were killed or wounded. The ed his standard. Risings simultaneously took inquisition was abolished, as inconsistent place in different quarters in favor of the con- with it, the state-prisoners were liberated, stitution, which was publicly proclaimed in, and new ministers were appointed. In place Galicia, Saragossa, Valencia. Murcia, Grana- of the Council of Castille, and that of the da, and many other places. General Freyer, Indies, a supreme judicial tribunal, with apwho had been appointed to the command of propriate subordinate courts, was established; the troops in Seville, was himself obliged to national guards were organized in the provpublish the constitution in that city. inces, and the municipal authorities were These insurrections could not fail to appal made to conform to the constitution. the weak, ignorant, and unpopular party The meeting of the Cortes of the 9th of which surrounded the throne. Ferdinand July, and their subsequent proceedings, himself saw no general of sufficient ability or mark the establishment of a new order ol loyalty to be trusted with the command of a things, destined however to be of short duralarge army, whllich could soon have been con- tion. This assembly acted with extremt: centlrated, for there still existed fidelity moderation, the measures of retaliatian being 1'18 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. infinitely less severe than those which fol- years, might have ended in a comprcrnise. lowed the king's triumph over the constitn- had not the whole power of.France.een tion. The members strove to temper the thrown into the scale of the serviles. violence of the liberals, and endeavored to The events which immediately precedee restore the ofrancesados (those who took the Ferdinand's restoration to absolute power, oath to support the French dynasty) to their and the complete annulment of all the acts rights, to counteract the machinations of the of the Cortes, were so various and so comserviles, and to heal the wounds of the coun- plicated, that, if fully detailed, they would try. But some of their proceedings were of themselves more than occupy all the space characterized by less judgment and human- within the limits to which this outline of ity. The suppression of many of the con- Spanish history must be confined. Into vents and of the majorates, the banishment of particulars, therefore, we shall not enter; the nonjuring clergy, and some other of their only the most important transactions can be measures, excited discontent. Various noticed. Disaffection to the government in parts of the country became disgraced by the northern provinces, where a strong body popular excesses, while on the frontiers of of French troops were stationed as a sanitary Portugal the royalist party formed a junta cordon during the prevalence of pestilence for restoring the privileges of the crown and in Spain, terminated in open revolt. The the church. Conspiracy and openly avowed national guards were called out to suppress disaffection to the new order of things spread it, and they were everywhere victorious; but so widely, that when the second session of the pecuniary resources were chiefly in the the Cortes opened in April 1821, the coun- hands of the supporters of despotism. In try was declared to be in a state of danger. /Madrid an occurrence took place in July, The command of the army having been in- 1822, which threatened the most disastrous trusted to 3Morillo, quiet was in some meas- consequences. This was a daring attempt ure restored; but still it was found necessary of the friends of absolute government to to summon an extraordinary meeting of the overthrow the constitution. They were supCortes in September. Spanish affairs in ported by the royal guards, while the nationAmerica had now assumed their gloomiest al guards were ranged on the popular side. aspect; and the government wished to com- A conflict took place, in which nearly the promise the matter by acknowledging Am- whole of the royal guards were cut off. But erica as a kingdom independent of Spain, insurrection, although thus suppressed in the but united with her under a common sove- capital, still prevailed to an alarming extent reign, Ferdinand VII. Such an absurd pro- in Biscay, Navarre, and Catalonia, where posal was rejected with scorn. The absolut- armed bands, under the name of apostolical ists, although beaten everywhere by the troops, feotas, or soldiers of the faith, comtroops of the government, could not be en- mitted revolting cruelties. Near the French tirely suppressed; and even the adherents frontier, and under French influence, the abof the constitution began to complain of the solutists appointed a regency, which issued weaknesses and mistakes of the ministry. orders in the name of the "imprisoned" The Cortes requested the king to appoint king, as they thought fit to call Ferdinand, abler men; and to this he reluctantly yielded although he had recently, under no compulin 1822. Notwithstanding the errors of the sion, and seemingly in the most voluntary Cortes, considering that the king was with manner, again declared his adherence to the them, and that his brother Carlos, although constitution. The avowed object of this reapproving of the conduct of the absolutists, gency was the restoration of every thing tc had not ventured to join them, it is probable the state in which it had been prior to th6 that the struggles, after continuing for a few 7th of March, 1820. But this band of out HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 119 rageons serviles, unsupported by the nation, and hailed the arrival of the French; the was compelled to fly to France in November, adherents of the constitution were confined 1822. The foreign relations of Spain now to the educated class, the army, and the infell into a state of dreadful disorder; and habitants of the cities. The Spanish army the principle of armed intervention pro- might be equal in strength to that of the nounced by Austria, Russia and Prussia, in French, but a considerable part of it was. relation to this unhappy kingdom, was disposed in garrisons and fortresses, scattered threatened to be acted upon by France. The over a large surface of country. The milirestoration of Ferdinand to the full enjoy- tary operations of the French, during theii ment of sovereign authority was demanded advance upon Madrid, were the siege and by the four powers named, while England capture of several strong towns, and a few advised the Cortes to yield, and offered her partial engagements, in one of which, at mediation. But the Spanish government re- least, that of Logrofio, they were defeated. pelled with indignation this attempt of for- The southern provinces, where the absolutists eign powers to interfere in its affairs. The had always a preponderancy, were occupied consequences were the recall of the foreign by the invaders with hardly any resistance; ambassadors by their respective courts, and but in Lower Catalonia, where Mina com the march of 100,000 French soldiers across manded, they were kept in check for a con the Bidassoa. The duke of Angoulbme, by siderable time. The main body of the whom this army was commanded, established French army under Angouleme hastened tc a junta, consisting of Eguia, Calderon, and the capital, which was occupied on the 24th Erro, who formed a provisional government, of May. One of the first steps taken was to declaring the king the sole depositary of appoint a regency, which put every thing on sovereign power, and that no change in the the same footing as before March'7,-1820. government should be recognized but such [But the regency had no pecuniary resources, as the king should make of his own free and no power, if they had the will, to prechoice. All the decrees of the Cortes were vent the furious ebullitions of party hatred. declared void; in short, the object of French The Cortes had in vain tried to excite a interference was simply to restore the reign general guerilla war; it was but too plain of absolute power. Unfortunately the Cortes that the mass of the people, at once miserhad no ally. The relations of Portugal to ably ignorant and furiously bigoted, without Great Britain did not allow her to conclude any just notions of what rational liberty was, a defensive treaty with Spain. Britain re- or in what the new constitution consisted, mained neutral; but the exportation of arms were content to surrender themselves entireand amunition to Spain was allowed, and, in ly to the guidance of the priesthood, and parliament, Canning called the attempt of consequently everywhere opposed the conthe French unjust, and wished the arms of stitutionalists. Their hatred was still further the Cortes success; an expression of sympa- increased by the seizure of all the property thy which led the Spaniards for a time to of persons of the opposite party, by a large hope that Britain would take part in the forced loan, and by the coining of the superwar. Ferdinand, for greater safety, had re- fluous church plate, to which measure the moved to Seville, and on the 23d of April, want of money compelled the Cortes to have 1823, he formally declared war against recourse. The war had now spread frorr France; but he in vain called upon the na- the south to the north over the whole breadtl tion to support the constitution. The great of the land, and was actively prosecuted in mass of the people were completely under Andalusia and Estremadura. An attempt the influence of the most bigoted priesthood at mediation on the part of the English amin the world, who of course were absolutists, bassador, Sir W. A'Court, failed; and the 120 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. king having refused to go to Cadiz, the Cor- The party which now succeeded to power, tes, acting on that part of the constitution although weak from want of means, was which provides for the moral incapacity of powerful enough to exercise a persecuting the sovereign, appointed a regency with and vindictive policy towards the former royal powers. We cannot regard this pro- partisans of the constitution. The TFrench ceeding in any other light than as a gross in- wished to secure mildness and moderation, dignity offered to the king, and most impol- but the bad faith of the Spanish government itic at the time. IHowever, Ferdinand ac- frustrated these objects. To restrain the viocompanied the Cortes to Cadiz, and the re- lence of party fury, which so widely pregency ceased to exist. On the other hand, vailed, a treaty was concluded with France, the members of the Cortes who had declared by which that power agreed to maintain a the king morally incapable, were denounced large military force in the country, until the as traitors by the regency of Madrid, which Spanish army could be organized. This now became recognized by foreign powers, was certainly a wise measure in the circnmnAustria, Prussia, and France, as the only le- stances; for Spain, if left to itself, would gitimate government in Spain. probably have fallen into irretrievable confu-Meanwhile the war was briskly carried on, sion. It was divided by two parties, who but nothing would induce the people to join mortally hated each other; and the bonds the,constitutionalists, who accordingly were of society, already shaken loose by years of gradually driven from stronghold to strong- war and unrestrained licentiousness, required hold, although in some places they made a little more to dissolve them altogether. The gallant resistance. Defection among the of- reports from the provinces were appalling; ficers of the army materially contributed to the treasury was empty; home and foreign the downfall of their cause. Morillo and credit were alike destroyed; and trade and Sarsfield were among the deserters. The re- commerce were paralyzed. The personal gency of Madrid conducted themselves in a moderation of the king led to the formation cruel and outrageous manner toward the of a plot by the absolutists, to compel him to friends of the constitution, notwithstanding abdicate, and to raise his brother Carlos to the strenuous efforts of the French general- the throne. This was the origin of the Carissimo to restrain their fury. The duke of lists, who made so conspicuous a figure in Angouleme took possession of the city of the sequel. An attempt to restore the inCadiz on the4th October, 1823. Previously quisition was happily frustrated. In May, to this, the Cortes had reinvested Ferdinand 1824, a decree of amnesty appeared; but it with absolute power, and requested him to was a mere mockery, for it contained so remove to the French:head-quarters, where many exemptions, that those who were to lie was received with becoming pomp.'The enjoy its benefits seemed rather to form the first measure of the king was to declare all exception than the rule. The year 1825 the acts of the constitutional government was disturbed by several insurrections of the from March 7, 1820, to October 1, 1823, Carlists, which were attended with numnenull and void, on the ground that during rous executions. The independence of the that period he was acting' under compulsion. American colonies was recognized by foreign The war terminated in November; and on powers, but Spain herself did not acknowlthe 22d of that month the duke of Aigouleme edge it till the year 1836. The general intook his leave of the army of the Pyrenees. terruption of commerce and industry, with Among the crowds of fugitives were Mina the flight of many persons of property, occaand the count of Abisbal; and among the sioned much distress. The disturbances convictims capitallypunished was Riego, who suf- tinned for some years, attended with the fered at Madrid the 27th of November. 1823. 1 same marks of feebleness on the part of the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 121 government, and a continuance of general him a father, and in order to secure the distress. It was a period of terror to the -crown to his own child, should the issue liberals, who were plundered and imprisoned prove a female, he resolved on revoking the on the slightest pretexts. The army, purged Salic law, which excludes females. It is imof all officers suspected of liberalism, was re- portant to observe, that, in 1789, Charles cruited by a motley throng of adventurers, IV. issued a pragmatic sanction, having the friars, smugglers, mechanics, publicans, and force of law, and establishing the regular muleteers, who had been officers in the guer- succession to the crown of Spain in females illa bands of Catalonia and Navarre. The as well as males. The Cortes of 1812 likeranks being replenished in this manner, the wise solemnly revoked the law of Philip V., French troops were enabled to evacuate and re-established the old law of the PartiSpain in 1828. Some insurrections, which das. B3ut as Ferdinand had annulled the had broken out during the preceding year, acts of that assembly, and as the decree of were suppressed without much trouble; and Charles IV. might be caviled at by the fierce in spite of the arbitrary rule of the Carlists, and intolerant party who wished that Carlos their tortuous policy, and their open violence, should succeed to the throne, the king ohthe country began to show some symptoms tained the records of the Cortes of 1789 reof improvement. garding the succession, and on the margin In May, 1829, Ferdinand lost his queen, opposite the decree of Charles IV., with his and on the 9th of November following, her own hand, wrote a decree to the same effect. place was supplied by a Neapolitan princess, The minister, Calomarde (a Carlist at heart), Christina Maria. Unblessed with issue by remonstrated with the king against its publihis three former marriages, the hope and the cation; but Ferdinand was firm, and ordered desire of having a child of his own to inherit the resolution to be carried into effect. In his honors and preserve the throne to his dy- compliance with this demand, the whole was nasty, probably hastened the nuptials of Fer- forwarded to the council; and in the gazette dinand. The French revolution of 1830 of the 6th of Aril, 1830, the edict was pub. caused much less sensation in Spain than lished to the w:rld. It was likewise regumight have been expected. The fact is, the larly proclaimed in the streets of Madrid liberal party had been so devoured or dis- with the usual formalities. Ferdinand's forepersed by the sword, the scaffold, exile, and sight was justified. The infant with which the dungeon, that in the country itself it was the queen presented him was a daughter not powerful; but a rash and ill-judged at- born on the 10th of October, and christened tempt in the constitutional cause was made Isabella Maria Luisa. from without. General Mina assembled a But the Carlists did not wait for the ex body of refugees and others, and invaded the pected birth of the heir to the throne tc Basque provinces; but they were speedily show how terribly the publication of the de repelled, and sought refuge in France. cree had staggered them, They rushed into -Meanwhile, some events of momentous hasty plots against the government, which importance had taken place in the royal were detected before they were ripe for exefamily. cution; and in various ways showed their The Infant Don Carlos was presumptive chagrin and irritation. In order to render heir of the throne; the succession to the Span- the success still more secure, Ferdinand callish crown had been subjected to the Salic law ed a meeting of the Cortes, before which the by Philip V., so that, as matters stood at edict of Philip V. was again repealed, and present, no daughter of the reigning king his daughter, the Infante Isabel, recognized could interrupt its descent to his brother. as princess of tlhe Asturias. An insurrection The queen of Ferdinand was about to make broke out in Cadiz in 1831, at the head of 122 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. which was General Torrjas. It was soon done regarding the succession, thuE restoring quelled, and the leader, with fifty-three cornm- to his daughter her right to the thr, ne. The panions, fled to MIalaga, where they were decree to this effect was issued or the last taken prisoners, and all shot in cold blood. day of the year. The former ordinance, he The other events of this year are unimpor- declared, had been extorted from him, not tant, with the exception of a sudden illness only when he was in the agonies of expected of the king, which so excited the hopes of death, but under false misrepresentations the Carlists, that they strenuously urged their that all Spain demanded it, and that the inmaster to take advantage of the circum- violability of the monarchy required it:; stance, and at once seize the crown. This whereas it had only been desired by an aimremarkable fact shows with what spirit they bitious and unscrupulous faction, and was were animated. It was not a love of justice, opposed to the fundamental laws of the but ambition, and a spirit of vindictive hos- kingdom. A more liberal ministry was tility to the constitutionalists, who now be- formed, and some liberal measures were gan to be tolerated, that instigated them adopted; high expectations were raised that to attempt the exaltation of Carlos to the milder times were at hand, and the funds throne, and that at all hazards, even before in Madrid rose ten per cent. Early in 1833, he possessed the semblance of a claim to it; Ferdinand was able to resume the reins oI for while Ferdinand lived, by what right government. On the 20th of June he ascould he grasp at his sceptre? Yet his par- sembled the Cortes to swear allegiance to tisans extol his magnanimity in refusing it his daughter, and do homage to her as their at this time. future sovereign. This solemnity was perIn the course of the year 1832, Ferdinand formed with great pomp in the church of the.had an alarming relapse of his disease, dur- royal monastery of St. Jerome. Don Carlos ing the paroxysms of which a transaction refused to take the oath; but previously to took place of the utmost importance in itself, this he had taken up his residence in Portuand which has been very differently repre- gal, where Don Miguel was playing the same sented by different parties. It was the sign- desperate game which he himself was about ing of a decree by which he restored the to undertake. Ferdinand survived the cereSalic law to full operation, and the further mony of the jura only a few months. Ite confirming the disinheriting of his daughter, expired on the 29th of September, 1833, by annulling his testament in her favor. It leaving a will, in which he appointed his is certain that the ministers strenuously urged daughter Isabella heir to the crown, and her him to adopt this measure; and that they mother regent during her minority. were under Carlist influence, is no less cer- No sooner was Isabella II. proclaimed tain. Every thing was accomplished to their queen, than Don Carlos announced his claim wishes; the document was signed and prop- to the throne, and the flames of civil war erly secured, and the king appeared to have burst out in the northern provinces, where fallen into the sleep of death. His dissolu- his partisans, assembled in great numbers, tion indeed was announced; but, contrary to stood ready armed for the contest. Of the all human expectation, the disease took a bloody and protracted struggle for the throne favorable turn; all symptoms of immediate which ensued, we can afford room for few danger disappeared, and consciousness and details; indeed, an account of the numerous understanding were restored to Ferdinand. battles, skirmishes, sieges, and other warlike The use which he made of the lucid interval operations, would prove a very uninterestthus vouchsafed to him, was to dismiss his ing and monotonous portion of the rlodern Lninisters, to appoint the queen regent dur- history of Spain. Isabella was acknowledged rng his illness, and to undo what he had lately without opposition throughout all the prov HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 123 ilces of Spain, and by the leading powers of | hand, the sovereign is to be regarded as desEurope. The question of Spanish succession, potic in Spain, the question is at an end; for apart altogether from the bloody war to even Carlos must acknowledge that Ferdiwhich it gave rise, has been keenly agitated nand had a right to regulate the succession acin this and many other countries. It may cording to his own royal pleasure. This view be briefly stated as follows. Carlos's right seemed to have been taken by the king's conrested upon the Salic law, which had never fessor, and his minister Calomarde, when, the force of law in Spain. The Salic law during his dangerous illness at La Granja in was not the ancient rule of succession; it 1832, they induced him to sign a new will, was first introduced by the Bourbon Philip settling the crown on Don Carlos. FerdiV., the great-grandfather of Don Carlos. nand's recovery disconcerted their plan; but Females could always succeed in Castille, their effort plainly shows that the partisans Leon, and Portugal. It was" by marriage of Don Carlos at that time felt that the Salic with the heiress of Navarre that a king of law was a very weak support to their favorFrance obtained a claim to that kingdom; ite's claims. The transaction by which Ferand although females were excluded in Ara- dinand (supposed to be on his death-bed) gon, yet it was through a princess that its transferred the crown to his brother, is adinheritance passed to the counts of Catalo- mitted by the Carlists to have been a pernia. It was by the right of female succes- fectly legal proceeding. Can the subsequent sion that the house of Austria reigned in transaction, by which, under exactly similar Spain; it was by the same right the Bour- circumstances, the king appointed his daughbons themselves occupied the throne. It ter his successor, be considered otherwise formed a part of the Partidas, or system of than as an equally legal proceeding. If the constitutional law, which Philip swore to ob- constitution be referred to, the question is serve on his succession to the throne. The decided against Don Carlos; the will of the Salic law, on which Carlos grounded his claim, sovereign is against his claim; and, what is could only be established in two ways; by of yet more consequence, as the event has the old forms of the constitution, or by the shown, the will of the majority of the nation despotic will of the sovereign. If the advo- was against him. cates of Don Carlos take their stand on the It was in the northern provinces, in Naformer ground, the answer is, that the forms varre, Guipuscoa, Biscay, and Alava, that as well as the substance of the constitution the strength of Don Carlos lay. Here he were violated when Philip T. established his was immediately proclaimed in several towns law of succession; and that, conscious of its by the title of Charles V., and bands of Carinvalidity, he did not register it in the form list guerillas assembled to maintain his right usual with similar acts; while, again, if we to the throne. He himself still hovered a fupass over the Cortes of 1789 as secret and ir- gitive on the frontiers of Portugal, his moveregular, we have the Cortes of Cadiz in 1812, ments being closely watched by a royal force which abolished the decree of Philip, and under General Rodil. Another strong diviD restored the ancient law of the Partidas. sion of the queen's army, under General But Ferdinand having annulled the proceed- Sarsfield, marched against the disaffected ings of this body, its re-establishment of the provinces. The Carlists retired before him; right of female succession must fall to the Bilboa and other towns were occupied and ground with its other decrees. There is, garrisoned; the constitutional party was rehowever, Ferdinand's own decree, constitut- stored in several places where it had lost ing his daughter his successor, which was ground; and the insurrection seemed at first just as regularly sanctioned by the Cortes as to have been happily put down without Philip's law of succession. If, on the other much loss. But early in 1834 the affairs of 124 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the Carlists asaumed altogether a new aspect. ness and infirmities, restored confidence by Hitherto their operations were carried on in making head against the hitLerto victorions an unconnected manner; this system was Carlists and bringing victory to the standards now exchanged for one of steady unity of of the queen. design. Indeed so numerous were the ad- In the mean while, Don Carlos, after paying herents of Don Carlos in the north, that a short visit to England, made his appearthere was only required a firm hand to seize ance in Spain; and his presence among his par. the reins, control local jealousies, and direct tisans greatly strengthened his cause in the aright the energies of the provinces. Such northern provinces. France and Britain had a man was Don Thomas Zumalacarregui, acknowledged Queen Isabella II. These twe who now assumed the chief command of the powers, along with Portugal, entered into a Carlists. He was admirably skilled in the treaty with Spain, the conditions of which desultory warfare of these provinces, and quadruple alliance were, that France should well acquainted with the country and with watch the frontiers, so that the insurgents the character of the inhabitants. ]By his ac- might receive no aid from that country; that tivity and enterprise he repeatedly inflicted Britain should supply such arms and munitions severe blows upon the forces of the queen, or of war as the Spanish government should stand the Christinos, as they were generally called. in need of, whilst at the same time she should His method of fighting was to surprise the guard the northern ports of Spain, so as to enemy in an unprotected position, and cut prevent the insurgents from receiving any asoff as many of them as he could before they sistance in men, money, or ammunition, and recovered from their panic. His troops also assist the queen with a naval force; and would then suddenly separate and fly, but that Portugal should co-operate by every only to inite again at a predetermined point means in her power: but that country was at some miles in the rear. By this mode of the time in too embarrassed a situation to warfare he caused great loss to the Christi- render any efficient assistance. As soon as nos, while his own small band suffered little. the arrival of Don Carlos in Navarre was The Christino army under General Rodil, known, the four powers who had been parties who had now obtained the chief command, to the treaty renewed its stipulations, in remight amount to 20,000 men, and was thus spect that its object had not yet been attainsufficiently strong at least to have confined ed. This imparted confidence and vigor to Zumalacarregui to the mountains; but it the cabinet of Madrid, of which it stood was greatly reduced by several thousand greatly in need. A variety of measures octroops having been distributed among a cupied the attention of government during number of petty fortresses, most of which, the year 1834, not the least important of one after the other, fell a prey to the Carlist which was the plan of a new charter or conchieftain. It was further weakened by being stitution. It is quite unnecessary to enter divided into different corps and scattered into any details of what the Cortes proposed over the country. Rodil found it necessary should be done, as everything was overturned to resign the command, which now devolved and put upon a new footing by a revolution upon Mina, from whom much was expected. which occurred two years afterwards. The Nor did he disappoint the hopes which were financial state of Spain, particularly the large formed of him. Just before his appointment, debt which the government owed to foreign Generals O'Doyle and Asina had severally nations, formed a subject of protracted been defeated with great loss by Zumalacar- discussion. Doubts were raised as to whethregui, which occasioned much alarm atMad- er a part of it was legitimately owing; rid, and loud outcries against the ministry. but the debates in the Cortes terminated iii But the otl M wrrior, though broken by siclk- the whole being recognized as justly due, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 125 This contributed to restore the credit of borllood, prepared to take advantage of cir Spain in foreign money-markets, where it cumstances. An opportunity soon occurred had Leen greatly shaken, and enabled the for attacking the Christinos at the village of government to contract for a new loan. Arrigoriaga, which they made an attempt to Another measure of importance which en- pass. The royalists were driven back with gaged the attention of the Cortes, was the considerable loss, and this check for the time passing of a bill of exclusion from the throne interrupted the movements of Cordova's against Carlos and his descendants. During army. On the other hand, the Christinos the year the ministry had undergone a cornm- laid claim to more than one victory gained plete change, chiefly through the instrumen- over their enemies; but these doubtful and tality of a popular leader of the name of unproductive skirmishes, which in the flush Llauder. Zea was superseded in the office and enthusiasm of triumph were magnified of prime minister by Martinez de la Rosa, into decisive battles, are too insignificant to supposed to be a person of more liberal pre- require a detail in this place. At the close ]ilections. of 1835, matters stood much as they did at The military operations of 1835 were the commencement of the year. But the war prosecuted with great vigor on the part of was now carried on with more humanity the Carlists. Several important towns and than formerly. A strong remonstrance on fortresses fell into their hands, and siege was the part of the British Government, against laid to Bilboa, the capital of Biscay. After the barbarous practice of putting prisoners to sustaining a furious bombardment for several death, had the desired effect, at least for a days, the place was relieved, principally time, of staying the effusion of blood in this throuOgh the instrumentality of some British inhuman manner. gunners under Lord John Hay, commander Those parts of Spain exempt from the hor of a ship of war then on the coast of Biscay. rors of war, were for the most part subjected It was during the attack on Bilboa that to the scourge of political anarchy. The new Zumalacarregui received the wound of which government of the queen-regent had been he died on the 23d of June. The death of founded on an abandonment of the old system this chief threw a gloom on the affairs of of unmitigated despotism. Her daughter's Don Carlos: it was the severest loss which throne was to be identified with more liberal his cause had sustained, and it never properly institutions, and was thus to be protected by recovered from it. Among the Christinos all political reformers, all who were inimical this event diffused a joy and hope which they to absolutism. But the extent to which the made no efforts to conceal. Worn out by old system was to be abandoned, and the long service, by age, and by disease, the form in which a popular government was to veteran Mina, resigned the command, which be established, were questions regarding ultimately devolved upon General Cordova, which every possible diversity of opinion preunder whom was the celebrated Espartero. vailed. The unquiet elements thus at work The Spanish government having been per- showed themselves first in a military revolt. mitted to levy a body of mercenaries in and then in the revolt of several provinces, Great Britain, several thousand recruits were in which the democratic' party sought to raised in that country, and were led to usurp the powers of government. For a the theatre of war in Spain, under the cor- time they set the lawful authorities at defimand of General Evans. The British legion ance, for the government of Madrid was soon took an active part in the war, and dis- helpless. Even here disaffection had spread tinguished itself upon various occasions. to a most alarming extent, the urban militia The Carlist army, although it abandoned the having openly revolted. In vain were roya;iege of Bilboa, still continued in the neigh- decrees issued, and strong measures put in 126 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. force to repress the disturbances; an open were, 1st, that the part of the constitutior war between the government and numerous which contained mere regulations and forms, sections of the liberals seemed on the eve of and regarded organic bodies and laws, should breaking'out. Fortunately this was averted be entirely suppressed; 2dly, that instead of by a change of the ministry, which was loudly the Cortes continuing to form, as they did demanded by the factious opposition. The under the constitution of 1812, only ono life and soul of the new ministry was Mendiz- body, they should now consist of two bodies, abel, a man of great vigor, and very popular differing from each other in the personal among the people, on account of his liberal qualification of their members, &c., but principles. IHe condemned the repressive neither to be hereditary nor privileged; 3dly, measures which had been acted upon, adopted that the crown should have an absolute veto a more lenient system of dealing with the in the enactment of laws, and should likemalcontents, and proposed various alterations wise have the power of convolking, proroguin the constitution, the mere mention of ing, and dissolving the Cortes; but in the which sufficed to restore the country to com- latter case to be under the obligation of asparative tranquillity. But all the delibera- sembling others within a given time; 4thly, tions of the ministry and the Cortes were that the election of members of the Cortes rendered abortive by the military revolution should be direct, and not indirect, as estabwhich broke out at Iialaga, on the 25th of lished by the constitution of 1812. July, 1836. The object of the ultra liberals While Spain was thus undergoing the had uniformly been the restoration of the con- most momentous political changes, the very stitution of 1812. Without this no change existence of the queen's government was of ministers could satisfy them, and no vigil- threatened by the Carlists, who were making ance on the part of the government could alarming progress in the very centre of the prevent them from covertly prosecuting their kingdom. During the early part of the year designs. It was with the national guard that the Christinos attacked the position of the the revolt originated. In Malaga the gov- Carlists at Arlavan, but with so little success ernor was assassinated, and a junta was ap- that they were compelled to make a retropointed to proclaim the constitution. Intelli- grade movement. However, early in May, gence of these events spread throughout the the British legion, under General Evans, country with the greatest rapidity. Cadiz gallantly carried the Carlist lines before St. and Zaragoza took up the signal nearly at Sebastian; but unfortunately this victory, the same moment; and they were instantly like many others gained, was productive of followed by Seville, Cordova, Granada, and no important result, chiefly through the Valencia. At length the capital itself joined sloth and inactivity of the Spanish generals. the insurgent cities; and on the 13th of The circumstance which created the great August, the queen, now deserted and help- alarm to which allusion has been made, was less, was compelled to issue a decree, promis- the march of a large body of Carlists under ing the restoration of the constitution of Gomez, through the very heart of Spain. 1812. But all men who were reasonable and This chief penetrated from province to prohonest in their politics felt and admitted that vince, to the centre of Andalusia, laying the some alterations in that code were quite in- country under heavy contribution, and carrydispensable. The Cortes accordingly ap- ing off loads of booty from every place which pointed a committee to consider and propose he visited. The audacity of this enterprise such alterations as were necessary and advis- seems for a time to have paralyzed the able; and this they accomplished in a highly royalists. Consternation spread over Spain satisfactory manner. The changes recom- from Madrid to Gibraltar. Gomez attacked mended and inally adopted by the Cortes and carried several towns, and some bodies HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 127 of troops who attempted to arrest his progress driven back with some loss; but receiving were totally destroyed. No less than three a great accession of strength, the Carlists in distinguished'Spanish generals, each with a their turn compelled the royalists to retreat large army, were despatched to cut him off; with at least equal loss. The affair of Herbut all their efforts to entrap him and his nani would have been much more disastrous, daring band proved fruitless. He was re- but for the steady bravery of a small body peatedly surrounded, and apparently on the of British marines, who checked the advance eve of being taken, but always succeeded in of the Carlists, and retired to St. Sebastian effecting his escape. At length, however, he in good order. In a subsequent attack on was hemmed in to the sea-coast at San Roque, Irun and Fuentarabia, General Evans was and his destruction seemed inevitable; but, completely successful; but it seems perfectly by a daring and masterly movement, he broke clear that this officer was never cordially through the line which encompassed him, supported by the Spanish commanders. The and secured his retreat to the strongholds of defeat before Hernani would never have the north. taken place had Espartero and Sarsfield supTowards the close of 1836, the town of ported him according to the concerted plan. Bilboa was again invested by the Carlists, to The time for which the British legion volunwhom it was an object of great importance, teered its services expired in the month of as being a city of sufficient consideration to iMayv, and shortly afterwards it disbanded, give dignity to the court of Carlos, and an nearly the whole returning to England in the appearance of permanence to his establish- most destitute condition. Meanwhile Don ment. It was, besides, the capital of Biscay, Carlos had followed the example of Gomez, and inseparably connected in the eyes of the by marching an army through the central Basques, with their fueros and local parlia- parts of the kingdom. Our limits will not ment. The siege was carried on with an permit us to follow him in this daring but ardor corresponding with the importance at- useless expedition. One body of Carlists adtached to the place. The defence was equally vanced within a few leagues of Madrid, and spirited and heroic. During the sixty days all was consternation in the capital. But the which the investment lasted, the fortitude of Christino generals concentrating their forces, the besieged was put to the severest test, not compelled the main body of the Carlist army only by the long-continued fire of the Carlists, to retire from the provinces into which it by their repeated attacks, and by their min- had made so fierce an irruption. Disunion ing operations, but by want of proper food also began to show itself in the camp of Don and by sickness. At length General Espar- Carlos, so that, disappointed and disheartened, tero succeeded in compelling the Carlists to he retreated to his old fastness beyond the retire with the loss of all their guns and Ebro, accompanied however by a large conmnmateriel for the siege, and Bilboa was re- voy of booty. Besideg these military operalieved. The intelligence was received at tions, prosecuted on a large scale, there was a Madrid with unbounded enthusiasm, and system of desultory warfare maintained all honors and rewards were heaped upon the over the country, more destructive in its defenders, and those who had so opportunely effects upon the inhabitants than the regular relieved them. The Christinos, however, as operations of an army. Brigandage, never usual, neglected to follow up the success, al- viewed with much horror in Spain, had now lowing the Carlists to remain unmolested in become as common as a lawful trade. Rethe neighborhood. Near St. Sebastian they morseless cruelty characterized the proceedmustered very strong during the early part ings of all parties; and civil life, except in of 1837, and here they were attacked by the the large towns, seemed for the time sus Anglo-Christinos under General Evans, and pended. 128 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. The civil and parliamentary history of General Orad was defeated at Morella, and Spain for 1837, presents little that is of anIyj General Alaix also suffered a repulse. But importance. The new constitution formed a the principal battle fought between the Carfruitful theme of discussion in the Cortes. lists and Christinos was that of Maella, where After undergoing the alterations already men- Gen. Cabrera completely routed the queen's tioned, and some others of less moment, it troops under Pardinas, but sullied his victory was solemnly ratified by the queen-regent in by butchering nearly two hundred prisoners the Cortes, and proclaimed to the nation. It in cold blood. The war throughout had been is worthy of been noticed, that an attempt to disgraced by similar atrocities, notwithstand. introduce toleration in religious matters by ing the efforts of Britain to put a stop to an amendment to the article which establishes them. Both parties appear to have been the Catholic faith, met with the strongest op- equally guilty of this inhuman practice. The position. This striking fact shows how deeply operations of Espartero were feeble and unrooted the old Spanish bigotry remained in the certain. He did little but march a large national mind. During the year, bills were army from place to place, without striking a passed for the suppression of religious houses, decisive blow. As usual, almost every part and the abolition of the payment of tithes, of Spain continued to be ravaged by guerilla the maintenance of the clergy being left to bands, who swarmed over the provinces, the government. Several judicious ecclesias- with no other object in view but plunder and tical reforms were projected; and among bloodshed. During the year, the Cortes had other important measures passed by the twice met; their deliberations chiefly referred Cortes, was the abolition of the local parlia- to the state of the finances and the negotiaments in the Basque provinces. Mliinisterial tion of a loan, which was not effected. The changes repeatedly took place during the ministry, always feeble, had now become year, but into these we shall not enter. more feeble than ever, notwithstanding that The military operations of the Carlists in changes were continually taking place. The 1838, were less successful and less enterpris- queen-regent found'it impossible to form a ing than they had beenI during the two pre- strong government in the present political vious years. Cabrera, indeed, a general state of the country. Its helplessness was who had frequently signalized his talents for such that the generals commanding in the war, had firmly established himself in Aragon different provinces found it necessary to act and Valencia, and the bands of partisans al- independently of its arrangements, and to lowed no respite to the distracted provinces; appropriate the revenues of each province but we have to record none of those daring to the payment of the military expenses in. and brilliant flying expeditions which more curred in it, instead of allowing the moneys than once traversed Spfin in all directions to pass into the treasury. Thus General Van with such celerity and success as to command Ilalen, who had organized a fine army of the attention of Europe. Something of this 40,000 men, called the army of the centre, kind was indeed attempted by Basilio Garcia, after declaring the kingdoms of Aragon, and by Tallada, but both these generals were Valencia, and Murci4, in a state of siege for signally defeated. The cause of Don Carlos the rest of the war and that in future the was now visibly declining; the best and civil were to consider themselves in subordinbravest of the chiefs who had served him had nation to the military authorities, proclaimed, successively incurred his displeasure, and that the entire revenues of those provinces were either in disgrace, exile, or confinement; should be paid into the rnf itary chest, and above all, the country was beginning to be exclusively appropriated to the expenses of favorably disposed to the queen. Her troops the war. This was probably the very wisest however were ver unmsuccessful in the field. measure that could have been adopted for HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 129 Iringing the war to a speedy termination. pacification of the northern provinces, still Want of pay had repeatedly paralyzed the maintained his footing in Valencia, deteroperations of the Christino armies; it had mined to support the cause of Carlos while dispersed the British legion; and at this very an army remained to back him. moment it was exciting discontent, if not re- In 1840 the war against Cabrera was vigvolt, in the camp of Don Carlos. To place orously prosecuted under the auspices of the pay of the queen's troops upon a sure Generals Espartero and O'Donnell, and at footing, was therefore the first step to secure length the Carlist chief was reduced to sucli ultimate triumph in the field. extremities that he crossed over to France, During 1839, the cause of Don Carlos where he was immediately arrested by the rapidly declined, notwithstanding the des- French authorities. perate efforts made by Generals Cabrera and Early in July of that year, the queen reMaroto to maintain it. Espartero, the com- gent, accompanied by her royal daughter, mander-in-chief of thle queen's troops, after set out for Barcelona, and was at first ret some hard fighting, cut off the Carlists cornm- ceived with great rejoicing and every mark pletely from the plains of Alava, while Diego of respect; bnt in a few days the scene was Leon likewise expelled them from the rich changed, and she was hooted and insulted country between the mountains and the by the populace as she rode through the Ebro. Many towns and fortresses of im- streets in her carriage. The national guard portance, one after another, submitted to the were called out, and a conflict took place betriumphant Christinos, so that almost the tween them and the mob; but the insurrec only parts of Biscay which now owned the tion was not put down till Espartero brought authority of Carlos were rugged mountainous a body of troops of the line against them and tracts of country, whither no regular army put them to flight. The chief cause of this could follow the fugitives. An armistice unpopularity of the regent was her determin was at length concluded between Makroto ing to have a bill passed which would place and Espartero, which was followed by the chief municipal appointments in the twenty-one Carlist battalions laying down hands of the crown, and thus deprive the intheir arms. Don Carlos himself, reduced to habitants of the various towns of any control the last extremity, fled for refuge into France, over their civic functionaries. The regent where he formally renounced his pretensions carried her measure, and the next day Esto the throne of Spain, under certain condi- partero, who was strongly opposed to it, sent tions alike reasonable and necessary. The in his resignation as general of the forces. question relative to the fueros of the Basques It would be tedious and uninteresting to deand lNavarre, which, it will be recollected, tail the political intrigues and changes that had been abolished, caused much uneasiness. were occasioned by the obstinacy of the It seemns perfectly evident that these impor- queen. The popular excitement against the tant provinces would not be satisfied, or comn- measure was so strong that the ministry were pletely surrender themselves to the queen's obliged to resign, and at length the queen authority, unless their local privileges were had to yield and send for Espartero, to whom restored. After some debating in the Cor- she gave full power to form a cabinet. To tes, this measure was agreed to, government every condition imposed upon her she gave stipulating that it would so modify the fueros her consent, except to that of having any one as to reconcile the interests of these provinces associated with her in the regency. She dewith those of the nation, and with the con- dared that, rather than submit to that, she stitution of the monarchy. The only Carlist would abdicate altogether; and accordiDnglay. chief who gave any uneasiness to the govern- though strongly dissuaded from such a step, ment was Cabrera, who, little affected by the she abdicated on the 12th October, 1840. 130 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. She then set out for Marseilles, and thence with the populace, and the soldiery being to Paris, where she was received with every called out, a sanguinary conflict took place, honor by the French king, and had apart- in which the latter were defeated and cormments provided for her in the Palais-Royal. pelled to retire into the citadel. Espartero, About the end of this year a dispute arose on hearing of this, set out in person for Barwith Portugal respecting the navigation of celona, and, on nearing the place, a deputathe Douro, which was likely at one time to tion of the inhabitants waited upon him, lead to hostilities between the two countries, offering to surrender upon certain condibut which at length was fortunately settled. tions, including a free pardon to all con-'When the Cortes met in April, 1841, Es- cerned. Espartero, however, demanded an partero was, by a majority of votes, elected unconditional surrender, and as they would sole regent. The queen-mother was also re- not agree to this, he proceeded to bombard quested to relinquish the guardianship of her the town. On the evening of the second day daughter, but she would only consent to this of the bombardment the town surrendered. on conditions which the government could A few of the ringleaders were executed, and not agree to, and they accordingly declared a contribution was levied towards the exthe office vacant, and afterwards appointed pense of the war; but altogether the inhabSenior Arguellas guardian of the young itants had no cause to complain of being queen and her sister. The ex-queen, how- harshly treated by the conqueror. The reever, was not without friends in Spain, and gent made his public entry into Madrid on early in October an insurrection broke out in his return from Barcelona, on the 1st of JanPampeluna, where General O'Donnell sue- uary, 1843. ceeded in gaining possession of the citadel. That year, however, was to witness the A similar outbreak took place in Vittoria, overthrow and exile of the hitherto successand on the night of the 7th October a des- ful regent. Though le had ever pursued a perate attempt was made in Madrid itself to liberal and enlightened policy, and had efget possession of the young queen's person, fected many useful reforms in the state, yet and but for the loyalty and courage of the he had given great offence to the clergy by guards, would have been successful. By the his having sanctioned the appropriation of tact and energy of Espartero, however, the part of the ecclesiastical revenues to secular insurrection was speedily suppressed, and purposes. The fire smouldered for a time, O'Donnell, finding his cause hopeless, evacu- but it at length found vent in open rebellion. ated the citadel of Pampeluna, and crossed Barcelona, as formerly, took the lead in this over to France. The ex-queen, who was still movement, and was immediately followed in Paris, was generally supposed to have en- by Malaga, Grenada, Seville, and other couraged or countenanced this rebellion; towns. Espartero, seeing the emergency, and having refused to publish a declaration prepared to head the forces in person, and that it was without her authority and against issued an address to the people vindicating her wish, Espartero issued a decree suspend- his conduct as regent. His usual energy, ing payment of her pension. The Cortes however, seems to have deserted him, and was opened by Espartero on the 26th De- his movements were vacillating and aimless cemnber, 1841, but its proceedings present A battle was fought on the 22d of July at little of interest; and nothing of importance Torrejon, between the insurgent leaders Naroccurred in Spain till the following Novem- vaez and Aspiroz, and Generals Seoane and ber, when a formidable insurrection broke Zurbano, on which occasion, after a short enout in Barcelona, occasioned by the arrest gagement, Zeoane's army went over in a of some individuals connected with a repub- body to the enemy. This victory was follican newspaper. The national guard sided lowed by the surrender of the capital. Es HISTORY OF THE:WORLD. 131 partero was besieging Seville when the news spread rapidly. It was, however, without of this reached him, and he immediately strength; two of Zurbano's sons were talken raised the siege and set out for Cadiz, pur- and shot; and, at length, lie himself, a lonely sued by General Concha. At Port St. fugitive, was discovered in the neighborhood Mary he took refuge on board an English of Logroilo, and suffered a like fate. frigate, and subsequently arrived at WVool- Apart from the usual ministerial changes, wich, where he was received with every nothing of importance connected with Spain mark of respect. On arriving in London, occurred in 1845, except the public renunciwhere he took up his residence, the corpora- ation by Don Carlos of his claim on the Spantiuo Af tnat city honored him with a ban- ish crown in favor of his son, Charles Louis, quet. prince of Asturias, who took the title of The absence of Espartero, however, did Comte de lMontemolin. The following year not serve to restore peace. The jarring fac- Narvaez, who had been at the head of more tions continued to contend with unabated than one ministry, fell into disgrace, and was fury, and disturbances broke out in various obliged to leave the country. A serious inparts of the country. The city of Barcelona surrection also broke out in Galicia; but revolted against the new government, and General Concha having defeated the insurwas followed by several other towns. These gents in a decisive engagement, it wras disturbances, however, did not lead to any speedily suppressed. This year, also, the important result, Barcelona and the other marriage of the young queen was a subject towns which had taken up arms being obliged which occupied much attention, not only in to capitulate. One of the first acts of the Spain, but likewise in other countries; and new Cortes, which met on the 15th of Octo- it at one time threatened to bring about a ber, was to pass a decree declaring the young serious misunderstanding between France queen of age, although by law her minority and England. The professed position of did not terminate till the 10th of October, these two countries regarding this question 1844. She accordingly took the constitu- was that of strict neutrality. France, howtional oatlh on the 10th of November. ever, insisted that the choice of the queen In the beginning of 1844 an insurrection should be restricted to a prince of the house broke out at Alicante, and spread so rapidly of Bourbon. The imposition of any such rethat in a short time the whole province of striction was strongly opposed by England; Murcia, and a great part of Valencia, had but the matter was at length set at rest by declared against the government. Vigorous its becoming known that the queen was measures, however, having been adopted, it about to marry her cousin, Don Francisco was at length suppressed. Alicante surren- d'Assis, eldest son of her uncle Don Francisdered to the government forces in the begin- co de Paula. It was generally believed that ning of March, and Carthagena about the this marriage was brought about by French end of that month. In the meantime the influence, and that the inclinations of the ex-queen returned to Spain, and was met by queen had been little consulted in the mather daughters and the principal ministers at ter. It was also arranged that the queen's Aranjuez. They entered Madrid with great sister should at the same time marry the Due pomp on the 23d of March. de Montpensier, the youngest son of the The marriage of the ex-queen to Munoz, French king. The two marriages were celewho, a short time previously, had been ere- brated on the 10th of October, which was ated Duke of Rianzares, took place on the the queen's birthday. Charles Louis, son of 13th of October. In the beginning of No- Don Carlos, thinking that the queen's marvember Zurbano again took up arms against riage afforded a favorable opportunity for the government, and as usual the disaffection appealing to the nation, issued a proclama 132 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tion, calling upon them to support his cause; ing gained by either party. On the 12th of but not the slightest movement resulted from July, 1850, the queen was delivered of a son, this manifesto. At the same time he es- who, however, only survived a few minutes; caped from France, where he had been living and the same month Charles Louis, Cemte under a kind of surveillance, and came to de Montemolin, was married to Princess England. Caroline, sister of the king of Naples. On The unhappy consequences of the queen's the 20th December, 1851, the queen was demarriage soon began to appear. The royal livered of a daughter. On the 2d of Februpair became completely estranged from each ary, 1852, a desperate attempt was made to other, neither appearing together in public, assassinate the queen by a fanatic named nor having the slightest communication in Martin Merino, a priest of the Franciscan private. Every effort to bring about a recon- order.. The queen was on her way from the ciliation between them for the time failed. royal chapel in the palace to her own apartTowards the end of 1847, Narvaez, who had ments, when the priest, in his robes, knelt returned to Spain, was placed at the head before her, as if to present a petition, and inof the government, and he at length succeed- stantly drew a dagger from beneath his dress, ed in bringing about a formal reconciliation and struck her on the side. The wound, between the queen and her husband. Espar- though considerable, was not dangerous, but tero was also recalled, and entered Madrid it caused a good deal of sensation, and the on the 7th of Jan uary, 1848. A dispute culprit was summarily tried and executed. with England occurred soon after. Lord On the 5th January, 1854, her Majesty Palmerston having recommended Sir H. L. gave birth to a princess, who only survived Bulwer, the British minister at Madrid, to three days. This year was characterized by advise the adoption of a more liberal system another of those revolutions which are so of government by the Spanish ministry, the common in Spain, and which led to the exlatter naturally resented this interference; pulsion of the queen-mother, and the restoand this, together, it is said, with other ration of Espartero to power. In the beginreasons of a private nature, led to Sir H. L. ning of the year the ministry then in power Bulwer's receiving, on the 19th of May, a were giving great dissatisfaction to the naperemptory notice to quit the kingdom with- tion, as being mere instruments in the hands in forty-eight hours. General Mlirasol, who of the queen-mother; and generals Concho, was sent by the Spanish government to ex- O'Donnell, and Gonzales Bravo, as heads of plain the private reasons for the dismissal of the opposition or moderate party, demanded the English minister, was not received by their dismissal. The only answer vouchLord Palmerston, and diplomatic relations safed to that request was an order to the between the two countries were not renewed generals to retire-to the Canaries or Balearic till August, 1850. In May, 1848, a body of Islands. General O'Donnell, however, reabout 600 of the military in Madrid declared fused to obey, and contrived to keep himself against the government, and were joined by concealed about Madrid. About the middle a number of the citizens. They were, how- of February, General Hore, with the soldiers ever, defeated in an engagement which took under him in Zaragoza, raised the standard place, and obliged to surrender, when a num- of revolt. General Rivero was sent against ber of the leaders were shot. About the end him, and, in a desperate engageien t which of June a Carlist insurrection broke. out in the took place, General Hore was killed, but his northern provinces, headed by Cabrera. It soldiers managed to maintain their position. did not acquire any strength, though it was Finding, however, that there was little hope maintained in a desultory way during the for any farther success, they retreated to the rest of the year, no important advantage be- French frontier, and there dispersed. Though HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 133 the government was successful in putting an be the re-establishment of the constitution oi end to this attempt at revolution, the spirit 1837 with its constituent Cortes, the lmainof discontent spread to an alarming extent tenance of the throne of Isabella II., the dis. during the next few months, and an attempt missal of the present ministry and the queen; to raise a forced loan speedily brought mat- mother, and the reorganization of the nation ters to a crisis. The corruption and mis- al guard. On this all the most important management that prevailed in every depart- towns that had hitherto stood aloof from the ment of the government had reduced the fi- insurrection immediately declared in its favor. nances of the country to the very lowest ebb; In Madrid, on the 17th of July, the people and the inability of the ministers to raise any rose in insurrection, attacked the prefecture, farther sum made them have recourse to the possessed themselves of the arms there, and expedient of a forced loan, under the pre- immediately proceeded to attack the govern. tence of collecting the taxes six months pre- ment and other buildings. A junta was vious to their falling due. The revolt first formed, and a petition drawn up and pre. broke out in Madrid. On the 28th of June, sented to the queen, who promised to give General Dulce, inspector-general of cavalry, the matter due consideration. A lull in the assembled 2000 horse in the Campo de Guar- outbreak then took place; but General Cordias in the outskirts of the city, as if for in- dovo, who is said to have pledged himself not spection, and then exhorted them to revolt. to molest the people that night, ordered two They were speedily joined by General battalions to open fire upon them in the PlaO'Donnell with three battalions of infantry, za Major. The mob, now infuriated, sacked, and the whole took a position at the village pillaged, and set on fire the. hotels of several of Canalejas, four miles from Madrid. On of the ministers. They also attacked the the morning of the 30th a strong body of palace of the 4ueen-mother, and effected an troops, under the command of General Que- entrance into one of the wings, threw out sada, attacked the insurgents near the village the furniture to feed a bonfire, and then set of Yicalvaro, but they were speedily comn- fire to the palace itself. By this time, howpelled to retreat with great loss. On being ever, some troops had arrived, who, after reinforced, however, by fresh troops, they firing a few volleys, succeeded in clearing the renewed the attack, and maintained the square, and in confining the conflagration to struggle till nightfall, when the insurgents the wing in which it had commenced. On drew off their forces, and the queen's troops the 18th, barricades were erected in all the retired into Madrid. The insurgents lost in main streets debouching on the Puerta del killed and wounded about 1000 men, and Sol, behind which the insurgents kept the the royalists about 1500. O'Donnell's force, troops at bay for eighteen hours. The queen however, was too weak to enable him to sent for Espartero, who was then at Logrofio, maintain his position in the vicinity of Mad- to come and form a ministry, which he agreed rid, and he accordingly retired by railway to to do, upon condition of the banishment of Aranjuez, breaking up the rails after him to the queen-mother, and the assembling of the prevent pursuit. A body of 5000 men was constituent Cortes. The queen having sent in pursuit, before which the insurgents agreed to these conditions, Espartero set out continued to retreat. O'Donnell and the for Madrid, and, in the meantime, General moderado party, however, soon found that O'Donnell, who had defeated the troops sent they were not sufficiently popular to gain out against him, was retracing his steps to their object without assistance, and hence Madrid. They entered the capital together they nade proposals to the progresista party, on the 29th of July, escorted by the national which were agreed to. A proclamation was guard and thousands of the people. Peace accordingly issued, declaring their object to being thus at length restored, the Cortes was 134 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. convoked, and Espartero became head of the these attacks, and in the course of 1859, sat new government. The queen-mother left isfaction was demanded from the emperor for Lisbon, and afterwards proceeded to Par- of Morocco, who yielded on all points, and is, where she had apartments assigned for the cause of quarrel seemed to be at an end. her in the palace of Malmaison. A cession of territory in the neighborhood Espartero continued at the head of the of Ceutawas, however, afterwards claimed government till the 14th of July, 1856. His by Spain, on the ground that it was necesliberal measures were offensive to several of sary for the protection of that fortress. This his colleagues, and, through the intrigues of demand was also complied with, but on atO'Donnell, he was led into a ministerial diffi- tempting to settle the boundary of the ceded culty, and felt himself called upon to tender territory, it was found that Spain demanded his resignation, which was accepted, and more than the Moorish government was preO'Donnell was appointed president in his pared to grant. The result was, that negostead. One of the first acts of the new gov- ciations were broken off, and Spain declared ernment was to declare the whole of Spain war against Morocco in the month of Octounder martial law. The people, however, ber 1859. General O'Donnell took the comwould not submit to this without a struggle, mand of the Spanish army, which crossed and an insurrection broke out in Madrid, in over into Africa, and hostilities immediately which the national guard sided with the commenced. Several engagements took place, populace against the soldiery. After some in which the Moors fought bravely, but suefighting, however, it was overcome; and cess was almost uniformly on the side of the sinilar outbreaks in other towns were also Spaniards. speedily suppressed. The Cortes passed a In the meantime the British governmnent vote of no confidence in the O'Donnell min- had insisted that, whatever might be the reistry; but the next day a royal decree ap- sult of the war, Spain should not acquire peared, declaring the Cortes to be closed. any permanent accession of territory on the One of the next steps of the new government African coast which might endanger the was the abolition of the national guard. security of Gibraltar, which commands the O'Donnell did not, however, continue long passage of the straits. In particular, it was in power, for he had to resign on the 13th of intimated that if Tangier were occupied by October, and a new ministry was formed the Spanish troops during the contest, Engunder General Narvaez. On the 28th No- land could not permit the occupation to be vemuber, 1857, the queen gave birth to a son, prolonged after the close of the war. The who, as heir to the kingdom, took the title Spanish Foreign Minister, Sr. Calderon Colof Prince of the Asturias. lantes, promised on the part of his governIn the year 1859, a war broke out between ment, that Spain " would not take possession Spain and Morocco, under the following cir- of any point on the Straits, the position of cumstances: The Spanish crown possesses which might give her a superiority threatenseveral places on the north coast of Africa, ing to the navigation." With this assurance, such as Ceuta, Melilla, Alhucemas and El the British government was satisfied, and rePenon, in the neighborhood of which is the mained perfectly neutral during the war that reckless and predatory tribe of the Kabylas followed. of Aughera, who made frequent incursions A narrative of the campaign would posinto the Spanish territory. In consequence sess little interest for the reader; it will be of a collision of these with the garrison of sufficient to state that, on the 23d of March, Ceuta, ill feeling arose between the two 1860, a decisive battle was fought near Tet goovernments of Spain and Morocco. Spain nan, in which, after an obstinate struggle, sought to make the M[oors responsible for I the Moorish army was corrmpletely defeated. i,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 135 This victory was immediately followed by twenty-five or thirty years. Before, howovertures of peace on the part of the empe- ever, this arrangement with the other powers ror of Morocco. An interview took place had been completed, Spain had determined between the Spanish and Moorish generals, to send an armed force on her own responsiO'Donnell and Mfuley el Abbas, and a treaty bility, to attack Mexico, and the fleet was of peace was signed, granting important despatched from Cuba by the captain-general concessions to Spain, and giving her the sum before he had received any intelligence of of 20,000,000 piastres, as an indemnity for the participation of France and England. the expenses of the war. Vera Cruz, the first point of attack, surrenAn ill-judged and most futile attempt at dered to the Spaniards without resistance; an insurrection was made by the Count de and the subsequent arrival of the allied fleet Montemolin and his brother in April of this from Europe, seemed to place the whole year. General Ortega, the commander of country at the mercy of the foreign powers. the Balearic Isles, ordered his troops to em- But the Spaniards and English soon perbark, without communicating to them the ceived that Napoleon, in engaging in the purpose of the voyage, and upon their land- war, had contemplated something more than ing near Tortosa, told them that his object the mere payment of the obligations to his was to proclaim the Count de Montemolin, subjects, and that his views extended to proand subvert the existing government. The curing a foothold for France in America. troops refused to follow him, and Ortega Not wishing, therefore, to contribute their took to flight, but was soon overtaken, and support to a campaign which was destined afterwards tried and executed. The two only to gain new glory for the French army, Carlist princes, the Count de Montemolin and for the triumph of the empire, they both and his brother, who had accompanied him, withdrew from the expedition. The moiewere also arrested, but were afterwards re- ments of the French in the interior of the leased, and allowed to quit the kingdom, country, and the history of the unfortunate after a solemn act of renunciation of all pre- reign of Maximilian, with additional partictensions to the throne of Spain had been sign- ulars of the expedition, will be found related ed by them at Tortosa on the 23d of April. in the articles on FRANCE and lExIco. Notwithstanding this, the Count de Mon- In 1863, the people of St. Domingo, in temolin had the effrontery to revoke his re- the West Indies, rose against Spain. The nunciation, and in the month of June he island had been sold to that country in 1861, forwarded from Cologne, in a letter to the by Santana, at that time president. The queen, a document declaring that the act transfer of authority had never been satisof Tortosa was the result of exceptional and factory to the people, and they now endearextraordinary circumstances; that, meditated ored to free themselves entirely from the in a prison, and signed at a moment when Spanish dominion. Troops were sent from all communication was forbidden them, it Spain to suppress the insurrection, and, from possessed none of the conditions required to the first successful encounters, it seemed that render it valid, and that consequently it the island would be recovered without diffiL was null and illegal, and that by the advice culty; but in the summer months the pesti. of competent lawyers, he retracted the said act. lential climate, almost fatal to Europeans, In the following year the Spanish govern- making fearful ravages among the soldiers, ment entered into a convention with the and, more than all, the financial embarrassgovernments of France and Great Britain, ments of Spain, compelled the government to equip a combined expedition against M\ex- to relinquish their hold on the Dominicans, ico. to enforce on that country the payment and the union was repealed by the G(rtes in of the debt which had now been due for February, 1865. 136 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. In March, 1864, the Spanish government in this year, was one drawn up at the in. became engaged in a quarrel with Peru. stance of the queen, providing for the sale The difficulty arose out of the claims of Span- of all the royal patrimony, except the palaces ish residents against the Peruvian govern- and property entailed on the crown, the proment. The government at Madrid sent Sr. ceeds to be devoted to the use of the nation. Mazarredo to Peru to settle the affair. But Another of those periodical conspiracies the Peruvians would not receive him in the which continually disturbed the government character of commissioner, with which title he of Spain, was discovered in June at Valencia. had been sent from Spain, for they held that The plot originated among the officers of the this implied the subjection, of their country regiment of Barcelona, at that time forming to the court of Madrid. Sr. Mazarredo, the garrison of Valencia. The colonel and thereupon, not being willing to appear as some others were surprised together at a Confidential Agent, which was the capacity midnight council in the barracks and arrestin which they offered to receive him, retired ed. Information afterwards obtained by the to the Chincha Islands. At the same time government, implicated General Prim as the two Spanish frigates arrived at the Islands leader of the proposed insurrection. One or from Yalparaiso. On the 16th of August a two other conspiracies of a like character Spanish squadron visited Callao and made an were discovered in the course of the year, attempt to seize the Peruvian ships of war in and there were some collisions between the that port. Thoy were prevented, however, troops and people in Madrid and Saragossa. by the batteries on shore. The next move A more formidable revolt took place in of the Spaniards was to take possession of the 1866. General Prim placed himself at the Chincha Islands, which they declared they head of the military forces who had rebelled!would hold as sureties for the satisfaction of against the government at Aranljuez and their claims. They furthermore announced Oecana. The military, however, in other that the war with Peru had never been at an places resisted the attempts that were made end; peace had never been established, but to gain them over, and the government suconly a truce, for the Spanish government ceeded in controlling the people of Madrid had never acknowledged the independence and the other large cities who were ready to of their former colony. These proceedings join the insurrection. General Prim failing roused the greatest indignation, not only in to obtain the assistance he had expected, Peru, but throughout the other South- Amer- crossed over to Portugal and declared him. ican States. War was immediately declared. self ready to surrender his horses and accouThe hostile attitude of the two governments trements. He was ordered by the Portudid not long continue, h]lowever; for a new guese government to leave the country. In Commissioner was sent out from Spain, em- the following June two regiments revolted powered to offer more acceptable terms to at Madrid, without their officers. An obstithe republic. The new propositions were nate contest with/the loyal troops took place more conciliatory, and a treaty of peace was for the possession of the barracks, and the concluded accordingly in January, 1865. By government triumphed, not, however, withthis treaty it was agreed to pay an indemnity out much bloodshed. The disaffected solof $3,000,000, for the expenses caused to diers had furnished-arms to the people, who Spain by the war. The subsequent nego- threw up barricades in the streets. At the tiations, however, proved unsatisfactory, and same time some troops at Gerona rose against Peru being strengthened by an offensive and their officers, and succeeded in gaining the defensive alliance with Chili, again reopened French frontier. Order was soon restored, hostilities in January, 1866. and six hundred insurgents were captured, Among the bills passed by the Cortes many of whom were shlot. Another upris HIST'ORY OF THE WORLD. 137 ing, almost as short-lived as the last, occurred tablished to give order to the movement. in August of the next year. Bands of armed Two days after the outbreak at Cadiz, Genmen made their appearance in Aragon, Cat- eral Prim and the other. exiled generals ap. alonia, Valencia and Tarragona, and on the peared. The first conflict with the army, borders of Murcia and Castile. There was which still adhered to Isabella, took place at this difference, however, between this insur- the town of Santander. The place, at first rection and the former ones; the troops did taken by the revolutionists, was recaptured not co-operate with the people, and remained by General Calonge. The loss was reported steadfastly with the government. The con- as 600 on the side of the royalists, and 300 templated revolution, therefore, fell to the on the part of the insurgents. All the insurground for the time. Pierrad, the leader, fled rectionists found with arms in their hands in to France; several of his principal associates the town were immediately shot. were executed, and a general amnesty was On the 28th of September another battle granted to the rest. was fought at the bridge of Alcolea, near Between this last affair and the outbreak Cordova in Andalusia, between Serrano, who of the great revolution of 1868, there was an was marching from Cadiz, and the Marquis of interval of almost perfect tranquillity. But Novaliches. The royalists were driven back, the government, however, did not feel secure. and Novaliches himself was seriously woundThey had grave suspicions, which were after- ed. This success was followed by the revolt wards confirmed by events, that the three of Zaragoza and the whole province of Angreat opposition parties-the Liberal Union, dalusia. The military at Madrid now went the section that had been led by the late over to the side of the citizens, who were all Marshal O'Donnell; the Progresistas, to opposed to the government. General Conwhich belonged Espartero, Prim, O16zoga clla, the commander, resigned, and a Provisand Madoz; and the Democrats, which con- ional Junta was formed of fourteen Progrestained the radical element-had combined istas, nine Liberal Unionists, and seven Dem to overthrow the government of the queen. ocrats. The advance of Serrano to the capiActing upon the information they had se- tal was no longer opposed. He entered cretly obtained, the government caused the Madrid on the 3d of October, received with arrest on the 7th of June of Generals Ser- cheers by the people. The welcome to Genrano, Cordova, Dulce, Bedoya, Latore, Le- eral Prim a few days after, was even more tona and Zabula. At the same time the enthusiastic. The general was escorted by Duke Hand Duchess de Montpensier were or- a deputation of citizens from all the provdered to quit the country. Upon refusing to inces, together with the troops and sailors, comply, they were exiled from Spain by a and the civic officers of Madrid. The proroyal decree. The generals belonging to the cession took more than four hours to pass Liberal Union were also exiled. The dissat- through the streets. Business ceased, and isfaction of the people at these proceedings the crowd was so great that several persons was shown in several demonstrations at Bar- were crushed to death. General Prim adcelona, Valencia and Saragossa. dressed the people from the balcony of the The long-anticipated revolution at last ministry, and exhorted the people to persebegan. On the 17th of September the peo- vere in the concord and peaceful character ple rose at Cadiz, and the squadron in the which had marked the course of the revoluharbor, under Admiral Topete, immediately tion. He dwelt particularly upon the unity declared against the government. At this existing between himself and Marshal Sersignal the provinces threw off their alle- rano, whom he embraced at the ccnclusion giance, and hastened to assert their ancient of his speech, exclaiming, "Down with the indepenlence. Provisional juntas were es- Bourbons!" His words were received with 138 HISTORY OF THIE WORLD. the wildest applause. The city was bril- wish that every other powe: might speedily liantly illuminated in the evening. follow the United States in recognizing the When the revolution broke out the queen new condition of things. was at St. Sebastian, in the Pyrenees. She The measures immediately introduced by at first wished to go at once to Madrid, but the Provisional government were of the the defeat at Acolea impelled her to take most liberal character. By the electoral law refuge in France. Her husband and four every Spaniard had a right to vote, with the of her children, together with her uncle, Don exception of convicts not rehabilitated, perSebastian, accompanied her in her flight. sons under accusation at the time of the elecShe was received in France by the Imperial tions, those deprived of their political rights, family, and the Chateau of Pau in the Pyre- those declared incapable of managing their nees was placed at her disposal by the Emr- own affairs, bankrupts, insolvent traders or peror. From this retreat she directed an in- manufacturers, and individuals prosecuted dignant protest to the Spanish people, exhort- for the non-payment of taxes. Public instrucing them to return to their allegiance, and to tion was- made absolutely free; the normal rally around the queen who had held the schools were reinstated, and the professors remonarchy through so many glorious years. moved by the late government were replaced. The document contained nothing remarkable All the monastaries, convents, and religious for novelty or force, and was in the style that houses established since 1837, were abolished, the protests of so many dethroned Bourbons and the buildings, lands, etc., declared nationhave made familiar in late years. After a al property. The nuns whose convents were short residence at Pau the queen went to suppressed could either go into the remaining Paris. establishments, or receive back their donation. As soon as the revolution was perfected at Those religious establishments which were Madrid, a Central Junta was elected, and permitted by the law of 1837, were now reMlarshal Serrano was charged with the task duced to half their number. The admission of appointing a ministry. The cabinet or- of novices in all the religious orders was ganized on the 8th of October was as fol- strictly prohibited. Another decree suplows: Marshal Serrano, President; General pressed the Jesuits, and sequestrated the Prim, minister of war; Admiral Topete, of property of that society to the State. The Marine; Sr. Figuerola, of Finance; Sr. Lo- minister of Justice at the same timne declared renzana, of Foreign Affairs; Sr. Ortiz, of the entire -liberty of the press, and abolJustice; Sr. Sogasta, of the Interior; Sr. ished the censorship of dramatic and literary Ayala, of the Colonies; Sr. Ruiz Zorilla, of works. A number of political journals of the Public Works. The permanent form of the most violent character immediately sprang up future government was to be decided by a in consequence. Constituent Cortes, to be elected by univer- The leaders of all the parties were agreed sal suffrage. The Central Junta was dis- that the permanent form of the government solved on the 21st of October, and the local should be decided by the constituent Cortes, Juntas soon followed. Before adjourning but they were already divided as to what the Junta issued a manifesto to the European this should be. The liberal Unionists and governments, explaining the causes which the Progresistas were in favor of a limited had induced the Spanish people to expel the monarchy, while the Democrats were sepaBourbons. The paper went into the discus- rated in two factions, one of which sided sion of the freedom of public worship, and with the Unionists and Progresistas, expressed a desire that every form of reli- and the other was for a republic. Besides gion might meet with toleration under the these there were the Reactionists, the small future government, and concluded with the minority, who wished to restore the Bourbons. HISTORY OF THE WORLD-. 139 In a short time the Republican party and ATalencia, the majorities were largely on showed an increase of strength which seemed the other side. to indicate that it would eventually become The Cortes being now elected with a conthe strongest. Its leaders were Jose Maria trolling majority of members pledged to estabde Orense, a refugee from the Bourbon per- lish a monarchy, the most important question secutions; Garrido, a well known political arose of who should be the king? The most writer; Castelar, the best orator in Spain; popular candidates were the Duke de Montand General Pierrad. The published pro- pensier and Dom Fernando of Portugal gramme of the Central Republican Commit- the father of the reigning king of that country tee contained the following points: The Dom Fernando was said to be unwi'ling to form of government, a democratic federal accept the crown, but the Duke de Montrepublic; the legislative power a single pensier exerted himself to the utmost to chamber, elected annually by universal suf- secure it. By the desire of the provisional frage; the executive, a president nominated government he kept away from Spain, except by the chamber without limitation of time, for a few days at the end of the year, when but removable at its pleasure; judicial pow- he returned to assist the authorities in super-the judge to be appointed independently pressing the disturbance at Cadiz. Ilis preof the legislative and executive power; every tensions to the crown were met and violently citizen to be secured in his individual rights, opposed by Henri de Bourbon, in a violent -personal liberty, property, freedom of wor- letter to the provisional government, containship, freedom of the press, right of meeting; ing a very personal attack upon the duke the death penalty, slavery, all monopolies, and his family. etc., to be abolished; customs, prisons, tri- The republican party was much dissatisfied bunals to be reformed; domestic and private at the proceedings of the Cortes, and the opcorrespondence to be inviolable; education position at length culminated in a revolt at to be free; the provincial deputations, alcaldes, Cadiz. On the 5th of December, there was municipal councils and magistrates to be a republican demonstration by the volunteers elected by universal suffrage, their meetings of that city, which the government disap.to be open, and a report of their proceedings proving of, called upon the participants to to be published, and these bodies to decide give up their arms. They refused and began upon all questions which do not belong to to throw up barricades in the streets. The the general government; the revenue to be national troops immediately attacked them, raised by one tax, direct and general; the but the insurgents with the aid of the artilcolonies to have the sanme privileges as the lery which they had seized held all the prinmother country. These are the most impor- cipal situations, and to protect the city from tant heads. It will appear to every one, that a bombardment by the navy, they placed the while most of the provisions are unobjection- foreign consuls in the custom house facing able, the government, with its total change the sea, the most exposed position in the at every yearly election, could have no stabil- town. As soon as the news reached Madrid, ity in any country, and least of all in Spain. large bodies of troops were dispatched to the The elections were held on the 18th of scene of action, under the command of December. Although the system of univer- General Caballero de la Rodas. On arriving sal suffrage was strictly carried out, the vote at Cadiz, the general posted his troops all was quite small. Out of 76,432 of the voters around the place, and declared a strict registered at Madrid, only 27,600 appeared blockade; he then issued a proclamation, at the polls, and 24,000 of these gave their calling upon the people to lay down their sulfrages to monarchical representatives, the arms, promising in the name of the governrest voting for republicans. In Barcelona ment that their lives should be spared. The 140 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. insurgents thereupon sent a delegation, ac- ful progress of the rebellion. None of the companied by the United States consul, to towns, however, mentioned by him, as being the general, and agreed to deposit their arms in their possession, were of much import. in any place he should designate. These con- ance. In the engagements with the Spanish ditions were accepted, but the next day the troops, the Cubans being badly armed and insurrectionists changed their mind, and re- disciplined, were generally obliged to yield fused to give up their arms, except to the the ground when the battles occurred near United States consul. General de Rodas de- the towns, but they held their positions in clined this proposition and announced that the mountains, where the regulars, unused he would at once go on with the siege if the to the country and the climate, were unable arms were not sent to the places he named. to follow them. To increase the foreign The republicans at last yielded, and the sympathy upon which they relied, and which army entered the city without any further now perhaps was beginning to flag from the trouble. desultory character of the war, the Cuban Several weeks later another collision took Junta decreed the emancipation of the place at Malaga. It arose, as in the former slaves, a measure which had already been instance, from the refusal of the volunteers considered in the Spanish Cortes. to disarm when ordered. The insurgents en- The opening of the new year 1869 in trenched in the Trinity quarters of the town, Spain offered little prospect of the pacificaand made a desperate resistance to the attack tion of the country, or the establishment of of the fleet and army. They were finally a settled policy. In January there was an overpowered, and nearly all were captured. outbreak at M{alaga, which was suppressed The greater part of the provinces were soon by General Caballero de la Rodas, though released. not without bloodshed. Following closely The most formidable difficulty, however, upon this was the murder of the Governor that the new government had to encounter, of Burgos, in the cathedral of that place, as was the rebellion in the island of Cuba. It he was on the point of making an inventory is said that the rising had been prepared of the ecclesiastical property, in compliance even before the revolution in Spain. The with the decree of the provisional governmovement began at Manzanillo on the 10th ment. The act was probably instigated by of October, with the publication of a decla- the clergy. The members of the chapter ration of independence, setting forth the' were present at the scene and beheld the asgrievances to which the people of Cuba had sassination and the mutilation of the body been subjected, and the universal desire of of the murdered governor with approval, oi the people for separation. They complained at least, indifference. The apparent comof the policy of Spain in extorting from plicity of the priests in this matter excited them an enormous revenue, without giving great indignation against them throughout them the privileges of citizens in return, Spain. and appealed to all civilized nations to wit- The election in January for the members ness and support the justice of their cause. of the Constituent Cortes, resulted in the reThe insurrection soon spread over the east turn of a large monarchical majority. The and central parts of the island. Ten days first act after assembling was to draw up a after the first movement at lMlanzanillo, Car- constitution, which was made upon the basis los Manuel Cespedes, who had been consti- of the provisional decrees already mentioned, tuted chief of the Cuban forces, addressed a and fixed the future form of government as letter to the 19lited States, asking for recog- a constitutional monarchy. After much disnition for the new Republic of Cuba, and cussion of the several articles and several urging in support of his petition the wonder- amendments, the proposed constitution was 'HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 141 finally passed by the Cortes, and promulgated which were considered as preparatory to an about the middle of June. Marshal Serrano offer from the, United States to buy the island. was thereupon elected regent, and the question remained to find a king. Here, indeed, The language generally spoken in Spain, was a difficulty greater than had been an- Castilian, is composed of many elements, but ticipated, for of all the eligible candidates, principally based on the Latin, with a great those that were acceptable to the people, or, number of Arabic and Gothic phrases and rather to the government, have been found words: it is manly, sententious and imposunwilling or unable to accept the throne. ing; full, however, of orientalisms, which The first application to Dom Fernando of mean little, and should not be translated litPortugal was met by a positive refusal. The erally. The character of the Spaniards is choice subsequently fell upon the Duke of grave, adventurous, romantic, honorable and Genoa, the young nephew of Victor Em- generous, but they display a great hatred of manuel, but his royal uncle manifested his labor, and refuse to work unless positively unwillingness to permit him to accept the necessitated; yet, if roused by proper incitecrown, and the Cortes were again left to weigh ment to activity and industry, they show the claims of rival advocates. They have great vigor and exertion, and may achieve not as yet made another decision. It would independence and reputation. The soldiers be useless to enumerate all the names that are courageous, and, if well commanded, will have been suggested and discussed as possi- brave any danger. They are not naturally ble or probable candidates. The Duke de a melancholy people, as the spirit with which Montpensier appears to have a strong party they throw themselves into the national on his side, and is said to have the support amusements will sufficiently prove. Their of the Regent Serrano, and of Topete, the dances, especially those of the lower classes, Minister of Marine. There are also a few have a national character, and are accomwho are willing to take the Prince of the panied by the castanet, in the use of which Asturias, the eldest son of the ex-queen, who they show remarkable skill and dexterity. has lately abdicated all her claims in his Their music principally consists in the singfavor. ing of ballads, with the guitar as accompaniThe disorder and dissatisfaction which ment. The bull-fight is still the great nacharacterized the close of the preceding tional amusement, and is carried on in preyear, seemed to augment in the latter months cisely the same manner as formerly: horseof 1869. In addition to the republication op- men or picadors, assisted by others on foot, position there appeared a Carlist movement, attack the bull with spears, the coup de grace but the partisans of the male branch of the being given by the matador, a footman, who royal family do not appear to be very pop- plunges a sword into its spine between the ular in Spain, so that this last agitation has head and shoulders. The Spanish theatre not been a very important element of the has very much declined, and the performtroubles in the copuntry. At Valencia and ances are generally very insipid. The pleasZaragoza the. opposition of the republicans ures of society are chiefly sought at evening ewas more determined, and the former of parties, where only slight refreshments are these towns sustained almost a regular siege presented; and, indeed, in both eating and before it yielded to the forces of Prim. drinking, the Spaniards are remarkably temThe Cuban rebellion remained in the same perate, perhaps more so from an habitual condition throughout the year. The inten- necessity than from virtue. In architecture tion of the Spaniards to suppress it at every Spain is particularly rich, the -chief element cost, was shown in their answer to some being Moorish, with a mixture of Norman representations of the American minister, and Gothic. The most remarkable architec. 142 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tural monuments are: the Escurial, built in chivalrous nature of the people cf Spain the Roman or Vitruvian style, in the six- during the Middle Ages brought to a state teenth century; the Alhambra, built by the of excellence unequalled in any country in Moors, in the thirteenth century; the Cathe- Europe. The song was the natural growth dral of Seville, and many other fine edifices. of the warlike period of Spain, and served Spain, in comparison with Italy, has pro- to commemorate warlike exploits; but they duced few great painters; but Murillo, Ye- were of a very simple character until the lasquez, Zurbaran, Luis de Vargas, and oth- period of the conquest of Naples, when they ers, have achieved for their country a high assumed a more lyrical form. The national place in the fine arts. There is at Madrid drama has always been peculiar, consisting an academy for painting, sculpture and archi- chiefly of religious comedies founded on the tecture; and there are extensive collections lives of saints. There are, however, some of pictures at Madrid, Seville and Valencia. noble comedies of an historical nature. The During the French invasion, however, a perfection of the intrigue is what the Spangreat number of the finest specimens were ish writers chiefly value; but their plots are carried off. constructed without any regard to the uniThe literature of Spain, in the days of her ties. The drama acquired its greatest celebgreatness, was on a level with that of any rity from Lope de Vega and Calderon. In other country in Europe; but it has since romance, Spain has accomplished much. The sunk to a low condition. The ballad is what perfection of Spanish prose is to be found in the early Spanish writers most excelled in; the works of the inimitable Cervantes. After and this is characterized by romantic fervor, his time, and when the Bourbons ascended frequently of an oriental character. The the throne, literature declined with the state, language is peculiarly fitted to express the and may be said to have remained ever since dignified and the pathetic, but its solemn in a similar state of inactivity. Spain pos. dignity frequently seduces the writer into sesses at the present day few writers known bombast. No nation has such a store of beyond their own country. Jovellanos on ballads as the Spanish; but they are, par- political economy, Campany on philology, ticularly the early ones, little more than Llorente in history, Moralez in mathematics, mere relations of chivalrous deeds. The and Coello and Madoz in geography, have wars with the Moors form the subject of an done much to rouse a spirit of reflection. endless n:uber of these ballads, which the Juan Valdez is called the Anacreon of Sl)ain. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 143 PORTUGAL. THE modern kingdom of Portugal em- tier province he had conquered from the braces a part of, and somewhat more Moors. The new sovereign, with the title than, the country called uitsitania by the of count, fixed his residence at Guiinaraens, Romans. The etymology of the present a town to the north of the Douro, where the name is involved in obscurity; for, though remains of an ancient palace belonging to many conjectures have; been put forward, his successors, are still to be seen. none seems worthy of confidence. Henry is said to have performed great exThe history of Portugal commences with ploits against the Moors; but the accounts a story to this effect: Affonso VI., King of given of them are extremely indistinct and Leon and Castile, being apprehensive that unsatisfactory. lie died in 1112, and was his success in taking the city of Toledo succeeded by his son Dom Affonso, then in would bring upon him the whole force of the third year of his age. In the minority the Moors, sent to demand assistance from of the latter, the kingdom was governed by Philip I. of France and the Duke of Bur- the queen-mother, Dona Theresa, assisted gundy, whose daughter he had married. His by two ministers. During their adminisrequest was granted by both princes; and a tration differences took place between the numerous body of troops was speedily col- queen-regent and Urraca, Queen of Castile, lected for his service, having at their head which were not arranged until the death of Raymond, Count of Burgundy, and Henry, the latter. younger brother of Hugh, Duke of Bur- The greatest misfortune which befell Thegundy. In the year 1087 they arrived at resa was a quarrel with her own son, Dom the Court of Dom Affonso, where they were Affonzo Enriqne. A civil war ensued, in treated with all possible marks of esteem; which the queen's forces were totally deand, having in the course of two or three feated, and herself made prisoner, a situation years, given great proofs of their courage in which she continued during the remainder and conduct, the king resolved to bestow his of her life. Enrique having thus attained to daughter Urraca, then, at most, in her ninth the full possession of his dominions, made year, upon Raymond, Count of Burgundy, several attempts upon various places in Gaand assigned them the province of Galicia licia, but without success; and he was at last for the support of their dignity. About the constrained to conclude a peace with Affonso, year 1095, Dom Affonso, being desirous to King of Castile and Leon, who had assumed express his gratitude to Henry of Burgundy, the title of Emperor of the Spains, more esgave him in marriage a natural daughter of pecially as his dominions happened to be at his, named Theresa; and upon this mar- that time invaded by the Moors. The nulrriage he conveyed in full property the fron- her of infidels was so great, that the Count 144 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. of Portugal had but little hopes of subduing the crown of Spain. Being very desirous, them; but a plague having broken out in however, of reducing the power of the emthe Xiloorish army, they were obliged t`o re- peror, he formed a league with Raymond, treat, after which he reduced several places Count of Barcelona, and regent of the kingbelonging to that nation. In the meantime, dom of Aragon, against that prince. In virtue the Emperor Dom Affonso having made an of this treaty, he entered Galicia w. th a conirruption into the Portuguese territories, de- siderable force on one side, whilst Don Ray stroyed everything with fire and sword. The mond simultaneously invaded it on the other. King of Portugal surprised and cut off a But neither of these enterprises succeeded. considerable part of his army. At the in- The Portuguese monarch met with a severe tercession of the pope's legate, however, a check in his expedition into Galicia, whero peace was concluded, and all places and pris- he received a dangerous wound, whilst some oners taken on both sides were delivered up. of the nobility who attended him were taken Meanwhile, the progress of the Christian prisoners. At the same time, having receivarms in Spain being reported to Abu-Ali ed intelligence that the Moors had invaded Texefien, the chief of the Moors in Barbary, his dominions, he was obliged to retire; but he directed Ishmael, his lieutenant in Spain, his retreat was not made in sufficient time to to assemble all the forces in the southern prevent the strong fortress of Leiria from provinces, and to drive the Christians beyond falling into their hands. This fortress they the Douro. The Moors were met by Dom demolished and put the garrison to the Affonso on the plains of Ourique, near the sword; but the king caused it to be re-conTagus, and were totally defeated. The event structed of greater strength than before, and was an important one in the history of Por- placed in it a more numerous garrison. Yet tugal. It stimulated the imagination of the he undertook nothing farther during this people, and circumstances were attached to campaign. The war continued with various it, as time rolled on, which the historian is success till the year 1145, when the king compelled to reject, as no more worthy of projected an enterprise against Santarem, a credit than the legends of Romulus and Re- strong city, forty miles from Lisbon. In this mus. It was said that the Portuguese force he luckily succeeded, and thus gained a conconsisted of no more than 13,000 men, whilst siderable tract of country, with a strong barthe Moorish army, commanded by five khings, rier to his dominions. numbered 200,000. The count, half daunted After this success Dom Affonso caused bly the superior strength of the enemy, was himself to be crowned king of Portugal beencouraged to engage in combat by a her- fore an assembly of the states, where he also Imit, who told him to go forth in the morn- solemnly renounced all dependence upon the ing when the bell should ring for mass, and crown of Spain; declaring that if any of his turn to the east. Ile did as he was ordered, successors should condescend to pay tribute and then beheld within a circle of clouds the or to do homage to that crown, he ought to image of Christ crucified, and this promised be deemed unworthy of enjoying the kinghim victory, with a crown, and a line of six- dom of Portugal. The next year the king teen successors to inherit it. Whatever the undertook to recover Lisbon from the Moors; literal fact may be, the Portuguese look upon but there are so many fables related of this the plains of Ourique as the birthplace of expedition, that it is impossible to come at the monarchy. the truth. All that can be gathered from After this victory, gained in the year 1139, these accounts is, that he undertook the siege iDom Affonso was proclaimed king by his with a small army, and was able to make soldiers, and ever afterwards retained that little progress in it, partly from the strength title, renouncing all kind of subjection to of the place, and partly also from the numer HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 145 ous garrison by which it was defended. At placed himself on horseback, and pushing length, fortunately for Dom Affonso, a fleet forward at the head of his horse to get out of adventurers, French, English, Germans, at the gate, struck his leg against one of the and Flemings, who were on their way to the bolts with such violence that the bone was Holy Land, having anchored at the mouth shattered to pieces. This accident occasionof the Tagus, he demanded their assistance, ed such confusion that the Portuguese troops as not altogether foreign to their design of were easily beaten, and Dom Affonso was making war upon the infidels. His request, taken prisoner. He was, however, kindly was readily granted; and with their assist- treated by his opponent, and a peace was ance, Lisbon was speedily reduced; a con- concluded between them. Returning to his quest which so much enhanced the reputa- dominions before his leg was cured, he betion of this monarch, and brought such num- came lame for the rest of his life; but this did bers to recruit his army, that before the end not abate his military ardor. Towards the end of the year 114:7, he had reduced twelve of his reign, an opportunity seemed to preother considerable cities. sent itself of obtaining once for all an entire For many years after this, Dom Affonso release from the disagreeable pretensions was successful in all his undertakings. He of the King of Leon, who, it seems, had insettled the internal government of his king- sisted on the King of Portugal doing homage dom; procured a bull fromt Pope Alexander for his kingdom. This was a quarrel between III. confirming his regal dignity; undertook the King of Leon and his nephew Alonso, many successful expeditions against the King of Castile. The latter solicited assistMoors; and became master of four out of the ance from the King of Portugal, which was six provinces which compose the present readily granted. But Ferdinand having rekingdom of Portugal. He was assisted by ceived intelligence that the infant Dom the counsels of his queen, Matilda, a woman Sancho, the king's eldest son, was advancing of great capacity, and able to govern the towards CiudadRodrigo, assembIled his troops kingdom in her husband's absence. By her with such dilligence on that frontier, that, he had a numerous offspring including three being enabled to attack him unexpectedlly, he6 daughters, the eldest of whom, Donna entirely defeated him. Matilda, was married to the King of Aragon; Understanding, however, that Domn Sanco the second, Urraca, to Don Ferdinand, King was recruiting his forces with great dilligenee, of Leon; and the third, Theresa, to Philip, he suggested that they might be much better Earl of Flanders. In 1166, however, the employed against the infidels, who remained king thought proper to invade the do- careless and unprepared, expecting the issue minions of his son-in-law Don Ferdinand, of the contest. Dom Sancho, did not fail to and to seize upon Limmia and Turon, two profit by this advice; and after some movecities of Galicia, in which he placed strong ments intended to amuse the enemy, he made garrisons. The next year he marched with a sudden irruption into Andalusia, penetrata numerous army towards Badajoz, which he ing as far as Triana, one of the surburbs of invested. On receiving the news of this at- Seville. The Moors assembled their forces, tack, Don Ferdinand, who had assembled a in order to attack him on his retreat, but large army at Ciudad Rodrigo, marched to were entirely defeated; and Dom Sancho reits relief; but he arrived too late, whereupon turned to Portugal loaded with spoil. In 1184, he resolved to besiege his antagonist in his the King of Morocco, having alreadytransportnewly-conquered city. Dom Affonso, per- ed multitudes of men from Barbary, at length ceiving his design, endeavored to draw out followed in person with a prodigious army, his forces into the field. Though at that and carried all before him as far as the Tagus. time upwards of seventy years of age he He appeared before Santarem; but having m.-10 146 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. exhausted and redu.ed his army by unsuc- The history of Portugal prezents scarcalcessful assaults on that place,.he was attack- any event of importance till the year 1289; ed by the Pcrtuguese, assisted by Ferdinand when in the reign of Don Diniz, a difference of Leon, and entirely defeated and slain. By commenced with Castile, which subsisted this victory the Portuguese were left at for along period. Frequent reconciliations liberty to improve the interior of their took place; but these were either of short country, and to fortify their frontiers; but duration, or never sincere. At length in the not long afterwards, that is, in the year 1185, reign of John I., Don Juan of Castile, who had the king died in the seventy-six year of his also pretewrions to the crown of Portugal, inage. vaded that kingdom at the head of the whole Dom Affonso was succeeded by his son force of his dominions, and with the flower Dom Sancho I., who, by steadily applying of the Castilian nobility entered the province himself to the work of restoration, in a short of Alemtejo. He besieged Elvas, but without time quite changed the appearance of his effect; a disappointment which enraged him territories, and acquired the glorious titles to such a degree, that he determined the folof The Restorer of Cities and Father of his lowing year to invade Portugal a second Country. In the year 1189, a fleet, composed time, and lay waste the country before him. for the most part of English vessels, but hay- Accordingly having collected an army of ing on board a great number of adventurers thirty thousand men, he invaded Portugal, of other nations bound for the Holy Land, and took and ruined several places; but the entered the river Tagus. Dom Sancho so- Portuguese in the end were victorious, licited them to assist him in a design he had although with an inferior force, and the Casformed of attacking the city of Silvas in Al- tilians consented to a truce of three years, garve, to which they readily assented. Hay- which was soon afterwards improved into a ing joined them with a squadron of his own lasting peace. galleys, and marched a body of troops by In 1414, King John undertook a successland, the place was reduced, and the English, ful expedition against the Moors in Barbary, according to agreement, were rewarded with where he commanded in person, his queen, the plunder. But in a short time, the Moors Philippa, the daughter of John, Dule of from Africa, having once more invaded Lancaster, having died shortly before. The Portugal, the town was several times taken city of Ceuta, was taken from the Moors and retaken, until at last Dom Sancho, sen- almost at the first assault. Scarcely had the sible of the difficulties of retaining it, caused king left the country, when the princes of it to be demolished. His last enterprise was Barbary formed a league for the recovery of the reduction of Elvas, soon after which he the place; but they were defeated by the died, leaving the reputation of being the best young princes of Portugal. John strengtheconomist that ever sat on the throne of ened the fortifications and augmented his Portugal. With the character of being rather forces there. liberal than avaricious, he had amassed a Madeira was discovered in 1420, and the treasure of more than seven hundred thous- Azores in 1432. King John died in 1433, and crowns in ready money, besides fourteen and was succeeded by his eldest son Edward. hundred marks of silver, and one hundred of The latter undertook an expedition against gold plate, which he disposed of some time Tangier in Barbary, but the event proved before his death. He was interred, by his very unfortunate; the Portuguese being so own command, in the cathedral of Coimbra; shut up by the Moors that, to obtain leave and when his body was taken up four hun- to return to Portugal, they were obliged to 4lred years afterwards, that it might be laid give up Ceuta. Although the king's son Ar a new tcmb, it was found uncorrupted. Ferdinand was left as a hostage for the de HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 147 livery of Ceuta, the king and council of people of a race very different from the rude Portugal constantly refused to deliver up the inhabitants of the western shore of that conplace. Preparations were made for recover- tinent, which alone the Portuguese had ing the prince by force; but before anything hitherto visited. These he found to be so could be accomplished, the king died in far advanced in civilization and acquaintance 1438. with the various arts of life, that they carriHowever, the war with Barbary continued ed on an active commerce not only with the at intervals for many years, but with little nations of their own coast, but with remote success on the part of the Portuguese. In the countries of Asia. Conducted by their pilots, reign of Affonso V., a civil war broke out, who held a course with which experience the two parties being headed by the king, hlad rendered them well acquainted, he sailed and Pedro, the recent duke of Coimbra, who across the Indian Ocean, and landed at was finally defeated and killed at the battle Calicut, on the coast of M[alabar, on the 22d of Alfarrobeira, 1449. The year 1497, was of M ay 1498, ten months and two days after remarkable for the discovery of the passage to his departure from the port of Lisbon. the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. The monarch of the country received them The enterprising spirit of the Portuguese at first with that fond admiration which is had, for a considerable time before, prompted often excited by novelty; but in a short time them to undertake voyages along the coast he formed various schemes to cut off Gama of Africa, and when they found in the torrid and his followers. The Portuguese admiral, zone, which the ancients had pronounced to however, was not to be overreached by such be uninhabitable, fertile countries, occupied politics as his. From every danger to which by numerous nations, and perceived that the he was exposed he extricated himself with continent of Africa, instead of extending in singular prudence and dexterity, and at last breadth towards the west, according to the sailed from Calicut with his ships, loaded opinion of Ptolemy, appeared to contract it- not only with the commodities peculiar to self and to bend eastwards, they were in- that coast, but with many rich productions spired with hopes of reaching India by con- of the eastern parts of India. He returned tinuing to hold the course they had so long to Portugal in two years after his sailing pursued. After several unsuccessful attempts from the Tagus, but with a great loss of men; to accomplish what they had in view, a small for out of one hundred and forty-eight persquadron sailed from Belem, on the Tagus, sons who sailed with him, only fifty-five reunder the command of Vasco de Gama, an turned. The king received him with all officer of rank, whose abilities and courage possible testimonies of respect and kindness; fitted him to conduct this difficult and created him a count; and not only declared arduous enterprise. From ignorance, how- him admiral of the Indies, but also made ever, of the proper season and route of navi- that office hereditary in his family. gation in that vast ocean through which he The Portuguese entered upon the new had to steer his course, his voyage was long career opened to them, with activity and and dangerous. At length he doubled that ardor, and made exertions both commercial promontory which had been descried by and military, far beyond what could have Bartolomeo Diaz, in 1487, and which, for been expected from a kingdom of such inseveral years, had been the object of terror considerable extent. All these were directed and of hope to his countrymen. After a pros- by an intelligent monarch, Dom Manoel the perous lavigation along the south-east coast of Fortunate, who happily selected a succession Africa, lie arrived at the city of Melinda, and of excellent officers to take the supreme comhad the satisfaction of discovering there, as mand in India, among whom Affonso Albuwell as at other places where he touched, querque was eminent. Within twenty-foun 148 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. years after the voyage of Gama, the Portu- there had hitherto been nothing comparable guese had rendered themselves masters of the in the history of nations. Every part of Eu city of Malacca, in which the great staple of rope was supplied by the Portuguese with trade carried on with the East: Indies, was the productions of the East; and, if we exthen first established. This conquest secured cept an inconsiderable quantity which the to them great influence over the interior com- Venetians still continue to receive by the inerce of India, whilst, at the same time, by ancient channels of conveyance, Europe had their settlements at Goa and Diu, they were no longer any commercial intercourse with enabled to engross the trade of the Malabar India and the regions of Asia beyond it, excoast and to obstruct greatly the long-estab- cept by the Cape of Good Hope. lished intercourse of Egypt with India by the In September, 1521, Mlanoel died of a Red Sea. In every part of the East they fever, and was succeeded by his son John were received with respect; in many they had III. The most remarkable transaction of acquired the absolute command. They carri- this prince's reign was the introduction of ed on trade there without rivalry or control; the Inquisition into his dominions in the they prescribed to the natives the terms of year 1525, or, as some say, in 1535. A famtheir mutual intercourse; they often fixed ine:happening to cease in a short time after what price they pleased on the goods which the IHoly Office was introduced, the priests they purchased; and they were thus enabled persuaded the ignorant multitude that it was to import from HIindustan, and the regions a blessing from heaven on account of erectbeyond it, whatever was useful, rare, or ing such a tribunal. agreeable, in greater abundance, and of more In the meantime, Solyman the Magnifivarious kinds, than had been formerly known cent, the most enlightened monarch of the in Europe. Ottoman race, observing the rising power Not satisfied with this ascendancy which and opulence of the Portuguese, and eager they had acquired in India, the Portuguese to supplant them, sent orders to the Pasha sought to exclude all other nations from par- of Egypt to employ his whole strength against ticipating in the advantages of commerce the Christians in the East Indies. The pasha, with the East; and they accomplished one- in obedience to these orders, sailed from the half of what their ambition had planned. In Red Sea with a greater naval force than consequence of this the Venetians soon be- ever: the Mohammedans had employed began to feel that decrease of their own Indian fore, having 4000 janizaries and 16,000 trade, which they had dreaded. In order to other troops on board. Yet, by the courage prevent the farther progress of this evil, they and conduct of the Portuguese officers and incited the Soldan of the Memlooks to fit soldiers, all this mighty armament was deout a fleet in the Red Sea, and to attack feated, and their East India possessions were those unexpected invaders of a gainful mo- saved from the danger which threatened nopoly, of which he and his predecessors had them. In Africa, likewise, the King of Fez long enjoyed undisturbed possession. The was baffled before the town of Safi; whilst Portuguese, however, entirely defeated this fresh quarrels breaking out amongst the naformidable squadron, and remained masters tive princes, gave great relief to the Chrisof the Indian Ocean. They continued their tians, who had long been obliged to carry on progress in the East almost without obstruc- a defensive war, and had more than once tion, until they established there a commer- been on the very brink of ruin. The Moorscial empire; to which, whether we consider became more and more formidable; the its extent, its opulence, the slender power Portuguese king had reason to deem that by which it was formed, or the splendor with the conquest of Barbary was impossible, and which the government of it was conducted, therefore limited his ambition to keeping |HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 14X those few fortresses which he had already diers; next he carried his principal courtiers acquired; a necessary and prudent measure, with him firom a hunting match, and with which nevertheless displeased the majority out equipages; he then sent for the Duke of his subjects. of Aveyro, who brought with him such troops King John exerted himself greatly in the as he could collect on so short a warning; settlement of Brazil, which had been discov- and when all these were assembled, the king ered by Pedro Alvares Cabral in 1501. I-Ie spent his time in hunting, and slight excurcaused several strong towns to be erected sions against the enemy, without doing anythere, and took all possible methods to en- thing of consequence, except exposing his courage the conversion of the natives to person upon all occasions. He returned to Christianity. IHe also introduced many regn- Portugal, but only for the purpose of arranglations for the welfare and happiness- of his ing another expedition, an,l it seemed to subjects at home. The disputes of the no- him that he had a pretence for commencing bility about precedency were frequently at another campaign in the state of affairs in tended with disagreeable consequences, which Morocco. MXuley Hamet, King of Fez and made the king resolve to establish definitive Morocco, had been dispossessed:of his do rules. His death happened in the month of minions by his uncle, Muley Moloch. At June, 1557; and he was succeeded by his the beginning of this war Dom Sebastian son Dom Sebastian, an infant of three years had offered him the Portuguese troops in of age. Africa, a tender which was rejected with The administration of affairs was under- contempt; but, now being a fugitive, and taken by the queen-grandmother of Sebas- having in vain solicited assistance from Philtian. The Moors, however, supposing that ip of Spain, [Muley Hamet applied to the they might be able to dispossess the Chris- King of Portugal; and, that he might the tians of such places as they held in Barbary, more easily succeed, he caused the fortress laid close siege to Mazagan. But the queen- of Arzilla, which his father had recovered, regent speedily sending succor, the Moors, to be restored to the Portuguese. The king although they brought 80,000 men into the was in rapture at this event, and fancied field, were obliged to abandon the enterprise. that his glory would exceed that of all his This was at first extolled as a conspicuous predecessors. The queen-dowager, the carinstance of the queen's capacity and wisdom; dinal, and all his frieuds united in their enbut, in a short time, the aversion which the deavors to divert him from this unfortunate Portuguese had to the government of wo- enterprise. Even Philip of Spain, his uncle, men, together with the prejudice they had attempted to convince him of the absurdity against her country, for she was a Castilian, of his proceedings. Muley fMoloch himself appeared so plainly, and gave her so much explained in a letter his own right to the uneasiness, that of her own accord she re- crown of Fez, and showed that he had only signed her authority into the hands of the dispossessed a tyrant and a murderer, who Cardinal Dom Henry, the king's brother. had therefore no right to his friendship or After the king had grown up to man's es- assistance. The Moorish prince next assured tate, his desire was to distinguish himself himn that he had no reason to fear either the against the infidels. lIe himself intended to power or the neighborhood of the Portuconduct an expedition to the East Indies; guese; and as a proof of this, as well as a but the Prime Minister Alcocova induced mark of his esteem, he was content to make him to direct his attention to Africa. This him a present of some ten miles of arable expedition the king entered into in the most ground round ealch of the fortresses he posinconsiderate and absurd manner. He first sessed in Africa —Tangier, Ceuta, Mazagan sent for a prior, with some hundreds of sol- and Arzilla. But the KEing of Portugal was 150 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. deaf to all salutary advice, and disregarded of some old:fficers in Dom Sebastian's ser. all remonstrances. vice, regular and correct. On the 24th of June, 1577, he set sail The Christians advanced with resolution, from the bar of Lisbon with a fleet of fifty broke the first line of the Moorish infantry, ships and five galleys, twelve pieces of can- and disordered the second. On this Muley non, and many transports and tenders, mak- Moloch drew his sword, and would have ing in all nearly a thousand sail. His troops advanced to encourage his troops, but his consisted of 9000 Portuguese infantry, 3000 guards prevented him, on which his agitaGermans, 700 Italians, commanded by Sir tion became so great that he fell from his Thomas Stukeley, an English exile, remark- horse. One of his guards caught him in his able for his bravery; 2000 Castilians and arms, and conveyed him to his litter, where 300 volunteers, commanded by Christoval he immediately expired, having only time to de Tuvara, master of the horse, a man of lay his finger on his lips by way of enjoining courage, but without either conduct or ex- them to conceal his death. But by this time perience. HIe touched first at Lagos Bay, the Moorish cavalry had wheeled quite round, where he remained for four days, and thence and attacked the Christian army in the rear; he proceeded to Cadiz, where he was feasted the Portuguese right was broken, and at this for a week by the Duke de Medina Sidonia, time Muley IHamet in passing a river was who fruitlessly endeavored to dissuade him drowned. In this emergency the Germans, from proceeding further in person in such an Italians and Castilians performed prodigies; enterprise. but the Portuguese, according to their own Soon after landing in Africa the king was historians, behaved indifferently. Attacked met by Muley Hamet, who delivered him on all sides, however, they were unable to his son, a boy of twelve years of age, as a resist; and the whole army, except about hostage, and brought a reinforcement of 300 fifty men, were killed or taken prisoners. Moors. Here it was resolved in a council of The fate of the king is variously related. war to reduce the town of Larache, but it According to some, he had two horses killed was disputed whether the troops should pro- under him, and then mounted a third. His ceed thither by land or by sea. Dom Sebas- bravest officers were killed in his defence; tian, who espoused the former opinion, find- after which the Moors surrounded him, seized ing himself opposed by Muley Htamet, an- his person, stripped him of his sword and swered him so rudely that he left his pres- arms, and secured him. They immediately ence in disgust. began to quarrel about the prisoner, upon Mulev Moloch, having received intelligence which one of the generals rode in amongst of this formidable invasion, took the field them, crying, "What, you dogs, when God with 40,000 foot and 60,000 horse, and con- has given you so glorious a victory, would ducted everything with the greatest pru- you cut one another's throats about a prisdence, notwithstanding he was so enfeebled oner?" At the same time, discharging a by fever that he could not sit upon horse- blow at Sebastian, he brought the king to back. He advanced against the Portuguese the ground, when the rest of the Moors soon army with such celerity that he came in dispatched him. Others affirm that one sight of them on the 3d of August at Alca- Louis de Brito meeting the king with the cer Quibir. Finding his disease increase to standard wrapped round him, Sebastian cried such a degree that he had no hopes of recov- out, "Itold, it fast; let us die upon it!" ery, he resolved to lose no time in bringing upon which, charging the Mloors, he was on the battle, that his antagonist might not seized, but rescued by Brito, who was himavail himself of his death. The disposition self taken with the standard, and carried to of the Christian army was, through the care Fez. The latter affirmed, that after he was HISTORY OF THIE WORLD. 151 taken he saw the king at a distance, and un- as the kingdom had been totally reduced, pursued. Dom Louis de Lima met him and endeavored to conciliate the affections afterwards making towards the river; and of the people by confirming the terms which this is the- last account of his being seen he had before offered to the States. These alive. terms were, that he would take a solemn Immediately after the battle, the brother oath to maintain the privileges and liberties of fMuley Moloch was proclaimed king by of the people; that the States should be asthe Moors. The next day, having ordered sembled within the realm, and nothing proall the prisoners to be brought before him, posed in any other States that related to the new sovereign gave orders to search for Portugal; that the viceroy or chief governor the body of Dom Sebastian. The king's should be a native, unless the king should valet-de-chambre brought back a body, which give that charge to one of the royal family; he said was that of his master, but so disfig- that the household should be kept on the ured with wounds that it could not well be same footing.; that the post of first presiknown; and, notwithstanding the most dili- dent, and all officers, civil, military and jugent search, this monarch's death could never dicial, should be filled by Portuguese; all be properly authenticated. This body, how- dignities' in the church and in the orders of ever, was delivered up as the body of the knighthood confined to the same; the comunfortunate Dom Sebastian to Philip, King merce of Ethiopia, Africa and the Indies reof Spain. By the latter it was sent to Ceuta, served also to them, and to be carried on thence transported to Portugal, and buried only by their merchants and vessels; and he amongst his ancestors in the monastery at would remit all imposts on ecclesiastical Belem, with all possible solemnity. revenues; that he would make no grant of By this disaster, the kingdom of Portugal any city, town or jurisdiction royal, to any sunk at once into the lowest rank of Euro- but Portuguese; that estates resulting from pean states. All the young nobility were forfeitures should not be united to the docut off or carried into slavery, and the king- main, but go to the relations of the last posdom was exhausted of men, money and repu- sessor, or be given to other Portuguese. in tation; so that Dom IHenry, who assumed recompense of services; that when the king the government after the death of his brother came to Portugal, where he should reside as Sebastian, found himself in a very disagree- much as possible, he should not take the able situation. At his death the crown of houses of private persons for his officers' Portugal was claimed by three different com- lodgings, but keep to the custom of Portupetitors —the Prince of Parma, the Duchess gal; that wherever his majesty resided, he of Braganza and Philip of Spain. Whatever should have an ecclesiastic, a treasurer, a might have been the merits of their respec- chancellor, two masters of requests,' with intive claims, the power of Philip quickly de- ferior officers, all of them Portuguese, who cided the contest in his favor. HIe found should despatch everything relating to the his schemes facilitated by the treachery of kingdom; that Portugal should ever con. the regents. tinue a distinct kingdom, and its revenue be Philip finding everything in his favor, consumed within itself; that all matters of commanded the Duke of Alva to invade justice should be decided within the realm: Portugal at the head of 20,000 men; where- that the Portuguese should be admitted to upon, after a feeble defence made by Dom charges in the households of the King and Antonio, Prior of Crato, who had been placed Queen of Spain; that all duties on the, fronon the throne by the Portuguese, the whole tiers should be taken away; and, lastly, that: kingdom submitted. Philip should give three hundred thousand Philip made his entry into Lisbon as soon ducats to redeem prisoners, repair cities, and 152 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. relieve fne miseries which the plague and ple, partly from love of their prince, and other calamities had brought upon the partly fiom their hatred to the Castilians, people. were continually feeding themselves with All these concessions, however, failed to'the hopes that Dom Sebastian would appeal answer the purpose; nay, although Philip and deliver them; and in this respect such was to the last degree lavish of his honors a spirit of credulity reigned, that they would and employments, the Portuguese were still probably have taken a negro for Domn Sebasdissatisfied. Dom Antonio, the exiled prince, tian. This humor induced the son of a tiler still styled himself "K King of Portugal." At at Alcobaga, who had led a profligate life, first he retired to France, where he found so and at length turned hermit, to give himself much countenance, that with a fleet of nearly out as that prince; and, having with him two sixty sail, and a considerable body of troops companions, one of whom styled himself on board, he made an attempt upon Ter- Dom Christoval. de Tavora, and the other ceira, where his fleet was beaten by the Span- the Bishop of Guarda, they began to collect iards. Dom Antonio was constrained to re- money, and were in a fair way of creating tire, which he did with some difficulty, and much disturbance. But the cardinal arch. going to England, he was well received there. duke caused them to be apprehended, and After Philip had ruined the naval power of after leading them ignominiously through Portugal, as well as that of Spain, by equip- the streets of Lisbon, he who took the name ping the Armada, Queen Elizabeth assisted of Sebastian was sent to the galleys for life, Dom Antonio, and sent Sir John Norris and and the pretended bishop was hanged. Not Sir Francis Drake with a strong fleet and a long afterwards, Gonsalo Alvarez, the son considerable army to restore him. Upon of a mason, gave himself out as the same this occasion Dom Antonio sent his son Dom king, and having promised marriage to the Christoval a hostage to Muley Hamet, King daughter of Pedro Alonso, a rich yeoman, of Fez and Morocco, who was to lend him whom he created Count of Torres Novas, he two hundred thousand ducats. But Philip assembled a body of about 800 men, and prevented this by surrendering Arzilla; some blood was spilt before he was apprewhich, with the unseasonable enterprise hended. At length, being clearly proved to against Coruna, and the disputes that arose be an impostor, this person and his intended between Norris and Drake, rendered the father-in-law were publicly hanged and quarexpedition abortive; so that, except carry- tered at Lisbon. The punishment, however, ing the plague into England, it was attended instead of extinguishing public credulity, with no consequences worthy of notice. Dom served only to increase it. Antonio remained some time afterwards in About twenty years after the fatal defeat England; but, finding himself disregarded, of Sebastian, there appeared at Venice a he withdrew once more into France, where person who created much more trouble. He he fell into great poverty and distress; and assumed the name of Dom Sebastian, and having at length died in the sixty-fourth gave a very distinct account of the manner year of his age, an inscription was placed in which he had passed his time since that on his tomb, in which he was styled " king." defeat. He affirmed that he had preserved He left behind him several children, who, his life and liberty by hiding himself amongst on account of his being a Knight of Malta, the slain; that after wandering in disguise and having made a vow of chastity at his for some time in Africa, he returned with entrance into the order, were looked upon two of his friends into the kingdom of Alas illegitimate. garve; that he gave notice of this to the But Dom Antonio was not the only pre- King Dom Henry; that finding his life tender to the crown of P;rtugal. The peo- sought, and being unwilling to disturb the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 153 peace of the kingdom, he returned again brought forth, led with infamy through the amongst the Moors, and passed freely from streets of the city, and declared to be an imone place to another in Barbary, in the habit postor who assumed the name of Sebastian; of a penitent; and that after this he became at which word, he said gravely, "And so I a hermit in Sicily, but at length resolved to am." In the (same proclamation it was afgo to Rome, and discover himself to the fimed that he was in truth a Calabrian; but pope On the road he was robbed by his as soon as he heard this, he said, "It is domestics, and came almost naked to Ven- false." He was next shipped on board a ice, where he was known and acknowledged galley as a slave, and carried to San Lucar, by some Portuguese. Complaint, however, whence, after being for some time confined being made to the Senate, he was obliged to there, he was transferred to a castle in the retire to Padua. But as the governor of heart of Castile, and never heard of more. that city also ordered him to depart, he, not Some persons were executed at Lisbon for knowing what to do, returned to Venice, their endeavors to raise an insurrection in where, at the request of the Spanish ambas- his behalf. sador, who charged him not only with being The administration of affairs in Portugal, an impostor, but also. with many black and during the reign of Philip, was certainly atrocious crimes, he was seized and thrown detrimental to the nation; and yet it does into prison. In the examinations he under- not appear that this proceeded so much from went, he not only acquitted himself of the any ill intention in that monarch, as from crimes which had been laid to his charge, errors in judgment. His prodigious preparabut entered into so minute a detail of the tions for the invasion of England impovertransactions which had passed between him- ished all his European dominions; blut it self and the republic, that the commissioners absolutely exhausted Portugal. Yet the gorwere perfectly astonished; and, moved by ernment of Philip was so much better than his behavior, they showed no disposition to that of his immediate successors that his declare him an impostor. The noise of this death was justly regretted, and the Portuwas diiffused throughout Europe, and the guese were taught by experience to confess enemies of Spain endeavored everywhere to that, of bad masters, he was the best. give it credit. His son Philip, the second of Portugal The State, however, refused to discuss the and the third of Spain, sat twenty years point, whether he was or was not an impos- upon the throne before he paid a visit to tor, unless they were requested so to do by Portugal, where the people put themselves some prince or state in alliance with them. to a most enormous expense to receive him. Upon this the Prince of Orange sent Dom IHe held an assembly of the States, in which Christoval, the son of the late Dom Antonio, his son was sworn as his successor. The to make that demand; and at his request an reigns of Philip III. and Philip IV. were examination was instituted with great solem- characterized by a series of bad measures nity. But no decision followed; only the and worse fortune. All their dominions sufSenate set him at liberty, and ordered him fered greatly; Portugal most of all. The to depart from their dominions. By the ad- loss of Ormus in the East, and of Brazil in vice of his friends, therefore, he proceeded the West, together with the shipwreck of a to Padua -in the disguise of a monk, and fleet sent to escort one of the merchantmen from thence to Florence, where he was ar- from Goa, brought the nation incredibly rested- by the command of the grand duklie, low, and encouraged the Conde duke to hope who delivered him up to the Viceroy of Na- that they might be entirely crushed. These ples. He remained several years prisoner are the heads only of the transactions of in tme castle Del Ovo. At length he was forty years. To entet in any degree into 154 HISTORY OF THE' WORLD. particulars, would only be- to'point out the revenue, in the fleet, or of holding any post breaches made by the Spanish ministers in civil or military; yet these were given pro. the conditions granted by Philip; which, miscuously to foreisgners, or sold to the highwith respect to the nation, was the original est bidder, not excepting the government of contract and unalterable constitution of Por- castles, cities and provinces. The natives tugal whilst subject to the monarchs of Cas- were so far from havi ag an equal chance in tile, but which, notwithstanding, they often such cases, that no situations in the presidios flagrantly violated. were ever given to them, and scarcely any The very basis and foundation of their in garrisons; and whenever it occurred, in privileges was, that the kingdom should re- the case of a person of extraordinary merit, main separate and independent, and conse- whose pretensions could not be rejected, he quently that Lisbon should continue as much was either removed, or not allowed to exerits capital as ever. But so little was this ob- cise his charge, as happened to the Masrquis served, that neither promotion nor justice of Marialva and others. The forms of prowas to be obtained without journey to Ma- ceeding, the jurisdiction, the minir.,c(rs, the drid, which was not more the capital of Cas- secretaries, were all changed in the. Council tile than it was that of Portugal. The gen- of Portugal, being reduced from fiv,; to three, eral assembly of estates was to be held fre- then two, and at last to a single person. quently, and they were only held thrice in By reason of these and other grievances, the space of sixty years; two of them being the detestation of the Spanish government held within the first three years. The king became universal; and in 1640 a revolution was to reside in this realm as often and as soon took place, in which John, Duke of long as possible. Philip I., however, was Braganza was declared king, by the title of there but once; Philip II. resided only four John IV. This revolution, as being determonths; and Philip III. never at all. The mined by the almost unanimous voice of the household establishment was suppressed dur- nation, was attended with very little effusion ing all these reigns. The viceroy was to be of blood. Several vain attempts were made a native of Portugal, or a prince or princess by the King of Spain to regain his authorof the blood; yet when any of the royal fam- ity. The first battle was fought at Montijo ily bore the title, the power was in reality in in 1644, between a Portuguese army of 6000 the hands of a Spaniard. Thus, when the foot and 1100 horse, and a Spanish army of Princess of Mantua was vice-queen, the Mar- nearly the same number. The latter were enquis de la Puebla was sent to assist her in tirely defeated; and this contributed greatly council, and she could do nothing without to establish the affairs of Portugal on a firm his advice. The Council of Portugal, which basis. The Portuguese king carried on a wuras to be composed entirely of natives, was defensive war during the remainder of his filled with Castilians, as the garrisons also life; and after his death, which happened were, though the contrary had been provided. in 1655, the war was renewed with great The presidents of provinces, or corregidors, vigor. were to be natives; but, by keeping those This was what the Spaniards did not exoffices in his own hands, the king eluded this pect. It would not, indeed, be easy to conarticle. No city, town or district was to be ceive a kingdom left in more perilous cirgiven to any except Portuguese; yet the cumstances than Portugal was at this time. Duke, of Lerma had Beja, Serpa, and other The king, Dom Affonso Enrique, was a child parts of the demesnes of the crown, which not more than thirteen years of age, reputed were formerly appendages of the princes of unsound constitution, both of body and of the blood. None but natives were cap- mind; the regency was in a woman, and able of offices in the courts of justice, in the that woman a Castilian; the nation was in. HISTORY OF THE WOBRLD). 155 volved in a war respecting the title to the though he was then little more than: sevencrown; and the nobility, some of them se- teen years of age, he acted with such wisdom cretly disaffected to the reigning. family, and resolution, adhered so steadily to the were almost all of them embarked in feuds grand alliance formed against France and and contentions with each other; so that Spain, and showed so great resources in his the queen scarcely knew whom to trust or own mind, that though he suffered severe how she should be obeyed. She acted, how- losses during the war, he obtained such terms ever, with great vigor and prudence. By of peace at Utrecht, that Portugal was in all marrying her only daughter, the Princess respects a gainer by the treaty. The two Catherine, to Charles II., King of Great crowns of Spain and Portugal were not, howBritain, she procured for Portugal the pro- ever, thoroughly reconciled until the year tection of the English fleets, with reinforce- 1737. In 1750 a treaty was concluded with ments of some thousands of horse and foot; the Court of Madrid, by which Nova Coloand, at last, in 1665, the war was terminated nia, on the river Plata, was ceded to his Cathby the glorious victory of Montesclaros. This olic majesty, to the great regret of the Portudecisive action broke the power of the Span- guese, as well on account of the value of iards, and fixed the fate of the kingdom, that settlement, as because they apprehended though not that of the King of Portugal. that their possession of the Brazils would by Affonso was a prince whose education had this cession be rendered precarious. The been neglected in his youth, who was de- king died in 1750, worn out by infirmities. voted to vulgar amusements and mean com- Ife was succeeded by his son Joseph I., pany, and whom the queen for these reasons who ascended the throne of Portugal under wished to deprive of the crown, that she very favorable circumstances; but his reign, might place it on the head of his younger although short, was marked by great national brother Dom Pedro. The Portuguese, how- calamities. The most remarkable event which ever, would not consent to set aside the occurred was the memorable earthquake, rights of primogeniture, and involve the which, in November, 1755, destroyed onekingdom in all the miseries attending a dis- half of the city of Lisbon, and buried thirty puted succession. thousand people under the ruins. Two hours Affonso was compelled to sign a resigna- had scarcely elapsed after this terrible contion of the kingdom; and his brother, after vulsion, when, to aggravate its horrors, flames governing a few months without any legal burst forth from different quarters of the authority, was in a meeting of the States city, and the conflagration raging with terunanimously proclaimed regent, and vested rifle violence for three days, Lisbon was cornwith all the powers of royalty. Soon after pletely desolated. The royal family were forthis revolution, for such it may be called, the tunate enough to escape; but amongst the vicmarriage of the king and queen was declared tims were the Spanish ambassador, and many null by the chapter of Lisbon; and the re- other persons of distinction. Britain promptgent, by a pontifical dispensation, and with ly afforded relief to the sufferers; an act of the consent of the States, immediately es- generosity the more honorable to her, as she poused the divorced lady. He governed, had every reason to be dissatisfied with the under the title of regent, fifteen years, when, conduct of the King of Portugal. From the upon the death of the king, he mounted the commencement of his reign, he had thrown throne by the title of Dom Pedro II.; and great obstructions in the way of English after a long reign, during which he conduct- commerce, evading treaties, and imposing ed the affairs of the kingdom with great pru- vexatious imposts; and it seemed perfectly dence and vigor, he died in 1706. clear that his object was to annihilate the Dom John V. succeeded his father; and, commercial intercourse which had for so 156 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. many ages subsisted between the two coun-. goyne, and they had soon the glory of free. tries. The same spirit of humanity was ing the country from the Spanish army. The evinced by Spain; but both nations received consequence of this triumph was a peace, an unworthy return, although Britain had solicited and obtained by the two hostile most to complain of. courts, now hopeless of success, and in apScarcely had the agitation which this ca- prehension of fresh disasters. lamity gave rise to subsided, when Portugal The remainder of this king's reign, extendwas again thrown into commotion by an at- ing from the year 1763 to 1777, was occutempt to assassinate the king, (September 3, pied by the introduction of measures for so1758,) who was wounded one night near his cial, agricultural, and commercial improvepalace at Belem. Suspicion fell upon vari- ment. HIe labored to improve the police ous classes of persons, particularly on certain and judicial administration, and not without ecclesiastics, who were said to have been in- success. He founded schools in the large censed at the reform introduced by Dom towns, and improved the system of study in Joseph; on the creatures of Spain, who as- the university of Coimbra. He encouraged pired to the reunion of the two kingdoms agriculture, the fisheries, and trade with the under one sceptre; on the Jesuits, who were colonies; but in attempting to give a stimulus represented as indignant at the restriction to home manufactures, by laying such duties of their ancient privileges; and on a prince on articles of British produce as amounted to of the royal family. All that is known with an almost total exclusion of them from the certainty is, that the scaffold flowed with Portuguese market, he acted with equal noble blood; and that the Jesuits were strip- short-sightedness and ingratitude. One monped of their possessions, whilst their expul- ument to his honor, more noble than the sion was decreed by the crown. Another statue of bronze which his grateful subjects occurrence of this reign was a rupture with erected to him in Lisbon during his lifetime, the see of Rome, every servant of the pope remains to be mentioned. This was a debeing expelled from Portugal, and all inter- cree by which the grandsons of slaves, and course between the two courts suspended for all who should be born after the date thereof, about two years. A more important event were declared free. Although this benefit was the invasion of the country by Spain. was confined to Portugal alone, yet, considlThis aggression originated in the refusal of ering the state of matters at the time it was the king to join the alliance of France and conferred, it must be regarded as an amazing Spain against England. War was imme- stride inthe career of improvement. Joseph diately declared against him, and troops I. died in 1777, and was mourned by his marched to the frontiers of his- kingdom. people as the best monarch who ha,d swayed The ally whom he had so long neglected, the sceptre of Portugal since thy days of and even deliberately ill-used, was appealed Philip I. The prosperity of his reign was to, and not in vain. Troops, arms, and all owing in great measure to the a}lity of his necessary munitions of war, arrived from minister, the Marquis of Pombal, who, from Britain; and, although the invaders sue- his antipathy to the Jesuits and ecclesiasticeeded in capturing Miranda, Braganza and cal tyranny, has been vigorously decried by Almeida, their triumphs were speedily put a the papal party ever since. stop to by the combined forces of Britain Joseph was succeeded by h1ix daughter and Portugal. At the instance of the Brit- Maria, whom the necessities of Atate had inish Cabinet, the Count de Lippe was brought duced her father to give in marriage to his from Germany to assume the command of own brother. Such revolting connections the whole army. This commander was ably are unhappily far from rare in the modern assisted in his operations by General Bur- history of Portugal. Some a tempts were HISTORY OF- THE WORLD. 157 made to exclude her in favor of a nephew, Spain was under the necessity of declaring but they proved completely abortive. Though war against Portugal in the year 1801; but the abilities of this queen were limited,- yet it was soon terminated by the treaty of Bashe was actuated by good intentions. Her dajoz, in consequence of which Portugal was administration was feeble, but upon the whole compelled to cede Olivenza to Spain, and beneficial. She followed the example of her likewise to pay a considerable sum of money. father in encouraging national industry and Afer this the prince enjoyed but a mere reforming the administration of justice. She shadow of power, and at considerable sacrifounded the Academy of Sciences, introduced fices maintained a nominal independence, into the convents of friars a compulsory form until at last, in 1807, a hostile army under of general education, endowed several ad- Marshal Junot invaded Portugal, and the mirable charitable institutions, and went so House of Braganza was declared by Napofar in judicial reform as to abolish the law leon to have forfeited the throne. This bold of imprisonment for debt. In short, had her declaration was owing to the prince having foreign policy resembled her domestic ad- refused to seize the English property in his ministration, Portugal would have had no dominions. Having embarked with his fainreason to complain of her. Maria was forced ily for Brazil, the French general immediinto a family compact by her powerful neigh- ately afterwards took possession of his capibors of France and Spain, by which the in- tal, and Portugal sank into the condition of fluence of the latter was strengthened and an appendage of France. confirmed, whilst in the same degree that of Junot issued a proclamation, in which he England was weakened. This alliance was declared that justice should be duly adminaccompanied by a treaty of limits, which istered, tranquillity preserved, and the future fixed the boundaries of Brazil, Paraguay, and happiness of the people solicitously guarded. Peru, the arrangement being peculiarly fa- But these professions were far from satisfyvorable: to Spain. ing a people of whom the lower classes were In the year 1792 the queen exhibited dying of absolute want, and two-thirds of symptoms of mental alienation, and John the merchants were bankrupt. A British Maria Joseph, prince of Brazil, was appointed force under the Duke of Wellington (then regent. One of the first acts of his adminis- Sir Arthur Wellesley) was promptly distration was a declaration of war against the patched to Portugal, where it was joined by French republic, a step which he was in- a considerable body of national troops, now duced to take from his connection with Eng- mustered in the northern provinces, and deland. But commercial distress, the accumu- termined to maintain the struggle for freelating debt of the country, and the menacing dom. A Junta was immediately established language which France compelled Spain to in Oporto, to conduct the government. After adopt towards her neighbor, led to a peace some sharp skirmishing between the two arin 1797. In 1799 the malady of the queen mies, the decisive battle of Vimeiro, which appearing to be incurable, the prince was was fought on the 21st of August, 1808, confirmed in the regemncy, with full regal overthrew the power of France in Portugal. powers; but he made no change in the pol- The severely-censured convention of Cintra icy of the government. The same year he followed, and the country was evacuated by was again encouraged to arm against French the French troops. The immediate conse. aggression, in alliance with England and quences of this evacuation were highly beneRussia; the victorious career of the revolu- ficial. The government displayed an energy tionists having received a severe, although, which restored subordination, and was felt as it proved, only a temporary check. After all over the kingdom. A levy en masse of Napoleon had confirmed his ascendancy, the whole male inhabitants, from fifteen to 158 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. sixty years of age, was demanded; but it pisse, though, from fear of being separately does not appear that the call was responded committed, the whole remained inactive, or to with riuch alacrity. Towards the close only engaged in insignificant manceuvres of the year 1808, Madrid having surrendered, Each commander appears to have waite.d for and the British army under Sir John Moore intelligence as to the movements of the others, having been compelled to retreat through the and by this delay the capital was saved. mountains of Galicia to Coruffa, the subjuga- Such was the situation of affairs when Sir tion of Portugal was again resolved upon by Arthur Wellesley landed at Lisbon on the the French. The intelligence of the ap- 23d of April, and assumed the chief comproaching invasion at first spread consterna- mand of the armies of England and Portugal. tion and dismay throughout Portugal, for it By a series of brilliant manouvres, the Britwas in no condition to offer any serious re- ish commander compelled the French to cistance to the force of the enemy that men- abandon Portugal. But Napoleon being aced the frontiers. But fresh re-inforcements pledged to his people and the world to conarrived from Britain, and General Beresford, quer that country, early in 1810 an army of who had been appointed commander-in-chief seventy thousand men was assembled in the of the armies of Portugal, having established vicinity of Salamanca, and the command of it a system of subordination and discipline intrusted to Marshal Massena. After clearamongst the troops, confidence was in a great ing his way to Portugal, by the capture of measure restored before a blow could be several strongly-fortified places, the French struck. general advanced upon Lisbon. But his vigiMarshal Soult entered the kingdom of lant enemy had well employed the time afPortugal at the head of the Frency army, forded him by preparing a secure asylum for after dispersing the Spanish force in Galicia. his troops, by which he at once kept his footHe was feebly opposed by the Portuguese. ing in the Peninsula, and defended Lisbon Their commander, General Freyre, was op- against a greatly superior force. This formniposed to a regular engagement; but his un- dable defensive position is celebrated in miliruly troops rose in mutiny and massacred tary annals by the name of the lines of Torboth him and his supporters, under the sus- res Vedras. The advance of Massena, the picion of treachery. They were led against battle of Busaco, the stand made at Torres the enemy by Baron Eben, a German in the Vedras, the retreat of the French, and their British service, and a battle was fought and final evacuation of Portugal, will be found lost. Soult then invested Oporto, and al- described in the article BRITAIN. It is true, though the city had been strongly fortified that in the subsequent operations of the war. and garrisoned, it was carried by assault on some parts of the -kingdom were included in the 29th of March, 1809, after a feeble de- the theatre of hostilities, yet they never exfence of only three days. Immediately on tended much beyond the frontiers. During entering the town, the French soldiery com- the remainder of the war, however, the troops menced an indiscriminate slaughter of the in- of Portugal bore an active and creditable habitants; and although their commander part in almost every encounter with the enused every effort to repress their fury, the emy. plunder and licentiousness had continued a On the death of Maria, John VI. ascended day and a night before subordination could the throne of Portugal and Brazil. The esbe restored. The defeat of the Spanish tablishment of the court of Lisbon in an army at Medellin opened an easy road to American settlement, though productive of Lisbon; but the French force was divided little good to the mother-country, led to iminto three separate bouies, under three inde- portant results. In the first place, it induced pendent co mmanders, Soult, Victor, and La- Brazil to withdraw itself from dependence HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 15g on England; and secondly, it paved the way nation stating, that the assembling of the for that colony erecting itself into a separate Cortes and the adoption of a new constitution state. But the influence of England in Por- were the only means of saving the state. On tugal continued, and the condition of the the 15th of September, the day on which it kingdom for the present remained essentially was usual to celebrate the deliverance of Porunchanged by the transfer. The peace of tugal from France, the regency in Lisbon, Paris, concluded in May, 1814, which, it was fearing to assemble such a multitude of peobelieved, would place everything on a proper ple as generally met on that day, resolved to basis, did not realize the expectations of the omit the ceremony. But the troops and the nation. Spain evaded the restitution of Oli- citizens met and deposed the government, venza, which had been provided for by the declared for the king, the Cortes, and the congress of Vienna; whilst, at the same time, constitution, and installed a temporary counPortugal was required to restore French cil as a provisional government. Thus a Guiana to France. The court of Rio there- complete revolution was effected without fore took possession of the Banda Oriental; either violence or blood-shed. The provibut an account of these transactions is given sional government formed a union with the in another part of this work (see BRzIL). Junta of Oporto on the 1st of October; and These circumstances rendered the condition one of the earliest acts of this united body of Portugal far from tranquil. The country was to dispatch Count Palmella, the head.of felt that the order of things had been invert- the royal regency, to Brazil, with an account ed, and the parent state had become a de- of the transactions whlich had just taken pendent on her colony. A conspiracy of a place, and a petition that either the king or very extensive nature was discovered in the the prince-royal would return to Europe and army, and its progress checked; but the assume the sovereignty of Portugal. One spirit which generated it was not extingnish- deputy was chosen for every thirty thousand ed. In short, everything was ripening for a inhabitants. Clergymen, lawyers, and offifundamental change in the administration cers were the sorts of persons who were and constitution of government; and the chiefly elected, few men of wealth or family Portuguese people were soon afforded an op- being chosen. On the 26th of January, 1821, portunity of showing their dislike of the ab- the Cortes met and named a regency and sence of the court, and the predominance of ministry, declared the late insurrections legal English influence. The continual bickerings and necessary, and abolished the Inquisition. between the commander of the-forces and the On the 9th of March the articles of the new regency induced Marshal Beresford to repair constitution were adopted almost unanimousto Rio de Janeiro to obtain fresh instructions, ly. By these, freedom of person and propand, it might be, fresh powers from the king; erty was guaranteed, and the liberty of the but during his absence that revolution burst press, legal equality, the abolition of priviforth which completely changed the whole leges, the admission of all citizens to all political aspect of the kingdom. offices, and the sovereignty of the nation, The first symptoms of this revolution were were secured. One chamber and a condi. exhibited at Oporto on the 24th of August, tional royal veto were likewise resolved upon 1820, both the citizens and the army acting John VI. returned from America, leaving in concert. The soldiers swore fealty to the his eldest son, Dom Pedro regent of Brazil. king, the Cortes, and the constitution which He was under the necessity of acceding to might be adopted, and the civil authorities certain restrictions on his power, imposed by declared in favor c ( the measure. A junta the Cortes, before he was permitted to disenmof thirteen members was chosen by aceclama- bark. On landing, he swore to observe ton; and a declaration was addressed to the the new constitution, and concurred in all 160 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the succeeding acts of the Cortes. In May, frustrating a conspiracy which had been 1822, Dom Pedro accepted the dignity of formed against the king's life. On the repreconstitutional emperor of Brazil, and a com- sentations of the foreign ambassadors, the inplete separation took place between the dividuals imprisoned were released; and the two countries. The constitution of Portugal king issued a decree commanding an imwas finally completed and sworn to by the mediate investigation of the pretended treaking on the 1st of October, 1822; and shortly son. John, finding himself in danger of afterwards, the session of this extraordinary falling a victim to the intrigues of his son, Cortes closed. A plot, however, was formed contrived to escape on board of an English for abolishing the new constitution, at the vessel which lay in the Tagus. He deprived head of which was the queen, a Spanish the Infant of his command, but pardoned rnfanta; and several of the nobility and him and gave him permission to travel. clergy were likewise engaged in it. Dom Portugal and Brazil, assumed a hostile attiMiguel violated the promise which he had tude, but at length the independence of the solemnly given to his father by becoming the latter country was acknowledged. This weak, leader of the counter-revolutionists, and in- good-natured monarch died in March, 1826, viting the nation to rise under the royal having previously appointed his daughter standard against the anarchical policy of the Isabella, regent of Portugal. Cortes. The greater part of the troops de- Isabella for a short time governed Portuclared for the Infant, and John VI., yielding gal in the name of the emperor of Brazil, to the force of circumstances, named a new Dom Pedro, who was the legitimate sueministry, and declared the constitution of cessor to both the European and American 1822, null and void. Sixty members of the possessions of the house of Braganza. On Cortes protested against this proceeding; but the 23d of April, 1826, he granted a constithe king, a mere puppet in the hands of his tution to Portugal, which established two son, was borne along by the force of the cur- chambers, and in some other respects re rent, without being able to give any effectual assembled the French charter. Not long check to its course. afterwards, he surrendered Portugal to his The object of the queen and the Infant daughter, Donna Maria, as an independent was to induce the king to resume absolute queen, on condition of her marrying her power; but John VI. firmly declared his uncle, Dom Miguel. An unsuccessful resolution not to comply. The counter-revo- attempt was then made by the absolutists to lutionists, however, began to act indepen- overthrow the constitution, and proclaim dently of hlis authority, and various steps Dom Miguel absolute king of Portugal. In were taken to carry out their views. Dom July, 1827, Dom Miguel was appointed by Miguel, been appointed commander-in-chief his brother lieutenant and regent of the kingof the army, called the troops to arms, and dom. The prince immediately returned to issued proclamations, in which he declared Portugal, having pledged himself to abide by it to be his intention to emancipate the king the terms required by Pedro. He arrived in fiom the control of free-masons and others by Lisbon in February, 1828, and immediately whom he was surrounded. The ministers and assumed the administration of the governother civil officers, to the number of one ment, at the same time taking the oath to hundred persons, were on the same day put maintain the constitution. But oaths were in under arrest; but when the king ascertained his eyes a mere formality of state, involving what had occurred, he declared that the whole no moral obligation. IIe assumed the sceptre had been done without his orders. As an as absolute king, and took his measures acexcuse for his conduct, the Infant said that cordingly. But the military in general were he had taken these steps for the purpose of unfavorable to his projects. The garrison of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 161 Oporto declared for Dom Pedro, and the for political causes alone; and that 5000 percharter; other bodies of troops followed sons were concealed in hiding-places in diftheir example, and a corps of 6000 men ad- ferent parts of the country. How many had vanced towards the capital; but they were been devoted to destruction by being sent to defeated by a superior force, and the efforts the fatal shores of Africa, and how many had cf the constitutionalists were for the present voluntarily exiled themselves, it is impossible baffled. to estimate. The British government demandThe object of Dom Miguel was now to ed redress for the acts of violence committed consolidate his power, and get himself pro- against its subjects, and on this being refused, claimed king. The Cortes met, and all who a British fleet entered the Tagus, and terrified were likely to oppose him having been im- the tyrant into compliance. France acted in prisoned or exiled, this body unanimously a similar manner, and with even more suedeclared Dom Miguel lawful king of Portu- cess, demanding an indemnity for the exgal. The pretext by which the Cortes en- penses incurred by the expedition. The deavored to vindicate its conduct was, that United States also dispatched a fleet to Lisas Dom Pedro had become a foreigner, he bon to obtain satisfaction for injuries done to had neither a right to succeed himself nor to American commerce. But these repeated appoint a successor. On the 4th of July, humiliations wrought no change in the policy 1828, Dom Miguel confirmed the decree of of Dom Miguel. But his finances were now the Cortes, and assumed the title, as he had falling into inextricable confusion. The revalready done the powers of royality. The enue scarcely sufficing for the household expunishment of those implicated in the Oporto penses and the maintenance of the troops, insurrection followed as a matter of course. the usurper was driven to all manner of -xAn expedition was likewise sent against the pedients to relieve his necessities. The island refractory islands which had refused to ac- of Terceira, one of the Azores, resisted his knowledge the usurper; and Madeira and the claims; and here a regency was formally inAzores were, with one exception, reduced. stalled, with the Marquis of Palmella at its In the meanwhile Donna Maria had set head. From this spot Dom Pedro issued a sail from Brazil for Europe; but on arriving decree in favor of his daughter Donna before Gibraltar, she found that, under actual M/aria. circumstances, it would be injudicious, if not Although neither the government of~ dangerous, to land at Lisbon, and accordingly France, nor that of England, gave open as-; steered for the English shores. She remain- sistance to Domn Pedro, both abstained from ed sometimes in London, and during her opposing any obstacles to his measures of restay was entertained as queen of Portugal. cruiting. Many officers of each nation enlistIn August, 1829, she returned to Brazil, in ed in his ranks; and towards the end of Dewhich a revolution suddenly deprived her cember, 300 half-pay officers and volunteers father of his American empire. Having ab- sailed for Belleisle, on the coast of Prance, dicated a crown which he could no longer re- which had been fixed upon as the place of tain, in favor of his infant son, the ex-em- rendezvous. Insurrections took place in Porperor sailed for Europe with his daughter to tugal, but were ultimately suppressed. assert her claims to the throne of Portugal. Meanwhile the island of St. Michael's was The usurper still pursued the same course of captured by a force from Terceira, under oppression, and, not content with confining Villa Flor, one of the members of the reand despoiling his own countrymen, he ex- gency. Afraid that Madeira, would be the tended his outrages to British and French next object of attack, Dom Miguel sent a subjects. In the year 1830, it was calculated small armament for its defence. Dom Pedro that 40,000 individuals were under arrest now resolved to hazard a descent upon Porm.l-li 162 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tugal, with the undisciplined troops he had the Algarves declared for Donna Maria. collected together. The expedition sailed This small army under the command of from the island of St. Michael, on the 27th Villa Flor, now Duke of Terceira, marched of June, 1832. It consisted of two frigates, upon Lisbon, and on the way completely three corvettes, three armed brigs, and four routed a greatly superior force. The capital schooners, besides transports and a number was deserted by the garrison; the inhabitants of gun-boats, to cover the landing. An officer rose en masse, and declared Donna Maria who held a commission in the British army their lawful sovereign; and the Duke of undertook the command of the naval depart- Terceira, entering Lisbon in triumph, hoisted ment, with the rank of admiral. The whole the queen's colors on the citadel. Dom Pedro army on board did not amount to 10,000 instantly set sail from Oporto to assume the men, scantily provided with artillery, and government, and no sooner had the intellistill more scantily with cavalry. gence reached France and England, than Dom Miguel made every preparation in both immediately acknowledged Donna his power to repulse the threatened attack. Maria as queen of Portugal. On the 8th of July, Dom Pedro appeared Great preparations were made for the debefore Oporto, landed his troops, and took fence of Lisbon, against the Miguelite army, possession of the town, without the loss of a 18,000 strong, which, under Marshal Boursingle man. Miguel immediately menaced mont, an experienced general, was now adOporto from two points. On the 22d of vancing towards the capital. Several attacks July, an action took place, in which his were made on the defences during the rest troops were repulsed, and compelled to fall of the year 1833, but the results were 1milnhack. portant. The first military operation of imThe operations of the naval squadron were portance which took place in 1834, was the attended with little success. Several partial capture of Leiria, an important town between engagements took place between the two Lisbon and Coimbra, which capitulated to the fleets,but no advantage was gained on either queen's troops in February. A battle was side. Dom Pedro continued to fortify Oporto; lost by the Miguelites near Almoster, where whilst Miguel, with equal industry, was in- Saldanha was posted; and towns and procreasing his army, the greater part of which vinces began to declare for the queen so lay on the north side of the Douro. The rapidly that the cause of the usurper became Miguelites made an attack upon a suburb desperate. He shut himself up at Santarem, of Oporto, which they carried; and the pos- with a view of keeping up his communicasession of this place enabled them to harrass tions with the frontiers of Spain, whence he the city greatly. Dom Miguel then made a expected aid. It was a singular coincidence, general but unsuccessful assault upon the that in Spain as well as in Portugal, an infant works with which Oporto was surrounded. queen was supporting her cause by favoring Finding that it was impossible to carry Oporto popular privileges, with an uncle for her rival, by storm, Miguel determined to cut off the as a representative of more despotic princisupplies. By this step Dom Pedro found ples of government. The cause of the two himself reduced to great difficulties. queens being so far the same, a community The contention continued through 1833. In of interest led to an alliance, to which the this year Admiral Napier, then commanding courts of Britain and France became parties. Dom Pedro's fleet utterly annihilated the en- Each was recognized as lawful successor to emy's in the neighborhood of Cape St. Vin- the throne to which she aspired, and they cent. Previously to this achievement, a body both agreed to employ their arms jointly of queen's troops had landed at another point against their two rivals. Don Carlos was of the coast, and in a few days the whole of compelled to fly from Spain into Portugal, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 163 nd thither he was pursued by a Spanish in Portugal, in the beginning of the year army, which proved even more fatal to Dom 1835, was appointed commander-in-chief of Miguel than to Don Carlos. The Miguelites, the Portuguese army, a nomination which seeing all hope lost, rapidly disbanded, and gave rise to much contention. But death only the miserable remnant of an army re- soon cut short the discussion, for the young mained attached to the usurper. A suspen- prince expired on the 28th of March. The sion of arms was agreed to; and on the 26th chambers, however, did not allow the queen of May, a convention was entered into, by to indulge long in the sorrows of widowhood. which Miguel formally consented to abandon The constitutional system depended greatly the country. The terms granted him were, on a direct succession to the throne, and be. that he should never again set foot either in fore the end of the year the queen's second Portugal or Spain, nor in any way concur in marriage-was arranged. The bridegroom se. disturbing these kingdoms; that he should lected was Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, leave the country within fifteen days; that a nephew of the King of the Belgians. he should have a pension of about $75,000, The prince arrived at Lisbon, in April, and be permitted to dispose of his personal 1836. Government now became extremely property, after restoring the crown jewels annoyed by the question, whether the king and other articles; and finally, that, by his should be appointed to the command of the command, the troops still adhering to his army, when it turned out that this was one cause should instantly lay down their arms, of the special conditions of the marriage and the fortresses surrender to the queen. treaty. The proceeding proved very unpopuOn the 2d of June, he embarked for Genoa, lar, and materially hastened a revolution, in where he had no sooner arrived than he which the ministry and the constitution were issued a declaration declaring that he had shipwrecked together. It does not appear, acted under compulsion in relinquishing the however, that the government anticipated throne, and that the transaction was null and any serious changes, as the country, although void. a good deal irritated, exhibited no dangerThe civil war being thus terminated, an ous symptons of discontent. Yet the revoextraordinary Cortes was assembled on the lutionary plot must have been arranged be14th of August. The regency was ultimately forehand, for even the troops of the line were conferred on Dom Pedro, but he expired on seduced. The queen was compelled to dethe 22d of September, 1834, having, during ~dare the political constitution of the 23d of the latter years of his life, acted a part which September, 1822, to be in vigor; but it was the earlier stages of his career gave the world at the same time agreed that it should underlittle reason to expect. The queen's mar- go such modifications as circumstances had riage with the Duke of Leuchtenberg, the son rendered necessary. A new ministry was of Eugene Beauharnois, and the brother of immediately appointed, and Prince FerdinDomPedro's wife, was soon afterwards re- and was deprived of his military commission. solved upon. A bill to exclude Dom Miguel But neither the great body of the people nor and his descendants from the throne of Por- the more influential classes showed any inditugal, was passed without one dissentient cations of accordance with the remodellers voice. The budget for the year 1834, showed of government. Almost all the nobility, the a considerable deficit, and this formed an ex- superior clergy, and many persons holding cuse for treating the British auxiliaries, to official situations of greater or of less importwhom they owed so much, with shameful in- ance, refused premptori]y to take the oath to gratitude. the new constitution. The peers whose ex. Prince Augustus of Leuchtenberg, the istence as a separate legislative assembly was husband of the young queen, having arrived thus abolished, protested to the queen against 164 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the measure. The queen, however, was convention signed in 1835, leaving certain obliged to accede to most of the demands of regulations to be settled afterwards. The the liberal party, and thereupon dismissed Portuguese government appearing to hold her ministers. back, that of Spain threatened to enforce the The principal events which followed these treaty vi et armis, whereupon the former changes were, the economizing of the expen- gave way, and the dispute was adjusted. diture, the imposition of a tax for the support In January, 1842, Costa Cabral, who then of the priesthood, the introduction of a uni- held the port-folio of justice, suddenly left form system of duties on vessels sailing from Lisbon for Oporto; and there. along with Portuguese harbors, the abolition of the slave the military commander, proclaimed Dom trade, and other measures of more or less Pedro's charter of 1826; forming, at the moment. During the years 1837 and 1838 same time, a provisional government in the some provinces of Portugal were kept in con- name of the queen, in the presence of the stant terror, and, to a certain extent, ravaged municipal authorities and the troops of the by rebell banditti, whose ostensible object garrison. It was strongly suspected that the was to excite a rising in favor of Dom 3Mi- court connived with this proceeding; howguel. The most notedof these guerilla chiefs, ever the government compelled the queen Remechido, was at length taken and shot. to dismiss Cabral from his office, and to issue To trace the tangled thread of Portuguese a proclamation against the insurrection.. A politics, to narrate all the changes of minis- new cabinet was formed, at the head of try, all the outbreaks of the people, during which was placed the Duke of Palmella; the last thirty years, would be tedious and but the troops at Lisbon and the populace uninteresting. It will be sufficient to men- broke out into open revolt, demanding the tion the principal events.. On the 4th April, restoration of the charter, whereupon the 1838, the nineteenth anniversary of the newly-appointed ministers resigned, and a queen's birthday, she and her husband sol- royal decree issued proclaiming the charter emn!ly swore to maintain the new constitu- to be the law of the land. Of the next cabition; and an amnesty was granted towards net the Duke of Terceira was nominal chief, all political offenders in respect of events and Costa Cabral came in as minister for that had taken place since the 10th Septem- home affairs. The Cortes met in July, and ber, 1836. Viscount Sa de Bandeira was the queen told them, with reference to the placed at the head of the new cabinet; and charter, that their mission was to consolidate the general election of deputies was proceed- it. Matters went on pretty quietly until ed with. On the 31st October the queen February, 1844, when a regiment mutinied, was delivered of a son, who received the title and the insurrectionary spirit spreading, the of Duke of Oporto, and is now the reigning Count de Bomfin put himself at the head of king. During the year 1839 there were two about 700 men, and retired to Almeida, changes of ministry: in the latter Costa Ca- where he was besieged, by the government bral came into power. Early in 1840 the forces. The alleged object of the insurgents Cortes were suddenly dissolved, and a new was to procure the dismissal of the ministers. Cortes summoned to meet in May. As the They made, however, a feeble resistance: year wore away, disaffection showed itself in the place was surrendered, and the leaders a part of the army, but the insurrectionary allowed to escape into Spain. After the spirit was soon put down. About this time close of the session tile ministers did several a quarrel broke out betweeni the governments arbitrary acts under the shelter of royal deof Spain and Portugal as to the navigation crees, for which, however, they were after. of the Douro, which had been declared free terwards indemnified by the Cortes. In t) both nations throughout its course by a April or May, 1846, the standard of revolt _ g~~~~~~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 16i was once more raised. The insurrection Boomfin, about 4000 men being engaged on commenced in the Upper Minho, the imme- each side. Bomfin was completely routed; diate cause being the imposition of a new 1300 of his men were taken prisoners, along tax. Great dissatisfaction with the ministry with the commanders, at a loss to the queen's had existed throughout the nation for some army of nearly 400 killed and wcounded. time; the conduct of Costa Cabral especially Saldanha (now a duke) then marched into had excited indignation and disgust, his ra- the north, a small force having been stationed pacity and venality being notorious, and his at Estremoz, in the east. He remained inincreasing wealth evident. A great part of active for some time in the neighborhood of Portugal was up in arms, and the ministers Oporto, but being too -weak to besiege oi resigned; whereupon a new ministry was attack the place, the insurgents gathered formed, with the Duke of Palmella at its strength and organized their plans. In April, head, and the Marquis of Saldanha and the 1847, several steamers having fallen into the queen issued a proclamation promising a re- hands of the insurgents, about 1200 troops dress of grievances, illcluding a restoration under Sa da Bandeira were transferred from of the liberty of the press. Cabral (who had the north to the south; where, being augbeen ennobled the previous year by the title mented by a body of the local militia, they of Count Thomar) made his escape into Spain. marched in the direction of Lisbon. Troops A royal decree authorized the Bank of Por- under the Conde de Mello raised this portion tugal to suspend its cash payiments. The of the insurgent army to about 4000. On Chamber of Deputies was dissolved, and the the Ist May an engagement took place in Cortes assembled for the ensuing Ist of Sep- the neighborhood of St. Ubes (Setubal), in tember. At the commencement of October which 500 of the ante-ministerial troops were the queen abruptly dismissed her ministry, killed or wounded. The capital meantime and at once entrusted Saldanha with the was only kept quiet by the threatening attitask of forming a new one. The suddenness tude of the British fleet. The queen felt her' of the proceeding, and the names of some of throne trembling under her, and preparations the ministers, led a large section of the na- were made to receive her and the royal faintion to believe that the crown wished to re- ily on board a British man-of-war. The govplace the Cabralista party in power. A con- ernment having appealed to the governments siderable body of troops revolted, and placed of Britain, France, and Spain, active negotithemselves under the Condes das Antas and ations were set on foot with the malcontents, da Bomfin; whilst a revolutionary Junta was and an amnesty for the past was offered; organized at Oporto. Affairs being in a but the overture failed. There had been all very alarming position, the British govern- along a strong disposition on the part of Spain ment dispatched a special agent to watch the to send a body of troops to the assistance of proceedings, and endeavor to effect a recon- the queen. Spanish interference not being ciliation between the parties; and a British desirable for political reasons, it was at length fleet was ordered into the Tagus. In the arranged that the three governments should confusion that ensued, an attempt was made afford the queen the needful assistance; and to excite a movement in favor of Dom Mli- a protocol was accordingly signed in London guel, but this utterly failed. Cabral wished on thq 21st of May. The ministers had preto return to Portugal, but the ministers pre- viously- resigned, and a transition ministry vented him; giving him, however, the ap- been appointed. An amnesty was issued, and pointment of ambassador at Madrid. On the the insurgents, seeing that the contest had 23d December an engagement took place at become hopeless, laid down their arms, and forres Vedras between the queen's troops, Spanish troops occupied Oporto. The Corundeo: Saldanha, and the insurgents, under tes met, and new ministers were called to 166 lHISTORY OF, THE WORLD. power. Through1848 the countrywasquiet, 15th of November, 1853, wherer-pon the Saldanha being at the head of affairs. In king-consort proclaimed himself regent until.March, 1849, Cabral had intrigued so success- his eldest son should be of age. At the close fully that he ousted Saldanha, and continued of her troubled life she left behind five sons prime minister until April, 1851, when Sal- and two daughters. The eldest son quietly danha broke out into open revolt. He march- ascended the throne, with the title of Dom ed northwards with an inconsiderable body Pedro V., on the 16th September, 1855, the of troops, and followed the queen's husband anniversary of his eighteenth birthday. Litat the head of a strong force. Saldanha de- tle occurred during his minority that needs nounced the peculations and continued in- to be chronicled here, save that the deficient fractions of the constitution committed by harvest of 1854 compelled the government to Cabral, and he called upon the queen to dis- admit for a time foreign grain free of duty; miss him from her counsels. At first Sal- and that the young king paid a visit to Engdanha's movement did not receive much en- land and part of the Continent, accompanied couragement; at length the city of Oporto by his next brother, in pursuance of a wish declared for him. Cabral resigned, taking expressed by their mother. His majesty refuge on board a British steamer; and Sal- married a German princess of the IHouse of danha returned in triumph to Lisbon. He Hohenzollern. He is said to be of a reserved was placed at the head of a new ministry, disposition; but he won golden opinions from which continued in power until June, 1856. the nation by his behavior during a pestiDuring this period the country remained lence resembling yellow fever that carried quiet, but the ministry were guilty of a dis- off nearly 5000 person at Lisbon in the augraceful act of bad faith towards the public tumn of 1857. The exciting cause of this creditors of the state. The finances for many fever was the poisonous atmosphere occasionyears had been becoming worse and worse. ed by defective drainage. The Saldanha The credit of the nation was very low, and ministry having proposed to raise a sum. of the annual deficit large. Endeavoring by a ~3,000,000, to make a grant to a French vigorous effort to put the national affairs on company of the right of constructing certain a better footing, a royal decree issued on the lines of railway, and to impose new taxes, 1Sth December, 1852, to reduce the rate of their plans met with strong opposition in the interest on the national debt, irrespective of lower chamber of the legislature. This, howthe rate at which the money was borrowed, ever, was surmounted; but a still more vioand without any offer of paying dissentient lent opposition was threatened in the chamcreditors in full. Large arrears of interest ber of peers; to avoid which the king was had been previously capitalized after deduct- asked to create a number of new peers. As ing 10 per cent. of the amount. These dis- he refused to do this, the Saldanha ministry honest acts were almost sufficient to justify tendered their resignation in June, 1856. the intervention of the British government, The kings then empowered the Marquis de since a very large amount of the debt was Loule to form a new government, which owing to British subjects. The London Stock contented itself with asking for authority to Exchange refused to allow any quotation of contract a loan of ~330,000. This was given the funds in their lists; and this continued and the arrangement with the British bond to be the case until 1856, when the Portu- holders was confirmed. An act was passed guese government came to an arrangement in the same session to abolish slavery in the with its foreign creditors, of dubious advan- Portuguese colonies on the west coast of tage to them it is true, but the best that could Africa. oe made under the circumstances. Nothing of much importance has since Donna Maria died in childbirth on the transpired in Portugal. WVhat the future of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 167 the country may be, it is not easy to foresee. The language, like the Italian, n:ay be deThe past affords a miserable story; the enor- scribed as a soft bastard Latin, for the ma. mous debt must for a long period cripple the jority of Portuguese words are derived from nation. The resources of the country are that tongue. It has a close affinity to the doubtless great, but they can only be devel- Spanish; so much so, that Spaniards and oped by the enlightened and honest conduct Portuguese can understand each other; and mf men in power, by a peaceful and law- yet considerable differences have been ];rorespecting people, and by capital. This last duced by the separation of the two kingdoms requisite exists not at present in Portugal through a long course of years, and by the itself, nor can it be obtained from abroad as efforts of the Portuguese themselves, who long as there are evidences of dishonest deal- have always desired to make their language ings or political disturbance. The conduct diverge as much as possible from their neighof the king since his accession to the throne bors'. The Spanish tongue is more dignified, has afforded ground for good hopes, but great stately and rich; the Portuguese more contact is required to reconcile conflicting par- cise, soft and fluent, with more conversaties, as well as a firm determination to do tional aptitude. justice to all, and to reign for the benefit of The literature of Portugal, almost ignored the whole body of the people. by the rest of Europe, contains, it must be The AzoREs and the IM[ADERAs (see these admitted, no masterpieces, with the exceparticles) are termed adjacent isles, and are tion of "Os Lusiadas" of Camoens; and not considered colonies. The Portuguese this poem is much oftener mentioned than exercise sovereignty over the islands of Cape read out of Portugal. It has, however, been de Verde, the islands of Principe, S. Thome translated into most European languages, and Anno Bom, off the African coast, near there being three translations in English. the equator; have possessions on the Guinea The language lending itself readily to verse, coast; and lay claim to a great region on poetry forms a disproportionately large secthe west coast of Africa, south of the line tion of the literature; and of this section known as Angola and Benguela. The area love poems form the great bulk. Several of the country claimed by them in this part early kings and members of the royal family amounts to 153,000 square geographical composed verses, and thereby gave fashion miles, and the inhabitants are said to num- to the occupation. In the fifteenth century ber 53,000, chiefly Negroes. On the east romantic pastorals, the most artificial of all coast of Africa the Portuguese claim the poetical compositions, came into vogue, and territory of Mozambique, extending from the this class of poetry has ever since been much Bay of Lourenco Margues, in Lat. 26. S., to cultivated. At the close of the fifteenth cenCabo Delgado,, in Lat. 10. S. The area is tury appeared Bernardino Riberio, one of calculated at 216,000 square geographical the best of the early poets; and a little later miles, and the population at 300,000. In the much-esteemed poems of Saa de M3/iranda Hindustan the Portuguese have settlements saw the light, many of them, however, being at Goa, with a subject population of 350,000; written in the Castilian language. Cama strip of land at Damao, in the Gulf of oen's great poem was first printed in 1572. Cambay, with 34,000 inhabitants; and the Amongst modern poets the name of Almeida fort of Diu, in Gujerat, with a piece of land Garrett, only recently dead, is conspicuous. inhabited by 11,000 persons. In China, Portu- The first classical prose work is a romance gal claims nine square miles at Macao, with entitled "Corte na Aldea," by Rodriguez a population of 4600. She also claims the Lobo, published towards the close of the sixislands of Timor and Solor, lying between teenth century; and at the same period the Australia and Java. works of Cortereal, another classic writer, 168 ~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. saw the light. In the seventeenth century be the Countess Vimieiro's "Osmria," which appeared several works of travel, one of was crowned by the Academy. It is founded which, Mendes, Pinto's " Perigrinaeam" on an event in their early history. (1620), has been translated into most Euro- In the department of fiction the Portupean languages, and has acquired a distin- guese of the present time rely chiefly on imguished reputation for want of veracity. In portations or translations from other nations, one of Congreve's plays, a dealer in fictions chiefly the French. With regard to periodiis thus addressed: " Mendes Pinto was but a cal literature, there are between forty and type of thee, thou liar of the first magnitude!" fifty newspapers published in the capital In the department of history the writers and in the principal towns; they are all of are numerous. The national conquests in small size, and their circulation is very limithe sixteenth century are a favorite theme; ted. The leading articles read like translaand here the " Decads " of Barros (1553), the tions from the French applied to Portuguese Livy of the Portuguese, are conspicuous. In topics. Those who wish to learn more of the next century Andrade's "Life of Don the literature of Portugal may consult SisJoao de Castro," fourth viceroy of the Indies, mondi's "History of the Literature of the is considered a masterpiece of biographical South of Europe." composition. Almost the only complete his- In fine arts Portugal presents us with tory of the kingdom by a native writer is the no name of eminence, with the exception "f istoria de Portugal," by Lemos, 1786- of an old painter who is known as the Gran 1804o, 20 vols. A valuable history of the Vasco, and who in that country takes the kingdom is, however, in progress, and prom- rank that Raffaelle takes in the rest of ises, by its critical spirit and elegant style, Europe. The events of his life are unknown; to form a classical work. We allude to the the year, even the century of his birth, is a History of Alexandre Herculano, the royal matter of dispute; and all that can be said librarian. In a nation which has always boast- with certainty is, that he was born either in ed of its adherence to Romanism, it is only to the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries. A vast be expected that theological and ecclesiasti- number of pictures in different parts of the cal writings should be numerous, and a glance country are attributed to him, the majority, at any library will show that such is the case. no doubt, quite erroneously. The best colWe shall content ourselves, however. with lection of his works is said to be found in referring to Diniz's "Das Ordens religiosas the cathedral of Viseu. The wealthier class em Portugal," 1853. of Portugal seems to have little taste for the As to pieces for the theatre, the early fine arts; a few of the nobility, however, dramas Antonio Ferreira, Camoens and Gil possess small collections. The national colVicente, the Plautus of Portugal, were origi- lection is deposited in the convent of St. nal; then came imitations of the Spanish Francisco (at present the Academy of Fine writers; and of late years the French stage Arts) at Lisbon; but not more than half has been the main support of the Portuguese a dozen pictures of real value are to be found dranla. The best comedy in the language in it. Exhibitions of the works of living is tllought by the Portuguese themselves to artists occasionally take place here. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 169 ENGLAND. [tIAT the aboriginal, or at least the ear- coasts and lowland districts of the whole is. liest inhabitants of these islands were land was complete; so much so, in fact, that, a people of Celtic origin and race, seems to but for the tenacity with which the names be admitted on all hands, and is rendered of natural objects adhere to them, and some highly probably, both from the intimations other indications of a still fainter kind, not of history and the evidence of language. a trace or vestige of their original ascendThe former leave little doubt that the mi- ancy would have remained. The Saxon congrations and settlements of the Celtic tribes quest was of a different character. The inpreceded those of the Scythian or Gothic na- vaders, inconsiderable in number, sought potions by whom they were almost everywhere litical supremacy rather than a settlement displaced; and this conclusion derives addi- by means of extermination, and used the tional probability from the consideration, privileges of conquest with more moderation that the greater part of the names of moun- than their predecessors of the same race. tains, lakes and rivers, in both the British There no longer existed between the conislands, are still descriptive and significant querors and the conquered that radical diverin some dialect of the Celtic language. sity of physical conformation, habits and cusTo the Celtic population of Britain sue- toms, which, in a barbarous age, is the source ceeded the Gothic, by whom they were, at of inextinguishable hostility; they accorda very early period, displaced to a consider- ingly enslaved, but forebore from extermiable extent. Advancing from the northern nating or utterly expelling the natives; a parts of Asia and Europe, where they had gradual amalgamation took place; and, from enjoyed a wild independence, the Scythians the commingled Gothic dialects of both, at or Goths drove the Cimbri or Northern Celts length sprung the Anglo-Saxon, which is the before them, and, seizing upon that part of parent of the English language. Gaul which is nearest to Britain, they crossed The condition of the Britons in the time over into England. The period of this im- of COsar very much resembled that of the migration is uncertain; but at the time of Gauls from whom they sprung. They were Caesar's invasion, the primitive or Celtic in- divided into a number of petty kingdoms or habitants had been driven into the interior states, each of which was again subdivided and more inaccessible parts of the island, among subordinate chieftains, who governed while the south-eastern portion was peopled their respective tribes or clans with more with colonies of Gothic descent, who may, than feudal authority. On great emergentherefore, be regarded as the chief ancestors cies, indeed, they united iunder a common of the English nation. The expulsion of the leader; but this "king of kings " had only a aboriginal population from the south-eastern limited and precarious rule; and the con 170 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. federacies of the ancient Britons, like those monies were at once mysterious and inhu.of the ancient Greeks, were neither numer- man. The mistletoe, which they accounted ous nor lasting. Like the mutually repel- peculiarly sacred, was gathered by them from lant atoms of the Epicurean philosophy, their the leaves of the oak with circumstances of union was fortuitous; and as there existed extraordinary solemnity, though for what purTio pi inciple of compression to retain them pose or with what view is unknown. They in the situation into which accident or a dwelt in the centre of thick woods, and their sense of comm n danger sometimes threw retreats were defended from intrusion or viothem, a separation speedily followed. It was lation by the power of a dark and gloomy this which gave the Romans so great an ad- superstition. On their rude but horrid altars vantage in their contests with these warlike they sacrificed human victims; and from the nations. Never consulting together for the course of the blood as it flowed under the benefit of the whole, it was rare that even knife of the officiating priest, they prognostitwo or three of them united against the com- cated future events. They were the lawgivmlon enemy. They fought, for the most part, givers, physicians, poets and philosophers of separately, and, as a necessary consequence, their country. They are said to have been were beaten in detail. Of the limits of the acquainted with letters and the art of writregal authority among the Britons little is ing, though in what particular form is uncerknown with any degree of certainty, though tain. They taught their disciples the doemuch probably depended on the personal trine of transmigration, and inculcated on character of the individual who exercised it. them the duty of despising death in defence But whatever may have been the power of their country. They practised celibacy, of the kings or the influence of the people, and continued their order by kidnapping there existed an order which exercised an children, whom they trained up and initiated authority paramount to that of either, or of in their mysteries. Some of their observboth united. This was the Druidical or sa- ances are described as excessively revolting; cred caste, which, in relation to the rest of others would seem to have been of a more society, occupied a station and enjoyed privi- innocent and even humane character. Brileges in Britain, analogous to those possessed tain was the great sanctuary of this superstiby the Brahmins of India at the period of tion. their greatest glory. The power of the The prevalence of such a system as DruidDruids was absolute, exclusive and peculiar ism is, even under the most favorable cirto them as a body. Their sanction was nec- cumstances, incompatible with an advanced essary to all public transactions, which other- state of civilization; and in Britain it co-exwise were of no validity. They could pardon isted with a condition of society which, anmalefactors who had been judicially con- terior to the Roman occupation, was but demned, or ordain victims to the sacrifice little elevated above absolute barbarism. The without the intervention of any trial or judg- south-western shores of the island had, it is mrnent. From the Druids the Romans seem true, been early resorted to by foreigners for to have borrowed the aquc et ignis interdic- purposes of traffic; the Phcenicians and Ilastio, which became the most terrible sentence silians, for example, traded in the tin of Cornof their law. It was, in fact, the Druidical wall, and from them geographers spoke of excommunication slightly varied. An indi- the Cassiterides or Tin Islands; but this vidual debarred from attending the holy rites, traffic was too limited in extent, and too con and interdicted the use of fire, received sen- fined in its sphere, to have any material in tence of eternal banishment from the fellow- fluence on the general character of the peoship of his kind; and this sentence they ple, who accordingly derived small benefit could pronounce at pleasure. Their cere- fromtheir ocecasionalintereourse withforeign HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 171 ers. Their scanty clothing consisted of un- length prevailed over wild valor, and after a tanned skins; and the parts of the body left sanguinary struggle the Britons were deexposed were bedaubed with an azure color- feated, and forced to sue for peace. Depuing matter extracted from a particular herb. ties were accordingly sent to lay their sub' Tillage, which had been introduced by the mission before Coesar, and learn the condiBelgic Gauls, was not altogether unknown; tions on which they were to be forgiven for but the principal articles of food were the the crime of defending their native soil. But milk and-:flesh of their herds. Superstition, having ascertained the number of the invadwith its usual blind absurdity, had forbidden ers, and learnt that accidents arising from them the use of fish, which abounded on all ignorance of the navigation had damaged, the coasts of the island. Their towns were the Roman fleet, they acceded to whatever merely clusters of wigwams, covered with terms Caesar thought proper to dictate, and turf, boughs, or skins, and situated in the secretly resolved to renew the attack. They midst of some forest or morass, with the ave- were again repulsed, however, though not nues defended by ramparts of earth and felled without inflicting a severe loss on the enetrees. In their persons they were large and my; and Caesar, surprised at the resistance tall, excelling the Gauls alike in stature and he had encountered, as well as anxious to in strength; but their features were heavy, secure his return to Gaul, which the approach their figures-clumsy, and, according to Strabo, of winter had endangered, readily accepted they did not stand firm on their legs. But the nominal submission proffered by the isalthough barbarians in point of art and in- landers. Thus ended the first descent of the dustry, the ancient Britons commanded re- Romans on Britain. After a brief but fierce spect by their intellectual and moral quali- struggle of little more than three weeks, Coeties. According to Tacitus, they possessed sar embarked his whole army, and returned a quicker apprehension than the Gauls; and to Gaul, glad to escape from a situation Diodorus Siculus commends their integrity where his means were insufficient to enable as greater than that of the Romans. him to keep his ground, and where the Such ar3 the principal notices supplied by slightest reverse would undoubtedly have historians respecting the ancient inhabitants proved fatal. of Britain prior to the Roman conquest. The In the ensuing spring the same commander first events in the authentic history of Brit- again appeared on the British coast, with an ain are the landing of Caesar on the southern armament of 800 vessels, having on board i shores, in the fifty-fifth year before the Chris- five legions and 2000 auxiliary horse. The tian era, and his invasion of the country in sight of so formidable a fleet made the 3ritthe following year. The course of his con- os despair of resisting the landing of the quests in Gaul had brought him in sight of invaders, and they accordingly withdrew to an island hitherto known only by name, and, their forests, where they could act with betbeing probably desirous of dazzling the peo- ter chance of success. The Romans, thereple of Rome by a new achievement, as well fore, disembarked without opposition, peneas of seeming to be engaged in objects re- trated into the country, and passing the mote from internal aggrandizement, he re- Thames above Kingston, lntered the count solved on attempting a descent upon this try of the Trinobantes, whose territory inunexplored region, on the pretence that the eluded the site of the present metropolis of Britons had rendered some assistance to the Britain. The advance was bravely disputed, Gauls in their struggle for independence. and in the course of this forest campaign, On the first occasion, when he disembarbed the military qualities of the invaders were near Deal, his landing was warmly disputed put to a severe trial, by the incessant activby the natives; but discipline and skill at ity, the daring courage and the rapid move 172 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ments of the hardy natives. Ca.sivelaunus, Britain, extended the province to the banks a British chief, particularly distinguished of the Severn, and built a chain of forts to himself by his gallantry and enterprise, as check the incursions of the independent well as by a natural talent for war, which tribes. But Caradoc or Caractacus still was strikingly exhibited in the bold design lived. This renowned chief had lost his of cutting off Caesar from his fleet. But ge- dominions; but, notwithstanding all his renius and science asserted their usual superi- verses, the ascendancy he had acquired over ority. The Britons were at length vanquish- the minds of his countrymen remained uned; and the chiefs having promised to pay shaken, and, great in adversity, he was still tribute, and to abstain from hostility against formidable. Despairing of success in the those of their countrymen who had abetted open country, he transferred the war to the tlhe Romans, the latter withdrew, content mountains of Wales, and at the head of the with the barren glory of having gained a Silures and other tribes, he prepared to make victory without result, and conquered a coun- another effort in defence of his country. The try which they could not retain. position he selected for this final stand shows Britain was threatened with invasion by him to have been possessed of that instinctAugustus, who thereby extorted presents and ive military genius which anticipates science tribute from the insular chiefs; Tiberius em- and often defeats its combinations. It conployed no menace, but exacted the tribute; sisted of a rising ground or eminence, with and Caliglla, in one of his insane freaks, a rapid and scarcely fordable river, which it landed at the head of a body of troops, whom commanded, in front, and was incapable of he commanded to charge the ocean, and col- being turned by either flank, whilst its' delect cockle-shells as fit emblems of his imagi- fensive strength was increased by a stone nary triumph over that boisterous enemy. rampart built along the brow of the hilt The visit of the imperial madman took place Here he resolved to await the attack of the ninety years after Cesar's expedition, and Romans; and exhorting his followers to re formed a subject of derision to the whole member that Caesar himself had been driven Roman world. But the next attempt was from the shores of Britain, he called upon of a more serious character, and productive them to maintain by their valor the liberty of graver results. In the reign of Claudius, which they had inherited from their ancesthe adventurous and hitherto unprofitable tors. They vowed fidelity to the cause of enterprise was resumed under two distin- their oountry, and promised that they would guished officers, Aulus Plautius and Vespa- conquer or die where they stood. The Rosian, who, landing at the head of an army man general was astonished. HIe saw that 50,000 strong, marched through the terr'i- he had to encounter a desperate enemy, skilltories of the Cassivelauni, and defeated Ca- fully posted, and unassailable except where ractacus and Trocodumnus, the British lead- his position was strongest; and, in viewing ers, in three successive engagements. But the difficulties of his situation, his mind althe retreating enemy was still too formidable most misgave him. But the spirit of his to be seriously pressed; reinforcements were soldiers was roused, and they cried out that demanded by the emperor's lieutenants; and no position was impregnable to the brave. seven years elapsed before they succeeded Having forded the river with extreme diffi. i. reducing the country southward of the culty, they formed the testudc., or close colThames. This partial conquest cost the umn, covered overhead with their shields, blood of thirty battles, in which the Romans to protect them from the missile weapons of were not always victorious. the natives; ascended the hill in this comOstorius Scapula, who succeeded Aulus pact order; broke through the rampart of Plautius in the provincial government of loose stones; and charging home upon the HISTORY OF THE WORL.D. 173 Britons, overthrew them with great slaugh- principle or patriotism. Having scandalized ter. The brothers of the British prince sur- ter subjects by admitting Villocatus, her rendered; his wife and daughter were made armor-bearer, to a share of her bed and captive; and the hero himself, who had es- throne, Cartismandua implored the aid of caped the casualties of the field, and taken the Romans against her husband, who had refuge among the Brigantes in Yorkshire, collected a force to expel the usurper. But was afterwards basely betrayed into the the promised assistance proved too scanty hands of the enemy by their queen, Cartis- for the protection of the adulteress, who, in mandua, his inhuman stepmother. IHe was the end, was driven from her kingdom; and sent captive to Italy, whither the fame of although this civil war operated as a seasonhis achievements had preceded him; and able diversion, the efforts of the Romans the people flocked to behold the man who were for several years confined to the preserfor nine years had defied the power of Rome. vation of what they had already acquired. HIis family supplicated for mercy; but the But the season for action in due time armagnanimous chief, sustaining in misfortune rived. Suetonius Paulinus, an officer of true greatness of character, stooped not to high reputation, but ambitious, and prone prefer any solicitation, and, addressing the to cruelty, having obtained the province of emperor with a manly dignity,. equally re- Britain, resolved to destroy the sacred seat of moved from abject submission and insolent Druidism in the island of Mona or Anglesea, defiance, made so great an impression on the where the head of that order resided, conmind of Claudius, that his fetters were or- sidering it as the centre of the British nadered to be struck off, and both his family tion, and the source whence emanated that and himself treated with the most distin- spirit of resistance which had already cost guished regard. the Romans so much blood. The project Meanwhile the Silures, beaten but not sub- was equally bold and well conceived. IIavdued, renewed their attacks on the Romans, ing crossed the strait, however, he found a and kept up the animosity of their country- host drawn up in order of battle to receive men by their example. They cut to pieces him, the declivities bristling with arms, solsome cohorts employed in building forts in diers occupying every defile, and women, in their country; harassed the enemy with con- funeral apparel, running along the ranks tinual skirmishes; and, although defeated in like furies with burning torches in their a general action which they afterwards risk- hands, whilst Druids clustered around, imed, they escaped without entire rout under precating the wrath of heaven on the sacricover of night. Weary of an obscure and legious intruders into their holy of holies. destructive warfare, barren of glory and pro- Awed by the spectacle, the legions for a moductive of little save fatigue and anxiety, merit stood powerless; but ashamed of their Ostorius died, and was succeeded by Aulus momentary panic, they rushed forward to -Didins. The latter checked the incursions the attack, drove all before them, and, after of the Britons, who had again become for- demolishing the altars and groves, burned midable under a new leader; but not till the Druids in their own fires. after they had defeated a Roman legion, and In the midst of this havoc, however, Sue reaped some other advantages of a minor de- tonius received intelligence of a general in scription.' Unfortunately for himself, how- surrection of the conquered tribes. The imever,, renusius, the leader in question, and mediate causes of an outbreaking so little chief of the Huiccii of'Warwick and Wor- expected were the gross injustice done to the cestershire, had married the betrayer of Ca- family of Prasutsegus, King of the Icini, and ractacus, a woman as licentious in herl personal the atrocious outrages offered to his queen, conduct as she had proved herself devoid of Boadicea, who, having remonstrated against 17A HISTORY OF THE WORLD the fraudulent exheredation of her children, These successes paved the way for the subwas publicly whipped,. and constrained to jugation of the greater part of the island witness the violation of her daughters. under Cneus Julius Agricola, who was now Wrongs so great, and insults so intolerable, appointed to the government of the province. required not the general spoliation which The administration of this distinguished Rofollowed to kindle the spirit of an indignant man would probably have been as little people, and to turn their vengeance on the known to us as that of any of his predecesoppressors. The standard of the injured sors, if it had not been for the circumstance queen was raised, and numerous tribes ral- of having as his son-in-law the most able and lied round it. The infant colony of Came- philosophical of the ancient historians. lodunum was destroyed; the infantry of the Agricola began his military career in Brit. ninth legion were annihilated; and in the ain by subduing the Ordovici of North Wales, more flourishing colony of Verulamium (St. and reducing Mona, which, after the fierce Alban's) 70,000 persons are said to have been vigor of Suetonius was withdrawn in conseput to death with all the cruelties of a bar- quence of the insurrection under Boadicea, barons revenge. Suetonius flew to the as- had regained its independence and religious sistance of his countrymen, and soon sue- pre-eminence as the grand seat of Druidism. ceeded in bringing the Britons to a general This he effected without the aid of ships, by action on open ground, where their superi- causing a sufficient force to swim across the ority in point of numbers was of little avail narrowest part of the strait with their arms against discipline and science. They were and horses, but unencumbered with baggage. defeated with prodigious slaughter, whilst In his second campaign he carried his arms the victors, by their own account, lost only to the northward, and subdued tribes who 500 men. Boadicea ended her miseries by had never as yet come into contact with the taking poison; and Posthumus, the com- IRomans; showing clemency to such as submander of a legion, fell on his sword, indig- mitted to the power of Rome, and never, in nant at not having a share in so glorious a any instance, abusing victory for purposes of victory. | cruelty or oppression. To secure these adBroken by this blow, the spirit of the Brit- vanced conquests, he built a chain of forts ons would have soon been quenched had it or military stations from sea to sea, in nearly not been kept alive by oppression. Sueto- the same line where the rampart of HIadrian nius, with all his abilities, was injudiciously and the wall of Severus were afterwards vindictive, and frequently lost by his cruelty erected. the advantages which he had gained by his In his third campaign Agricola entered talents. He was therefore recalled by Nero; the country of the Caledonians by the head of and, under his more immediate successors, the Solway, and traversed it as far as the Tay the Britons enjoyed a short interval of re- without encountering an enemy. Believing pose. But the Roman energies revived un- that the invaders would retire on the apder Vespasian, who had gathered his first proach of winter, they abstained from comlaurels in Britain. The Brigantes, command- mitting any hostilities; but in this expecta ed by Venusius, were at length overcome; tion they were deceived, for, when wintel and the Silures, after a gallant but hopeless set in, they found the Romans established resistance, were in like manner subdued. In in fortified towns, well provided with all this double contest Cerealis and Frontinus necessary stores, and secure alike against sur. employed no less than se'-en years, a fact prise or assault. Next year the Roman genwhich sufficiently indicates'-he persevering eral built a line of forts between the friths energy withwhich these )owerful tribes con- of Forth and Clyde, with the double view tended for indcpendence of excluding the contagion of revolt, and HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 175 of protecting the inhabitants o.f the prov- Caledonians moved to take the Romnans in ince against the inroads of the northern bar- flank; but the attempt was defeated by Agricbarians. In his fifth campaign he crossed ola in person at the head of a strong body the frith of Clyde; and, after a variety of of legionaries, and the flight then became skirmishes with the wild natives of Cantyre, universal. The inhabitants mingled with Lorn, Argyleshire, and Lochaber, obtained the fugitives after setting fire to their dwella view of the coast of Ireland, which, from ings, and the silence of desolation succeeded the information he collected as to the force to the noise of conflict. The pursuit was necessary for subduing and retaining, he soon discontinued; the vanquished found meditated adding to the Roman empire; refuge in their mountain fastnesses; and, as but this design was never put in execution. the Grampian range which towered in front During his sixth campaign he passed the constituted the advanced bulwark of a colunfriths of Forth and Tay, and led his army, try wholly unknown, Agricola did not atwhich was attended and supported in all its tempt to penetrate into its dangerous defiles, movements by a fleet, along the eastern but, marching into a country now called coast of Scotland. The Caledonians hung Angus, took it from the Horesti, whom he upon his line of march, and harassed hilm had previously subdued. Meanwhile his considerably; but, awed by the presence fleet returned from a voyage of discovery,.ned sight of the fleet, which was to them a which it had prosecuted as far as the Orcades, novel spectacle, they generally kept at a re- and even Thule, supposed to be Foula, the spectful distance. In a aight attack, how- most northerly of the Zetland islands; and ever, they threw a portion of his army into Agricola established his winter quarters on confusion; and, having penetrated into the the most level district, which lay to the northcamp of the ninth legion, would have over- ward of the natural frontier formed by the whelmed them entirely if Agricola had not two friths. But in the reign of Domitian it come with great celerity to their aid, and was difficult for the most prudent general to driven the assailants back to their woods and be long successful with safety. Agricola was morasses. After this action, Agricola retired recalled; and, on his return to Rome, all into winter quarters, and left the Caledo- the arts by which he shunned popularity nianls a short respite to prepare for the final proved insufficient to lull the suspicions of a struggle in defence of their rude indepen- jealous tyrant, by whose directions his days dence. seem to have been shortened by poison. When the Roman commander took the Under Agricola the Roman dominion field in. his seventh campaign, he found the reached its utmost extent in Britain, and the native host encamped in a position the exact natives, as we have seen, were driven into locality of which has been much disputed the rugged and inhospitable regions beyond (some fixing it at the base of the central and the 4-rampians. From this time till the close others at that of the eastern portion of the of the third century the island is seldom noGrampian chain), under a chief whose name ticed by the Roman historians. We know, has been latinized into Galgacus. The bar- indeed, though chiefly by the evidence of barians were estimated at near 30,000 men, medals, that the mountaineers broke into the whilst the Roman army was little, if at all, Roman province, and were driven back into inferior in number. The Caledonians were their fastnesses by the vigorous arm of Hadefeated with great slaughter, ten thousand drian, who erected a second wall, the remains having fallen either in the battle or in the of which are still traceable from the Solway pursuit, whilst the loss of the Romans scarce- Frith to the mouth of the Tyne. Under ty exceeded three hundred men. After the After the Antoninus the same species of fortification defeat of their main body, a reserve of the was constructed on the more northern fron 176 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ti~er of the friths; while Severus, abandon- in the history of Britain a chasm of seventy ing Agricola's rempart, which Antoninus years, during which the silence of the Rohad caused to be repaired, erected a stone man writers would lead us to infer that the wall almost parallel with that of Hadrian al- island enjoyed peace. In the reign of Dio ready mentioned, and in a manner equally cletian, Carnusius, intrusted with the com solid and durable. These frontier works, mand of a naval armament, fitted out to reexecuted on so large a scale, and requiring a press piracy on the coasts of Britain, usurped numerous body of troops at the different sta- the purple, and maintained his assumed digtions for their defence, sufficiently attest the nity for eight years. But while Constantius, persevering and formidable character of the the coadjutor of the emperor, was preparing assaults of the ancient Britons on the Roman to attack him, he was assassinated by Allecpower. tus, who, imitating the example of his masThe precise period of the introduction of ter, usurped the sovereignty, and maintained Chrlistianity into Britain is uncertain. About it for three years. He was, however, defeatthe end of the second century, however, we ed and slain by Constantius, who put an end find Tertullian boasting that the gospel had to the rebellion, and dispersed the followers subdued tribes yet unconquered by the Ro- of the usurper. In the division of the emmans; and from this circumstance, as well pire between Galerius and Constantiuns, Britas from our more accurate information re- sain fell to the share of the latter, who, in specting the diffusion of Christianity in Gaul, consequence, fixed his residence in the island, it may be reasonably supposed that its first and, after some contests with the Caledoplanting in Britain was considerably earlier. nians, of which little is known, died at York, Two centuries afterwards theological contro- leaving his son Constantine his successor in versy had become so prevalent, that Pelagius the empire. This prince, not unjustly surand Celestius, the one a Welchman and the named the Great, assumed the purple at other a Scotchman, agitated all Christendom York, where he staid some time to pay the bly their heretical notions on the subjects of last honors to his father's ashes, and to finish original sin and free will. The received the war with the Meoetse and Caledonians, opinion, which ascribes to Constantine, who who at this time began to be known by the began his reign at York, the introduction of names of Picts and Scots. Called afterChristianity into Britain towards the middle wards to a higher destiny, and recognized as of the fourth century, is founded upon the the undisputed master of the Roman world, palpable error of confounding the first preach- he overthrew the altars of Paganism, and ing of the gospel with the formal recognition established Christianity as the religion of or establishment of Christianity, upon the the empire, including that portion of it where ruins of Paganism, as the religion of the he had first been invested with the ensigns empire. Long before that time intrepid and of the imperial dignity. About eighteen dauntless missionaries had carried the faith years after the accession of Constantine, Britof the cross to the hearths and the homes of ain took part with the unsuccessful usurper the barbarians; and the policy of Constan- Magnentius. This entailed on it the bitter tine only kept pace with, instead of outrun- resentment of Constantius, who sent into the uing, the natural course of events. island one Paulus, { Spaniard, with instrucWThen Severus died at York, Caracalla, tions to discover and punish those who had then known by his original name of Bas- been concerned in the rebellion. Tyranny sianus, concluded a peace with the Caledo- is not always so fortunate as to be provided nians, and, along with his brother Geta, has- with such instruments. This inquisitor, surtened to Rome to plunge into all the de- named Catena, from his'expertness in conbaucheries of the capital. There row occurs necting criminal charges entered at once on HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 177 his career, and soon filled all the western having repaired the wall of Severus, erected parts with tortures, confiscations and mur- useful forts, and supplied the natives with miliders. Martinus, the British governor, una- tary weapons and engines, the Romans took ble to restrain his cruelties, attempted his their final departure from Britain exactly life, but unhappily missing the aim, was four hundred and seventy-five years after obliged to pay the forfeit of his own. On Julius Caesar first landed on its shores. the accession of Julian to the purple, that These bequests, however, proved unavailevent was signalized by an act of exemplary ing. The British youth who had been trainjustice; the unhuman Paulus was ordered ed in the Roman army, more than once drove to be burned alive. back the barbarous tribes of their own islFor about a century and a half the south- and; but the latter, increasing in numbers ern part of the Roman province in Britain and audacity, at length " broke through their had suffered but little disturbance from the walls like wolves into a sheep-fold, retired northern tribes, whose inroads were generally with their booty, and returned every suechecked by the frontier defences and garri- ceeding year." In their distress they made sons. About ten years, however, after the a vain appeal to /Etius, who for a moment judicial campaign of Paulus, the Scots and propped the falling empire. "The barbaPicts, recovering from the chastisements in- rians," said they in a letter entitled the flicted on them by the commanders of Julian, " Groans of the Britons," " drive us into the attacked with greater force the legions of sea, and the sea drives us back upon the Valentinian and Valens, and for three years swords of the barbarians." But Etius had ravaged the province with impunity. They to do with Attila, and, however much lihe were at length driven back by Theodosius, might pity the suppliants, he could afford governor of Britain, and father of the cele- them no relief. Disappointed of aid in this brated emperor of that name, who defeated quarter, and despairing of their ability any them in several battles, and, forcing them longer to resist their northern invaders, the beyond the rampart of Agricola, once more British states were led to employ in their extended the province to its utmost ancient defence auxiliaries, who soon became more limits. But the progressive decline of the formidable than the enemies against whom empire having exposed its northern frontier they had been called in to combat. These to invasion at every point, the Roman troops mercenaries, who gradually rose to be conwere gradually withdrawn from the island querors, consisted chiefly of Saxons, interfor the more urgent purpose of protecting mingled with Angles, Jutes and Frisians the seat of dominion; and about the middle from the Cimbric Chersonesus, or peninsula of the fifth century Britain was abandoned of Jutland. The Saxons, who appear to to her own resources. Gallio of Ravenna have had their chief seat on the Elbe, were [ commanded the last detachment of troops previously known to the Britons only by that Rome ever sent there. This was under predatory descents on their coasts; and, cerIfonorius. After repelling a furious inroad tainly, it does seem rather extraordinary that of the Scots and Picts, the Roman general, they should have thought of calling in the assembling the British chiefs, told them frank- aid of such perilous auxiliaries. In the midly that, since the empire, laboring under its dle of the fifth century, the Saxon ships arown weight, could no longer afford them rived on the British coast, where they disprotection, they must henceforth take cour- embarked a few hundred wild warriors of age and defend themselves; and, in the that roving' nation under their leaders Henname of the emperor, he formally absolved gist and Horsa. These fabled descendants the different cities or townships of the prov- of Odin immediately took tle field at the ince from their allegiance to Rome. Lastly, j head of their followers, and by their aid the I. -12 178 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Picts and Scots were completely defeated. state usually exercised an undefined power One evil was thus averted, but another, and, over all the others; and the prince A. ho posif possible, a greater, succeeded. The Sax- sessed this equivocal ascendency I tad the 3ns, acquiring a liking for the country they title of Bretwaldac, or wielder of the Britons, had been hired to defend, and eager to ex- bestowed upon him. The history of this change the bleak shores and sandy wastes of period is not characterized by any event the north for the rich fields and more genial which would lead us to take an interest in climate'of Britain, invited fresh bodies of the fluctuating fortunes of the various states. their countrymen to join them, and, in a Our information relating to the earliest porlittle time, from being the auxiliaries, they tion of the Saxon rule is also scanty; but became the conquerors and masters of the what we do possess is not of such a nature ill-fated Britons. But the latter did not as to awaken any feelings of regret that yield without a struggle. Displaying, when more minute particulars have not been transit was too late, a valor which, more oppor- mitted to us. Details of the shedding of tunely exerted, would have spared them the kindred blood, and acts of oppression, treachmiseries of this contest, they resisted their ery and cruelty, exercised towards the nanew tyrants, and occasionally with success. tives by the fierce invaders of their soil, are TIorsa fell in battle; and so slow was the not calculated to interest human feelings. progress of the Saxon arms, that Hiengist, The re-introduction of Christianity, however, with all his boasted victories, never pene- in some degree alleviated the darkness of trated beyond the county of Kent. The the picture. The exact date of its first apinvaders, however, clung with desperate te- pearance in Britain is uncertain, but it had nacity to the soil. By degrees the Saxon made some progress before the close of the power reduced the natives to entire submis- second century. It disappeared, however, sion, or drove them to seek shelter in the with the other traces of civilization, when mountains of 5Wales, Cornwall and Cumber- the Saxons commenced their devastations. land. Many emigrated to avoid the horrors It was in the year 596 that Gregory the of this conquest; and some settling in Ar- Great sent over St. Augustin, with forty morica, the peninsula between the Seine and other missionaries, to convert the Saxons Loire, laid the foundation to that singular and their arrival in Kent marks a new era resemblance in language and manners to the in its history, and probably in that of the insular tBritons which has ever since distin- country. At this period IKent was governed guished the inhabitants of Bretagne. by Ethelbert, an able and powerful monarch, About the year 700, the island of Great and the third who bore the title of BretBritain was divided into no fewer than fif- walda. He received kindly the deputies of teen sovereignties. Of these, eight were Rome, and became a convert to their doeSaxon; but the union of the two Northum- trine; an example which his subjects were brian principalities reduced the number to not slow in following. From this period the seven; and from this circumstance, as well spread of the Christian faith over the island as from some vague alliance amongst these appears to have been rapid; for we find that petty states, historians have designated the in about a century after the arrival of St. wvholc by the name of Heptarchy. They Augustin it was professed and believed ruled over a considerable portion of Eng- throughout Anglo-Saxon Britain. The conland, and whilst they waged a fierce alid tinual struggle amongst the Anglo-Saxon endless war with every other kingdom in principalities for the supremacy was now the island, they also maintained amongst fast coming to a crisis. It is evident that themselves a continual struggle for the such a state of affairs could not continue for superiority. It would appear that one any length of time, and that it must neces HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 179 sarily end in the establishment of a regular eral years, however, after his accession to hereditary magistracy in the island. This the throne, his sword remained in its sheath; took place partially at the beginning of the and this propitious period of tranquillity afeighth century, in the person of Egbert, forded him an opportunity of turning his King of Wessex, who was a lineal descen- undivided attention to the affairs of governdant, and the only surviving prince of the ment. His administration was as mild as it house of Cerdic, the founder of that king- appears to have been politic; circumstances dom. The great talents which he earl~y ex- which completed the attachment of his subhibited had given offence to Brihtric, King jects, and consolidated his growing strength. of Wessex, who, jealous of his popularity, It was upon the unfortunate Britons of the projected his destruction. Egbert, however, west that he first made trial of his military eluded his vengeance, and fled for protection prowess. About the year 809 the struggle to Offa, KIng of yM/ercia, a monarch illus- between:him and the natives commenced. trious for the talents he displayed and the The latter made a strenuous but unavailing prosperity he enjoyed, but whose name is resistance; and Egbert carried the havoc of stained with perfidy and blood. Thither the war and the flames of destruction from the vindictive Brihtric pursued the youthful fu- east to the west. In a few years the greater gitive, who was finally compelled to cross part of modern Wales, as well as the people the channel and to seek shelter beneath the who occupied the northern shore of the es-.broad shield of the victorious Charlemagne. tuary of Severn, acknowledged his author France, governed by that renowned sover- ity. The King of Mercia, whose strength eign, excelled all the states of the West in had been augmented by the appropriation civilization and the arts of government, as of the petty sovereignties of Kent, Essex well as those of war. Trained in such a and East Anglia, was now the only rival for school, therefore, and early disciplined by the supreme authority whom Egbert had to adversity, he was undergoing an admirable fear or to contend withal. Their power probation for wielding with judgment and was nearly equally balanced, for what Wesmoderation the perilous sceptre which was sex wanted in numerical force was compendestined to be transferred into his hands. sated by discipline and skill. War had now The death of Brihtric, who perished by the become inevitable; neither would brook a machinations of his queen, recalled the fugi- superior, and only one Bretwalda could be tive from his exile. In Wessex the claim acknowledged. The conflict began, there of Egbert was at once acknowledged, while fore, and was speedily brought to a terminl his accession to the throne of his celebrated ation. In an obstinate and bloody battl( ancestor, an event highly popular in itself, the King of M/ercia was totally defeated, andl was ennobled by a victory, the omen of- Egbert became lord of the ascendant. State many a future triumph. after state was annexed to Wessex; Mfercia At this period the island, though noinin- was invaded and subdued; and in nineteen ally under a hexarchy, was rapidly verging years after he had first drawn the sword, to a triarchy, from several of the smaller Egbert was acknowledged over the greater states becoming gradually blended and iden- part of the island as the eighth Bretwalda. tified with their more powerful neighbors.. The authority of Egbert, however, still Wessex had been enlarged by the incor- continued doubtful; and the Anglo-Saxon poration of Sussex; and various favorable power was as yet very far from being concircuimstances conspired to concentrate in solidated. Wales still continued to annoy the hands of Egbert a well-organized power, him; and it was not until he had marched which he was prepared to wield when sum- an army to Snowden that North Wales quietmoned by anj great emergency. For sev- ly submitted to the rule of the Saxon Bret. 180 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. walda. But new and more formidable ene- been a monk, and appears to have been bet mies than any he had yet encountered had ter adapted for the cloister which he had left begun to threaten England, and trouble the than the throne which he now ascended. tranquillity which it in some measure en- The history of his reign presents little of joyed. These were Scandinavians, reeog- interest or variety. It is merely an account nized in France by the name of Normans, of the atrocities of the Danes, who made and in England by that of Danes. Famil- repeated descents upon England, laying waste iarized, from their maritime situation, to the the country, plundering towns, and despoildangers of the ocean, this people, like the ing the rich monasteries, where treasure was Saxons of old, spent the greater portion of supposed to have been accumulated. No their time upon its waves. It was the cus- defeat, however signal and decisive for the tom of these pirates to set sail for some dis- time, was capable of permanently expelling tant province in squadrons, under the com- them from the island; and, although routed, mand of chieftains called lV7Jingr, or Sea- and compelled to flee for shelter to their Kings. After pillaging the coast where they ships one year, they returned the next with landed, they collected the spoil and returned persevering audacity. In the meanwhile to their own country, where they disencum- Ethelwolf found leisure to perform a pilbered themselves of their booty and prepared grimage to Rome; and in passing through for fresh expeditions. Three descents upon France on his journey homewards, he esEngland are recorded as having taken place poused Judith, the daughter of Charles the in the eighth century, but these attempts Bald, King of the Franks. But he was not produced no permanent alarm. Towards permitted to enjoy undisturbed domestic the termination of Egbert's reign, however, tranquillity. On his return to England he the numbers of the pirates greatly increased, found his son Ethelbald at the head of a for. whilst their visits were annually renewed; midable conspiracy, which threatened him and for two centuries to come the country with deposition and exile. The two parties, wvas destined to become a prey to these fierce however, came without bloodshed to terms and fearless invaders. of accommodation. It was agreed that EthelAfter making several successful inroads wolf should possess the eastern states apperinto various parts of England, in 835 they taining to Wessex, whilst the kingdom of landed on the coast of Cornwall, where they Wessex Proper, which belonged of right succeeded in seducing the Britons from their to the head of the family, should be enjoyed allegiance. The King of Wessex met the by Ethelbald, but it would appear, with a united forces of the enemy at Hengstone nominal subjection to his father. Ethelwolf Hill, and gained a bloody but decisive vic- survived these arrangements only a few years, tory, which restored the glory of his arms. having died in 858. This was the last exploit of Egbert, who After his demise Ethelbald continued to died the year following, after a reign as pros- occupy the throne of Wessex; whilst Ethelperous as it was long, and which, allowing bert, a younger brother, succeeded to the something for the condition of society at the government which had been left vacant by period, may also be termed glorious. the death of his father; but both these Ethelwolf succeeded his father on the princes died in a few years, and left their throne of Wessex; but an unfortunate ar- thrones to their brother Ethelred, who asrangement, by which the former king be- sumed the sceptre at a most unpropitious queathed all his dominions except Wessex period. Not only was the kingdom divided to a younger son, greatly weakened the against itself, but the Danes, acting now in power of his successor, and lessened the in- a well-organized confederacy, and terrible fluence of the BretwaY'. Ethelwolf had from their numbers as well as from the fre HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 181 quency of their inroads, threatened the total transacted so secretly and expeditiously, that annihilation of the Saxon dynasty and the the king, at the head of his army, was close subjugation of the island. The conflicts upon the Danes before they had the least in. were numerous and sanguinary; and in one telligence of his design. Alfred, taking adof these, which took place at Merton in the vantage of their suprise and terror, fell upon year 870, the king received a wound of them, and totally defeated them at iEthen which he soon afterwards died. dune, now Eddington. Those who escaped By the death of Ethelred the throne of fled to a neighboring castle, where they were Wessex devolved upon Alfred, the fifth and soon besieged, and obliged to surrender at favorite son of Ethelwolf. On his accession discretion. Alfred granted them better terms to the throne, in the twenty second year of than they had reason to expect. He agreed his age, he found himself involved in a dan- to give up the whole kingdom of the East gerous war with the Danes, and placed in Angles to such as would embrace the ChrisCircumstances fitted to call forth all the great tian religion, on condition that they would qualities by which he was distinguished. oblige the rest of their countrymen to quit The Danes had already penetrated into the the island, and, as much as it was in their heart of his kingdom; and before he had power, prevent the landing of any more forbeen a month upon the throne, he was obliged eigners. For the performance of this treaty to take the field against those formidable he took hostages; and when, in pursuance enemies. After many battles gained on both of the stipulation, Godrun, the Danish chief, sides, he was at length reduced to the great- came, with thirty of his chief officers, to be est distress, and was entirely abandoned by baptized, Alfred answered for him at the his subjects. In this situation Alfred, laying font, and gave him the name of.iEthelstane; aside the useless insignia of royalty, took and certain laws were drawn up betwixt the shelter in the house of one of his own herds- king and Godrun for the regulation and govmen. He afterwards retired to Ethelingey, ernment of the Danes settled in England. in Somersetshire, the modern Athelne.y, In 884 a fresh swarm of Danes landed in where he built a fort for the security of him- Kent and laid siege to Rochester; but the self and family, and his few faithful follow- king coming to the relief of that city, they ers. 5When he had been about a year in this were obliged to abandon their design. Alretreat, having been informed that some of fred had now great success, which was chiefly his subjects had routed a great army of the owing to his fleet, an advantage of his own Danes, killed their chief, and taken their creating. Having secured the sea-coasts, he magical standard, he issued his letters, giv- fortified the rest of the kingdom with castles ing notice where he was, and inviting his and walled towns; and he besieged and renobility to come and consult with him. Be- covered from the Danes the city of London, fore they came to a final determination, Al- which he resolved to repair, and to keep as fred, putting on the habit of a harper, went a frontier. into the enemly's camp, where, without sus- After some years' respite, Alfred was again picion, he was everywhere admitted, and in- called into the field; for a body of Darnes, troduced to play before their chief. Having being worsted in the west of France, came thus acquired an exact knowledge of their with a fleet of 250 sail on the coast of Kent, situation, he returned in great secrecy to and, having landed, fixed themselves at Ap his nobility, whom he ordered to their re- puldre. Shortly after, another fleet of eighty spective homes, there to draw together each vessels coming up the Thames, the men man as great a force as he could; appointing landed and built a fort at Milton. Before a day for a general rendezvous at the forest Alfred marched against the enemy, he obliged of Setlood, in Wiltshire. This affair was the Danes settled in Northumberland and 182 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Essex to give him hostages for their good be- city, in order to cover the reapers from the haviour. He then moved towards the inva- excursions of the Danes. As he was one ders, and pitched his camp between their day riding by the side of the river Lea, after armies, to prevent their junction. A great some observations he began to think that body, however, moved off to Essex, and the Danish ships might be laid quite dry. crossing the river, came to Farnham in Sur- This he attempted; and having succeeded, rey, where they were defeated by the king's the Danes were forced to desert their fort forces. Meanwhile the Danes settled in Nor- and ships, and march away to the banks of thumberland, in breach of treaty, and not- the Severn, where they built a fort, and withstanding the hostages given, equipped wintered at a place called Qucatbrig. Such two fleets, and, after plundering the northern of the Danish ships as could be got off, the and southern coasts, sailed to Exeter and be- Londoners carried into their own road; the sieged it. The king, as soon as he received rest they burned and destroyed. the intelligence, marched against them; but Alfred enjoyed a profound peace during before he reached Exeter they had got pos- the last three years of his reign, which he session of it. He kept them, however, block- chiefly employed in establishing and regned up on all sides, and reduced them at last lating his government, for the security of to such extremities that they were obliged himself and his successors, as well as the to eat their horses, and were even ready to ease and benefit of his subjects in general. devour each other. Being at length rendered After a troubled reign of twenty-eight years, desperate, they made a general sally on the he died on the 28th of October, A.D. 900, besiegers; but were defeated, though with and was buried at Winchester, in Hlyde Abgreat loss on the king's side. The remainder bey. A monument of porphyry was erected of this body of Danes fled into Essex, over his tomb. to the fort they had built there, and to In private life Alfred was singularly amitheir ships. Before Alfred had time to able; of so equal a temper, that he never recruit himself, Laf, another Danish leader, suffered either sadness or unbecoming gaiety came with a great army out of Northumnber- to, disturb his mind; but appeared always land, and ravaged all before him, marching of a calm yet cheerful disposition, familiar on to the city of Werheal in the west (sup- to his friends, just even to his enemies, kind posed to be Chester), where they remained and tender to all. He was a remarkable the rest of the year. The year following economist of his time; and Asser has given they invaded North Wales; and after hay- us an account of the method he took for diing plundered and destroyed everything, they viding and keeping an account of it. He divided, one body returning to Northumber- caused six wax-candles to be made, each df land, another into the territories of the East twelve inches long, and of as many ounces Angles, firom whence they proceeded to Es- weight; on the candles the inches were regsex, and took possession of a small island ularly marked, and having found that one called.iferesig. Here they did not long re- of them burned just four hours, he commitmain; for, having separated, some sailed up ted them to the care of the keepers of his the river Thames, and others up the Lea chapel, who from time to time gave him noroad, where, drawing up their ships, they tice how the hours went. built a fort not far from London, which This prince, we are told, was twelve years proved a great check upon the citizens, who of age before a master could be procured in went in a body and attacked it, but were re- the western kingdom to teach him the alphapulsed with great loss. At harvest-time the bet; such was the state of learning when king himself was obliged to encamp with a Alfred began to reign. Ite had felt the body cof troops in the neighb6:hood of the misery of ignorance, and determined ever HIISTORY OF THE WORLD 183 to rival his contemporary Charlemagne in Saxon monarchy Ie-eived additional security the encouragement of literature. He is sup- from the final incorporation of Mercia with posed to have appointed persons to read lec- Wessex. After various successes over his tures at Oxford, and is thence considered as northern and other enemies, Edward the the founder of that university. By other elder expired at Farrington, in Berkshire, in suitable measures, and by his general en- the year 924. couragement of learning and abilities, he He was succeeded by his son Athelstane, did everything in his power to diffuse knowl- whom historians, on the faith of an old song, edge throughout his dominions. Nor was are in the habit of styling illegitimate; but this end promoted more by his countenance a contemporary poetess has recognized his and encouragement than by his own exam- mother as the partner of Edward's throne, pie and his writings; for, notwithstanding a circumstance which fairly balances the the lateness of his education, he had acquired former authority. extraordinary erudition; and, had- he not Athelstane was thirty years of age when been illustrious as a king, he would have his father expired; and Mercia immediately, been famous as an author. Hie was succeed- and Wessex shortly afterwards, recognized ed by his son Edward, who ascended what him as king. Opposition was, however, exmay now almost be termed the throne of perienced in other quarters; but he ultiEngland, in the year 901. Alfred had been mately succeeded in seating' himself firmly called to the crown in preference to the chil- upon the throne, and fully justified the early dren of his elder brother, who were consid- popularity he enjoyed with his grandfather. ered at the time as too young to be entrusted In the person of Athelstane the Anglo-Saxon with the government. Their pretensions sovereign became a character of dignity and being also set aside at his death, Ethelwold, consequence in Europe. His connections one of the rejected princes, attempted by with the most respectable potentates on the violence to seize hold of the royal authority. Continent gave to his reign a political imHe formed an alliance with the Danes and portance, and he is moreover entitled to be other enemies of Edward; but in a battle considered as the first monarch of England. with the men of Kent he met his fate, and The sovereignty of the whole island apthe island was once more rescued from a de- pears to have been the object of Athelstructive competition for the crown. stane's ambition. In his military enterprises Previously to this event the Danes had he was completely successful, and compelled contrived, by a anion with some of the dis- the princes of the Scots, Cambrians and affected provinces, to obtain a kind of per- Britons to swear fealty to him, in the same manent footing in the country. They pos- manner as the Saxon vassal was accustomed sessed the north of England from the Hum- to swear to his lord. But his prosperity was ber to the Tweed, and the eastern districts interrupted by a powerful confederacy formfrom the Ouse to the sea. Emboldened by ed against him, which threatened not only their strength, they invaded Mercia, but to emancipate Northumbria from his auwere met by Edward, who obtained over thority, but even to overwhelm his hereditary them a decisive victory, which effectually government. The confederates were Con restored his supremacy. The most remark- stantinej king of the Scots, and Anlafi, the able individual after Edward was his sister son of Sigtryg, or Sihtric, who was king ot Ethelfieda, upon whom the mantle of Alfred Northumbria at the time of Athelstane's acseems to have descended. She governed cession. Anlaff had received the hand of IMercia, and vigorously seconded her brother Athelstane's sister; but he drove her from in fortifying the country against the common his court, for which barbarous condluct the enemy. Upon her death in 920 the Anglo- Anglo-Saxon monarch stripped him of his 184 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. kingdom and ejected him from the island. ed himself with a host of young courtiers, Anlaff had flod to Ireland, whence he re- more ready to emulate the vices of their turned with a large fleet, ir order to retaliate master than to suggest prudent measures of the insult of his expulsion. The remaining governmnent. At their instigation Edwy im malcontents were the Welsh princes who posed unjust taxes upon his subjects, de had been humbled into submission, the Danes spoiled the clergy, and committed other unwho inhabited the eastern coast from Tweed seemly acts. Dunstan, having been one of to Thames, the petty states of Cambria, and the leading advisers of Edred, was most a constantly increasing host of lawless pi- probably obnoxious to the young king; and rates and freebooters from Scandinavia. at his coronation a circumstance occurred Athelstane prepared with firmness and which brought the hostile parties immedienergy to meet the storm which threatened ately into collision. On that day Edwin, him with destruction. The armies met at after the ceremony, withdrew from the fesBrunanburgh in Northumbria, and a battle tive board at which the nobles and clergy was fought, celebrated in Saxon and Scan- were regaling themselves, and retired to his dinavian poetry. The confederates were own apartments. This indecorous act aprouted with great slaughter, and Anlaff and pears to have displeased the assembly; and Constantine effected their escape with great Odo, Archbishop of Canterbury, deputed difficulty. So complete was the overthrow, Dunstan and another individual to bring and so decisive the victory, that the remain- back the king to join in their carousals. der of Athelstane's reign was undisturbed Dunstan penetrated into the private apartby the rebellion of his subjects or the inva- ments of his sovereign, whom he found in sion of a foreign enemy. Athelstane died company with Ethelgiva or Elgiva, his wife in the year 940, regretted by his subjects, or mistress; the mother of the latter was amongst whom he was revered as a prince also present. The two deputies forcibly tore alike distinguished for wisdom, justice and the king from the company of the ladies, benevolence. and brought him back to that of the nobles. Having left no issue, he was succeeded by This daring and insolent conduct of the his brother Edmund, who perished by the monk towards the newly-consecrated mondagger of an assassin six years afterwards. arch drew down upon him the royal venThe life of this king is not characterized by geance. At the instigation of Elgiva, Dunany events of importance. He was succeed- stan was deprived of his honors, and coned by his brother Edred, whose reign was demned to exile. During his absence, Odo short and distinguished by no remarkable contrived to take Elgiva from her husband's circumstance, except the complete incorpor- residence, and send her a prisoner to Ireland, ation of Northumbria with the rest of the where her face was branded with red-hot Anglo-Saxon kingdom. irons, for the purpose of obliterating her Edred died in 955, and left the throne to charms; but in vain. They revived with Edwin, who is usually styled Edwy, the eld- the healing of the wounds; but on her reest son of Edmund the Elder. The name turn to England she was pursued by the of this monarch is intimately connected with opposite party, who, falling in with her at. that of the celebrated Dunstan, Abbot of Gloucester, actually hamstrung the unfortuGlastonbury. The reign of his uncle Edred nate fair one. In a few days death released.2C bc~eteojcs of l-i xniaty unoua Edy n tteha fi HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 185 Northumbrians and Mlfercians, drove the un- monasteries consolidated into one commnfortunate monarch beyond the Thames. His nity before the time of Dunstan. The Scotsufferings and humiliation, however, were tish or Irish, the Pictish and British church. of short duration, for he died in 959, ere he es, though in communion with Rome, were had attained the full age of manhood. By still independent of the papal see; and it soume historians he is said to have been as- was the object of the popes to suppress sassinated; others state that he pined to this independence of the different national death for the loss of his throne, and his El- churches; a cause which was warmly esgiva, whom he tenderly loved; but all agree poused by Dunstan. His policy was to enthat his demise was as miserable as it was force clerical celibacy; to expel at least all premature. IHis youth was the source of all the married clergy from canonries and prehis calamities, for it seems certain that he bends in cathedrals, in order to make way was only sixteen or seventeen years of age for Benedictines; and to reduce all monaswhen he assumed the sceptre. teries to the rule of the founder of that orThe death of Edwin put his brother and der. The opposition he encountered was rival, Edgar, in peaceable possession of the formidable, and the cause of the clergy was whole Anglo-Saxon territory. his reign was espoused by the laity. Amongst the latter tranquil, neither foreign enemy nor domestic the secular priests found many powerful broils having interrupted its quiet, so that partizans, and the schisms of the Church at posterity has styled him "the peaceful." The last degenerated into factions amongst the only event of a warlike character ascribed to people. But Dunstan was impetuous, and him is an invasion of Wales. In his personal determined to carry through the reformation character he was distinguished alike'for his which he had begun, for he looked Upon religious zeal and for his licentiousness. He himself in the light of a reformer; and, alespoused the cause of the monks, and, dur- though the extension of his own power and ing the sixteen years of his reign, erected a that of his order may have been so blended vast number of Benedictine monasteries. He with his zeal for the service of God as to derecalled Dunstan from exile, placed the bold ceive even himself, yet there seems no reasaint at his right hand as chief counsellor, son to doubt his sincerity. That there were and conferred upon him the see of Canter- many clerical abuses to be corrected, is conbury. In this situation that celebrated ec- sistent with the history of religion in all ages. clesiastic prosecuted his ambitious schemes The Danish invasions, and other national caconnected with the order to which he be- lamities, dispersed the clergy amongst the longed with redoubled vigor. He expelled laity, with whose vices they doubtless bethe clergy from the monasteries, and sup- came contaminated. The necessities of his plied their places with Benedictines, making situation compelled the prelate to be a statesthe rule of their founder everywhere pre- man and an intriguer. He made some prodominant throughout the nation. gress during the reign of Edred; in that of We now find the Church so intimately Edwy we have seen him checked; but in mixed up with political affairs, that some ac- the present one, invested with the highest count of it is necessary for the elucidation of ecciesiastical dignities, and backed by the history. Although religious individuals had power of his sovereign, he appears before us been collected in monasteries from the period under auspices which enabled him to carry of Augustin's landing in Kent, yet the order his loftiest projects into execution. And he of Benedictines seems to be the most ancient was not slow in seizing the opportunity. example of monastic rule. Each congrega- Not content with the ordinary engines of tion of recluses lived according to its own intrigue and supple policy, he drew upon internal regulations, nor were the several the superstitious feelings of the time, and 186 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. arrogated to himself divine intuition and now totally expelled from their cclven's. the power of working miracles. He suc- During this reign occurrCe that tragical c.irneeded in deceiving that unenlightened age, cumstance which has afforded modern histoand perhaps also himself. rians an opportunity of accusing the primate The foregoing remarks may afford a key of murder. A council of nobles had been to some of the more prominent events of summoned to meet at Calne. During the Edgar's reign. A national synod was held, proceedings, and just as the wily Dunstan at which the king publicly expressed his had pronounced these words, "I confess I sentiments in favor of the Benedictine cause. am unwilling to be overcome; I commit the It followed as a consequence of this, that the cause of the Church to the decision of God," unfortunate seculars were ejected if they re- the floor fell instantly down, and numbers fused to comply with the enactments made of his opponents were killed and wounded. by Dunstan and his party, under the sane- The primate, and probably his partizans, estion of the sovereign; whilst monks were caped unhurt, a circumstance which can only everywhere received with honor, and the be accounted for by supposing that their seat erection of monasteries was for a time a remained unmoved. Some historians charge royal mania. During the sixteen years of Dunstan with having secretly loosened the his reign Edgar built no less than forty-eight floor from the walls, and affirm that during of these establishments. the debate the temporary props which supEdgar's second marriage was connected ported it were withdrawn according to his with circumstances of a very tragical nature. directions. This is very improbable; but The beauty of a young and noble lady hav- there can be little doubt that he interpreted ing been praised to him, he commissioned the occurrence as a divine judgment upon Ethelwold, a favorite minister, to visit her his enemies, and thus wrought upon the preresidence, and report upon her charms. The judices of that superstitious age. Several deputy was himself captivated with the lady. heinous crimes are laid to the charge of the He represented her in an unfavorable light queen dowager, but the last was the darkest t6 his sovereign, and married her himself; and most atrocious of all. Edward, in one but Edgar, not being satisfied with the re- of his hunting excursions, visited Corfe Casport, paid a personal visit to Elfrida, and, tle, in Dorsetshire, where Elfrida resided fascinated by her beauty, he procured the with her son Ethelred. He was received destruction of her husband, and espoused with the utmost cordiality, and invited to the bereaved lady himself. enter the castle, but declined, requesting at Edgar died in 975, in the thirty-second the same time to see his brother, and also year of his age, and was succeeded by Ed- the favor of some refreshment. Whilst in ward, surnamed the Martyr, his eldest son. the act of raising a cup of wine to his lips, A younger brother, Ethelred, by Elfrida, he was mortally stabbed in the back by the disputed the crown with Edward; but the orders of his stepmother. On account of latter was finally established upon the throne his violent death he has been surnamed the through the influence of Dunstan. His reign Martyr. was chiefly occupied with disputes between Edward was succeeded in 978 by Ethelred. the two clerical systems before-mentioned, When the latter attained the crown he was Elfrida having, on account of her son Ethel- only in his boyhood, and throughout a long red, espoused the cause of the seculars, in life he never rose above it. This is one of opposition-to Dunstan, who headed the regu- those reigns which it is painful to narrate. lars, and who was also the means of sup- It was the saddest which the descendants of planting her son. The monks gained a cormn- Alfred yet had seen, and presents a strong plete victory over the seculars, who were contrast t. that of his father. Hfis son by HISTORY OF THE WORLD. - 181 Elfrida became the sport of traitors; and ise is only remarkable inasmuch as it was having five times purchased his crown from faithfully kept. The army of his companion, the roving Danes, he was forced at last to Sweyn, however, continued to occupy the make an ignominious surrender of it to a country, to which in course of time it beforeign invader. came almost naturalized. For more than a century the Northmen In 1002, Ethelred having lost his first had formed the chief part of the population wife, who bore him ten children, married a of Northumberland and East Anglia, and Norman princess, who assumed the name of they now stretched their power to the utmost Elgiva. The same year became memorable in order to place one of their chiefs upon the in the history of England for the crime Saxon throne. In 980, and for ten.years known by the name of the Massacre of the thereafter, England was insulted by a series. Danes. On the 13th of November, the festiof inroads, which, although unimportant of val of St. Bride, the unsuspecting Norththemselves, were calculated to excite some men, with their wives, children, and all bealarm amongst the people, when the latter longing to them, were cruelly put to death contemplated on the one hand the power by a royal warrant. No place, however saand audacity of the Danes, and on the other cred, saved the victims from their pursuers; a pusillanimous monarch and an unguarded and when they fled to the churches for shel2ountry. But these petty aggressions were ter, they were slaughtered in crowds around followed, in 991 by the appearance of a for- the altars. One painful episode is interwoven midable armament upon the English coast. with this tale of blood. G;nhilda, the sister The invaders advanced without opposition of Sweyn, King of Denmark, who was wed-,as far as Malden, where they gained a vie- ded to an English earl, saw her husband and tory, and their retreat was disgracefully pur-children massacred before her eyes, and was chased by a bribe of ten thousand pounds. herself afterwards beheaded. It is related Repeatedly afterwards did the Northmen by all historians, that in the agonies of death play the same game, and Ethelred make the she foretold the vengeance which would desame debasing submission, by purchasing a scend upon the English nation for the bars momentary respite from their ravages. But barous act which it had committed. the very means which were employed to rid The calamities of England seemed now to the kingdom of these invaders one year, in- thicken as the atrocities of its ruler grew sured their return the next. Treason, fai- darker. Sweyn was not slow in revenging ine and disease also aggravated the calami- the fate of his countrymen; and, through ties which overwhelmed the nation. negligence and perfidy on the part of EngThe Danes repulsed in the south, trans- land, he succeeded in ravaging the island, ferred their arms to the north of England, for several years, almost with impunity. In where they extended thdir ravages; but in 1007, thirty-six thousand pounds of silver 994 appeared two new and more powerful abated his thirst of revenge. Two years chieftains, Sweyn, King of Denmark, and afterwards the most powerful armament Olave, King of Norway. With ninety-four which had yet obeyed the flag of England ships they sailed up the Thames, and, al- was collectedat Sandwich; but treason para. though repulsed at London, they succeeded lyzed its operations. The captains abandoned in ravaging several counties. But another their vessels, which were steered up the humiliating subsidy redeemed England from Thames by the mariners. The surrender of their grasp; and, what is more astonishing sixteen counties and forty-eight thousand still, Olave was honorably received at the pounds, stayed for a short period the rapaccourt of Ethelred, where he pledged his word ity of the Northmen. The picture which never to molest Enlmand more. This prom- the now fallen and devoted England pre 188 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. sents, it is painful to contemplate. Accu- just at this crisis it was relieved from its mulated treasons and defeats had unnerved greatest enemy, Ethelred, who died towards the courage of the natives; whilst the nu- the end of 1016, worn out by care and dismerous victories of the Danes had swelled ease. their pride, and inspired them with a pre- Edmund Ironside was immediately chosen posterous idea of their warlike powers. Many king by the English; and if the exertions of fortified cities withstood all their assaults; one man could have saved the country, thys but the open country was abandoned to their achievement would have been performed by rapacity. Systematic destruction and spoli- the new king. During his short reign, for ation was their principle; and the fields, de- it extended to only a few months, he gave serted by the husbandmen, ceased to yield proofs of bravery and ability equal to any the necessary supplies of food, so that the exigency, and worthy of a happier fortune. Danes themselves were compelled to quit The first struggle between him and Canute the island in search of provisions. Taxation, was for the possession of London, which was direct and annual, which must be traced to held by the English. During the siege Edthis period, weighed also upon the energies mund fought two battles in the provinces, of the people, and materially increased the one of which took place at Scearston. Twice now almost universal discontent. the darkness of night came to the relief of Sweyn made his last incursion into the the exhausted armies, which had both sut, country in 1013. Terrified at the universal fered severely; but the dawn of the third disaffection, Ethelred fled at last to [Nor- morning showedthe result to be in favor of mandy, whence he returned on hearing of the English. Canute, however, had taken Sweyn's death, which occurred shortly after- advantage of the night, and marched upon wards. The latter was succeeded by his son London. Not long afterwards another battle Canute; for the Danes would now appear was fought, in which Edric, a traitor thrice to have put in a claim for the sovereignty steeped in infamy by his defection, threw of the whole country. Ethelred was recalled the victory into the hands of Canute. After by the English chiefs, who exacted a prom- this calamitious event the greatness of Ed. ise from him that he would govern with less mund's soul became more conspicuous. Altyranny than formerly; and pledges were though a numerous army had again rallied also interchanged between the Danes and around his standard, he shuddered to lavish English. But a contest soon ensued between more of his country's blood in this murderthe two parties; and, although Ethelred sue- ous warfare, and challenged Canute to deceeded in repeating upon a small scale that cide their quarrel by single combat. Whether system of treacherous massacre for which he this proposal was accepted or not, is matter had so severely suffered, yet Canute main- of uncertainty; but at all events a pacificatained his superiority in open warfare, and tion was shortly afterwards agreed upon, and took a barbarous revenge upon the hostages England was divided between the rivals; in his hands, for the murder of his friends. the north being given up to Canute, whilst Treason again added a fearful contribution Edmund retained possession of the south. to the accumulated evils which surrounded The latter, however, died shortly afterwards; the unfortunate Ethelred. His son Edmund, and there is reason to believe that he perishslrnamed from his hardihood, Ironside, ed through the machinations of the perfidil ainly attempted to make head against the ous Edric. Danes; for Canute penetrated to York, where Edmund left two sons, infants; but by the he was joined by the Earl of Northumbria unanimous voice of the nation Canute oband a number of the people. The country was tained the sovereignty of England. This renow a prey to two contending armies; but markable prince was only twenty years of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 189 age when he assumed the reigns of govern- Harold was r. t entitled to the crown; fol rnent. His qualities as a monarch were of a it had been provided in the marriage settle. very high order, not unalloyed, however, ment of Emma, that the issue of Canute by with the ferocity natural to the Northmen her alone should reign; yet he being on the of the period. The first object of his policy spot, succeeded in obtaining the sceptre as was the removal of the children of the two well as the treasure of his father. Edwaid, pieceding kings. Some of the sons of Ethel- the son of Ethelred, certainly the legitimate red were slain, and the rest consigned to sovereign of the kingdom, made an attempt banishment; whilst those of Edmund were to obtain it, but proved unsuccessful. Iis sent over to Sweden, for the purpose of be- brother Alfred renewed the enterprise, which ing dispatched. But their fate was averted proved fatal to him and to most of his fol. by the prince to whom they were conveyed. lowers. This prince received a letter, which He sent them both to the King of Hungary, purported to be from his mother, inviting by whom they were educated in a manner him to come over and take possession of his befitting their station. One died in his youth, father's dominions. The proposition was flatthe other married the daughter of Henry, tering, and in an unlucky moment he yielded the Emperor of Germany; and their issue to it. Having landed with 600 followers, was Edgar Atheling, who will be mentioned he was treacherously made prisoner, along hereafter. with his companions. Every tenth man was Canute divided the kingdom into four gov-| set at liberty, a few more were reserved as ernments. He retained Wessex to himself. slaves, and the remainder were massacred East Anglia was conferred on a chief named and mutilated with the most capricious cruThurchil, who had formerly distinguished elty. Prince Alfred himself was deprived himself; and Eric and Edric were continued of his eyes; and this shocking barbarity soon in Northumberland and ~Iercia. But the afterwards terminated in his death. The latter shortly afterwards received the full re- unfortunate sufferer was the dupe of a forward of his crimes and perfidy. At a Christ- gery; and the whole villanous transaction mas festival celebrated in London, he had seems to have been planned by Harold, and the audacity to boast of his services, when executed by his minions, particularly Earl Canute ordered him to be cut down, and his Godwin. This remarkable individual, acbody thrown into the Thames. The Danish cording to the only account of him which king had embraced Christianity, and also we possess, was the son of a Saxon herdstaken to wife Emma, widow of Ethelred. man. In his youth he had assisted Ulfr, a The profession of the former removed the Danish chieftain, to make his escape to the main barrier between his English and Dan- ships of Canute. The Northman took him ish subjects; and his espousal of a royal fe- under his charge, and by successive steps he male was no doubt intended to conciliate rose to the dignity of a Jarl, and to the posthe affections of the Saxons; and it seems session of power little less than sovereign to have had a considerable influence in this during three reigns. The atrocious deed of respect. He died at Shaftesbury in 1035, blood above related is the only event of im-:and was interred at Winchester. By his portance associated with the name of IMarwife Emma he had a son and daughter; old the First. He died in 1040, and was the former called TIardicanute, or Canute the succeeded by IHardicanute, his brother by HIardy. But previously to his marriage he the half blood. had by another lady two sons, named Sweyn This sovereign reigned about two years; and Harold. The former was installed in and the little that is recorded of him is of a the sovereignty of Norway, and the latter very mixed character. He came over from ascended the throne of England. Denmark, breathing revenge against the 190 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. murderers of Alfred, and even went so far to England was Eustace, Count of Boulogne, as brutally to insult the lifeless remains of who had married Edward's sister. At Dover, HIarold. Godwin stood prominently forward one of Godwin's towns, a foolish affray took as an object of punishment, but a splendid place between the followers of the count and present turned aside the shaft of vengeance. the English. This circumstance gave vent Others also escaped by appealing to his ava- to the popular jealousy of the people against rice, which seems to have been his ruling foreigners. Godwin assembled a force, and passion. Edward the son of Ethelred was claimed the surrender of Eustace; but the latkindly and honorably received at his court- ter was supported by the king, who ultimately a noble act of generosity; yet the author of succeeded in driving Godwin and his sons it died of intemperance at the nuptial feast into exile. The star of Godwin seemed now of a Danish lord. to have fairly set; but just then arose another'Edward. surnamed.ithe Confessor, the sur- of far more disastrous omen to tile Saxon viving son of Ethelred, was chosen King of line. William, Duke of Normandy, came England in 1042. He was a weak and fee- to England with many of his followers, on a ble prince, and incompetent to the task of visit to his cousin Edward. He was received vigorous government; yet the commence- with great honor, and loaded with presents ment of his, reign was characterized by an when he returned to his own country. act of severity. He despoiled his mother In about a year after this the Godwins Emma of her property, and deprived her were restored to their honors and estates; of her influence. These proceedings were and Editha, who had been repudiated l9V prompted by the antipathy which she bore the king, was called from her prison to the to the king, and by her lukewarmness in not throne. She was innocent of any participa. punishing the murderers of her son Alfred, tion in her father's guilt. The annalists of of whose blood it was even whispered she the time represent her in the most amiable was not entirely guiltless. The weak and light. On his re-instalment in his earldom irresolute character of the king threw the and possessions, Godwin succeeded in inducpower entirely into the hands of three noble- ing the king to outlaw Archbishop Robert men, who divided the Saxon territory amongst and all the Frenchmen; and not long after them, Siward, Earl of Northumberland, Leof- he died. In 1055, Siward followed him to ric, Earl of Mercia, and Godwin, Earl of the grave; and two years afterwards expired Kent, whoso daughter, Editha, Edward had Leofric, the wise and powerful Duke of been induced to marry. Godwin was by far Mercia, who was succeeded in his dukedom the most powerful of the three; for besides by his son Algar. Tostig, brother of HIarhis own territory in Wessex, his two sons, old, received the earldom of the former; Sweyn and Harold, held large domains but in a few years afterwards (1065), he was northward of the Thames. In 1051, he at deposed for his cruelties, and his sovereignty last presumed to bid defiance to his sove- conferred upon Morcar, son of the Duke of reign and son-in-law. Edward who had so- Mercia. journed a long time in Normandy, where Soon after these transactions, the pacific he was well treated, when he ascended the monarch of England began to sicken. When throne invited the guardians and friends of he saw his end approaching, he ordered the his youth to accompany him to England. magnificent church of St. Peter at WestThey accordingly flocked to him in great minster, which he had built, to be consecrat. numbers, and received ample preferment. ed with solemnity and splendor. He died One of them, named Robert, obtained the pri- two days after, on the 4th or 5th of January, macy, at that time the station of highest dig- 1066, in the twenty-fourth year of his reign, aity and power. Amongst those who resorted and was interred in the church which he had HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 191 so recently dedicated. He left: no issue;- marched with promptitude and secrecy to for he had taken a vow of continence for meet Tostig and his Norwegian ally. So life. Edward Atheling, the only surviving rapid had been the movements of the king son of Edmund Ironside, had landed from that he took the enemy in some degree by Hungary with his wife and children, for the surprise. They, however, retired upon Stam. purpose of being proclaimed heir to the fordbridge on. the Derwent, where they crown; but shortly after his arrival in Lon- drew out their line of battle. The contest don, he expired, bequeathing his claim to his which ensued was bloody, and long of doubtson Edgar. ful issue. For a while the firm array of tho The day which witnessed the funeral of Norwegians bade defiance to all the efforts Edward, saw the coronation of Harold, the of the English cavalry, which, accustomed son of Godwin. A report had been circu- to charge in detached masses, fell in this lated that the Confessor had appointed him dispersed state almost harmless upon the his successor, which greatly conciliated the bristling rampart of Scandinavian spears. chiefs; indeed, the only opposition which he The King of Norway, conspicuous by his experienced was from his own unnatural blue tunic and glittering helmet, made the family. On Edgar Atheling, the last sur- most heroic exertions; but victory forsook viving prince of the house of Cerdic, was his standard; a dart pierced his throat, conferred the earldom of Oxford, in lieu of and he fell lifeless to the ground. Tostig the crown. Tostig, the brother of the king, assumed the command, and after a desperwas a competitor for the crown. Harold ate effort to turn the fortune of the day, he Hardrada, King of Norway, promised him perished, with the flower of the Norwegian his support, and the politic Duke of Nor- army. This victory, which is memorable on mandy did the same. In Flanders he was account of the dreadful slaughter that dispermitted to raise an army, with which he tinguished it, was gained on the 25th of landed in Northumberland; but he was de- September, 1066. It must be recorded to feated by Morcar, on whom the earldom of the honor of Harold, that twice he offered tho province had been conferred. The dis- peace and pardoh to his rebellious brother. comfited Tostig fled to Malcolm, King of once before and once during the heat of batScotland, where he was well received. The tie, when the Norwegian had fallen, but both Caledonian monarch had himself been shel- times these offers were refused. Three days tered at the English court during the usur- after this conflict William, Duke of Norpation of Macbeth, and was established on mandy landed in England, and Harold had the throne of his ancestors by the aid of to prepare for another desperate struggle to England. As a grateful return for the at- retain the crown. tentions he had received in that country, he This celebrated claimant to the sceptre of always readily welcomed the malcontents England was the descendant of Rollo, a re. who fled from it. The arrival of his Nor- nowned Vikygr, or Sea-King, who flourisheo wegian ally recalled Tostig from his exile. at the beginning of the tenth century. RognThey joined forces at the mouth of the Tyne, valldr, the father of Rollo, was one of those and marched upon York, in the neighbor- earls appointed by Harold Harfager, or the hood of which city the Saxon army sustained fair-haired, to guard his conquests. He had a defeat. But this was only a prelude to two sons, Thorer and Rolfr, better known the grand struggle. Harold, the king, not- by his more celebrated name of Rollo. The withstanding the necessity under which he progenitor of William the Conqueror was lay of watching the south-eastern extremity expelled from his country on account of a of the island from a still more formidable violation of the law which forbade freebootrival, collected a considerable army, and ers, under pain of death, to destroy cattle on 192 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the Norwegian shore. Driven from his pa- Emma the king's mother, and Harold as the ternal shores, he resol7ed to seek for a king- king's brother-in-law. The claims of the dom elsewhere; and after much successful champions were therefore nearly balanced, valor he succeeded in establishing a Scandi- and seem to have contented their partizans; navian state in France. Rollo proved him- the sword alone could decide to whom the self a prince worthy of a kingdom, and his real title should belong. acquisition in course of time assumed the In the meantime the claim of Harold snfname of Normandy. His exertions for the fered considerably on account of a circumimprovement of his dominions, the civiliza- stance which occurred a short time before tion of the rude Northmen, and the human- the demise of the late king. The Saxon had izing of their minds to the love of order, been shipwrecked in France, but obtained justice and the arts of peace, class him with leave to proceed to Normandy by alleging those illustrious individuals who have proved that he was intrusted with some communithemselves benefactors of the human race. cations to Duke William. That prince reHe died in 931, and was succeeded by his ceived him kindly, and imparted to him the son William. After two others, Robert, the hopes which he cherished of obtaining the Magnificent, or the Devil, as he was perhaps English crown. He received a promise of more appropriately designated, succeeded. aid from Harold, and by an artifice succeedHe was father to the duke who now appears ed in making him swear fealty to his cause. before us as a competitor for the English Underneath the missal on which the Saxon throne. William was an illegitimate child had sworn were concealed various sacred by a damsel of humble condition, of whom relics, such as the bones of saints and marhis father was enamored, but could not wed tyrs, and thus he had unconsciously bound during the lifetime of his duchess, the sister himself by the most solemn oath. When of Canute. Like their northern progenitors, the struggle came, Harold urged the plea of the nobles of the Norman duke were care- compulsion as releasing him from any obliless of the distinction between concubinage gation to keep his vow. Abhorrence of oathand wedlock, so that on the death of Robert breakers, however, is characteristic of a suin 1035, William, altho~ugh then only eight perstitious age; and whilst the circumstance years of age, was triumphantly placed upon materially weakened the cause of Harold, it the ducal throne, which he filled with re- strengthened in a corresponding degree that nown for fifty-three years. of his rival, There is also every reason to The circumstance of numerous Norman believe that it was the principal means of barons having settled in England during the enabling William to obtain from the holy reign of Edward the Confessor, who was the see a declaration in favor of his enterprise. grandson of a duke of Normandy, has al- At such a period a bull from the pope was ready been noticed; as also the visit paid by itself worth an army, and this the advenWilliam to the childless monarch. It was turer not only obtained, but also a consecratafterwards asserted by the Duke of Nor- ed standard, a ring, and a lock of his holimandy, that, upon one occasion, probably ness's hair. that to which we have already alluded, Ed- William now set busily to work in preparward had bequeathed to him the crown of ing the means of offensive aggression. When England. IHe also alleged a testamentary his purpose was known, he was speedily bequest, as well as Harold. Both were alike joined by all'the young knights of the neighdestitute of any claim founded on the mod- boring countries who sought fortune or reern principles of hereditary descent, but both nown, and by all the freebooters whom the by consanguinity made out a species of right hope of spoil allured to his standard. With to inherit; William as the grand uncle of an armament more formidable than the west HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 193 ern nations had yet witnessed, he accordingly On the morning of Saturday the 14th of put to sea. Annalists have greatly exagger- October, William advanced to the attack ated the number of his troops; for altogether of the Saxons, after having solemnly heard they did not probably much exceed 25,000 mass and received the sacrament. The men. With this army'he landed without previous night is also said to have been opposition at Pevensey, in the county of Sus- passed in devotion, whilst songs and revelry sex, as has already been observed. He made resounded throughout the Saxon camp. The no stay at that place, however, but proceed- spot which Harold had fixed upon for this ed immediately to Hastings to procure pro- important contest was a piece of rising visions. - Harold, apprised of the arrival of ground about eight miles inland from IIashis most dreaded enemy, flew to attack him. tings. It was open towards the south, and William, informed of his victory and ad- was covered at the back by an extensive vance, was counselled by some to remain in wood. On the front of the declivity the his entrenchments, and not to hazard an open troops were arranged in one compact mass, engagement. But the mind of the future in the centre of which floated the royal banconqueror was not liable to the agitations of ner, with the king and his two brothers near fear. In this emergency the conduct of it. On an opposite hill stood William in Harold has been severely censured. He ap- front of his warriors, with the relies upon propriated to himself all the spoils of the late which Harold had sworn hung round his battle, which added to his unpopularity; neck, and the consecrated standard waving whilst the death of his brother was by com- by his side. After a short address to animate mon report imputed to him. On his march his soldiers, he advanced upon the enemy, against William, a considerable portion of shouting the national war-cry "God is our his army deserted him, and their place had help;" whilst the cry of " Christ's rood, the to be supplied by raw and undisciplined lev- holy rood," rose from the! adverse. ranks. ies. When the two rivals were near enough The impetuous onset of the Normans was to interchange messages, the Norman offered received by the English with their battleHarold the choice of abdication, of single axes, with which they broke the lances and cut combat, or of appeal to the pope. These the coats of mail, on which their opponents propositions being rejected, lie was then of- placed great reliance. The confidence of theo fered Northumberland for himself, whilst Normans began to waver, and the left wfing> Kent would be conceded to his brother both horse and foot, actually gave way. Gurth; but the latter proposal shared the With eager rashness the English pursued, fate of the former one; upon which William and thus exposed themselves to the hazard declared his intention of giving battle to his of being cut off; for William with dauntrival, whom he looked upon and designated less fortitude and presence of mind had sucas a liar and a perjured wretch, excommuni- ceeded in rallying his fugitive bands. The cated by the holy father. He even express- attack was renewed, and again the English ed astonishment that an individual conscious repulsed it. The duke had now recourse to of such guilt as that with which Harold was an artifice which ultimately proved the deschargeable should venture his person in bat- truction of the enemy's army. By a feigned tie. We are told that inch a feeling also flight he allured a body of them from their prevailed in the English army, and lhat the strong position, and, whilst the latter too king was advised by his brothers Girth and eagerly pursued, he turned upon them with Leofwin to withdraw, whilst they wo 4t lead his cavalry, and hewed them in pieces. Twice on the battle. Harold, however, only smiled was this stratagem repeated, and each time at their apprehensions, and expressed his with perfect success. Still the main body of resolution of commanding the army in person. the English presented an unbroken rampart m. 13 '194 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. of shields, against which the mass of Nor- Edwin, and 3Morcar upon the part of tLe man chivalry for a long time was hurled in nobility. The crown was offered to him, vain. and he was formally invested with it in During the conflict both leaders gave Westminster Abbey, on Christmas, 1066. proofs of personal bravery and skill worthy During the ceremony a tumult arose which of the crown which the one was combating made the stout heart of the conqueror to retain and the other to wrench from his tremble beneath its iron mail; and, had an grasp. William had three horses'killed English force, led by any competent comunder him, and hand to hand he had grap- mander, and capable of making head against pled on foot with his adversaries. A little the Normans, appeared at the rhoment, it before sunset Harold, both of whose brothers might have cost him his crown and his life. had already fallen, received an arrow in the Whilst, by loud acclamations, both English eye, which penetrated to the brain. His and Normans expressed their willingness to fall relaxed the vigor of the English. Their have William for king, his troops set fire to lines were penetrated, their standard taken; the houses, and commenced the plunder of and a panic having seized upon them, they the city. The coronation service was broke and dispersed through the wood, hastily concluded, and the insurrection whilst darkness closed upon the spoils of the quelled without much difficulty, although field and the hopes of the Saxons. the English looked upon it as a bad omen, On the morning after the battle, the vic- and William as a most unfortunate occurtors, having stripped the bodies of the slain, rence. It was his interest to propitiate the pranced wantonly over them with their affections of the people whom he had now herses. The mother of Harold, like another been appointed to govern, and he anxiously Andromache, begged the corpse of her son wished to do so. In explanation of this ocfrom the conqueror; but whether her mater- currence, it is usually alleged that the Nornal request was complied with or not is a mans mistook the acclamations of those who matter of great uncertainty. shouted within the church for an alarm of The conquest of England did not alto- the English to rise in revolt. But if this gether terminate with the battle of Ilast- had been the case, why did they not instantly ings. London and other important towns fly to the rescue of their king, instead of were put in a posture of defence, whilst a spreading themselves about and firing and pilnumerous fleet had assembled at Dover to laging the city? His safety was surely their interrupt the proceedings and distract the at- first care; for had he fallen their fate was tention of the invader. Edgar, the legiti- inevitable. The whole unquestionably originmate heir to the throne, appears to have been ated in the desire of the troops for sack and either crowned or acknowledged as sovereign pillage. at London, where the two powerful Earls of Hitherto William had been called the Morcar and Edwin, with the loyal inhabi- Bastard; from this period he obtained the tants, resolved to make a desperate stand surname of the Conqueror, a term which at against the advancing foe. the time was employed to designate a perWilliam, however, was the candidate favor- son who had sought and obtained his right, ed by the see of Rome, and the bishops in- as well as a subjugator. It was necessary terfered in his behalf. Stigand, the metro- for William to maintain a strong military politan, was the first to throw himself on the force in order to compel the obedience of his mercy of William, whom he met as the con- subjects; and he could only feel himself queror crossed the Thames at Wallingford, secure surrounded by his trusty Norman and swore fealty to him as his sovereign; barons. But the duration of their services others followed his example, as did Edgar, being limited to a certain term, they naturally HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 195 expected to be released from their engage- greater number of the Scottish noble families. ments, and re-conveyed to their country, Malcoln afterwards married Matilda, the when the period of servitude had expired. eldest sister of Edgar. In order to encourage them to remain, he!William the Conqueror now turned his atput into their hands the strongholds and tention to the north, where his authority had principal towns of the kingdom, whilst all not yet been properly established. Frolr the conquered territory of the English, which the heart of Mercia to the confines of Scothe had at his command, was likewise distri- land a spirit of open insubordination prebuted amongst them. Having thus put his vailed, and was fostered by Edwin, who had dominions in a secure condition, he embarked been at one time promised the hand of for Normandy, carrying along with him Williamn's daughter, but was afterwards reMorear, Edgar, and Edwin, and leaving fused it. The insurrection became formi the chief management of affairs in England dable; but it was soon queelled and this in the hands of William Fitzosbern, a Nor- served more and more to confirm the power man baron, and Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, the of the Normans. William penetrated as far son of his mother by a plebeian husband. as York, which opened its gates to him, During the absence of the Conqueror, the scattered the isolated and feeble bands who Saxons began to mutter threats of vengeance, opposed his march, and reduced all the iamand even went so far as to enter into a con- portant towns on his way. During this exspiracy to cut off the Normans as their fore- pedition he also fortified a number of fathers had done the Danes It appears, castles. The tranquillity thus produced was, from the testimony of severa credible annal- however, of short duration. At Durham, the ists, that the oppression which the English English succeeded in massacring the whole suffered at the hands of the insolent soldiery Norman force established there, excepting was most galling, and called loudly for re- two men. York followed the example of taliation. These alarming rumors crossed Durham, and rising upon the garrison, killed the channel, and reached the ears of William, the governor, with many of his retainers. who hastened from his continental domin- Shortly after this event, the sons of IHIarold, ions, and, landing in England in December, the late king, landed from Ireland with the 1067, made a sort of second conquest of that intention of making an effort to recover the country. The Saxons of Devonshire, joined crown; but they were utterly defeated in by the neighboring Britons in G~ornwall, had two engagements, by Brian, son of the Earl thrown off their allegiance to him, and of Bretagne. against them he first turned his arms. They A new and formidable auxiliary of the made a gallant stand; but William having malcontents had now, however, arrived in the reduced Exeter, succeeded in breaking the I-Iumnber; this was a powerful Danish armaspirit of resistance for a time. About this ment. Edgar Atheling, several illustrious period, Edgar, with his mother and two Saxons, and crowds of the English, having sisters, having embarked for Hungary, were joined them, they successfully assaulted driven by a tempest upon the coast of Scot- York; but William, apprised of their deland. That country was at the time governed scent, hastened to the scene of war. tLis by Malcolm, surnamed Ceanmore, who gladly usual good fortune attended him; and the received the fugitives, and made them a re- Danes were compelled to quit the country' turn for that kindness which he had himself without crossing arms with the Normans in experienced under similar circumstances at any conflict worthy the name of a battle. the English court. MIany Saxon nobles fol-I Iints have occasionally been thrown out that followed Edgar, who, With subsequent emi- they were bribed by the Conqueror; but of grations of disaffected Norlmans, founded the this circumstance there is no direct evmdence 196 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Upon another point, however, all historians who, although a worthy man, was the erea, are agreed, namely, that, piqued by these ture of William, and in bondage to Rome. repeated insurrections, the king, in a trans- In the meanwhile, Edgar Atheling, had port of passion, had sworn to extirpate Nor- sought and obtained the friendship of the thumbria. This merciless vow was per: Conqueror, who, to his honor, ever afterwards formed nearly to the letter. Unbounded maintained this weak and almost imbecile license was given to the soldiery, who rava- youth in ease and affluence at his court. ged the country with fire and sword. During the visit of William to his contiWilliam.was now undisputed master of nental possessions, which took place at this England. The conquest of the country, time, the Norman barons rebelled against properly speaking, only began with the bat- him, and were joined by some Saxon chiefs. tlie of Hiastings. It was not until seven The king hastened across seas with a band years thereafter, when he carried the terror of auxiliaries, and made an easy conquest of of his arms to York that the country was the insurgents. The remaining events of his completely subdued. Before that period not reign are not sufficiently important to require one half of England acknowledged his an- a minute recital. The most remarkable is thority. But the spirit of the Saxons was the revolt of his son Robert, who had been now fairly broken, and finding themselves promised the duchy of Normandy when pursued with such extirpating vengeance, William first invaded England. The French many of them sought refuge amongst the monarch fomented the hostilities between hil.s and forests, whilst others emigrated the father and son, which existed for several to foreign lands. A party of them under years, and closed with a most romantic inci Hereward, a resolute chief, attempted to dent. Robert, being besieged in the castle make a stand in the island of Ely, immedi- of Gorberoi, engaged a knight enveloped in ately after the noithern massacre. This land complete armor, and unhorsed him, at the of fens and marshes was the last asylum of same time inflicting a wound in his arm. Saxon independence; and Morcar, with some When about to pursue his advantage, Robert bishops and the remainder of the most con- recognized in the fallen warrior the voice of spicuous Saxons, repaired thither. For a his father. A reconciliation was finally while William disdained to notice the efforts effected by the tears and entreaties of of Ilereward; but at last he invaded his Matilda, the mother of Robert. circumscribed territory, and, scattering his Whilst engaged in a desolating warfare little band, compelled him to fly. This bold against Philip, King of France, William came and patriotic chieftain afterwards gave in before the town of Montes in July, 1087, and his submission, and being allowed to retain ordered it to be burned. He rode to view his paternal possessions, the end of his days the scene, and galloping among the smoulderproved happy. He was the last of the ing ruins, his horse reared and plunged so Saxons who drew the sword in the cause of violently as severely to wound the rider, who national independence. at the time was very corpulent and unwieldy. William having now quieted the tumults He was carried in a dangerous state to the at home, turned his attention to Malcolm, vicinity of Rouen, where he breathed his King of Scotland, whom he compelled to last, on the 9th of September. On his deathsubmit. The affairs of the church also oc- bed the conscience of the Conqueror appears cupied him for a time; and several changes to have stung'him deeply;for he ordered that were effected, not, it may well be believed, several prisoners in England, amongst whom to the advantage of the Saxon prelates. One was Odo his half-brother, should be set at of them, the Archbishop of Canterbury, was large; and that restitution should be made deposed, and his place supplied byLanfranc, for what he had violently destroyed. But _...............~~~~~~~~~~~~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD.:L97.these atonements were inadequate to expiate country to him for three years, at an equivathe crimes of which he had been guilty. lent of ten thousand merks. The Conqueror left three soils by his wife The other events of Willianm's reign were, Matilda. Robert, the eldest, was installed an invasion of Wales, which was crowned ill the duchy of Normandy; whilst William, with the usual success; and a war with Scot surnamed Rufus or the Red, from his cornm- land, in which the monarch cf that country'plexion, obtained the throne of England, and was slain. IHis government of England was was crowned on the 26th of September, 1087. most unpopular. For the gratification of his An attempt was made by his half-uncle Odo own appetities, and the enriching of worthto dethrone him, and to set up his brother less favorites, he plundered the country with Robert in his stead. But Williarn, alarmed impunity. During the life of Lanfranc, his at the formidable demonstrations which were undisciplined rapacity was checked by the made against him, appealed to the English wisdom and influence of that excellent prelfor aid, and his call was most loyally obeyed. ate. His death, however, removed every The Normans who had invaded England restraint, for the king supplied his place by were compelled to fly, and William carried the appointment of an able but remorseless the war into Normandy, where a reconcilia- counsellor, who, according. to the king himtion was effected in the year 1091. The self, was capable of braving the execrations King of England had acquired several conti- and the vengeance of mankind, in order to nental fortresses, of which he was still to re- gratify his master's desires. Many bishoptain possession. It was also stipulated be- rics, including amongst those the see of Cantween the brothers, that on the decease of terbury, were kept vacant by the king for either, the survivor should succeed to the several years, until a severe illness convinced dominions of the other. Henry, the young- him of the necessity of appointing a primate. er brother, who suffered by the treaty, held The individual whom he fixed upon was out several strong places in Normandy; but Anselm, one of the most learned and merithey joined their forces together, and be- torious men of his age. Anselm at first deseiged him in St. Michael's Mount, whence murred to accept the archbishopric, dreadhe was compelled to fly from want of water. ing the violence of the king; but the earnest Robert accompanied his brother to Eng- solicitations of his friends at last induced him land, where he had been promised posses- to comply, and he thus became primate of sions as an equivalent for the fortresses which England. William, as long as his illness was he had yielded up in Normandy. But Wil- of a dangerous character, showed himself liam did not find it convenient to fulfill the penitent and submissive. He commanded terms of the treaty; upon which his brother, all his prisoners to be released, all his debtors who had again crossed the channel, sent over to be forgiven, and all offences to be remittwo heralds for the purpose of declaring him ted; and he solemnly vowed that if he rea false and perjured knight. In order to de- covered he would govern the land -in right fend his honor, the king followed them into eousness. But no sooner was he convalesNormandy; but his transactions there be- cent than he showed that his profession of 1?ng rather to his own individual history amendment was only a matter of conventnan to that of the country which he govern- ience, and extorted from an unforgiving ed. The possession of his brother's domin- spirit by the terrors of death. Anselm, as ions was a leading object of William's ambi- was usual in such cases, brought a voluntary tion; and he gradually acquired an ascen- present to his master as an acknowledg. dency in Normandy, which he repeatedly ment for the dignity which had been confer invaded, obtaining new cessions at each ad- red upon him; but the gift, not correspondtenture. Robert finally mortgaged the whole ing to the avaricious views Df the monarch, 198 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. was refused and the unfortunate primate was made a humiliating surrender, upon which ever afterwards persecuted by him with the his life was spared, but he was condemned most unrelenting tyranny. Anselm at last to perpetual exile. Some time after these sought shelter in Rome, where he continued events Robert unexpectedly arrived in Eng. until William's demise. land, where he was received with apparent The death of the monarch, like his life, affection by his brother, but very soon diswas violent. Whilst hunting in the New covered that he was in reality a captive. Forest, he was accidentally struck by an The purpose of his visit was to intercede arrow, which buried itself in his breast, and with Henry in favor of the rebels; but in he expired on the spot. The shaft is believed stead of compounding for their liberation, he to have been shot at random, and to have was reduced to solicit his own, which he come from the bow of Walter Tyrrel, a obtained by consenting to pay an annuity French knight, who immediately made his of three thousand merks. After his return escape. This event happened on the 2d of to Normandy he entered into terms of friendAugust, in the year 1100. ship with the outlaw B3elesme, who possesHenry the First, surnamed Beauclerk sed numerous castles in the country. Intelor the Scholar, ascended the throne of Eng- ligence of this having reached Henry, he reland three days after the death of his brother, nounced the alliance by which he had bound the preceding monarch. The compact which himself to keep the peace with Robert. This had been made between William and Robert compact was similar to that which had subwas set aside; but the latter, considering sisted between William and Robert, and a himself as aggrieved, invaded England. The second time the latter became a brother's formidable demonstrations made by his dupe. Henry invaded Normandy, and a brother, however, intimidated him, and a decisive conflict before the walls of Tinchepacification was at last effected at the acces- brai, on the 27th of April, 1106, decided the sion of Henry; and the latter propitiated fate of Robert. His army was completely the favor of his subjects by many wise acts. routed, and he himself taken prisoner and I-Ie removed the unpopular agents of his un- sent to England, where he remained in close fortunate brother, particularly Flambard, confinement till his death, which happened the obnoxicus minister formerly alluded to, in 1135. The cruel fate of this prince has and also abolished the oppressive exactions served as a foil to the virtues which he poswhich the latter had enforced. Anselm was sessed, and shed over them an artificial or recalled, and the clergy conciliated, whilst spurious lustre. There can be no doubt, the people had restored to them the Anglo- however, that his qualities as a warrior were Saxon laws and privileges as amended by brilliant, and his mind would seem to have HIenry's father. He also gratified the nation been forgiving and conciliatory. Perhaps an bly espousing Matilda, or Maud, daughter amiable weakness in the latter respect was of Malcolm, King of Scotiand, by Margaret, the ultimate'cause of his misfortunes. the sister of Edgar Atheling. Amongst the prisoners taken at Tinchebrai The king now turned his attention to the was Edgar Atheling. Either from his inpunishment of the outlaws who had thrown herent weakness precluding any thing like off his authority. Amongst these were in- fear on his account, or from a desire to eluded several noblemen, and particularly retain the golden opinions of the Saxons, Robert de Belesme, the most powerful sub- Henry pardoned him, and from this period ject in England, and a man haughty, rapa- the descendant of Alfred intrudes himself no cious, and deceitful. He had secured him- more upon the page of English Listory. self within the walls of Shrewsbury, but on Robert had a son about five years of age the arrival of Henry before this place he named William; whom a faithfiil vassal sue. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 199 ceeded in conveying to the French court. only one escaped to record the disma' fate As the age of this prince advanced, the of his companions. Prince William would hopes of his partizans proportionally in- have been saved but for the shrieks of his Sreased. Henry, after obtaining possession natural sister, which recalled him to the of Normandy, had succeeded in tranquilliz- wreck with the boat in which lhe was proing it, and restoring peace and order; but ceeding towards shore; and it sunk under as his nephew grew up, the claims which he the multitudes who crowded into it. possessed to the duchy of his father became This sudden calamity revived the hopes more and more popular, and disturbed the of Henry's nephew WTilliam, and disturbc quiet both of his uncle and the country. all the arrangements of the king in NorHienry should have at once yielded his mandy. A new war was kindled in that paternal inheritance to the young prince; country; but it terminated in 1124 in favor and the withholding of it was an act of in- of the English monarch. The discomfited justice which harassed his life and dis- youth, however, receivevd a new favor of honored his name. The Norman barons, fortune. Louis of France bestowed upon along with the King of France, took part him the hand of his sister-in-law; and along with the. injured youth; but this coalition with her he received several of the provinces terminated with the battle of Brenville, nearest to Paris, which had been united to which was fought in the year 1119. Louis, Normandy by conquest. Soon afterwards the French king, had four hundred, and he was invested with the earldom of FlanHenry of England five hundred knights. ders, which had been left vacant by the asBoth princes displayed great bravery during sassination of Charles the Good in 1127. In the engagement, which ended, with compara- the meanwhile, IHenry had endeavored to tively but little bloodshed, in favor of the perpetuate the succession in his own family, English. William of Normandy made his by marrying a second time, after the death escape; and the pope, who paid a visit to of Matilda, his first wife, who had brought HIenry at Gisors, effected a reconciliation him a son and daughter. The premature between him and Louis, without touching fate of the former we have already noticed; upon the main cause of quarrel, namely, the and the latter, named Miatilda,.had espoused difference between the English monarch and the Emperor of Germany. The marriage his brother Robert, or rather his nephew of the king proved to be without issue; and William, the father being now politically his daughter having recently become a dead. widow, was invited to England, for the purMIatters having been once more pacifically pose of settling upon her the succession to the arranged, and the ambition of Henry grati- throne. In a general assembly of the prefled, he set sail for England towards the end lates and chief tenants of the crown she was of November, 1120. Upon this occasion a proposed by her father and acknowledged by most calamitous event occurred in his the meeting as heiress presumptive; and family, namely, the loss of his only son shortly after this transaction her father pri William. The prince, with a large retinue vately married her to the Count of Anjou. of gay young knights and noblemen, em- This secret negociation drew forth loud colma barked shortly after his father. Festivity, plaints from the barons; and many of them riot, and intoxication prevailed on board; declared that the duplicity of the king had but in the midst of this feasting and de- released them from the obligation of their bauchery, the care of the vessel being for- oath. This doubtless disturbed the serenity gotten altogether, she struck upon a rock of the king's reign; but another and more near Itarfieurn and went down. Of three important cause of disquietude arose from hundred individuals who were on board, the increasing power and fame of his nephew 200 HISTORY OF'THE WORLD. in Flanders. However, the death of that son of Henry, and the great supporter of prince soon afterwards removed all uneasi- Maud's rights, perceiving: all hostility to be ness on his account, and restored at least unavailing, at last swore fealty to the king. the prospect of tranquillity. But this was For the first two or three years of his reign, not realized; for a quarrel with his son-in- Stephen sat securely upon the throne; but he law retained him in Normandy, and embroil- was doomed to be overtaken by a series of ed the last years of his reign, which was now calamities. These arose partly from the indrawing towards a close. Robert, the un- evitable consequences of his usurpation, and fortunate duke of Normandy, died at Cardiff partly from his defects as a sovereign. That Castle, in Wales, in the eightieth year of his' passion for depredation and conflict which age and twenty-eighth of his captivity, a the preceding monarch had subdued, again great -part of which had been spent in total broke out. Every one built his own castle blindness; for an unsuccessful attempt to and maintained his own band of mercenary escape had provoked his brother to deprive ruffians, who sallied forth day and night to him of sight. All the historians of the period plunder the surrounding country, and drag do not mention this circumstance, and some into dungeons such as they expected wonid state that the prisoner enjoyed every indul- give a high ransom for their freedom. A gence; so that the point is doubtful, and for contemporary chronicler has drawn a horinthe honor of humanity we leave it in this ble picture of the atrocities thus committed state. In about a year thereafter, he was with impunity; for the mildness of Stefollowed to the grave by King Henry, who phen's character, and probably the recollection died of a surfeit of lampreys, on the 1st of of his own conduct in obtaining the crown, December, 1135, in the sixty-seventh year induced him to be forbearing and indulgent. of his age and thirty-fifth of his reign. His popularity rapidly declined; and in the It was the darling plan of Henry that fourth year of his reign it appears to have his beloved daughter Maud should be his altogether ceased. In 1139, Matilda, with successor. By her second husband she had a few attendants, landed in England, for the three sons, one or other of whom their uncle purpose of recovering her lost inheritance. no doubt looked upon as the future monarch She was joined by Robert, Earl of Gloucesof England. But the claims of the ex-Em- ter, with a hundred and fifty knights, who press of Germany were waived, and Stephen, commenced a warfare which nearly hurled Earl of Boulogne, son of Adela, the daugh- Stephen from the throne. After many conter of William the Conqueror, succeeded to flicts, which were only characterized by the the throne. He was crowned upon the 26th misery attendant upon them, the army of of December, 1135, and soon made himself the Empress Matilda, or Maud, defeated that very popular. According to custom, he im- of Stephen near Lincoln, in the year 1141. mediately issued a charter, which promised, The king was captured after a brave resisof course, good government and ample re- tance; and Matilda was soon afterwards dress of grievances. His courts at the sol- crowned queen of England at Winchester. emn festivals were held with extraordinary The clergy, although they countenanced the magnificence. He repulsed the invasion of accession of Stephen, now acknowledged her David, King of Scotland, who received a se- prior claim; and the queen, proceeding to vere defeat at the Battle of the Standard, London, was joyfully hailed by the citizens. which was fought near -Northallerton; he But her popularity was of short duration. subdued his enemies in Normandy; and, by By her arrogance and contemptuous conduct a yearly pension, he pacified the husband of towards the friends of Stephen, she soon the lady whom he Ihad supplanted upon the alienated the affections of the people, and throne. Robert, Eairl of Gloucester, natural was at last compelled to fly from the city HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 201 and to establish her head-quarters at Oxford. -Henry II., or Plantagenet, the son of MaIn one of the numerous struggles which fol- tilda, ascended the throne without a dissentlowed, the Earl of Gloucester was taken ing murmur. He was crowned, along with prisoner, which put the fortunes of the bel- his queen Eleanor, at Westminster, on the aigrents nearly upon a level. The king and l9th of December, 1154, in presence of an the earl were exchanged for each other; and- immense concourse of people. The prosas both parties had now a commander on pect which opened up to this young soverwhom they could depend, the conflict was eign was more glorious than that of any of perpetuated, with increasing misery to: the his forerunners in England, or his contemnation. For some years the balance of pow- poraries in other countries. An: unpreceer hung nearly in equipoise between them. dented power was- concentrated in his hands. Stephen reduced Oxford, but Robert de- A third part of France, including almost feated him at Wilton; and this miserable the whole western coast from the borders of warfare continued, until, on the death of Picardy to the mountains of Navarre, acher brother Robert, Matilda returned to knowledged his authority. These possessions, Normandy in 1147, when a breathing time along with England, comprehended the most of two years intervened. warlike portion of Europe; and had the In the meanwhile 2IenrF, the son of Ma- ambition of the individual who ruled over tilda, was advancing in years and in fortune. them been commensurate with his power, By his uncle David, King of Scotland, he the humiliation, if not entire subjugation, had been knighted at the age of sixteen; a of France would not have been reserved for year thereafter he obtained from his father the Henries and Edwards of after times. the cession of the duchy of Normandy; and Although by no means destitute of a passion at the death of that prince he succeeded to for power, Henry possessed a love of literathe earldom of Anjoul. In 1152, by a po- ture, which led him to eschew the cloudy litic. marriage, he annexed the extensive and troubled atmosphere of war. The civil duchy of Aquitaine to: his dominions. This discord which prevailed during the reign of aggrandizement of her son's power having his predecessor had inflicted numerous evils elevated the hopes of Matilda and those of on the nation, and to the alleviation of these her partizans, Prince Henry landed in Eng- Henry devoted the first years of his reign. land; but in consequence of the death of He issued a new coinage, of standard weight Eustace, the oldest son of Stephen, the two and purity; he drove beyond seas the forparties agreed to terms of peace. Stephen eign mercenaries who had harbored in Engadopted Henry, and appointed him as his land during the reign of Stephen; he seized successor, one of the best acts of his troubled -the royal castles which had been usurped, reign. They lived in harmony with each and demolished those which had been reared other for about a year, when Stephen died for the purpose of systematic plunder. By on the 2Sth of October, 1154. He reigned these- vigorous steps of reformation Henry nineteen years, during the greater part of secured the effective administration of juswhich time England from causes alluded tice in his English dominions. One of the to exhibited a scene of misery unequalled leading features of his character was restless since the invasion of the Danes. The char- activity. On foot or on horseback he was actex of Stephen is not so deeply stained with perpetually in motion; and the moments atrocities as that of some of his predecessors, which he could spare from more important prbably because it was not so determined., concerns were usually devoted to the chase. In o.mparison'with them, the grasp which Some of the leading events of HIenry's he held of the seeptre was as feeble as his reign are associated with the name of Thom right to seize it-at all was equivocal.: as a Becket, who has been portrayed as a 202 HISTORY; OF THE WORLD. saint and martyr, or a hypocrite and traitor, with the primacy, than a change took place according to the religious bias of the histo- in his manners, more strongly contrasted rian who happened to draw the picture. with his former life than were the two offices One of I-enry's first measures was the pro- which he had held. Instead of a train, motion of this individual to the chancellor- which in splendor and fastidious pomp had ship of England, in which capacity he vig- rivalled the retinue of kings, he chose a few orously seconded the measures of reform monks the most conspicuous for their huwhich the king had undertaken. His ad- mility and mortification. Instead of the ministration has been characterized as alike oriental magnificence and gorgeousness of beneficial to the country and to the sover- apparel with which he loved to dazzle the eign, who loaded his favorite minister with eyes even of courtiers, he selected as his honors and emoluments. By the advice of chosen garment the roughest sackcloth. His Becket, Henry proposed a treaty of marriage sports and revels were exchanged for deeds between his eldest son and the daughter of of penitence and humiliation. Louis, King of France. On this occasion The first step which Becket took after his the chancellor undertook a journey to Paris, promotion was to return the seals of his displaying upon the occasion a pomp and former office to Henry, on the ground of his parade transcendently elaborate.. Henry incompetency to hold two such offices. This himself followed; and, although a rupture measure is said to have at first excited the ensued between the sovereigns about the indignation of the king, who had never be. city of Toulouse, which belonged of right fore heard Becket object to the prelacy on to the King of England, the enmities that account. But it was not until 1163, terminated with the marriage of their chil- when hostilities commenced between the dren whilst the infants were as yet. in the church and the state, that Becket and the cradle. In 1161, Theobald, the Archbishop king came fairly into collision. Previously of Canterbury, died, and Becket was recom- to the Norman conquest, ecclesiastical affairs mended as his successor by the king. The had, like others, been decided before the clergy of England, however, resisted the hundred, with the addition of the metropolnomination, declaring it to be unseemly for itan sitting as one of the judges. The Cona man who was rather a soldier than a priest, queror, however, had instituted a separate and whose life had been devoted to hunting tribunal, where the clergy were judged by and falconry, to be appointed an archbishop. a court comnposed of themselves, and from Slore than twelve months elapsed between that time they were independent of secular the nomination and appointment, during jurisdiction. Becket upheld this claim with which time Becket still retained the chan- firmness, as he ought to have done, until it cellorship, and evinced no change in his was formally set aside by the king and his feelings or way of living, which was emi- counsellors. This, however, did not justify nently worldly. He even went so far as to the decisions which were pronounced, and smile at the idea of metamorphosing the which had now become notoriously partial. gay and pompous Chancellor of England Crimes of the darkest description had fre. into the Archbishop of Canterbury; and he quently been perpetrated by ecclesiastics appears himself to have thought that the with the most scandalous impunity; for the choice arose from Henry's confidence that judges could not, inflict capital, nor indeed he would become the pliable instrument of any adequate punishment. An abominable his will in ecclesiastical affairs. If the king instance of seduction having attracted the anticipated such a consummation, never were notice of the king, he determined that those the hopes of man more miserably disappoint- chargeable with such atrocities should be ed. For no sooner was Becket invested tried before the criminal tribunals of the state. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 203 For this purpose he summoned a great coun- Henry, the king's son, but this was overcil at Westminster, where he demanded ruled. After being condemned as a perlthat ecclesiastics, whenever convicted of such jured traitor, he left the palace, his eyes offences, should be degraded, and handed fixed upon the cross, which he held uplifted Dver to a secular justiciary. His question in his hands; and, traveling in disguise, he was, Would they agree to observe the an- reached the port of Sandwich, whence he cient customs of the realm? Becket ans- immediately embarked for the Continent. wered " Yes, saving his order; " an ambiguous Becket was received with marks of esteem reply, which was echoed by the conclave of by the King of France, and likewise by the bishops present, with only one exception. pope, whose cause he had so strenuously deBut, although not at this assembly, he was fended in England. When Henry learned afterwards compelled to yield the point with- the flattering reception which the obnoxious out any reservation respecting his order. exile had received, he dispatched an embassy This formal assent was obtained at the cele- to expostulate with Louis, and sent another brated council of Clarendon, which took to Rome, to justify his conduct to the pontiff, place on the 25th of January, 1164. At But the ambassadors were received with this great or common council of the realm, coolness, if not with something which borfor the word parliament had not yet been dered upon contempt. The judgment of the introduced, Becket was compelled to yield barons and bishops was annulled by the pope, compliance to the demands of his sovereign. and those who should invade the property of At first he peremptorily refused his acquies- the church were declared to be cut of from cence; but the king, incensed at his obstin- the society of the faithful. Henry's irritaacy, menaced him with exile or death, whilst tion had now reached its climax, and he reseveral individuals of rank present entreated solved upon taking a bold step, which, had him with genuflections and tears to submit; the human mind been ripe for such a by which means a compliance was at last re- measure, might have ended in the separaluctantly wrung from him. He was now tion of the, English Church from that of not only mortified in the highest degree, Rome; but this achievement was reserved but, pretending extreme contrition for what for the Henry of a future day. He gave he had done, did open penance for his sup- orders to his justiciaries, prohibiting, under posed delinquency. He attempted to make severe penalties, all appeals to the pope or his escape to France, but was arrested for the archbishop, and forbiding any person to an offence against the institutions which he receive mandates from them, or to apply had recently signed. Henry was now exas- to their authority; and he declared it treasonperated beyond all bounds at the archbishop, able to bring over from either any interdict and assembled a parliament at Northampton, against the kingdom. On the other hanc obviously for the purpose of crushing him. the pope was not slow in issuing his fulminaBecket was accordingly summoned to ac- tions. Becket was ordered to excommunicount for rents and profits connected with cate Henry's chief ministers, and put the see his primacy. He arrayed himself in his of Canterbury, including about three-fourths sacerdotal vestments, and, with the cross in of the kingdom, under an interdict. But his hand, proceeded to the place appointed. Henry stood firm, and looked with indifferThe king complained to the council of the ence upon the papal lightnings which played insolent behaviour of Becket, and the whole around him. At last, however, he began to assembly joined in condemning his inconsis- dread the powers of his victim, chiefly on tency. The suit regarding rents, which was account of his continental dominions, and only intended as a menace, he attempted to proposed a reconciliation. The treaty of free himself from, by pleading a release by accommodation, although more than once 204 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. broken off, was finally concluded, and Becket the pope they were enjoined to make a -returned to the see of Canterbury without pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where they all having been compelled to make any express died, and were buried before the gate of the submission to the institutions of Clarendon. temple at Jerusalem. But the wounds had been too deep to be We come now to a very important event thus suddenly healed, and, though closed in the reign of HenryII., that is, the annexaat the surface, the venom still rankled under- tion of Ireland to the English crown; but neath. The arrogance and presumption of the details of his invasion it is unnecessary the primate returned along with his dignity. to relate here, as they will come in due IHe refused compliance with lthe terms of order to be treated of under the head of the general amnesty, and would not submit I IRELAND. to take the oath of homage for his barony; The king was scarcely freed from the Irish neither would he withdraw the whole of the war, and the dangerous controversy in which ecclesiastical censure from the prelates who he had engaged with the church of Rome, lay under it on account of their obedience to when he found himself involved in the most the king's commands. Several very impru- unnatural contests with his own children, to dent excommunications soon followed, and whom he had always behaved in the most so provokced Henry that he is said to have tender and affectionate manner. He had dropped certain passionate expressions, inti- ordered Henry, his eldest son, to be anointed mating something which was interpreted king; and he had destined that prince as into a desire that Becket's life might be his successor in the kingdom of England, taken away. The supposed will of the king the duchy of Normandy, and the counties.was instantly accomplished by four knights of Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, territories of distinguished rank, who repaired to the which lay contiguous, and which might thus church of Canterbury, where the primate easily afford mutual assistance to each other then officiated, and barbarously slew him at when necessity required. Richard, his second the foot of the altar. son, was invested with the duchy of G uienne That Henry did not intend the murder of and the county of Poitou; Geoffrey, his Becket, appears certain from his subsequent third son, inherited, in right of his wife, the conduct. He was thrown into the utmost duchy of Brittany; and the new conquest consternation on hearing of it, knowing well of Ireland was destined for John, his fourth that the primate's death would accomplish and youngest son. The last sixteen years what his most violent opposition during of Henry's life were embittered by family his lifetime could never have effected. He hostilities. A mighty confederacy was seabandoned himself to sorrow and mortifica- cretly formed against him, in which his tion, and for some time refused to take any three eldest sons participated. Louis VII. nourishment:. The pope was with some diffi- King of France, fed the disorder; for the culty made sensible of the king's innocence; power of the English monarch had now bebut declined to grant him a pardon, except come so formidable as to excite alarm and on condition that he should make every kindle jealousy in the breasts of the continen future submission, and perform every injunc- tal sovereigns. The young prince was pertion which the holy see thought proper to suaded to demand of his father some of the perscribe or impose. He was likewise en- dominions which he had been promised, and joined to perform a-humiliating penance at of which he was nominal sovereign; but he the tomb of Becket, who was in due time was refused. Upon this the prince made his canonized as a saint and venerated as a escape, and put himself under the protection martyr. The assassins, despairing of par- of the King of France. The French monarch don, sought refuge in a distant castle. By then invaded Normandy; and Richard a-nd HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 205 Geoffrey, the sons of King Henry, severally the title of lord paramount of his kingdom raised the, standard of revolt in Guienne and was virtually casting his crown at the feet Bretagne. William the Lion, King of Scot- of his enemy. A pacification was brought land, considering this as a favorable oppor- about at Falaise, ont he 28th of September, tunity for invading England, advanced into 1174, by which the princes were pardoned the northern counties, destroying all he met and enriched witn new liberalities. with. A great force cf foreign mercenaries, King Henry, however, was permitted to called Brabangons, landed in Sussex, under enjoy but a few years of repose. The disthe command of the Earl of Leicester, whilst sensions betwen him and his children again Prince Henry collected another army in broke out. The latter also quarreled amongst France in order to co-operate with them. themselves, and a most unnatural war enTo meet this formidable coalition against sued, in wiech neither party gave quarter. his authority, King Henry made the best But the death of Henry, the eldest son, for a preparations which circumstances admitted time suspended these disputes. This unof; and if we may judge of these by the re- fortunate prince died in 1183, of a fever suits which followed, he must have taxed his brought on by vexation and fatigue. Three constitutional activity to the utmost in col- years afterwards Geoffrey perished beneath lecting forces, and in opposing a barrier to the feet of a horse in a tournament at Paris, the tide of war which thus rolled onward so that the subjects of discord were di from every quarter, threatening to over- minished. The widow of Geoffrey, soon whelm his throne. Few of his own barons after his decease, was delivered of a son, who could be depended upon, and he had re- was named Arthur, and invested with the course to foreign mercenaries so largely em- duchy of Brittany, under the guardianship ployed by his adversaries. Twenty thousand of his grandfather, who, as duke of Norof these auxiliaries enlisted under his ban- mandy, was also suzerain lord of that terriners, and with them were united such of his tory. Philip, as lord paramount, disputed own nobles and retainers as could be trusted. the title of the English king to this wardThe enmity of the young princes against ship; but he was obliged to yield to the their father had been in no inconsiderable wishes of the Bretons, who preferred the degree excited and fostered by Eleanor their government of Henry. Some other causes mother, whom the incontinent and licentious inflamed the dissension between these monlife of Henry had for ever estranged from archs, and Philip once more seduced Richard her affections. She attempted to make her from his duty. He insisted that the marescape; but was taken prisoner, and con- riage of that prince with Adelais, his sister, signed to close imprisonment, where, with should be immediately completed, and threathe exception of a short interval, she re- tened to enforce his demands with a formained till the death of her husband. midable army. This lady had been conIn the meanwhile, the plan devised by the fined for a long time in a castle by Henry, allies began to be acted upon, as already in- who procrastinated the nuptials, until a susdicated; but Henry of England proved him- picion arose that he intended to appropriate self superior to the emergency. His foreign her to himself. At the conclusion of the enemies were on all sides discomfited, and truce which had followed the death of GeofWilliam of Scotland having accidentally frey, Richard finally forsook his father, and fallen into the hands of Henry, the. Scottish did homage to the King of France for his army broke up and dispersed. Their sove- continental dominions. reign afterwards obtained his freedom by the For some time the eyes of the monarchs humiliating surrender of his authority as of Christendom had been turned to Palesking of Scotland; for conceding to Henry tine, which the Sultan Saladin was overrurn 206 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ning with his mighty hosts. Ienry of Eng- the new levies of crusaders preparing to em. land was desirous of taking the cross and bark for the Holy Land. In such a sphere proceeding to Syria, but his perpetual con- nature had fitted the King of England to tests with his family detained him until the shine witjhout a rival. His landing in Palesholy city was taken by the infidels. The tine was destined to macrk an era, when the news of this event awakened feelings of Mloslemins were to encounter a warrior suregret and indignation throughout Christen- perior even to the most distinguished of their dom. The Emperor of Germany marched own in lofty daring and proud contempt of his bravest knights towards Asia. Philip danger, and lwhen the brows of their bravest of France and Henry agreed to follow, but chieftains were to darken at the name of the union of the former with Richard the Richard. son of the latter compelled the King of Eng- At his coronation an event occurred which land, in the first place, to look to the de- it is painful to mention, and too shocking to fence of his own territories, which were give in detail. The Jews, eager to express once more invaded by the confederates. The their fealty to their new sovereign, apwar proved very unfortunate for Henry, proached him in numbers, bearing rich prewho lost several towns, and very narrowly sents of gold and silver, commodities which escaped falling into the hands of the enemy. they well knew would be peculiarly acceptA treaty was at length agreed to, but the able to the king. In their endeavors to terms of it were very humiliating to the Eng- press forward towards the hall door during lish monarch. With a heart overwhelmed the state dinner, a scuffle ensued. The with grief, he returned to the castle of Chi- Jews resisted the ill treatment they received, non, where he soon afterwards expired, on which so inflamed the passions of the Enthe 6th of July 1189, in the thirty-fifth year glish mob that they arose on the defenceless of his reign and the fifty-seventh of his age. strangers, and drove away or destroyed Upon his death-bed he was sedulously at- them. This example of violence spread not tended by one of his natural sons, the fruit only over the city, but throughout the of an amour with Rosamond, whom popular country; and the unfortunate Israelites were romance and tradition have surnamed the massacred and plundered without mercy. Fair, and invested with every virtue but one. It was in vain that the king attempted to I Henry was interred with little pomp in the allay the tumult; the sanguinary rabble convent of Fontevraud, in the presence of would not desist until its ferocity and rapa. his rebellious son Richard, and a few knights; city were completely satiated. but Eleanor, his queen, survived him many Richard having equipped his armament, years, having been liberated by her son and acquired the necessary treasure by every Richard. means in his power (and from Iris natural Richard I. succeeded to the throne with- impatience he was never scrupulous on that out opposition, and was crowned on the 3d point), joined Philip of France and marched of September, 1189. The reign of this with him to Lyons. On his way Richard monarch, the Achilles of modern Europe, is relieved Portugal by joining the sovereign interwoven with events which are more alin of that country with five hundred knights, to romance, than to real history. His life is and bidding defiance to the Moors or Saramade up of the adventures of a knight-errant. cens. This was an evil omen for the followv His character was a singular compound of ers of the Prophet. After landing at Mesqualities noble and mean; of the grand and sina, he remained there six months, which the grovelling, the sublime and the grotesque. were chiefly occupied in warm disputes with Hie had no sooner ascended the throne than Tancred, who had usurped the Sicilian he began to make arrangements for joining crown. On the O10th of April, 1191, Richard HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 207 set sail fron this place; but his fleet having indignation at home; a feeling which was been dispersed by a storm, and the ship in responded to by the disinterested portion which were his sister Joan, and his betrothed of Europe. Richard's mother, along with wife Berengaria, being driven into Cyprus, the clergy of Germany, appealed to the he landed on that island for the purpose of pope; and the emperor, finding that his chastising the governor, who had treated conduct was condemned as disgraceful, made the royal ladies with some discourtesy. an attempt to justify it, by charging his prisRichard reduced the whole island, and after oner with several weighty crimes. These marrying Berengaria, and causing her to be were, his behaviour in Sicily, his conquest of crowned queen of England, he set sail for Cyprus, and the alleged murder of Conrad, St. Jean d'Acre, which afterwards surren- who was assassinated whilst contending for dered to him. The fall of this place opened the Christian kingdom of Palestine. The the way to Jerusalem, towards which he latter charge being by far the most serious, now advanced, performing on his way those every effort was made to vindicate Richard chivalrous deeds which taught the infidels from the guilt of the alleged crime. At to shudder at his name. In October, 1192, home the ministry exerted themselves to the Richard set sail from the Holy Land for utmost; and the most able prelates set out England, with a fleet which contained his for the Continent to bargain for his ransom. wife and sister, who appear to have reached I e was removed from a dungeon in the Tyrol their destination in safety. But a storm to the residence of the emperor at Haguenau, having dispersed the ships, Richard was and was taken from thence to Worms, for driven near Marseilles. Having learned, a final adjustment of differences. however, that plans were in agitation to In the meanwhile, his brother John, with seize his person (for Philip of France and Philip of France, were busily prosecuting other continental sovereigns, together with their plans for his destruction. Their design his brother, were leagued against him), he was to effect the utter ruin of Richard; and formed the unfortunate resolution of passing every method was tried to accomplish this through Germany in disguise. purpose. John made his feudal submission Hie landed at Zara, and after a variety of to Philip for his brother's continental posadventures and hairbreadth escapes, he was sessions; and having assembled an army, he at last arrested by Leopold, duke of Austria, returned to England with the intention who immediately ordered him to be loaded of seizing the crown, whilst his colleague with fetters. This prince had served under invaded Normandy. Both the confederates Richard at the siege of Acre, where he re- were completely unsuccessful. John, by ceived, or imagined he had received, some circulating false reports of his brother's injury at his hands, and took this base death, attempted to give a gloss of right mnethod of revenging himself. Henry VI., to his projected usurpation; but his dcluemperor of Germany, was then equally an plicity was too well known, and his armaenemy to Richard, on account of his having ment of foreign mercenaries was repulsed married Berengaria, the daughter of Tan- from the coast. cred, King of Sicily. He therefore required The negotiations for Richard's liberation the royal captive to be delivered into his ended at last in the agreement that a ransolr hands, and stipulated to pay a large sum of one hundred thousand marks of silve; of money to the duke as a reward for his should be paid for it. It was in vain that services. his mortal enemies, Philip and John, proThe disaster which had befallen the En- tracted his imprisonment. By a general tax glish monarch co-u I not long be concealed. the sum was raised; and soon after his emanThe news of his captivity spread general cipation he set out for England, where ]lhe 208: HISTORY OF THE WORLD. arrived on the 13th of March, 1194. The good action performed without compulsion. remainder of his reign is very unimportant; iHe is altogether alone, the lowest and most it was chiefly occupied with a species of abject slave that ever wore a crown. petty bickerings with Philip of France. The Richard had destined Arthur as his sucesmoney required for the crusade, and the ran- sor, and on his death, Mons, Tours, and AIjou, som of Richard, had so exhausted the finances appointed the youth, then Earl of Bretagne, of England, that the king found himself un- their lord. On the assumption of the crown able to undertake war upon a grand scale. of England and the dukedom of Normandy If we contemplate the character of the indi- by John, Constance, the mother of Arthur, vidual who found himself thus fettered by gave her son over to the care of Philip, king pecuniary necessities, this was a fortunate of France, who claimed for him his conticircumstance. It would be difficult to esti- nental possessions. A struggle ensued bemate the amount of human misery which tween the monarchs of France and England. was thus saved. After various undecisive Philip, who, it would appear, used Arthur battles and equivocal victories, Richard was entirely as a tool to suit his own purposes, mortally wounded before Chaluze, an obscure sent him with a military retinue into the docastle in the province of Limousin, held by minions to which he laid claim. lie took a rebellions vassal, and expired on the 6th the town of Mirabeau, saving a tower which of April, 1199, in the forty-second year of held out under Eleanor, the widow of HIenry his age and the tenthof his reign. II.; but on the night between the 31st of John, the brother of the late king, and the July, and the 1st of August, 1202, John youngest legitimate son of Henry II., sue- arrived and compelled the besiegers to surceeded to the throne without opposition; render. The prisoners were treated with for, although the hereditaryright, according a cruelty truly demoniacal, and worthy of to the modern acceptation of the term, was the man; but this was only the opening vested in his nephew Arthur, son of John's scene in the tragedy. Prince Arthur was elder brother Geoffrey, the uncle had also brought to Falaise, where he was confined a hereditary claim, as being nearest of kin for some time. He then all of a sudden to the deceased monarch, and the nation de- disappeared, and contemporary history has cided in his favor. I-Is coronation took ascribed to John the guilt of his murder. pTlace on the 27th of May, 1199. The char- That the hapless youth met with a violent acter of John is perhaps more strongly death is evident, and that he fell either by marked, and possesses more individuality his uncle's own hands, or by his orders, there than that of any other monarch on the list seems no reason to doubt. Even in that of English kings. In cowardly villainy, in semi-barbarous age, there was scarcely an perfidious malignity, in base ingratitude, in individual capable of committing such an unprincipled cruelty, in grossness of appetite, atrocity, excepting the wretch who, a few in meanness, wealkness, and every vicious in- years afterwards took a diabolical pleasure firmity, this prince figures in the page of in starving to death the wife and childrern of history almost without a rival. Other kings a nobleman who had offended him, end there may have been whose vices are black hanging twenty-eight Welsh hostages, beenough to call forth the execrations of poster- sides other atrocities too horrible to be ity; but the halo of talent which emblazons named. their names serves to mitigate the severity By this foul deed, a third part of John's jf censure. John, however, stands before dominions were wrenched from his grasp. us utterly divested of any such quality; his Philip Augustus summoned John, as duke character is unredeemed by one solitary vir- of Normandy tnd Aquitaine, to answer bethe; his reign is unillustrated by one solitary fore a court of neers to the charge of having HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 209 murdered Arthur, Duke of Brittany. But was not to -be thus contemptuously treated. he dreaded the tribunal, and having refused An interdict was threatened, unless come to appear, he was branded as a murderer, pliance with the wishes: (if the papal court condemned to death, and' adjudged to lose was immediately yielded. In vain the prelall his French territories. The King of ates in the most supplicating manner enFrance moved onwards from conquest, to treated the king to give his consent to conquest, and one by one the provinces of the measure. With that stoical indifferthe English monarch were seized and annexed ence to human suffering which he uniformly to the dominions of Philip; Touraine, MIaine evinced, he determined that both himself and Anjou in 1203, the duchy of Normandy and the nation should brave the vengeance in 1205, and the county of Poitou in 1206. of Rome. Ite swore that if it descended Another important event in the reign of upon him, he would banish the whole clergy, John was his contest with the pope, the only and confiscate their possessions. The pope, contest indeed in which he ever displayed any- however, laughed his menaces to scorn, and thing of that spirit which had fired the bosoms published that terrible interdict, which in of his ancestors.' The clergy had for some those ages was calculated to make the heart of time acted as a community independent of a nation tremble. A stop was immediately put the civil power, owning subjection to the to divine service, and the administration of all pope alone, by whom their elections were the rites of religion except baptism, and the usually confirmed. The election of the confession, absolution, and extreme unction Archbishop of Canterbury had been a sub- to the dying. The church doors were shut, ject of contention between the suffragan and the images of the saints deposed. The bishops of the province, and the monks of dead were refused Christian burial, and St. Augustin's abbey in that city. Each thrown promiscuously into ditches and on party claimed the right of choosing; but the highways without any funeral solemnity. under this question was concealed the more Other injunctions, equally severe, were inimportant one, whether the king or the pope eluded in this formidable interdict; and had the power of nomination; for the bishops John, in revenge, persecuted the clergy with were accessible to the influence of the crown, unsparing rigour. But his furious and imand the monks, in consistency with the ge- prudent efforts proved useless. Innocent renius of their order, were biassed by Rome. mained firm, and two years thereafter, 1209, In the mean time the archbishop died, and launched his last thunderbolt at the English the monks privately elected Reginald their monarch. He excommunicated John, ab. superior in his room. The bishops remon- solved his subjects from their oath of alstrated against this as an innovation on their legiance, and soon afterwards deposed him. privileges; and the king took part in the He also commisioned the King of France to, contest, with the resolution of raising the take his crown; and published a crusade all Bishop of Norwich to the primacy. The over Christendom against King John, exhortcause was appealed to Rome; and Pope In- ing the chivalry of Europe to take up arms nocent III., eager to extend his power in against him, and enlist under the French England, commanded the election of Stephen banner. Philip was not less active on his Langton, a most unexceptionable individual, part. He summoned all the vassals of the and one who, in the sequel, proved himself crown to attend him at Rouen; and having eminently worthy of the highest station. collected a fleet of 1700 vessels, was realdy, John, however, incensed at this proceeding, in 1213, to invade England. violently expelled the monks from their con- But the fulminations of the pope were vent, took possession of it himself, and seized alike disregarded by John and his subjects, upon the revenues. The tiara, however who had now become familiar with them. 210 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. His strength does not appear to have been him odious to his subjects. His scandalous lessened, for the only successful expeditions subjection to the clergy now gave the barons of his reign, those against Ireland and Wales, an opportunity of exerting themselves, in were undertaken during -the period of his order to reduce the enormous prerogatives proscription by the see of Rome. In order to of the crown. Their designs were greatly meet the king of France, he assembled a vast facilitated by the concurrence of Langton, army; but it was not the interest of his the primate, who on all occasions showed a holiness to allow matters to be carried to ex- sincere regard for the interests of the kingtremities. He accordingly sent over two dom. At a synod of his prelates and clergy, legates, Pandulf and Durand, who, in a convened in St. Paul's on pretence of exammeeting of Parliament holden at North- ining into the losses of some bishops who hampton, ventured to declare to John, that had been exiled by John, he privately conhe was bound to obey the holy see as much ferred with a number of barons, to whom in temporal as in spiritual affairs. After he expatiated upon the vices and injustice shuffling according to custom, John, at the of their sovereign. He showed them a copy head of an army capable of bidding defiance of Henry I.'s charter, the only one in the to any invader, surrendered himself to the kingdom, having been found amidst the rubwill of the pope, and acceded to all the terms bish of an obscure monastery. Langton exwhich Pandulf had exacted. With a mean- horted the barons to insist on a renewal ness of spirit almost exceeding belief, he laid thereof; and this they solemnly swore to his crown at the feet of the haughty legate, perform. The same agreement was afterresigned England and Ireland into the hands wards renewed at a more numerous meeting of the pope, swore homage to him as his of barons summoned by Langton at St. Edliege lord, and took an oath of fealty to his mondsbury. Here it was resolved that at successors. Christmas they should prefer their common This oath was taken by the king before petition in a body, and in the mean time all the people, kneeling, and with his hands they separated, intending to put themselves held up between those of the legate. Hav- in a posture of defence, to enlist men, and ing then agreed to install Langton in the to make other warlike preparations. In the primacy, he received the crown which he beginning of January, 1215, they repaired had been supposed to have forfeited; whilst to London, accoutred in the military garb the legate, to add to his former insolence, and with their equipage, and presented their trampled under his feet the tribute which petition to the king, alleging that he had John had consented to pay, but afterwards promised to grant a confirmation of the laws stooped to gather it up. The King of France of Edward the Confessor, at the time when was enraged at this behaviour of the pope, he was absolved from his excommunication. and resolved to execute his project of con- John resented their presumption; and requering England in spite of him and his quired a promise under their hands and seals censures. His fleet, however, was attacked that they would never demand or attempt to in their harbors by the English, who took extort such privileges in future. But this three hundred vessels, and destroyed about they refused with such unanimity and resoa hundred more; whilst Philip, finding it lution, that the king desired time to consider impossible to prevent the rest from falling of their petition; at the same time promisinto the hands of the enemy, set fire to them ing that, at the festival of Easter, he would himself, and thus abandoned the enterprise. give a positive answer. He also offered John being thus delivered from all danger, securities, which the barons accepted, and continued to follow the same cruel and tyr- thereafter withdrew. ranical measures which had hitherto rendered John, however, had no intention of corn !Britoil!! I.radiological!, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 211 plying with their demands, for it is evident ever, took Bedford, and were joyfully re. that his promise was extorted from him by ceived in London. fear. He had recourse to the clergy, whose The concurrence of the metropolis proved favor he propitiated by promising many decisive of the contest. It was in vain that things whi.ch he had not the slightest inten- the pope fulminated a bull in favor of his tion of ever performing. The pope was vassal John; the many were unanimous, and likewise appealed to, who threw the weight the few were compelled to yield the point. of his authority into the scale of his vassal, The king, with a court now reduced to seven and exhorted the barons to abandon their attendants, retired to Odiham, where, seeing treasonable enterprise. At the same time the necessity of submitting, he agreed to a his holiness also agreed to consider their pe- friendly conference. The barons named as tition, and to endeavor to obtain for them a proper place for meeting, Runnymede. It the concession of those demands which ap- was a meadow situated between Staines and peared to be just. But, happily for English Windsor, and, like the holy ground of the liberty, the confederates disregarded the ill- Hebrews, it is still held in veneration as the junctions of Innocent III., who by his de- spot where the standard of English freedom cision had now more embroiled thile fray. was first unfurled. On the 15th of June, Both parties gave up all hopes of a peaceful 1215, both parties met there; and, having negociation at the ensuing festival, and made taken up separate stations, a long discussion the best preparations they could for war, in ensued, which terminated in the king signwhich the barons had an unequivocal superi- ing the charter, called, by way of pre-emority. inence, 1Magna Charta. After waiting until Easter, when the king This charter, however, at the time when promised to return them an answer, they it was granted, secured liberty to the clergy, met by agreement at Stamford. There they the barons, and the gentlemen, much more assembled a force of above two thousand than to the bulk of the people, who did not knights, with a prodigious number of foot, for a long time obtain any privileges of imllland thence marched to Brackley, about fif- portance. teen miles from Oxford, then the court resi- But, although John had thus been obliged denuce. John hearing of their approach, to recognize the liberty of his subjects, he sent the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Earl had no mind that they should in reality enof Pembroke, and others of his council, to joy it. The sense of his subjection to his know the particulars of their request, and own vassals sunk deep into his soul, and he what those liberties were which they so became sullen, silent and reserved. He shunmuch importuned him to grant. The barons I ned the society of his former friends, and delivered a schedule containing the chief retired into the Isle of Wight, as if to hide articles of their demands, founded on the his disgrace in solitude, but, in reality, to charters of Henry and Edward, but which meditate plans of revenge. He sent to the were in the highest degree displeasing to the Continent in order to enlist a large body of king. He burst into a furious passion, and, mercenary troops, and made heavy comnasking the barons why they did not also de- plaints to the pope on account of the insur-. mand his kingdom, swore that he would rections of the barons against him. The never comply with such exorbitant requests. pontiff, as might be expected, warmly esThe confederates then as their general chose poused his cause; a bull was sent over, anRobert Fitzwalter, whom they dignified with nulling the whole charter; the principal tht.3 title of Mareschal of the army of God barons were excommunicated by name, and and of the holy church. They laid siege to declared to be worse than Saracens; and at Northamlton, but were repulsed; they, how- the same time, the foreign troops arriving 212 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the king once more found himself in a con- ed as Henry III., upon the 28th of October, dition to demand his own terms from his 1216, nine days after he succeeded to the imtractable subjects. inchoate right to the throne. The care of The barons had made no preparations for his person was entrusted to the Earl off Pemrwar, not suspecting the introduction of a broke, earl-marshal, with the style and title foreign army. The king, therefore, was for of guardian of the kingdom. Through the some time undisputed master of the field, instrumentality of this nobleman the great and the most horrid cruelties were commit- charter of liberties was revived, and the ted by his army. The nobility, who had claims of the crown were reconciled with been most active in procuring the great char- those of the subject, to the satisfaction of ter, accordingly fled with their families to the adverse barons. Besides the eldest son Scotland, where they obtained the protection of John, there was another competitor for of King Alexander by doing homage to him. the crown, namely, Louis of France, who The barons, finding themselves totally una- had been called over by the barons of Runble to raise an army capable of contending nymede, in order to take possession of the with that of John, resorted to the equivocal English throne. For some time Louis kept and perilous expedient of calling in foreign the field, and not without success; but he aid. They applied to their old enemy Philip was defeated at Lincoln; and a fleet which of France, offering the crown to his eldest his father had sent to him with succors havson Louis, upon the condition of their being ing been totally destroyed by the English, protected from the fury of John, and the he was compelled to abandon the enterprise, unprincipled mercenaries whom he com- and to make an honorable retreat. manded. The French king eagerly accepted A peaceful king is looked upon either as their proposals, and dispatched his son with a imbecile or as pusillanimous by an age which powerful army to England. He was received feels the intoxication of military glory, and' by the barons with great acclamations, and considers the principal duties of a monarch having united their forces, they secured all to be " to go out and in before his people, the southern counties. Essex and Sussex and fight their battles." The reign of Henry were soon after added; and they advanced III. is but little adorned with the triumphs successfully into Norfolk, spreading around of war; and, if we are not mistaken, it has them all the devastations of civil war. The been too much depreciated on this account. forces of John occupied the northern dis- But this fact, as well as his monarchical tricts, where the King of Scotland harassed character, we shall be enabled to ascertain him by an invasion of Northumberland. with more certainty after we have passed in But these hostilities, which might ultimately review the principal events of his reign. have ruined the independence of the country, Its early history exhibits only some of those by sinking it to the level of a French prov- evils incident to an injudicious, but not, ince, were happily terminated by the death strictly speaking, wicked administration. In of John, in the forty-ninth year of his age, 1225, the great charter was a third time conand seventeenth of his reign. His demise firmed, upon the occasion of Henry assemtook place at Newark, on the 19th of Octo- bling a great council, and urgently demandber, 1216. ing aid against a pretended invasion of the John left six legitimate children, namely, French. In consequence of this, it has ever three sons and three daughters. The eldest since retained its place at the head of Engof the former, Henry of Winchester, was lish statutes. The wardship of the young only ten years of age when he found himself king had'now solely devolved upon Hubert in possession of the title, although not en- de Burgh, the grand justiciary, and a man tirely of the power, of king, He was crown- I of ability and spirit, but nurtured under j HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 213 Richard and John. For several years he other powerful princes who aspired to it. ruled as the favorite without control, repress- In order to raise the money necessary to ing the disorders of the times with a vigor- carry his foolish project into execution, Henry ous, but, in the eye of an enlightened age, had recourse to every expedient which the cruel policy. In 1227, Henry was declared regal or papal ministers could devise. The in parliament to have attained to the years principal burden fell upon the clergy, who, of discretion; and two, years afterwards he by the menace of excommunication on the resumed the project of conquering France, one side, and of forfeiture on the other, were and landed there with a considerable army. compelled to submit. This oppression widThe expedition proved most disgraceful to ened more and more the breach between the English arms; and in a year after he re- the king and his people; and he found it turned to his country not a little humbled in necessary at last to look to the security of its estimation; as well as his own. The next his own crown, instead of fighting for a forevent of importance which we meet with is eign diadem to grace the brow of his son. the disgrace of De Burgh, who was accused Amongst the foreigners of distinction who of negligence and treachery in the discharge established themselves in England during of his duties; with what degree of truth it the reign of Henry III. was Simon de Montis difficult now to determine. tIe was im- fort, Earl of Leicester. He was the younger prisoned for some time, but afterwards re- son of the Count de Montfort, celebrated in stored to liberty, honors and emoluments. the annals of religious warfare for his savage In 1236, Henlry espoused Eleanor of Prov- crusade against those dissenters from the Roence. This event gave rise to a new immi- man faith called Albigois or Albigenises. gration of foreigners of higher rank and Simon the younger received the hand of more specious pretensions than those who King Henry's sister in marriage, and very usually flocked to the soil of England. One early began to act a conspicuous part in the of the queen's uncles became prime minis- civil commotions which agitated the counter, a second was made primate, and a third try. He was a bold and ambitious man; Earl of Richmond. This favoritism excited and, placing himself at the head of the dismuch discontent both amongst the native affected barons, he formed a powerful conbarons and the people. The other events federacy against the king. In the year 1258, of this long reign consist of petty wars and a famous parliament was summoned at Oxbickerings with France, Scotland and Wales. ford, in order to digest the new plan of govThe prodigality of the king was extreme, ernment, and to elect to the chief authority and he was repeatedly compelled to lay his such individuals as were deemed worthy of necessities before Parliament and solicit sup- trust. This assembly, afterwards celebrated plies. These were as often afforded; but in English annals by the derisive name of notwithstanding these grants, he had fre- the Xfad Parliament,went very expeditiously quent recourse, under specious pretexts, to to work in the business of reformation. the most unjust exactions. Meanwhile Eng- Twenty-four barons were appointed, with land rapidly increased in wealth, and widely supreme authority, in order to reform the extended her commercial relations with other abuses of the state; and Leicester was placed countries. at their head. Twelve of these barons were In the year 1254, at the instance of the chosen by the king's council, and twelve by pope, Henry accepted of the crown of Sicily the Parliament. Their first step was to orfor his son Edmund. It had been formerly der four knights to be chosen out of each offered to his brother Richard, who was wise county, who should examine into the state enough not to accept of it, probably because of their respective constituents, and attend he felt himself unable to compete with the at the ensuing Pa'liament to give informa. .214 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tion of their complaints. They ordained that the Archbishop of Canterbury to ex:commu three sessions of Parliament should be regu- nicate all who refused to submit to it. larly held every year; that a new high The moment the decision was made known sheriff should be elected annually; that no to the barons, they declared it to be contrary wards nor castles should be entrusted to to truth and justice, and immediately took foreigners, no new forests made, nor the the field. The contest was at first favorable revenues of any counties farmed out. Thus to the royal prerogative; but in 1264 Prince far these provisions were good, and an ap- Edward lost a great battle by his impetuosproximation to popular representation, al- ity in pursuing too far one of the wings of though some modern writers have designated the enemy's army, which he had defeated. the whole transaction as a revolution. His father and uncle were taken prisoners, The twenty-four barons continued to con- and placed in the castle of Lewes, where he duct the affairs of government for several contrived to join them. They acceded to years; but they at last began to quarrel the propositions submitted to them, and the amongst themselves. The Earls of Glouces- administration of the kingdom fell into the ter and Leicester pursued opposite interests, hands of the Earls of Gloucester and Leicesand formed opposite parties, who eyed each ter, and the Bishop of Chichester. other with mutual jealousy. Leicester, per- The situation to which the kingdom was ceiving that his rival was likely to gain the' now reduced proved at last the means of ascendency, retired to France; but the bal- settling the government upon a more proper ance was again restored in his favor by the foundation. Leicester, in order to secure union of Prince Edward with his friends. A himself, was obliged to have recourse to an short time after this event, the rival parties aid, till now entirely unknown in Englandseem to have assumed, if not the reality, at namely, that of the body of the people. He least the appearance of unanimity. In 1262, called a parliament, where, besides the barons Henry made a fruitless attempt to escape of his own party, and several ecclesiastics from the authority of the barons; but his who were not properly tenants of the crown, son Edward remained firm to their cause, he ordered returns to be made of two knights on account of his having sworn to observe from every shire; and also deputies from the provisions of Oxford. After other in- the boroughs, which had been hitherto coneffectual attempts upon the part of the king, sidered as too inconsiderable to be allowed lie agreed that the twenty-four noblemen any share in the legislation. This Parliashould continue to govern, not only during ment was called on the 22d of January, his own reign, but also during that of his 1265; and here we find the first outline of successor. By this stipulation, Edward joined an English House of Commons; an instituhis father, which restored vigor to the royal- tion which has ever since been considered, ists, and more equally balanced the power and justly, as the bulwark of British liberty. of the parties. It was proposed that the dif- The new Parliament was far from being ferences between them' should be submitted so compliant to Leicester as he had desired for arbitration to Louis IX., and both swore or expected. Many of the barons who had to. abide by his decision. That excellent hitherto steadfastly adhered to his party were monarch enjoined the restoration of all cas- disgusted with his boundless ambition; and ties, possessions and royal rights enjoyed by the people, who found that a change of masthe crown before the Parliament of Oxford, ters was not a change of circumstances, beupon condition of universal amnesty, and of gan to wish for the re-establishment of royal the full enjoyment of all the privileges and authority. Leicester, at last making a virtue liberties granted by the charter. The award of necessity, released Prince Edward from was confirmed by the pope, who empowered his confinement, and had him introduced at HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 215 Westminster-hall, where his freedom was con- them with great slaughter. Leicester him firmed by the unanimous voice of the barons. self was slain, together with his eldest son But though Leicester had all the popularity Henry, and about 160 knights arid other of restoring the prince, he was yet politic' gentlemen. The body of the fallen earl was en)ugh to keep a strict watch over him. mutilated in a frightful manner, and portions Edward was nominally free, but in reality a of it sent to various places. Is memory prisoner. At last, however, he found means was long revered by the people, who looked to effect his escape. The Duke of Glouces- upon him as a martyr to the liberties of the ter, being disgusted with Leicester, left the realm. But a vigorous reign ensued, and court, and retired to his estates upon the the national feeling was suppressed, or diborders of Wales. His antagonist pursued rected to other objects. He left, however, him thither, and, in order to give the greater an imperishable name, as the first who had authority to his arms, carried the king and called together a Parliament of which the Prince Edward along with him. This af- lower house composed part. forded young Edward an opportunity which The victory of Evesham restored the forlie had long desired of making his escape. tunes of the royalists. The followers of Being furnished by the Earl of Gloucester Leicester were proscribed, and their lands with a horse of extraordinary speed, he took distributed amongst the victors. With the leave of his attendants, or rather his guards, death of Montfort the spirit departed from under pretence of trying the mettle of his the baronial party, whose members hastened steed. -He was hotly followed; but an end to give in their submission, and open the was put to the pursuit by the appearance of gates of their castles to the king. Several some of Gloucester's troops. places, however, still held out; but by the No sooner was the prince at liberty than activity and valor of Prince Edward they the royalists joined him from all quarters, were all finally reduced. The country suband an army was soon assembled which mitted, and the royal authority was comproved more than sufficient to meet the pletely re-established throughout the realm. forces of Leicester. The latter now found The good sense of Edward, however, infused himself in a remote quarter of the kingdom, a wiser and more popular spirit into the consurrounded by his enemies, and shut out duct of government. So judicious appears from all communication with his friends by to have been his administration, indeed, that, the river Severn, the bridges on which Ed- in a few years after the battle of Evesham, ward had broken down. In this extremity he felt himself in a capacity to take the he wrote to his son to hasten to his assist- cross, and enlist under the banners of the ance from London, with a considerable body crusaders. This step of the heir-apparent to of troops which the latter had under his com- the crown of England may appear somewhat mand. With this view his son advanced to extraordinary, when we consider the advancKenilworth; but here he was surprised by ed period of life to which his father had now Prince Edward, and the greater portion of attained, and the civil commotions from his followers were made prisoners. The which he had so recently emerged. But in young prince immediately advanced upon an age when it was common to ascribe any Leicester himself, whose last anchor had given sudden transition of fortune from one exway with the defeat of his son. He was by treme to another, to the immediate interpo, no means able to cope with the royalists; sition of Providence, it is less to be wondered his men were inferior both in numbers and at. The recent deliverance of himself and resolution to their antagonists. In the bat- his father from their enemies had incurred a tle which ensued, the royalists gained a sig- i debt of gratitude to heaven which it was nal victory over their opponents, defeating now his desire to pay off. His expedition to 216. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the Holy Land was of little importance, and ceeded in reducing the country to great dis. was moreover in no way connected with the tress, and in even nominally attaching it to history of his country, although it was dis- the English crown as a conquered province. tinguished by those romantic adventures and (For an account of these transactions, see chivalrous feats of arms peculiar to the age, the article SCOTLAND.) Edward was at the and more especially to the wars of Palestine. same time engaged in expensive contests The remaining events of Henry II.'s reign with France; and these multiplied wars, by afford no materials for history. He died on obliging him to have frequent recourse to the 16th of November, 1272, in the fifty- parliamentary supplies, became the remote seventh year of his reign. causes of great and important changes in the Edward, upon hearing the news of his fa- government. The Parliament was modelled ther's death, and feeling himself secure of into the form which it has ever since retainthe throne, returned slowly from the Holy ed. As a great part of the property of the Land. He arrived in England in August, kingdom, by the introduction of commerce 1274, and was crowned at Westminster on and by improvements in agriculture, was the 19th of the same month. Two years af- transferred from the barons to the lower terwards he undertook an expedition against classes of the people, so their consent was Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, who had refused thought necessary in order to raise the supto do homage for his crown. The conquest plies. For this reason the king issued writs of that country cost him some trouble, and to the sheriffs, enjoining them to send to was not completed until the year 1283. Af- Parliament, along with two knights of the ter this period the principality of Wales was shire, two deputies from each borough withannexed to the crown of England, and thence- in their county; and these, too, provided forth conferred a title upon the king's eldest with sufficient powers from their constituson. In 1286, Wales had been so entirely ents to grant such demands as they should broken into subjection, that Edward under- think reasonable for the safety of the state. took a journey to the Continent for the pur- The charges of these deputies were to be pose of mediating a peace between Alonzo borne by the boroughs which sent them; of Aragon and Philip- the Fair of France. and so far were they from considering this These two monarchs had differed about the deputation as an honor, that nothing could kingdom of Sicily; but a negociation was be more displeasing to any borough than to effected, and the King of England returned be thus obliged to send a deputy, or to any to his country after an absence of three years, individual than to be thus chosen. The auduring which period much disorder had been thority of these commoners, however, increasintroduced into his dominions. Robbery ed in course of time. Their union gave them and violence had become frightfully preva- weight; and it became customary among lent, and the corruption of the judges had them, in return for the supplies which they poisoned the fountains of justice. In order granted, to prefer petitions to the crown for to remedy these evils, Edward summoned a the redress of grievances. The more the Parliament, and cited the delinquents to ap- king's necessities increased, the more he pear and take their trial. All of them, ex- found it necessary to give them an early cept two clergymen, having been convicted hearing, until, from requesting, the comnof flagrant acts of corruption and bribery, mons proceeded to demanding; and, having were accordingly fined, and deposed from all the property of the nation, they by detheir office. grees began also to be possessed of a consid The next great event of Edward's reign erable share of the power. was an attempt to subjugate Scotland. This Edward I. died of a dysentery, near Carhe never altogether effected, although he sue- lisle, on the 7th of July, 1307, as he was HISTORY OF, THE WORLD. 217 leading a great army into Scotland, against soon formed against the fa vorite, at the head the inhabitants of which he had vowed the of which was the queen and the Earl of Lanmost dreadful vengeance. He was succeeded caster, a relation of the king's, and the most by the eldest of his surviving sons, who bore powerful nobleman in England. Edward his father's name, but inherited nothing of found himself unable to protect his favorite his capacity, and who was crowned on the against such a formidable combination, and 8th of July, 1307, with great magnificence. was compelled to banish him. His recall His father had charged him upon his death- some time afterwards again spread alarm bed to prosecute the war against Scotland over the country, and kindled a civil war. until he had finally subdued the kingdom; The nobility were successful in obtaining but war had few attractions for Edward II., possession of the obnoxious Gaveston; and, and he withdrew his army ingloriously from in order to free themselves for ever from the country which his father went to subju- uneasiness on his account, they put him to gate. - The first years of Edward's reign are death. distinguished for nothing but bickerings with After the defeat of Bannockburn, King his barons, who finally extorted from him a Edward chose a new favorite named Hugh reformation of abuses in full Parliament. le Despencer. HIe was a young man of a The Scots in the meantime gradually recov- noble English family, and possessed some ered their power; and Edward having in- merit, and engaging accomplishments. His vaded their country with a prodigious force, father was a person of apparently unimpeachwas met by Robert Bruce at Bannockburn, able character, but he also enjoyed the king's near Stirling, who totally defeated the puis- favor, and that was a sufficient crime. The sant army of the English on the 24th of king imprudently dispossessed some lords June, 1314. of their'estates, in order to bestow them The reign of Edward II. was one continued upon young Despencer. This afforded a sufseries of quarrels with his turbulent subjects. ficient pretext to the barons for openly atHis favorites were the most general causes tacking both the father and son. The Earls of discontent. The first of these was one of Lancaster and Mortimer, chief of the Pierce Gaveston, the son of a Gascon knight Welsh marshes, flew to arms; and sentence of some distinction. The latter had honor- of perpetual exile against the two Spencers, ably served the late king, and, in reward for with a forfeiture of all their estates, was prohis services, had obtained an establishment cured from Parliament. At last the king for his son in the family of the Prince of took the field, and obtained a signal victory Wales. To be the favorite of any king what- over the other party at Boroughbridge. The soever is no doubt in itself a sufficient of- Earl of Lancaster was made prisoner, and be fence to the rest of the courtiers. Number- headed a few days afterwards at his own less faults were therefore found with Gaves- castle of Pomfret. This individual was ton by the English barons. When the king canonized in 1389. Many other noblemen went over to France to espouse the Princess suffered the same punishment without havIsabella, to whom he had been long con- ing the same respect paid to their memory, tracted, Gaveston was left guardian of the whilst Mortimer was condemned to perpetrealm, with more ample powers than had ual imprisonment. usually been conferred in such cases. But The triumph of the Spencers was now upon the arrival of the queen, who was of complete; but the partiality with which the an imperious and intriguing spirit, Gaveston king regarded his two favorites had the efhad the misfortune to fall under her displeas- feet of alienating not only the affections of ure, on account of the ascendency he had his subjects, but also those of his queen. acquired over the king A conspiracy was Other charges are brought against Edward 218 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. as having contributed to effect this estrange- crimes than his incapacity to govern, his in ment, and Isabella sought an opportunity of dolence, his love of pleasure, and his accesi, escaping from her husband. The palace of sibility to evil counsel. His disposition was her brother at Paris was her natural place quickly voted by Parliament; he was asof refuge. A rupture having commenced signed a pension for his support; his son between England and France, the queen pro- Edward, a youth of fourteen, was appointed ceeded to the court of the latter as negocia- to succeed him, and the queen was nominattor, and concluded a peace humiliating to ed regent during the minority. But the deher husband..But she had another object posed monarch did long survive his disgrace. in view in visiting her native country. Her He was at first put into the custody of the residence became a sanctuary for the Eng- Earl of Lancaster; but this nobleman havlislh malcontents, who flocked to her in great ing shown some marks of respect and pity numbers; and amongst these came IMorti- for the misfortunes of his sovereign, the latmer, who had contrived to effect his escape, ter was taken out of his hands and delivered and for whom she had been charged with over to the Lords Berkeley, Maltravers and entertaining a stronger passion than that of Gournay, who were entrusted alternately, friendship. The cause of quarrel between each for a month, with the charge of guardthese two powers was the county of Guienne, ing him. Whilst he was in Berkeley's cusfor which the monarch of France required tody, he was still treated with some degree Edward to do homage and fealty. The dis- of humanity; but when the turn of Malputed territory was resigned to the young travers and Gournay came, every species of Prince of Wales, who joined his mother, and indignity was practiced upon him, as if they made the necessary submissions. When Isa- had designed to accelerate his death by acbella considered that matterswere sufficient- cumulating his mental sufferings. As his ly matured for executing her purpose, she persecutors, however, saw that his death landed in England on the 22d of September, might not speedily arrive, even under every 1326, where she was universally welcomed, cruelty which ingenuity could devise, and as and immediately joined by the most potent they were daily afraid of a revolution in his barons. The unfortunate king found that favor, they determined to put their fears to the spirit of disloyalty had spread over the rest by destroying him at once. Mortimer, whole kingdom. So-me dependencewas plac- therefore, secretly gave orders to the two ed upon the garrison of Bristol, which was keepers to dispatch the king; and these rufcommanded by the elder Spencer; but the fians contrived to render the manner of his soldiers rebelled against their governor, and death as barbarous as possible. Taking ad. delivered him into the hands of the barons, vantage of Berkeley's sickness, in whose cusby whom he was cruelly put to death. Young tody he then was, and who was thereby inSpencer did not long survive his father. capacitated from attending to his charge, Along with some others who had followed they came to Berkeley Castle, and obtained the fortunes of the wretched king, he was possession of the king's person. They threw made prisoner in an obscure convent in him on a bed, and held him down with a Wales; and the queen having no patience table which they had placed over him. They to wait the formality of a trial, gave orders then ran a horn pipe into his bowels, through for his immediate execution. which they conveyed a red-hot iron; and In the meantime the king was discovered thus deprived him of life without disfiguring anmid delivered up to his adversaries, who his body. The murderers fled on the perpcloaded him with insults. He was conducted tration of this horrible enormity; for the dyto the capital, and consigned to the Tower. ing agonies of the king created suspicions The charge against him exhibited no other which ended in tie discovery of the crime. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 219 Orn., of the fugitives was taken at Marseilles, letter to that prince, which was betrayed and beheaded on his way to England. The into the hands of Mortimer, now Earl of other concealed himself for some years in March, by the individual who had underGermany; but having found means of ren- taken to deliver it. The writer of the epistle dering some services to Edward III. he ven- was immediately tried for high treason, con. tired to approach the person of that mon- demned and executed. There is little doubt arch, and by his humiliating submission re- that the whole affair of the letter was a plot ceived a pardon. laid for the destruction of Kent, not only to By the death of Edward II. the govern- get him out of the way, but to show that ment fell entirely into the hands of the queen there was no one too high not to be struck and Mortimer, who had now the disgraceful down by the vengeance of Mortimer. pre-eminence of royal paramour. The Par- Edward finding the restraint under which liament, which had raised young Edward to he was retained becoming irksome, resolved the throne, had indeed appointed twelve per- to shake it off, and to rid himself and the sons as his privy council, to direct the oper- nation at once of an authority which had ations of government. Mortimer excluded now become alike odious to both. The queen himself, under a show of moderation; but and her paramour had repaired to Nottingat the same time secretly influenced all the ham, where a Parliament was then held. measures which came under their deliber- They had chosen the castle as a place of resiation. As this influence began very soon to dence, and taken every precaution to ensure be perceived, and the queen's criminal at- their safety; for fear follows guilt like its tachment to Mortimer was universally known, shadow. The enemies of Mortimer, howthe administration soon became obnoxious to ever, found means to obtain admission at the people. It had continued four years, dead of night; and having seized him as he when a circumstance occurred which added lay in an apartment adjoining to that of the greatly to its unpopularity. The Scots hav- queen, he was taken prisoner to London, ing made an irruption into England, were tried before his peers for various crimes, conmet by an overwhelming force under young victed and executed. Edward, or rather Mortimer. The results The queen, who was perhaps the most of this mighty expedition were most ludi- culpable of the two, was screened from capicrous. By their superior skill and activity, tal punishment by the dignity of her station, the Scots foiled the English commanders, but stripped of all power, and confined for and made their escape into their own coun- life to the castle of Risings. Fromr this imtry. Soon after this inglorious campaign, a prisomnent she was never liberated, but dursolemn treaty of peace was concluded, in ing her life the king paid her an annual visit which Edward, for a sum of money, renounc- of ceremony. ed every claim of superiority over Scotland. Edward III. proved one of the greatest This, although a commendable act of moder- warriors who had ever sat on the English ation, was not calculated to propitiate the throne. His first attempt was to raise Edfavor of the English people. It was not long ward Baliol to the throne of Scotland: this before another stroke of Mortimer's power however he failed in effecting. But his mind and policy startled the nation from its pro- now began to be diverted to loftier and more priety, and paved the way for his own de- ambitious speculations. The crown of France struction. Amongst those who began to be- became the object of contest between Edtray indignation against the encroaching ward, the son of Philip the Fair's daughter spirit of Mortimer, was Edmund, Earl of Isabella, and Philip of Valois, the son of the Kent, who, deceived into a belief that his brother of Philip. The question was, whether brother Edward I was still alive, wrote a the crown was descendible only through 220 H-ISTORY OF THE WORLD. males, or whether it might be claimed by pledge that he would pursue his undertak the nearest male although his descent was ing with inflexibility of purpose. The King by females. Charles the Fair died in 1328, of England landed at Antwerp in July, 1338; and left the crown of France without direct but it was not until more than a year theremale descendants to inherit it. The three after that he reached the confines of France. last kings were the sons of Philip the Fair, Iis first campaign was unimportant, but in and they all reigned successively, but died the second he achieved a considerable naval without issue. According to the English victory on the 22d of June, 1340. Flushed law, the son of the daughter precedes the with this success, he marched to the siege of nephew in inheritance; but the French Sa- Tournay at the head of 100,000 men. Near lie law excluded females. Edward contend- this town the King of France had encamped ed that the feudal laws of France forbade himself in a situation so strong as to bid defemales to inherit who could not perform fiance to attack. Edward challenged him to the feudal duties, yet that their male heirs single combat, but this was refused; and the were not debarred by the spirit of this law, English were at last compelled to raise the because they were competent to discharge all siege, and to retire sullen and discontented the military services required. On the other from the place. hand, it was insisted by the French advocates The efforts of Edward began now to be for Philip de Valois, that the exclusion of much crippled for want of money. The exthe female in the first instance was an exclu- chequer of England was unable to satisfy his sion:ofall'the descendants of either sex. If demands, and- his allies had become clamorit had been a question of succession to the ous for their arrears. Some of his courtiers English crown, it would have been rightfully having instilled into his mind suspicions of determined by the Parliament and law of the fidelity of his ministers, he suddenly reEngland; but as it concerned the crown and turned to London, where he landed about law of France, it was clearly a matter for the midnight at the Tower. Next morning he French state anid lawyers to decide. They displaced the chancellor, treasurer, and masdecided in favor of Philip de Valois, and he ter of the rolls, confined three of the judges, was accordingly crowned King of France. and ordered the arrest of most of the officers In this decision they displayed the soundest employed in the collection of the revenue. principles of national policy, and Edward Archbishop Stratford, however, boldly opought undoubtedly to have acquiesced. The posed his career of resentment and cruelty, King of England, however, thought other- and vindicated the cause of the ministers. wise, and accordingly began to make prepar- The king was compelled at last to abandon ations for an invasion of France. his process against the primate, for the' urBy doing homage to Philip for the duchy of gency of his wants admitted of no delay. Guienne, Edward gained time to collect such The failure of his first two campaigns did. an- army and treasure as were necessary for not wean Edward from his attachment to forthe enterprise. Two powerful continental eign alliances. By a disputed succession to allies appeared in his favor; namely, Robert the duchy of Brittany, in which.he took the of Artois, who had been excluded from the part of the individual who opposed Philip county to make way for his aunt Matilda, -a of France, a new road was opened up to him nearer relative by blood to the preceding into that country. He collected a vast army, count; and James von Artaveldt, a famous with which he landed near Cape la Hogue orewer of Ghent, and leader of the demo- about the end of July, 1346. His career in cratical party among the Flemings. It was France was a series of triumphs most glorious at the suggestion of the latter that Edward to the English arms. On the 26thl of Auassumed the title of King of the French, as a gust, 1346, was fought the decisive battle of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 221 Cressy, which is still memorable after the father Edward III. did not long survive his lapse of many centuries. In this celebrated loss. He died on the 21st of June in the conflict Edward the Black Prince, a youth year following. The reign of this monarch only sixteen years of age, gained unfading is generally considered by Englishmen as the laurels. The siege of Calais followed, and most illustrious period of their ancient annals the place was reduced after an obstinate de- Edward III. was succeeded by Richard fence. The first fruit of the reduction of II. son of the beloved Black Prince. He this place, was a truce, which lasted till commenced his reign, being only eleven 1355, when Edward the Black Prince, who years of age, on the 22d of June, 1377, with governed his father's dominions in France, many expressions of congratulation from his undertook an expedition into the neighbor- subjects. His coronation took place on the ing provinces, and in the following year car- following year, and parliament was opened ried his arms into the heart of France. The with a speech from the Archbishop of Canvictory of Poitiers was another mortifying bury, which, being'" soothing and gracious," humiliation to the French. John their king was meant to propitiate the favor of the repwas taken prisoner, and treated with noble resentatives of the nation in behalf of the hospitality and respect by his renowned con- young sovereign. The Dukes of Lancaster, queror. Ile was conveyed to England, York, and Gloucester, uncles to the king, where his reception resembled rather the re- with some other noblemen, were appointed turn of a victorious prince than the humilia- regents during Richard's minority. The tion of a captive monarch. For a particular war, which was still prosecuted in France on account of these and other transactions of a small scale, and the expenses necessary for the English in France, the reader is referred retaining the towns already talken, required to the article FRANCE. supplies of money which could not be raised During the absence of the King of Eng- without additional taxation; and this gave land on the Continent, his country was bar- rise to much discontent among the people. assed by the Scots, who invaded it, but ex- An imposition of three groats upon each perienced a defeat at Nevelles Cross. In person of both sexes and every condition 1355, Edward himself invaded Scotland; who had passed the age of sixteen, particnand the havoc caused by this expedition was larly excited the minds of the common peolong remembered by the natives. The death ple against the government. The manner, of Edward Baliol in 1364, left David Bruce too, of collecting this tax, soon furnished an without a rival to the Scottish throne; and occasion of revolt. The insurrection began the pretensions of the Plantagenets to Scot- in Essex, where a report was industriously land were terminated by Edward III.'s re- spread that the peasants were to be destroycognition of his brother-in-law. See SCOT- ed, their houses burned, and their farms LAND. plundered. At Dartford, an individual, In the mean time Edward the Black well known by the name of VWat Tyler, was Prince, after a Spanish campaign, in which the first who excited the malcontents to arms. he gained the celebrated battle of Navarete, The tax-gatherers proceeded to this man's returned to England in pursuit of health and house whilst he was at work, and demanded quiet. But thirty years of toil and war had payment for his daughter. He refused to exhausted his robust frame, and he expired comply, on the ground that she was under at Canterbury on the 8th of June, 1376; in the age stipulated in the act; upon which the forty-sixth year of his age. He left be- one of these fellows offered to prove the conlhind him a lofty reputation for bravery and trary in a very indecent manner, and for skill as a commander, generosity as a knight, this purpose laid hold of the maiden. Such and wisdom and vigor as a statesman. His insolence, however, roused the spirit of the 222 HISTORY OF THE WORvLD. ffather, and with one blow he laid the ruffian patched him fwith his sword. This is the dead at his feet. A shout of applause burst tale told by the writers of the victorious from the bystanders, who declared them- party, for the partisans of Wat Tyler had no selves prepared to protect Wat from the historian to give their version of the story. vengeance of his enemies. The cry of the The insurgents who witnessed the fall of men of Kent was responded to by those of their leader bent their bows with the design the neighboring counties, and Wat soon of revenging his death. But Richard, found himself at the head of an enormous though only sixteen years of age, with adbody of insurgents. They advanced to Black- mirable presence of mind galloped up to heath in the month of May, 1381, and pro- them, exclaiming, " What are you doing, ceeded to enforce their counsels by an at- my lieges? Tyler was a traitor. Follow tack upon London, in which they succeeded. me, and I will be your leader." With sulThe king, finding that resistance was vain, len and wavering discontent they followed agreed to listen to their demands. On this him into the fields at Islington, where a body they made a very humble remonstrance; of troops had been collected for the protecrequiring a general pardon, the abolition of tion of the young king. The insurgents were slavery, freedom of commerce in the market- ordered to return to their homes instantly, towns, and a fixed rent instead of those ser- and under the penalty of death they were forvices required by the tenure of villenage. bidden to skulk about the city during night. The king granted all these requests; and But the whole of the rebels did not thus charters were made out by which the grant escape, and the revolt was not finally extinwas ratified. In the mean time, another guished without much bloodshed and cruelty. body of these insurgents had broken into The courage, address, and presence of the Tower, and murdered the chancellor, mind which the king had discovered in the primate, and the treasurer, with some quelling such a dangerous tumult, gave other officers of distinction. They then div- great hopes to the nation: but, in proporided themselves into parties, and todk up tion as Richard advanced in years, these their quarters in different parts of the city.' hopes began to wither; and his want of caAt the head of one of these was Wat Tyler, pacity, or at least of solid judgment, appearwho led his men into. Smithfield, where he ed in every enterprise which he attempted. was met by the king, who invited him to a The king had unluckily lost the favor of the conference, under pretence of hearing and common people after the insurrection just redressing his grievances. Tyler ordered mentioned. He allowed the parliament to his companions to retire till he should give r.evoke the charters of enfranchisement and them a signal, and boldly ventured to begin pardon which had been granted; some of the a conference with the king in the midst of ringleaders in the late disorders had been his retinue. His demands were, that all severely punished, and others were put to slaves should be set free, that all com- death without any form or process of trial. monages should be open to the poor as Thus the popular leaders were greatly exaswell as to the rich, and that a general par- perated by this cruelty, though probably the don should be granted for the late outrages. king did not in this follow the dictates of his During the interview, the rebel kept play- own mind so much as the advice of his couning with his dagger, and at last he is said to selors. But having thus lost the favor of have laid his hand on the bridle of his sov- one party, he quickly afterwards fell under ereign's horse; upon which Walworth, Lord the displeasure of the other also. ConceivMayor of London, alarmed for the king, ing himself to be in too great subjection to plunged a basillard in the throat of Tyler; his uncles, particularly the Duke of Gloucessnd at the same moment another esquire dis- ter, he attempted to shake off tie yoke, by HISTORY OF THE. WORLD. 223 raising others to an equal share of rank and favor, together with Sir Nicholas Brembre, favor. Accordingly one of his favorites, as public and dangerous enemies to the state. Michael de la Pole, was created Earl of Suf- The parliament which met on the 3d of Febfolk, and raised to the chancellorship; whilst ruary, 1388, condemned the five accused another, Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, a persons to suffer the death of traitors. The,young man of agreeable person, but dissolute Duke of Ireland escaped to Flanders, where in his behavior, soon acquired an absolute he expired four years afterwards; De la ascendency over him. This nobleman was Pole died at Paris in the same year; Trefirst created Marquis of Dublin, and after- sillian and Brembre were put to death, and wards Duke of Ireland, both preposterous the Archbishop of York became a Flemish and invidious titles. The duke having soon curate, and died in that humble capacity. become the dispenser of all the king's favors, The other individuals who had subscribed a conspiracy was formed against him by some the bold opinion were condemned to perof the most powerful nobility in the king- petual imprisonment; with the exception of dom. The Earl of Suffolk was impeached Black, who had drawn up the questions, and in parliament, and, being convicted of cer- Usk, appointed under-sheriff to arrest the tain charges brought against him, was con- Duke of Gloucester, who were both executed. demned to pay a suitable fine. Soon after- But the king became restive in the traces wards the king was prevailed upon to vest with which his uncle restrained him. In a the government in the hands of eleven com- meeting of parliament he declared himself missioners along with the three great officers competent to manage his own affairs, as he of state. This measure was carried into ef- had by this time attained his twenty-second fect by the Duke of Gloucester, who stood year. This bold announcement was followed at the head of the committee; and the king by his ordering Thomas Arundel, whom the could not without regret perceive himself commissioners had recently appointed chanthus totally deprived of authority. He first cellor, to give up the seals, which, on the endeavored to gain over the parliament to following day, he delivered into the hands his interests, by influencing the sheriffs of of William Wickham, Bishop of Wincheseach county, who were then the only return- ter. The council was next cleared of the ing officers; and this measure failing, he Duke of Gloucester, the Earl of Warwick, next applied to the judges, who declared that and other opposition lords; and the great the commission which had deprived the king officers of the household, as well as the of his authority was unlawful, and that those judges, were changed for more pliable inwho procured or advised it deserved condign struments. punishment; but their sentence was quickly Being now his own master, Richard notiopposed by declarations from the lords. The fied by proclamation that he had taken the Duke of Gloucester armed his partisans, and reins of government into his own hands; appeared at the head of a body of men suf- and, whether it was owing to the king or his ficient to intimidate both the king and his ministers, it must be owned that for some adherents. These insurgents, sensible of years his administration was tranquil and their own power, began by demanding of happy. During this halcyon period he made the king the names of those who had advised a journey into Ireland, in order to divert the the adoption of the late rash measures. A melancholy with which he. was afflicted on few days afterwards they appeared armed in account of the loss of his wife Anne. Soon nis presence, and accused by name the Arch- afterwards he espoused Isabella, a princess bishop of York, the Duke of Ireland, the of France, then in her eighth year, which Earl of Suffolk, and Sir Robert Tresillian, contributed to an armistice with that kingone ofthe judges who had declared in his domfortwenty-five years. 224 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. This alliance with the royal family cf afterwards. Hereforddisplayed somuchre~ France encouraged Richard to execute a signation to the will of his sovereign, that scheme of vengeance which he had long the latter commuted the period of his exile n urished in his bosom against Gloucester to four years. The king had obtained the and others who haod been instrumental in the object of his wishes, namely, the civil despunishment of his favorites. The duke, with truction of those whose power he dreaded. the Earls of Warwick and Arundel] were Even his uncles, either through affection or appealed for treason; in consequence of fear, seconded all his measures, which were which the former was sent prisoner to Calais, now deeply tainted with despotism. On tle and the two latter committed to the Tower. death of John of Gaunt, "time-honored Ihere the head of Arundel was shortly after Lancaster," the crown claimed his immense struck off, and Warwick was banished; but estates, to the exclusion of the banished Earl the fate of the Duke of Gloucester is involved of Hereford, who was pronounced incapable in some obscurity. On the 21st of Septem- of inheriting them after the judgment which ber, 1397, a writ was issued to Thomas Mow- had been pronounced against him in par]iabray, Earl Marshal, Governor of Calais, com- ment. mnanding him to bring the body of his prison- By these rnd other impolitic acts, the king er, the Duke of Gloucester, to answer before overstrained the bow, and excited a spirit the king in parliament to the appeal of trea- of discontent, which finally hurled him from son against him. The reply of the Governor the throne. The resentment of Hereford of Calais was, that the prisoner had died in had been inflamed by the injury which he his custody. At a subsequent period cir- had received, and he only waited for a favorcumstances transpired which indicated that able opportunity of retaliation, which soon the duke perished by the foulest murder, afterwards occurred. doubtless at the instigation of his own ne- The Earl of March, presumptive heir to phew. It remains to be mentioned, that at the crown, having been appointed the king's the meeting of Parliament, in. which these lieutenant in Ireland, was slain in a skirnoblemen were impeached, all the acts in mish with the natives of that country; and which Gloucester had taken a share were an- Richard, regardless of his precarious situanulled, the commission of government was tion at home, went over to Ireland with a cancelled, the opinions of the judges were considerable army, in order to revenge the declared to be legal, and the judgment death of his relative. Hereford, now Duke against Michael de la Pole was reversed. of Lancaster, took advantage of the king's After the destruction of Gloucester and the absence. Solicited by the discontented lords, heads of his party, a misunderstanding arose and aware of the alienation of the people from amongst the noblemen who had joined in the Richard, he embarked at Nantes, and, with prosecution. The Duke of Hereford, son to a retinue of only sixty persons in three small John of Gaunt, appeared in parliament, and vessels, landed at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire. accused the Duke of Norfolk of having utter- The Earl of Northumberland, who had long ed treason in a private conversation. Nor- been a malcontent, together with Henry folk denied the charge, and offered to estab- Percy, his son, surnamed HfotSpur on account lish his innocence by single combat. The of his impetuous valor, immediately joined challenge was accepted; but the king inter- him with their forces; and the people flock. rupted the duel, and commanded both the ed to him in such numbers that in a few days parties to leave the kingdom. The Duke of he found himself at the head of sixty thousand Norfolk was banished for life, but the Duke men. of Hereford only for ten years. The former Richard in the meantime continued in retired to Venice, where he died shortly fancied security in Ireland. Adverse winds H-ISTORY OF THE WORLD. 225 for three perilous weeks together prevented IIV., we shall follow the deposed monarch his receiving any news of the rebelion which through the few sad weeks of his unhappy had broken out in his native dominions; but life. By parliament he was adjudged " to a when the intelligence arrived he was over- perpetual prison, to remain there secretly in whelmed with dismay.- Some advised him safe custody." Richard was accordingly conto sail immediately and face the danger; signed to close confinement, and shortly afterothers recommended that he should first send wards came to his end, there can be little over the Earl of Salisbury, for the purpose doubt, in an unnatural manner. His fate of collecting all -who were disposed to sup- seems to have been accelerated by a conport his interests, which plan was adopted. spiracy amongst his friends to restore him to A numerous army joined the earl, but the the throne. The Earls of Kent, Huntingking protracted his stay in Ireland so long, don, and Salisbury, laid a plot for the desthat on his arrival the whole of this force truction of King HIenry; but the secret was had melted down to less than a hundred men. betrayed, and the confederated noblemen To take the field against Henry of Lancaster were executed. The death of Richard seems was consequently out of the question. i-He to have immediately followed this unsuccesstherefore proceeded in disguise to the fortress iful enterprise, but the manner of it is involof Conway, where Salisbury had takenup his ved in inpenetrable mystery. According to quarters. It was the policy of Henry to show some chroniclers, several ruffians were sent symptoms of negotiation, in order to allure to the castle of Pomfret, where he had been the king into his own hands. This he effect- removed for the purpose of dispatching him. ed in a very deceitful manner. The Earl of They rushed unexpectedly into his apartNorthumberland: was dispatched to Richard merent; but he succeeded in wresting a polewith a thousand men, who concealed them- axe from one of the murderers, with which selves at some distance, whilst the Earl pro- he killed several of them, but he was at ceeded to the fortress where the king was length overpowered and slain. Others relate lodged, and by fair promises induced him to that he was starved in prison, and that he quit his stronghold and go along with him lingered -fifteen days before he expired. Acto Henry for the purpose of effecting a recon- cording to some accounts, he was condemned ciliation. But during the journey Richard to suffer this miserable and protracted death; was made prisoner, and finally committed to whilst others state that it was a voluntary the Tower to await the judgment of Parlia- abstinence, to which he was impelled by desment. On M1[onday, the 29th of September, pair. Ie died in the thirty-fourth year of 1399, a deputation of lords and- commons his age, and twenty-third of his reign.' It waited upon the king, and having reminded was during the life of Richard II., thlat him of a declaration which he had formerly Wickliff, the celebrated reformer, promutlmade at Conway Castle, of his unfitness to gated his doctrines in England. govern, and readiness to resign the crown, After the throne had been vacated by its required his resignation of the regal power. legitimate occupant, Henry, Duke of LancasTo this he consented, according to the ancient ter, stepped forward and claimed it in right chroniclers, " with a cheerful countenance." of his being a descenry III. He During his whole reign, Richard held the was descended from this monarch both by sceptre with a wavering grasp, and in the father and mother, but he could not claim by paralysis:witii which he was now stricken, he the father's side, because the young Earl of as it were unconsciously relinquished it. H-e March was sprung from the Duke of Clarlikewise recommended Henry his nephew as ence, the elder brother of John of Gaunt, a fitting successor to the throne. nor by the mother's side, because she was Before proceeding with the reign of Henry sprung from Edmund of Lancaster, a youngm.-15 226 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. er brother of Edward I. It was pretended was that under the Earl of Northumberland. that Edmund was the elder brother, but it Various causes are assigned for this insurwas never proved. Bythe law of succession rection. One is, that the resentment of the it belonged to the descendants of Lionel, the Percies had been excited by the king's denythird son of Edward III. That prince died ing them the privilege to liberate or ransom without male issue, and his possessions and their prisoners; for at the battle of Homilpretensions descended to his daughter Phi- don, where the Scotch suffered a defeat, a lippa, wife of Roger Mortimer, the male re- nnmber of noblemen had fallen into the presentative of the powerful baron who was hands of IHotspur, who commanded the Engattainted and executed for the murder of lish. The insurgents themselves assigned Edward II., the grandfather of the Duke of another cause for the quarrel, and this was Clarence. The son of that powerful delin- probably the real one. In the course of a war qutent had been restored to his honors and with the Welsh, the Lord Grey of Ruthyn estates at a late period of the reign of and Sir Edmund Mortimer had both fallen Edward III. The fourth in descent from the into the enemy's hands. The former being regicide was Roger Mortimer, Lord-lieutenant a friend to the king, was allowed to be ranof Ireland, who was looked upon as heir to somed by his relations; but the latter, who the crown during the early part of Richard's was uncle to the young Earl of March, the reign; but his son Edmund Mortimer was lawful heir to the throne, and of course an only ten years of age when Richard was de- object of jealousy to Henry, was denied the posed, so that his claim was easily set aside. privilege of being liberated. This fired with ifortimer died in 1425 without male issue, resentment the inflammable spirit of Hot. and the pretensions which he inherited spur, who had married the sister of Sir through the Duke of Clarence fell to his sister, Edmund; his father the Earl of NorthumberAnne Mortirnmr, who espoused Richard of land, and his uncle the Earl of Worcester, York, Earl of Cambridge, the grandson of shared his discontent; and amongst them Edward HII., by his fourth son Edmund of they projected nothing less than the dethroneLangley, Duke of York. But from the fore- ment of the king. going pedigree it is clear that during the life With this view they formed an alliance of the Earl of Mareh no right to the crown with the Scots and Welsh, who were to had descended to any branch of the house make an irruption into England, at the same of York. Henry, however, notwithstanding time that the Percies were to raise what the inferiority of his title, was unanimously forces they could in order to join them. The acknowledged by both houses, and was crown- Earl of Northumberland, by a sudden fit of ed within a fortnight after the deposition of illness, having been incapacitated for active his predecessor. He was the idol of the warfare, young Percy took command, and populace, master of parliament, and the heir marched to Shrewsbury for the purpose of of the fame and possessions of John of Gaunt. joining the Welsh. But the king had asThe reign of Henry IV., was little else than sembled a small army, with which it was his a continued series of insurrections. In the intention to act against the Scots; and, very first parliament which he assembled, a knowing the importance of celerity in civil great number of challenges were given and wars, instantly hurried to meet the rebels. accepted by different barons; and though iHe approached Shrewsbury before a junction Henry had ability and address enough to could be effected with the Welsh; and by prevent these duels, it was not in his power his headstrong impatience Percy was impelto avoid continual combinations and revolts led to risk an engagement, which at that against himself. time he ought to have declined. The evenThe most formidable of these disorders ing before the battle he sent a manifesto to HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 227 Henry, in which he renounced his allegiance, swell with which the nation heaved when he set the king at defiance, and enumerated all ascended the throne never subsided during the grievances of which he imagined the his lifetime. The position in which he stood nation might justly complain. Amongst the with regard to the succession seems to have charges with which he reproached the king, caused him much concern; for the case was were those of perjury, murder, and usurpa- a difficult one. In his first Parliament his tion of rightful property. All this vitupera- eldest son Henry was created Prince of tion was productive of no other effect than Wales; and in 1404 the right of that prince's that of exasperating to the utmost both the brothers to reign, in. the event of his dying king and his adherents. without issue, was recognized by Parliament. The armies were fairly matched, consist- The most disgraceful feature of Henry's ing of about fourteen thousand men each, reign was his deadly persecution of those and both leaders were men of approved val- who entertained the new religious doctrines. or. The action, which took place on the In his second year was passed that sangnin21st of July, 1403, was obstinate and bloody. ary act, the first that stains the Englist statAfter a chivalrous display of his characteris- ute-book on the subject, which orders heretics tic valor, Percy was slain by a random to be burned; and many an unfortunate Lolarrow, and with his fall the courage and the lard suffered for his faith during the sway of confidence of his followers vanished. They the Bolingbrokes. A remarkable cireunmwere completely routed, and driven from the stance occurred in 1405, namely, the capital field with great loss. Lord Worcester and punishment of a clergyman of the highest two other conspicuous individuals were be- rank. Scroop, Archbishop of York, was an headed on the field. The Earl of Northum- enthusiastic defender of the claims of the berland, however, notwithstanding his con- Earl of Ml[arch, and, being taken in armns nection with the rebels, was mercifully treat- against his sovereign, was beheaded without ed by Henry. But this lenity does not trial, conviction, or defence. appear to have quieted the country; for Notwithstanding the act against the Lolvarious insurrections, particularly amongst lards, the doctrines of Wiekliffgained ground; the Welsh under the celebrated Owen Glen- and the support which Henry gave the hierdower, disturbed the remaining years of archy did not preclude his parliament from IJenry's reign. Owen, under the title of attempting its reformation, and even from Prince of Wales, gained so many remarkable despoiling it of its possessions. successes over the royal troops, that the king In 1405 the Commons, who had been re. himself publicly attributed them to necro- quired to grant supplies, proposed to the mancy. The unconquerable spirit of the king to seize all the temporalities,.of'the Welsh leader actuated all classes of his church, and employ them as a perpetual countrymen, who flocked to his standard fund to meet the exigencies of the state. from every part in England where they had When this address was presented, the Archltaken up their abode. Owen remained free bishop of Canterbury, who then attended the and unsubmissive to the English yoke till the king, objected that the clergy, though they close of'his career, and the last glimpse which went not in person to the wars, sent:their history affords of his patriotic course is as vassals and tenants in all cases of necessity; bright as the first. whilst at the same time they themselves The reign of Henry was much disturbed, who staid at home were employed night and and the language which the great dramatist day in offering up their supplications for the makes him employ, "Uneasy lies the head success of the enterprise and the prosperity that wears a crown," is remarkably appro- of the state. The speaker answered with a priate from the lips of such a monarch. The sarcastic smile, that he thought the prayers 228 HISTORY OF THIE WORLD. of the church but a very slender supply. sion he displayed equal rnrmness and ability. The archbishop, however, prevailed in the Afterwards, when intrusted with the -guardispute; the king discouraged the application dianship of the Welsh marches, he condlucted of the Commons, and the Lords rejected himself in a manner so highly creditable, the bill which the lower house had framed. that he more than once received the thanks The Commons were not discouraged by this of the Ilouse of Commons for his conduct. repulse; in 1410 they returned to the charge On his accession to the throne, he made wl.tih renewed zeal and determination. himself popular by several wise and generA Lollard had been burnt, and the lower oCLS measures. He liberated his cousin the house of Parliament, as if in retaliation of Earl of March from the constraint under this atrocity, presented a schedule to the which that prince, undoubtedly the heir of king, showing that lhe might have from the Edward ITI., had been held by the jealousy temporal possessions of the bishops, abbots, of I-Ienry IV. The Percies, who were exiles and priors, that were then uselessly wasted, in Scotland, he restored to their possessions, fifteen earls, 1500 knights, and 6200 esquires. and even to a command over their martial But the reply of the king was severe, and he vassals. Those ministers of his father who forbade them to discuss such topics for the had recommended themselves by their upfuture. They then petitioned that the cler- rightness and decision, were retained in the gy should be subjected to the civil tribunals, offices Wvhich they held. The chief justice, but this was also refused; and a request that in particular, who had formerly imprisoned the statute against the Lollards might be mi- the king, whilst Prince of Wales, for his tigated shared the same fate. misconduct, was not only pardoned, but reThe reign of HIenry was now drawing to- ceived into his high favor. lie expressed wards a termination. The last years of his deep regret for the fate of Richard II., and life were darkened by disease, and undistin- performed his funeral obsequies with becomguished by vigor. IHe had been subject to ing pomp and solemnity. That Henry had eruptions in his face and to attacks of epi- a mind towering above thelevel of his contemlepsy. By one of these he was carried off at poraries, his remarkable triumphs in France WVestminster, on the 20th of March, 1413, in are evidence; but that in some respects he the forty-seventh year of his age and four- was not in advance of his age, the severities teenth of his reign. which he practiced against the Lolluards afford Henry of Monmouth, eldest son of the pre- ample proof. The head of that party'was ceding monarch, ascended the throne inime- Sir John Oldcastle, an individual alike disdiately after the death of his father. With tingulished for his valor and military talents, the early life of HIenry V. we usually atssoci- and who had acquired the esteem both of the ate acts of -frivolity, insubordination, and late and present king. HIis high character even low vice. But to the creative genius pointed him out as a proper object of ecleof a powerful poet must in a great measure siastical fury, and he was accordingly debe attributed this almost universal impres- nounced to Henry, who, at a private intersion. That he vwas guilty of delinquencies view, attempted to make him recant his beneath the dignity of the heir apparent to faith; but in vain. Oldcastle was therefore the English throne, may be true; but there condemned to suffer the death of a heretic; is no satisfactory evidence either to confirm but having effected his escape, he raised an or refute the traditionary stories wllieh are insurrection, which was soon crushed. Ite told of him. At an early age he discovered succeeded, however, in eluding p-arsuit for talents of no com1mon order. TIe was only four years, but he was at last taken and exesixteen years of age when the battle of cuted as a traitor. After the suppression Shrewsbury was fought, and on that occa- of the revolt, the most severe laws wsere HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 229 passed against the unfortunate Lollards. It crown of that kingdom were so numerous, was enacted, that whoever should be convic- that had he boldly prosecuted his own ted ofLollardy, besides suffering capital pun- schemes, the opposing factions might have ishment according to the laws formerly leagued together against him as a common established, would also forfeit his lands and enemy. It was therefore his policy to regoods to the king; and the officers of gov- main inactive, and, by tampering with them ernlment were likewise bound by oath to use separately, to foment the discord which pret} eir utmost endeavors to extirpate the vailed among the French leaders. On the heresy. 21st of May, 1420, a treaty was at length conThe restoration of tranquillity afforded eluded at Troyes, which promised to crownv Henry an opportunity of turning his atten- the hopes of the Plantagenets with success, tion to France, the miserable condition of and establish them on the throne of France. wThich offered a fair prospect of success to his The principal articles stipulated the marriage arms. The claim of his family to the crown of Henry with Catherine, daughter of the of that country was revived; and on the French king; that Henry should be regent 15th of April, 1415, he assembled a great of France whilst Charles should remain alive; council at Westminster, to whom he an- and that he should succeed that monarch aftei nounced his determination of mlaking " a voy- his decease. Henry accordingly espoused age in his own proper person, by the grace the French princess; but he was not long of God, to recover his inheritance"' IHe permitted to enjoy his connubial happiness appointed his brother, the Duke of Bedford, or his good fortune. A fatal malady seized lord lieutenant of the kingdom during his him at Paris; and having been conducted by absence. When about to set sail for Nor- his own orders to Vincennes, he expired mandy, a rash conspiracy broke out, which there on the 31st of August 1422, in the detained him for a little time; but it was soon thirty-fourth year of his age, and the tenth suppressed, and Henry embarked at South- of his reign. ampton with an army of about thirty thou- The name of Henry V. is adorned with all sand men, the greater proportion of whom the splendor of brilliant conquest and sucwere archers. He entered the Seine, and cessful ambition. By a single victory he hlaving reduced Harfieur, he challenged the brought the crown of France within his dauphin to meet him in single combat, and reach, if not within his grasp. But he had decide the contest for the crown of the coun- other qualities besides those of a warrior; he try which he had invaded. But this was was a statesman of consummate skill, as his destined to be competed for on a far wider conduct after the victory of Agincourt suffiarena than that which two combatants could ciently testifies. Ifis mind was altogether of occupy. IIenry crossed the Somme, and was a superior order, and there seems nothing to proceeding on his road towards Calais, when prevent his being ranked with the greatest he came up with the enemy at a small vil- of English monarchs, except the countenance lage called by the French Azincourt, and by which lie gave to ecclesiastical persecuthe English Agincourt. Here was fought a tions. great and decisive battle, which ended in By Catherine of France Henry had a son the total defeat of the French army, estima- who succeeded him when not yet a year old. ted at not less than four times the strength of The whole of his long reign is occupied with that of the English. HIenry did not immedi- a war for the French crown, and a disaster. etely pursue his victory, and returned to Eng- ous civil war in England between the houses sand, where he was received witlh the utmost of York and Lancaster. At the accession enthusiasm; but he soon afterwards rejoined of Henry VI., Parliament ordered a new royhis troops l France. The claimants for the al title, in which he was recognized as King 230 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. of France and England, and Lord of Ireland; tion; with that country; and the Duke of appointed his father's eldest brother, the Gloucester was for maintaining the honor of Duke of Bedford, protector, defender, and the English arms, and regaining whatever chief counselor of the kingdom and of the had been lost by defeat or delay. Both parEnglish church; and in his absence invested ties, therefore, called in all the auxiliaries the Duke of Gloucester, his younger brother, they could command. The bishop resolved with these honors. A council was named, to strengthen himself by procuring a proper and certain articles enacted, for the purpose match for Henry, at that time twenty-three of limiting the power of the protector.:The years of age, and then by bringing over the kingdom of France was now in the most de- queen to his interests. Accordingly, the plorable situation. By the solemn investi- Earl of Suffolk, a nobleman whom he knew ture of the infant king of England with the to be steadfast in attachment to him, was royal prerogative in that country, Charles sent over to France, apparently to settle the VII. succeeded only to a nominal kingdom; terms of a truce which had then been confor the greater portion of it adhered to the templated, but in reality to procure a suitainterests of tHenry. But notwithstanding all ble consort for the young king. these advantages, the English daily lost The bishop and his friends had turned ground, and in the year 1450 they were their attention to Margaret of Anjou, daughfinally expelled from the country. See the ter of Regnier, titular King of Sicily, Naples, article FRAENCE. and Jerusalem, but who was destitute of It may be easily conceived that such a either real power or possessions. She was train of bad success was likely to be produc- looked upon as the most accomplished princess tive of discontent at home. Continual ani- of the age, both in mind and person; and mosities were kept up amongst the king's it was thought the abilities which she poscounselrs3 during the first thirty years of sessed would supply the want of them in her his nominal rule. This tended to plunge husband, to whom maturity of years had the nation in confusion, and prepare it for brought no maturity of understanding. The becoming the theatre of a sanguinary civil treaty was therefore hastened on by Suffolk, war. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, was and soon afterwards ratified in England. envied by many on account of his high sta- Previously to the king's marriage, however, tion. Amongst these was Thomas Beaufort, a conspicuous blow was struck at the protecBishop of Winchester, afterwards cardinal, tor's greatness. In that age a charge of the legitimate son of John of Gaunt, brother sorcery was capable of blasting any clharacto Richard II. This prelate, to whom the ter, however spotless or pure; and even of care of the king's education had been com- throwing odium upon all who were related mitted, was a man of some capacity and ex- to the individual accused. It was an irreperience, but of an intriguing and restless sistible weapon made use of by churchmen disposition. Hie had frequent disputes with for the destruction of their enemies, and it the Duke of Gloucester, over whom he gain- was wielded by the prelate against his polited several advantages. The Duke of Bed- ical opponent with tremendous force. He ford employed both his own authority and brought forward an accusation of sorcery that of Parliament to reconcile them, but in and treason against Elinor Cobham, wife or vain; their mutual animosities served for concubine of the Duke of Gloucester. She several years to embarrass the government, was charged with having made an image of and to lay it open to its enemies. The sen- the king in wax, which being placed before timents of the two leaders were particularly a gentle fire, gradually dissolved; and it was divided with regard to France. The bishop expected that as the wax wasted away, the laid hold of every prospect of accommoda- strength of the king would also disappear, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 231 and thlat his death would take place when French ministers. Other illegal acts were the whole of the image had melted. Three ascribed to him in the bill of impeachment; other individuals were implicated in this ac- and so strong did the current of opinion run cusation, which was readily believed. The against him, that, whether guilty or not, theprisoners were pronounced guilty; the duch- king was compelled to banish him from the ess was condemned to do penance and suffer kingdom. But this did not satisfy his ene. perpetual imprisonment; one priest was mies, who looked upon expatriation as a hanged, and another died in prison; whilst, sheltering from justice rather than as a punto consummate the affair, Margaret Jourde- ishment. The captain of a ship was theremayn, a reputed witch, was burnt at Smith- fore employed to intercept him. in his pasfield. sage to France; and, having been seized The Bishop of Winchester was resolved near Dover, his head was struck off in a to carry his resentment against Gloucester small boat, and his body consigned to the to the utmost. He procured a parliament waves. to be summoned, not at London, which was The complaints against Henry's governtoo well affected towards the duke, but at ment were heightened by an insurrection, St. Edmundsbury, where the prelate's ad- headed by an individual of equivocal descent, herents greatly preponderated. As soon as but who has been transmitted to posterity Gloucester appeared, he was accused of by the name or nickname of Jack Cade. treason, and thrown into prison. On the He assumed the honorable name of John day appointed for him to make his defence, Mortimer; and having assembled a great he was found dead in his bed, though with- body of the peasantry of Kent, he marched out any signs of violence upon his body. to Blackheath. A message was sent to him This, however, is no proof that he came not by the king, demanding the cause of the into a violent end. surrection. The audacious Cade answered The death of the Duke of Gloucester was in the name of the community, that their universally ascribed to the Cardinal of Win- purpose was to punish evil counselors, and chester, who himself died six weeks there- to obtain a redress of grievances. Henry after, without leaving behind him so good a assembled a force; but part of it having name as his political adversary. The Lan- been defeated, the remainder refused to fighlt, casterian party was thus deprived of its and the king retired from the field. Lord chiefs; no male Plantagenet of that lineage Say, the treasurer, was committed to the remained except the king. Tower, in order to satisfy the revolters. In After the demise of the Cardinal of WTin- the mean time the citizens of London opened chester, Suffolk governed with uncontrolled their gates to the victorious rebel, who made sway. But his conduct was obnoxious to a triumphant entry into the city, arrayed in the rest of the nobility, who now concerted the shining armor and gilt spurs of a knight. measures for his destruction. In the year For some time he maintained great order 1447 he was impeached of high treason on and regularity amongst his troops. tIe alvarious charges. He was accused of excit- ways led them out into the fields in the ing the French to invade England, in order night-time, and published several edicts to depose Henry and place on the throne against every kind of plunder and violenle. De la Pole's son, who was to marry Somer- His followers, however, were not to be tll ts set's daughterm considered by the Lancaste- restrained. Lord Say, without any trial;. rian party as the next in succession to the was beheaded; and soon afterwards, the incrown. He was also charged with the loss surgents, having committed some irregularof France by his negotiations in that coun- ities, were shut out of the city by the inhabtry, and with revealing state secrets to the itants. Cade endeavored to force his way 23~2 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. back to his quarters, when a bloody scuflIe excited considerable alarm at court. lie ensued, which was only terminated by -the advanced upon London; and, proceeding to approach of night. The Archbishop of Can- the palace at Westminster, lknelt before the terbury, and the chancellor, who had taken king, and, deploring the statb of the kingrefuge in the Tower, hearing how matters:dom, entreated him to summon a.parliament. stood, drew up an act of amnesty, which The queen appears to have evinced her usual wvas privately circulated amongst the rebels. arrogance upon this occasion; but York sueThis had an electrical effect upon them, and ceeded in extorting a promise from the king in the morning Cade found himself totally that he would comply with his request, upon abandoned by his followers. He effected his which he retired to his castle at Fotherinescape, but was afterwards captured and gay. He was scarcely gone, however, when slain. A number of circumstances now con- the Duke of Somerset returned from France, tributed to revive the long dormant preten- and was chosen favorite adviser of the king. sions of the house of York to the throne. The session of Parliament proved unquiet France had been lost; the arms of England and stormy. York presented a complaint had been disgraced; Margaret, the queen, against the administration of Somerset, and by violence and arrogance, was most unpop- ill the year following exhibited several artiular; the king himself was a perfect cipher; cles of impeachment against him. But the whilst, in contrast to him, appeared the power and influence of the queen rendered Duke of York, a man of popular virtues, his efforts fruitless. Legal prosecutions beand the legitimate heir to regal power, ac- came thus inadequate to suit the feelings of cording to the English laws of real inherit- the enraged York, and he accordingly asance. All the males of the house of Morti- sembled an army. The king, doubting his. mer were now extinct; but Anne, the sister ability to triumph by opposing force to force, of the last Earl of March, having espoused affected to acquiesce in the demands of the the Earl of Calmbridge, who had been be- duke, and put Somerset under restraint. headed for treason in the reign of Henry V., Upon this York disbanded his troops, and had transmitted her latent but unforgotten retired unattended to the royal pavilio,, claim to her son Riehard. This prince, de- where he was immediately made prisoner, scended by his mother from Philippa, only and compelled to take an oath of allegiance daughter of the Duke of Clarence, third to the king. Somerset rose higher in favor son of Edward III., stood plainly in order than ever, and completed his ascendency in of succession before the king, who derived the government by obtaining the entire conhis descent ifrom the Duke of Lancaster, fidence of the king and his consort. fourth son of that monarch. The duke was I On the 13th of October, 1453, Queen a man of valor and abilities, as well as of Margaret presented her husband with a son some ambition; and he thought that the and heir, the ill-fated Edward, Prince of weakness and unpopularity of the present Wales. Not long afterwards the king sunk reign afforded a favorable opportunity for into a state of mental as well as bodily incaasserting his title. The ensign of Richard pacity, and the star of York again appeared,vas a white rose, and that of Henry a red above the horizon. The total imbecility of one; circumstances which gave names to the king having been ascertained, the Duke the two factions who were now about to de- of York was chosen protector and defender luge the kingdom in blood. of the kingdom. Previously to this event The Duke of York was in Ireland during Somerset had been removed from the palace the proceedings a, ainst Suffolk and the se- of the queen to the Tower. The king's dition of Cade. In September, 1450, he malady was not permanent, and on his rereturned to England, a circumstance which covery he put an end to the protectorate, re i Iased Somierset from is eonflnement, and in which the klng Was taken prisoner, and reoinstated him In his honors., This was a his armny tterly dispersed. ieanwhile the mortal blow to the peace of York; and hat- Duke of York having returned from Ireland, ing conferred with the powerful Earls of openly laid claim to the crown. In the Warwick and Salisbury, who united them- House of Lords the cause of HXenry and the selves to his interests, he took the field with Duke of York was solemnly debated; and the declared intention of only expelling Som- the latter, though a conqueror, did not absoerset from the government. But this noble- lutely gain his cause. It was determined man's fate involved that of the house of that Henry should possess the throne during Lancaster. It was in vain that the king at- his life, and that the Duke of York should tempted a reconciliation of interests; he be appointed his successor, to the utter exwas compelled to have recourse to arms, and clusion of Henry's offspring. meet the Yorkists in open warfare. A bat- Though the royal party now seemed destle took place at St. Albans, in which the titute of every resource, the queen still reroyalists were totally defeated; Somerset, tained her intrepidity, disdaining every arthe immediate cause of the conflict, having rangement which implied the dethronement fallen in the action. of her child. Wales seemed the natural The king relapsed into his former state, place of refuge for the mother of him who and the Duke of York was a second time was called its prince, and thither accordingly chosen protector; but the queen, who could she fled. This warlike dame assembled a not brook the idea of his continuing at the considerable army to rescue her pusillanihead of government, procured his dismissal. mous husband, and marched to the northern She is even charged with having conspired provinces, where Northumberland and Clifhis destruction, and that of his most conspic- ford joined her with their borderers. This uous adherents. A temporary reconciliation union having alarmed the victorious party, was effected, but discord was again intro- York and Somerset hastened to anticipate dueed; and the parties having irrecoverably their designs, and, having assembled a suffllost confidence in each other, prepared for cient force, succeeded in reaching the strong the deadly struggle of arms. castle of Sandal before Christmas. ActnThe forces of the Dulke of York under ated by the pride of prowess and the imrpathe Earl of Salisbury gained an advantage tience of inaction, York engaged the queen's over the royalists at Bloreheath; but a fatal army with one of inferior force. The condesertion on the part of York's troops at flict took place at Wakefield, on the 30th of Ludlow turned the balance in favor of the Iecember, 1460, and terminated in the total king; and York fled to Ireland, where he defeat of the Yorkists. The duke himself was joyfully received. was either slain in the action, or put to death But this disaster, though in appearance it after it; whilst the Earl of Salisbury was suppressed the party of York, was far from taken during the night, and decapitated next being fatal to its power. Warwick, who day. But no one was so much lamented as had retained the government of Calais, land. the young Earl of Rutland, the son of York, ed in Kent, and, being joined by a number a boy in the twelfth year of his age. IHe of barons, advanced upon the capital, which was made prisoner, and cooly stabbed to the he entered amidst the acclamations of the heart by Clifford, in revenge for the death people. The number of his troops had now of his father, who had perished at the battle so much increased that he found himself in of St. Albans. a condition to encounter the royal army. After this victory Margaret marched toEarly in July, 1460, he came up with them wards London, in order to set the king at at Southamnpton, and a bloody battle ensued, liberty; but the Earl of Warwick, who had 234 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. now put himself at the head of the Yorkists, forces met at Towton, in the county of York, led about the captive king, in order to give on the 29th of March, 1461, and an obstif a sanction to his proceedings. Except by nate engagement ensued, which continued the countenance which his presence seemed during the night, and was renewed with the to give to the transactions of the Yorlists, utmost fierceness on the following morning. he was as inert an instrument in their hands The queen's army was totally defeated, and as the royal standard which waved above as quarter was given on neither side, the their lines. Warwick engaged the queen's slaughter was dreadful. Between thirty and forces at St. Albans; but through the treach- forty thousand persons perished in these two ery of Lord Lovelace, who deserted with a bloody days. After this disaster the queen considerable force during the heat of the ac- with her husband took refuge in Scotland, tion, Warwick was defeated, and the pageant whilst Edward returned to the metropolis, king fell once more into the hands of his where he was crowned on the 29th of June, own party, 1461. For three years Edward IV. posThe submission of the city of London essed the throne without any serious insurseemed now to be all that was wanting to rection having taken place on the part of complete the queen's success; but Warwick the Laucasterians. ]But during this period had secured it in his interests, and the citi- Queen Margaret was making strenuous exzens refused to open their gates to the royal ertions both in France and Scotland to raise victor. In the mean time, young Edward, a force capable of taking the field against eldest son of the late Duke of York, put him- Edward. Having collected a small army, self at the head of his father's party. He was she made an inroad into England, but after now in the bloom of youth, remarkable for several indecisive skirmishes she was totally the beauty of his person and for bravery; defeated at Hexham, in Northumberland, and he was, moreover, a very great favorite on the 17th of May, 1464. The Duke of with the people. He defeated Jasper Tudor, Somerset, who commanded for her, was beEarl of Penmbroke, at Mortimer's Cross, in headed; and a number of gentlemen were Herefordshire; the earl himself being taken also executed at York, with little form. of law prisoner, and immediately beheaded by Ed- or justice. ward's orders. By these repeated misfortunes the house Meanwhile he was joined by the remainder of Lancaster became so effectually reduced of Warwick's army, and the united forces that Margaret was obliged to separate froim entered the metropolis amidst the applause her husband, and both were compelled to of the people of the city and of the surround- seek their safety in individual flight. The ing provinces. Edward laid his claim before king was still protected by some of his a council of lords, and on the 4th of March, friends, who conveyed him to Lancashire, 1461, he was proclaimed king by the style where he was at last discovered, and conand title of Edward IV. signed to the Tower as a prisoner. The But notwithstanding all her disasters, the queen made her escape through Scotland queen remained inflexibly devoted to her into France, along with her son, and his purpose. She retired to the northern coun- famous preceptor Sir John Fortescue. ties, where -such numbers flocked to her In the mean time King Edward vigorously standard that her army very soon amounted to applied himself to the affairs of government. sixty thousand men. Edward IV. was a Feeling secure on the throne, he now also voluptuary, but he never allowed his activity began to give way to the gratification of his and vigilance to slacken. With Warwick and amatory passions, to which he was exceedand an army of forty thousand men he com- ingly prone. In order to divert his mind menced his march to the north. The hostile from such debasing indulgences, the Earl of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 235 Warwick, hitherto his steady friend, advised field with his troops; and in a battle which him to marry. Edward consented, and the immediately afterwards ensued, the royalists earl was appointed to negotiate a match with were cut to pieces and their commander the Princess Bonne of Savoy. He was suc- taken prisoner and beheaded. cessful in his mission, but before the conclu- The king, enraged at this, caused Stafford sion of the marriage treaty, the king pri- to be executed in a like summary manner. vately espoused a lady of whom he had be- This event completed the disaffeetion of the come enamoured, and who resisted all his king's followers, who now deserted him in efforts to form an illicit connection. This thousands; and he himself was at last taken lady was Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Philip prisoner by Warwick and his friends; but Woodville, and relict of Sir John Grey, a this conquest embarrassed the confederated Lancasterian who had fallen at the second nobles. The detention of the king was not battle of St. Albans. The parties were sol- popular; and the military refused to act unemnly united in marriage on the 1st of May, til he was released, which took place accord1464, and the bride was acknowledged, and ingly, and a reconciliation was effected. Thle in due time crowned. This transaction truce was, however, of short duration. A highly displeased Warwick, who afterwards new insurrection broke out in Lincolnshire, became still more disgusted at the favor in which Warwick and Clarence were deeply shown to the queen's party, his own and his involved. The rebels were commanded by sovereign's natural enemies. A plan of re- Sir Robert Welles, son to a nobleman of the venge was therefore set on foot, and a most same name. Under an alleged charge of powerful conspiracy was also formed against treason, the latter was beheaded by the Edward. To accomplish his aim, Warwick king, who marched against the insurgents not only employed his own influence, which with his usual celerity, and gave them a total was very extensive, but likewise that of the overthrow at Erpingham, in Rutlandsllire, Duke of Clarence, Edward's brother, on on the 12th of March, 1469. Warwick and whom the earl had conferred the hand of his Clarence again attempted to entrap Edward, dLaughter without the king's permission. but having failed of success, they escaped The effects of Warwick's secret combination to France. with Clarence, his own brother Montague, Louis XI. openly espoused the cause of and the discontented nobility and gentry, soon the malcontent barons, and effected a reconbegan to appear. Sedition was fomented ciliation between them and the fugitive throughout the country, and a'popular insur- Queen Margaret. Their mortal enmities rection at last broke out in Yorkshire, where were reconciled in common hatred to the Robin of Redesdale, a hero among the moss King of England. A treaty was concluded, troopers of the border, appeared at the head which stipulated that Edward should espouse of sixty thousand men. The articles of their Anne Neville, Warwick's daughter, and that manifesto were principally directed against they should combine their efforts to restore the king's counselors and the church. Henry to the throne of which he had been Henry, Earl of Pembroke was sent against deprived. It was likewise agreed upon, that them with a body -of seven or eight thousand in case of failure of issue by the prince, the men. He was joined by Lord Stafford with crown should descend to Clarence. After five thousand more troops, and the two cor- these preliminary arrargements, Warwick manders prepared to meet the insurgents. assembled a small force, and set sail for Eng.. They at first received a repulse, but it was land, where he landed whilst Edward was of no material importance. An unfortunate in the north suppressing an insurrection dispute, however, between Pembroke and which had there broken out. This seems to Stafford, caused the latter to march off the have been an artifice practiced by a brother. 236.HISTORY OF THE WORLD. in-law of Warwick's, who thus drew the in- usually small; but amongst the fallen were cautious monarch to a distant part of the Warwick and his brother Monitague; and kingdom, and left the southern counties open the death of the first of these individuals to the invader. 5Warwiek was a great favor- was of far more importance to Edward than ite with the people, the subject of popular the victory he had gained. It broke the ballads, which resounded his praise through- charm which associated with his name the out every town in the kingdom. Thousands certainty of victory and success to the cause having flocked to his standard, he advanced which he espoused. On account of the reupon London, and there proclaimed Henry markable transactions in which he had been VI. The usual activity of Edward seems to engaged, he received the appellation of " the have forsaken him, or else his pernicious king maker." His death also destroyed the frivolities had alienated the affections of his greatness of the house of Neville. troops, whose fidelity toward him likewise At this tiune the queen had just returned decreased as Warwick drew near to them. with her son from France, where she had Edward was compelled to fly to Holland, been soliciting supplies. She had scarcely Clarence and Warwick made their triumphal time to refresh herself friom the fatigues of entry into the capital, and Henry was form- the voyage, when she received the fatal ally restored to regal authority. But those news of the death of Warwick, and the total who had reinstated him had placed only a destruction of his forces. All her resolution barren sceptre in his grasp, for the real pow- was unable to support her under this calam. er resided with them. Edward was pro- ity, and she sunk to the ground in despair. nounced -a usurper, and all acts passed under Upon recovering herself, she took sanctuary his sanction were repealed. The crown was in the abbey of l3eaulieu, in Hampshire, settled on the male issue of Henry VI., and where she still found friends ready to assist in default of such issue, on the Duke of Clar- her. Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, Courtenay, ence and the heirs of his body. But Ed- Earl of Devonshire, the Lords Wenlock and ward's party was not yet destroyed. After St. Jolhn, with some other men of rank, enan absence of nine months, he, seconded by couraged her yet to hope for success, and a small body of troops granted him by the promised to stand by her to the last. On Duke of Burgundy, made a descent at Rav- this assurance she resumed the undaunted enspur, in Yorkshire. At first he met with bearing which was natural to her, and adlittle success; but his army increasing on vancing through the counties of Devon, the march, he was soon in a condition to ap- Somerset, and Gloucester, collected a conpear before the capital, which instantly open- siderable army. The hostile forces came in ed its gates to receive him. sight of each other at Tewkesbury, on the The unfortunate Henry was thus again 14th of May, 1471, where a battle was fought, plucked from the throne; and the hopes of which decided this sanguinary war. The Warwick were almost totally blasted by the queen's army was totally defeated; the Earl defection of Clarence, Edward's brother. of Devonshire and Lord Wenlock were slain lie, however, advanced to within about ten in the conflict; the Duke of Somerset, and miles of London, resolving to await the ap- about twenty other persons of distinction, preach of Edward, and took a position at who had taken shelter in a church, were Barnet, where, on the 14th of April, 1471, a surrounded, dragged forth and immediately battle was fought, more remarkable for its beheaded; about three thousand of their consequences than for the number of the soldiers were killed in battle, and the rest slain, or the obstinacy of the combatants. were entirely dispersed. Queen Margaret Considering the animosity existing between and her son were taken prisoners; and brought the parties, the general slaughter was un- to the king, who asked the prince how he HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 231 dared to invade his dominions. The youth been very partial; but there is no proof of replied that he came hither to claim his just his murder having been effected in this man inheritance; upon which Edward struck ner. The remainder of Edward IV.'s reign him on the face with his gauntlet. The is unimportant. A war with France which Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester, Lord followed the civil wars in England, terminHastings and Sir Thomas Gray, taking this ated in 1475: without being characterized blow as a signal for further violence, hurried by any memorable events. But the foolish the prince into the next apartment, and idea of aggrandizement in France was still there it is said, dispatched him. Margaret popular with the people, and Edward emwas thrown into the tower, along with her ployed a considerable portion of the latter husband Henry, who there closed his unhappy years of his reign in making apparent prepcareer a few years afterwards. The Duke arations for reviving the pretensions of his of Gloucester has been charged with his predecessors to the crown of that country. murder, but there is no proof of the fact. It does not appear, however, that he ever AMargaret was ransomed by the King of had any intention of carrying his threats France, in 1475, for fifty thousand crowns. into execution. Edward died on the 9th of She survived her deliverance about seven April, 1483, in the forty-second year of his years, during which time she lived in France, age and twenty-first of his reign, calculating withdrawn from the tumults of state. from the period of his first assuming the Edward -being now freed from all his en- crown. Besides five daughters, he left two emies, began to inflict punishment on those sons; Edward Prince of Wales, his succeswho had formerly appeared against him. sor,then in his twelfth year; and Rieharcl Amongst the cruelties which he committed, Duk-e of York, then in his eleventh year. that on his brother Clarenece is the most re- On the death of Edward IV. the kingdom markable. They had been formally recon- was divided into new factions; and those ciled to each other; but this hollow truce to of the queen's family, who, during the last fraternal animosity was broken by a singular reign, had come into power, were obnoxious incident. Whilst the king was one day to the old nobility, who looked upon them hunting in the park of one Burdlett, a serv- as upstarts and inferiors. The king had enant of the duke, he killed a white buck which deavored to prevent these animosities prowLas a great favorite of the owner. Burdett, ceeding to any extent, by desiring on his concerned at the loss, broke into a transport death-bed that his brother Richard Duke of of rage,, and declared that he wished the Gloucester should be entrusted with the horns of the deer were in the belly of the regency; and he recommended peace and person who advised the king to that insult. unanimity during the minority of his son. For this exclamation Burdett was tried for But the monarch was no sooner dead than his life, and executed at Tyburn. Clarence the former resentment between the two parexclaimed against this sentence as iniquitous, ties burst forth with violence, and the Duke for which he was attainted of treason, and of Gloucester, to whom it is customary to charged with sorcery, in order to give to attribute every bad quality, resolved to proBurdett's expressions the dignity of necro- fit by their contentions. As soon as he mantic imprecation. Sentence of death was learned the tidings of his brother's death, he pronounced against him; but the king hav- proceeded to Ludlow Castle, where Prince ing some repugnance to order the public ex- Edward then was under the charge of Lord ecution of a brother, he was dispatched in Rivers, his uncle by the mother's side. This private. There was a rumor prevalent at nobleman was charged by Gloucester with the time that:he was drowned in a butt of having instilled into thle mind of his young malmsey wine, to which he is said to have ward unfavorable opinions of the protector 238 HISTORY OF THE WORLaD. and under this groundless accusation he was his usual dissimulation, evinced some hesi. put into confinement, along with others of tation, upon the point; but on the following the Woodville family. Gloucester, with Buck, day he took possession of the crown, and from ingham, his noted accomplice, marched to the 26th of June, 1483, is accordingly dated London with Prince Edward, and the other the commencement of his reign. young prince's person having also been se- The only obstacles which now interposed cured, both of them were consigned to the between Richard and the peaceful possession Tower, under the specious pretext that they of the crown were his two nephews, whom would there be safe from the machinations of he still kept in the Tower, for the sake of their enemies. The coronation was post- safety, as he miscalled their imprisonment. poned from the 4th of Mlay till the 22d of During a progress through the kingdom a June, so that the secret purposes of the pro- confederacy was formed against him, and tector began to be unveiled; and it would meetings were held, which had for their obseem probable that Hastings and Stanley, the ject the liberation of the princes. But this friends of the late king began to show some was unnecessary, as they had been privately misgivings as to the designs of Richard. dispatched by the king's orders. The manAt a council held in the Tower on the 13th ner of their death was kept a profound secret, of June 1483, Hastings was seized, and soon and it is very doubtful if even yet we are afterwards executed upon a log of timber, acquainted with the real facts. The most without any form of trial. Stanley and other probable account, however, is, that Richard, obnoxious lords where thrown into various having tampered in vain with Brackenbury, dungeons; and on the same day Earl Rivers the governor of the Tower, to put them to and some others were executed at Pomfret death, found a ready instrument for the execuCastle, on the most unjust pretences of tion of his diabolical purpose in Sir James Tyr. treason. rel, his master of the horse. This individual, The protector now considered himself as with two other rufianly associates, having in a situation to lay claim to the throne. obtained access during the night to the apartHe used his utmost endeavours to inspire the ment of the princes, smothered them as they people with a notion of the illegitimate birth lay asleep, and buried their bodies at the of the late king, and that his children were foot of the staircase. not only illegitimate on this account, but Richard having thus secured himself on also because their father had been secretly the throne, attempted to strengthen his inwedded to Elinor Butler previously to the terest by means of foreign alliances, and also solemnization of marriage between him and by procuring the favour of the clergy at Elizabeth Woodville. Shaw, a popular home; but he found his power threatened preacher, was hired to harangue the people from a quarter where he least expected an to this effect from St. Paul's cross. The attack. The Duke of Buckingham, who had number of Edward's amours gave some plan- been so instrumental in raising him to the sibility to these rumours, and prepared the throne, either thinking his services inadminds of the people for the usurpation of the equately rewarded, or for some other causes crown by Richard. Two days afterwards which cannot now be ascertained, instigated Buckingham harangued the populace in much a revolt against Richard. The horror with the saume manner as Shaw; and on the 25th which the intelligence of the midnight murof June, 1483, that nobleman presented Rich- der in the Tower was received prepared the ard with a parchment purporting to be a public mind for seconding the designs of declaration of the estates of parliament in Buckingham, who, with several other leading favor of the protector, as theonly legitimate individuals in the kingdom, now declared for prince of the house of York. Richard, with Henry, the young Earl of Richmond, in op HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 239 position to Richard. The earl, at this period alarmed at the projected marriage between an exile in Brittany, was considered as the Henry of Richmond and the eldest daughter chief of the Lancasterian party. His right of the late king. To defeat this project, thereto the crown by succession was, however, very fore, now became the chief policy of the king. equivocal; but the cruel behaviour of Rich- The princess was induced to quit her sanctuard inclined the people generally to favor his ary and come under the protection of Richard, pretensions; and, in order to give an addi- who probably had destined her for his son; tional strength to his title, a match was project- but the death of that prince forced him to ed between him and the Princess Elizabeth alter his plans and secure her for himself. the eldest daughter of Edward IV., which, Lady Anne Neville, Richard's queen was in by uniting the two rival families would put infirm health, and this induced him secretly an end to those dissensions which had so long to make an offer of his hand to the young distracted the kingdom and deluged it with princess, which she agreed to accept. During kindred blood. Messengers were accord- the illness of Anne, Elizabeth discovered, it ingly dispatched to give him information of is said, an unnatural degree of impatience, the conspiracy, which fortunately escaped the and hinted her surprise at its duration; a usual vigilance of Richard; and, in about a most suspicious circumstance. Her apprefortnight afterwards, Richmond returned an hensions, however, were soon allayed. In answer, which was no sooner communicated less than a month the queen died; but her to his friends than it reached the ears of the hopes of sharing the throne with Richard king. The latter immediately summoned were not realized. The match was so very his adherents to join him with their retainers unpopular that the royal wooer was dissuaded at Leicester; and after proclaiming Buck- from his purpose and his attention was soon ingham a traitor, he marched against him at directed to another quarter. the head of his army. In the mean time The crimes of Richard had alienated the storms interrupted the voyage of Henry; and greater portion of the York party from his inthe army of Buckingham, dispirited by broken terests; and a union between Elizabeth and bridges and impassable currents, broke up Henry, for the purpose of reconciling conand dispersed. A price was set upon the flicting factions, became a topic of serious head of Buckingham, who fled, but was be- consideration. The latter prince again contrayed into the hands of Richard, and imme- ceived the hope of seizing the crown by diately put to death. another invasion of England; and having colRichard, now emboldened by his success, lected an army of three thousand men, he employed every means of confirming his title set sail from Harfleur early in August, 1485, to the throne, and destroying the plans of and landed at Milford Haven on the 6th of the exiles and malcontents. He summoned that month. Richard affected to hear the a parliament, the first which he had ventured intelligence with joy; and displaying the to call together; and an act was passed declar- vigilance and activity of his brother Eding him undoubted king of the realm, and set- ward, he marched from London on the tling it upon his son Edward, Prince of Wales. 16th. His competitor had directed his The marriage of Edward IV. with Elizabeth march through the northern districts of Woodville was declared null, and his son Wales, a tract of country in the interest of the pronounced a bastard: then followed a severe Stanleys. Both armies met at Bosworth in bill of attainder, in which several noblemen, Leicestershire, on the 22d of August, 1485, bishops, knights, and gentlemen, were depriv- where a battle was fought, memorable for ed of their estates, honors, and rights. having restored tranquillity to the kingdom, But notwithstanding all the measures of which had so long been the thealre of sanseverity adopted by Richard, he was seriously guinary civil wars. 240 HIS'TORY OF THE WORLD. The army of Richmond amounted to about tle' and pursuit, and amongst these were thQ six thousand men, that of the king to nearly Duke of Norfolk and Lords Ferrers, Radcliff twice the number; and both prepared for the and Brackenbury. The victors lost but few, contest, equally confident of victory. For, and none of any note except their standardnotwithstanding the inferiority of Rich- bearer. To enhance their triumph, Lord mond's troops, he was secretly encouraged Strange, the son of Stanley, whom Richard by the promises of Lord Stanley, who was had ordered for execution before or during hastening, with seven thousand men under the conflict, escaped in the confusion and rehis command, apparently to join the royal- joined his father. The body of the tyrant ists, but really with the intention of siding was thrown carelessly across a horse and conwith Henry. Stanley continued his march ducted to Leicester, where it was interred slowly; and on the morning of the battle with small ceremony. he took up a neutral station on the wing of The quarrel between the houses of York either host. The king entrusted his van- and Lancaster was now brought to a concluguard to the Duke of Norfolk, whilst that sion. In order to secure the blessings of of Henry was assigned to the Earl of Oxford; peace and an undisputed succession, it was and the two competitors for the crown placed necessary for Henry at once to espouse Elizthemselves at the headl of the main bodies of abeth, and, by so doing, to blend the white their respective armies. Richard, taking and the red roses together. There is no conadvantage of a marsh which covered his cealing the fact that his title to the crown was right flank, ordered a shower of arrows to be of a very ambiguous description. It resteddischarged into the adverse ranks, which for on three grounds, first, his marriage with a moment threw them into confusion. He Elizabeth; secondly, his descent from the sent orders to Stanley to join him immedi- house of Lancaster; and thirdly, the right ately; but the refusal of that nobleman to of conquest. According to the sagacious Bacomply with his request shook his confidence con, "he rested on the title of Lancaster in and also that of his army, which now began the main, using the marriage and the victo waver. To complete his dismay, he saw tory as supporters." But this main support Stanley join the ranks of Henry, a circum- was not a valid one; for even allowing his destance which determined the fortune of the scent from John of Gaunt to have been legitday. B3ut, in order to retrieve it, Richard imate, he was not the nearest descendant of made a vigorous effort worthy of a better that prince's children. There were several cause. Chancing to observe Henry in the who had claims superior to his; but the inmidst of the conflict, le made a dash at him, dividual whom Henry looked upon with pedetermined to cut him down or perish in the culiar jealousy was Edward Plantagenet, son attempt. He slew with his own hand Sir of the late Duke of Clarence. After the William Brandon, the bearer of the hostile death of this prince's father, Richard sent standard, unhorsed Sir John Cheney, and for him to court, and created him Earl of was within a blow of his rival, when he was Warwick, the title borne by his grandfather; overpowered by numbers, struck to the but fearing that he might afterwards become ground, and immediately slain. After his a dangerous competitor, Richard had him fall resistance was hopeless, and his army conveyed to a distant fortress; and one of broke up and dispersed. The crown which the'first acts of Henry was to change his he wore on that day was taken up by Lord place of confinement, and put him in the Stanley and placed on Henry's head, who Tower, as a prison of greater security. Eliz was instantly greeted with shouts of " Long abeth, who had been his fellow-captive, was live King H-enry." Of Richard's army a ordered to be conducted 4a the house of her considerable number were killed in the bat- mother in London, whilst Ienry himself lei HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 241 surely followed her to the capital. He was Yorkists were very numerous, trusting that received there with every demonstration of his presence might overawe them. On his joy, and was greeted by the inhabitants as way thither he received intelligence of an the deliverer of his country. His coronation insurrection against him, headed by Viscount was delayed for a time, by the breaking out Lovel, with Sir Henry Stafford and his broof a dreadful disease, called from its predomi- ther Thomas. The two latter had raised an nant symptom the sweating sickness. But army, and were marching to besiege the at the end of a month its virulence began to city of Worcester; whilst Lovel was hastenabate, and Henry was crowned on the 30th ing to their assistance with a body of several of October, 1485. To heighten the splendor thousand men. But they were induced to of the ceremony, he bestowed the rank of disperse by the offer of a general pardon. knights-banneret on twelve persons and con- Lovel withdrew from his troops, who immeferred pe6rages on three. Jasper, Earl of diately gave in their submission to the king. Pembroke, his uncle, he created Duke of The Staffords took refuge in the church of Bedford; Thomas, Lord Stanley, his father- Colnham, near Abingdon; but they were in-law, Earl of Derby; and Edward Court- dragged from this sanctuary, as it was found enay, Earl of Devonshire. At the coronation not to possess the privilege of sheltering likewise appeared a new institution, which rebels. The elder brother was executed at the king had established for personal security Tyburn, but the younger one received a as well as pomp; a band of fifty archers, pardon. who were denominated yeomen of the guard. Henry returned from his northern tour, But lest the people should take umbrage at and soon aftewards his queen presented him this step, as if it implied a diffidence in their with a son, whom he named Arthur, in hono loyalty, he declared the institution to be or of the supposed progenitor of the house perpetual. The ceremony of the coronation of Tudor, the renowned King Arthur; but was performed by Cardinal Bourchier, Arch- ]Henry was not permitted to enjoy undisbishop of Canterbury. On the 18th of Janu- turbed security. IIe never was at any time ary, 1486, Henry was united to the Princess popular except amongst his own party; and Elizabeth; and his marriage was celebrated in the northern counties, particularly, the in Iondon with even a greater appearance of late King Richard was remembered and joy than either his first entry or his corona- spoken of with regret. Henry was hated tion. for his success, and even charged with havThte reign of Henry VII. was for several ing put to death the young Earl of Waryears disturbed by plots and insurrections. wick, whom he had imprisoned, as has alThe people, by a long course of civil war, ready been mentioned. It was necessary had become so turbulent and factious, that for the king to exercise extreme caution, on no governor could rule, nor was any king account of the dangers which surrounded likely to please them. The violent animos- him; and he is described as having been ity expressed by this monarch, however, mysterious and impenetrable. Sir Thomas against the house of York, may justly be More remarks that one thing was pretended considered as one of the causes of the ex- whlilst another was meant; and Bacon says treme proneness to rebellion which was that the king had a fashion rather to create manifested amongst his subjects. Instead doubts than assurance. The birth of his of endeavoring to conciliate the affection of son seems to have roused his enemies to make the opposite party, he invariably strove to some exertions against him; and being desquell them by force and violence. For this titute of any chief of sufficient ability rowid purpose, soon after his accession he took a whom insurgents might rally with any hope journey to the north of England, where the of success, they were urged to make one of mi.-16 242 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the most extraordinary attempts recorded resolved to confine her for life in a monasin history. One Richard Simons, a subtle tery, under pretence, however, that it was priest of Oxfrird, took under his charge done on account of her having formally deLambert Symnel, the son of a tradesman livered up the princess her daughter to King belonging to the same town. The boy was Richard. The royal dame murmured at the about eleven years of age, comely, and not severity of her sentence; but the king perwithout dignity and grace in his person. sisted in his resolution, and she remained in With this individual, who was well tutored confinement till her death, which did not to perform the extraordinary part which was take place till some years afterwards. to be assigned him, the churchman landed The next measure was to exhibit the perin Ireland, and presented him to the lord- son of Warwick to the people. That prince deputy of the country as Edward Plantagenet, was accordingly taken from the Tower, Earl of Warwick, who had made his escape and conducted through the principal streets from the Tower. It seems to have been at of London; after which the procession first the design of the fabricators of this sin- moved to St. Paul's, where great numbers gular deception to have presented him to the were assembled to see him. Still, howpublic as the younger of the princes who ever, the fictitious Warwick prospered in had been put to death by Richard in the Ireland, and being furnished by the Duchess Tower. In order to further this scheme, a of Burgundy with a body of two thousand report was circulated that one of these veteran Germans, under the command of princes had made his escape from his assas- Martin Swart, a brave and experienced offisins. Why this plan should have been cer, the invasion of England was determined changed, and the youthful impostor seduced upon. He landed in Lancashire, whence he to personate an individual still living, it is marched towards York, expecting that the difficult t) conjecture; but such is the fact. country people would rally round his stanThe Earl )f Kildare to whom he was pre- dard during his march. But in this he was sented in Ireland, swallowed the bait, and disappointed; the people were unwilling to allowed the claims of Symnel without dis- join a body of foreigners, and were besides cussion. This nobleman was a zealous ad- kept in awe by the reputation of Henry. hlerent of the house of York; and the little Lord Lincoln, therefore, who commanded colony called the English Pale, long ruled the rebel army, determined to bring the by that party, retained all its ancient attach- matter to a speedy issue. Accordingly he ments. A belief in the identity of Symnel met the royalists at Stoke, in the county with the Earl of Warwick became universal, of Nottingham, and an obstinate engageboth amongst the nobility and the people. ment took place, which terminated in Henry iHe was lodged in the castle of Dublin; the obtaining a complete victory. Lord Lincoln, inhabitants universally took an oath of alle- with four thousand soldiers, perished in the giance to him, as the true descendant of the action; and Symnel with his tutor Simons Plantagenets; he was crowned with a dia- were taken prisoners. Simons being a priest, dem taken from the statute of the blessed could not be tried by the civil power, and Virgin, and proclaimed king by the title of was only committed to close confinement. Edward VI. Symnel was pardoned, and made a scullion Such an unexpected event so alarmed in the king's kitchen, whence he was afterHtenry, that he would have gone over to wards advanced to the rank of falconer, in Ireland in person to quell the rebellion, had which capacity he died. Thus ended this he not dreaded the machinations of the most absurdly planned and injudiciously queen dowager in his absence. To prevent executed revolt; but it was not destitute of any thing of this kind from occurring, it was good results. It taught the king that tlbe HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 243 house of York was not to be trampled upon had commissioned the governor of Calais to with impunity; for to such an extent had negotiate a peace and alliance with Charles his antipathy to the branches of that family of France, which was formally concluded. and its adherents been carried, that it was To the French monarch the possession of said his own queen was not exempt from the Bretagne was an important object; and common odium which was thrown upon Henry, naturally avaricious, agreed to ac them. It was asked by the people, why cept about ~200,000 as a reimbursement for was she, the rightful heir to the throne, not the expenses of the expedition. It was also crowned, and invested with the usual in- stipulated that the King of France should signia of royalty? Henry silenced these pay to him and his heirs an annual pension rumors by ordering her coronation; and of 25,000 crowns. from that period she shared with him the But Henry's hopes of a tranquil possesusual honors of royalty. sion of the crown of England were doomed Having thus to a great extent established to perpetual disappointment. His reign his authority at home, he thought of divert- was now to be disturbed by one of the most ing the minds of his subjects from domestic mysterious personages to_ be met with in insurrection to foreign enterprise. tIe does English history. About the time when war not appear, however, to have had any inten- was declared against France, a pretender to tion of prosecuting a serious war in a distant the regal dignity appeared in Ireland, which country, but he used the pretext as a means seems to have been the natural soil for these of aggrandizing himself. A parliament was spurious shoots of royalty. This impostor summoned, which granted the king a con- passed under the name of Perkin Warbeck, siderable sum for prosecuting the war in but asserted himself to be Richard, Duke of Bretagne, the only great fief of the French York, the second son of Edward IV., who crown which still retained its own prince it was alleged, had escaped from the Tower and its ancient constitution; by force, by when his brother was murdered. Previously policy, or by good fortune, the French mon- to his appearance in Ireland, he had been archs had obtained possession of all the heard of at the court of Margaret, his supothers. But of the supply granted by par- posed aunt, who interested herself to the utliament, only a small part could be raised. most in his favor, and fondly styled him the The northern counties not only refused pay- White Rose of England. But he was comment of their proportion, but rose inlrevolt, pelled to leave Burgundy; for Henry had and murdered the Earl of Northumberland, dispatched some ambassadors to the sovthe king's lieutenant. The insurrection, ereign of that country, with secret instruchowever, was quickly suppressed by the tions to demand either the person of the Earl of Surrey. John a Chambre, one of impostor, or his expulsion from the territothe ringleaders, suffered at York; and Sir ries of the duke. Warbeck was received John Egremont, the other, escaped to the with open arms in Ireland, for the Irish Duchess of Burgundy, where he had leisure were fanatically attached to the house of to hatch new schemes of rebellion. The York. Several nobleman who had credu. money which Henry by this means obtained, lously believed in the fraud of Symnel, from and also in consequence of another grant which they had just escaped, gave countefrom Parliament, was quietly deposited in nance to his pretensions. A deputation was his coffers. For, although he collected a sent to Flanders to ascertain his history; considerable army, with which he proceeded but they had been corrupted by Henry beto Calais, the king had other objects than fore their landing in Burgundy, and they victory and conquest in view. Some months returned fraught with charges of treason previously to his landing on the Continent, he | against the disaffected nobility. Some of 244 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the most eminent malcontent Yorkists were land. The adventurer, with a few adher put to death, and amongst the rest Sir Wil- ents, accordingly departed, and, after touchliam Stanley, lord-chamberlain, to whom the ing once more at Cork, and in vain soliciting king had owed his life on Bosworth field. the aid of Earl Desmond, steered for Cormn His fate was most mysterious, and the con- wall, where he landed on the 7th of Septeinduct of Henry upon this occasion is open to ber, 1497. the most odious suspicions. Sir Robert His arrival in this part of the country was Clifford, the individual whose information a politic step, for an attempt to raise a tax ied to these executions, was a confidential there some time before gave rise to an insurYorkist; and his behavior towards his own rection, which, although quelled, left behind party, so different from what might have heartburnings and discontent. A considerbeen expected, tended to dissolve the ties able body of Cornish men joined his standwhich subsisted between it and the malcon- ard, and before he reached Exeter, his army tent exiles. amounted to six thousand men. IBut the Three years had now elapsed since the king arrived, and preparations were made pretender had set forth his claim, and dur- for a battle; the heart of the pretender, ing that period he had never attempted to however, failed him at the sight of the royal establish it by legal proof. He began to standard, and instead of risking an engagefeel that he stood upon delicate ground, and ment for the crown, he withdrew during the resolved at once to enforce his pretended night, and entered his name in the sanctuary right by an appeal to the sword. With a of Beaulieu in HLampshire. HEis followers small force collected in Flanders (for he had laid down their arms to the king, and his been for some time absent from Ireland), he wife also submitted to his authority, and was made a descent in the neighborhood of Deal; placed near the person of the queen. From but the adventurers were attacked by the his sanctuary the fugitive was removed by inhabitants, and all of them driven back to the king to London, where he was ordered their vessels, or taken prisoners. Warbeck to keep within the precincts of the palace. himself made his escape, and returned in He contrived, however, to make his escape, despair to Flanders. From this country he but, despairing of getting out of the country, was ejected at the instigation of Henry; and surrendered himself to the prior of the after vainly attempting to gain a footing in monastery of Shene, The monk contrived Ireland, he set sail for Scotland, where he to prevail with the king to spare his life; was well received by the young king, who but he was condemned to stand in the stocks professed a conviction in the justness of his and make a public confession of his impostitle. King James conferred upon him the ture, after which he was committed to the hand of Lady Catherine Gordon, a near Tower. In this fortress he met with a sinkinswoman of his own. The adventurer's gular companion, the real Earl of Warwick, fortunes being thus suddenly elevated, he who had now been a prisoner for the period along with the King of Scotland, ad- of fourteen years. His life had thus been vanced into England; but not a native passed in cheerless captivity, for no other sword was unsheathed in favor of the White offence than that of being the sole survivor Rose. The enthusiasm which had been ex- of the male descendants of Edward III. cited among the Scots by his first appearance The two contrived a means of escape, but in their country had begun to decline, and they were discovered. 5Warbeck was execuduring a long truce which served all the ted at Tyburn; and the son of Clarence purposes of a treaty of peace between James having been arraigned for high treason, was and Henry, it was agreed to by the former condemned to death and beheaded on the that he should induce Warbeck to quit Scot- 28th of Kovember, 1499. This deed was HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 245 worthy of Richard III. It was a cold- and foe. We are informed by one of the blooded murder, aggravated by circulmstanl- wisest of historians and of men, that these ces; for the harmless and joyless victiml was, individuals had no reputation, otherwise than from his long confinement, reduced to a by servilely following his bent, and that they state of idiocy. The human soul shudders "shaped his way to those extremities for to think of such atrocities, perpetrated which himself was touched with remorse at in defiance alike of justice and humanity. his death." The hoard which the king had From the guilt of shedding innocent blood amassed by their unjust extortions, and which it is impossible to purify the name of lienry was mostly kept in " secret places at RichVII. mond," is said to have amounted to nearly In 1501, the king's eldest son Arthur was ~16,000,000 of our present money. This married to the Infanta Catherine of Spain; amount of species is so enormous as to warbut he survived the marriage only a few rant a conviction that it has been greatly months, having died on the 2d of April fobl- exaggerated. It may be doubted whether lowing. It was agreed upon a short while the whole circulating medium of the counafterwards, by the parents of the parties, try at that period amounted to the sum that the widow of the late prince should be which the avaricious monarch is said to have espoused by Henry's next son, now Prince accumulated. of Wales, and afterwards Henry VIII. The Henry, who had enjoyed an uncommon union was sanctioned by the pope, who share of health during his life, was at fiftygranted a bull, dispensing with any impedi- two years of age attacked by severe indis& ment which their affinity might otherwise position. He died on the 21st of April, cause. The eldest daughter of King Henlry 1509, in the twenty-fourth year of his reign, was conferred upon James IV. of Scotland; which, although perpetually disturbed by an important union, as from this stock domestic insurrections, was upon the whole sprung all the sovereigns who have since prosperous. He was interred in the chapel reigned in Great Britain. King Henry in at Westminster which still bears his name; his own time, was called the Solomon of one of the noblest trophies of architectural England; and, without allowing him to pos- genius produced in any age, and which consess undisputed claims to so high-sounding a fers peculiar distinction upon that in which title, the saying recorded of him regarding it was erected. the Scottish marriage displays no common Henry VIIL, son of the preceding monforesight and sagacity. When some of his arch, ascended the throne on the 22d of counselors objected to it, on the ground that April, 1509, being then in the eighteenth the kingdom might thereby fall to the IKing year of his age. He assumed the reins of of Scotland, he answered, " Scotland would government under most auspicious circumthen become an accession to England, not stances. His title was undisputed; his treasEngland to Scotland; the greater would ury was well stocked; commerce was in a draw the less; it is a safer union for Eng- flourishing condition; and the kingdom, land than one with France." which now may be supposed to have looked In the latter part of this king's reign, his to the youthful monarch with hope and ineconomy, which had always been very exact, dulgence, was at peace with every foreign degenerated into avarice, and his oppressions power, and quiet in itself. He was preposat last became severe. In Empson and sessing in person, accomplished in mind, and Dudley he possessed two ministers, who did adroit in every martial and fashionable exerall that inventive minds could suggest, and cise. hearts of stone perform, to gratify a rapac- On the 6th of June, 1509, Henry and ity, which fed wyith equal appetite on friend Catherine were finally united in wedlock, 246 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. and on the 24th of the same month they pirited and mutinous, returned to ErLg and were crowned with great splendor. One of towards the close of 1512. On the north Henry's first acts was to bring Empson and western frontier of France, however, the Dudley, the obnoxious ministers of his father, arms of Henry were triumphant, and also to trial. As a capital accusation could not against the Scotch, who had been tempted be brought against them for merely execut- by French councils to invade England. ing the will of the late king, it was found James IV., with a considerable army under necessary to indite them for a conspiracy to his command, was met by the Earl of Surseize upon London with an armed force dur- rey at Flodden, where a bloody battle was ing the last illness of Henry. Of this charge, fought, in which the Scots were totally absurd and incredible as it appears to be, routed, and their king, with the greater porthese individuals were convicted; and though tion of his nobility, perished. Henry reit seems probable that the king would have ceived the news of this victory at Tournay, been satisfied with imprisonment for life, which he had invested, after having demolyet so clamorous were the people for the ished Terouanne. The latter city opened its blood of the culprits, that he was compelled gates to him in eight days; but all parties to sign a warrant for their execution, which being now disposed for peace, a general treaty took place on Tower Hill. was concluded in August, 1514. In 1511, Henry entered into a league with Amongst the inferior dependents of the Pope Julius II., Ferdinand, King of Spain, court there now appeared an individual, and other continental powers, against Louis whose ambition and talent enabled him XII. of France. In this alliance the King speedily to supplant every competitor. This of England was not a deeply interested in- was Thomas, afterwards Cardinal Wolsey, dividual; but his vanity was flattered with who, although only the son of a burgess of the idea of receiving the title of Most Chris- Ipswich, gradually raised himself to the first tian Majesty, which was promised to him by offices of state. His preferment had been the pope. The object which the confeder- rapid beyond all precedent, and this was not ates had in view was to wrest from Louis likely to be forgiven by an envious world. some valuable provinces which he had ob- From the year 1513 to 1515 he had passed tained in Italy; and although Henry had no through the various gradations, from being hope of sharing the spoil with them in this Bishop of Tournay to the honors of the carquarter, yet, the occupation of the French dinalate, and he succeeded Archbishop Wormonarch in schemes of aggrandizement be- ham in the office of chancellor. yond the Alps afforded an opportunity to On the death of Maximilian, which hapthe English of invading France, and reviv- pened towards the end of the year 1519, ing the old chimera of conquering that coun- Henry, along with the Kings of France and try. The point, whether England should Spain, became a candidate for the imperial aim at continental dominions, was debated throne. The Spanish monarch-was the suein parliament; and the arguments against it cessful competitor, and, to soothe the wounded greatly preponderated. But the vanity of pride of Henry, he paid him a visit of cereHenry was too much flattered to relinquish mnony at Dover. His principal design was the scheme. He sent an ambassador to de- to pursuade Henry to abandon a projected mand of Louis the ancient patrimony of the meeting which was to take place between English crown in France, and this being re- him and the King of France, the wily emfused, war was denounced. Parliament grant- peror dreading that such an interview might ed a supply, and an army was equipped and be fraught with danger to himself He was sent into Spain. But this expedition was unsuccessful, however, and the two monattended with no success, and the troops, dis- arches met between Ardres and Guines in HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 247 1520. The place where this meeting was evated situation. The capricious and tyran. held has been long celebrated under the nical temper of Henry forbade his ministers name of the Field of the Cloth of Gold. to be at ease in any place of trust near his The pomp and parade; the tournaments and person. The fall of Wolsey seems always other sports of the age, exhibited upon the to have appeared to himself as an event of occasion, were on the grandest scale, and pe- very likely occurrence, and these gloomy culiarly calculated to delight the young King forebodings were at last realized. The cause of England, a creature of impulse, and one of the rupture between the king and him who sacrificed policy to temper, and interest was the divorce of Queen Catharine, which to passion. It was thus that the continental the former had begun to project. But the monarchs flattered his foibles, and ingratiated fall of Wolsey was not the only event conthemselves into his favor. nected with Henry's divorce; it ultimately About the same time a crime was perpe- led to one of the most memorable transactrated, in the guilt of which both Henry and tions in the history of England, namely, the his minister Wolsey have been implicated; separation of that country from the com-;we mean the execution of Edward Stafford, munion of the church of Rome. Duke of Buckingham. This nobleman was The doctrines of the reformation, propadescended from the youngest son of Edward gated by Luther in 1527, had gained considIII.; and the principal accusation brought erable ground in England, and many proagainst him was, that he had tampered with fessed a belief in them, notwithstanding the a priest who laid claim to the gift of proph- severe persecution which had been carried ecy, and who had foretold that he would on against heretics during some of the preyet ascend the throne in virtue of his de- ceding reigns. The papal authority, though scent. Several other charges equally ab- still very great, had in the space of ten years surd, and not amounting to an overt act of declined considerably; but a detail of the high treason, were brought against him; he circumstances connected with this subject is was tried by a jury of peers, condemned to not required in this place. It may be nodeath, and beheaded on the 17th of May, ticed in general, that the reformation in 1521. Upon this occasion the populace England was facilitated by the undeniable vented their indignation against Wolsey, corruption of the clergy, and the experience whose subtle policy had brought the sufferer which many individuals had of, and the parto the scaffold, by loud cries of " The butch- tiality which they entertained for the doeer's son. " trines of Wickliff. The seed sown by that Wolsey, however, continued to rule with divine had never been destroyed; and if it unabated sway fiom; 1521 till 1527. This did not show itself above ground, it was experiod is not distinguished by any events of tending itself underneath, perpetuating a importance, if we except the opposition sort of dormant existence, and ready to which the House of Commons offered to the spring up on the first propitious occasion. minister in his attempts to raise supplies. Besides, the marriage of King Henry was That body obstinately disputed these grants, looked upon by many as in itself illegal, anid and attempts were made to raise money by only sanctified by a dispensation from the the expedients of forced loans and pretended pope. benevolences, which the legislature had al- Whether Henry himself, during the early ready condemned. But these attempts pro- years of his reign, felt any scruples about duced a small supply and a great deal of dis- the validity of his marriage, may reasonably content. Wrolsey, notwithstanding his un- be doubted; for no trace of any thing of wearied exertions in behalf of his master, the kind can be discovered in his public connever felt himself perfectly secure in his el- duct till the year 1527. The queen was 248 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. some years older than himself, and was now ous game to play, coincided with the former, past the meridian of life. Her personal and gave Henry hopes that his petition to charms had decayed, and the heart of the the court of Rome would be successful. royal sensualist could not be attracted by But Anne was not the individual whom the beauty that belonged purely to the mind. prelate had in his eye as a wife for the king. She had borne him several children, all of He was desirous of wedding his master to a: whom died in infancy except the Princess French princess, and, we are informed, threw Mary, who survived both her parents,.and himself on his knees before Henry, and enafterwards ascended the throne. It is re- treated him to desist from a project so unported of the inconstant monarch that he worthy of his birth as an alliance with the attributed the mortality in his family to the Boleyn family. But the pliant mind of the curse of heaven, which blighted his unnat- cardinal yielded to the impetuosity of his ural alliance with Catherine, his brother's master and to the force of circumstances; widow. But there was another and more and he found it necessary to atone for his powerful circumstance which led him to indiscreet zeal by diplaying redoubled activcontemplate a divorce from his queen; this ity to promote the marriage with the lady was the love which he had contracted for upon whornm the king had fixed his affections. Anne Boleyn. The charms of this lady had The illustrious Sir Thomas More declined to touched his fiery but not unsusceptible heart; support the divorce, and Fisher, Bishop of and as his passion could not be gratified ex- Rochester, acted with the same integrity. cept by means of an alliance sanctioned by A deputation was sent to Rome by Henry law, he set seriously to work for the purpose for the purpose of sounding Pope Clement of removing the amiable partner of his upon the subject of the divorce. The pollthrone and bed, and placing the youthful tiff was in a situation unfavorable to the beauty in her stead. The secret intentions success of the application; and although he of the king having become to some extent was bound to the English monarch by the public, he ventured to ask the opinions of ties of gratitude, he declined giving an imthe most'eminent ecclesiastics upon the point. mediate assent to the proposition, but apThe dangers of a disputed succession, if the pointed two legates to hear and determine king should die without male issue, were the validity of the first marriage of HLenry. brought forward as an urgent plea for taking He also gave a solemn promise not to recall the step which he had in view. He had the commission, nor to do any act which also recourse to his theological, lore, and cer- should annul the judgment or prevent the tain religious scruples connected with his progress of the trial. The pontiff was at this first marriage helped to give a color of prin- period engaged in a contest with the impericiple to his real desires, and at the same time alists; but he at last concluded a treaty of to impart to them life and warmth. Some alliance with the emperor, who appeared the of the divines whose counsel was asked de- only potentate capable of shielding him dared that no dispensation could authorize from his other enemies. The forensic disa marriage with the widow of a brother; putes respecting the divorce still remained which they proved from a passage in the unsettled, and from the date above mentionPentateuch. Others, who also founded their ed, Clement took his final part against the arguments upon a portion of Scripture, con- degradation of the Queen of England, who tended that a prohibition referred to by the was an Austrian princess. But still, by inopposite party was not universal, and might genious delays and plausible formalities, he be dispensed with in the king's case, where contrived to amuse Henry, whose power it the frst marriage had been unproductive of was not his interest to treat with direct conissue. Cardlinal Wolsey, who had a hazard- tempt. The patience of the English monarch, 7z HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 249 however, was now completely worn out by pudiating'her. It made a profound impresthese fruitless attempts at negotiation, and he sion on the audience, and touched even the redoubled his entreaties to the pope to comply cold heart of her husband. The legates with his demands. Clement, in order to show carefully prolonged the trial until July, when a willingness to acquiesce in the wishes of a vacation from July to October took place, Henry, sent over Cardinal Campeggio, who, during which time all courts were bound to either separately or in conjunction with Wol- suspend their sittings; and, notwithstandsey, was empowered to hear and determine ing the importunities of the king, Campegthe mnatrimonial suit. The legate at first gio contrived to get the suit removed to attempted to dissuade Henry from pursuing Rome. Agreeably to the instructions of the divorce; but being unsuccessful with Clement, Campeggio quitted England, and the monarch, he next tried to persuade the pope summoned Henry to appear before Catherine to embrace a religious life, in him in forty days. in which he also failed. The popular feeling In these transactions Wolsey took no inwas against Henry, and he felt himself com- considerable share, and the compliant manpelled to remove Anne Boleyn from court, ner in which he gave his consent to the sugwhere she had for some time resided. gestions of Campeggioexcited the suspicions At a great council which he convoked, he of the king that his minister was playing a declared that in prosecuting this matter he double game with him. The symptoms of was solely actuated by a desire to know approaching disgrace now became too palwhether or not his only remaining child pable to escape the notice of the cardinal; for Mary was the rightful heir of the crown. all parties joined either openly or privately On this occasion he made an appeal to the to destroy him who had so long enjoyed the feelings and ~:-:ciences of his hearers which favor of the king. It was a singular coinaffected them much; and the perplexities cidence that the friends both of Queen Cathconsequent upon the late proceedings afford. erine and Anne Boleyn were employed as ed Campeggio an opportnnity for putting instruments of his overthrow.' On the 9th off the decision of the question until he had ob- of October, 1529, a prosecution was comtained further instructions from Rome. Mean- mnenced against him for procuring bulls from while Clement was seized with a dangerous Rome without the king's license. On the 17th illness, which retarded his answer and is of the same month the great seal was taken said to have revived in the ambitious mind from him and given to Sir Thomas More. On of Wolsey a hope which he had before in- the 1st of December the lords presented an dulged in, of obtaining possession of the address to the king, in which were embodied tiara. This occurred in the spring of 1529; various articles of accusation against the cardiand although the pope recovered from his nal; and notwithstanding that the more serisickness, his legate contrived fromn time to ous parts of the charge were refuted by his sertime to postpone the trial. On the 31st of vant Thomas Cromwell, the court at last proMay, however, the court of Parliament met, nounced him to be beyond the protection of and summoned the king and queen to meet the law, and "that his lands, goods, and chaton the 18th of June. The latter obeyed, tels were forfeited, and that his person was but protested against the judges, and ap- at the mercy of the king." Wolsey had conpealed to the pope. At the next session, on fessed his offence against the statute of prcethe refusal of the cardinals to admit the ap- munire, of which he was technically guilty, peal, she rose, and in a calm and dignified inasmuch as he had received the bulls withmanner threw herself at Henry's feet, out a formal license. It is scarcely necesimploring him in a truly eloquent address sary to observe that the sentencepronounced to desist from his intended purpose of re- was most unjust; for the bulls had been ob 1 250 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tained with the consent and for the service state with him as queen. On the 23d of May of his ungratefid master, nnder whose eye Cranmer pronounced, not a divorce, but a they had been executed for years, without sentence that the king's marriage with Catha word being uttered as to the manner in erine had been and was a nullity, because it which they had been obtained. But nothing had been contracted and consummated against could now save the cardinal. He was at the divine law; and not long afterwards he once hurled from his place of pride and pow- confirmed the marriage of the king with the er, and fell, with his vast possessions, a help- Lady Anne, whose coronation was performed less victim into the hands of the king. But in the most gorgeous manner, on the Ist of it would appear that, from habit, perhaps, June, 1533. The unfortunate Catherine, Henry still cherished a feeling of partiality perceiving all further opposition to be vain, for his old favorite, and sent him from time to retired to Ampthill, near Dunstable, where time tokens of his esteem and regard. In she remained for the rest of her days in February, 1530, Wolsey was actually pardon- privacy and peace. ed and restored to his see of Winchester, and The pope was no sooner informed cf these to some other emoluments. Even the great proceedings, than he passed a sentence, dediocese of York was shortly afterwards claring Catherine to be the king's only lawrestored; but at the moment when he was ful wife; requiring him to take her again, making magnificent preparations for his in- and denouncing censures against him in the stallation on the archiepiscopal throne, he event of refusal. Henry, on the other hand, was arrested at Cawood on the charge of knowing that his subjects were entirely at high treason. His health was infirm, and his command, resolved to separate altogether during his journey from York he was seized from the church of Rome. In the year 1534 with a dysentery, which confined him for he was declared head of the church by Parsome time at the seat of Lord Shrewsbury. liament; the authority of the pope was comAs soon as he was able he mounted his mule pletely abolished in England; all tributes and resumed the journey. But his strength formerly payable to the holy see were derapidly declined and he was compelled to cdared illegal; and the king was intrusted take refuge in the abbey of Leicester, where with the collation to all ecclesiastical benehe expired on the 30th of November, 1530, fiees. The nation readily entered into the in the sixtieth year of his age. king's measures, and took an oath, called After the death of Wolsey, the king, by the oath of supremacy; all the authority the advice of his ministers, had the legality which the popes had maintained over Engof his marriage debated in all the universi- land for ages was overthrown at a blow; ties of Europe. By dint of money he suc- and none seemed to repine at the change ceeded in obtaining their votes in his favor, except those who, from their dependence upbut not without a stubborn opposition. Back- on Rome, were immediately interested. ed by these judgments, Henry appealed to But, though the king thus separated from the pope; but Clement remained inflexible, the church of Rome, he by no means adand the king prepared to resist the papacy, hered to the doctrines of Luther, which had though not yet to separate himself entirely been lately promulgated. He had himself from the church of Rome. In 1532 Cran- written a book against this celebrated remer was elevated to the Archbishopric of former, which the pope pretended greatly Canterbury; and early in the following year to admire, and honored King Henry, on HIenry privately married Anne, and thus this account, with the title of Defender of himself determined the long debated topic. the Faith. This character he seemed to be A few months afterwards he openly solem- determined to maintain, and therefore per nized his marriage with Anne, who went in secuted the reformers most violently. Many HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 251 were burnt far denying the Catholic doc- time afterwards, which alone is calculated to trines, and some also were executed for main- consign the name of Henry VIII. to the extainiIg the supremacy of the pope. The ecration of all future times. Sir Thomas courtiers knew not which side to take, both More, the first Englishman of his day, one the new and old religions being equally per- who had exalted the nation in the eyes secuted; and as both parties equally courted of Europe, and whose fame was universal, the favor of the king, he was by that means was tried and executed for misprision of enabled to assume an absolute authority over treason, in not taking the oath to mainthe nation. tain the succession. The legal pretext, if The established clergy co-operated actively there was any, for the accusation, was groundin the revolution which was in progress. ed on the obnoxious clause of a recent act, Six bishops sanctioned by their vote every which made it treason " to do any thing by blow which was struck at the power of writing or act which was to the slander, disRome; and fourteen abbots were usually turbance, or prejudice of the marriage with present when the number of temporal peers the Lady Anne, or to the disherison or who attended were somewhat more than disturbance of the king's heirs by her." forty. Both More and Fisher had abstained from The attention of the king was now turned either affirming or denying, first that Henry's to Elizabeth Boston, a nmn in the priory of marriage with Catherine was invalid; secondSt. Sepulchre at Canterbury, who believed ly, that his marriage with Anne was valid; herself endowed with the power of working and, thirdly, they refused to disclaim all formiracles, and foretelling future events. Sev- eign authority in the kingdom, spiritual aueral clergymen and other gentlemen of Kent thority included. After his condemnation believed in her mission; and some individ- Sir Thomas avowed that he had studied the uals of the highest order, both of intellect question for seven years, and could not esand piety, gave credit to her pretensions. cape from the conclusion that the king's marShe was subject to convulsions; and in the riage with Catherine was valid. For this trances into which she frequently fell, visions scrupulous conscientiousness he expired upon of a marvellous nature were vouchsafed to the scaffold on the 7th of July, 1535. her, which turned of course upon the extra- This wanton shedding of righteous blood ordinary events taking place around her. excited the utmost indignation in foreign She was tried and executed for high treason, countries, particularly in Italy. Here Giovio, and her abetthrs were arraigned on the same a historian, compared the tyranny of Henry charge. Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, was to that almost preternatural wickedness which attainted by the act against this modern Py- the Grecian legends had embodied under the thia; but by a separate statute he was after- appellation of Phalaris. Other individuals wards attainted of misprision of treason, for lashed the tyranny of the English monarch not having taken the oath to the succession. with the utmost rigor, and lamented, in He was eminent for his learning and virtue, strains of affecting eloquence, the fate of and probably his life would have been saved More, whom they designated the martyr of had not the pope sent him a cardinal's hat unshaken probity. Amongst the most emiwhile in prison, which roused the jealousy nent of these writers was Cardinal Pole, an of Henry. The remorseless tyrant ordered Englishman, allied to the royal family. him to be executed, at the same time re- Catherine, the former consort of Henry, marking, with his usual heartlessness, that expired at Kimbolton in the beginning of the pope might send him a hat, but that January, 1536, having died as she had lived, Fisher should have no head to wear it. An- mild, forgiving and resigned. On her deathother deed of blood was perpetrated a short bed she wrote a most affectionate letter to 252 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. her husband, whose iron nerves were touched- light;" but in vain. The archbishop had by the perusal of it. His less prudent queen been forbidden to approach the court until had the levity to express her satisfaction at desired by the king. The subsequent pro the event. But if she expected that it would ceedings were as rapid as they were terrible. in any way be conducive to her further hap- On the 12th of M[ay, Norris, Weston, ]Brere, piness, and a more devoted attachment on ton and Smeaton were tried in Westminster the part of her husband, she was most mis- Hall for the crime of high treason. Smea.. erably disappointed. She soon after gave ton pleaded guilty to the charge; the others birth to a still-born child, and her brutal resisted, but were convicted. Three days lord is said to have reproached her upon the afterwards the IHouse of Lords assembled occasion for the loss of his boy. His desire for the trial of the queen. She was without for male issue, and his repeated disappoint-: counsel, and attended only by her ladies. ments, seem to have at last weaned the af- Anne defended herself with modesty and fections of the fickle monarch from the idol firmness, but, upon evidence of which no whom he had worshipped with so much de- traces now remain, she was condemned to sufvotedness and ardor. A new passion had fer death. On hearing the sentence of her'kindled in his breast, the object of which judges, she raised up her hands and exclaimwas Jane Seymour, a young lady of the ed, "0, Father and Creator! O, thou who queen's bed-chamber, which office Anne her- art the way, the truth, and the life! Thou self had held in that of Catherine. The knowest that I have not deserved this death." circumstances connected with the queen's It is difficult to reconcile such an ejaculation arrest may be briefly stated. On May-day, with a consciousness of guilt. She after1536, a tilting match was held at Greenwich, wards turned to her judges, and made a sein which her brother was the chief challen- rious protestation of her innocence. On the ger, and Norris, groom of the stole, the op- 17th of May the other individuals who had posing defendant. The queen having drop- been convicted were carried forth to execuped her handkerchief, had it gallantly handed tion. Smeaton, who had confessed to the up to her by Norris, who was supposed to guilt, probably from. an erroneous impression be her lover. The jealousy of the king that he wculd by this means save his life, burst out; he left the joust precipitately; was the last to suffer. Anne's brother Rochand ere night his queen had passed through ford was also tried and condemned on the an examination, and was committed a pris- same day with herself, and was executed oner. By the researches of Mr. Turner it with the others. The curtain dropped upon has been discovered, that some days before this horrible tragedy with the death of the the tournament certain individuals were ap- queen, who was beheaded on the day after pointed to inquire into the alleged misdeeds her supposed accomplices had suffered. of Anne. The commission put their authority That Henry sacrificed his queen in a fit into execution upon the 10th of May, when of vindictive resentment against her, who, a grand jury of Westminster was assembled. he too rashly believed, had dishonored him, The charge against her was adultery, and its is all that can be urged in his favor.'That consequence in such a case, treason. Wheth- he really believed her guilty, must also in er innocent or not, the unhappy Anne was common fairness be allowed. To think othdeserted in her utmost need, and had not a erwise would be to attaint his name with friend to counsel her in this alarming emer- one of the most horrid enormities that ever gency. On the day after the queen was disgraced the annals of crime. It seems committed to the Tower, Cranmer had writ- very improbable that the violent attachment ten to the king, imploring the king's mercy which he had all along entertained for her towards her, "his life so late, and sole de- should have cooled so suddenly, and been HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 253 supplantedby such deadly hate, without sup- be reconciled with the papal authority, if posing that some levities in the conduct of the jurisdiction of that power were only of Queen Anne had fired his jealous soul, and a spiritual nature. But by the statutes roused him to demand her blood as an expi- of later years, the revolution in church govation for the guilt imputed to her. But he ernment had been consummated in England. was not content with taking away her life The ancient doctrine of the Roman Catholic under the charge of adultery and incest; he faith was acknowledged; but the king was deprived her of the name and right of wife placed as a sort of lay patriarch at the head and queen, and bastardized the daughter of the ecclesiastical establishment. Thomas which she had born him, even when he ac- Cromwell, who had now become Henry's knowledged that daughter to be his own. chief minister, was at this time raised to the His contempt for her memory was displayed new office of the king's vicegerent, and emin a manner which could be believed of few powered to send commissioners into the sevother individuals. He dressed himself in eral counties of England to inspect the monwhite on the day of her execution, and asteries, and to report, with rigorous exactactually married Jane Seymour next morn- ness, the conduct and deportment of such as ing. were found there. This appointment, which In bringing this tale of blood to a termin- had been made between the Parliaments of ation, we have unavoidably outrun several 1536 and 1539, was confirmed by the recimportant events. When the news of Sir ognition of the latter; and it was provided Thomas MIore's execution reached the court that the vicegerent should take his seat in of Rome, a bull was prepared against Henry. the House of Peers before the Archbishop In this extraordinary Instrument were em- of Canterbury, and be ranked above all bodied all the offences of the English mon- temporal lords, except some branches of the arch against the papal see, and he was al- royal family. The first experiment which lowed ninety days, and his fautors and abet- Cromwell made of his unlimited power was tors sixty, to repent, and to appear at Rome the gradual suppression of the various classes either in person or by attorney. In case of of religious houses, and the seizure of their default, he was to be excommunicated, and possessions, at that time amounting to a large deprived of his crown; his children by Anne proportion of the landed property of the were to be rendered incapable of inheriting kingdom. This seizure of vested territorial for several generations; his subjects were to possessions was, in a legal point of view, dibe absolved from their allegiance to him; rect spoliation. But it was urged, on the and all treaties and alliances between him other hand, that from the immorality, ignorand other powers were to be null and void. ance, and indolence in which those who enThis thunderbolt, however, though forged joyed them indulged, they had forfeited for the purpose of punishing the king's apos- their right, and might lawfully be deprived tacy, it was resolved should be suppressed of these. By the inspectors of the religious for a time, and lodged in the papal armory houses, the public were informed of the exuntil a more favorable opportunity should istence of monstrous disorders in these conmoccur for launching it at the royal culprit. munities.' In 1536 the lesser monasteries The election of Henry as supreme head of were suppressed, amounting to nearly four the church we have already noticed, and hundred. Their revenues, computed at also some of the events which followed his ~30,000 per annum, were confiscated to the assumption of that presumptuous title. liHen- king's use, besides their plate and other ry, however, at first assumed it with wari- goods, estimated at ~100,000 more. The ness, and the language in which the statute confiscation, however, was most unpopular, is ceuched shows that his supremacy might especially in those places where the ancient 254 HISTORY OF! THE WORLD. faith retained most sway, and occasional re- Canterbury, were infallible recipes for cervolts broke out. Such a sweeping calamity tain disorders. On this occasion the shrine must have brought ruin upon many innocent of the latter saint was demolished, and the and even worthy and deserving persons. wealth which it yielded was enormous. These The spectacle of individuals, invested with shrines were pillaged, on the allegaticn, too the most sacred of all functions, expelled often true, that they were the scenes of imfroni their on-y habitations, where they had posture, where miracles were pretended to probably grown old, and were now unfit for be wrought. The king, in the whole, supbodily toil, was calculated to awaken feelings pressed upwards of six hundred monasteries of sympathy for the sufferers, and probably above two thousand chantries and free chapof detestation for those who had driven them els and about two hundred colleges and hosforth to perish in the wilderness. A distur- pitals. The confiscation was closed by a bance broke out in Lincolnshire, where the statute passed in 1539, which provided that first visitation of religious houses took place. " all monasteries and other religious houses, But in the north a more serious affair, amount- dissolved, suppressed, surrendered, renounced ing to an insurrection, occurred. Between relinquished, forfeited, or by any means come the Humber and the Tweed the people had to his highness, shall be vested in him, his rushed to arms, and they were joined by heirs and successors, for ever." It must be the inhabitants of Cumberland, Westmore- owned, that although great abuses may have land, and a portion of Lancashire. This been detected, revenue not reformation, plunformidable body was led into the field by der not punishment, were the objects which Robert Ask, a man of Yorkshire, and was the visitors had in view. preceded by priests bearing banners emblaz- Henry had- now so far separated himself oned with paintings of the sufferings of from the communion of Rome, that it became Christ. Several important towns fell into in some measure necessary for him to form a their hands; but the king met them with a new creed. The clergy were divided into superior force, which arrested their progress. two factions, denominated the men of the old They, however, succeeded in obtaining a and the new learning. The chief of the forgeneral pardon, and then dispersed. r mer was Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, who A second visitation of the monasteries took was supported by Lee, Archbishop of York; place shortly afterwards. Various circum- Stokesly, Bishop of London, Tunstall of Durstances had occurred to exasperate Henry ham, and Clarke, of Bath and Wells. The against the Catholic clergy; and the alarm- latter acknowledged as leaders, Cranmer, ing revolts, at which priests had presided, Archbishop of Canterbury, Haxton of Sarum, and principally instigated the people by their Latimer of Worcester, and Fox of Hereford. inflammatory addresses, were of a nature to These could depend on the powerful interest, inflame such a combustible temper as his. of Cromwell, the vicar-general, and of Audley, In this second spoliation, the richest and the lord chancellor; those on that of the Duke most revered shrines were pillaged and de- of Norfolk, and of Wriotheseley the premierstroyed, and the sacred relics, objects of so secretary. Various long debates took plabe much superstitious veneration, were held up upon the new creed, but it was neither comto the derision of the public. Various his- pleted nor sufficiently fenced round with suittorians have enumerated a great number of able penalties, till an act was passed by the these, and some of them are certainly calcu- parliament, which sat in April, 1539, entitled lated to excite surprise at the depth of that " an act for abolishing diversity of opinions." superstitious feeling which could induce a This convocation was opened by the chanpeople to beli ve that the felt of St. Thomas cellor informing the House of Lords that it of Lancaster, or the shirt of St. Thomas of was his Imajesty's earnest desire to extirpate HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 255 from his kingdom all diversity of opinions ed the person to fine, and to imprisonment with regard to religion; and as this enterprise during the king's pleasure.; and if the crimwas, he owned, difficult and important, he de- inal persevered after conviction, he was to sired them to chose a committee from among suffer death and forfeiture, as in cases of felony. themselves, who might frame certain articles, Commissioners were to be appointed by the and communicate these afterwards to Parlia- king for inquiring into these heresies and irment. The lords named the vicar-general, regular practices, and the criminals were to be Cromwell, now created a peer; the Arch- tried by a jury. bishops of Canterbury and York; and the Henry had now been a widower for above Bishops of Durham, Carlisle, Worcester, two years. In 1537, Jane Seymour, his third Bath and Wells, Bangor, and Ely. But this queen, had borne him a son, afterwards Edsmall committee itself was agitated with ward VI.; but she herself expired in less than such diversity of opinions that it could come a fortnight afterwards. The king afterwards to no conclusion. The Duke of Norfolk then made proposals of marriage to several foreign moved, that since there was no hope of hav- princesses, and others, without success. Under ing a report from the committee, the articles of these repeated disappointments, he readily faith proposed to be established should be listened to the suggestions of Cromwell, who reduced to six, and a new committee be ap- proposed to him Anne, sister of the Duke pointed to frame an act respecting them. As of Cleves, a considerable prince on the Lower this peer was understood to speak the king's iRhine, who had lately established Lutheranmind, his motion was immediately complied ism in his principality. This choice showed with; and, after a short prorogation, the bill the leaning of his secretary's mind and the of the six articles was introduced, and, having progress of men in general towards reformapassed the two houses, received the king's tion. Henry had seen a painting by Holbein assent. By this law the doctrine of the real of this lady. The artist had invested her with presence was established, the communion in fictitious charms, which captivated the senone kind, the perpetual obligation of vows of sual monarch, and inspired him with such chastity, the utility of private masses, the eagerness to behold her, that he proceeded celibacy of the clergy, and lastly, the necessity to Dover, where she was to disembark, his of auricular confession. The denial of the mind no doubt swelling with pleasing anticreal presence was punishable with death by ipations. But he was miserably disappointfire, and the same forfeiture as in cases of ed, and could not conceal his chagrin. She treason, and admitted not the privilege of was indeed of the standard dimensions, being abjuring; an unheard of cruelty, unknown large and tall as his heart could desire; for even to the inquisition itself. The denial stature had now become an indispensable of any of the other articles, even though qualification in the individual who should asafterward recanted, was punishable by the pire to gain the affections of the King of Engforfeiture of goods and chattels, and impris- land. Without entering into the disgusting onment during the king's pleasure. An ob- particulars connected with his marriage with stinate adherence to error, or a relapse, Anne of Cleves, it is sufficient to state that was adjudged to be felony, and subject- the nuptials were solemnized, and that the ed the delinquent to death. The marriage lady was treated, not as a wife, but as a of priests was punished in the same man- friend.'The distress of Henry was great, and ner. Their commerce with women was, at last drew the attention of the House of for the first offence, forfeiture and impris- Lords to the subject on the 6th of July, 1540. onment; and for the second, death. Ab- These obsequious peers entreated him to staining from confessson and from receiving make inquiry into the validity of his marthe eucharist at the accuso med times, subject- riage with the Lady Anne of Cleves; and 256 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the Commons having concurred with them, and robbery, which it was out of his power the king granted their prayer. Of course to prevent. - He has also been charged with this drama was all arranged, and the char- IMacchiavellian policy; but there is no satis. acters cast some days before the meeting of factory evidence that he was unfaithful to Parliament. The convocation appointed to his sovereign. examine into the matter declared the mar- At this period the act of the six articles riage to be null by the consent of Lady Anne was in the fullest vigor of its cruelty; and herself which was insured by the grant of an many iniquitous executions took place. One income of ~3000 annually; and the lady, it of the most horrid of these was that of Courtwould appear, lived comfortably on her an- ney, Marquis of Exeter, with Lord Montague nuity for sixteen years in England. The bill and Sir Edward Nevil. They were descendfor the nullity was passed by both houses, ed from Edward IV., and this seems to and received the royal assent on the 24th of have constituted their only crime. Towards July, 1540. About a fortnight afterwards the close of 1538, they were first arrested and the king married his fourth wife, Catherine committed to the Tower; and shortly afterHoward, niece to the Duke of Norfolk. But wards the Countess Margaret, the mother of let us look back upon the fate of Cromwell, thePoles, was also taken into custody. Exewho was instrumental in procuring the for- ter was charged with the offence of having conmer union. It was indispensably necessary spired to raise Reginald Pole to the throne. that the revolutions which took place in This individual, best known as a cardinal, Henry VIII.'s palace and bed should in was the son of the above-named lady, who some way or another be marked with blood. was daughter of the Duke of Clarence. Her The arrest, condemnation, and execution son's life was principally passed in Italy, of Cromwell, is another of those cruel and where he was much' celebrated for his talents; tyrannical measures which have entailed ac- and Henry appears to have been proud of cumulated odium upon the name of Henry him, for he munificently discharged his exVTII. A bill to attaint the vicar-general of penses. Their friendship, however, terminhigh treason was brought into parliament in ated with the king's divorce from Catherine, June, 1540; and before the end of the month which the English monarch vainly besought it had passed through both houses. He was Pole to sanction. The revenge of Henry, charged with heresy because he had favored who seems now to have thought that without the new doctrines, and with treason because the shedding of blood there could be no he had performed several acts of royal remission of offences, fell upon the mother authority without the warrant of the king. of the cardinal, and the last of the PlantageCromwell was condemned unheard, and nets. She was attainted of high treason, and executed in about a month afterwards. sent to prison as above noticed. The nobleThis was an act of gross injustice, but it men committed about the same time were was far from being unpopular. The no- soon afterwards executed;.but the lady lingerbility were glad to be rid of an individual ed two years in confinement, and was at last who had raised himself from the shop conducted to the scaffold on the 27th of lay, of a fuller to the highest offices of state; 1541, where, to complete the horror of the and the Roman Catholic party, who were the transaction, from mismanagement on the part most numerous, and had regained much of of the executioner, her:neck was horribly their ascendency, rejoiced at the fall of one mangled, and her grey hairs, clotted with who was the active conductor of that system blood, fell dishevelled oyer her face e: e the of confiscation which struck such a blow at bloody act was consummated. their power in England. In that business he To return to the domestic affairs of Henry, certainly must have connived at much rapine he had not been many months married to HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 257 Catherine Howard before he received such such a dreadful statute was suspended over information of her dissolute life before mar- her head. This in reality took place, for riage as induced him to suspect that she on the 10th of July, 1543, Henry espoused might still continue it, and to cause a rigid Catherine Parr, the widow of Lord Latimer, inquiry to be made into her conduct. There and a lady of mature age. She had read was no doubt as to her vices previously to Lutheran books, and was inclined to support her union with the king; and some acts of the doctrines of the reformers. She even infidelity after it were also brought home to went so far as to enter into controversy with her, but the details are too disgusting for her imperious lord, who valued himself not human feelings. Cranmer was one of the a little on his theological knowledge. He individuals employed to communicate infor- ordered Wriothesley and Gardiner to give mation to the king; and although there is orders for her imprisonnent, and to prepare no evidence that he was ever guilty of a ma- articles of impeachment against her. The licious or vindictive act, yet he sometimes third Catherine had very nearly been honwanted the courage to resist crimes; and the ored with a place upon the list of victims slavish manner in which he, along with the which were sacrificed by this Blue Beard of rest of the ministers and parliament in gen- the West, but she evaded the blow by her eral, bowed to the despotic will of the king, ingenuity and tact. During the remainder cannot be extenuated. of her life, however, she never again venturTwo of Catherine's paramours were arrest — ed to provoke the vengeance of the royal ed, and confessed their crimes; and the queen polemic. herself acknowledged her guilt previously to As head of the church, the attention of the marriage, but denied having committed the king was now principally turned to the any act of infidelity subsequently thereto. management of its affairs. He enforced an This, however, was not believed; and on the observance of the six articles both by Protes14th of February 1542, she was executed in tants and Catholics, and any deviation from the Tower, along with Lady Rochford, who them was punished with tyrannical severity. in some way or another was implicated as an IHe was very impartial in his distribution of accomplice in the guilt of the queen. what he called justice; and it was not unTo attaint without trial had now become common for individuals professing opposite fashionable; but to punish with death that faiths to perish at the same stake. The Chriswhich was not made criminal by any former tian of those days had a difficult part to perstatute, was altogether new. To counten- form; for whilst the king renounced in one ance such severities as those which had lately respect the authority of the pope, he actaken place, it was enacted in the very bill knowledged it in anotherby his adherence to of attainder, that every woman about to be the doctrine of the church of Rome; so that married to the king or his successors, not be- it frequently happened that those who were ing a maid, should disclose her unchastity to against the head of it were burned, and those him, under the penalty of treason; that any who were for him were hanged. In conperson knowing the fact and not disclosing nection with church affairs, Henry effected a. it, should be subject to the lesser penalty of further dissolution of colleges, hospitals, and misprision of treason; and that the commis- other foundations of that nature, with the: sion of adultery by the queen or wife of the spoils of which he enriched his treasury. He, prince should be punishable with death. also extorted from many bishops a surrender These laws afforded some amusement to of their chapter lands, and in this manner he: the people, who now said that the king must succeeded in pillaging the sees of Canterlook out for a widow, as no reputed maid bury, of York, and of London. Amongst the would be disposed to offer herself whilst religious orders suppressed was that of the m. —17. 1258 HISTOIRY OF THE WORLD. Knights of Malta, or, more properly, St. John which has become memorable from the fame of Jerusalem. They obstinately refused to of the illustrious victim. This was the exsurrender along with the other monasteries ecution of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, so who laid their rights at the feet of the king, justly renowned for his poetical genius. There and he was compelled to have recourse to had for some time existed a spirit of rivalry beParliament for the purpose of obtaining its tween the Seymours and the house of Howard. authority for dissolving the order, which was The Duke of Norfolk was indignant at the very rich and whose spoil was therefore ascendency of the former in the royal favor; precious in his sight. and his son, the Earl of Surrey, could not ]3ut to return to the political affairs of the forgive the Earl of Hertford, a member of the nation; in the beginning of the year 1543 other family, for having superseded him in IIenry renewed his friendship with the Em- the command of the garrison of Boulogne; peror, which had been suspended by the he had also been heard to predict that the divorce question, They concluded an alliance time of revenge was not far distant. The against Francis; and on the 14th of July, house of Howard alone stood in the way of 1544, Henry crossed the seas in a ship furnish- the Seymours in the pursuit of their aggran ed with sails of cloth of gold. The principal disement under the approaching minority; event of this war was the surrender of Bou- and they accordingly employed every means logne, into which the English monarch made of drawing down the vengeance of the king a triumphant entry on the 18th of September. upon their heads. Norfolk and Surrey were But he shortly afterwards returned to Eng- accordingly committed to the Tower on the land. On the 7th of June, 1546, hostilities 12th of December, 1546. Surrey was tried were concluded by a treaty, of which the prin- on the 13th of January following, on a charge cipal stipulation was, that within eight years of having quartered on his shield the arms of Henry should receive two millions of crowns, Edward the Confessor. He vainly defended with arrears and costs, which are enumerated; himself with his usual eloquence and spirit, and on payment of these sums, Boulogne and and showed that he had worn the arms fourits dependencies were to be restored to Fran- teen years without giving offence, and that cis. Henry's warlike propensities were also they had been assigned to him by a decision exercised in reference to Scotland and Ire- of the heralds. But the fact being admitted, land; but peace was finaly restored after it was taken as sufficient evidence that he both countries had suffered considerably, es- aspired to the throne, and the jury conpecially the former. These wars, however, ex- demned him to suffer death. About a week hausted the treasury of the English monarch. after the sentence was pronounced, this galHe was compelled to extort money from Par- lant and accomplished nobleman expired upon liament in his usual manner, and also to de- the scaffold. His father was also tried and. preciate the coinage of the realm, which he condemned to perish in the same manner on hJad not scrupled to do before. the 29th of January. But on the morning The cruelty of Henry continued conspicu- of the 28th the spirit of Henry VIII. followed nous to the very close of his life. Disease made that of Surrey to the judgment seat; and,dreadful ravages upon his worn-out and un- Norfolk after remaining in prison for sev~wieldly frame, so that he had to be moved eral years, was at length set at liberty..from place to place by machines contrived Henry was succeeded by his only son.for the purpose; yet even these unequivocal Edward, a boy of nine years of age. He was tokens of approaching dissolution had no ef- proclaimed king of England on the 31st of feet in subduing the vindictive spirit or hu- January 1547, and crowned in the month manizing the mind of the sufferer. It was in following. The most remarkable transactions this pitiable state that he pczrpetrated an act of his reign are those connected with religion. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 259 The restraint which Henry VIII. had laid from principles of civil liberty, as much as upon the Protestants was now taken off; and of ecclesiastical discipline. To the disgrace they not only maintained their doctrines open- of their own principles, the reformers now ly, but soon became the prevailing party. displayed as virulent a spirit of persecution HIenry had fixed the majority of his son at as the Catholics had formerly done. Gardiner eighteen years of age; and, in the mean time, was committed to the Fleet prison, where he appointed sixteen executors of his will, to was treated with great severity. He was whom, during the minority, he entrusted the afterwards sent to the Tower; and having government of the king and kingdom. But continued there two years, he was commandthe first act of the executors was to chose ed to subscribe several articles, amongst the Earl of Hlertford, afterwards Duke of which was one confessing the justice of his Somerset, protector of the realm; and in own imprisonment. To all the articles but h1im was lodged all the regal power, to- this he agreed to subscribe; but that did not gether with a privilege of naming his own give satisfaction. He was then committted to privy council. close custody; his books and papers were The Duke of Somerset had long been seized; all company was denied him; and numbered amongst the secret partisans of he was not even permitted the use of writing the reformers; and, immediately on his ee- materials. Bonner of London, more violent vation to his high dignity, he began to ex- and more subservient, escaped protracted impress his intention of reforming the abuses prisonment by obsequious submission. Severof the ancient religion. Under his direction al bishops also screened themselves by sacrifiand that of Cranmer, therefore, the refor- cing a considerable share of their revenues; mation was vigorously carried forward; per- others were deprived of their offices; and secutions under the act of the six articles Tunstall, Bishop of Durham, an eminent prelceased, prisoners were released, and exiles ate, was ejected from the privy council, inwere recalled. Homilies were composed by order to impress on the people by a strong Cranmer, and ordered to be read by parish example the disinclination of the protector priests to their congregations. Visitors were to the ancient faith. In November, 1547, a appointed to inspect ecclesiastical establish- parliament was assembled, in which several ments, and see that four sermons were yearly bills where passed to promote and enlarge preached against the papal authority; that the reformation. The communion was apthe worship of images should be denounced, pointed to be received in both kinds by the and those which were the objects of pilgrim- laity as well as by the clergy, without conages and offerings should be destroyed; that demning the usages of other churches. Bishthe English Bible, with Erasmus's commen- ops were to be nominated by the king, and tary on the gospels, should be placed in every process was to run in the king's name in church for the use of the people; together ecclesiastical courts. The statutes against with many other points, which, without be- the Lollards were repealed, as well as all the ing very important in themselves, were cal- acts of Henry VIII. upon religious matters, culated to assure the people that the govern- excepting those directed against the suprement was no longer neutral in matters of macy of the pope; and other acts relating to religion. The principal person who opposed civil affairs were also abrogated. In the these innovations was Gardiner, Bishop of next session uniformity in public worship Winchester; a man of great learning, abili- was established, in which the use of the book ties, and resolution, but one of Henry's de- of common prayer, as prepared by the primate voted agents in the suit for a divorce from and his brethren, was enjoined. This comCatherine, his first queen. He made a manly position is the foundation of that which, hay. and becoming resistance to these injunctions, ing undergone various alterations in subse. 260 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. quent reigns, continues in use at the present crown, in failure of direct heirs, h d both day. By one law the observance of fast been declared illegitimate by Parliament; days and of Lent was enjoined under penal- that the Queen of Scots, his aunt, stood exties; and by another the English clergy were cluded by the king's will; and being also an emancipated from compulsory celibacy. alien, lost all right of succeeding. The three The rest of this reign presents little but princesses being thus excluded, the succession the history of the intrigues and cabals of naturally devolved upon the Marchioness of courtiers. There was a war with Scotland, Dorset, eldest daughter of the French queen, which began with injustice and was con- HIenry's sister, who had married the Earl of ducted with inhumanity. Insurrections also Suffolk after her first husband's death. The took place in Ireland, where the reformation next heir to the Marchioness was Lady Jane made no progress. The protector was first Grey, the wife of Northumberland's fourth opposed by his own brother Admiral Sir son, Lord Guildford Dudley. The king, who Thomas Seymour, who had married Catherine was accustomed to submit to the politic views Parr, the late king's widow. She died soon of this minister, agreed to have the succesafter the marriage; and the widower is said sion altered, and sketched with his own hand to have then paid his addresses to the Prin- a draft of the new destination of the crown, cess Elizabeth. His brother the Duke, who which was submitted to a council. The was at that time in the north, being informed judges, however, were far from acquiescing of his ambitious projects, speedily returned, in the proposal contained in this instrument; had him attainted of high treason, and at last and they hesitated to sign it, because it would condemned and executed. The Duke of subject those who had drawn and those who Somerset himself, however, became unpop- had advised:it to the penalties of treason. ular, and a powerful confederacy was formed Their hesitation excited the rage of Northagainst him, at the head of which was Dud- umberland, who threatened them with his ley, Earl of Warwick. This nobleman sue- authority, and, pronouncing them traitors, ceeded in overthrowing the power of the declared that he would fight in his shirt with protector, and getting him committed to pris- any man in so just a cause as that of Lady on on the 13th of October, 1549, whilst he Jane's succession. A new paper was drawn himself was installed in the office of lord up, by which the judges were screened from high admiral. In the month of February any consequences which might have resulted following, Somerset was released upon pay- from their signing of it. By the new patent ment of a fine and ransom; but towards the for changing the succession, the princesses end of 1551 he was again sent to the Tower, Mary and Elizabeth were set aside, and the tried for high treason and felony, and con- crown settled upon the heirs of the Duchess demined. He was acquitted of the first of Suffolk, who was contented to forego her charge, but not of the second, as he ought to. own claim. have been. He suffered upon the scaffold For some time the king had languished on the 22d of January, 1552. Warwick, under a pulmonary complaint, and symptoms now Duke of Northumberland, had thus the of an advanced stage of consumption began reins of government entirely at his own dis- to make their appearance. After the settleposal. Not satisfied with the office of pro- ment of the crown, his health visitlv declined tector, he aimed at altering the succession, every day, and little hopes were entertained and placing the crown upon the head of his of his recovery. The deathbed devotions of son. He represented to Edward, who was Edward bear testimony to his love for his now in a declining state of health, that his subjects, and his zeal for what he believed to sisters Mary and Elizabeth, who were ap- be the purest form of Christianity. "O Lord, pointed by Henry's will to succeed to the save thy chosen people of England, defend HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 261 this realm from papistry, andmaintain thy claimed at Norwich, and it is somewhat true religion." Such is a specimen of the singular that the populace took no interest supplications which this pious and short-lived in either of the proclamations. No shouts prince b-eathed forth. On the 6th of July, of applause or outward demonstrations of 1552, Edward, being then in the sixteenth joy followed the announcement of the choice year of his age and seventh of his reign, of a new sovereign. Northumberland was breathed his last. Whilst he filled the throne unpopular, a great part of the Protestants of England, no Roman Catholic had suffered cooperated with the Catholic partisans of death on account of his religion. By his Mary, who were numerous and powerful; gentleness and docility he was indisposed to and the protector, by his supineness, allowed shed blood, and, on the whole, his reign was them to assemble in great force at Framling. more free from religious persecution than any ham Castle, in Suffolk, where the princess administration of the same length, in any had fixed her residence. Northumberland great country of Europe, since the rise of became alarmed, and although he had asprotestantism. In abilities he was equal, sembled a considerable army, his heart failed probably superior, to most boys of his years; him when he saw the demonstrations which but the flattering praises lavished upon him Wvere made by the people in favor of Mary. by his panegyrists are to be received with He had taken the field in person, which was abatements. It was his dying wish that a fatal step; for his absence afforded an opLady Jane Grey, the companion of his in- portunity to the adherents of Mary who were fancy, should be his successor. in the council to make arrangements for exThe death of Edward was carefully con- alting her to the royal dignity. It is sufficealed for two days; but on the 8th of July cient to observe that they effected their purthe event was communicated to the ambas- pose. Mary was proclaimed, and Jane, after sadors, and the civic functionaries of London a ten days' reign, resigned the crown with a were ordered to make preparations for the great deal more satisfaction than she had accoronation of Lady Jane Grey. The intel- cepted of it. Northumberland had- been ligence was transmitted to Mary by her compelled to proclaim Mary at Cambridge; friends at court, and on the 9th she wrote a but this did not prevent him from being led letter to the privy council, expostulating with a prisoner to the Tower, which had lately them upon their conduct; and, solemnly been his'palace. affirming her right, she tendered a pardon to Mary, accompanied by her sister Elizabeth, them if they would order her immediate made her triumphal entry into London on proclamation. The council, however, ad- the 3d of August, 1553. tIer attentions wero hered to the interests of Jane, and both par- first turned towards those who had suffered ties prepared to decide the contest by an ap- in her cause. She released several prisoners peal to arms. from the Tower, amongst whom were the When Edward's death, and her own eleva- aged Duke of Norfolk, and her kinsman tion to the throne, were announced to Lady Edward Courtenay, whom she soon afterward Jane, she was thrown into a state of great created Earl of Devonshire. On the 18th agitation. She urged the preferable claim of August the Duke of Northumberland, the of the princesses to inherit; but being Marquis of Northampton, and the Earl of pressed by the authority of the judges, she at Warwick, were tried for high treason; and length consented to accept of the royal dig- on the following day Sir John Gates, Sir nity. She suffered herself to be conveyed Henry Gates, Sir Andrew Dudley, and Sir to the Tower, and on the same day the her- Thomas Palmer, were tried for the same of. alds proclaimed the death of Edward and fence. Of the culprits who were condemned, the succession of Jane. Mary was also pro- three were selected for execution, Northum 262 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. berland, Sir John Gates, and Sir Thomas Pal- progress of the revolution ir religious matmer, who suffered upon the scaffold on the ters was slow; and before the perfect re-union 22d of August. with the Church of Rome was consummated, The mind of Mary now became solicitous several events of considerable importance about the affairs of religion. All the deprived took place. Mary having been crowned at Catholic bishops were restored. The ac- Westminster with the usual solemnity on the knowledged abilities of Gardiner soon raised last day of September, 1553, it now became him to the post of prime minister. He early the interest of the Catholic party to obtain received the custody of the seals, and not a suitable marriage for her. Of natives o6nly long afterwards he was appointed chancellor. two were proposed to her choice, both deThe Protestant bishops, in the eyes of their scended from the house of Yorkl; these were Roman Catholic brethren, had incurred de- Cardinal Pole, and Edward Courtenay, the privation by marriage, or still more severe individual whom she had released from conpenalties by preaching heresy. On the 2d finement. But the Emperor Charles having of September, Cranmer was committed to heard of Mary's intention to choose a husthe Tower, and on the 13th Latimer followed band, proposed his son Don Philip. This him into the same captivity. The latter, in Spanish match was so broad and decisive a point of moral heroism, was the antipodes of step towards Rome, that the House of CornCranmer, who was gentle and kind, timid mons took the alarm, and presented an adand pliant. Latimer was brave, sincere, and dress to the queen, in order to dissuade her inflexible. As he passed through Smithfield from her purpose. She returned a haughty on his way to the Tower, he remarked, answer; and on the 30th of October, having "Smithfield has long groaned for me." By conducted the imperial minister into her an early proclamation' Mary had declared private oratory, she there solemnly called that "she could not hide her religion, but God to witness that she plighted her troth that she mindeth not to compel any of her to Philip, Prince of Castille. To obviate all said subjects thereunto, until such time as a clamor, the articles of marriage were drawn farther order by common consent shall be up as favorably as possible for the interests taken therein." The "farther order" did of England. It was agreed that though take place, although not in accordance with Philip should have the title of king, the ad"common consent." On the 5th of Octo- ministration should be entirely in the queen; ber, 1553, parliament assembled, and, in a that no foreigner should be capable of holdsession of nineteen days, passed only three ing any office in the kingdom, nor should aicts; one for the abolition of all the treasons any innovation be made in the laws, the and felonies of Henry VIII.; another for the customs, and the privileges of the people; restoration in blood of Gertrude, Marchioness and that Philip should not carry the queen of Exeter; and a third for the like restitu- abroad without her consent, or any of her tion of that lady's son, Edward Courtenay, children without the consent of the nobility. now Earl of Devonshire. But on the 24th Sixty thousand pounds a year were to be of the, same month, several important acts settled upon her as a jointure, and the male were passed, by which the road was paved issue of this marriage were to inherit Burfor the re-introduction of the Roman Catho- gundy and the Low Countries as well as the lie faith as the creed sanctioned by royalty. crown of Englmand, and in the event of the By these acts Henry's divorce was declared death of Don Carllos, Plhilip's son by his void, and his first marriage pronounced valid; former marriage, without any heir, the so that the claim of Elizabeth, on whom the queen's issue were also to inherit the rest of Protestants had fixed their eyes with anxi- the Spanish dominions. ous hope, was virtually set aside. But the All these concessions, however, were not HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 26` sufficient to quiet the apprehensions of the sufficiently strong to prevail over the slenpeople. They were considered merely as der pity of bigots and politicians, and the words of course, which might be retracted at sacrifice was consummated. pleasure; and the nation murmured loudly On the 8th of February, Mary signed a against a transaction so dangerous to its an- warrant for their execution, and on the 12th cient liberty and independence. The Duke of the same month it was put in force. Lord of Suffolk, a zealous Protestant, attempted Guildford Dudley had requested an interto excite his tenants in Warwickshire to re- view with his beloved wife, who, however, volt; but with little success. His followers declined the meeting, justly fearing that it were routed by Lord Huntingdon, and he might unfit them for the dreadful scene himself was betrayed into the hands of his through which they were about to pass. She enemies. An insurrection was also raised saw him issue through the gate of the Tower by Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Roman Catholic, at to the scaffold; and soon afterwards, in the head of four thousand men, who set out chancing to look from the same window, she from Kent to London, publishing a declara- saw the bloody carcass, half covered in the tion against the Spanish match and the vehicle which bore it back from the place queen's evil counsellors. Having advanced where vengeance and injustice, disguised as far as Southwark, he required that the under the name of law, had done their queen should put the Tower of London into worst. Lord Dudley was beheaded on his hands; that she should deliver four coun- Tower-Hill; but his wife, on account of her selors as hostages; and that, in order to en- royal descent, was spared the ignominy of a sure the liberty of the nation, she should public execution. Lady Jane Grey is celemarry an Englishman. But his force was still I brated as exhibiting a matchless union of by far too inconsiderable to support such mag- beauty with genius, and learning with virtue nificent pretensions, although it was after- and piety. She astonished the learned of wards augmented to fifteen thousand men; Europe by her talents and accomplishments, and he unluckily wasted so much time with- and will be recognized by all posterity as one out attempting any thing of importance, that of the purest and most amiable of historical the popular ferment entirely subsided, his characters. Were Mary chargeable with no followers gradually abandoned him, and he other atrocity than that of putting Lady Jane was at last obliged to surrender himself near to death for the crime of a father, it were quite Temple-Bar to Sir /Maurice Berkeley, who sufficient to cover her memory with irrecommitted him to the Tower, where, in a short movable degradation. Suffolk, her father, time, he was joined by the chief of the surviv- perished in the same manner a few days afing conspirators. The nobility and gentry im- terwards. Sir Nicholas Throgmorton was mediately repaired to St. James's to congrat- tried, but the defence which he made was ulate the queen on the suppression of the re- found so good in law, that the jury acquitted bellion. But two were excepted; Courtenay, him. Above sixty others of the conspiraDuke of Devonshire, and the young Earl of tors were condemned to the block, amongst Worcester, who, on the first approach of the whom were Lord Thomas Grey the brother enemy had turned their horses' heads and fled. of Suffolk, and Wyatt the principal mover On the 3d of November, 15i3, ILord Guild- of the rebellion. ford Dudley and Lady Jane Grey had been This revolt had very nearly proved fatal convicted of high treason. Lady Jane and to the Princess Elizabeth, who for some time her huband were both only in their seven- had experienced harsh treatment at the, teenth year, and no time was fixed upon for hands of her sister. Mary, upon whom the their execution; but the revolt of Suffolk, mantle of H-Tenry VIII. had descended, felt Lady Jane's father, proved an incentive antipathy to her on account of the quarre 264 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. between their mothers. This circumstance, other expectation than that of mounting the in the mind of one whose tender mercies scaffold which had been trodden long before were cruel, was sufficient to change the milk by her unhappy mother, at her father's stern of sisterly affection into mortal venom; and behest, and on which the blood of Lady Jane a favorable opportunity was only necessary Grey, the purest of the pure, was scarcely to malke her feel its deadly effects. Nearly dry. When Bedingfield came with his sola month was spent in laboring to extract diers to conduct her to Woodstock, she askinformation against' Elizabeth from Wyatt- ed, with her usual quickness and poignancy, whilst he lay in prison. But the unfortu- "Is the scaffold of Lady Jane taken away 2?" nate gentleman honorably acquitted her, al- A few days later, Courtenay was transferred though he might, in all probability, have from the Tower to Fotheringay Castle. saved his own life by implicating her in the The rebellion had suspended for some late rebellion. At Ashridge, whither she weeks the proceedings relative to the queen's had retired to escape the constrained partici- marriage. But in the beginning of March patiorn in a worship which she disapproved, the English ambassador returned from the overtures had been made to her by the chiefs Continent with the ratification of the treaty; of the revolters; but her acceptance or con- and Philip landed at Southampton on the sent was neither shown nor seriously alleged. 19th of July, 1554, attended by a magnifiImmediately after Wyatt's discomfiture, she cent train of Spanish grandees and Burgunwas conducted to London in a very infirm dian lords. The marriage between him and state of health. It was doubted whether she Mary was solemnized by Gardiner in his would reach her destination alive; but youth cathedral at Winchester, before crowds of and strength triumphed over the malady noblemen from all parts of Christendom, andl with which she was affected. Courtenay, with a pomp and splendor seldom surpassed. Earl of Devonshire was also arrested, and Philip was then in the twenty-ninth year of committed to the Tower. Two councils his age, and MIary in her thirty-eighth year. were held on the fate of Elizabeth, and the The countenance and form of the prince judges were divided in their opinions as to were far from being disagreeable; but the tier guilt. Gardiner, although he professed stately reserve of his Spanish manners was to think Elizabeth deserving of death, yet not calculated to lessen the repugnance of considered her confinement at Ashridge, and the English people to the union. Courtenay's residence at St. James's, as ir- Soon after her marriage, Mary resolved to reconcilable with a just conviction of trea- restore the religious polity of the kingdom son. The head and front of her offending to that state in which it had existed at the seems to have been misprision, or conceal- time of her birth. Accordingly, on the 12th ment of projects of revolt, which was now of November a parliament was holden for not a capital crime. It was fortunate for this purpose, and a bill passed both hours Elizabeth that one of the first measures of "for the restitution in blood of the Lord her sister, when she ascended the throne, Cardinal Pole." But a difficulty arose rewas to sweep away the odious heap of trea- garding the abbey lands; for it was feared sons raised up by her father, and the punish- that those who possessed them in spite of the ment of misprision with death was one of indelible claims of the church might be calltheim. But Elizabeth, although absolved ed before the tribunal of the pious cardinal. firom a capital charge, was nevertheless com- However, on the 20th of November, Pole nlitted to the Tower; and shortly afterwards arrived at Dover, armed apparently with She was put under the charge of Sir Henry ample powers to do every thing necessary Bedingfield, keeper of Woodstock. During for the reconciliation of England with the lher stay in the Tower, the princess had no church of Rome; and amongst these was full HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 265 authority to do with the abbey lands as he Whether he was the main author or not, is? thought fit. Nine days after his arrival, he matter of comparatively little importance made an oration to the two houseg, exhort- As lord chancellor, and as head of the coming them to return to the bosom of the uni- mission, he sanctioned the whole proceedversal church, at the same time absolving ings. He must therefore be held responsible the kingdom from the papal interdict. The for the deeds of those who acted under his request was formally acceded to, and Pole authority, and suffer the lash of posterity, in was enabled to announce to the pontiff the the same way as Cromwell, on whom Catho success of his mission. In order to quiet lie writers have poured out the vials of their the possessors of church property, the legate wrath, from his having acted as captain of issued his dispensation, declaring that they the banditti who plundered the holy places should not be molested; and a- statute passed in the reign of the eighth Henry. confirming his sentence. By another, the The first martyrs in this persecution were acts which had abolished the papal suprem- Iooper, bishop of Gloucester, and Rogers, a acy were repealed. This new restoration of clergyman of Essex, both eminent divines of power to the papacy formed a sad and dark the reformed cause. They died with feelaugury for the devoted Protestants. It was ings of triumphant piety in the midst of sufthe first indication that the time approached focating flames; and other victims were rapwhen the fires of persecution were to blaze idly hurried to the stake. The principal forth in every county of England, and when were, Archbishop Cranmer,-Ridley, Bishop heaven was to be insulted by the profanation of London, and Latimer, Bishop of Worcesof its sacred name as sanctioning the foulest ter. These persecutions soon became odious deeds of blood. to the whole nation, and the perpetrators of An act was passed by the Parliament of them were all willing to shift the blame from 1554 for the revival of the statutes of for- themselves upon others. Many of the Cathmer sovereigns against heretics, and espe- olic prelates, to their honor, exercised occacially against Lollards; which revival was to sionally an effectual and perhaps hazardous take effect from the 20th of January, 1555. humanity in their favor. Gardiner himself During the last reign, no Roman Catholic withdrew from this unavailing slaughter, had'suffered capital punishment on account and his place was supplied by Bonner, Bishof his faith, nor does there appear to have op of London, a less scrupulous dealer in been any kind of jurisdiction or mode of blood. Even Philip himself was moved to procedure for the trial of heresy, although pity, and discountenanced these diabolical the law remained in full force against ana- proceedings. To describe the sufferings of baptists and anti-trinitarians, whose doctrines those persons of eminence and distinction were looked upon both by Catholics and who perished, would fatigue the patience Protestants as sapping the very foundations and harrow the feelings of the reader. For of Christianity, four years the persecution was carried on On the 28th of January, a commission, with unsatiated cruelty; and, keeping out with Gardiner at its head as lord chancellor, of view those who perished in dungeons unassembled in the churmch of St. Mary Overies, der every form of misery, and also those who inl Southwark, for the trial of Protestants. expatriated themselves, nearly three hundred From the station which this individual held, individuals are calculated to have expired at and from his commanding talents, there ap- the stake. We are positively informed by pears to: be little doubt that he was instru- Lord Burghley, that in this.number of vice mental in pushing forward this bloody work, tims are comprised no less than one hundred although some writers have attempted to women and children. The perpetrators of relmove this reproach from his character. I these "more than heathen cruelties" deserve 266 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. no quarter from posterity; such deeds as stability of Philip's'thrcne; a circumstance those laid to their charge stamp infamy deep which induced him to this unusual act of on their names, and hold them up to execra- liberal humanity. The first measure of Eliz. ionl now and for ever. abeth was to assemble around her throne a The other events of this reign unconnect- body of counselors who had recommended 3d with religion are, with the exception of themselves to public notice by the power of the loss of Calais, unimportant. The reduc- their talents or the steadiness of their princition of this town had cost Edward III. a ples. Her state council was composed of 3iege of eleven months, and the English stand- both Catholics and Protestants, although her ard had waved over its battlements for above more confidential advisers were confined to two centuries. It surrendered to the arms a select portion of the latter, and amongst of France after a siege of only eight days, these was Sir William Cecil, whom she apand its loss so affected the queen, that when pointed her first secretary. Precautionary lying on her deathbed she said, "If you open measures were taken to meet any invasion me you will find Calais written on my heart." on the part of France in order to raise Mary Philip, her husband, appears to have treated Queen of Scots to the throne; for the govher with formal but cold respect. He had ernment of that country had made demonsucceeded to the greatest monarchy then in strations to this effect, by instigating Rome to the world, and had been some time absent hostilities against Elizabeth. Mary had left from England in superintending its affairs. a vacant treasury, and one of the first cares IIe returned again, but his departure a sec- of the new administration was to obtain peond time left Mary to brood over her fruit- cuniary supplies; and, from the high charless barbarity alone. She had more than acter and popularity of the queen, these once entertained the nation with rumors of were immediately granted by the people. her pregnancy, and was herself cheated with Her coronation was then celebrated with all the illusive hopes of offspring. But this Shi- possible splendor and festivity. loh of the ancient faith, like that of a cele- To establish the Protestant religion was brated dreamer of after times, was the mani- Elizabeth's most ardent desire. With this festation of a deadly disorder. She died of view the statutes passed in the late reign dropsy on the 17th of November, 1558, to for the support of the ancient faith were rethe unspeakable relief of the greater portion pealed; and the acts of Henry VIII., in of her subjects. derogation of the papal authority, and of After the death of Mary the Princess his successor in favor of the reformed church, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne without were for the most part revived. There were opposition. She was at Hatfield when the some deviations in the new book of common news of her sister's death was brought to prayer from the liturgy of Edward VI., but her, and hastening to Londoin immediately, of these only two are important. The first she was received there with great joy. For consists in the omission of a prayer to be the preservation of her life this princess was freed from the " tyranny of the Bishop of indebted to Philip, the husband of Mary. Rome and all his detestable enormities;" The Spaniard was aware that her death which certainly displayed a conciliatory spirit would remove the only obstacle which stood towards the Catholic church. The second between Mary of Scotland and the throne was an alteration of the language which of England. That sovereign had been mar- spoke of the sacrament as being only a reried to the heir-apparent of France, his great membrance of the death of Christ, and the political enemy; and the balance of power substitution of words which indicate the real which might thfts be thrown into the hands but not corporeal presence. Towards the Df the latter would have endangered the middle of 1559 the Protestant liturgy was HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 267 introduced, and the oath of supremacy ad- and foresight. These qualities were tern ministered. Strong opposition to it was pered with habitual amenity, and a rational evinced on the part of the clergy, especially piety. By her subjects she was admired, amongst those of a dignified station; and applauded, and imitated; and during this out of sixteen bishops only one took the oath halcyon period her throne received an accestendered to them. But the lower orders sion of strength which enabled it to stand were less scrupulous; and it is probable that unshaken amid the tumultuous storms with in many instances necessity induced them which it was afterwards assailed. She was to make a compromise with their consciences. repeatedly advised to engage in a matrimoThose of the clergy who refused compliance nial alliance, but uniformly declined to do with the new code of religious doctrines so, declaring her resolution of remaining sinwere deposed, and their places supplied by gle for life. Amongst her suitors were variprofessors of the reformed religion. Ac- ous foreign princes,.,Catholic as well as Protcording to the standard of punishments which estant; and some of her own subjects even followed contumacy in these ages, the treat- presumed to intrude their offers upon her ment of the bishops was mild. Bonner was "maiden meditation," but without success. imprisoned; but he was a man so empurpled During the religious war which raged in with blood as to be odious to all parties. France, Elizabeth, ever ardent in the cause This was the highest degree of suffering to of the reformation, assisted the Huguenots which any of the nonconformists were sub- with arms and money. jected. In the mean time the pretensions of Mary, During the time that the queen and her Queen of Scotland, to the crown of England, counselors were thus settling the religious involved Elizabeth in transactions which affairs of the nation, negotiations were car- have left a stain upon her name. Mary, ried on between England and France for a who was espoused to the Dauphin of peace, which was at last concluded on the France, had quartered the arms of England following terms, viz.: that the French king with those of France and Scotland upon hler should restore Calais at the expiration of escutcheon; and to this she was advised by eight years; that, in case of failure, he should the Catholics, who looked upon Elizabeth as pay five hundred thousand crowns, and Eliz- a usurper, having been illegitimatized in her abeth's title to Calais should still remain; youth by the cruel mandate of her father at that for the payment of this sum he should the time when he consigned her mother to find the security of eight foreign merchants, the block. The result of this appropriation not natives of France; and that until such of the armorial bearings of the English sovsecurity was provided he should deliver five ereign was a quarrel between the two princes, hostages. If during this interval Elizabeth which only terminated with the execution of should break the peace with France or Scot- the unfortunate queen of Scotland. See the land, she was to forfeit all title to Calais; article SCOTLAND. but if the French king was to make war on In 1569 Elizabeth was excommunicated Elizabeth, he was to be obliged to restore by Pope Pius V. These anathemas, by abthe fortress immediately. solving subjects from the oath and the duty The reign of Elizabeth for the first eleven of allegiance, and suspending the offices of years, that is fromt the twenty-fifth to the religion, and even those of humanity, were six-and-thirtieth year of her life, was distin- sometimes most disastrous to a country, upon guished for the internal quiet and happiness which they descended like a deadly epiof the country. During this interval she demic. But the majority of the queen's displayed the very best qualities of a sover- subjects were of the same religion with hereign; firmness, prudence, vigilance, activity, self and had thrown off the papal yoke; so 268 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. that it was in the present instance productive regiment. Other treasonable transactions of no other effect than the publication of a originated with the Duke of Norfolk, whose severe act against all w 1o held any commu- vaulting ambition aspired to the hand of nication with the Bishop of Rome. Severe Mary, Queen of Scots. Indeed he and the measures were also taken with the puritans two insurgents just named, together with and other dissenters. At this time the Eng- several other nobles, united in a conspiracy fish nation was divided into three theological against Elizabeth. The timely arrest of and political parties; the Churchmen, who Norfolk, however, disconcerted the confedconsidered the ecclesiastical revolution as eracy, of which the northern rising was already perfect; the Puritans, who sought merely a premature explosion. Mary of further reformation by agitating the minds Scotland is positively asserted to have been of the people; and the Catholics, who, sup. a participator in the plot. Norfolk was ported by the great continental powers, did brought to trial; and there seems little doubt not yet despair of seating their religion upon that he had incurred the penalties of treason, the throne. But men of all these persua- by having had intercourse with Catholic sions united in their abhorrence of anabap- princes who had undertaken to land in Engtists; and, in order to extirpate them, the land with a hostile army, and by his clanfires of Smithfield were, after an interval of destine renewal of negotiations for the delivseventeen years, re-kindled. Fox the cele- ery and espousal of M{ary, at that time a brated martyrologist dared to interfere in prisoner in the hands of Elizabeth. I-Ie was behalf of this hated sect; but his courageous condemned to death, and executed, after a humanity obtained for them only a tempo- great deal of hesitation on the part of the rary respite. Two men were burned, and queen. numbers were imprisoned or otherwise cor- England now began to distinguish herself porally punished. These events took place in her natural career of maritime enterprise. about the middle of the year 1575, and this Amongst the most distinguished of the nauwas the first blood spilt by Elizabeth on ac- tical adventurers of this age was Sir Francis count of religion; it, however forms a dark Drake. A vague rumor had for some time stain upon her government, which may be pervaded Europe, of vast naval preparations pronounced mild when compared with others by the King of Spain, for the invasion and of the same period. The blood of Henry conquest of England. In 1587 Sir Francis VIII. was not yet sufficiently purified in this Drake having been dispatched with a fleet its first descent from the fountain-head. to attack the Spanish ships which lay in the Amongst the other domestic events con- bay of Cadiz, was completely successful in neeted with the history of England, was his enterprise, burning and destroying above that of the rebellion of Percy, Earl of North- one hundred vessels laden with ammunition umberland, and Neville, Earl of Westmore- and naval stores. The fruits of his expediland. This revolt partook of a civil and tion were of vast importance. Philip's prepreligious character, for the noblemen at its arations were disturbed, and his project of head were adherents of the ancient faith, invasion put off for twelve months, during and were encouraged to embark in their which period Elizabeth had time to make lawless enterprise by the Catholic states. head against the storm which was gathering But on the approach of the royal troops in that quarter. These were the obvious re under Sussex, the insurgents broke up and suits of Drake's bravery; but who can estifled. Northumberland was made prisoner mate the moral effect which it had produced? in Scotland, and executed at York; and It gave a heroic impulse to the nation, Westmorelard died in Flanders, in the hum- and inspired it with confidence in its own ble capacity of commandant of a Spanish strength and resources. It taught English HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 269 seamen to look without terror upon the tow- eign ten thousand soldiers and thirty vesse2s. ering bulk of the Spanish vessels; whilst the The whole nation emulated this wise liber Spaniards themselves must have in a propor- ality; and every city, town, and hamlet tional degree lost the confidence of having poured forth its ardent patriots to take their an ad rantage over the enemy by means of stand upon the coast and repel the insulting their floating castles. invader. About fifty thousand men under the TI ie King of Spain having once more cor- command of Earl Hunsdon, a brave and able pletcd his complement of vessels, manned general, guarded the queen's person. The thenl with the ablest seamen and soldiers, Thames at Tilbury was watched by Leicesunder the command of the most renowned ter with a considerable force. Sir Walter leaders. This Armada was truly imposing Raleigh was stationed at Portland Castle, in and magnificent; it was baptized The In- Dorsetshire, and the Earl of Sussex at Portsvincible, but not with English blood. Never mouth. In the other parts of the country before had the ocean borne a more splendid the wisest measures of defensive warfare fleet than that which sailed from the Tagus were adopted. At sea one division of the on the 25th of May, 1588. The ships and fleet under Lord Henry Seymour guarded their equipments had been fitted out in ev- the narrow seas; whilst the main body under ery port of its king's dominions. In Flan- Lord Charles Howard, the high admiral, ders, the forest of Waes had been felled; the was stationed in the Western Ocean. The dock-yards of Antwerp, Dunkirk, Newport, gallant Sir Francis Drake and the able navi and Gravelines swarmed with artificers; and gators Hawkins and Frobisher were in this the rivers and canals were covered with boats division. adapted for the transport of soldiers destined Under the Duke of Medina Sidonia, the to serve in the expedition. On the 20th of Spanish Armada set sail for the invasion of MlSay the following enumeration of the vessels England. It was for some time retarded by was made: " The general sum was 130 ships, a tempest, which also harassed the English of 57,868 tons; 19,295 soldiers and 8450 fleet; and news was brought to the queen mariners, with 2088 slaves, and 2630 great of England'that Medina's Armada had been pieces of cannon of all sorts; also twenty so injured and scattered that the expedition caravals for the service of the others, with was for the present abandoned. The English ten salvers of six oars a piece." Towards ships withdrew to various ports, where they the end of June another armament of eighty might have been surprised and burned, had sail left Lisbon to join them. To meet this not intelligence accidentally arrived that the overwhelming armament the royal navy of Spanish fleet was bearing down full sail upon England mustered 181 ships, containing be- the coast. On the 20th of July the English tween seventeen and eighteen thousand sea- admirals came in sight of the enemy, and men. There were only eight ships above next day the first engagement took place. five hundred tons burden, and the largest The plan of Lord Howard was to evade a was only eleven hundred. The aggregate direct attack; for his vessels being so much burden of the whole English fleet amounted inferior in bulk and weight of metal to the to 31,985 tons, being little more than one enemy's ships, were incapable of grappling half of that of the Spaniards. The prepara- in close action with them; but being superations made on land displayed equal spirit rior in mobility and expedition, he resolved and enthusiasm. A loyal patriotism and ac- to annoy their rear, and to cut off the slugtive magnanimity pervaded the whole king- gish sailers. In the first attack neither fleet dom. The city of London set a noble exam- suffered much. Early in the morning of the ple. The lord-mayor, in the name of the 23d the second conflict began, and both fleets metropolis, put at the disposal of his sover- fought with valor; but the advantage was 270 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. at last on the side of the English, over whose they fled. A storm overtook them on their smaller vessels the iron shower from the unfortunate voyage, and the coasts of Scot. higher sides of the Spanish ships flew harm- land and Ireland were strewed with the less, whilst their own took full effect. On wrecks of the Invincible Armada, so that the 24th a pause took place in the battle, only a feeble remnant of that splendid fleet which was, however, renewed next day; but reached the shore from whence it had sailed, the mighty armament forced its way un- in all the pomp and circumstance of war, as broken to the vicinity of Calais. They were if to an assured triumph. now prepared to act in concert with the The events of Elizabeth's reign which folDuke of Parma, who had completed his prep- lowed the discomfiture of the Spanish attempt arations. He possessed in the harbors of to invade England may be briefly related. Newport and Dunkirk transports which car- The Earl of Leicester, who had for a long ried about twenty-eight thousand men, and time maintained an enviable place in the which waited the general's command to queen's favor, was invested withfreshhonors. make the grand attempt. A new and unprecedented office was created The concentration of the Spanish Armada for him, that of lord lieutenant of England off Calais suggested to the English admiral and Ireland, which exalted him to an authe idea of employing fireships to destroy it. thority only a little lower than that of sovEight vessels were thereupon hastily prepared ereignty. But the ink was scarcely dry upfor this purpose, and during the night of the on the warrant which wanted but the royal 29th which was cloudy and boisterous, they signature to complete the triumph of the fawere sent down blazing with combustible vorite, when he was cut of by a violent disease materials into the heart of the Spanish fleet. which, whether it arose from natural causes, A cry of horror burst from the Spaniards, or from poison being administered, at all and, seized with an irresistible panic, they events speedily terminated his career. Of cut their cables with the intention of standing this nobleman little need be said. He is one out to sea. But in their terror and confusion of a numerous class of historical characters they inflicted severe injury upon one another; who possess a degree of notoriety, not on and, to augment their distress, a fierce gale account of any brilliant endowments which sprung up, which scattered the Armada they themselves possessed, but fiom their along the coast from Ostend to Calais. Some proximity to or connection with distinguished struck on the shallows at Flanders, whilst personages. He possessed no intellectual or others beat out to sea; the remainder, in moral qualities which, deprived of advennumber about forty sail, were assailed by titious aid, would have thrown him into the Drake and the rest of the Englishfleet. This foreground of his country's history; whilst, was the most severe engagement which had if we listen to the opinion of his contem. yet taken place, and was maintained with poraries, he must be looked upon as dissolute great bravery for a whole day. The Spaniards and unprincipled, notwithstanding his aff'eclost several of their best ships; and after tation of piety. lie is a satellite only con vainly endeavoring to regain their position spicuous from the light which is reflected in the narrow strait, where Parma could alone upon him by his sovereign. join them, they resolved to return to Spain The English navy, emboldened by its late by making a circuit round Great Britain. triumph, now made several very successful The want of ammunition compelled the Eng- descents upon the Spanish coast, not so much lish to refrain from pursuing the invaders for the purpose of obtaining permanent conat a time when they might have annihilated quest, as of harassing the enemy. These them. But this was reserved for an enemy expeditions were cond.ucted by the most able even mlore formidable than that before which commaIlders, amongst whom were some of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 271 the brightest names in the history of maritime numerous subsequent quarrels which he had discovery and enterprise, such as those of with his sovereign, none of which are imporRaleigh, Drake, Carendish, Hawkins, and tant tohistory except thelast. Having been Howard. appointed lord deputy of Ireland, he sudOn the death of Leicester, the young Earl denly left his command in that country and of Essex succeeded him as prime favorite of returned to England. He was committed a the queen. But the desire of glory or the prisoner, and called upon to account for his hope of plunder induced this volatile young extraordinary conduct. The queen, however, nobleman to join the armament preparing to was unwilling to carry matters too far against sail for Spain. The expedition was unfor- her favorite. He was allowed to go about tunate, and when Essex returned to England, as a prisoner on parole; but this high-spirited lie found two rival candidates for royal favor, and aspiring nobleman could not remain conSir Walter Raleigh and Sir Charles Blount. tent with the humiliating circumstances to By the superior influence of these noblemen which he was now reduced. He attempted the former was driven to cultivate a portion to excite the city of London to revolt against of land which had been granted to him in the queen's authority; but the rebel was Ireland; and with the latter Essex fought a taken prisoner, tried for high treason, conduel, in which he was wounded But by demned, andexecuted. Thisproved a severe the queen's command they were reconciled to blow to Elizabeth, who was now tottering each other, and in process of time they be- upon the brink of the grave. She had been came sincere and attached friends. all her life subject to fits of indisposition, In the year 1596, a new expedition was which were occasionally violent; but it was fitted out for Spain, which was completely not till the beginning of March, 1603, that her Successful. The spanish fleet was defeated, mortal illness came on. Her mind became and lost thirteen men-of-war. Cadiz was depressed with gloomy recollections, espeetaken, and its defences, which rendered the ially those connected with the shedding of town the strongest fortress in the country, Essex's blood; and her nervous melancholy, were razed to the ground. This was the and general-decline increased, accompanied severest blow which the King of Spain re- by symptoms which indicated a disease of ceived from his daring enemy subsequent to the heart, and by a labored and convulsive the repulse of the Armada. Matters might respiration. She was questioned by her conlave been still worse with him had not dis- fidential advisers as to her successor, and sension sprung up amongst the English com- signified her desire that the King of Scot. manders, the majority of whom, against the land should succeed to the throne. Her speech suggestion of Essex, who was one of the soon afterwards failed entirely, and all hope leaders, declared for an immediate return to of her recovery vanished. She tranquilly England. The town, with the exception of breathed her last, about three hours after the churches, was reduced to ashes; and the midnight, on the 24th of March, 1603, in the troops, taking with them the most valuable sixty-seventh year of her age and the fortyportion of the plunder, re-embarked, and the fifth of her reign. fleet returned to Plymouth in less than ten In the opinion of her contemporaries, whose weeks after it had set sail. Essex, on his judgment has been ratified by posterity, arrival in England, was compelled to appear Elizabeth ranks amongst the greatest and the before the queen in council, and answer to most fortunate of English sovereigns. The several charges connected with the late en- domestic tranquillity which signalized her terprise. These charges merely related to rule during nearly half a century; her tr urnpecuniary matters, and the favorite was ac- phant repulse of the Spanish monarch, and quitted; but this was the commencement of the severe retaliation which she inflicted up. 272 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. on that lord of empires; the spirit displayed conformably to her dying request, had settled by her navy in its numerous warlike expedi- the succession on the heirs of Henry VII., so tions by sea, and also by her army on land, are that few sovereigns ever ascended a throne indications of uncommon vigor on the part with more general approbation, or greater of the sovereign, and of sagacity on that of hopes of a peaceable, happy reign. The mem. her counselors. She found England corm- ory of a disputed succession was yet fresh in paratively inferior to other nations of Europe, the minds of the English; and as the title of but she left it amongst the proudest and the James was unquestionable, the accession of most powerful. It was during her reign and a Protestant sovereign, who was to extinguish that of her successor, that the human intellect the hostility of Scotland, and unite two kingsprung up at once to full maturity, and pro- doms intended by nature to form one, was re. duced those works which are the peculiar garded as a new and auspicious era in the his glory of English literature. Hers was the tory of both countries. Augustan age of poetry, the age of Spenser, But the popularity of James hardly surShakespeare, and others; and during her vived his arrival in England; the hopes which reign Bacon began to put forth those gigan- had been so eagerly cherished were soon tic energies of mind which were destined to blighted; and the history of this monarch's change the whole aspect of science, and even reign consists of little else than a detail of disthe condition of man as a civilized being. The putes and contentions between him and his human failings ascribed to Elizabeth are, ex- Parliament. cessive vanity, love of popularity which is part The first intercourse between King James of it, parsimony, and a leaning towards des- and his English Parliament discovered at potism. But those whose interest it has been once the character of the new monarch, and to vaunt the glory of her sister's reign, and the spirit of the people over whom he had the purity of her life, have not failed to charge been called to reign. Vain, pedantic, garElizabeth with great personal depravity; yet rulous, mean, and accessible to flattery, howif we discredit every defamatory story which ever gross; arbitrary in his principles, and. can be clearly traced to her enemies, the im- in his own opinion the greatest master of putations will not have much weight or at- king-craft that ever lived; 1" the wretched tach any grave stigma to her name. She is Solomon of Whitehall" found in his English not, however, free from the stain of blood, ministers, Cecil, Suffolk, and Northampton, the shedding of which cannot be justified, devoted parasites and ready tools. His adhowever it may be palliated by taking into dress to the Parliament bespoke his own account the circumstances of the times, and opinion of himself, and showed that he believw the critical situation in which she stood; but ed himself an absolute king, whose proclain this respect her conduct is almost purity mations were to have the force of laws. But it itself compared either with that of her sister was only with his courtiers and bishops that or of her father. James passed for that paragon of wisdom and In 1603 the kingdoms of Scotland and policy which he devoutly believed himself to England fell under the dominion of one soy- be. The House of Commons already concreign, by the accession of James VI. of Scot- tained many men of free, fearless, and intelliland to the English throne. He derived his ti- gent minds; nor were the principles of indetle to the latter from being the great-grandson pendence, which in se-reral instances had of Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII., been asserted against all the powe: and enerand, on the failure of the male line, his here- gy of Elizabetl, likel7 to be eilled before ditary right remained incontestible. Queen the mock dignity of suelh a regal punchinello Elizabeth, with her last breath, had recog- as James. His first Parliament, accordingly nized him for her sucessor; and the parliament, reminded him of their privileges; resisted HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 273 the arbitrary issue, by the Chancellor, of new question were rejected as so many mortal writs for elections; and made some laudable sins. attempts to check the spirit of monopoly At this time the power of the Scotch clergy which paralyzed the trade and manufactures was exceedingly great; and the severe spirit of the kingdom, as well as to relieve the land- with which they were actuated prompted ed interest from some remnants of feudal them to exerciseit in a mannerlittle calculated oppression. to operate in the way of conciliation. Every The accession of James was speedily follow- ecclesiastical court possessed the power of exed by the conclusion of peace with Spain. communication, which was then attended The tendency of his disposition was pacific, with serious temporal effects, to say nothing not so much from principle, as from the want of the spiritual consequences which were supof all energy, vigor, and force of character, if posed to flow from it. not positive cowardice. That a monarch like James should have But the most important subject of discussion hated an order of men whom he could neiwhich occupied the attention of this first par- ther intimidate by his power nor cajole by liament was a project for incorporating the his latteries, is most natural. But this forms kingdoms whose crowns were already united a poor justification for the faithless and hypoon the head of James. A motion to this ef- critical course he pursued; whilst his maxim feet was made by Sir Francis Bacon, the of "No bishop, no king," shows that his unking's solicitor, who supported it with all the derstanding was as confined as his character ability, ingenuity, and eloquence for which was mean and grovelling. He began his athe was so greatly distinguished; maintaining tack upon Presbytery by discontinuing the that, for the object contemplated there was General Assembly, and banishing those no need of uniformity in the laws of religion clergymen who had the spirit to remonstrate. of the two countries,-and that, with Ireland Ile procured a decree restoring thirteen bishsubdued, Scotland united, and the navy duly oprics; and, at a packed meeting of the subsupportedj the English monarchy would be- servient part of the Scottish clergy, the holcome the most formidable in the world. It ders of these unenviable preferments were is to the honor of James, and reflects credit appointed perpetual moderators within their on the sagacity which he at intervals dis- presbyteries. And to complete the degradaplayed, that he was eager in forwarding this tion of the people, a high commission was measure. But the Commons remained in- given to the prelates, conferring upon'them flexible, and the project consequently failed. inquisitorial and discretionary powers of citIn conformity, however, with an opinion ob- ing and punishing for religious opinions, laytained from the judges, the post-nati, that is men as well as clergymen. But this tyranniall Britons born since the death of Queen cal and iniquitous project utterly failed. Elizabeth, were declared to be naturalized Nor was he in any degree more successful subjects in either kingdom. in the opposition which he attempted to the In 1617, the king revisited Scotland, with puritanical innovations in England. He had' the design of establishing Episcopacy in that observed, in his progress through that kingkingdom. IHe did.not, however, propose to dom, that a rigid or Judaical observance of abolish Presbytery entirely, and set up Epis- the Sabbath gained ground every day; and copacy in its room. He meant to content that by this means the people were debarred himself with establishing the royal authority from such sports and recreations as contribuabove the ecclesiastical, and introducing some ted to their health and amusement. Imaginceremonies into the public worship, but every ing that it would be easy to infuse cheerfulness advance towards Episcopacy produced the into the spirit of devotion which then pro. greatest discontent, and the ceremonies in vailed, he issued a proclamation to allow and mI. 18 274 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. encourage, after divine service, all kinds of punished on that account, and on no other, lawful games and exercises. But this pro- It has been conceded, however, that an Eng. clamation was regarded by his subjects as an lish jury would not have returned a verdict instance of the utmost profaneness and im- of g uilty against him; and if so, the sacrifice piety. In 1620, a bill was brought in by the of the bravest living commander, at the inCommons for the more strict observance of stigation of a foreign power, was equally dethe Sunday, which they called the Sabbath. testable in itself and derogatory to the digOne Shepherd opposed this bill, objecting to nity and independence of the country. the appellation of Sabbath, as puritanical, On the accession of James, great expectaand justifying indulgence in sports and tions had been formed by the Catholics that amusements on that day. For this he was ex- he would prove favorable to them; and it is pelled the house on the motion of Mr Pym; even pretended that he had entered into a and in the sentence pronounced against him positive engagement to grant them toleration his offence is described as "great, exorbitant, as soon as he should mount the throne of and unparalleled." England. But their hopes were built on an From this sketch, imperfect as it necessari- insecure foundation. James on all occasions ly is, a tolerable idea may be formed of the expressed his intention of executing strictly situation of affairs during the reign of James the laws enacted against them, and of perI., as well as of the character and designs of severing in the rigorous measures of Queen that weak, wavering, and on the whole mis- Elizabeth. A scheme of revenge was first chievous prince. It now becomes our duty thought of by one Catesby, a man of good to proceed to the more proper business of the parts and ancient family, who communicated present article, and to give some account of his design to Percy, a descendant of the House the remarkable transactions of this period. of Northumberland. The latter proposed to The first thing of any consequence was a assassinate the king. But Catesby deemed conspiracy formed, or alleged to have been this quite inadequate to the purpose, inasformed, in the year of the king's accession to much as the king would be succeeded by his the throne, to displace him and bestow the children, who would also inherit his maxims kingdom on Arabella Stuart, a near relation of government; and even if the whole royal to his own, and equally descended from Hen- family were destroyed, the parliament, nory VII. Every thing regarding this pretend- bility, and gentry, who were all infected with ed conspiracy, except that some such plot the same heresy, would raise another Protwas favored by one or two priests, remains estant prince to the throne. "To serve any nearly in its original obscurity. What ren- good purpose," said he, " we must destroy, ders it remarkable, however, is the concern at one blow, the king, the royal family, the Sir Walter Raleigh was said to have in it. lords and commons, and bury all our enemies For this he was tried, condemned without in one common ruin. Happily they are all proof, suffered thirteen years' imprisonment assembled on the first meeting of parliament, in the Tower, and was at length executed and afford us the opportunity of glorious and out of complaisance to the Spaniards. The useful vengeance. Great preparations will execution of this distinguished man is one of not be requisite. A few of us may run a the most unjustifiable acts of James's reign. mine below the hall in which they meet; and It is certainly possible, as Hume has asserted, choosing the very moment when the king hathat Raleigh may have made the pretended rangues both the houses, consign over to de gold mine in Guiana a cloak for his real de- struction the determined foes to all piety and sign of plundering the Spanish settlements; religion." but if the fact admitted of as easy proof as This comprehensive scheme being approvhas been alleged, Raleigh ought to have been ed of, it was resolved to communicate it to a HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 275 few more. Thomas Winter was sent over Ipected to be present at the opening of the to Flanders in quest of Fawkes, an officer parliament. But as the duke, by reason of in the Spanish service, of approved zeal and his tender age, would be absent, it was recourage. All the conspirators were bound solved that Percy should seize or murder by the iLost solemn oaths, accompanied with him. The Princess Elizabeth, likewise a the sacrament; and to such a degree had child, being kept at Lord Harrington's house superstition hardened their minds, that not in Warwickshire, some others of the conspirone of them entertained the smallest cornm- ators engaged to assemble their friends on punction for the cruel destruction they were pretence of a hunting match, to seize the preparing to commit. Some indeed were person of that princess, and immediately startled at the thoughts of destroying a proclaim her queen. The day so long wished number of Catholics who must necessarily for at last approached. The dreadful secret, be present as spectators, or attendants on though communicated to more than twenty the king, or as having seats in the House of persons, had been religiously kept for near a Peers; but Desmond, a Jesuit, and Garnet, year and a half; and nothing could be foresuperior of that order in England, removed seen calculated to prevent the success of these scruples, by showing that the interest their design. Ten days before the meeting of religion required in this case the sacrifice of Parliament, however, Lord ]Monteagle, a of the innocent with the guilty. Catholic, son of Lord Morley, received the This happened in the spring and summer following letter, which had been delivered of 1604, about which time the conspirators to his servant by an unknown hand: hired a house in Percy's name, adjoining "My Lord, out of the love I bear to some that in which the parliament was to meet. of your friends, I have a care for your preTowards the end of the year they began to servation. Therefore I would advise you, pierce through the wall of the house, in or- as you tender your life, to devise some exder to get in below that where the parlia- cuse to shift off your attendance on this parment was to assemble. The wall being about liament. For God and man have determined three yards thick, occasioned a great deal of to punish the wickedness of this time. And labor; but its density yielded to persever- think not slightly of this advertisement; but ance, and they at length approached the retire yourself into the country, where you other side, when they were startled by a may expect the event in safety. For though noise for which they could not well account. there be no appearance of any stir; yet, I Upon inquiry they found that it proceeded say, they shall receive a terrible blow this from a vault below the House of Lords; parliament, and yet they shall not see who that a magazine of coals had been kept hurts them. This counsel is not to be conthere; and that the coals were then selling temned, because it may do you good, and off, after which the vault would be let to can do you no harm; for the danger is over the highest bidder. Upon this the vault was as soon as you have burned this letter. And immediately hired by Percy, and thirty-six I hope God will give you the grace to make barrels of gunpowder lodged in it; the whole good use of it, to whose holy protection I being covered up with faggots and billets, commend you." the doors of the cellar boldly flung open, Though Lord Monteagle imagined this and every body admitted as if it contained letter to be only a ridiculous artifice to frightnothing dangerous. en him, he carried it to Lord Salisbury, seeConsidering themselves as now certain of retary of state; and the latter laid it before success, the conspirators began to arrange the king on his arrival in town a few days the remaining part of their enterprise. The after. IHIis majesty looked upon it in a much king, the queen, and Prince Henry were ex- more serious light than the young nobleman 276 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tc whom it had been addressed. From the ing themselves. The people then rushed in peculiar manner in which it was expressed, upon them. Percy and Catesby were killed he concluded that some design had been by one shot. Digby, Rookwood, Winter, formed to blow up the Parliament I-louse and others, being made prisoners, were tried, with gunpowder; and it was thought advis- confessed their guilt, and died, as well as able to search the vaults underneath. Garnet, by the hands of the common execuThe lord chamberlain, to whom this charge tioner. The Lords Stourton and Mordaunt, belonged, purposely delayed the search till two Catholics, were fined by the Star Chamthe day before the meeting of parliament. ber, the former in ~4000, the latter in ~10,A-bout midnight, Sir Thomas Knevet, a jus- 000, because their absence from Parliament tice of peace, was sent with proper atten- had occasioned a suspicion of their acquaindants; and meeting Fawkes, who had just tance with the conspiracy. The Earl of finished all his preparations, before the door Northumberland was fined in ~30,000, and of the vault, Sir Thomas immediately seized detained several years a prisoner in the Towhim, and turning over the faggots, discov- er, by reason of his having admitted Percy ered the gunpowder. The matches and into the number of gentlemen-pensioners every thing proper for setting fire to the without taking the requisite oaths. train were found in the pocket of Fawkes, James's attempts to civilize the barbarous who, seeing now no refuge except in bold- inhabitants of Ireland, and to render their ness and despair, expressed the utmost re- subjection durable and useful to the crown gret that he had missed the opportunity of of England, were more honorable in the defiring the powder at once, and of sweetening sign than successful in the execution. Hay his own death by that of his enemies. For ing abolished the ancient Irish customs, several days he displayed the same obstinate James substituted English law in their stead, intrepidity; but on being shut up in the and taking the natives under his protection, Tower, and the rack exhibited to him, his he declared them free citizens, and proceeded resolution at last failed, and he made a full to govern them by a regular administration, discovery. military as well as civil. But other measCatesby, Percy, and the other conspira- ures of a more doubtful character followed. tors, on learning that Fawkes was arrested, As the Irish had been engaged in rebellion hurried to Warwickshire, where Sir Edward against Elizabeth, a renunciation of all rights Digby, imagining that his confederates had formerly granted them to separate jurisdicsucceeded, was already in arms to seize the tions was rigorously exacted; a resignation Princess Elizabeth. But she had escaped of private estates was even required; and into Coventry; and they were obliged to put when these were restored, the proprietors themsels es in a posture of defence against received them back under such conditions as the country people, who were raised in all seemed calculated to prevent all future opquarters and armed by the sheriffs. The pression of the common people. Meanwhile conspirators, with their attendants, never a company was established in London for exceeded eighty in number, and being sur- planting new colonies in the province of rounded on every side, could no longer hope Ulster, which had fallen to the crown by the either to prevail or escape. Having there- attainder of rebels. fore confessed themselves, and received ab- On the 6th of November this year, Henry, solution, they boldly prepared for death, and Prince of Wales, died suddenly, not without resolved to sell their lives as dear as possible. strong suspicions of poison. On opening But even this miserable consolation was de- his body, however, no symptoms of the kind nied them. Some of their powder catching appeared; but his death diffused a universal ire, exploded, and disabled them from defend- grief throughout the nation, as he was reck. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 271 oned a prince of extraordinary accomplish- By this intelligence the religious zeal of merits and high promise. But the marriage the English was inflamed to the highest of the Princess Elizabeth with Frederick, pitch. The sufferings of their Protestant elector palatine, which was celebrated in brethren in Germany excited universal symFebruary, 1613, served to dissipate the grief pathy, whilst the neutrality and inactivity caused by Prince HeInry's death. This mar- of James were loudly exclaimed against. riage, however, proved unfortunate both with But, although the king might have defended respect to the king and to his son-in-law; his pacific measures by plausible arguments, for the elector, trusting to so great an alli- some of his motives were the most ridiculous ance, engaged in enterprises beyond his that can be conceived. In a spirit of pemeans; and James, unable, and perhaps also dantic self-conceit, he fancied himself capaunwilling, to assist him in his distress, lost able of disarming hostile nations by dint of his last hold on the affections of his people. argument; and believed that the power of These bad consequences did not begin to Austria, though not awed by that of Engappear till the year 1619. At that time the land, would submit to his arbitration merely states of Bohemia, having taken arms in de- out of respect to his virtue and moderation. fence of the Protestant religion, and perse- Wedded to his notions concerning the prevered in the contest notwithstanding the rogative of kings, he also imagined, that preparations of the emperor to crush them, wherever a contention arose between any made an offer of their crown to the elector sovereign and his subjects, the latter must palatine, induced doubtless by his connection necessarily be in the wrong; and for this with the King of England, and his relation- reason he from the first denied his son-in-law slhip to Prince Maurice, whose authority in the title of King of Bohemia, and forbade the United Provinces was nearly absolute. him to be prayed for in the churches under Stimulated by ambition, the young palatine, that appellation. Besides, James was on without consulting either James or Maurice, other accounts. extremely averse to a rupture whose opposition he foresaw, accepted the with Spain. He had entertained an opinion offer, and marched into Bohemia in support peculiar to himself, that any alliance below of his new subjects. But the affairs of the that of a king was unworthy a Prince of new king soon came to a crisis. Frederick, Wales; and he never would allow any prindefeated in the decisive battle of Prague, cess except a daughter of France or of Spain fled with his family into Ifolland; whilst to be mentioned as a match for his son. Spinola, the Spanish general, invaded the This pitiful folly gave Spain an opportunity palatinate, where, meeting with little resis- of managing the English monarch in his tance, except from one body of 2400 Eng- most important concerns. With a view of lishmen, commanded by Sir Horace Vere, engaging him to observe neutrality in regard he quickly reduced the whole principality. to the succession of Cleves, the elder daughThe ban of the empire was published against ter of the King of Spain had been indirectly the unfortunate elector in 1621; the upper offered during the life of Prince Henry,. palatinate was in a little time conquered by The bait, however, did not then take; and the elector of Bavaria, to whom the exeeu- James, in consequence of his alliance with tion of the decree of the diet had been com- the Dutch, sent 4000 men to the assistance mitted; Frederick was obliged to live with of the Protestants, by which means the suchis numerous family in poverty and distress, cession was secured to the Protestant line. either in IHolland or at Sedan; and the new In 1618, Gondomar offered the King of conquests of the Catholics throughout Ger- Spain's second daughter to Prince Charles; many were attended with persecutions against and, to render the temptation irresistible to me Protestants. I so necessitous a prince as James, he gave 278 HISTORY OF THE WORLD.hopes of an immense dowry with the Infanta. their journals, and soon after dissolved the On this match James built great hopes, not parliament. Of the leading members of the only of relieving his own necessities, but of house, Sir Edward Coke and Sir Robert recovering the palatinate for his son-in-law; Phillips were committed to the Tower, and at least the public were taught to believe Selden, Pym, and Mallory, to other prisons; that the recovery of the palatinate was one while, as a lighter punishment, some others of the king's chief motives for entertaining were sent into Ireland to execute the king's the project of such a marriage. commands in that country. A more judiBut the Commons viewed the matter in a cious course was followed with Sir John very different light; and this, joined to oth- Saville, who was made comptroller of the er parts of the king's conduct, blew into a household, a privy counselor, and soon after flame the contention which had long subsisted a baron. between them. On the 14th of November, This open breach between the king and 1621, the Commons framed a remonstrance, the parliament soon rendered politics a genewhich they intended to carry to the king, ral subject of discourse; every man began representing that the enormous growth of to indulge himself in reasonings and inthe Austrian power threatened the liberties quiries concerning matters of state; and the of Europe; and that the progress of the parties which arose in parliament were speedCatholic religion in England bred the most ily propagated throughout the nation. In melancholy apprehensions. vain did James, by reiterated proclamations, The king was then at Newmarket; but forbid discourses of this kind. These, if hearing of the intended remonstrance, he they had any effect at all, served rather to wrote a letter to the Speaker, sharply re- inflame than allay the curiosity of the pubbuking the House for debating on matters lie. In every company or society the tranfar above their reach and capacity, and Factions just mentioned became the subject strictly forbidding them to meddle with any- of argument and debate; some taking the thing that regarded his government, or deep side of monarchy, and others that of liberty. matters of state, and especially not to touch And this was the real origin of the two paron his son's marriage with the Spanish prin- ties since known by the names of Whyigs and cess. Upon this the Commons framed a new Tories. remonstrance, in which they asserted their During five years James continued the right of debating on all matters of govern- dupe of the court of Spain. Firmly resolved ment, and claimed entire freedom of speech to contract no alliance with a heretic, the in their debates. The king replied, that King of Spain continued to procrastinate their remonstrance was more like a denun- and invent one excuse after another; preciation of war than an address of dutiful tending all along a willingness to conclude subjects; that their pretension to inquire into the match, though no step had as yet been all state affairs without exception, was such taken for obtaining a dispensation from the a plenipotence as none of their ancestors, pope. To pave the way for bringing the even during the reign of the weakest princes, matter to a close, James issued public orhad ever pretended to; that they could not ders for discharging all popish recusants who better show their wisdom, as well as duty, were imprisoned; and it was daily apprethan by keeping within their proper sphere; hended that he would prohibit in future the and that in any affair which depended on his execution of the penal laws against them. prerogative, they had no title to interpose This conduct, generous had it proceeded with their advice, unless when he pleased to from genuine principles of toleration, he ask it. The Commons in turn framed a was obliged to justify on the hollow preprotestation, which the king tore out of tence that it was done in order toprocure HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 279 from foreign princes a corresponding indul- at the same time envious of the great repugence for the Protestants; the severity of tation of the Earl of Bristol, Buckirgham the English laws against Catholics having, persuaded the prince to undertake a jourit was alleged, been urged as a reason against ney to Madrid. This, he said, considered as showing any favor to Protestants residing in an unexpected piece of gallantry, would Catholic kingdoms.:equal all the fictions of Spanish romance; Armed with these concessions, which were and, suiting the chivalrous and enterprising but ill relished at home, Digby, Earl of Bris- character of that nation, would immediately tol, was sent as ambassador to the court of: introduce: him to the princess under the Spain; and one Gage was secretly dispatched agreeable character of a devoted and advenas an agent to Rome. After amusing him turous suitor. Little persuasion was necesso long with false hopes, the court of Spain sary to prevail with Charles to undertake seemed at last sincere in the projected mar- the journey; and the impetuosity of the riage. Lord Bristol himself, although he favorite having extorted a consent from had formerly opposed the Spanish match, James, the prince and Buckingham (or now came to be of this opinion, and consid- "Baby Charles " and " Steenie," as the king:ered the proposed marriage as an infallible ridiculously called his son and his minion) prognostic of the palatine's restoration; nor, set out as knight-errant and squire. They indeed, was it easy to conjecture why Illilip traveled through France - in disguise, under should be ready to bestow the Infanta with the assumed names of Jack and Tom Smith. a dowry of ~600,000 sterling on a prince At a ball in Paris, the prince first saw the whose demands he meant to refuse at the Princess Henrietta, whom he afterwards hazard of a war, unless we suppose that he married. She was then in the bloom of reckoned on the cowardice and imbecility youth and beauty, and the novelists of the of the English monarch's character. time say that the prince fell in love with her But whilst the king exulted in his pacific on this occasion. counsels, and boasted of his superior sagac- On their arrival at Madrid, everybody was ity and penetration, all his prospects were surprised by a step so little usual among blasted by the temerity of the worthless great princes. The Spanish monarch made - favorite who governed both court and na- Charles a visit, expressed the utmost gratition with almost unlimited sway. This was tude for the confidence reposed in him, and Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, who had suc- made warm protestations of a corresponding ceeded Somerset in the capricious affections confidence and friendship. He gave Charles of James, and had risen from the rank of a golden key which opened all his apartcupbearer to a dukedom and the highest ments, that the prince might, without any honors of the state. Though possessed of formality, have access to him at all hours; some accomplishments as a courtier, he was and heaped upon hlim other marks of disutterly devoid of the talent necessary to a tinction and favor if possible still more fiatminister; and at once partook of the inso- tering. The Infanta, however, was only lence which attends a fortune newly acquired, shown to her lover in public; the Spanish and the impetuosity which belongs to per- ideas of propriety being too strict to allow sons born in high stations, and unacquainted any further intercourse till the arrival of the with opposition. Amongst those who had dispensation. Meanwhile no attempt was experienced the arrogance of this overgrown made by the Spaniards to profit by the cirfavorite, was the Prince of Wales himself; cumstance of having the Prince of Wales in and a coldness, if not enmity, had in conse- their power in order to impose any harder quence arisen between them. Desirous of conditions of treaty. Their Catholic zeal, putting an end to this misunderstanding, and indeed, prompted them on one occasion to 280 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. seek more concessions in the religious arti- which he either could not or would not recles; but, on the opposition of Bristol, they strain, rendered him an object of undisguised immediately desisted. The pope, however, aversion to the Spaniards. Buckingham, on hearing of Charles's arrival in Madrid, the other hand, sensible how odious he had tacked some new clauses to the dispensa- become to the Spaniards, and dreading the tion; and it became necessary to transmit influence which that nation would naturally the articles to London for the king's ratifica- acquire after the arrival of the Infanta, emtion. This treaty, which was made public, ployed all his influence to prevent:the marconsisted of several articles, chiefly regard- riage. What arguments he used to prevail ing the exercise of the Catholic religion by with the prince to offer so gross an insult to the Infanta; and of these, the only one that the Spanish nation, from whom he had recould reasonably be found fault with, was ceived the most generous treatment, or what that in which the king consented that the colors he employed to disguise the ingratichildren of the marriage should be educated tude and imprudence of such a measure, are by the princess till they were ten years of totally unknown. Certain it is, however, age. But besides this public treaty, there that when the prince left Madrid, he was were some private articles, which stipulated firmly determined, in opposition to his most for a suspension of the penal' laws against solemn promises, to break off the treaty with the English Catholics in the first instan6e, Spain. Accordingly, on their arrival at Lontogether with a toleration for the exercise of don, the prince and Buckingham assumed the Roman Catholic religion in private houses, the entire direction of the negotiation; and and next, a repeal of these laws by Parlia- it was not difficult to find pretences under ment. Meanwhile Gregory XV., who had which to mask the breach of treaty which granted the dispensation, died; and Urban had been secretly resolved on. After emVIII. was chosen as his successor. Upon ploying many fiuitless artifices to delay or this the nuncio refused to deliver the dispen- prevent the espousals, Bristol received posisation till the pleasure of the new pope tive' instructions not to deliver the proxy should be known concerning it. But the which had been left in his hands, nor to concrafty pontiff delayed his confirmation, in elude the marriage until security was given hopes that, during the prince's residence in for the full restitution of the palatinate. Spain, some expedient might be fallen upon Philip understood this language; but, deto effect his conversion. The King of Eng- termined to throw the whole blame of the land, as well as his son, became impatient; rupture on the English, he delivered into but, on the first hint, Charles obtained leave Bristol's hand a written promise, by which to return, and Philip graced his departure he bound himself to procure the restoration with the same marks of civility and respect of the palatinate either by persuasion or by which had signalized his arrival. every other possible means. When he found The modest, reserved, and highly digni- that this concession gave no satisfaction, he lied behaviour of Charles, together with the ordered the Infanta to lay aside the title of confidence he had reposed in the Spanish Princess of Wales, which she had borne after nlation, and the romantic gallantry he had the arrival of the dispensation from Rome, practiced in regard to their princess, endeared and to drop the study of the English Ianhim to the whole court of AMadrid. But in guage; and as he foresaw that the rash the same proportion that Charles was beloved counsels which now governed the court of and esteemed, Bulckingham was despised and England would not stop short at the breach hated. His sallies of passion, his indecent of the marriage-treaty, he immediately orfreedoms with the prince, his dissolute plea- dered preparations for war to be made sures, and his arrogant, impetuous temper, throughout all his dominions. HISTORY OF THE WO__RLD..281 ofter success than ths met with much bet wenty- ears, and reigned over EgScotland ter success than that with the Infanta. But twenty-two, and over Scotland almost aslong the king had not the same inducements to as he had lived. proseculte this match as the former one, the Charles I. succeeded to the same favorite, portion promised being much smaller; yet the same ministers, and the same council, willing that his son should not be altogether his father had possessed, to say nothing of the disappointed of a bride, and the King of same pecuniary distress; and, unhappily, he France demanding only the same terms also inherited the same principles of governwhich had been offered to the court of Spain, ment. But in other respects he bore no reJames thought proper to comply. semblance to his sire. At the same time his Being now deprived of every other hope accession to the throne was greeted with faof relieving his son-in-law, except by force of vor, and even hailed as auspicious by the naarms, James declared war against Spain and tion which had been wearied and sickened the emperor, for the recovery of the palati- by the pedantic and presumptuous incapacity nate; and six thousand men were sent over of his father. Pleased with his temporary into Holland to assist Prince Maurice in his popularity, obtained partly by the rupture schemes against those powers. The people with Spain, and also in want of money for were everywhere elated at the course which carrying on his government, Charles resolved events had taken; and so popular was the to call together the great council of the naidea of a Spanish war, and so great the joy tion; and, accordingly, he issued writs for at the rupture of the projected Catholic alli- summoning a new parliament for the 7th of arce, ti at Buckingham became for the time May, 1625. But the arrival of the Princess a favorite of the people, and was hailed even Henrietta, whom he had espoused by proxy, by Sir Edward Coke as the saviour of the obliged him to delay, by repeated proro-.nation. The reinforcement sent to Prince gations, their meeting till the 18th of June, Maurice was followed by another consisting when they assembled at Westminster for the of twelve thousand men, commanded by dispatch of business. Count Mansfeldt; and the court of France The king's discourse to the parliament promised its assistance. But the Enlglish was full of apparent simplicity and cordiality. were disappointed in all their views. The He mentioned cursorily the occasion he had troops embarked at Dover found, on arriv- for supply, but, it is said, employed no means ing at Calais, that no orders had arrived for to influence the suffrages of the members. their admission into that place, much less for The officers of the crown, who had seats in affording them a passage through France, as the house, were not even allowed to specify had been promised; and after waiting some the particular sum which he had occasion for; time, they were obliged to sail towards Zea- he trusted entirely to the wisdom and affecland, where proper measures had not as yet tion of his parliament. But the parliament, been taken for their disembarkation. Mean- composed chiefly of Puritans, was not in a while a pestilential disorder crept in amongst humor to be generous,~ or even just, in apprethem; half their number died while on board, ciating the king's necessities. They knew and the other half, weakened by sickness, that allthe money formerly granted had been was insufficient to march into the palatinate; expended on military and naval preparations; and thus ended this ill-concerted and fruitless that great anticipations were made on the expedition. Whether its unfortunate result revenues of the crown; that the king was loadhad any effect on the king's healtli is uncer- ed with a debt contracted by his father, who tain; but he was soon after seized with a had borrowed money both frotn foreign 282 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. princes and from his own subjects; that the Charles gave them a complaisant answer, but public revenues could with difficulty maintain at the same time firmly resolved to abate somethe dignity of the crown, even under the or- what of the rigorous laws against that undinary charges of government; that the pre- fortunate party, which his engagements with sent war had been, in a great measure, the France absolutely required. No measure of result of their own importunate applications his whole reign, however, proved more oband entreaties; and that the nation was sol- noxious to his intolerant subjects, or in its emnly pledged to support their sovereign in consequences more fatal to himself, than this carrying it on. They could not be ignorant of resolution. The Puritans, who had continthe difficulty of military enterprises directed ued to gain ground during the whole reign against the whole house of Austria; against of James, now formed the majority of the the king of Spain, possessed of the great- HIouse of Commons. Petitions were conest riches and the most extensive dominions sequently presented to the king for replacing of any prince in Europe; against the Empe- such clergymen as had been silenced for want ror Ferdinand, hitherto the most fortunate of conformity to the ceremonies; and laws monarch of the age, who had astonished Ger- were enacted for the strict observance of Sunmany by the rapidity of his victories. Yet, day, which was sanctified with the most rigid with all this knowledge, and to answer all and melancholy gloom. The inevitable rethese important ends, the Commons thought sult of all this was the dismissal of the reproper to vote a supply of only ~ 112,000. fractory parliament, which was dissolved on The excuses which have been made for this the 12th of August. insulting parsimony, are the hatred of Buck- During this interval Charles had been ingham, and the discovery that the war had obliged to borrow from his subjects on privybeen produced by his artifices and intrigues. seals and other expedients, by which means The parliament was adjourned for a few he was enabled, though with great difficulty, weeks in summer by reason of the plague, to equip a fleet destined to act against Spain. which had suddenly broken out; but on their But the force thus painfully fitted out perre-assembling at Oxford, the king represent- formed nothing worthy of notice, and the ill ed, in the most explicit manner, the necessity success of the enterprise only served to inthere was for a large supply, urging that this crease the clamors against the court. request was the first he had ever made them; Charles's second parliament, which was that he was young, and in the commencement speedily convoked, adopted substantially the cf his reign; and that if he now met with same views as the first, though without pushkind and dutiful usage, it would endear to him ing their parsimony to such meanness. They the use of parliaments, and for ever preserve voted a supply of three subsidies, amounting an entire harmonybetween him and his peo- to ~168,000 and three fifteenths; but the ple. But the Commons remained inexorable, passing of this vote into a law was reserved refusing even the addition of two fifteenths until the end of the session; a proceeding to the former supply. They renewed their which was tantamount to a threat of withcomplaints against the growth of popery; they holding it unless their demands were satisdemanded a strict execution of the penal laws fled. Charles was greatly incensed at this against the Catholics; they remonstrated conduct; but he found it prudent to submit, against some late pardons granted to priests; and to wait the event with patience. In the and they attacked Montague, one of the mean time the Commons attacked the Duke king's chaplains, on account of a book be had of Buckingham, who had become generally lately composed, in which it was maintained obnoxious; and he was also impeached by the that virtuous Catholics as well as well as other Chris- Earl of Bristol in the Lords, on account of tians would be saved from eternal torments. his conduct in the Spanish negociation. But HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 283 the Earl's impeachment was entirely over- preparing a remonstrance against the levying looked, and the Commons taxed Buckingham of tonnage and poundage without consent of with offences, such as administering physic the legislature. This impost, together with to the late king without consent of his phy- six new ones laid on merchandise by King sicians, from which he found little difficulty James, constituted nearly one-half of the to exculpate himself. While under this im- crown revenues; and it was therefore of peachment, Buckingham was elected Chan- vital importance to the king, situat ed as he cellor of the university of Cambridge, and was, to preserve it entire, althoughthere can the king publicly thanked the university for be no doubt whatever that, in its own nature, their wise and proper choice. This was keen- it was an odious and oppressive tax. It was ly resented by the Commons; but when they also the intention of the Commons, if they sueloudly complained of the affront, the lord- ceeded in carrying this point, to petition the keeper commanded them, in the king's name, king to remove Buckingham from his presnot to meddle with his minister and servant, ence and councils. But the king, alarmed at but to finish in a few days the bill they had the blow which was preparing for him, anbegun for the subsidies, otherwise they must ticipated the Commons by dissolving parliaexpect to sit no longer. And to strip this ment, on the 15th of June, 1626. imprudent menace of all disguise, Sir Dud- Charles having thus made a breach with ley Carlton emphatically explained it by al- his parliament which there was no hopes of lusion to those monarchs in Christendom who, repairing, was obliged to have recourse to the owing to the turbulence of their subjects, had naked exercise of his prerogative in order to been obliged to overthrow parliaments alto- supply himself with money. A commission gether. Nor was this the whole or even the was openly granted to compound with the worst. Adding injury to indignity, the king Catholi cs, and dispense with the penal laws next ordered two members of the House enacted against them; an expedient by which of Commons, Sir John Eliot, Sir Dud- the king filled his coffers, but gave universal ley Digges, the chief managers of the im- disgust to his subjects. From the nobility he peachment against the Duke, to be thrown desired assistance; from the city of London into prison, alleging as the reason of this he required a loan of ~100,000. The former proceeding certain seditious expressions said contributed but slowly; the latter, sheltering to have dropped from these members. Upon themselves under many pretences and exinquiry, however, it appeared that no such cuses, gave at last a fiat denial. To equip a expressions had been uttered; and as the fleet, an apportionment was made by order Commons refused to proceed with any busi- of the council amongst all the maritime towns, less until they received satisfaction in their each of which was required, with the assisprivileges, the members were accordingly re- tance of the adjacent counties, to furnish a leased, though with a very bad grace. Soon certain number of vessels or amount of shipafter, the House of Lords, moved by the ex- ping. The city of London was rated at twenample of the Commons, claimed liberty for ty ships. And this was the first appearance, the Earl of Arundel, who had been lately in the present reign, of ship-money; a taxation confined in the Tower; and after many which had once been imposed by Elizabeth fruitless evasions the king was obliged, though on a great emergency, but which, revived somewhat ungraciously, to comply with their and carried some steps farther by Charles, demand. produced the most violent discontents. These The next attack meditated by the Com- summary methods of supply, however, were (mons, if successful, would have proved de- emploved with some moderation, until the cisive, and reduced the king to an absolute tidings arrived of the King of Denmark's dlependence on his parliament. They were defeat by Tilly, the imperial general. MIon 284 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ey then became more than ever necessary; lover of the queen, caused a message to be and as the ways and means hitherto employ- sent him from France, declining the honor of ed had not answered expectation, it was sug- his intended visit. Buckingham's rage at gested in council, as the most speedy, equal, this knew no bounds, and, in a transport of and effective means of obtaining a supply, to passion, he swore that he would see the queen exact a general loan from the subject, rating in spite of all the power of France. He also every man according as he was assessed in the determined, if possible, to embroil the two rolls of the last subsidy. kingdoms in war; and with this view he preThis paltry and equivocating subterfuge vailed with Charles to dismiss the queen's imposed upon no one. It was plain that by French domestics,and encouraged the English the course which the court was now pursuing, ships to seize on those of France. But great the liberty of the subject would be entirely as these provocations were, they failed in destroyed, and parliaments in future rendered their object, which was to drive the French wholly superfluous. It was to no purpose, to a declaration of war. Upon this Buck therefore, that the followers of the court, ingham persuaded the king openly to espouse and their preachers in the pulpit, enjoined the cause of the Huguenots, whose leader, submission to this loan as part of the duty of the Duke de Soubise, was then in London. passive obedience and non-resistance. A And the vain, shallow, impetuous favorite spirit of opposition arose among the people; himself set sail with a hundred ships and many refused these loans; and some were seven thousand men to assist the Huguenots even active in encouraging their neighbors of Rochelle. Uninformed of his designs, to insist upon their common rights and priv- however, the latter shut their gates against ileges. By a warrant of the council these him. Instead of attaclking the rich and dewere thrown into prison, and most of them fenceless Isle of Oleron, Buckinglam then patiently submitted to confinement, although bent his course to that of Rho; and, after such as applied to the king by petition were allowing the garrison of St. Martin to be well commonly released. provisioned, he resolved to reduce it by famWhile the king was thus embroiled with ine. But his impatience soon led him to his parliament at home, and with powerful abandon this design; and attempting to nations abroad, he rashly engaged in a war storm the place without having made a breach with France, a kingdom with which he had in the defences, he was repulsed with the but lately formed an alliance; a temerity loss of two thirds of his force, and returned bordering on madness. All historians agree to England covered with disgrace. A third that the French, like the Spanish war was of parliament was summoned, and met on the Buckingham's creating; and the motives 17th of March, 1628. At the beginning of which led to it would appear incredible, if the session Charles plainly told them, that the violence, profligacy, a-nd folly of that "if they should not do their duties, il conman's character were not known. At the tributing to the necessities of the state, he tim e when Charles married, by proxy, IIen- must, in discharge of his conscience, use those rietta of France, Buckingham had appeared other means which God had put into his at Paris to grace the festivity, and, by his hands, in order to save that which the follies showy superficial accomplishments, had at- of some particular men might otherwise put tracted the admiration of the Queen of in danger." Foreseeing that they might exF'rance herself. IHaving conducted Hen- pect'to be dismissed on the T(lst disagreement rietta safely to England, he was preparing, with the king, the Commons proceeded with doubtl.hss in the spirit of ambitious gallantry, caution, yet relaxed nothing in vigor. The to return upon a new embassy; when Rich- nation was now really suffering firom. the elieu, the minister, himself a dissappointed late arbitrary proceedings. They, therefore, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 285 began by remonstrating against arbitrary im- of he holds himself in conscience as much ob. prisonments and forced loans; after which, liged as of his own prerogative." five subsidies, or ~280,000, were voted to the This equivocal answer was highly resented king, a sum with which Charles declared The Commons returned iat very ill humor; himself well satisfied. The Commons, how- and theirindignation would undoubtedly have over, resolved not to pass this vote into a law, fallen on the unfortunate Catholics, had not until they had obtained from the king a the petition against that persecuted class of sufficient security that their liberties should religionists already received a satisfactory no longer be violated as they had formerly answer. To give vent to their displeasure, been. With this view they framed a law therefore they fell on Dr. Mlainwaring, who which was called a Petition of Right, be- had preached, and, at the special command cause it was only a confirmation of the ancient of the king, printed, a sermon, which was constitution, in which they collected all the found to contain doctrines subversive of civil arbitrary exertions of the prerogative which liberty. For these doctrines Mlainwaring had taken place since the king's accession, was sentenced to be imprisoned during the and in particular complained of the griev — pleasure of the House, to be fined in ~1030, ances of forced loans, benevolences, taxes to make submission and acknowledgment without consent of parliament, arbitrary im- for his offence, to be suspended for three prisonments, billeting soldiers, and martial years, and declared incapable of holding any law. They made no pretensions to any un- ecclesiastical dignity or secular office; and usual power or privileges; nor did they in- his book was ordered to be called in and tend to infringe on the royal prerogative in burnt. But the session was no sooner ended any respect. They aimed only at securing than Mainwaring received a pardon, and those rights and privileges derived from their was promoted to a living of considerable ancestors. value; and some years afterwards he was But the king, on his part, began plainly to raised to the see of St. Asaph. Having lhow that he aimed at nothing less than ab- dealt thus with Mainwaring, the Commons solute power. This most reasonable petition proceeded to censure Buckingham; and the he did his utmost to evade, by repeated storm of public indignation seemed ready messages to the House, in which he offered to burst on his head, when it was diverted his royal word that there should be no more by the king's yielding to the importunities infringements on the liberty' of the subject. of parliament. He went to the House of But these messages had no effect on the Com- Peers, and when he pronounced the usual mons. They knew how brittle such promises form of words, " Let it be law as is desired," were without further security, and accordingly the house resounded with acclamations, passed the bill. The Lords after some hesita- which were re-echoed over all the country, tion confirmed it, and nothing was wanting and the bill for five subsidies immediately but the royal assent to give it the force of a passed. law. Charles accordingly came to the House But the Commons were not yet done with of Peers, sent for the Commons, and being the redress of grievances. They called for seated in the chair of state, instead of giving the abolition of a commission which had been the usual concise assent, said, "the king recently granted to thirty-three officers of willeth that right be done according to the the crown for levying money by imposition laws and customs of the realm, and that the or otherwise, " in which form or circumstance statutes be put into execution; that his sub- were to be dispensed with rather than the jects may have no cause to complain of any substance be lost or hazarded." They adwrrong or oppression contrary to their just verted to a scheme for introducing into Eng. rights and liberties, to the preservation where- land a thousand German horse, probably tc 286 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. aid in levying contributions; they again at- porting the officers of the Custom-House. tacked Brukingham, against whom they The goods of Rolles, a merchant, and mem were justly implacable; and they also as- her of the house, being seized on account of serted that the levying of tonnage and his refusal to pay the duties, complaints were poundage without consent of parliament was made of this violence, as a breach of privilege. a palpable violation of the ancient liberties Charles, on the other hand, supported his of the people, and an open infringement of officers in all these measures; and the breach the petition of right so lately granted. To between him and the Commons became every prevent a formal remonstrance on these sub- day wider. Sir John Eliot framed a rejects, the king suddenly prorogued the par- monstrance against tonnage and poundage, liament on the 26th of June, 1628. which he offered to the clerk to read; but The hand of an assassin soon rid the Com- the latter refused, and Sir John then read mons of their enemy Buckingham. Hie was it himself. When the question was calle d murdered on the 23d of August this same for, the Speaker, Sir John Finch, said, that year, by one Felton, who had formerly he had it in command from the king to adserved under him as a lieutenant. The king journ, and to put no question; upon which did not appear much concerned at his death, he rose and left the chair. The whole house but retained an affection for his family was in an uproar; the Speaker was pushed throughout his whole lifetime. He desired back, and forcibly held in the chair by Holalso that Felton might be tortured, in order lis and Valentine, till a short remonstrance to extort from him a discovery of his accom- was framed, and passed by acclamation. Paplices; but the judges declared, that though pists and Arminians were now declared capthat practice had been formerly very com- ital enemies to the commonwealth; those who mon, it was altogether illegal. levied tonnage and poundage were branded In 1629, the usual contentions between with the same epithet; and even the merthe kliing and his parliament were renewed. chants who voluntarily paid these duties were The great article on which the Commons declared betrayers of English liberty, and broke with their sovereign, and which final- public enemies. The doors being locked, ly created in him a disgust at all parlia- the gentleman-usher of the House of Lords, ments, was their demands with regard to who was sent by the ling, could get no adtonnage and poundage. The question at mittance till this remonstrance was finished. issue was whether this tax could be levied By the king's order he took the mace from without consent of parliament or not. Charles, the table, which put an end to their proceedsupported by multitudes of precedents, ings; and, on the 10th of March, the parmaintained that it might; and the parlia- liament was dissolved. Some of the memment, in consequence of their petition of bers were imprisoned and fined; but this right, asserted that it could not. But the severity served only to increase the general Commons were resolved to support their discontent, and point out the sufferers as iights. proper leaders for the popular party. They began with summoning before them Disgusted with parliaments, Charles now the officers of the Custom-House, to give resolved to call no more; but finding himself an account of the authority by which they destitute of resources, he was obliged to conhad seized the goods of those merchants who elude a war whiclh was begun without neceshad refused to pay the duties of tonnage and ity, and conducte I without glory. A treaty poundage. The Barons of Exchequer were was signed with France on the 14th of April, questioned with regard to their decrees on and another with Spain on the 5th of Novemthat head. The sheriff of London was com- ber, 1630, by which Charles bound himself rnitted to the Tower for his activity in sup- to observe a neutrality with regard to the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 287 affairs of the Continent. In these treaties appointed president of the council of York, the Huguenots and the palatinate were deputy of Ireland, and chief counselor of equally abandoned. Charles, however, united the king. Sir Dudley Digges became maswith France in mediating between Sweden ter of the rolls; Noy, attorney-general; and and Poland, in hopes of gaining the former Littleton, solicitor-general. But the archto the cause of his brother-in-law. But al- apostate was Wentworth, a man distinguished though Gustavus espoused the cause of the by great force of character, dauntless courage, German Protestants, and accepted of aid from brilliant and c-mmanding eloquence, extraCharles under the Marquis of Hamilton, he ordinary intellectual resources, unconquerarefused, when he had overrun Germany, to ble moral energy, and a fierce tumultuous restore the palatinate, except on condition of ambition, which led him to trample without its dependence upon himself. In short, the a scruple of remorse upon every principle peace was as ignominious as the war had been accounted most sacred and most binding on disgracefill. public men. In return for the king's indulgence towards Whilst Charles rufled without parliaments the church, Archbishop Laud and his fol- he ruled by the naked exercise of prerogalowers took care to magnify on every occa- tive alone. He wanted money for the supsion the regal authority, and to treat with port of government; and he levied it, either the utmost disdain all puritanical preten- by the revival of obsolete laws, or by violasions to a free and independent constitution. tions of the rights and privileges of the From this subjection, however, they took nation. care to exclude themselves, insisting upon a These arbitrary proceedings led to an divine and apostolical charter -in preference occurrence which will be ever memorable ir. to a legal and parliamentary one. The sa- the history of English liberty. John I-Iamn cerdotal character was magnified as sacred den had been rated at twenty shillings of ship and indefeasible; and all right to spiritual money for an estate he possessed in Buck authority, or even to private judgment in inghamshire, which was assessed at a ship spiritual subjects, was refused to profane of four hundred and fifty tons, or four thouslaymen. Ecclesiastical courts were holden and five hundred pounds. The share of the by bishops in their own name, without any tax which fell to lHampden was very small; notice being taken of the king's authority; so small, indeed, that the sheriff was blamed and Charles, though extremely jealous of for setting so wealthy a man at so low a rate; every claim set up by popular assemblies, but although the sum demanded was a trifle, seemed rather to encourage than repress the the principle of the demand was essentially encroachments of his clergy. despotic. The judges, it is true, had declared Meanwhile the king had changed his coun- that, in case of necessity, the king might imselors without changing - his councils. In pose the tax of ship-money, and that his majorder to weaken the popular party, by creat- esty was the sole judge of that necessity. But ing suspicion and distrusts of its chiefs, after consulting the most eminent constituCharles, resorting to an expedient often tional lawyers of the time, Hampden, undisadopted by princes, had chosen his ministers mayed by this judicial deliverance, refused to front the ranks of the patriots, in the hope of pay the few shillings at which hewas assessed, converting them into strenuous supporters of and determined, rather than submit to the imthe prerogative which he was content to position, to incur the certain expense and share with them. Nor was he mistaken in eventual danger of bringing to a solemn hearcalculating the more immediate effects of ing this great controversy between the crown this politica_ apostacy. Sir Thomas Went- and the people. The leading counsel against worth, now created Earl of Strafford, was the writ was the celebrated Oliver St. John, 288 IHISTORY OF THE WORI D. whilst the attorney-general aln I solicitor-gen- ships, filled with emigrants, were also stopped eral appeared for the crown. The case by the same authority. was argued during twelve days in the Exche- While the discontent produced by these quer Chamber, and the judges took a consid- arbitrary proceedings was at its height in erable time for deliberation. No one has England, and the people ready to break out ever doubted that the law was clearly in in open rebellion, Charles thought proper to favor of Hampden, and that the arguments attempt setting up Episcopacy in Scotland. of his counsel remained unanswered. The The canons for establishing a new ecclesiasbench was, however, divided in opinion. tical jurisdiction were promulgated in 1635, Four of the twelve judges pronounced decid- and were received without any external edly in his favor; a fifth took a middle appearance of opposition, yet with great course; andthe remaining seven gave their inward apprehension and discontent. But voices in favor of the writ. The majority when the reading of the liturgy was first against him was, therefore, the narrowest attempted in the cathedral church of St. possible; and when it is recollected that the Giles in Edinburgh in 1637, it produced judges held their situations only during the such a violent tumult that it was not thought royal pleasure, and consequently were en- safe to repeat the experiment. A universal tirely dependent on the court, this decision combination against the religious inonvations may be regarded as in reality a victory. began immediately to take place; but Charles, The decision of the Exchequer Chamber, as if obstinately bent on his own destruction, however, had placed at the disposal of the continued inflexible in his purpose, though crown the property of every man in Eng- he had nothing to oppose to the united force land; whilst the abominable proceedings of of the kingdom but a proclamation, in which the Star-chamber, which caused obnoxious he pardoned all past offences, and exhorted individuals to be mutilated and sent to rot the people to be more obedient for the future, in dungeons, showed that the persons as well and to submit peaceably tc the use of the as the estates of all who ventured to oppose liturgy. This proclamation accelerated the the crown were entirely at its mercy. What insurrection which had before been but slowly that mercy was will immediately be seen. advancing. Four Tables, as they were called, Hampden, with some of his friends and con- were formed in Edinburgh; one consisting nections, determined to quit England for of n:bility, another of gentry, a third of ever, and to betake themselves across the ministers, and the fourth of burgesses. Atlantic, to a settlement which a few Puri- In the hands of the Four Tab)les the autans had formed in the wilderness of Con- thority of the whole kingdom was placed. necticut. Lords Saye and Brooke were the Orders were issued by them, and everywhere original projectors of this scheme of emigra- obeyed with the utmost regularity; and tion; and Hampden who had been early amongst the first acts of their government was consulted respecting it, now resolved to with- the production of the Covenant. This fadraw himself beyond the reach of further mous instrument consisted of a renlnciation persecution, having reason to dread the yen- of popery, formerly signed by James in his geance of the court for the resistance he had youth, and filled with many virulant invecoffered to its tyranny. He was accompanied tives against that party. A bond of union by his kinsman Oliver Cromwell; and the or league followed, by which the subscribers cousins took their passage in a vessel which obliged themselves to resist all religious inlay in the Thames, bound for North America. novations, and to defend each other against They were actually on board, when an order all opposition whatsoever. The Covenant of council appeared, by which the ship was was subscribed by people of all ranks and prohibited from sailing; and seven other conditions. Few disapproved of it in their HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 289 hearts and still fewer dared openly to con- been careful not to except the king, Charles demn it. also formed a bond, which was annexed to The king now began: to be seriously alarm- this renunciation, and expressed the subed. Ite sent the Marquis of Hamilton, as scribers' loyalty and duty to his majesty. But Commissioner, with authority to treat with the Covenanters perceiving that this new the Covenanters; he required the Covenant to Covenant was only meant to weaken and be renounced and recalled; and, as sufficient divide'them, received -it with the utmost concessions on his: part, he offered to suspend scorn and detestation; and proceeded withthe canons and liturgy till they could be out delay to model the assembly from which received in a fair and legal way, and so to such great achievements were expected. model the High Commission that it should no This assembly met at Glasgow in 1638. longer give offenle to his subjects. In an- A firm determination had been entered into swer to this demand, hoWever, the Coven- of utterly abolishing Episcopacy; and, as anters declared that they would sooner re- preparatory thereto, there was laid before nounce their baptism than the Covenant; the presbytery of Edinburgh, and solemnly:and they invited the commissioner himself read in all the churches of the kingdom, an to sign it. Hamilton returned to London; accusation against the bishops, as guilty, all made another fruitless journey with new of them, of heresy, simony, bribery, perjury, concessions to Edinburgh; returned again cheating, incest, adultery, fornication, comto London, and was immediatly sent back mon swearing, drunkenness, breach of the with still more satisfactory concessions. The Sabbath, and every other crime which had king was now willing to abolish entirely the occured to the accusers. The bishops sent a canons, the liturgy, and the high commission protest, declining the authority of the assemcourt; he even resolved to limit greatly the bly; the commissioner too protested against power of the bishops, and seemed content if that court, as illegally constituted and elected, on any terms he could retain that order in and in his majesty's name dissolved it. This the Church of Scotland.: Further, he gave measure was foreseen, and little regarded. Hamilton, authority to summon- first an as- The court still continued to sit and do busisembly, and then a parliament, where every ness. All the acts of assembly since the national grievance should be redressed. But accession of James to the crown of England these tardy and reluctant concessions only were declared null and invalid. The acts showed the weakness of the king, and en- of parliament which affected ecclesiastical couraged the malcontents to rise in their affairs were on that very account supposed demands. The offer, however, of an assem- to have no authority. The Covenant likebly and a parliament, in which they expected wise was ordered to be signed by every one, to be entirely masters, -was very willingly em- under pain of excommunication. braced by the Covenanters. In 1639 the Covenanters prepared in earPerceiving the advantage which his ene- nest for war. The Earl of Argyll, though he mies had reaped from their Covenant, Charles long seemed to temporize, at last embraced resolved to have one on his side also; and he the Covenant, and became the chief leader ordered a bond to be drawn up for that pur- of that party. The Earls of Rothes, Cassillis, pose. It consisted of the same strenuous re- Montrose, Lothian, the Lords Lindesay, Loununelation of popery with the other; and doun, Yester, and Bamerino, also distinguishalthough the king did not-approve ofthis, he ed themselves. Many Scottish officers had thought proper; to adopt it, in order to re- acquired reputation in the-German wars, parmove all the suspicions entertained against ticularly under Gustavus; and these were him. As the Covenanters, in their bond of invited over to assist their country in its pre mutual defence against all opposition, had sentnecessit). The command was intrusted m. 19 '290 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. to Leslie, a mol1ier of experience and ability. The Scottish force was equally numerous Forces were regularly enlisted and disci- with that of the king, but inferior in cavalry. plined; arms were commissioned and import- The officers had more experience; and the ed from foreign countries; a few castles which soldiers, though ill disciplined and arme.d, belonged to the king, being unprovided with were animated, as well by the national aver provisions, ammunition, and garrisons, were sion to England, and the dread of becornsoon seized; and the whole country, except a ing a province of their old rival, as by that small part under the Marquis of Huntly, who religious enthusiasm which was the occasion still adhered to the king, fell into the Coven- of the war. Yet so prudent were their leadanters' hands, and was soon put in a tolerable ers, that they immediately sent very sub. state of defence. missive messages to the king and craved leave Charles, on the other hand, was not defi- to be admitted to a treaty. Charles, as usual, cient in endeavors to oppose this formidable took the worst possible course. Hie concombination. By regular economy he had eluded a sudden pacification, in which it was not only paid all the debts contracted in the stipulated, that he should withdraw his fleet French and Spanish wars, but had amassed and army; that within forty-eight hours the a sum of ~200,000, which he had reserved Scots should dismiss their forces; that the for any sudden exigency. The queen, who king's forts should be restored to him, his had great interest with the Catholics, both authority acknowledged, and a general asfrom sympathy of religion, and from the sembly and parliament immediately sumfavors and indulgences which she had been imoned, in order to compose all differences. able to procure them, now employed her cred- But this peace was not of long duration. it in persuading them that it was reasonable Charles could not prevail on himself to abanto give large contributions, as a mark of their don the cause of Episcopacy, and secretly induty to the king, during this urgent ne- tended to seize every favorable opportunity cessity; and thus, to the great scandal of the to recover the ground he had lost. The asPuritans, a considerable supply was raised. sembly, on the other hand, proceeded with The king's fleet also was formidable and well the utmost vigor, and determination. They supplied. Having put five thousand land voted Episcopacy to be unlawful in the forces on board, he intrusted the command to Church- of Scotland; they stigmatized the the Marquis of Hamilton, who had orders to canons and liturgy as popish; and they disail for the Frith of Forth, and cause a di- nominated the High Commission tyranny version by occupying the forces of the mal- The parliament, which sat after the assembly, contents. An army of near twenty thousand -advanced pretensions which tended to defoot and three thousand horse was mean- minish the civil power of the monarch; and while levied, and put under the command of they were proceeding to ratify the acts of asthe Earl of Arundel, a nobleman of great sembly, when, by the king's instructions, family, but distinguished for neither military Traquair, the commissioner, prorogued them. nor political abilities. The Earl of Essex, a By reason of these claims which might have man of strict honor, and extremely popular, easily been foreseen, the war recommenced especially among the soldiery, was appoint- the same year. ed lieutenant-general; and the Earl of Hol- INo sooner had Charles concluded the peace, land was made general of the horse. The however, than he found himself obliged to king himself joined the army, and summoned disband his army from want of money; and all the Peers of England to attend him. The as the soldiers had been held together merely whole had the appearance of a splendid court by mercenary views, it was not possible, withrather than a military armament, and in this out great trouble, expense, and loss of time, state the army arrived at Berwick. to re-assemble them. The Covenanters, on HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 291 the contrary, in dismissing their troops, had duced. The fresh difficulties which were been careful to preserve nothing but the ap- every day raised with regard to the payment pearance of a pacification. The officers had of ship-money, obliged him to exert continuorders to be ready on the first summons; the al acts of authority, and augmented extreme soldiers were warned not to think the nation ly the discontents of the people, while his secure from an English invasion; and the indigence aud necessities continued undim. religious zeal which animated all ranks of inished. men made them immediately fly to their These expedients, however, enabled the standards as soon as the trumpet of war ldng, though with great difficulty, to set in was sounded by their spiritual and temporal motion an army, consisting of 19;000 foot leaders. and 2000 horse. A small fleet was thought In 1640, however, the king managed to sufficient to serve the purposes of this exdraw an army together; but finding him- pedition. The Scottish forces, though someself unable to support them, he was obliged what superior, were sooner ready than the to call a parliament after an intermission of king's army, and marched to the borders of about eleven years. The king insisted for England. But notwithstanding their warmoney, and the parliament expatiated on like preparations, the Covenanters still held their grievances till a dissolution ensued; and the most submissive language to the king; as if to render this measure still more un- having entered England, they said with no popular, the king permitted the Convocation other design than to obtain access to the to sit after the dissolution; —a practice of king's presence, and lay their humble petition which there had been very few examples at his royal feet. At Newburn-upon-Tyne since the reformation, and which was now they were opposed by a detachment of four deemed exceedingly irregular. thousand five hundred men under Conway, Disappointed of parliamentary subsidies, who seemed resolved to dispute the passage of the king was obliged to have recourse to other the river. The Scots first entreated them expedients. The ecclesiastical subsidies of- civilly not to interrupt them in their march fered a considerable resource; and it seemed to their gracious sovereign; and then attackbut just that the clergy should contribute to ing the detachment with great bravery, killed the expense of a war which they had been several, and chased the remainder from the mainly instrumental in raising. Charles bor- ground. A panic now seized the whole Engrowed money from his ministers and court- lish army; the forces at Newcastle fled immeiers; and so urgent were his wants, that diately to Durham; and not thinking themabove ~300,000 were subscribed in a few selves safe there, they abandoned the town, days. Attempts were made to levy a forced and retreated into Yorkshire. loan from the citizens; but these were re- The Scots continuing to advance, dispatchpelled by the spirit of liberty, which had now ed messengers to the king, who had by this become unconquerable. A loan of ~40,000 time arrived at York. They took care to rewas, however, extorted from the Spanish double their expressions of loyalty, duty, and merchants who had bullion in the Tower. submission to his person; and they even made Coat and conduct money for the soldiery was apologies for their late victory. Charles was also levied on the counties; all the pepper in a very distressed condition; and, in order was bought up from the East India Company to prevent the further advance of tlhe Scots, upon trust, and sold at a great discount for he agreed to a treaty, and named sixteen ready money; and an infamous scheme was English noblemen to meet with eleven Scotproposed for coining two or three hundred tish commissioners at Ripon. Strafford, thousand pounds of base money. Such were upon whom, by reason of Northumberland'i the extrelaities to which Charles was now re- sickness, the command of the army had de. 292 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. volved, advised Charles rather to put all to passing the bill of attainder against the un the hazard than to submit to the terms which fortunate earl; and the same battery was he foresaw would be prescribed. I{e urged next: employed to force the king's assent. him to push forward, to attack the Scots, and The populace flocked about Whitehall, and to bring the affair to a quick decision. If he accompanied their demand of justice with were ever so unsuccessful, nothing worse loud clamors and open menaces. A thoucould befall him than what he would certain- sand reports of conspiracies, insurrections ly be exposed to from his inactivity; and, to and invasions were spread abroad. Archshow how easily this project might be exe- bishop Juxon alone had the courage to adcuted, he ordered an assault to be made on vise him, if he did not approve of the bill, some quarters of the Scots, and gained some by no means to consent to it. At last, after advantage over them. This energetic advice the most violent; anxiety and doubt, Charles Charles had not resolution to adopt. l{e re- granted a commission to four noblemen, in solved to summon a council of the peers; and his name, to give the royal assent to the bill; as he foresaw that they would advise him to flattering himself, that as neither his will call a parliament, he told them in his first was consenting to the deed, nor his hand speech that he had already taken that resolu- immediately engaged in it, he was free from tion. the guilt which attended this base and unThe parliament- met in November, 1640. grateful act. The House of Commons had never been ob- -These commissioners were empowered to served to be so numerous; and, in order to give the royal assent to a bill yet more fatal strike a blow at once against the court, they to the king, which provided that the present began with the impeachment of the Earl of parliament should not be dissolved, proroStrafford.' That nobleman, who was con- gued, or adjourned, without their own consent. sidered as prime minister, both on account of By this last bill Charles perpetuated the the credit he possessed with his master and power which had already become uncon:his own uncommon vigor and capacity, had trollable. The reason of this extraordinary incurred the hatred of the three kingdoms. step was, that the Commons, from policy The Scots looked upon him as the capital rather than necessity, had resorted to the enemy of their country. He had engaged expedient of paying the two armies by borthe parliament of Ireland to advance large rowing money from the city; and these subsidies to be employed in a war against loans they were to be afterwards repaid by them; he had levied an army of nine thou- taxes levied on the people. But at last the sand men,' with which he had menaced their citizens began to start difficulties with rewestern coast; he had obliged those who gard to a further loan which was demanded. lived under his government to renounce the " We make no scruple of trusting the parsolemn league and covenant; and he had liament," said they, "were we certain that governed Ireland, first as deputy, and then the parliament was to continue till our repayas lord-lieutenant, during eight years, with Imeent. -But, in the present precarious situagreat vigilance, activity and energy, but' tion of affairs, what security can:be given with very little popularity, owing to the us for our money?" In order to obviate severities he had exercised. this objection, the above-mentioned bill was From such causes nothing else could be suddenly brought in, and having passed expected than what really happened. Arti- both Houses with great rapidity, was at last cles of impeachment were exhibited against brought to tbe king, who, being oppressed Strafford, and this proceeding was followed with grief on account of the unhappy fate by a bill of attainder. The House of Lords of Strafford, did not perceive the effect of it were intimidated, by popular violence, into until it was too late. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 293 Soon after the impeachment of Strafford, this summer to his subjects in Scotland, ir Laud was accused of high treason, and corn- order to settle their government, the Eng mitted to custody; and to avoid a similar lish parliament was very importunate with fate Lord Ieeper Finch and Secretary Win- him to lay aside that journey; but they debank fled, the one into Holland, the other could not prevail with him so much as to into France. The House then instituted a delay it. Failing in this, they appointed a new species of crime, which was termed de- committee of both Houses to attend him; linquency; and persons who had acted under in order, as was pretended, to see the artthe king or by his authority during the late icles of pacification executed, but in reality military operations were now called delin- to watch the motions of the king, and to quents. [Many of the nobility and gentry extend still further the ideas of parliamentof the nation, while exerting what they con- ary authority. sidered as the legal powers of magistracy, Charles arrived in Scotland on the 14th thus found themselves unexpectedly involved of August, 1641, intending, it is said, to give in this new and sufficiently vague offence. full satisfaction, if possible, to the people The Commons, however, reaped great advan- of that country. And some useful changes tage from their invention;-they disarmed were in reality made. While in Scotland, the crown, established the maxims of rigid the king conformed himself to the established law and liberty, and spread the terror of church; he bestowed pensions and prefertheir own authority. All the sheriffs who ments on Henderson, Gillespie and other had formerly exacted ship-money, though by popular preachers; and he practiced every the king's express command, were now de- artifice to soften, if not to gain, his greatest dared delinquents. The farmers and officers enemies. The Earl of Argyll was created a of the customs who had been employed dur- Marquis, Lord Loudon an Earl, and Leslie ing so many years in levying tonnage, pound- was raised to the peerage by the title of age and other imposts laid on without the Lord Leven. But though Charles thus authority of parliament, were likewise de- heaped favors on his enemies with a prodnominated delinquents, and were afterwards igal hand, they were not satisfied, believing glad to compound for a pardon by paying that all he did proceeded from artifice and ~150,000. Every sentence of the Star Chain- necessity; whilst some of his friends were ber and Hligh Commission Courts, which disgusted, and thought themselves ill rewardfrom their very nature were arbitrary and ed for their past services. The king was oppressive, underwent a severe scrutiny; manifestly playing a part, and he played it and all who had concurred in such sentences ill, because he overacted his assumed charwere voted liable to the penalties of law. acter. No minister of the king, no member of the Argyll and Hamilton, being seized with council, was safe. The judges who had for- an apprehension, real or pretended, that the merly given judgment against Hampden for Earls of Crawford and Cochrane meant to refusing to pay ship-money were accused be- assassinate them, left the parliament sudfore the Peers, and obliged to find security for denly, and retired into the country; but, their appearance when required. Berkeley, upon receiving assurances of safety, they rea judge of the King's Bench, was seized by turned in a few days. This event, which order of the House, even when sitting in his had no visible result in Scotland, was comcourt. The sanction of the Lords and Corn- monly denominated the Incident; but it was mons as well as that of the king, was de- attended with very serious consequences in dcared necessary for the confirmation of eccle- England. The English parliament immedisiastical canons. ately took the alarm. They insinuated that The king having promised to pay a visit the Malignants, as they called the king's 294 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. party, had laid a plot to murder the godly suring them of the concurrence of their in both kingdoms; and having applied to countrymen. Essex, whom the king had left general of From the propensity discovered by the the south of England, he ordered a guard to Irish to revolt, it was deemed unnecessary attend them. as well as dangerous to trust the secret to In the meantime a rebellion broke out in many; and, though the day appointed drew Ireland, attended with circumstances of unpa- near, no discovery, it is said, had yet been ralleled atrocity, bloodshed and devastation. made by the government. They were Roger More, a gentlemen descended from awakened from their security only the day an ancient Irish family, but of narrow for- before, the commencement of hostilities. tune, first formed the project of expelling The castle of Dublin, by which the capithe English, and asserting the independence tal was commanded, contained arms for ten of his native country. He went secretly thousand men, with thirty-five pieces of from chieftain to chieftain, and roused up cannon and a proportional quantity of am. every latent principle of discontent. I-e munition; yet this important place was maintained a close correspondence with Lord guarded by no greater force than fifty men, Macguire and Sir Phelim O'Neale, the most and even they did their duty negligently. powerful of the old Irish chiefs; and, by his Macguire and More were already in town persuasions, soon engaged not only them, with a numerous band of retainers; others but the most considerable persons of the na- were expected in the course of the nlight: tion, in a conspiracy. It was also hoped and next morning they were to enter on that the English of the Pale, as they were what seemed an easy enterprise, the surprisal called, or the old English planters, who were of the castle. iBut O'Connolly, an Irishman all Catholics, would afterwards join the party and a Protestant, discovered the conspiracy. which proposed to restore their religion to its The justices and council immediately fled to ancient splendor and authority. The design the castle and reinforced the guards. The city was, that Sir Phelim O'Neale and the other was alarmed, and the Protestants prepared conspirators should begin an insurrection on for defence. More escaped, but Miacguire a given day throughout the provinces, and was taken; and Mahon, one of the conspiraattack all the English settlements; and that, tors, being likewise seized, first discovered on the very same day, Lord MIacguire and to the justices the project of a general insurRoger More should surprise the castle of rection. Dublin. They fixed on the beginning of But though O'Connolly's discovery saved winter for the commencement of the insur- the castle from a surprise, Mahon's confesrection, that there might be more difficulty sion came too late to prevent the intended inin transporting forces from England. Suc- surrection. O0Neale and his confederates cors of men and supplies of arms were ex- had already taken arms in Ulster. The pected from France, in consequence of a houses, cattle, and goods of the English promise to that effect made them by Riche- were first seized. Those who heard of the lieu; and many Irish officers who had served commotions in their neighborhood, instead in the Spanish army expressed their readi- of assembling together for mutual protecness to lend their aid as soon as they saw an tion, remained at home in hopes of defendinsurrection commenced by their Catholic ing their property, and thus fell separately orethren. The news which every day arrived into the hands of their enemies. A univerfrom England of the fury expressed by the sal massacre now commenced, accompanied Commons against Catholics struck terror into with circumstances of unequalled barbarity. the Irish nation, and stimulated the conspi- More, shocked at the recital of such rators to execute their fatal purpose, by as- enormities, flew to O'Neale's camp; but he HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 295 found that his authority, though sufficient to ately communicated the disastrous tidings sxcite the Irish to a rebellion, was too feeble to the Scottish parliament; expressing a to restrain their inhumanity. Soon after- hope that, as there had all along been an wards he abandoned the cause, and retired outcry against popery, the nation would to Flanders. From Ulster the flames of re- now, when that religion was appearing in bellion diffused themselves in an instant its blackest colors, support him vigorously in over the other three provinces of Ireland. the suppression of it. But if he was sinIn all places death and slaughter were com- cere in this request, which may not uncharimon, though the Irish in some provinces tably be doubted, the Scots were not dispretended to act with moderation and hu- posed to give so serious a pledge without inanity. ZBy some computations, the nuin- due deliberation. Considering themselves ber of those who perished by all these cruel- now as secured in the enjoyment of their ties is estimated at a hundred and fifty thou- rights, and conceiving hopes from the pressand; by the most moderate, forty thousand ent distresses of Ireland, they resolved to are calculated to have lost their lives; but ascertain precisely the ground on which suceven this estimate is in all probability cxag- cours were demanded, before consenting to gerated. grant them. Except dispatching a small The English of the Pale, who were not body of forces to support the Scottish coloprobably at first in the secret,. pretended to nies in Ulster, the utmost length they condemn the insurrection, and to detest the would go, therefore, was to agree to send barbarity with which it was accompanied; commissioners to London, in order to treat and by their earnest protestations they en- with the parliament. The king accordingly gaged the justices to supply them with arms, found himself obliged to have recourse to which they promised to employ in defence the English parliament, and to depend on of the government. But the interests of their assistance for a supply. religion were found to have more influence The English parliament, now reassembled, over them than a regard to duty and the discovered in each vote the same dispositions peaee of their country. They chose Lord in which they had separated. By the diffiGormonstone as their leader; and joining the culties and distresses of the crown, the old Irish, rivalled them in acts of cruelty Commons, who alone possessed the power of towards the English Protestants. Besides supply, had aggrandized themselves; and many smaller bodies dispersed over the king- some were not sorry that the Irish rebellion dom, the main army of the rebels amounted had succeeded, at such a critical juncture, to to twenty thousand men, and threatened Dub- the pacification in Scotland. An expression lin with an immediate siege. Both the Eng- of the king's, by which he committed to lish and Irish rebels pretended authority them the care of Ireland, was immediately from the king and queen, but especially the laid hold of, and interpreted in the most unlatter, for their insurrection; and they limited sense. On other occasions the Coinaffirmed that the cause of their taking arms mons had been gradually encroaching on was to vindicate the royal prerogative, now the executive power of the crown; but in invaded by the puritanical parliament. Sir regard to Ireland they now at once assumed Phelim O'Neale having, it is said, found a it as if it had been delivered over to them royal patent in the house of Lord Caulfield, by a regular assignment. They levied whom he had murdered, tore off the seal, money under pretence of the Irish expeand affixed it to a commission which he had dition, but reserved it for other purposes; previously forged for himself. they took arms from the king's magazines, The king received intelligence of this in- but reserved them for more immediate use.'urrection while in Scotland, and immedi- Yet though no force were for a considerable 296 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. time sent over to Ireland, and very little sary for -the preservation of the people, the money remitted during the extreme distress Commons, together with such of the Lords of that kingdom, so strong was the attach- as were more sensible of the danger, must ment of the people to the Commons, that join together and represent the matter to the fault was never imputed to persons his majesty." Every method of alarming whose votes breathed nothing but destruc- the country was now put in practice. Affecttion and death to the Irish rebels. ing continual fears of destruction to themIn the meanwhile it was resolved to frame selves and to the whole nation, they excited a general remonstrance on the state of the the people by never-ceasing inquiries conkingdom; and the committee, which at the cerning conspiracies, by reports of insurrecmeeting of the parliament had been chosen tions, by alleged rumors of invasion from for that purpose, were commanded to finish abroad, and by discoveries of dangerous their undertaking. The king returned from combinations at home. When Charles disScotland on the 25th of November, 1641, missed the guard which had been ordered and was received in London with shouts and them during his absence, they complained; acclamations by the people. Sir Richard and, on his promising them a new guard Gournay, the lord- mayor, had promoted under the command of the Earl of Lindesay, these favorable dispositions, and persuaded they declined the offer. They ordered halthe populace, who had so lately insulted the berts to be brought into the hall where they king, and who so soon after made war upon assembled, andc thus armed themselves him, to show these marks of respect. But against those conspiracies with which they all the pleasure which Charles had reaped pretended they were hourly threatened. from this reception was soon damped by the During this time several reduced officers remonstrance of the Commons, which was and young gentlemen of the inns of court presented to him, accompanied by a petition offered their service to the king; and beof similar import. The bad counsels which tween them and the populace there occurred he had followed were there complained of; frequent skirmishes, which ended not withhis concurrence in the Irish rebellion was out bloodshed. By way of reproach, these plainly insinuated; the scheme laid for the gentlemen gave the rabble the name of introduction of popery and superstition was JRoundlheads, on account of their short inveighed against; and, as a remedy for all cropped hair; whilst the latter distinguishthese evils, the king was desired to intrust ed their opponents by the name of Cavaevery office and command to persons in liers; and thus the nation was furnished whom his parliament should see cause to with party names, under which the factions confide. To this bitter remonstrance Charles might rendezvous and signalize their mutual found it necessary to make a civil reply. hatred. From this period the proceedings of the These tumults continued to increase about Commons became bolder, and more deter- Westminster and Whitehall. The cry against mined and violent. Finding themselves the bishops continually resounded; and being likely to be opposed by the nobility, who easily distinguished by their habit, as well as saw that their own degradation would speedi- objects of violent hatred to all the sectaries, ly follow that of the crown, they openly told they were exposed to the most outrageous inthe Upper House that "they themselves were sutlts. In these circumstances, the Archbishthe representatives of the whole body of the op of York, having been abused by the kingdom, and that the Peers were nothing populace, hastily called a meeting of his but individuals, who held their seats in a brethren; and by his advice a protestation particular capacity; and, therefore, if their was drawn up and addressed to the king and Lordships would not consent to acts neces- the House of Lords, setting forth, that though HISTORY OF THE: WORLD. 297 they had an undoubted right to sit and vote cipitation and imprudence of this impeacllin parliament, yet in coming thither they ment, when they were astonished by another had been menaced and assaulted by the mul- measure still more rash anld unwarrantable. titude, and coul nA-o Xlnger with safety. at- A sergeant-at-arms, in the king's name, detend their duty in the I-louse; for which manded of the house the five members, and emason they protested against all laws, votes, was sent back without any positive answer. and resolutions, as null and invalid, which This was followed by conduct still more exshould pass during the time of their forced traordinary. Next day the king himself enabsence. This ill-timed protestation was tered the h]ouse of Commons alone, and signed by twelve bishops, and communicated advanced through the hall, while all the to the king. As soon as it was presented to members stood up to receive him. The the Lords, that house desired a corference Speaker withdrew from the chair, and the with the Commons, whom they informed of king took possession of it. Having seated this unexpected protestation. An impeach- himself, and looked round for some time, he ment of high treason was immediately sent told the house that he was sorry for the ccup against the bishops, as endeavoring to sub- casion that forced him thither, but that he vert the fundamental laws, and to invalidate was come in person to seize the members the authority of the legislature; and on the whom he had accused of high treason, seeing first demand they were sequestered from par- they would not deliver them up to his sergeantliament, and committed to custody. No man at-arms. Then addressing himself to the in either house ventured to speak a word in Speaker, he desired to know whether any of their vindictation. One individual alone re- the members were in the house. But the marked, that he did not believe them guilty Speaker, falling on his knees, replied that lihe of high treason; he only thought they were had neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak, stark mad, and therefore desired that they in that place, but as the house was pleased might be sent to Bedlam. to direct him; and he asked pardon for not This was a fatal blow to the royal interest, being able to give any other answer. The and it was aggravated by the imprudence of king sat for some time to see if the accused the king himself. Charles had long suppress- were present; but they had escaped a few. ed his resentment, and only strove to gratify minutes before his entry, and taken shelter the Commons by the greatness of his conces- in the city.' Disappointed, perplexed, and sions; but finding all his compliances una- not knowing on whom to rely, he next provailing, he now gave orders to Herbert, the ceeded, amidst the invectives of the populace, attorney-general, to enter an accusation of who continued to cry out,"' Privilege, privi high treason, in the House of Peers, against lege " to the common council of the city at Lord IKimbolton and five commoners, Sir Guildhall, where he justified his proceedings Arthur Hazlerig, Hollis,- Hampden, Pym, and respecting the fugitives, and expressed a hope Strode. The articles charged them with that they would not find shelter or protection traitorously endeavoring to subvert the fun- in the city. The common council answered damental laws and government of the king- his complaints by a disdainful silence; and, dom, to deprive the king of his regal power, on his return, one of the populace, more and to impose on his subjects an arbitrary courageous or insolent than the rest, cried and tyrannical authority; with inviting a out, " To your tents, O Israel! " foreign army to invade the kingdom; with When the Commons assembled the next aiming at subverting the very right and being day, they affected or felt the greatest terror, of parliaments; and with actually raising and passed a unanimous vote that the king and countenancing tumults against the king. had violated their privileges, and that they Men had scarce leisureto wonder at the pre- could not assemble again in the same place, 298 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. bill they had obtained satisfaction, and a embody and direct a militia by the authority guard for their security. Meanwhile the king of both houses. In their remonstrance-they retired to Windsor, whence he wrote to his also desired to be permitted to command the parliament, promising every satisfaction in army for an appointed time; a request which his power. But they were resolved to accept so exasperated him, that he exclaimed with of nothing unles3 he would discover his ad- indignation, "No, not for an hour! " This visers in that illegal measure; a condition peremptory refusal broke off all further which they knew that, without rendering treaty, and both sides now resolved to have himself for ever vile and contemptible, he recourse to arms. could not possibly submit to. Charles, taking the Prince of Wales and The Commons had already stripped the the Duke of York along with him, retired, king of most of his privileges; the bishops by slow journeys, to the city of York, where were fled, the judges were intimidated; and the people were more loyal, and less infected it now only remained, after securing the with the prevailing spirit of the times, than church and the law, that they should also get elsewhere. Here he found his cause backed possession of the sword. The power of ap- by a more numerous party among the people pointing governors and generals, and levying than he had expected. The nobility and armies, still continued a prerogative of the gentry from all quarters, either personally or crown. Having first magnified their terrors by messages and letters, expressed their duty of Romanism, which perhaps they actually towards him; and the queen, who was then dreaded, the Commons proceeded to petition in Holland, had succeeded in levying men that the Tower might be put into their hands, and procuring ammunition by selling the and that Hull, Portsmouth, and the fleet, crown jewels. But before war was openly should be intrusted to persons of their choos- declared, the semblance of a negociation was ing. Compliance with these requests was kept up, rather with a view to please the calculated to subvert what remained of the people, than with any hope of reconciliation. monarchy; but such was the necessity of the Nay, that the king might despair of all comtimes, that they were first contested, and position, the parliament sent him the condithen granted. The Commons then desired tions on which they were willing to come to to have a militia, raised and governed by such an agreement. Their demands were containofficers and commanders as they should nomi- ed in nineteen propositions or articles, and in nate. But Charles hesitated. Being at that effect amounted to a total abolition of montime in Dover attending the queen and the archical authority. Princess of Orange, who was about to leave War on any terms was esteemed by the the kingdom, he replied that he had not now king and all his counsellors preferable to a leisure to consider a matter of such great im- peace on such ignominious terms. "If I portance; and therefore would defer an an- should submit to these terms," said he, "I swer till his return. The Commons, however, may have my hand kissed, and may retain were well aware that they had gone too far the title of majesty, but I should remain but to recede; and hence they were desirous of the outside, the picture, the sign of a king." leaving him no authority whatever, conscious Charles accordingly resolved to support his that they themselves would be the first vic- authority by force of arms. His towns, he tims of its free exercise. They alleged that said, were taken from him; his ships, his the dangers and distempers of the nation army, and his money. But- there still rewere such as could endure no longer delay; mained to him a good cause, and the hearts and unless the king speedily complied with of his loyal subjects, which, with God's blesstheir demands, they would be obliged, both ing, he doubted not would recover all the rest. for his safety and that of the kingdom, to Therefore, collecting some forces, he ad HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 299 vanced southwards, and erected his royal tally destitute of money, while, from the standard at Nottingham. causes already mentioned, the parliament The struggle now about to commence were secure of a considerable revenue. They seemed, in many respects, exceedingly un- had begun by seizing all the magazines of equal. The king, indeed, was supported by arms and ammunition, and their fleet inter a splendid nobility, and a large portion of the cepted the greater part of the succors sent more considerable gentry, who, dreading a by the queen from Holland; so that the king, total confusion of ranks, enlisted themselves in order to arm his followers, was obliged to under the banner of their monarch, from borrow the weapons of the trained bands, whom they received, and to whom they cor- under promise of restoring them on the re. inunicated, lustre. The cordial concurrence turn of peace. The nature and qualities of of the bishops and church of England also his adherents alone gave the king some coinincreased the number of his adherents. But pensation for all the advantages possessed by it may safely be affirmed, that the high mon- his adversaries. MIore bravery and activity archical doctrines so much inculcated by the were hoped for from the generous spirit of clergy had been eminently prejudicial to his the nobles and gentry, than from the baser cause; while the bulk of the nobility and disposition of the multitude; and as the gentry who now attended the king in his dis- landed gentlemen had levied and armed their tress breathed the spirit of liberty as well as tenants at their own expense, greater force of loyalty; and it was only in the hopes of and courage were to be expected from these his submitting to a limited and legal govern- rustic troops than from the vicious and enerment that they were willing to sacrifice their vated population of cities. lives and fortunes in his cause. On the other But the parliamentary forces were ill offihand, the city of London, and most of the cered or ill directed, otherwise, with a disgreat corporations, took part with the parlia- posable force of six thousand men, which lay ment. In the capital, no less than four within a few days' march of the royalists, thousand men enlisted in one day; and the they might have easily dissipated the small demand for a loan, by the parliament, was number of troops which the king had been answered with so much alacrity, that the able to collect, amounting to no more than treasure flowed in faster than it could be re- eight hundred horse and three hundred foot. ceived. All the sea-ports, except Newcastle, In a short time the parliamentary army were also in the hands of the parliament; marched to Northampton, where the Earl of and the seamen naturally followed the party Essex, who had joined them, found a force espoused by the ports to which they belonged. amounting to fifteen thousand men. The Add to this, that the example of the Dutch king's army too was soon reinforced from all commonwealth, where liberty had so happily quarters; but having no force capable of cosupported industry, made the commercial ping with the parliamentary army, he thought part of the nation desire to see a similar form it prudent to retire to Derby, and thence to of government established in England; whilst Shrewsbury, in order to cover the levies which many families, who had enriched themselves his friends were making in those parts. At by commerce, finding that, notwithstanding Wellington, a day's march from Shrewsbury, their opulence, they could not raise them- he assembled his forces, amounting to near selves to a level with the ancient gentry, ad- ten thousand men, and caused to be read at hered to a power by the success of which the head of every regiment his military they hoped to acquire both rank and consid- orders, in which he protested solemnly before eration. his whole army that he would maintain the At first every advarntage seemed to lie Protestant religion according to the church against the royal cause The king was to- of England; that he would govern according 300 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. to the known statutes and customs of the known to fame. In the encounter which kingdom,; and that he would observe invio- immediately ensued, the royalists were at late the laws to which he had given his con- first victorious. Both wings of the parliasent during the present and preceding par- mentary army were broken and put to flight liaments. by the onset of Prince Rupert's cavalry, supWhile Charles lay at Shrewsbury, he re- ported by the troops under Aston and Wilceived the news of an action, the first that mot; and if the royalist reserve had reoccurred in this unhappy contest, in which mained steady, the day would have - beern his party were victorious. On the appear- won. But thinking the victory already deance of civil commotion in England, the cided, they broke up from their position to Princes tRupert and Maurice, sons of the join in the pursuit, and, whilst in the conelector palatine, had offered their services to fusion produced by this disorderly movethe king; and the former at that time com- ment, they were attacked by Sir William manded a body of horse which had been Balfour, who had anxiously watched their sent to Worcester to watch the motions of motions, with the parliamentary reserve, and Essex, who was then marching towards that defeated in their turn. Both armies then city. The prince, however, had scarcely rallied, and faced each other for some time,, arrived, when he saw some of the enemy's neither party venturing to renew the attack: cavalry approaching the gates. Without'a they lay all night under arms, and next day moment's delay he attacked them as they withdrew, Essex towards Warwick, and the were defiling from a lane and in the act of ling to his former quarters. Five thousand forming, killed their commander, Colonel men, it is said, were left dead on the field in Sandys, routed the whole party, and pursued this bootless encounter. Soon afterwards, them above a mile. the king took Banbury and Reading, and:deAt'this period military science and skill feated two regiments of his enemies at Brentwere at the lowest possible ebb in England; ford, taking five hundred prisoners. Thus so much so, indeed, that, however much the ended the campaign of 1642, in which, contending parties might differ in spirit or though the king, upon the whole, had the in means, they were on a footing of perfect advantage, yet the parliamentary army equality'in ignorance of the principles and amounted to twenty-four thousand men, and conduct of war. The hostile armies moved was much superior to his. Nevertheless, his simultaneously, the king's from Shrewsbury, enemies had so far been humbled as to offer and the parliamentary from Worcester; but terms of peace. This led to the negotiations so totally destitute were both of intelligence, at Oxford. The terms required by the parthat they wandered about for ten days in liament as the condition of the king's recall, absolute ignorance of each other's motions. were the disposal of the militia, the abolition At length, on the 23d of October, 1642, they of Episcopacy, and the settlement of ecclemet at Keinton, or Edgehill, in the county siastical controversies by an assembly of of Warwick. The royalists were commanded divines. Baut considerable abatement would in chief by the Earl of Lindesay, who had probably have been made in these demands seen some service in the Low Countries, and if Charles had not been extravagant in his; now had under him Prince IRupert, master and the failure of the negotiation is ascribed of the horse, Sir Jacob Astley in charge of to the king's fidelity to an unhappy promise the foot, Sir Arthur Aston commanding the he had made to the queen to accede to no dragoons, and Sir John ieydon the artillery. terms without her intervention and consent. The general-in-chief of the parliamentary While the treaty was in dependence, no forces was the Earl of Essex, assisted by a cessation of ho'stilities took place. On the number of subordinate Officers as yet un- 27th of April, 164i3,'Reading surrendered to HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 301 the parliamentary forces under the Earl of ever, escaped with a fine of ~10,000. In Essex, who commanded a body of eighteen- the meanwhile Gloucester was reduced to the thousand men. In the north, the Earl of utmost extremity. A general assault had Northumberland united the counties of been repelled by the desperate enthusiasm Northumberland, Cumberland and West- of the garrison and city; but the means of moreland, in a league for the king, and some prolonging the defence were now entirely time after engaged other counties in the same exhausted. As a last resource, the parliaassociation. The same nobleman also took ment dispatched Essex with an army of fourpossession of York, and the Earl of Newcastle teen thousand men to raise the siege. This dislodged the forces of the parliament under he effected without much difficulty; and, on Fairfax at Tadcaster; but his victory was entering the place, he found only one barrel not decisive. Other advantages were also of gunpowder left and the provisions nearly gained by the royalists, the most important exhausted. of which was at Strattonj where Waller, who But on his return to London he was intercommanded the parliamentary army, was cepted by the king's army, and a desperate entirely defeated, and forced to fly with only battle ensued at Newbury, which lasted till a few horse to Bristol. This happened on night. Essex's horse were several times tho 13th of July, and was followed by the broken by the king's, but his infantry presiege of -Jristol, which surrendered to Prince served its formation; and the front ranks Rupert on the 25th of the same month. presenting a formidable array of pikes, whilst Although the taking of Bristol cost the those in the rear poured in a destructive fire. royalists dear, five hundred having fallen in Prince Rupert and the gentry composing the attempt to carry it by storm, yet their the royal cavalry were unable, notwithstandgeneral success had greatly dispirited the ing the furious impetuosity of their attacks, opposite party; and the confusion which to make any impression on its compact ornow prevailed at London was so great that der. Night put an end to the contest, but some proposed to the king to march directly left the victory undecided. On the side of to the metropolis, which it was hoped might the king fell the brave, accomplished and be reduced by an insurrection of the citizens, virtuous Lord Falkland, one of the few perby victory, or by treaty, and thus put an end sonages to be met with in history whose life at once to the civil disorders. But this judi- and death were equally honorable and glocious advice was rejected; and it was resolv- rious. Next morning Essex proceeded on ed, first of all, to reduce Gloucester, that the his march to London; and although he had king might have the whole course of the rather escaped a defeat than gained a vicSevern under his command. The siege tory, he obtained the approbation of parliaaccordingly commenced on the 10th of Aug- ment. The king followed in the same direcust; but the town being defended by Massey, tion, and, having taken possession of Reada resolute governor, and well garrisoned, ing, he established a garrison there, and by made a vigorous defence. The consternation that means straitened London and the quarin London, however, was as great as if the ters of the enemy. enemy had already been at the gates; and In the north, during the summer, the Earl, in the midst of the general confusion a de- now created Marquis, of Newcastle, had sign was formed by Waller of forcing the raised a considerable force for the king; parliament to accept of some reasonable and great hopes of success were entertained conditions of peace. He imparted his de- from that quarter. But there appeared, in sign to some others; but a discovery being opposition to him, two men, on whom the made of their proceedings, he and two others event of the war finally depended, and who were condemned to death. Waller, how- about this time began to be remarked for 302 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. their valor and military conduct. These presbyterian worship and discipline; but were Sir Thomas Fairfax, son to the lord of this he absolutely refused, as well as to call that name, and Oliver Cromwell. The for- a parliament in Scotland; and the commismer gained a considerable advantage over sioners, finding themselves unable to prevail the royalists at Wakefield, and took General in any one of their demands, returned highly Gorirg prisoner; the latter obtained a vic- dissatisfied. Disappointed in all these views, tory at Gainsborough over a party corn- the English parliament now sent commis. manded by General Cavendish, Who perished sioners to Edinburgh, to treat of a more in the action. But both these defeats were close confederacy with the Scottish nation. more than compensated by the total rout of The person in whom they principally conLord Fairfax at Atherton Moor, and the dis- tided on this occasion was Sir Harry Vane, persion of his army, which happened on the who, in eloquence, address and capacity, as 31st of July. After this victory, the Mar- well as in art and dissimulation, was not surquis of Newcastle sat down before Hull passed by any one in that age, so famous for with an army of fifteen thousand men; but, men of active talents. By his persuasions being beaten off by a sally of the garrison, was framed at Edinburgh the Solemn League he suffered so much that he thought it proper and Covenant, which effaced all former proto raise the siege. About the same time testations and vows taken in both kingdoms, Manchester advanced from the eastern as- and long maintained its credit and authority. sociated counties, and having joined Crom- By a treaty with the convention, twenty-one well and young Fairfax, defeated the royal- thousand Scottish troops were to be retained ists at Horncastle, where the conduct and in arms at the expense of England, to be gallantry qf these two rising officers were led by their own generals, and to receive eminently conspicuous. But though fortune orders from a committee of both kingdoms. had thus balanced her favors, the king's The king likewise, in order to secure himparty still remained much superior in the self, had concluded a cessation of arms with north; and had it not been for the garrison the Irish rebels, and recalled a considerable 9f Hull, which kept Yorkshire in awe, a part of his army from Ireland. Some Irish junction of the northern forces with the Catholics came over with these troops and army of the south might have enabled the joined the royal army, where they continued king, instead of undertaking the imprudent the same cruelties and disorders to which enterprise against Gloucester, to march di- they had been accustomed; and the-parliarectly to London and put an end to the war. ment voted that no quarter should ever be The indecisive battle of Newbury terminat- given them in any action. But Prince ed the campaign of 1643, by both parties Rupert having made some reprisals, this inretiring into winter quarters. humanity was repressed on both sides. The issue of the war being still doubtful, The campaign of 1644 proved very unforboth the king and parliament began to look tunate to the royal cause. The forces brought for assistance from other nations. The for- from Ireland were landed at Mostyne in ruer looked to Ireland, the latter to Scotland. North Wales, and placed under the comrn The parliament of England, at the com- mand of Lord Biron. They then besieged mencement of the civil dissensions, had in- and took the castles of Hawarden, Beeston, vited the Scots to interpose their mediation, Acton and Deddington-house. No place in which, however, the king had declined. Cheshire or the neighborhood now adhered Early in the sp ing of 1643 this offer was to the parliament except Lantwich, and to renewed, but with no better success than it Biron laid siege in the de pth of winter. before. Commissioners were also empowered Alarmed at this progress, Sir Thomas Fairto urge on the king to a compliance with the fax assembled an army of four thousand HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 303 men in Yorkshire, and having joined Sir relief with an army of twenty thousand William Brereton, approached the camp of men. the royalists. Biron and his soldiers, elated The Scottish and parliamentary generals with success, entertained a most profound raised the siege, and, drawing up on Mlarstoncontempt for their enemies. Fairfax sud- moor, prepared to give battle to the royaldenly attacked their camp, while the swell- ists. By a dexterous movement, or rather by ing of the river by a thaw divided one part masking his movements, Rupert, interposing of the army from the other. Those imme- the Ouse between him and the enemy, threw diately opposed to Fairfax were quickly military stores and provisions into York, driven from their post, and having retired and joined his forces with those under Newinto the church of Acton, were surrounded castle. The marquis then endeavored to and taken prisoners; the other part retreated persuade him, that, having successfully precipitately without fighting; and thus was effected his purpose, he ought to be condissipated or rendered useless the body of tented with the present advantages; reauxiliaries from Ireland. This happened on main on the defensive at least till an exthe 25th of January. On the 11th of April pected reinforcement arrived; and leave the ensuing Colonel Bellasis was totally defeated enemy, diminished by losses, and discouragat Selby in Yorkshire by Sir Thomas Fair- ed by ill-success, to dissolve by the mutual fax, who had returned from Cheshire with dissensions which had begun to take place his victorious forces. Being afterwards join- among them. The prince, however, hurried ed by Lord Leven with the Scottish army, on by his natural impetuosity, gave immediFairfax, in conjunction with his ally, sat ate orders for fighting. Ilis forces occupied down before the city of York, but being un- Marston-moor; those of his opponents were able to invest the city completely, they were posted in the adjacent fields; and both sides obliged to content themselves with incom- were nearly equal in numbers. After an moding it by a loose blockade. tIopetoun, ineffectual cannonade across a bank and having assembled a body of fourteen thou- ditch which separated the two armies, the sand men, endeavored to break into Sussex, signal for close combat was given nearly at Kent and the southern association, which the same instant by both sides. A moment seemed well disposed to receive him; but of silent suspense followed, each party exhe was defeated by Waller at Cherington. pecting that the other would begin the atAt Newark, however, Prince Rupert totally tack. But evening approached, and no routed the parliamentary army which besieg- time was to be lost. At the head of the ed that place, and thus preserved the com- left wing of the tparliamentary army Crommunication open between the king's northern well and David Leslie crowned the bank, and southern quarters. drove back Rupert's right wing, dispersed The great advantages which the parlia- his cavalry, and overpowered part of his ment had gained in the north seemed now centre. A different fortune awaited the to second their enterprises, and finally to right wing of the parliamentary army, promise them success. Manchester having where youngFairfax commanded. Charged taken Lincoln, had united his army to that fwith irresistible impetuosity by General of Leven and Fairfax; and York was now Hurry, it was beaten back in disorder; and closely besieged by their numerous forces. a reserve of the Scottish infantry, which The town, though vigorously defended by moved to its support, was also cut up with the Marquis of Newcastle, was reduced to astonishing celerity. The royalists then the last extreniity, when Prince Rupert, pushed for the enemy's baggage, and began having joined Sir Charles Lucas, who com- to plunder. But while they were thus ocmanded Newcastle's horse, hastened to its cupied, Cromwell and Leslie wheeled round 304 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. and restored the battle. The parliamentary vines who had embraced the king's party right wing now rallied on the left, and the should be rendered incapable of any office, whol army having changed its front, drew be forbidden the exercise of their profession1 up in a position at right angles to that which be prohibited from coming within the verge it had occupied at the commencement of the of the court, and should forfeit the third of battle. The royalists did the same, and the their estates to the parliament. It was recombat was renewed with great fury on both quired, that whoever had borne arms for the sides. But fortune soon declared in favor king should forfeit the tenth of their estates, of the parliamentarians.' The shock, though or, if that did not suffice, the sixth, for the bloody, was brief, and the victory decided payment of public debts. And, as if such by Leslie's three Scottish regiments and terms would not have sufficiently annihilated Cromwell's brigade of Ironsides. The royal the royal authority, it was further demandarmy was driven off the field, and its whole ed that the court of wards should be abolish. artillery taken. ed; that all the considerable officers of the Immediately after this unfortunate action, crown, and particularly the judges, should the Marquis of Newcastle left the kingdom, be appointed by parliament; and that the while Prince Rupert retired into Lancashire. right of peace and war should not be exerThe city of York surrendered in a few days, cised without consent of parliament. Conand Newcastle was soon afterwards taken by siderable abatement was, however, made in storml. This was a fatal blow to the royal these rigorous demands; and as the rising cause, and far from being counterbalanced power of the Independents made it the inby an advantage gained at Cropready-bridge terest of the Presbyterians to conclude peace, by the king over Waller, or even by the sur- if it could be done with any degree of safety, render of Essex's forces, which happened on the treaty was now limited to the three subthe 1st of September. On the 27th of Oc- jects of religion, the militia, and Ireland. tober another battle was fought at New- On the first, the king's enemies required the bury, in which the royalists were worsted; abolition of prelacy, the confirmation of the but soon after they retrieved their honor at acts of the assembly of divines - at WestDennington Castle, which finished the cam- minster, and the ratification of the Solemn paign in 1644. League and Covenant, with an injunction to In 1645 negotiations were renewed, and all to take it, beginning with the king himthe commissioners, sixteen from Charles, self; on the second, the management of the twelve from the parliament, and four from militia till seven years after the peace, and the Scots, assembled at Uxbridge on the an act of mutual oblivion; on the third, or the 30th of January; but it was soon found Ireland, a cessation of arms, and the surimpossible to come to any agreement. The render to parliament of the direction of the demands of parliament were exorbitant, and, war, and of the power of concluding peace what was worse, their commissioners alleged without their consent. But after a great that: these were nothing but preliminaries. deal of fruitless negotiation, Charles ultiThe king was required to attaint, and ex- mately refused to concede any of these wept firom a general pardon, forty of the points, and the treaty was in consequence most considerable of his English, and nine- broken off. The news of Montrose's victoteen of his Scottish subjects, together with ries in Scotland, and the hope of ten thouall the catholic recusants who had borne sand men under thle Duke of Lorraine, arms for him. It was insisted that forty- which the queen had stipulated fcr, are aleight more, with all the members of either leged to have been the chief causes of the house who I ad sat in the parliament called failure of the treaty. A little before the by the kina t Oxford, all lawyers and di- commencement of this rnegotiation, the par: :H:ISTORY OF:THE WORLD. 30O lianent, to, show their determined resolution I mediately put himself at their head; and to.. proceed.as they had. t.egn, brought to. beingjoinedby thirteen hundred Highlandthe: block Archbishop Laud, who had.for a ers, he:attacked Lord Eleho, who lay at Tibconsiderable time been a.prisoner in the bermore, near Perth, with six thousand men, Tower, and was no longer capable of giving and-utterly defeated him, killing two thou offence,, or rendering himself dangerous.to -sand of tle. Covenanters. e ne.xt marehaniy one.: ed northwards in..order to rouse the VMfar-:Butwhile the king's affairs were daily be-: quis of Iluntly and the Gordons, who had oming:.worse- in.n.England, they seemed to.. before.taken arms, but had been.overpowerrevive- a.:little in Scotland,.through.the con- ed:by the Covenanters. At Aberdeen he duct and valor-.:of the Earl of. Montrose..On. attacked and entirely defeated Lord Burley, his -retul.rn from his -travels,. Montro.se had who commanded two thousand five hundred been.:introduced to.the; king; but.not meet — men. But by this victory Montrose did not ging..with..an agreeable. xreception,.he.went,obtain. the.end he proposed; for the MIfarquis over to.. the Coveinanters, and had been..active of.Huntly showed no, inclination to join an in forwarding all their -schemes.::: Being:armvy where lhe was sure.to be eclipsed: by' a commissioned,..however,:by the.tables to..powerful and daring genius acting.from its wait..upon tbhe.king while the.army ayat own impulses. Berwick,.he was:,gained- over. by the civili-:| 3Montrose was now..in a very,dangerous ties and_ caresses of. that monarch, and.:.situation.. Argyll, reinforced by the Earl ot thenceforth devoted. himself entirely,. though Lothian, was. behind him with a great army; secretly, to. his service.. Having. attempted. while the.militia.of the northern counties to form.an association in favor of.the.. royal.of Moray, Ross and_ Caithness, to.the numcause,. Montrose was thrown into prison; b.er of five. thousand, opposed him in front, and. on his release, which he managed to. ob- and guarded the banks of the Spey, a deep tain,:lhe. found the.. king ready to give ear to- and.rapid river. In order to save his troops, his counsels, which were of the-boldest and -he.turned aside. into the hills but, after most. daring kind,.. The.whole nation of.;some.. marches and. counter-marches, Argyll Scotland was occupied:by the. Covenanters;.,. came. up.with him at. Fai vy Castle. Here, considerable.armies- were kept -on. foot by..after some skirmishes, in which he was viethem, and: every place. was: guarded.by a itorious,:.- M0ontrose got clear of a superior vigilant,administration.; yet, by his own army, and, by.a.quick march.through alcredit, and that of a fe.w friends who -remain- most inaccessible mountains, placed himself ed to the king, this bold. renegade undertook absolutely beyond their reach. to raise: such commotions as should.. soon'; But it was the. misfortune of this general, oblige the.malcontents, to recall the forces that.g0ood or ill fortune proved equally dewhich had so sensibly turned the balance in. structive to his army. After every victory favor of the English.. parliament., The de-:his Scottish, adherents went home with the feat at Marston-moor had left him no, hopes- spoil they had. collected; and had his army of any.sucors from England;.he was there- been composed of these only, he must soon fore obliged to stipulate. with the Earl of have:.been. altogether. abandoned. But the Antrimn.for a supply of men from. Ireland. Irish under. his command, having no.place And having used various disguises, as: well, to which lthey could retire, adhered. to him as passed through many dangers, he arrived.in every fortune. With these, tlerefore, in Scotland, where he lay for some time and some.t reinforceents of Atholemen and cealed on -the borders of t.e Highlands....Macdonalds, Montrose fell suddenly: upon..Although the Irish did not exceed.eleven A.rgyll's:county,. letting. loose. upon it a. hIundred foot, very. ill-armed, M gontrose im-. the horrors of,dvr-in their most savage Iformr. nm. —20 306 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Having collected three thousand men, Ar- eeuvres, and, having marched sixty miles in gyll, marched in quest of the enemy, who the face of a superior enemy without stophad retired with their plunder, and took up ping or allowing his soldiers the least time a position at Innerlochy, supposing himself for sleep or refreshment, he at last secured to be still at a considerable distance from his himself in the mountains. His antagonists antagonist. While this force had thus es- now divided their forces, in order to carry tablished itself in front, the Earl of Sea- onil the war against an enemy who surprised forth, at the head of the garrison of Inver- them as much by the rapidity of his marchness and a body of five thousand new levied es as by the boldness of his enterprises. troops, pressed the royalists on the other 5Urrey met him with four thousand men at side, and threatened them with total destruc- Auldearn, near Inverness, and, trusting to tion. The situation of Montrose was criti- his superiority in number, Montrose having cal in the extreme; but a stroke of genius only two thousand men, attacked him in the and fortune relieved him, and brought back post which he had chosen. Montrose posted victory to his standard. By a rapid and un- his right wing on some strong ground, and expected march he hastened to Innerlochy, drew the best of his forces to the other, learand presented himself in order of battle be- ing no main body between them; a defect fore the Covenanters at the head of about which he artfully concealed by showing a eighteen hundred men. Argyll, seized with few men through the trees and bushes with a panic, deserted his army, and, at a secure which the ground was covered. And, that distance, having pushed off from the shore Urrey might have no leisure to discover the of the loch in a boat, witnessed the conflict stratagem, he instantly led his left wing to which he had not the courage to share. The the charge, and made a furious onset on the Clampbells, however, made a stout resistance, Covenanters, whom he drove from the field but were at last defeated and pursued with in complete disorder. Baillie now advanced great slaughter. After this victory, Mon- to revenge Urrey's defeat, and re-establish, trose was joined by great numbers of High- if possible, the credit of the popular arms. landers; Seaforth's army dispersed of itself; But he himself met with a similar fate at -and the Lord Gordon, eldest son of the Mar- Alford. Montrose, weak in cavalry, interquis of I{untly, having escaped from his mixed his troops of horse with platoons of uncle Argyll, who had hitherto detained infantry, and, having put his enemy's horse him, now joined Montrose with a considera- to rout, fell with united force upon their ble number of his followers, accompanied by foot, which were entirely cut in pieces, the Earl of Aboyne. though with the loss of the gallant Lord Alarmed at these victories, the council at Gordon on the part of the royalists. VicEdinburgh sent for Baillie, an officer of repu- torions in so many battles, which his vigor tation, from England, and, joining him in had rendered as decisive as they were succommand with Urrey, dispatched them with cessfitl, Montrose now prepared to march a considerable army against the royalists. into the southern counties, in'order to put Montrose, with a detachment of eight hun- down the power of the Covenanters,. and dred men, had attacked Dundee, a town re- disperse the parliament, which had been ormarkable for its zeal in favor of the cove- dered to assemble at St. Johnstone or nant, carried it by assault, and given it up Perth. to be plundered by his soldiers, when Baillie While Montrose was thus signaizing his and Urrey with their whole force suddenly valor in the north, Fairfax, or rather Oliver came upon him. He instantly called off his Cromwell under his name and sanction, emsoldiers from the plunder, put them in order, ployed himself in new modelling the parliacovered his retreat by a series of skillful man- mentary army, and throwing the whole into HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 307 a different and much more effective form. tirely defeated, with the loss of five hundred And never perhaps was there a more singu- officers and four thousand private men pris. lar army established than that which was oners, and all his artillery and ammunition, now re-organized by the parliament. To while his infantry were totally dispersed. the greater number of the regiments chap- After this fatal battle, the king retired first lains were not appointed: the officers as- to Hereford, then to Abergavenny, and resumed the spiritual duty which they united mained some time in Wales, in the vain hope with their military functions. The private of raising a body of infantry in these quar soldiers were infected with the same spirit; ters, already harassed and exhausted. His and such an enthusiasm seized the whole affairs now went to ruin in all quarters; army as perhaps has scarce ever been equal- Fairfax retook Leicester on the 17th of June, ed in the history of the world. The royal- and on the 10th of July he raised the siege ists ridiculed the fanaticism of the parlia- of Taunton, while the royalists retired to mentary armies, without being sensible how Lamport, an open town in the county of Sommuch reason they had to dread its effects. erset. Here they were attacked by Fairfax, They were at this time equal, if not supe- and driven from their position, with the loss rior, in numbers to their enemies, but so of three hundred killed and fourteen hunlicentious in their conduct, that they had be- dred taken prisoners. This was followed by come more formidable to their friends than the loss of Bridgewater, which Fairfax took to their enemies. three days after, making the garrison, to the The natural consequence of this enthusi- amount of two thousand six hundred men, asm in the parliamentary army, and this li- prisoners of war. He then reduced Bath centiousness in that of the king, was, that and Sharburn; and on the 11th of Septemequal numbers of the latter were no longer ber Bristol was surrendered by Rupert, able to maintain their ground against the though a few days before he had boasted, in former. This appeared conspicuously in the a letter to Charles, that he would defend the decisive battle of Naseby, which was fought place for four months. This so enraged the between forces nearly equal. Prince Rupert, king, that he inimediately recalled all the by his furious onset, broke the wing of the, prince's commissions, and sent him a pass to enemy opposed to him, but, as usual, pursued go beyond sea. too far. Cromwell also bore down the wing In the meantime the Scots, having made of the royalists opposite that which he coin- themselves masters of Carlisle after an obstimauded; but instead of imitating the exam- nate siege, marched southwards and invested ple of the impetuous prince, he sent a de- Hereford, but were obliged to raise the-siege tachment in pursuit, and executing what is on the king's approach. This was the last technically called a quart de conversion, glimpse of success that attended his arms. attacked the exposed flank of the centre, Having marched to the relief of Chester, where the royalist infantry were pressing which was anew besieged by the parliamenhard on Fairfax. The result of this move- tary forces under Colonel Jones, his rear was ment was decisive. When Rupert returned attacked by Poyntz, and an engagement imfrom pursuit the battle was irretrievably lost. mediately ensued. The fight was maintained The ling called out to make but one charge with great obstinacy, and victory seemed to more and the day would be their own; but incline to the royalists, when Jones fell upon his artillery and baggage being already taken, them from the other side, and defeated them his infantry destroyed, and the prince's cav- with the loss of six hundred killed and a alry wholly exhausted by their exertions, it thousand taken prisoner3. The king, with was now too late to attempt any such effort. the remains of his army, fled to Newark, After an obstinate struggle, Charles was en- and thence escaped to Oxford, where he shut || 30:8 H.ISTORY: OF: T HE WOR L D.,himself up during the. winter season.,:After I according to custom, had retired to tie hills the surrender of Bristol, Fairfax and Crom- to Secure theirplunder. - After. a sharp con well, having divided their forces, marched, - flict, in which MIontrose displayed great valor the former westwards in order to -complete his forces..were routed:by Leslie's cavalry, the conquest of Devonshire and Cornwall, and lie was himself forced to fly to the moun and the latter to. attack the king's garrisons tains. to the..- eastward of Bristoli.::.Nothing was; In the situation to which the king was now able to stand before these victorious generals; reduced, he resolved to grant the parliament every town was obliged:to submit, and every their own terms, and sent them, repeated body. of troops which ventured to resist them messages:.to this effeect.; but a considerable were utterly. defeated. time:elapsed. before they deigned to make.At last: news arrived that Montrose him- him any reply.- At last, after reproaching self, after some. more successes, had been de- him. with the blood spilt during the- war, feated,; and thus the only hope of the royal. they informed him that they werepreparing party was destroyed...When, he had descend- some bills, to which,, if he would consent, ed into the southern counties, the. Covenant- they should then be able to, judge of his paers, assembling their whole force,: met him cific inclinations. In -the mean time Fairfax with: a.nnmerous are y', and gafve him battle was advancing.with. a victorious.army'in at Kilsyth... But. here he.obtained-.a memor- order:to lay siege. to.Oxford; andCharles, able.victory..Of the Covenanters above four rather than submit to be taken captive and thousand were. killed on the spot, and no r- led in triumph by,his. insolent suects, re mains. of an army left. them in Scotland. solved to give himself upg to the Scots, who Manyv.: noblemen,. who had..secretly favored had never testified such implacable animosity the royal c.ause, now declared openly for it, against him, and to. trust to their loyalty for when they saw. a force able-to support them. the rest. After passing in disguise through The..Marquis of Douglas, the Earls of An- many bye-ways and cross-roads, he arrived, nandale and-.. artfield, the Lords.-Fleming, in company: with only two persons, Doctor Seton, Maderty,..Carnegy, and many others Hudson and Mr. Ashburnham, at the Scotflocked to the royal..standard.'- Edinburgh tish camp before Newark, and. immediately opened its gates and gave liberty to all the discovered himself.to their, general, Lord prisoners detained.there by the Covenanters,. Leven. and amongst:the rest to Lord Ogilvy, son to On the authority of - an -intercepted letter the Earl of' Airly, whose family had. contri- of.the king, it:has.been asserted that he threw buted. essentially to the victory gained at himself.on.the Scottish army in consequence Kilsyth.. D)avid Leslie was now. detached..of an assurance that: they would. assist- him from the army in England, and marched tot in recovering his lost prerogative, unite with the relief. of. his distressed party in Scotland. the forces under Montrose, and compel the Allured by vain hopes of rousing to arms the English parliament to accept a peace. In a Earls: of iHume, Traquaire, and IRoxburgh, declaration still extant, however, the Scottish who had.promised to join him, and of ob- leaders,disclaim, in the strongest. terms, any taining from England some supply of cavalry,: public or private agreement whatsoever with in which he was still very deficient, Montrose the. king.; anld as. this.. disclamation, which..advanced still further to the south. But by was publicly made, received no contradiction the..negligence of his piquet, or more pro-. at:the:.time,.the reasonable conclusion is, that bably from security engendered.by success, it.could not be disputed. Leslie.surprised his army at Philiphaugh in Next came the negotiations. between the the Forest, then much diminished in numbers Scots and English for the payment of arrears?tom the desertion of the Highlanders, who, due to the former, and for the surrender of HISTORY OF THE W OR LD. 309 the ki-ng's: person into thephands of the latter. duct.him rtbBe. wickan to procure more The arrears; -: after'many' deductions, were:-fi- equitable terms, provided he wlcd itake the nally —settled at" 400,000; -and this adjust-. covenant; and so anxious were they to save ment`has been: perpetually'identified'.b y him,:tliat a bare -' omise to comply with historians with'the agreement' deliver up thieir' religious demands u- i'- have - bee tlhe ki'ngs "person,'and represented a's: the deemed' s'ufficient.: But;all. that -could'' be equvalet"r, -given,:-' or' -the price'paid, foraiin a't wrung'fri om:' this iunhappy prince was'a of nuparalleled -baseness.- - The amount of doubtful eonsent to tolerate P resbytery foi the arrears'as fix-din-'August.:- - Novem-'three -years; and even in;-makingthis con ber the q`uestion-;as to'-the disp'osal': of'the eession,:he justified it nto:his own:curious.' royal- person remlainned- still unsettled.''A.At conscience, by deelaringl before two of his' this time thel Scottish: parliament,'indign'ant' bishops his unalterable resolution to restore at a vote'-passed A ljby' the English: parliamnent -nd lphold' Episcopaey. in September(a month:after the' setlement After the'flighlt; of Charles,e Oxford c:'rren-: of the' arrears) claiming the' sole disposal:'of' dered to Fairfax, and the civil war terminated the king's:person, resolv'ed to maintain the exactly-four years afterthe' king's'"sta'ndard freed'om'of the'king,and~ assert his right -to was first ereeted -'at Nottingham. In conthe English thione;- but the vote was: after-'sequence of the transac-tions at Newark,and wards'"rescilided, on' the just ground that'it the total:failure of all attempts -at: an' ac'omi' amounted-'to an aba'ndonment'of the solemn modation- wihtl the Presbyterians, the king; league'and covenant, adoptedinn concer with'-was delivered over to the English- Comthe English Presby'terians, unless their joint-l missioners, and conducted: under"'-a- guard to' demands were granted -by the' king.: — They Itoldenby, in:Northamptonshire, where he' offered,'however,' to reinstate -him -on: the was very rigorousl'y confined, and debarred' throne, and to:obtain fo'r him a just settle-' from visits' of his fiends, as' we'as all com — ment with his English::subjects, -provided'he6 munication with his' family.'- would consen-'lto: take the covenant;:-'and: The civil war being thus ended, the king cemmissioners re'reapp'ointed by tie est.tes ablsorlved his followers from. their allegiance,in Scotland to'-ignify-:to his majesty these' and the parliament had now no' enemyto. conditions, upon hich'alone he could- ex fear but the'- troops which' had fought fo' pect to- be received in' Sotlaid,' or assisted- them.:: -But it was not long before they found by the Scottish- nation.:.But -the kin'g -re-: themselves- in the same uhfortunate: - predicamained inflexible. In vain did the Duke of- ment- towhich they had reduced the' king.' HIamilton, one of his principal'friends in The majority of the house were Presbyterians, Scotland,'unite with:the ministers -'in repre- - but -the:majority of the -army' were I-ndepn-: senting that:this alone:'eold'save::him;;-.in dents.' Soon after the retreat: of-the Scots,' vain was it: urged:. tiat if he con'ceded:the the foirmer seeingsevery thing redue'd:to obePresby terian- c hurh to'both' kingdoms, the diene, proposed- to disband- a:conisider able'l demands respeeting the:militia would:be re — part of the army,-and send the rest over to laxed,' that all: Scotland would deelare: in his Ireland. -:But this was by no.means relished favor,:and that, while'the' Presbyterians'; re- by the Independents'and Ctomwell- took mained numerous: and powerfuli, few` in'Eng-. care to- heighten the disaffeetion.' Instea't' land would venture'to.':oppose the:reconrstitu'-: of preparing-to disband, dtherefore, the fiJltion f' the monarehy-'with'limited power. diers resolved to petition, and began by de-: Nothing' c'uld- move: hi:m.to:'accede:to that manding an indemnity, ratified. bv:thle ng, which alone-:could sa-e him.' On the eve-of' for any illegal: actions they mighth:ave comh'is departure-'the commissiimers:renewed':mitted during the war.'. But the Commons-. with -great: earnesieses. theifr.offers- to con- votedt tat this petition tended:to -intrd'uce' 10 - HISTORY OF THE WORLD. munity, and threatened to proceed against and enemies to the army. The Commons the promoters of it as enemies to the state were willing to protect them; but the army and disturbers of the public peace. The insisting on their dismission, they volunarmy accordingly began to set up for them- tarily left the house. - At last the citizens selves, and a military parliament was organ- of London, finding the constitution totally ized- in opposition to the parliament at West- overturned, and a military despotism about minster. The principal officers formed a to be established on the ruins of the kingly council to represent the body of Peers; the tyranny which they formerly dreaded, began soldiers elected two men out of each company, to think seriously of repressing the insolence called the agitators of the army to represent of the troops. The common council assemthe Commons; and of.this assembly Crom- bled the militia of the city; the works were well took care to be a member. The new manned; and a manifesto was published, agparliament soon found many grievances to gravating the hostile intentions of the army. be redressed, and specified some of the Finding that the Commons, in compliance most considerable. The Commons were with the request of the army, had voted that obliged to yield to every request, and the the city militia should be disbanded, the muldemands of the agitators rose in proportion titude rose, besieged the door of the house, to the concessions they extorted. The Com- and obliged them to reverse the vote which mons accused the army of mutiny and se- they had so lately passed. The assembly dition; but the army retorted the charge, was in consequence divided into two parties' and alleged that the king had been deposed the greater part siding with the citizens, but only to make way for their usurpations. In the minority, with the two speakers at their the mean time Cromwell, who secretly con- head, being for encouraging the army. Acducted all the measures of the army, while cordingly the two speakers, with sixty-two he exclaimed against their violence, resolved of the members, secretly retired from the to seize the king's person. Accordingly a house and threw themselves on the protecparty of five hundred horse appeared at tion of the army, which was then at blounHolmby Castle, under the command of one slow Heath. They were received with shouts Joyce, originally a tailor, now a cornet; and and acclamations; their integrity was extolby this man was the king conducted to the led; and the whole force of the soldiery, to army, who were hastening to their rendez- the number of twenty thousand men, now vous at Triplow Heath, near Cambridge. moved forward to reinstate them in their Next day Cromwell arrived, and being re- places. ceived with acclamations of joy, was imme- In the meanwhile the part of the house diatelyinvested with the supreme command. which was left resolved to resist the enThe Commons now discovered the designs of croachments of the army. They chose new the army; but it was too late. All resistance speakers, gave orders for enlisting troops, had become hopeless. Cromwell advanced and ordered the train-bands to mat the lines; with precipitation, and was in a few days at while the whole city boldly resolved to resist St. Alban's. Even submission was now to the invasion. But this resolution only held no purpose. The army still rose in their de- while the enemy was at a distance. When mands, in proportion as these were gratified, Cromwell appeared, all was obedience and and at last proclaimed their intention of submission; and the gates were opened to modelling the whole government, as well as the general, who attended the two speakers settling the nation. and the rest of the members peaceably to their Cromwell began with accusing eleven habitations. The eleven impeached memnmembers of the house, leaders of the Pres- bers having been accused as the cause of the byterian party, as guilty of high treason, tumult, were expelled, and most of them re. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 311 tired to the Continent. The mayor, the had attended him. He travelled all night sheriff, and three aldermen, were sent to through the forest, and arrived next day at the Tower; several citizens and officers of Titchfield, a seat of the Earl of Southampthe milita were committed to prison; the ton, occupied by the countess dowager, a lines about the city were leveled with the woman of honor, to whom the king knew he ground; and the command of the Tower was might safely intrust his person. Before he given to Fairfax. arrived at this place, he went to the seaIt now only remained to dispose of the coast, and expressed great anxiety that a king, who continued a prisoner at Hampton ship, which he seemed to look for, had not Court. The Independent army, at the head arrived. As he could not hope to remain of which was Cromwell, on the one hand, and long concealed at Titchfield, the question the Presbyterians, in name of both houses, was, what measure should next be embraced? on the other, treated with him separately in In the neighborhood lay the Isle of Wight, private. HIehad sometimes evenhopes, that of which hammond'was governor. This in these struggles for power, he might be man was a dependent of Cromwell's, which chosen mediator in the dispute; and he ex- was an unfavorable circumstance; yet as he pected that the kingdom, at last sensible of was a nephew to Dr. Hammond, the king's the miseries of anarchy, would of its own ac- favorite chaplain, and had acquired a good cord relapse into tranquillity. At this time reputation in the army, it was thought proper he was treated with flattering marks of dis- to have recourse to him in the present emertinction, and allowed to converse with his gency, when no other rational expedient own servants; whilst his chaplains were per- could be thought of. Ashburnhamn and mitted to attend him, and celebrate divine Berkely were accordingly dispatched to the service in their own way. But the miost island. They had orders not to inform Hamexquisite pleasure he enjoyed was in the mond of the place where the king lay coneompany of. his children, with whom he had cealed, till they had first obtained from him several interviews. The meeting on these a promise not to deliver up his majesty, even occasions was so touching, that Cromwell though the parliament and army should rehimself, who happened once to be present, quire him, but restore him to his liberty, if tould not help being moved, and was heard he could not protect him. The promise:o declare that he never before beheld such would have been but a slender security; an affecting scene. But these instances of yet, even without exacting it, Ashburnham respect were not of long continuance. As imprudently, if not treacherously, brought soon as the army had gained a complete Hammond to Titchfield; and the king was victory over the House of Commons, the obliged to put himself into his hands, and to king was treated not only with the greatest attend him to Carisbrooke Castle in the Isle disrespect, but even kept in continual alarm of Wight, where, though he was received for his personal safety. The consequence with great demonstrations of respect and was, that Charles abt last resolved to withdraw kindness, he was in reality a prisoner. himself from the kingdom. While the king continued in this forlorn Accordingly, on the 11th of November, situation, Cromwell found himself upon the 1647, the king, attended only by Sir John point of losing all the fruits of his schemes, Berkeley, Ashburnham, and Legg, privately by having his own artifices turned against left Hampton Court; and his escape was not himself. Among the Independents, who in discovered till nearly an hour afterwards, general were hostile to all ecclesiastical syswhen those who entered his chamber found tems, a set of men grew up called Levellers, an the table some letters directed to the par- who disallowed all subordination lWhatso.iament, to the general, and to the officer who ever, and declared that they would have cn 312 HISTORY- OF TH E WOR L D. -other chaplain, king,:- nor general, sa.ve Jesus the two kingdoms, it:was found no easy mat. Christ. -All this:would-have gone-down very ter to- iducye the nationh -to: enter: into the well with Cromwell:as g as. l itwas only views of'those by whom tlie engagement' directed:: against-his:enemies, but. he- did- not had been' concluded.: -- The Scottish royalists, relish it quite so:: well when applied to him — under Traquair and C'a:Ilender,- were'inipa self.:'Accordingly, "having timat tient foraction; the moderat ePresbyteiians', the Lbevellers were to meet at:- acertain plaee,:- I under the Duke of Hamilton, wished' to' re' he unexpectedly'appeared before them at:t the store::the l:ing an'd the power of the Englisi head of his red:regimentt, which ha hitherto Presbyterian's;:; -ihe wild party,'- headed — by: been deemed invincible; and demanding,'in Argyll, and seconded by the kirk, denonced the name.of God, what these meetiugs and the" enga'gement -as -a -deadly:breach of the' murmurings' meant,- he. expostulated:'With covenant, and depreeated -h lostilities with them upon the dangerous consequences of England. —Amidst this division of party their precipitate schemes, and desired themiA and opinion,new levies- were rai'sed for the inmmediately to depart. -Instead of obeying,:-invasion of England-,:-nd the chief com — however, tlhey returned:an insolent answer; |mand given to:amilton, asI)avid Leslie upon which he ordered: his guards to disperse - and' the otrhe eofrs-Id: not' act it'hout them, caused -'several of:them to'~ be: hanged' the sanction of the chureh.:; --- upon:: the spot,-sent others'to London, and:-Langdale:headed' aseparate body of royal: thus dissipated aa factioniwhicl was To o-ther- ists who hiad not taken the eovenanLt, and bot wise criminal than in: having -followed his invaded the north'iof- England. -But though Own example:.'-Cromwell's - authority was these two arm'ies' amount;ed:'to above twenty' greatly increased: by-: the reduction'of this thosandn men, Cromwell, at the head of eight sect;;'and:-it'became:irresistibtle- ini conse:.'tlhousan- hardy veterans, feared not to give quence of a new and unexpected addition:to'battle- to the divided and undisciplined mass his successes.:' conducted by an incapable leader.- AttackM[eanwhile: the relative situations of par- ing these bodies-in:suceession,-he:routed and ties had materially c-hanged,- and the power dispersed theim,took lHamilton prisoner,- and, of the: Independents been increased.as- that'followed up the blow, soon entered Scotland. of the:Presbyterians deelined.'iThe formerI:Of the whole Scottish'force'oioly a small body too, began- to -disclose ulterior views and in- under: Callender, mwho disdained to-surrender, tentions which-had never hitherto been sus- made their way bak to- ScotlAnd-.':This pected:by their allies- the Scots, - whom they overthrow was the signal fori the ui:gh Pires-' now took all oecasions to: lortify. i The lat-' byteriaan party -to bestir' themselves. New ter also found, that in the matter of-:Presby —' levies. were -.indeed raised -:by the Earl of tery, no less than' in- thei conduct of -the. war Lanark,:.Iamilton's:::brother:.;:'.but these: and the policy'pursued::towards the lng, proved-''of-no avail, -'The Earlsk of -Argyll;, they had been- overreaehed and deceived.: -Cassillis- and:Eglintoun, at -the headed.of the The discovery- in question — brought on an:a - Presbyterians of t west countryand the commodation: between C:harles'and his Scot- Highlands, marched to-Edinburgh, and in — tish subjects, W ho,-'in consideration:of his: iting Cromwell to the metropolis;conducted majesty.agreeing.to tconfirm the covenant iin h;in thither in: triumph, suppressed the enparliament, -and establish':the Presbyterian gagement, and renewed -the solemn league churdh till it should-:berevised'by the'assem- and covenant'; with: Engl-and.-: -.This hexpebly of' divines, cngaged to- ssert:and: restore dition: of: the Covenanters- to Edinbugh, his authority by'fo ree of- arms..:-This treaty eommonly called':te Whigamores'- Iniroad, was afterwards ealled -Tlh Enigagemenut; b- ut gave the:finishinfg: blow to tl: royalcanse:in altlloghi discontents hliad- mulz-tiplied, between.' Scotland: at this: tim-e.:::.''._....~........... HIS TO'RY 0 O T H E WO Ri LD. 313 During these contentions the king,:who.the's attempt in:'his favor; for the nexto was kept'~a-prisoner"at Ca.risbrooke:Castle;:, day Colonel Pride, at the head of tw6o regiwas ept:~:;:risner::at:ia wi roe a ae:mets, c' d continued -to negociate with the prliament ments, blockaded:the house,: and seizing.in for putting-: an end to'the unspeakable Ca- the passageforty-one members of the Presbylamities of the kingdom.: A-nd the partia~ -terian party, sent them -to a: lwroom b-:elong ment,'on th3 other harid, saw no —method'of;ing:to: the house, that passed by: the'denominirestraining the milita.ry, except to' counter-: nationr-of"e.-::. bovea hundire cl:and sixty balance it by the kingly power.: -Frequent memberswwere:excluded; and nonewere al: proposals for an:'accommodation accordingly'lJowed to enter but the most-furious:and de-: passed bet'ween::the captive' king and the terminedof:'the:Independentsin: all not ex-, Commons; but the great obstacle" which had-!ceeding- sixty.: Th's -atrocious invasion: -0all al-'ng -stood- in, the-way still remained un-'' parliamentary:rightS. commonly passed by:shakeni-:' This was the —:king's refusa:lto' abl-,:the nameof Pride's Purge,'and the remainish Episcopacy,/ though! he consented to'alter ing members were called:;the Rump. The the liturgy." However,-:the treaty"was still'latter soon voted that the triansactions of the carried on with vigor, and the: parliament house a' few days before w'ere,entirely illegal, for the first time seemed' in'earnest to.'con-'and that theirgeneral"s' conduct Wa.s just and elude:'their negotiations'But all- was now -necessary.. too late. The victorious.a. army;~ headed by. N'::-othingn-:..ow. remainedo to complete:the Cromwell, advanced':to Windsor-,- and With:career of thel' Rmnp- but to-ut the king to furious. remonstrances began to-demand' yen- death:In this assembly,: - composed of:the geance on-the king.:-'The unhappy'monarch:most obscure citizens and officers of the had been lately sent in custody:to that army, as committee-:was appointed'to bring place;: and from thence he was now con-:in —a charge -againstthe king;and onI.their reyeedto-'Hurst: Castle.in Hampshire,- oppo- report a vote was carried,'dclaring'it.treasite to, the Isle of Wight. The arliament: son in a -king- to levy war againsthis parliain' the-meanwhile began' to:.'issue' —rdinances'ment. -'It-was therefore resolved:that a:high for a more:. effectua- opposition'to':these mili-'court: of justice should-be appointed,'to try tary'encroachments,.whenthey were aston-': his majesty for this newlyinvented treason. ishel by a.message from: Cromwell intima-':or form's sake they desired -t-he Concurrence ting his intention'. of.' paying then a: visit of the: few remaining Lords:inthe upper next day With his Whole "army.and at.the house';.::but there was' virtue enough left in same:time'ordering the'm:l: to''raise:him ~40,.. thatt body unanimously:-to rejet the proposal. 000 on' the:city of London. The Commons,: however,: were not to be The Commoas,: though"'destitute of:'all stoppedlby so:smal: an' obstale. -They:voted hopes'.of prevtiling, had still the courage'to that the concurrence of t'he House of "Lords resist'and a t:attempt:in:the face of the was unnecessary, andthat the people-were whole:"army't.to finish; the treaty they h:ad be- the oigi " all ajust power. -:"And to'add to gan -with the king,. They: had taken- into'i their zeal, a woman of'Ierefordshir'e,:: iliconsideration: the whole -of'fhis concessions; minated by:prophetica visions, desired ad and although they had' formerly- vo'ted- them'. mittance,; and Cdommu niicatd- a revelationunsatisfactory,-' they now renewed: the con- which Ilshe piretended'to have received from sultation w.ith great: vigor.. After'a'-~ioehnt heaven. She assured: them that their incasdebate, which lastedtthree days,-:it was- carried ures were conserated. from bove, and ratiin the king's favor,'- bya majority of 129 fled:by the santionof:te Holy:Ghost. against 83, that'-his concessions' were:a-.:This intelligence gave.:them greati:comfort;:: foundation for the houses:':t0o.pr'oceed-m'mupon inEand much'confirmed: them::intheir' e pree'gnta:settlin:.the. affairs f. t he' nation.:.'This was:.resoluti:ons. Coonel:-arriSo, the son of' a 314 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. butcher, was commanded to conduct the king declining the' authority of the court. IHe from Hurst Castle to Windsor, and from represented, that having been engaged in thence to London. His subjects, who treaty with his two houses of parliament, crowded to see their fallen sovereign, were and having finished almost every article, he greatly affected at the change which appeared expected a different treatment from that in his face and person. He had permitted which he had now received. He perceived, his beard to grow, and his hair had become he said, no appearance of an upper house, venerably gray, rather by the pressure of which was necessary to constitute a just tri. anxiety than by the hand of time; whilst bunal. He alleged that he was himself the rest of his apparel bore the marks of the king and fountain of law, and consemisfortune and'decay. He had long been quently could not be tried by laws to which attended by an old decrepid servant common- he had never given his assent; that having ly called Sir Philip Warwick, who could been intrusted with the liberties of the peoonly deplore his master's fate, without being ple, he would not now betray them by re. able to revenge his cause. All the exterior cognizing a power founded in usurpation,; symbols of sovereignty were now withdrawn, that he was willing, before a proper tribunal, and his attendants had orders to serve him to enter into the particulars of his defence; without ceremony. He could not, however, but that until then he must decline any be persuaded that his adversaries would bring apology for his innocence, least he should be him to a formal trial; but he every moment considered as the betrayer of, and not as a expected to be dispatched by private assassin- martyr for, the constitution. Bradshaw, in ation. order to support the authority of the court, From the 6th to the 20th of January was insisted that they had received their authority spent in making preparations for this extra- from the people, the source of all right. He ordinary trial. The court of justice consisted pressed the king not to decline the authority of a hundred and thirty-three persons named of the court which was delegated by the by the Commons; but of these about seventy Commons of England, and interrupted, overonly met upon the trial. The members were ruled, and browbeat him in his attempts to chiefly composed of officers of the army, reply. In this manner the king was three most of them of very mean birth, together times produced before the court, and as often with some of the Lower House, and a few persisted in declining its jurisdiction. The citizens of London. Bradshaw, a lawyer, fourth and last time he was brought before was chosen president; Coke was appointed this self-created tribunal, he was insulted on solicitor for the people of England; Doris- his way thither by the soldiers and the mob, laus, Steel, and Aske, were named assistants. who cried out, "Justice! justice! ExecuThe court sat in Westminster Hall. When tion! execution!" but he continued unthe king was brought forward before this daunted. His judges now examined some court, he was conducted by the mace-bearer witnesses, by whom it was proved that the to a chair placed within the bar. Though king had appeared in arms against the forces long detained a prisoner, and now produced commissioned by parliament, and then proas a criminal, he still maintained the dignity nounced sentence against him. He seemed of a king. The charge was then read by very anxious at this time to be admittec' to the solicitor, accusing him of having been a conference with the two houses, and it rvas the cause of all the bloodshed which had supposed that he intended to resign the flowed since the commencement of the war; crown ir favor of his son; bult the court reafter which Bradshaw directing his discourse fused co:npliance, and considered his request to Charles, told himn that the court expected as an artifice to delay justice. uis answer. The king began his defence by On his return to WVhitehall, Charles do HISTORY OF THE WORLD. - 15 sired permission of the house to see his chil- religion as professed by the church of Engdren, and to be attended in his private devo- land. So strong was the impression made tions by Dr. Juxon, late bishop of London. by his dying words on those who could heai These requests were granted, and three days him, that Colonel Tomlinson himself, to were also allowed him to prepare for execu- whose care he had been committed, acknowltion. Every night between his sentence and edged himself a convert. At one blow his execution the king slept soundly as usual, head was severed from his body. The other though the noise of the workmen employed executioner then, holding up the head, exin erecting the scaffold continually resounded claimed, "This is the head of a traitor." in his ears. The fatal morning having at It is impossible to describe the grief, inlast arrived, Charles rose early; and calling dignation, and astonishment, which took one of his attendants, bade him employ more place, not only among the spectators, who than usual care in dressing him, and prepar- were overwhelmed with a flood of sorrow, ing him for so great a solemnity. The street but throughout the whole nation, as soon as before Whitehall was the place destined for the report of this execution was conveyed to his execution; for it was intended in this them. Ealch blamed himself, either with way to increase the severity of his punish- active disloyalty to the king, or a passive ment. He was led through the banqueting compliance with his destroyers. The very house to the scaffold adjoining to that edifice, pulpits which used to resound with insolence attended by his fi-iend and servant Bishop and sedition were now bedewed with tears Juxon, a man of the same mild and steady of repentance; and all united in their decharacter as his master. The scaffold, covered testation of those dark hypocrites, who, to with black, was guarded by a regiment of satisfy their own enmity, involved a whole nasoldiers under the command of Colonel Tom- tion in the guilt of this catastrophe. Charles linson; and on it were to be seen the block, was executed on the 30th of January, 1649, the axe, and two executioners in masks. The in the forty-ninth year of his age,'and people, in crowds, stood at a distance. The twenty-fourth of his reign. king surveyed all these solemn preparations The dissolution of the monarchy followed, with composure; and, as he could not ex- as a natural consequence, the execution of pect to be heard by the people at a distance, the king. At the commencement of the he addressed himself to the few persons who struggle the demands of the two houses stood round him. He there justified his own were limited to the redress of existing grievinnocence in the late fatal wars, observing ances; but now when it was over, the trithat he had not taken arms till after the umphant party refused to be content with parliament had shown him the example; and anything less than the abolition of the old, that he had no other object in his warlike and the establishment of a new and more preparations, than to preserve that authority popular form of government. A republic entire which had been transmitted to him by was therefore their choice, first, because it his ancestors. But, though innocent towards promised to shelter them from the vengeance his people, he acknowledged the equity of of their enemies; and, secondly, because it his execution in the eyes of his Maker, and offered them the additional advantage of owned that he was justly punished for hav- sharing among themselves all the power, the ing consented to the execution of an unjust patronage, and the emoliments of office. In sentence against the Earl of Stafford. He accordance with this decision, the head of forgave all his enemies; and exhorted the peo- the king had no sooner fallen on the scafiold ple to return to their obedience, and ac- at Whitehall, than a proclamation was issued, knowledge his son as his successor; and declaring it treason to give to any person signified his attachment to the Protestant the title of king without the authority of ......................... ~,.... 316 HISTO]RY:OF THE WVOR,;L1D.:I parliament;:and at the same:time'was pub- - The'Commons next proceeded to punishl: lished the. vote of the 4h- of January (1649), t-hose who'had been'most:remarkalble: o by which'it:had'beendecreed that the su- their attachment to their late sovereigni preme atithority in:the nation esided in:the The Duke of Hamilton,'Lord Capel and the represtatives' of'the people.;'The peers, Earl of Iolland were condemned and exe. though li:ware -of0: their approaching fa-te, met cuted";' the Earl of' Nrwich' and Sr' John on the; day fixed'at' their adjournment, and Owen were also Condernined, and afterwards proceeded t- business;,:-but after a d:pause' pardoned. These executions greatly irritated of a few days the Comm-ons voted that the the Scots:;'and the insolence of:the IdeHouse of:-ords, as useless and dangerous, pendents, withtheirviories,in flaming' themn: ought to be' abolished; and they declared it still more-' they determined to acknowledge 1high treason.to ackr.owledge'Charles Stu.art, Prince6 Charles as their king, but, at the same son of: th late kin,: as. successor:.'to- the time, to-abridge- his- power by limitatiotis throne.' A council' of state Was next: ap-: similar-'t those- whicti.they had attenpted pointed, consisting of': forty-one members, to impose: upon his fatlier.' But as Argyll with powers limnited in'l'duration to twelve iand the more "rigid Covenanters still'premonths, and charged with the preservation - dominated, they made thelr loyalty'condiof domestic tranquillity,: the-disposil:of the: tional -on -his own good -ehaviour.'The first milit'ary and naval force,:the superintendence- prIoposit;ions were made to'Charles'at Paris,: of internal and external- trade and the nego- where le had passed some'-time in hopes of' tiation' -of treaties with f6reign powers.- A obtadining asgistance; and drenewed offers new great' seal was then nmade, on: ole side were made- to'him at Breda, to whiich placeof which vere engraven:the arms -of England he had withdrawn on finding Frace'indisand'Ireland,- wiith: this inscription,: " The posed to-lend him any aid. But as —he:.had great — seal of-Eingland;' and n: the reverse by this time -commanded: Montrose'to at — was represenedd the House'of Commons tempt a descent in" his favor upon Scotland sitting, with this 1motto-" On the first year by force of'arms, he,: with the characteristic of freedom," by God's blessing restored, -1649." Iduplicity of his race, protracted the- negotiaThe forms of'-all public-business were' chang- tions nuntil the result-'of: this enterprise ed, and instead:of proceeding in the king's should be::known...With arms, and money, name, ran in that of the' "keepers: of the furnished:by'Sweden -and Denmarl, and ac,liberties of- England."-' -The C6urt of:King's companied by- about six- hundred Germans, Bench was: called the:Court of` Public Be.nch;' -Miontiose, accordingly, Orney and so cautious:on this head, it- is said, were from Iamburg, and by a compulsory levy some of the republicans, that, in reciting the of the islanders, raised his fOree'to fourteen Lord's -Prayetr, they would not say "thy hundred men.:. He then passed:over to the kingdom,' "but "thy commonwealth, come." mainland of' Scotland, were the- people, reThe king's statue in the echange wasthrown: -mnembering his:former.cruelties, fled in:i hordown-;'and on the pedestal these' words-were or before him.: But his career: was destined; inscribed-, Eit tyranns, regum-:lZimus,;tobe' a short one'. Having-advancedbeyond "The tyrant is gone, the last of the lin-gs."- the pass of-Invercarroin his-motley ba'ndwas' The merit:or demerit'of'thus erecting a:con-: surprised by a -superior force, surrounded,' monwe'alth'on the ruins' of'the monarchy be- beaten and dispersaed -Montrose contrived longs chiefly to Cromwell, Ireton, Bradshaw to- effect his escape,'bt ha'viing thr' o:n liimand MIarten, who, by thleir superior-influene,::self on the pritectin of laeleod of Assynt, guided: and controlled the oplnions and paS- he-was betrave-d by that wIthy for:a-: tlholusions':of their associates:in:-he senate and' the sand bolls of:meal, and being brought prisarmy. ". oner to'Edinburgh, he was condemned on H:IS'TSORY OF:TH:EWORLD. 317 -is- former attainder to. be hanged for the Country against the Scots,: who ad. raised 5 space of three bhours.on a.,gibbet thirty feet considerable army. in:,.support of the royal in height, and his-lim!bs were ordered to be cause. stuck up in the principal towns of the. king- As Fairfax had conscientiously. declined domn; 1hiis head on _a spike in Edinburgh,.:to.draw his sword against the Presbyterians his arms on the gates of Perth or Stirlig,.of Scotland, Cromwell received the command his legs: on those of Glasgow and Aberdeen,:of tile forces destinedi to invade that kinganid. his.body to be interred:by the hangman dom, and, in a month. from:the time- of the inl Boroughmuir, unless the- sentence of. ex- king's- arrival,. he as on the banks of the communication by the kirk were. previously. Tweed at the head- of sixteen thousand veterelaxed. Montrose" defeat and death, how- ran troops., Argyll, then at the head of the ever,:were productive only of a further limi- committee.of estates, made the mot vigortation of the terms offered to CJharles; and ous preparations for his reception.; while as he: no. longer refused -to. accept these con-:Leslie, who had never yet beena- beaten, opditions, and to take the covenant, if required posed his great experience and cool sagacity to. do- so, he embarked with -his court in a to the genlius of Cromwell. The latter, havDutch fleet, and arrived at the mouth- of the- ing established between. Edinburgh and Leith Spey. But as the jealousy of the Scots had a fortified: camp, as a -secure rallying point, been roused: by the late invasion, the covenant wasted the. i:erse and _the. Lothians, in order was exacted from him before he was suffered, to.deprive Cromwell:of subsistence; and to land.. His English. attendants, with. the when forced at, length to.retire within his exception. of. a few complying persons, who entrenchlments, he remained resolutely oil accommodated themselves: to the times,, were the defensive, in spite of: every expedient dismissed; and he was surrounded by the:tried- by.his adversaryto.draw him out to fanatical clergymen, who, though. they ap-. action. At this time the ki ng arrived at the proaceled:his person in the most respectful Scottish headquarters, but his.. presence hamanner, launched out, in continual invectives ing excited the jealousy of the clergy, they on the iniquity of:his father's house, the ordered him to leave it, and forthwith proidolatry. of his;mother, and, his own connec- c.eeded to purge the:camp of four thousand tion witll inveterate malignants. Charles Malignants and- Engagers, the only soldiers pretended, to listen,:to.their discourses, but of credit and. experience in the army; so nevertheless.made an attempt to escape. that being now. a host of saints, they cono Being.. overtaken, however, and -brought- eluded, somewhat hastily, that -they could back, he owned the.: greatness of.his. fault, not be. beaten. In the: blindness of their' and testified his repentance for what he had folly, they murmured at their prudent gendone. eral; and, in:the extravagance of. their fanaC:CromWnell,)in the- meantime, having beeno ticism, they;.expostulated with the Lord in appointed by the parliament.to.command prayer on the. urgent necessity of his interthe army in Ireland, prosecuted the war in position, in order to uphold the kirk and dethat kingdom with his.usual success. He liver them, from the.sectaries. An opporhad to encounter'the royalists commanded tunity of striking: a blow to advantage havby the Duke of Ormond, and the native ing,.presented itself on. a Sunday, -Leslie Irish. led on by.O'eale. But he, quickly proposed instantly to attack; but he was overcame their force; and most of the towns, prevented by these insane fanatics, who - _intimidated: by his energy, opened their gates affected great horror at, the crime of Sabbath at'his approach. He was on the point of breaking... Meanwhile Cromwell, straitened reducing the whole kingdom, when- he was for provisions, withdrew his army, now recalled by the parliarnment to defend his reduced in numbers by sickness,-;to Dunbar, 318 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Leslie followed his movement, and encamp- and withdrew from the general levy about ed on the heights which command the town, five thousand men. Charles had by this taking care, at the same time, to occupy the time become thoroughly satisfied that soothpasses by which alone the enemy could ing the religious prejudices of the ldrk was retire to Berwick. Cromwell's situation indispensable to give him a chance of acquirhad become now moast critical. His adver- ing due preponderance in the state. On the 6ary's position was too strong to be assaulted 1st of January, 1651, his coronation was with any hope of success; his retreat was performed with great solemnity at Scone. intercepted; his provisions were nearly ex- There, on his bended knees, and with his hausted; sickness was daily thinning his arm upraised, he swore by the Eternal and ranks; destruction brooded over him. But Almighty God to observe strictly the two the madness of the clergy restored the as- covenants. Argyll then placed the crowIl cendency of this extraordinary man's for- upon the king's head, an act for which his tune, and snatched from Leslie the fruits of own was afterwards the forfeit; and having his masterly combinations, when he was on seated him on the throne, both nobility and the very eve of reaping them in a bloodless gentry swore allegiance, "according to the harvest of victory. They had been wrestling national covenant, and the solemn league with the Lord in prayer, as they termed it, and covenant." and, pretending some special revelation, they In the meanwhile Cromwell was making now fancied that they had obtained the vie- rapid progress in subduing the kingdom. He tory, and that the heretical army, together had obtained possession of Edinburgh Castle, with Agag their general, would forthwith be taken Tantallon by storm, attempted Dumdelivered into their hands. These holy barton, though without success, and carried idiots, accordingly, forced their general to many places of inferior note. A severe atdescend to the plain, and to attack the Eng- tack of ague for a time retarded his operalish. When Cromwell discovered through tions; but in the month of July hlie marched his glass that the Scots were actually in mo- with his army towards Stirling. The Scots tion, he exclaimed," They are coming down; faced him in their entrenched camp at Torthe Lord hath delivered them into our wood, and resolved to pursue the same cauhands i" His anticipation was speedily rea- tious conduct observed by Leslie till it had lized. Descending from the hills during a been so fatally overruled by the clergy. tempestuous night, which had extinguished After observing them for a time, Cromwell their matches, the Scots, consisting entirely withdrew to Glasgow, and the Scots took up of rawundisciplined levies, were overthrown a position at Kilsyth: he retrograded to at the first onset by the veteran troops of Falkirk, and his opponents returned to their Cromwell, who had been carefully sheltered I camp at Torwood. Both parties had now from the storm; three thousand were slain, resumed the respective positions which they nine hundred made prisoners, and the re- had originally occupied; but the aspect of mainder dispersed, whilst the loss of the affairs had materially changed. Whilst the English scarcely exceeded forty men. attention of the Scots was engaged by the This disaster, so richly merited, showed, enemy in their front, a body of men had in a striking point of view, the danger of crossed the Frith in boats, and, having fortidisunion. In a meeting held at Perth, the fled a hill near Inverkeithing, were irumeScottish parliament accordingly resolved to diately followed by Lambert at the head of call in the aid of the Malignants and En- a powerful division. Holburn was dispatchgagers, on condition of repentance of past ed from the camp at Torwood, with ordere errors; but two of the western shires still to drive the enemy into the sea; but being held out against this approximation of parties, suddenly charged by Lambert at the head of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 319 a superior force, he was routed and put to next attempted to retire into Wales, under flight. Cromwell then transported his army the conduct of one Pendrel, a poor far neor to the left bank of the river, and advanced who was sincerely attached to his cause, but on the rear of the Scots, who, in conse- in this attempt he failed, as every pass was quence, retired from the position which had guarded to prevent his escape. Being obliged thus been completely turned. The progress to return, he met one Careless, who had esof the English excited the most fearful anti- caped the carnage at Worcester; and in his cipations in the minds of the Scottish leaders; company the king was obliged to climb a to Charles it suggested the execution of a spreading oak, among the branches of which project which he had long meditated, namely, they lay concealed during the day, while the to march into England, accompanied by such soldiers of the enemy were heard in pursuit of his subjects of Scotland as were willing of them below. After this he experienced to share in the toils and perils of the enter- all the varieties of famine, fatigue, and pain, prise. This scheme was opposed by Argyll till he arrived at the house of Colonel Lane, and a few other chieftains, who regarded it a zealous royalist, in Staffordshire. Here he as utterly desperate; but the king was in- deliberated about the means of escaping into flexible; and the rest having expressed their France; and Bristol being supposed the readiness to stake their lives on the issue of most suitable port, it was resolved that he the attempt, twelve thousand men began should ride thither before this gentleman's their march from Stirling, in the direction sister, on a visit to a person who lived in the of Carlisle, and gained three days in advance neighborhood of that city. During this before the movement was discovered. journey the king every day met with perCromwell was surprised and embarrassed: sons whose faces he knew, and at one time he had not calculated on such a daring ad- passed through a whole regiment of the venture, and his army was unprepared to enemy's army. But on finding that, for a follow at a moment's notice. But exerting month to come, no ship would sail for Bristol all the energies of his powerful mind, he either for France or Spain, he was obliged to quickly assembled a large force, more formid- go elsewhere for a passage. He therefore able even for its quality than its numerical repaired to the house of Colonel Wyndhan strength, and set out in quest of the fugitive in Dorsetshire, where he was cordially reinvaders, who had met with none of the sup- ceived; and thence pursuing his journey to port upon which they had so confidently the sea-side, he once more had a narrow esreckoned, either from the English royalists cape at an inn, where he tarried for a night. or Presbyterians. At last the Scottish army, The day had been appointed for a solemn which had thrown itself into Worcester, was fast; and a weaver, who had been a soldier attacked by Cromwell at the head of thirty in the parliamentary army, was preaching thousand men, and, after a desperate contest, against the king in a little chapel fronting completely defeated. The battle was fought the house. To avoid suspicion, Charles was on the 3d of September, 1651, the day on himself among the audience. But it happenwhich, twelve months before, the English ed that a smith, of the same principles with general had defeated the Scots at Dunbar. the weaver, had been examining the horses The king, who had greatly signalized his belonging to the passengers, and came to aspersonal courage during the battle, now en- sure the preacher that he knew by the fashion tered upon a scene of adventures the most of the shoes that one of the strangers' horses romantic that can be imagined. After cut- came from the north. The preacher immeting off his hair, the better to disguise his diately affirmed that this horse could belong person, he worked for some days in the habit to no other than Charles Stuart, and instantly of a peasant., nr aking faggots in a wood. I-Ie went with a constable to search the inn. Bui 320. -HISTORY OF TIE,WORLD. the king had:taken.timely precautions, and lminish the formidable power of Cromwell left the inn:before the constable's arrival. by land. At Shorehamn in. Sussex,; a vessel was.-as last Butthis remarkable man quiclly perceived found, in whoh he embarked. He was their designs, and, secure in the attachment -known.ito sc. many, that~ if he had not set of-the army, resolved to seize the —sovereign sail at that critical. moment,- it: would have.power.. IHe persuaded the officers to present been impossible far him to escape.. After: a petition -for payment of arrears and re forty-one days',oncealment he arrived safely dress of grievances. His orders were obeyed. at Feschamp in Normandy. No-fewer. than- The. house was highly offended, and appointforty persons of both sexes had -at. different eda committee,to prepare an act, declariiig timnes been:privy to his; escape, although', a that all persons wkho presented such petitions reward of.a thousand pounds was offered for for the, future should be deemed:guilty f his person. - high. treason.. Against this the officers. wariAll parts:of the British- dominions being. lyremonstrated, and the parliament as angrily now, reduced to: perfeet subjection to0 the par- replied.. Cromwell, -informed of the:alterlinament, they nexst resolved- to chastise the: cation,. started up in the utmost fury and Dutch, who had given.some: cause for..com- turning -to. -Major Vernon, cried out."' that he plaint.! It happened that Dorislaus, one - of was compelled' to do a thing that made thel the late king's judges, being sent bythe par- very hair of his head stand on end.'" Then liainent.as their envoy to:Holland, was as- hastening to the house at the head of three sassinated by one of the. royal party who had hundred soldiers, and with marks of violent taken refuge there;- and -some time;-after, indignation on his countenance, he entered, gMr.. St. John, appointed their ambassador to - took his place, and attended to the debates that court, was insulted by; the friends of the - for some time.- But whlen the question was Prince of Orange. These were judged suf- about to be put, he. suddenly started up, and, ficient grounds for a -declaration of -war after some general remarks, began to load the against- Holland by the commonwvealth of parliament. with the. bitterest. reproaches for England. The, parliament's echief. depen.-. their tyranny,, ambition, oppression, and. robdeuce lay in the activity and; courage of bery of the public. Having. finished his Blake their admiral,. whom, although:he had harangue, he stamped with his- foot on the not entered the -.navy till late in life,.yet sur- ground,which was the preconcerted signal passed all who went before- him in -courage for the soldiers to -enter; and the place was and skill., On the other side, the Dutch op- immediately filled with armed men. He posed to him Van Tromp, justly celebrated then turned, and: again addressing himself for his bold and enterprising genius..Many to the -members, said, " For shame, get you engagements took p!ace-between.these re- gone; give place to.. honester men, those nowned, commanders: with: various- success; who will-.more faithfully discharge. their but these fierce encounters servedrather to trust. You are no longer a parliament; I show the, excellency of the admirals.- than to tell you, you are no longer a. parliament!; determine- their' superiority. At last the'the. Lord has done: with you." Sir.-Harry Dutch, who experienced many disadvantages ane exclaiming against his conduct,-" Sir by the loss of their.: trade, and:by the total Harry," cried Cromwell with a: loud voice, suspension of their fisheries, wver-e willing to. ":O, Sir I-arry Vane.; the Lord deliver me treat for peace.. The -parlianient, however, from Sir Harry Vane." Then taking hold gave an evasive answer, and studied to keep of one of the members by his cloak, he. extheir. navy in acti6n. as long as they eould; claimed, "Thou- art a whoremaster;" to an, rightly judging, that while the forceeof the other he said, "-Thou art an adulterer;" to a -ation was exertedo by- te sea, it would di- third, "Thou art a drunkard;" to a fourth, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 321'Thou art a glutton;" and afterwards se- while their partisans, if such they had,;re. lecting different members in succession, he served themselves in silence for the day of described them as dishonest and corrupt retribution, which, however, came not until livers, a shame and scandal to the profession after Cromwell slept in his grave. of the Gospel. Suddenly checking himself, The whole civil and military power of the however, he turned to the guard and ordered state now centred in Cromwell, who, by this thlm to clear the house. At these words bold transaction, became, in effect, king of Colonel ETarrison took the Speaker by the Great Britain, with uncontrollable authority. hands and led him from the chair; Algernon Desirous, however, to amuse the people with Sidney was next compelled to quit his seat; the form of a commonwealth, he proposed and the other members, eighty in number, to give his subjects a parliament, but such a on the approach of the military, rose and one as should be altogether obedient to his moved towards the door. Cromwell now re- commands. For this purpose it was decreed sumed his discourse. "It is you," he esx- that the sovereign power should be vested in claimed, "that have forced mle to do this. I a hundred and forty-four persons, under the have sought the Lord both day and night, denomination of a parliament; and the lordthat he would rather slay me than put me general undertook to select them himself. on the doing of this work." Then pointing The persons pitched upon were the lowest, to the nace, " Take away that fool's bauble," meanest, and most ignorant of the citizens, cried he; after which he cleared the hall, and the very dregs of the fanatics. To go ordered the doors to be locked, and putting farther than others in the absurdities of fathe keys ini his pocket, returned to Whitehall. naticisml was the chief qualification upon In the afternoon the members of the council which each of these valued himself. Their of state assembled at their usual place of very names, borrowed from scripture, and meetingo. As Bradshaw took the chair, how- rendered ridiculous by their misapplieation. ever, the lord-general entered and told them, served to show their excess of folly. One of that if they were as private individuals they them particularly, a canting leather-seller, were welcomen but if as the council of state, called Praise-God-Barebones, gave his name they musf know that the parliament was dis- to this odd assembly, which was called Baresolved, and with it also the council. "Sir," bones' Parliament. They were principally replied Bradshlaw, with the spirit of an an- composed of Antinomians, a sect which, cient Romnan, "we have heard what you did -after receiving the spirit, supposed themat the house this morning, and before many selves incapable of error, and fifth-monarchy hours all England shall know it. But, sir, men, who every hour expected Christ's you are mistaken in thinking that the par- second coming on earth. They began by liam ent is dissolved.. No power under hea- choosing eight of their number to seek the Ven can dissolve them but themselves. There- Lord in prayer, while the rest calmly sat fore take you notice of that." After this down to deliberate upon the suppression of protest they withdrew. But the decisive the clergy, the universities, and courts of blow had been' struck. By the parricidal justice; and besides all this, it was their inhands of its own children perished the long tention to substitute the law of Moses in the parliament, which, under a variety of forms, room of the law of the land. lead for more than twelve years defended and It was impossible such a legislature as this invaded the liberties of the nation. It fell could stand; even the vulgar exclaimed witholu't a struggle, unpitied and unregretted. against it, and Cromwell himself began to The rlmembers slunk away to their homes, be ashamed of its absurdities. He had carevwhere, by submission, they sought to pur- fully chosen many persons among the memh~se the forbearance of their new master; bers who were entirely devoted to his interIn.-2!. 322 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ests, and these he commanded to dismiss the formerly possessed of. The power of the assembly. They accordingly met by concert sword was vested in him jointly with the earlier than the rest of their fraternity; and parliament Wvhen sitting, or with the council observing to each other that this parliament at other times. He was obliged to summon had sat long enough, they hastened to Crom- a parliament once every three years, and to well, with Rouse, their Speaker, at their allow them to sit five months without adhead, mid into his hands resigned the author-' journment. The standing army was fixed ity with which he had invested them. Crom- at twenty thousand foot and ten thousand well accepted their resignation with pleasure; horse, and funds were assigned for their but being told that some of their number support. The protector was to enjoy his showed themselves refractory, he sent Colonel office for life, and on his death his place was White to clear the house of such as ventured to be supplied by the council. to remain there. They had placed one Moyer Thus Cromwell continued to govern, in the chair by the time the colonel arrived; though without assuming the: title of king, and he being asked by the colonel what they in as absolute a manner as the most despotic did there, replied, very gravely, that they prince in Europe. As he was feared at were seelking the Lord. "Then you may go home, so he made himself respected abroad. elsewhere,' rejoined Colonel White, "'for, to The Dutch, humbled by repeated defeats, my certain kInowledge, the Lord hath not were obliged to sue for peace; to consent to been'l here these many years." pay deference to the British flag; to abanThis shadow of a parliament being thus don the interests of the king; to pay ~85,000 dissolved, the officers, by their own authority, as an indemnification for former expenses declared Cromwell protector of the Common- and to restore to the English East India wealth of England. The mayor and alder- Company a part of those dominions whi.ch inen were sent for to give solemnity to his they had been dispossessed of by the Dutch appointment, and he was installed into his new during the former reign. The ministry of office at Whitehall, in the palace of the kings France thought proper to pay court to thet. of England. He was to be addressed by the protector; and as he had furnished that title of Highness; and his power was pro- court with a body of six thousand men to atclaimed in London, and in other parts of the tack the Spanish dominions in the Netherkingdom. It was now, indeed, in a great lands, the French put Dunkirk into his measure necessary that some person should hands as a reward for his attachment. By talke the supreme command; for affairs had means of the fleet under Blake he humbled been brought into such a situation, by the Spain and chastised the Algerines and Tunifurious animosities of the contending parties, sians. Penn and Venables, two other admithat nothing short of absolute power could rals, made an attempt on the island of Hisprevent a renewal of bloodshed and confui paniola; but failing in this, they steered to sion. The government of the kingdom was Jamaica, which was surrendered to them adjusted in the following manner. A coun- without a blow. Yet so little was thought cil was appointed, which was not to exceed of this conquest at the time, that, on their twenty-one, nor fall below thirteen persons, return, the two admirals were committed to who were to enjoy their offices for life, or the Tower, by reason of the failure of the during good behaviour; and, in case of a principal object of their expedition. vacancy, the remaining members were to It is not to be supposed that a nume-rotu name three, of whom the protector was to standing army could be maintained, and so choose one. The protector was appointed many foreign wars carried on, without inthe supreme magistrate of the Common- curring extraordinary expenses. In fact, the wealth, with power such as the king was protector's revenues were so60 much exhaust 4 1:'G1~J~.N f{ L;~T~" HI~I"-d. ) I IL b~lyr -Y k~:'T "Y/,m, J —D, ~a it ( f~j FEET ~ -111 10 _F[ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 323 ed, that he was obliged to have recourse to This consent, however, he had not resolu methods which he probably would not have tion enough to give. tHis doubts continued chosen hat he nect been driven to them by for some days; and the conference carried necessity. One or two royalist conspiracies, on with the members who had made him the though detected and punished, served him offer, as far as it is intelligible on his part, as a pretext for imposing a tax upon that seems to argue that he was desirous of being party, of the tenth penny on all their pos- compelled to accept the offer. The confersessions; and in order to raise this oppres- ence, however, terminated in his total resive impost, ten major-generals were insti- fusal. tuted, who divided the vwhole kingdom into. But with all these proffered honors, -and as many military jurisdictions. They had with all his despotle power, the situation of power to subject whom they pleased to the Cromwell was far from being enviable. Petitax, and to imprison such as denied their haps no situation, however mean and conjurisdiction. Under color of these powers temptible, was more truly distressing than they exercised the most arbitrary. authority; his, even at the time whenl the nation was the people had no protection against their loading him with congratulations and adexactions; the very mask of liberty was en-. dresses. Ilte had at last rendered himself tirely thrown off; and all property was hateful to every party, and he oweJ his safeplaced at the disposal of a military tribunal. ty solely to their mutual hatred and distrust. It was in vain that the nation cried out for His arts of dissimulation were exhausted; a free parliament. Cromwell assembled one none could be any longer deceived by them; in consequence- of their clamors, but as and even those of his own party and princispeedily dissolved it when he found it re- ples disdained the use to which he had'onfractory to his commands. At last, as par- verted his zeal and professions. Though the liaments were always held in such estima- whole nation silently detested his administion by the people, he resolved to give them tration, he would not not have been comone, but such as should be entirely of his pletely wretched if he could have found doown choosing, and chiefly composed of his mestic consolation. But even his own famicreatures. Lest any of a different descrip- ly had embraced republican principles-with tion should enter the house, guards were so much vehemence, that they could not placed at the doors, and none admitted but without indignation behold him invested such as produced a warrant from his coun- with uncontrolled power; and even 3Mrs. eil. (Claypole, his favorite daughter, upbraided The principal design of convening this as- him on her death-bed, with all the crimes by sembly was to offer him the - crown, with which he had waded "through slaughter to the title of king, and all the other ensigns a throne.'" To aggravate all this, conspiraof royalty. His creatures, therefore, took eies were formed. against him; and it was at care to insinuate the confusion which exist- last openly thought, that his death was not ed in legal proceedings without the name of only desirable, but that his assassination a king; that no man was acquainted with would be meritorious. A book was publish. the extent or limits of the authority of the ed by one Colonel Titus, a man who had forl present magistrates; but that those of a king merly been attached to his cause, entitled had been well ascertained by the experience I' Killing no Murder." Of all the pamphof ages. The motion was at last formally lets which appeared at that time, or which made in the house, easily carried through, have since been published, this was one of and nothing seemed now wanting but Crom- the most masterly. Cromwell read it, and well's own consent to hlave his name enroll- is said never to have smiled afterwards. ed among those of the kings of Englanld. The protector now found, that the grand 324 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. our to which he had sacrificed his former and very civilly conducted him home. The tranquillity was only an inlet to fresh inqui- other members were likewise intercepted. etudes. IHe was haunted with perpetual ap- and the army returned to their quarters to prehensions of assassination. He wore ar- observe a solemn fast, which generally either mor under his clothes, and always kept pis- preceded. or attended all their remarkable tols in his pockets. His aspect was clouded proceedings. A committee was then elected, by a settled gloom, and he regarded every of twenty-three persons, of whom seven were stranger with suspicion. I-Ie was always at- officers. These they invested with sovereign tended by a numerous guard, and generally authority; and a military government was traveled in a hurry. I-Ie never returned established, which gave the nation a prosfirom any place by the road he went; and pect of endless servitude and tyranny withnever slept above three nights together in out redress. the same chamber. At last, however, he Upon learning that the officers had by was delivered from this life of horror and their own authority dissolved the parliansxiety by a tertian ague, of which lie died ment, General IMonk, who was then in Scotan the 3rd of September, 1658, after having land with eight thousand veteran troops, held the reins of government nine years. protested against the measure, and resolved Oliver Cromwell was succeeded in his to defend the national privileges. As soon office of protector by his son Richard, who as he had put his army in motion, he found immediately called a parliament. To this himself eagerly courted by all parties; but asseml-ly the army presented a remonstrance, so cautious was he of declaring his mind, desiring to have some person appointed for that, till the very last, no one knew which their general in whom they could confide. But side he would take. As a remarkable the house voted such meetings and remon- instance of this politic or hesitating betrances unlawful; upon which the officers, havior, when his own brother came to him suriounding Richard's house, forced him to with a message from Lord Granville in the dissolve the parliament; and he soon after- name of the king, he refused all conversawards signed an abdication of the govern- tion with him upon hearing that he had told ment. His younger brother Henry, who had his errand to MIr. Price, the general's own been appointed to the command in Ireland, chaplain, and a man of known probity and followed Richard's example, and resigned honor. his commission without striking a blow. Informed that the officers were preparing The officers, thus left at liberty, resolved an army to oppose him, Monk amused them to restore the Rump Parliament, as it was with negotiations; and the people, finding called, consisting of that remnant of a par- themselves not entirely defenceless, began to liament which had condemned Charles. But declare for a free parliamentk The Rump, no sooner were they reinstated in authority, being invited by the navy and part of the than they began to humble the army by army, again ventured to resume their seats, cashiering some of the officers, and appoint- and to thunder votes in their turn against ing in their room others on whom they could the officers and that of the army by which place more reliance.' The officers, accord- they had been ejected. Without taking any ingly, decided to dissolve the assembly.'For notice of Lambert, they sent orders to tlie this purpose Lamubert, one of the general troops to repair immediately to the garri of:icers, drew together a chosen body of sons appointed for them. The* soldiers troops, and, placing them in the streets which obeyed; and Lambert at last found himself led to Westminster Hall, when the Speaker, deserted by his whole army. ollonk in Lential, proceeled in his carriage to the the meantime proceeded with his army to house, he ordlered the horses to be turned, London. The gentry, on his march, flockled HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 325 round him with addresses, expressing their support of the fleet and army; and, having. desire of a new parliament; but that general, passed these votes, dissolved themselves, still continuing his inflexible taciturnity, at giving orders for the immediate assembling last reached St. Alban's, w;thin a few miles of a new parliament. Meanwhile Mionk of the capital, leaving all the world in doubt new-modelled his army to the purposes he as to his motives and designs. HIere he sent had in view; and some officers, by his directhe parliament a message, desiring them to tion, presented him with an address, in remove such forces as remained in London which they promised to obey implicitly the to country quarters. Some of the regiments orders of the ensuing parliament. He apwillingly obeyed this order; and Such as did proved of this engagement, which he ordered not, MZonk turned out by force; after which to be signed by all the different regiments; he took up his quarters in Westminster. and this furnished him with a pretence for The house voted him thanks for his services. dismissing all the officers by whom it was tIe desired them to call a free parliament; rejected. and this soon inspired the citizens with In the midst of these transactions, Laincourage to refuse submission to the present bert, who had been confined in the Tower, government. They resolved to pay no taxes escaped from prison, and began to raise until the members formerly excluded by forces; and as his activity and principles Colonel Price should be replaced. EBut for were sufficiently known, Monk took prompt this they were punished by Monk, at the measures to oppose his proceedings. Hie desire of the parliament. He arrested eleven dispatched Colonel Ingoldsby with his own of tle most obnoxious of the common coun- regirnent, against Lambert, before the latter cil; broke the gates and portcullises, and, had time to assemble his dependents. With having exposed London to the scorn and four troops of horse Lambert had taken poscontempt of all who hated it, he returned in session of Daventry; but the greater part of triumph to his quarters at Westminster. The them having joined Ingoldsby, Lambert also next day, however, he made an apology for surrendered, not without exhibiting strong this conduct, and promised for the future to marks of pusillanimity. co-operate with the mayor and common-coun- All this time 3Monk still persisted in his cil in such schemes as they should approve. reserve; nor had he intrusted his secret inThe Commons were now greatly alarmed. tentions to any person except one Morris, a They tried every method to detach the gentleman of Devonshire. The latter was general from his new alliance; some of of a sedentary and studious disposition; and them even promised to invest him with the with him alone had the general deliberated dignity of supreme magistrate, and to sup- on the great and dangerous enterprise of the port his usurpation. But MIonk was too restoration. Sir John Granville, who had a cunning or too wise to hearken to such pro- commission from the king, applied foer acposals; he resolved to restore the secluded cess to the general; but he was desired to members, and by their means to bring about communicate his business to Morris. Gran a new election. The restoration of the ex- ville refused, though twice urged, to deliver pelled members was easily effected; and his message to any but the general himself: their number was so much superior to that upon which MIonk, finding he could depend of the Rump, that the chiefs of this last on this minister's secrecy, opened to him his party now withdrew in their turn. The whole intentions, but with his usual caution, restored members began with repealing all refused to commit anything to paper. In the orders by which they had been expelled. consequence of these overtures the king left They renewed and enlarged the general's the Spanish territories, but very narrowly comnlission; fix3d a proper stipend for the escaped being detained at Breda by the 326 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. governor, under pretence of treating him Charles II. was t. irty years of age at the with proper respect and formality. From time of his restoration. Being naturally of this he retired to Hlolland, where he resolved an engaging countenance, and possessed of to wait the course of events. an open, affable disposition, he became a The new parliament being assembled, Sir favorite with all classes of his subjects. They Harlbottle Grimstone was chosen Speaker, a had now experienced all the miseries of man known to be a royalist in his heart. anarchy, and in proportion to these was the The eyes of all were now turned towards satisfaction they felt on the accession of the the king; yet such were their fears, and young monarch. His first measures were such the dangers which attended freedom of also calculated to give general satisfaction. speech, that for some days no one ventured I-Ie seemed desirous of obliterating the meto make any mention. of his name. At mory of past animosities, and of uniting length Monk gave directions to Annesley, every party in affection for their prince and president of the council, to inform them that country. He admitted into his council the one Sir John Granville, a servant of the most eminent men of the nation, without king's, had been sent over by his majesty, regard to former distinctions. The Presbyand was now at the door with a letter to the terians shared this honor equally with the House of Commons. After some mancmu- royalists. Calamy and Baxter, Presbyterian vring, this message was received, Granville clergymen, were even made chaplains to the was called in, the letter read, and the king's king. Admiral Montague was created Earl proposals accepted of. IHe offered a general of Sandwich, and General Monk Duke of amnesty to all persons whatsoever, and that Albemarle. Morris, the general's friend, was without any other exceptions than should be appointed secretary of state. The choice made by parliament. He promised to in- which the king at first made of his principal dulge scrupulous consciences with liberty in ministers and favorites, was, in like manner, matters of religion; to leave to the examina- popular. Sir Edward Hyde, created Earl tion of parliament the claims of all such as of Clarendon, was made prime minister and possessed lands' with contested titles; to con- chancellor; the Marquis, created Duke of firm, all these concessions by act of parlia- Ormond, was named steward of the housement; to satisfy the army under General hold; the Earl of Southampton became Monk with respect to their arrears; and to high-treasurer; and Sir Edward Nicholas give the same rank to his officers when they secretary of state. These men, united in were enlisted in the king's army. the strictest bonds of friendship, supported In consequence of this agreement between each other's credit, and for a time steadily the king and the parliament, Montague, the pursued the interests of the public. English admniral, waited on Charles, to in- The parliament having been summoned form him that the fleet expected his orders without the king's consent, received at first at Scheveling. The Duke of York ina- only the title of a Convention; and it was mediately went on board, and took con- not until after. an act had passed for that mand as lord high admiral. The king em- purpose that they were acknowledged by the barked without delay, and landing at Dover, name of a Parliament. Both houses acwas received by Monk,whom he honored withll knowledged the guilt of the former rebellion, particular marks of attention. H.e entered and gratefully received in their own nlame, London on the.29th of M/ay, 1660, which was and in that of all the subjects, his majesty's his birth-day; and was attended by a great gracious pardon and indemnity. The king number of people, who testified their joy, as having before promised an indemnity to dall the multitude commonly do on such occasions, criminals, excepting such as should tbe exby loud acclamations I cluded by parliament, he now issued a prO HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 327 c]amation, declaring, that such of the late order to share the joy attending the restoraking's judges as did not surrender themselves tion of her family, with whom she lived in within fourteen days should receive no par- great friendship, soon afterwards sickened and don. Nineteen surrendered themselves; died. The queen-mother paid a visit to her some were taken in their flight; and others son, and obtained his consent to the marriage escaped beyond the sea. The Peers seemed of the Princess Henrietta with the D uke of inclined to great severity on this occasion, Orleans, brotller to the French king. The but were restrained by the king, who, in parliament having met on the 6th of Noterms apparently the most earnest, pressed vember, and carried on business with the the act of general indemnity. greatest unanimity and dispatch,. was disAfter repeated solicitations, the act of in- solved by the king on the 29th of December demnity passed both houses, with the ex- 1660. ception of those who had an immediate During the reign of Charles II., the spirit hand in the king's death. Even Cromwell, of the people seemed to take a turn quite Ireton, and Bradshaw, though dead, were opposite to that which it had exhibited in considered as proper objects of resentment. the time of his falther. The latter found his Their bodies were dug from their graves, subjects animated with a fierce though often dragged to the place of execution, and, after ill-regulated zeal for liberty. They knew hanging some time, buried under the gallows, not what it was to be free, and therefore imOf the rest who had sat in judgment on the agined that liberty consisted in throwing off late monarch's trial, some were dead, and entirely the royal authority. After a bloody others thought worthy of pardon. Ten only and protracted struggle they carried. their out of eighty were doomed to immediate point; the unhappy monarch was dethroned, destruction. These were enthusiasts who and put to death; but instead of liberty they had long acted from principle, and who, in found themselves involved in the meshes of the general spirit of rage excited against a more formidable tyranny than that wlich them, showed a fortitude which would have they had overthrown. From this, however, done honor to any cause.. they were freed by the Restoration; but This was all the blood that was shed at they now ran into the contrary extreme; the Restoration. The rest of the king's and instead of an unbounded spirit of op. judges were reprieved, and afterwards dis- position, there was nothing but an unboulnded persed in several prisons. The army which spirit of submission, through which Charles had for so many years governed the nation at length found means to render himself alwas now disbanded, and prelacy, with all the most quite absolute and to govern without ceremonies of the church of England, was requiring, or indeed without having any ocat the same time restored; yet the king pre- casion for parliaments. A similar revolution, tended to preserve the air of moderation and or rather revulsion, tool place in matters neutrality. In regard to religion, Charles, connected with religion. During the former in his gayer hours, was a professed deist; reigns a spirit of the most gloomy enthusiasm but in the latter part of his life he showed had overspread the whole island, and men an inclination to the Catholic persuasion, imagined that the Deity was only to be apwhich he had strongly imbibed in his infancy peased by their denying themselves all social and exile. pleasure, and resisting every thing which Onl the 13th of September this year died the tended to make life agreeable. The proyoung Duke of Gloucester, a prince of some ceedings of Cromwell and his associates, to promise. The king was never so deeply affect- say nothing of the conduct of others, showerd ed by any incident in his life. The Princess that this was not genuine religion; bu'> n Df Orange, also, having come to England, in avoiding one error, they ran into antbthe 328 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. equally dangerous. Every thing religious Ithis law, above two thousand of the Presby or serious was now discountenanced; riot and terian clergy resigned their cures at once dissipation everywhere prevailed. The court In Scotland the right of the king was as set the example. Nothing but scenes of gal- serted in the fullest and most positive terms lantry and festivity were to be seen; the to be hereditary, divine, and indefeasible. horrors of the late war became the subject His power was extended to the lives and of ridicule; the formality of the sectaries possessions of his subjects, and his original was displayed on the stage, and even grant was held to be the source whence all laughed at from the pulpit; in a word, the that they enjoyed was derived. They voted best mode in religion now was to have as him additional revenue of ~40,000; and all little as possible, and, in deriding the hypo- the former violences were spoken of in terms crisy of the sectaries, to transgress even the of the utmost detestation. common duties of morality. In the midst But this intoxication and loyalty soon beof this riot and dissipation, the old and faith- gan to wear off. The king's profusion and ful followers of the royal family were left extravagance in his pleasures, together with unrewarded. Numbers who had fought both his indolence in administration, furnished for the king and his father, and had lost opportunities of making very disadvantagetheir'whole fortunes in his service, were suf- ous comparisons between him and Oliver fered to pine in want and oblivion; whilst Cromwell. And these' dispositions were intheir persecutors, who had acquired fortunes creased by the ejectnment of so many minisduring the civil war, were permitted to en- ters, and also by observing Dunkirk, which joy them without molestation. The wretched had been acquired during Cromwell's vigorroyalists petitioned and murmured in vain. ouns administration, sold to the French fom The monarch fled from their expostulations ~40,000, and that merely to supply the to scenes of mirth and festivity: and the act king's extravagance. From this time, Auof indemnity was with some reason described gust, 1662, Charles found himself perpetually as an act of forgiveness to the king's ene- opposed; and his parliaments granted suprYies, and of oblivion to his friends. plies much more reluctantly than before. In 1661 the Scottish and English parlia- A few months previously, the continual ments vied with each other in protestations of exigencies of the king had forced him to conloyalty and attachment to the king. In Eng- elude a marriage with the Infanta of Portuland, monarchy and episcopacy were raised gal, for the sake of her portion, which was to the greatest splendor. The bishops were to be ~500,000 in money, together with the permitted to resume their seats in the House fortress of Tangier in Africa, and that of of Peers, and all military authority was ac- Bombay, in the East Indies. The Lord knowledged to be vested in the king. He Chancellor Clarendon, and the Dukes of Orwas empowered to appoint commissioners nmond and Southampton urged many reasons for regulating corporations, and expelling against this match, particularly the likelihood such members as had intruded themselves of her never having any children; but all by violence, or professed principles danger- their objections were fruitless, and. therefore ous to the constitution. An act of uniform- Clarendon, like a true courtier, set himself to ity was passed, by which it was required promote it as far as lay in his power. But that every clergyman should be re-ordained, the king's necessities being still greater than if he had not before received episcopal or- his supplies could meet, he resolved to sacridination; that he should declare his consent flee his minister, Clarendon, to the resentto every thing contained in the Book of ment of the parliament, to whom he had be Common Prayer, and should take the oath come obnoxious, in order to procure moro of canonical q bledience. In conse luence of money. In 1663, an extraordinary supply IHISTORY OF THE WORLD. 329 was demanded. On the 12th of June the ders to fight, every heart beat high with the king sent for the Commons to Whitehall; hope of victory. But Opdam did not share and having complained of their inattention, this confidence. In the inexperience of he informed them of a conspiracy which had many of his captains, and the insufficiency of been formed to seize the castle of Dublin, their crews, this able seaman discovered hoping by this means to furnish a reason for enough to make him doubt the result of the demanding a present supply. The artifice comining battle; and to those near him he obsucceeded. Four subsidies were immediately served, "I know what prudence would suggranted, and the clergy, in convocation, fol- gest; but I must obey may orders, and by lowed the example of the Commons. On this this time to-morrow you shall see me crowned occasion the Earl of Bristol ventured to im- with laurels or the cypress." Early in the peach the Chancellor in the House of Peers; morning of the 3d the hostile fleets descried but as he did not support his charge, the af- each other near Lowestoffe, and seven hours fair was dropped for the present. were spent in attempts on each side to gain the In 1664, Charles was induced to declare water-gage. At length the English, tacking war against the Dutch,'.ith the view prob- in the same direction as the enemy, soon ably, of getting the moncy, to be employed for pushed alongside of them, in a parallel line, that purpose, into his own hands. In this upon which the signal was made for each ship war the English, under the command of Sir to bear down and engage her opposite in the Robert Holmes, expelled the Dutch from enemy's fleet. The sea was calm, and the Cape Ccast Castle in Africa, and likewise sky cloudless, but a breeze which blew from seized on their settlements of Cape Verd and the north-west facilitated the duke's orders. the Isle of Goree.. Sailing thence to Amer- The two nations fought with their characterica, the admiral too possession of Nova Bel- istic obstinacy, and during four hours the isgia, since called New York, and long after- sue hung in suspense. On one occasion the wards a dependency of Great Britain. On duke was in imminent peril. All the ships the other hand, De Ruyter dispossessed the of the red squadron except two had dropped English of all their settlements in Guinea, out of the line to refit and prepare again for except Cape Coast. He afterwards sailed to action, and the weight of the enemy's fire America, where he attacked Barbadoes and was poured into the flag-ship. The Earl of Long Island, but was at last repulsed. Falmouth, Lord Muskerry, and Boyle, son At length a battle between the grand fleets to the Earl of Burlington, were killed by the of each nation was fought near Lowestoffe, same shot, and James was bespattered with on the 3d of June, 1665, the one under the their blood. But the disabled ships gradually Duke of York, to the number of a hundred resumed their stations in the line and as the and fourteen sail; the other commanded by fire of the English began to increase, that of the Opdam, admiral of the Dutch navy, of nearly enemy was observed to slacken. At length, the equal force. The English fleet was divided Eendract, bearing Opdam's flag, blew up, and into three squadrons; the red, under coin- the admiral with five hundred men perished mand of the duke; the white, under that of in the explosion. Dismayed at the loss of P'rince Rupert, and the blue, under the Earl their commander, the Dutch fled in confillof Sandwich. James hoisted his flag on sion. Four of their sternmost ships running board the Royal Charles. The Dutch fleet foul of each other, were destroyed by a firesailed in seven divisions, comprising one hun- ship, and three others shortly afterward experdred and thirteen ships. The bravest and ienced the same fate. Van Tromp endeavncblest of the Dutch youths had repaired on ored to keep the fugitive ships together; and board, to share the dangers of the expedition; as the darkness of the night retarded pursuit, and as tile admiral had received positive or- the Dutch fleet in the morning was moored 330 HISTORY OF THE W7ORLD. in safety within the shallows. In this battle Sir George Ayscue had the misfortune t the enemy lost four admirals, seven thousand strike on the Galoper Sand, where he was men slain or made prisoners, and eighteen taken, with a ship, the Prince Royal, of 9 sail either burnt or taken. The loss of the hundred guns. Both sides claimed the vicvictors was small in p..portion, not exceed- tory, but the Dutch certainly had the advaning six hundred men. tage in this engagement. A second, howThis success excited the jealousy of the ever, equally bloody, happened soon after, neighboring states, particularly France and with larger fleets on both sides, but coinDenmark, who immediately resolved to pro- imanded by the same admirals. In this the teet the republic against such a formidable Dutch were vanquished; but few prizes enemy. De Ruyter, the great Dutch admi- were made, and De Ituyter conducted his ral, on his return from Guinea, was appointed, retreat in such a gallant and masterly manat the head of seventy-six sails,'to join the ner that lhe kept his pursuers at bay, and Duke of Beaufort, the admiral, who it was soon moored his fleet in safety within the supposed was then entering the British ehan- Wierings. nel from Toulon. The Duke of Albemarle This success brought on negotiations, which (Monk) and Prince Rupert now commanded were protracted on vaious pretexts. The the British fleet, which did not exceed sev- English exchequer was completely drained, enty-four sail. Albemarle detached Prince and to prepare the fleet for sea again, reRupert with twenty ships to'oppose the quired an immediate supply of money. ParDuke of Beaufort; a piece of rashness liament had indeed made a grant for the against which Sir George Ayscue protested public service; but, though liberal in amount, in vain. The fleets thus engaged on most it offered only a distant resource. In these unequal terms, and the memorable battle of circumstances it was, in an evil hour, prothe Four Days ensued. The first day the posed to lay up the larger ships in ordinary, Dutch admiral Evertzen, was killed by a and to equip two squadrons of light fiigates cannon-ball, one of their ships was blown for harassing the enemy's trade in the Chanup, and three of the English ships were nel and the German Ocean; and although taken; darkness parted the combatants. the Duke of York stated that such a proceedThe second day the battle was renewed with ing was in truth tantamount to an abandonincredible fury. Sixteen fresh ships joined ment of the sovereignty of the sea, the diffithe Dutch; and the English were so shat- culty of procuring money, and the expectatered that their fighting ships were reduced tion of a speedy peace, weighed so much with to twenty-eight. They retreated toward their the king and council., as to obtain their conown coast, followed by the Dutch; and an- sent to a measure which brought lasting other fierce conflict commenced, but was put disgrace on the government and the country. a stop to by the darkness of the night. In It was in fact disarming, and inviting attack. the morning of the third day the Englishl Nor did the enemies of England forego the continued their retreat, and the Dutch their opportunity which was thus offered. A secret pursuit. Albemarle came to the desperate treatywas on the eve of being concluded resolution of blowing up his own ship rather between that country and Fralce; and four than submit to the enemy, when he found out of the seven United Provinces, desirous (f himself happily reinforced by Prince Rupert peace, resolved to withdraw their contribuwith his squadron of twenty sail. By this tions towards the expenses of the war. But time, however, it was night; but the next the pensionary, De Witt, still thirstedl for reday, being the fourth, the fleets canme again venge. The Dutch fleet being ready for sea, to close action, which was continued with whilst that of England was dismantled and great fury, i.ll they were parted by a mist. in the docks, he determined not to throw HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 331 away the opportunity which fortune had against the boom, hung upon it, and a second placed in his hands. The English argued, following in her wake, it broke under their and the French remonstrated, but the pen- united pressure. The guard-ships were soon sionary continued inexorable. HIe left the in a blaze, and the Royal Charles, a first-rate, Texel in company with De Ruyter, and became the prize of the assailants. Finding ordered the fleet,:r the amount of seventy, all his efforts here fruitless, Monk hastened. to join him in separate squadrons off the Nore. back to Upnor Castle, and employed the The English government was not taken al- night in mounting guns, collecting ammunitogether by surprise. The warnings of the tion, and manning the batteries. [Morning Duke of York had awakened them to a sense revealed a most humiliating spectacle, the of their danger; and three months before or- Dutch fleet advancing triumphantly up the ders had been issued to strengthen the forti- river. Two line-of-battle ships led the line fications at Sheerness, to throw a boom across then came six enormous fire-ships; which, at the Medway at the stakes, to mount guns on a short distance, were followed by the rest ot the batteries, and to prepare a number of the squadron. The men of war anchored to fire-ships. But these orders were very ill receive and return the fire of the batteries executed. The commissioners of the navy on either bank; the fire-ships passed bewere already a million in debt; their credit tween them, and speedily set fire to thbt was gone; to procure ready money, either by Royal James, the Oak, and the London, three application to the treasury, or by loan from first-rates. Indescribable consternation reignthe bankers, was impossible; and without ed in the capital. It was fully expected that immediate payment, the sailors refused to the Dutch would sail up next tide to London serve, the laborers to work, and the nmer- Bridge, destroy the whole shipping, and rechants to sell. Little had therefore been duce the metropolis to a heap of ruins. At done, and that little inperfectly. Meanwhile the ebb, however, their commander, Van De WVitt, in order to distract the attention of Ghent, made the signal to the fleet to fall the government, ordered one division of his down the river, and having burnt two of his fleet to sail up the Thames as far as Graves- vessels which had, grounded, he rejoined the end, and the other to destroy the shipping in other division at the Nore. The disgrace the Medway. The works at Sheerness op- which had thus been inflicted on England, posed but a feeble resistance, and were level- so lately mistress of the seas, sunk deep in led with the ground, by a few broadsides. the hearts of the people. Unable to conceive At the first alarm, Monk hastened to the how the Dutch, whom they had so often demouth of the Medway, where he erected bat- feated, should ride triumphant in their rivers, teries, moored guard-ships for the protection burn their ships, and fill with dismay the of the boom, and sunk five ships before it in capital and the country, their grief and inthe narrowest part of the channel. lie had dignation knew no bounds; and whilst many scarcely completed these preparations, when attributed the calamity to imaginary machinathe Dutch advanced with the wind and tide tions of the Catholics, others believed that the in their favor; but the obstructions in the king had secretly leagued with the enemy to main passage proved insurmountable; and depress the nation, that he might the more they were forced to drop away with the ebb. easily establish a despotic government. In the night, however, they discovered During these transactions London i was deanother channel deep enough'for large ships solated by one of the umost calamitous visitaat Migh water, an.d in the morning worked tions ever experienced by any nation. In their way through without impediment. The the winter of 1664, two or three'isolated foremost ships then opened their fire on the cases of plague had occurred in the outskirts batteries, while a lheavy fire-slhip running of the metropolis, and excited general alarm' 332 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. out it was not till about thle end of May, street; during the night the tinkling of a bell, 1665, that, under the malignant influence of accompanied by the lurid glare of torches, excessite heat, and a close, stagaant atmos- announced the approach of the pest-cart phere, the evil burst forth ix al1 its terrors. emalking its melancholy round to receive the From the centre of St. Giles'the infection victims of the previous twenty-four hours. spread with a rapidity over the adjacent "lNo coffins were prepared; no funeral service parishes, threatened the court at Whitehall, was read; no mourners were permitted to fo]mnd, in spite of every precaution, crept into low the remains of their relatives and friends, the city. A general panic ensued. The no- The cart proceeded to the nearest cemetery) bility and gentry fled; the royal family fol- and shot its burden into the common grave, lowed; and all who had power or the means a deep and spacious pit, capable of holding prepared to imitate their example. By every some scores of bodies, and dug in the churchoutlet the tide of emigration flowed towards yard, or, when the church-yard was full, in the country, till it was checked by the lord the outskirts of the parish." mayor refusing to grant Certificates of health; In September the heat of the atmosphere and by the opposition of the neighboring abated; but; contrary to expectation, the townships, which rose in their own defence, mortality increased. From this time the inand drove back the fugitives into the devoted fection became the certain harbinger of' city. The absence of the wealthier class of death, which followed often within the space citizens, and the consequent breaking -up of of twenty-hours, generally in the course of establishments, with the cessation of trade, three days. An experiment, grounded on served to aggravate the calamity; and al- the practice of former times, was now orthough the charity of the opulent seemed to dered to be tried. Fires of sea-coal, in the keep pace with the progress of the pestilence, proportion of one to every twelve houses,were fo(rty thousand servants were left without kindled in the streets, courts, and alleys of a home, and the number of artizans and London and Westminster, and were kept laborers thrown out of employment was still burning three days and nights, till a heavy. more considerable. The mortality was at first continuous rain extinguished them. By the confined to the lower classes, carrying off a supposed disinfecting power of heat, it was larger proportion of children than adults, and hoped to dissipate the pestilential miasm, or females than males; but, by the end of June, at least to abate its virulence; and, in fact, its diffusion became so rapid, its virulence so the next report exhibited a considerable digreat, and its ravages so destructive, that the minution in the number of deaths. But civil authorities, in virtue of the powers with whilst the survivors were congratulating which they had been invested by an act of themselves on the prospect of deliverance, James I. -" for the charitable relief and or- the destroying angel was scattering a fiercer dering of persons infected with the plague," pestilence from his wings. In the following divided the parishes into districts, allotting to week, ten thousands victims sank under the each a competent number of officers; and accumulated virulence of the disease, and deordered a red cross, one foot in length, to be spair reigned in every heart. Yet, even now, painted on the door of every infected house, in this lowest depth of human misery, dewith the words "Lord have mercy on us" liverance was at hand. The high winds placed above it, that the healthy might be which usually accompany the autumnal e luiwarned of the existence of the disease. Pro- nox cooled and purified the air; the fever vision was also made for the interment of assumed a less malignant form; the weekly the dead. In the day-time persons were al- number of deaths successively decreased; in ways on the watch to withdraw from public the beginning of LDecernber seventy-three view the bodies of those who expired in the parishes were pronounced clear of disease; HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 333 and in February the court, attended by the power. Houses had been blown up or demolishnobility and gentry, returned to Whitehall. ed, and gaps thus made, in hopes of arresting Upwards of a hundred thousand individuals the progress of the flames; but ignited flakes are said to have perished in London alone; were carried over the empty space, or the and as the pestilence extended its destructive ruins again took fire, or the flames unexpectsway over the greater part of the kingdom, edly turned in a new direction. On the evethe fugitives from the metropolis carrying ning of Wednesday the violence of the wind the infection with them wherever they found began to abate; and the church of the Teman asylum, the total amount of its ravages pie, as well as Westminster Abbey and must have beeen truly dreadful. Whitehall, were saved by the destruction of This calamity was followed by another, if the neighlboring buildings. Towards the possible,.more dreadful. On the night of Sun- evening of Thursday the weather became day,the 2d of September,1666, a fire broke out calm, and hopes were entertained that this in Pudding Lane, near Fish Street, one of dreadful calamity was approaching its close. the most crowded quarters of the metropolis. But in the.night new alarms were excited. It originated in a bakehouse; the buildings The fire burst out again in the Temple, of the neighborhood being constructed of while it still raged with unabated fury near wood, with pitched roofs, quiclkly caught the Cripplegate, and a large body of flame flames; and the stores with which they were seemed to be making rapid advances tofilled consisting of the highly combustible wards the Tower. With the aid of gunarticles used in the equipment of shipping, powder, however, large openings were made; nourished the conflagration. The pipes from and as the weather continued calm, the conthe new river were found empty, and the en- flagration was thu's prevented from extendgine which raised water from the Thames ing its ravages, and, in consequence, gradualwas consumed. No decisive measures were ly died out, although months elapsed before adopted to check the progress of the devour- the combustion was altogether extinguished ing element, and several hours elapsed before in the immense accmnulation of ruins. By the aid of the military was called for. Mlean-'this deplorable calamity two thirds of Lonwhile the wind, which during the day blew don, including the whole space from the from the east, augmented hourlyin violence, Tower to the Temple, were reduced to and became a perfect hurricane. The fire ashes. The number of houses consumed spread with astonishing velocity, leaping as amounted to thirteen thousand two hundred, it were from roof to roof, and frequently and that of churches, including St. Paul's, igniting houses at a distalnce; "the night to eighty-nine, covering three hundred and was as light as day for ten miles' round; a seventy-three acres within, and sixty-three vast column or pillar of fire, about a mile in without the walls. diameter ascended to the clouds; the flames These complicated misfortunes did not as they rose, were bent, broken, and shivered, fail to excite many murmurs among the peoby the fury of the tempest; and every blast pie. Whilst the blame of the fire was laid scattered through air flakes of fire, which, on the Papists, the Dutch war was exclaimed falling on inflammable materials, kindled new against as unsuccessful and unnecessary, and conflagrations. The lurid red glare of the sky, as an attempt to humble that nation, who the scorching heat of the atmosphere, the were equally enemies to Popery with them roaring of the flames, and the frequent crash selves. Charles himself also began to be senof falling buildings, combined to fill every sible, that all the ends for which he had unbreast with astonishment and terror. While dertaken this war were likely to be entirely the storm raged, the oonflagration bade de- frustrated. Instead of being able to lay up fiance to every effort of human ingenuity or money for his own purposes, the supplies of 334 HISTORY OF THE WORLD.,parliament had hitherto been so scanty, that formed from the initials of their names, lie he found himself considerably in debt. A found a junta in all respects suited to his treaty was therefore set on foot, and conclu- wishes. The first effects of the advice given ded at Breda, on the 21st:f July, 1667. By by the Cabal were a secret alliance with this treaty the only advantage gained by, France, and a rupture with H:ollard. The Britain was, the cession of the colony of Nlew undivided disgrace of both transactions beYork. It was therefore accounted disgrace- long to them, notwithstanding the king had ful by the nation, and the blame of it thrown taken a bribe from France, which, however upon the Earl of Clarendon, who, besides, was he kept from the knowledge of his ministers, charged with the sale of Dunkirk, the bad lest they should claim their share in the wages payment of the seamen, the disgrace inflicted of infamy. Soon after this the Duuke of York by the Dutch fleet, and his own ambition. declared himself a Catholic; and liberty of HIis daughter, whilst yet in Paris, had coun- conscience was proclaimed to all sectaries, tenanced the addresses of the Duke of York, Dissenters as well as Catholics. A proclamaird, under a solemn promise of marrige, had ation was also issued, containing very rigoradmitted him to the privileges of a husband. ous clauses in favor of impressment; and at James, however, either of his own accord, tie heels of this came another full of menaces or through the persuasions of his brother against those who should speak undutifully Charles, afterwards married her; and this of his majesty's measures, nay, even against was imputed as a crime to Clarendon. On those who heard such discourses, unless they these grounds the king, who had never much informed in due time against the offenders. loved this nobleman, ordered the seals to be These things gave great and just offence tc taken from him, and given to Sir Orlando thepeople; but they were especially alarmed Bridgemen. Clarendon was again impeach- at the alliance with France, and afraid of ed; and though the charges were manifestly the perfidy by which the policy of that nafrivolous, yet so strong was the popular tor- tion was characterized. rent against him, that he thought proper to In the meanwhile the Dutch, attacked by withdraw into France. Soon after, Charles Louis on land, and by the combined navies formed an alliance with Holland and Sweden, of England and France on sea, and at the in order to prevent the French king from same time deserted by their ally Sweden, completing his conquest of the Netherlands, seemed on the very verge of destruction. the greatest part of which he had already But the republic of the United Provinces was subdued; and he was unexpectedly stopped not wanting to itself in this crisis. War was in his career by this league, in which it was declared with Holland on the 17th of March, agreed by the contracting powers to con- 167T2; and by the beginning of May, the stitute themselves arbiters of the differences Dutch fleet put to sea. It consisted of sevbetween France and Spain, and to check the enty-five men of war, and a considerable numexorbitant pretension of both. ber of fire-ships, with which De Riyter staThe king now began to govern in a very tioned himself between Dover and Calais, to arbitrary manner. HIe had long wished to prevent the intended junction of the French extend his prerogative, and to be able to fur- and English fleets. The Duke of York lay nish himself with whatever sums he wanted at the Nore with forty sail, being all he was for his pleasures, and he therefore sought able to muster; but with this force he conministers who would make no scruple of trived, under cover of a fog, to pass the enegratifying him in both particulars. In Clif- my unnoticed, and to reach St. I-Telens, where ford Ashley (afterwards Shaftesbury), Buck- he awaited the arrival of the French squadron ngham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, who underD'Estrees. When the latter had joined,.. weredistinghished by theterm Caal, aword the combined fleet immediately sailed in HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 335 quest of the enemy. lie was discovered ber of their adversaries. Still they fought lying off Ostend, but prudently declined to with desperate courage, in order to protract to engage even upon equal terms; and baf- their resistance till they could be. joined by fling all the manceuvres employed to bring the remainder of the fleet from the bay. About him to action, at last reached Goree. The eleven o'clock the flag-ship, the Prince, of duke then returned to Southwold Bay, in one hundred guns, lay a complete wreck on order that his ships might take in their full the water, having lost all her rigging and complement of men and provisions, in both above one third of her crew. Finding her of which they had previously been deficient. no longer manageable, the duke ordered her Meanwhile De Ruyter, learning the situation to be towed out of the fire, and immediately and employment of the English, suddenly shifted his flag to the St. Michael of ninety resolved to become the aggressor; and sail- guns. The gallant Earl of Sandwich was ing from Goree with his whole force onil the less fortunate. In his ship the Royal James, evening of the 27th May, he would probably a first-rate, lie had repeatedly beat off the enhave surprised his enemies at anchor, had it emies by whom he was surrounded; carried not been for Cogolin, the captain of a French by boarding a seventy gun ship which lay frigate, who, ignorant of the coast had athwart his hawse; and sunk a fire ship which anchored during the night at a distance of was drifting towards him. But after a conseveral miles from Southwold Bay, and hay- test of eight hours' duration, the Royal James ing descried two of the Dutch ships in the became unmanageable; a second fire-ship now morning, fired off his guns in succession as grappled her on the larboard side; and-in a a signal of the approach of the enemy. Still few minutes that magnificent vessel was in the bold and decided advance of De Ruyter flames. The duke ordered the Dartmouth had all the effect of a surprise. James it is and a number of boats to hasten to her assistrue, immediately ordered every ship to get tance, and between two and three hundred under way, and take her station in the line; of the crew were saved; the rest;, with their but the wind being easterly, and the tide run- gallant commander, perished in the waves. ning to leeward, not more than twenty sail Meanwhile the other ships joined the fleet, could form to meet the enemy. The duke, and the combat became more equal. About with part of the red squadron, encountered five the duke shifted his flag from the St. De Ruyter and the fleet from the Maas; the Michael, which could with difficulty be kept Earl of Sandwich led the blue against Van afloat, to the Londomli which had sustained Ghent and the fleet from Amsterdam; whilst less damage, and the battle continued with D'Estrees opposed Banker with the ships unabated fury. But, about seven o'clock, from Zealand, though, probably from respect De, Ruyter shrunk from the conflict, and sail for conservative principles, the French com- ed to overtake the Zealand squadron. The mander cautiously avoided coming to close honor of the victory belonged to the English.'action with his opponent. The battle raged With all the disadvantages of a surprise, and long and fiercely. The English had to con- with wind and tide against them, they encounmtend with a bold, skillful and experienced tered a force greatly superior, and, notwith-. enemy, and, owing to the inexplicable inac- standing the skill of the Dutch admiral and tivitv of their French allies, no less than to the bravery of his men, they maintained the the suddenness of the attack, they had to combat with that cool, determined courage make head against a fearful disparity of force. which, when properly directed, nothing under Their ships, becoming intermingled with heaven can overcome, and ultimately cornthose of the enemy, could afford each other pelled the enemy to retreat. The English little support, whilst they were in imminent lost one, and the Dutch three ships of the danger of being overwhelmned by the num- line; but, the French suffered very little, not 33i HIISTPRY OF THE WORLD. havmng entered into the heat of the engace- ance; and declared that they would gi'an men'. It was even supposed by some that no more supplies to carry on the Dutch war, they had orders to observe this conduct, and unless it appeared that the enemy were so to spire their own ships, whilst the Dutch obstinate as to refuse all reasonable condiand English weakened each other by their tions. To cut short these disagreeable alter.. mutral fury in the combat. cations, the king resolved to prorogue the The combined powers were more success- parliament; and with that intention he went ful against the Dutch by land. Louis car- unexpectedly to the Hoouse of Peers, and ried a:ll before him, crossed the Rhine, took sent the usher of the black rod to summon the frontier towns of the enemy, and threat- the IHouse of Commons to attend. The usher ened the new republic with dissolution. and the Speaker happened to meet nearly at Terms were proposed to them by the con- the door *of the house; but the Speaker querers. Louis offered them such as would being within, some of the members suddenly have deprived them of all power of resist- shut the door, and cried, "To the chair." It ing an invasion from France by land; those was then lx oved, and voted by acclamation, of Charles would have exposed them equally that the alliance with France was a grievto invasion by sea. At last the murmurs of ance, that the evil counsellors of the icing the English at seeing this brave and indus- were a grievance, and that the Earl of Lautrious people, the supporters of the Protest- derdale was a grievance; upon which tle ant cause, totally sunk and on the brink of house rose in great confusion. The -king destruction, were too loud not to reach the finding that he could expect no supply from king. He was obliged to call together the te the Commns for carrying on a war so unparliament in order to take the sense of the popular, resolved to make a separate peace nation respecting his conduct; and he soon kwith the Dutch, on the terms which they found how his subjects stood affected towards had proposed through the Spanish aimbassahim. der; and having asked the advice of his parThe parliament met on the 24th of Febru- liament, a peace was concluded accordingly. ary, 1673. They began with resisting some The prepossession which Charles had all of the king's extraordinary stretches of pre- along shown in favor of France, and his rotative, and taking means for promoting manifest inclination upon all occasions to atuniformity in religious matters. A law was tach himself to that kingdom, had given passed entitled the Test Act, imposing an great offence to his people; and other ciroath on all who should enjoy any public ccumstances also conspired to raise a general benefice. Besides taking the oaths of allegi- discontent. The toleration of Catholics, so ance and supremacy, such persons were much wished for by the king, and the bigotry obliged to receive the sacrament once a year of the Duke of York, the heir-apparent to in the established church, and to abjure all the crown, who was. zealous for the propagabelief in the doctrine of transubstantiation. tion of the Catholic religion, excited an alarin, As the Dissenters also had seconded the ef- not altogether without foundation, that the forts of the Commons against the king's de- Protestant religion was in danger. But these claration of indulgence to Roman Catholics, fears and discontents were carefully fomenta bill was passed for their ease and relief, ed by wicked and designing men, who, to which, however, met with some difficulty in promote their own interests, scrupled not to passing through the Peers. The Dutch, in advance the greatest falsehoods. In 167S, an the meantime, continued to defend them- account of a plot, supposed to have been selves with such valor, that the Comrnlons formed by the Papists, for burning London, began to despair of success. They therefore putting the Protestants to death, afind desresolved that the standing army was a griev- troying the king and the Protestant religion, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 337 was circulated by one Kirby, a chemist; was also detected; and, to crown the whole, Tong, a weak, credulous parson; and Titus Godfrey, the magistrate who had first given Oates, who had likewise been a clergyman, publicity to the plot, was either murdered, and was in reality one of the most abandon- or, which seems at least equally probable, ed miscreants that ever disgraced humanity. committed suicide. This last occurrence The circumstances attending this pretended made every good Protestant imagine that he discovery were so perfectly incredible and felt a Catholic poniard at his throat; and, monstrous, that it seems amazing how any whilst it aggravated the terrors, confirmed person of common sense could give ear to the credulity of the people. The verdict'of them; yet so violently were the minds of willful murder returned by the coroner's inthe nation at this time inflamed against the quest on the body of Godfrey imparted the Catholics, that it not only produced the des- stamp of authority to all the reports pretruction of many individuals of the Romish viously in circulation. The ignorant believed persuasion, but a general massacre of that and trembled, the artful secretly fomented unfortunate sect was apprehended. The par- the panic with which the nation was now liament, who ought to have repressed these seized. It was no longer safe to deny that delusions, and brought back the people to Godfrey had been murdered by the Papists, calm deliberate inquiry, showed themselves or that the latter had conspired the destrneeven more credulous than the vulgar them- tion of the king, the constitution, and the selves. The cry of the plot was immediately church of England, with the extermination echoed from one house to the other; the of every Protestant in the kingdom. The country party could not let slip so favorable plot having thus attained a -sudden and an opportunity of managing the passions of bloated maturity, it was greedily adopted by the people; and the courtiers were afraid of the popular party as an engine against the being thought disloyal if they ventured to court; and whilst the extraordinary hallucidoubt the guilt of those who were accused nation lasted, every species of injustice and of designs against the king's person. The iniquity was perpetrated without compuncwhole nation was seized by a sort of epidemic tion or remorse. Coleman, Ireland, Grove, madness. Danby, the prime minister, him- Pickering, and others suffered death for an self entered into it very furiously, and per- imaginary conspiracy, on the contradictory sisted in his inquiries notwithstanding all the testimony of incredible witnesses, and after king's advices to the contrary; and Charles trials in which the judges and juries seemed himself, who was the only person that ought to vie with each other in abetting perjury. to have been most concerned, was the only Nor was the reign of delusion and blood one who treated it with contempt. Nothing, short-lived. For two years, Protestant creduthowever, could check the popular phrenzy; lity and vengeance were satiated, from time and for a time the king was obliged to give to time, with the invention: of new horrors way to it. Meanwhile accident after acci- and the immolation of fresh victims; nor dent, occurring in a manner unparalleled in were these legal murders stayed till the exehistory, contributed to maintain the delusion, cution of the venerable Lord Viscount Stafand to give temporary credibility to the in- ford excited pity and remorse in the public fernal perjuries of Oates, Bedloe, and their mind. associates in infamy. Letters were seized In the midst of this general uproar and which discovered the Duke of York's cor- persecution, the lord treasurer Danby, was respondence with France, in opposition to impeached in the House of Commons, by the religion and interests of his country; Seymour, the Speaker. The principal charge Danby's correspondence, which involved the against him was, his having written a letter king in the disgrace of similar machinations, to Montague, the king's ambassador at Paris, 338 HISTORY OF ]HE WORLD. directing l1 >n to sell the king's good offices were strongly attached to the Duke of Monat tile trea;y of Nimeguen, to the king of mouth, and resolved to support him against France, for a certain sum of money; con- the Duke of York. Mobs, petitions, and trary to the general interests of the confed- burnings of the pope in effigy, were the arerates, and also to those of his own kingdom. tifices employed to keep up the terrors of the But although the charge was just, Danby people, and to alarm the court. The parliahad the good fortune to find the king re- ment had shown favor to the various tribes solved to defend him. Charles assured the of informers, and that of course served to inparliament that, as he had acted in every- crease the number of these miscreants. Plots thing by his orders, he held him entirely also became more numerous. Conspiracy blameless; and although he would deprive was set up against conspiracy; and the peohim of all his employments, yet he positively ple, uncertain what to believe or whom to insisted on his personal safety. The Lords, trust, were kept in a state of the most dreadhowever, still went on to impeach him, and ful apprehension. Danby was sent to the Tower; but no worse But it was not by plots alone that the ad consequences followed. verse parties endeavored to supplant each These proceedings were carried on by a other. Tumultuous petitions on the one House of Commons which had continued in hand, and adulatory addresses on the other, existence above seventeen years. They were were sent up from all quarters. Wherever now dissolved, however, and another parlia- the country party prevailed, petitions were ment was called; but this one proved as un- sent to the king, filled with grievances and xmanageable as the preceding. The members apprehensions. Wherever the church or resolved to check the growth of Popery, by court party had the ascendency, addresseo 6trilfn;, at the root of the evil; and there- were framed, containing expressions of the lore brought in a bill for the total exclusion highest regard for his majesty, and the deepest of the Duke of'York from the crown of abhorrence of those who endeavored to disEngland and Ireland, which passed the lower turb the public tranquillity. Thus tiie HIouse by a majority of seventy-nine. They nation came to be distinguished into Petinext voted the king's standing army and tioners and Abhorrers. The names of Whig guards to be illegal; and proceeding to fix and Tory, also, were now first used as terms iimits to the king's power of imprisoning of reproacl. The whigs were so denominadelinquents, the celebrated statute of Hfa- ted from a cant name given to the Presbybeas Corpus waspassed, which confirms to terian conventiclers, "whig" being milk the subject an absolute security against op- turned sour; and the tories received that pressive power. honorable appellation from the Irish banditti, During these troubles the Duke of York so called, whose usual phrase, in ordering had retired to Brussels; but an indisposition people to stand and deliver, was the Irish of the king induced him to return to Eng- word toree, " give me." land, to be ready, in case of accident, to as- During all this time the king had tyran.sert his right to the throne. After prevail- nized over the Scots in a very cruel manner. ing with' his brother to disgrace his natural Being apprized of the tendency of Presbysol, the Duke of Monmouth, who had now terian principles to a republican form of become very popular, he set out for Scotland, government, Charles, like his predecessors, under pretence of quieting the apprehen- had endeavored to introduce Episcopacy'ions of the English nation, but in reality to there, but in a much more violent mannel strengthen his interests in that part of the than had formerly been attempted. The kingdcm. This proceeding, however, served right of patrons had for some years been still more to inflame'he country party, who abolished, and the power of electing minis HISTORY OF THE WORLD..339 ters had been vested in the kirk-sessions and his execution of them, they spared his life. lay elders: but it was now enacted, that all At Lanark they renewed the covenant; and incumbents who had been admitted upon published a manifesto, in which- they prothis title should receive a presentation, and fessed submission to the king, and only debe instituted anew by the bishop, under the sired the re-establishment of Presbytery, penalty of deprivation. In consequence of and the re-instatement of their former minis this, three hundred and fifty parishes were ters. Their force. never exceeded two at once declared vacant. New ministers thousand men; and although the country in were sought for all over the kingdom, and general bore them great favor, men's spirits none were too vicious or ignorant to be re- were so subdued, that the insurgents could jected. The people, as might have been expect no further increase of numbers. expected, were displeased to the highest Dalziel took the field to oppose them. The degree, but gave no sign of mutiny or sedi- number of the Covenanters had now been tion, notwithstanding their discontent. This reduced to a little more than a thousand, submission made their case still worse; it and these were no way capable of contendbeing rather hastily imagined, that, as they ing with regular forces. Having advanced did not complain for a little ill usage, they towards Edinburgh, and met with no supwould submit with equal patience to worse. port, they attempted to make their way back Affairs remained tolerably tranquil, till, in to the west by the Pentland Hills. But at 1661, a severe act was passed in England a spot called Rullion Green they were atagainst conventicles, which severity was tacked by the king's troops, and received imitated by the Scottish parliament, who the first charge with great firmness. This, passed an act of the same kind. Military however, was the whole action. They imforce was next let loose on the people. nmediately fell into confusion and fled. About Wherever they had forsaken their churches, forty were killed on the spot, and a hundred the guards were quartered throughout the and thirty taken prisoners. country. These legalized banditti were As long ago as the year 1661 the Presbycommanded by Sir James Turner, a man of terians had deputed Sharpe, then one of their a furious temper and dissolute life, who number, to lay their grievances before the went about and received lists from the clergy, king. Instead of doing so, however, their of those who absented themselves from the deputy abandoned the cause altogether, bechurches, or were supposed to frequent con- came their violent enemy, and, as a reward venticles. Without proof or legal convic- of his treachery, was created Archbishop of tion, he exacted fines, and quartered soldiers St. Andrews. After the affair of Pentland on the supposed criminals till he received this man was the foremost to take vengeance payment. An insurrection being dreaded on the unhappy insurgents, whose oppressed during the Dutch war; new forces were state and inoffensive behavior made them levied, and intrusted to the command of objects of universal compassion. Ten were Dalziel and Drummond, two men of savage hanged on one gibbet in Edinburgh, anld dispositions, and the Scottish parliament thirty-five before their own doors in different gave full scope to whatever enormities they ar'ts of the country. Some of them were chose to commit. previously tortured, and, after death, their Representations were now made to the mutilated limbs were stuck up in different king, who promised some redress. But his parts of the kingdom. All of them might lenitv came /too late. In 1668 the people have saved their lives upon condition of rerose in arm s, and having surprised Turner in nouncing the covenant; but this they abso. Dumfi'es, resolved to put him to death; but lutely refused. The executions were profinding his orders mlucll more violent tha, ceeeding without mercy, when the king wrote 340 HISTORY OF THE WORLD a letter to the privy council, in which he Romanism and prelacy, and against a Catho ordered that such of the prisoners as simply lie successor to the crown. promised to obey the laws for the future Alarmed at this rising, Charles dispatched should be set at liberty, and that the incor- against the Covenanters a small body of rigible should be sent to the plantations. English cavalry under the Duke of MonThis letter was brought to the council by mouth, who, having joined the Scottish Burnet, but was not immediately delivered guards, and some regiments of militia levied by Sharpe, whose renegade vengeance was from the well-affected counties, marched not yet satiated. with great celerity in quest of the insurOn the 3d of MIay, 1679, Sharpe was way- gents. They had taken post at Bothwell laid and murdered in MIagus M[uir, near St. Bridge, between Hamilton and Glasgow; a Andrews, by a troop of fanatics, who had good position, to which there was no access been driven to madness by his tyranny, and but by the bridge, which a small body might who, in perpetrating this unholy deed, were have defended against the king's army. actuated solely by their own enthusiasm or The whole force of the Covenanters never revenge. But the act committed by these exceeded 8000 men, and they had in reality men was nevertheless imputed to the party no other generals than their clergymen. to which they ostensibly belonged; and the Monmouth attacked the bridge, and a party consequence was, that all who attended field of the Covenanters stoutly maintained their conventicles were ordered to be indiscrimi- post as long as their ammunition lasted. nately massacred. This brought matters to When they sent for a fresh supply, they rea crisis. ceived orders to quit their post and retire; The Convenanters, finding themselves ob- and this inlprudent measure occasioned an liged to meet in large bodies, and bring arms immediate defeat. Monmouth passed the for their own security, drew up a declaration bridge without opposition, and, drawing up against prelacy, which they published at his forces opposite to the enemy, soon put Rutherglen, a small burgh near Glasgow; them to the rout, which, indeed, was affected and in the market-place they burned the by his cannon alone. About seven hundred several acts of parliament which had estab- were killed in the pursuit, for, properly lishl that mode of ecclesiastical government, speaking, there wd/s no action. Twelve hunand had prohibited all conventicles. For dred were taken prisoners, and treated with this purpose they chose the 20th day of May, humanity by Monmouth. Such as promised the anniversary of the Restoration, having to live peaceably under the present governpreviously extinguished the bonfires which ment were dismissed; and about three hunhad been kindled on that occasion. Graham dred who refused this condition were shipped of Claverhouse, afterwards Viscount Dun- for Barbadoes, but unfortunately perished dee, an active and merciless agent of the during the voyage. Two of their clergycouncil, attacked a great conventicle upon men, however, were hanged. Soon afterLoudonJ Hill, but was repulsed with the loss wards an act of indemnity was passed; but of thirty men. The Covenanters, finding Lauderdale took care that it should afford tllemselves thus unwarily engaged in rebel- little protection to the unhappy Covenanters; lion, were obliged to persevere, and there- for, although orders were given thenceforfore push on to Glasgow, which, though re- ward to connive at all conventicles, he found pulsed at first, they afterwards made them- means, under a variety of pretences, to elude selves masters of. HIere they dispossessed the execution of them. the established clergy, and issued proclama- That Charles had formed a scheme for tions, in which they declared that they overturning the established religion, and subfolght against tile king's supremacy, against stituting Catholicism in its place, as well as HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 341 for rendering himself absolute, is now cer- in them, grant the king any manner of suptainly known. But in this he met with ply; and that whoever should hereafter lend, strenuous opposition from his parliaments; by way of advance, any money upon the and as the present one seemed to surpass its branches of the king's revenue, should be repredecessors in resisting the schemes of the sponsible to parliament for his conduct. court, the king was induced to dissolve them Finding that there were no hopes of exand to call another in 1680. By this step, torting either money or compliance from however, he gained nothing; for they voted the Commons, Charles came to a resolution the legality of petitioning the king, and fell of once more dissolving the parliament; and with extreme severity on the Abhorrers, this accordingly took place while they were who, in their addresses to the crown, had ex- voting that the dissenters ought to be enpressed their disapprobation of such petitions. couraged, and that the city of London had Great numbers of this class were seized by been burned by the Catholics. their order in all parts of England, and corn- It was for some time doubtful whether mitted to close custody; and the liberty of the king would ever call another parliament. the subject, which had been so carefully But his necessities surmounted all his fears, guarded by their own recent law, was vio- and in 1681, he summoned a parliament to lated by such arbitrary and capricious inm- meet at Oxford, that he might thus have an prisonments. But one Stowel of Exeter put opportunity of punishing the' city of Lona stop to these proceedings. I-le refused to don, by showing his suspicions of their loyalobey the sergeant-at-arms who had been sent ty. In this, however, as in all former parto apprehend him; and, standing upon his liaments, the country party predominated; defence, declared that he knew of no law and they trode exactly in the footsteps of by which the House of Commons could pre- their predecessors. The same Speaker waz tend to commit him. The house, finding it chosen, and the exclusion bill urged more equally dangerous to proceed or recede, got fiercely than before. Ernely, one of the off by an evasion. They voted that Stowel king's ministers, went so far as to propose was indisposed; and a month was allowed that the duke should be banished five hunhim for his recovery, about which, as may dred miles from England, and that on the well be supposed, they gave themselves no king's decease the next heir should be apfurther concern. pointed regent. Yet even this expedient, But the chief point labored by the present which left the duke only the barren title of parliament was the Exclusion Bill, which, king, failed to obtain the approbation of the though voted by a former house, had never house; nothing but a total exclusion could yet made any further progress. In the pre- satisfy them. sent House of Commons it passed by a great The opposite factions had for some time majority, but was thrown out by the House indulged their animosities by revilirg and of Peers. All the bishops except three voted ridiculing each other in pamphlets and libels; against it; being of opinion that the church but this practice, too common in party warof England was in greater danger from the fare to deserve particular mention, was at prevalence of Presbyterianism than from the length attended with an incident which de-;ntroduction of Romanism. The Commons serves notice. One Fitzharris, an Irish adwere extremely mortified at the rejection of venturer, employed a Scotchman named Ever. their favorite bill, and in retaliation they ard, who, like himself, hung loose on society, passed several other disagreeable acts. to write a libel against the king and the Amongst these was one which set forth, Duke of York. The Scot, who was actually that, till the exclusion bill was passed, they a spy for the opposite party, supposing this could not consistently with the trust reposed a trick to entrap him, discovered the whole 342 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. to Sir William Waller, a justice of the peace; zeal and their principles by their writings and, to convince the magistrate of the truth and sermons; but although the partizans of of his information, secreted him and two the king were the most numerous, those of other persons in a place where they over- the opposite faction were the most enterheard the whole conference between Fitz- prising. The king openly espoused the harris and himself. The libel concocted be- cause of the former; and thus placing himtwixt them was replete with the utmost ran- self at the head of a faction, he deprived cour and scurrility. Waller carried the in- the city of London, which had long headed telligence to the king, and obtained a war- the popular party, of their charter. Terror rant for committing Fitzharris, who at the was also employed to confirm this new time happened to have a copy of the libel in species of monarchy. Fitzharris was brought his pocket. Finding himself in the hands to trial, condemned, and executed. The of a party from which he could expect no whole gang of spies, witnesses, informers. mercy, Fitzharris resolved to change his: and suborners, who had long been encourgame, and to throw the odium of the libel aged and supported by the leading patriots, upon the court, who, he said, had employed finding now that the king was entirely mlashim to draw it up with the view of imputing ter, turned short upon their ancient employit to the exclusionists, and thus rendering ers, and tendered evidence against those who them hateful to the pe6ple. And, in order had first put them in motion. The king's to enhance his services in the estimation of ministers gave encouragement to these misthe country pairty, he revealed to them a creants; and in a short time the same innew popish-plot, still more tremendous than justice and the same cruelties were practiced any of those previously hatched, and accused under pretence of Presbyterian, as had forthe Duke of York as a principal accomplice merly been committed under the delusive in the conspiracy. The king, however, im- apprehension of Catholic treasons. But the prisoned Fitzharris in Newgate. But the king's chief resentment was levelled against Commons immediately espoused his cause, the Earl of Shaftesbury; and not without and voted that he should be impeached by reason, as he had been very active in the themselves, in order to screen him from the late disturbances. No sums were spared to ordinary forms of justice. The Lords re- seek for evidence, nor even to suborn witjected the impeachment; the Commons as- nesses, against this intriguing and formidserted their right; and a commotion was able man. A bill of indictment was prelikely to ensue, when the king, in order to sented to the grand jury, and witnesses were break off the contest, went to the house and examined, who swore to such incredible cirdissolved the parliament, with a fixed resb- cumstances as must have invalidated their lution never to call another. testimony, even if they had not been brandFrom this moment the king ruled with ed as perjured villains. Amongst his papers, despotic sway. His temper, which had gen- indeed, was found a draught of an associaerally been easy and merciful, now became tion, which might have been construed into arbitary and cruel; he entertained spies and treason; but it was not in the Earl's handinformers round the throne, and imprisoned writing, nor could it be proved that he had all those whom he thought most daring in ever communicated this scheme to any body, their designs. In particular, he resolved to or signified his approbation of any such prohumble the Presbyterians. They were di- ject. But the sheriffs had taken care to vested of all their employments, and their summon a jury whose principles coincided offices given to such as were favorable to the with those of the earl; and in that, more court, and approved the doctrine of non than in any insufficiency of proof, consisted resistance. The clergy began to testify their his safety. The bill was ignored by the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 343 grand jury; the hall resounded with ap- Cargill escaped from the field, and-prepared plause; and the day was closed with the to avenge the death of his friends. Having ringing of bells, bonfires, and other demon- repaired to Torwood in Stirlingshire, and.trations of popular joy. assembled a nnumber of his disciples, henceIBut it was in Scotland that the character forward known by the name of Cameronians, of the restored government appeared in its he proceeded, after a lecture and sermon, to most hideous features. The duke, after a excommunicate the king, "for his mocking temporary exile from Britain, had been sent of God, his perjury, his uncleanness of adulto that country; and there, during his ad- tery, his drunkenness, and his dissembling ministration, he exercised a tyranny, if possi- with God and man;" the Duke of York, ble still more frightful than that of Lauder- for idolatry; the Duke of Iionmouthl, for dale. The battle of Bothwell Bridge had invading God's people at Bothwell Bridge; tamed the spirit of the Covenanters, and the Dukle of Lauderdale, for blasphemy, many of them, by frequenting the churches apostacy, and adultery; and the Duke of of the indulged ministers, succeeded in Rothes, Sir George Mackenzie, and Dalziel screening themselves from the vengeance of of Binns, for different offences. IIe conthe government. But there was still left a eluded by declaring that "no power on remnant of faithful adherents df the cove- earth, of kings, princes, magistrates, or minnant, inconsiderable in number, and despic- isters of the Gospel, could, without the reable in point of influence, but men of stern pentance of the persons openly and legally character, exalted enthusiasm, and indonmit- appearing, reverse this excommunication;" able zeal, who followed their spiritual guides, and, there can be no doubt whatever that his Cargill and Cameron, into the wilderness. affirmation was most devoutly believed. Deeply convinced of the truth of their doe- These proceedings exasperated the council trine, Cawl'nrl, accompanied by twenty per- beyond all measure, and hurried them into sons of his sect, proceeded to Sanquhar, and the commission of unparalleled atrocities. there published "A Declaration and Testi- The prisoners brought from Airmloss were monie of the true Presbyterian, Anti-Prela- executed with every circumstance of bartic, Anti-Erastian, and persecuted Party in barity; a strict search was made, not only Scotland," setting forth their grievances, dis- after their associates, but also for the profesowning the king by reason of his tyranny, sors of their doctrines;' and of the latter, proclaiming war against him as a tyrant and many, ineluding females, testified with the usurper, and testifying against the reception loss of their lives the sincerity of their beof the Duke of York, a professed Catholic, lief. Even those innocent of all offence toin Scotland. as repugnant to their principles, wards the government were insidiously inand their vows to the'most high God. This volved in the same fate with those who had persecuted remnant, who mustered in all openly defied it. Taking advantage of the twenty-six horse and forty foot, now pre- spirit which the cruelties of the government pared to support their bold defiance by force had alone excited and inflamed, the privy of arms; but they were surprised, defeated, council sought to entrap fresh victims by and dispersed, by three troops of dragoons, means of ensnaring questions. at Airmoss, in the district of Kyle.. Cameron But the mass of the people were not the fell in the skirmish; fighting with heroic only objects of this fierce and frantic tyranly. courage; his brother, with seven of his com- Anon it took a higher flight, and struck at panions, shared his fate; Hackston of Rath- the Earl of Argyll, a man whose only fault illet, who had been a passive spectator mere- appears to have consisted in his submission ly of the rmurder of Sharpe, and a few to the frightful misrule under which his others, were wounded and made prisoners. country had so long groaned; a submission 344 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. dictated by a love of peace, not by an ap- crown. Resistance now, however justifiable, proval of its enormities. When required, was no longer safe; and prudent men saw as a privy counsellor, to take a self-contra- no other expedient but submitting with dictory test, which the Scottish parliament patience to the present grievances. had prescribed, Argyll accepted it with an There was a party in England, however, explanation, that he took it in as far as it was which still cherished their former ideas of consistent with itself and the Protestant re- freedom, and resolved to restore liberty to ligion, adding, that he would "not debar their country by dethroning the monarch himself from endeavoring in a lawful way, who acted in a manner so despotic and arand in his station, to make such changes in bitrary. The principal members of this conthe church and state as he might judge bene- federacy were Monmouth, Shaftesbury, Rusficial." For this explanation he was im- sell, Essex, Howard, Algernon Sidney, and prisoned in the castle of Edinburgh, brought John Hampden, grandson to the great man of to trial, and, by an infamous perversion of that name. Monmouth engaged the Earl of his words, a charge of treason made out Macclesfield, Lord Brandon, Sir Gilbert Geragainst him. Nairne, a superannuated judge, ard, and other gentlemen in Cheshire; Lord carried into court at midnight to make a Russell entered into a correspondence with Sir majority on the relevancy of the indictment, William Courtney, Sir Francis Knowles, and fell asleep during the proceedings, and was Sir Francis Drake, who promised to raise only wakened to give his vote. A jury of the west; and Shaftesbury, with one FerguArgyll's personal enemies, with the Marquis son, a restless potter, undertook to manage of Montrose at their head, found him guilty the city, upon the aid of which the confedeof treason, leasing-making and leasing-telling, rates chiefly relied. These schemes had been though not of the perjury libelled; and he re- laid in 1681. ]But the caution of Lord Rusceived sentence of death, although the execu- sell, who induced the Duke of Monmouth to lion of it was suspended during the king's plea- postpone the enterprise, saved the kingdom sure. But Argyll did not choose to trust to the fromn the horrors of a civil war; whilst tender mercies of his enemies. I-Ie escaped Shaftesbury was so struck with a sense of from the castle in disguise, and thus saved his his impending danger, that he left his house, life; but sentence of attainder was passed and lurkingabout the city, attempted in vain against him. After the defeat of the ex- to force the Londoners into open insurrecclusionists, and the dissolution of parliament, tion. Enraged at the numberless cautions the duke was recalled to England; but the and delays which clogged and defeated his consequent change of administration was projects, he at last threatened to begin with productive of little or no relief to this op- his own friends singly; but after a long pressed country. struggle between fear and exasperation, he In 1683, the city of London was deprived abandoned all hopes of success, and fled to of its charter, which was only restored upon Amsterdam; where he soon afterwards died. terms of abject submission, and its giving up But the loss of Shaftesbury, though it rethe nomination of its own magistrates. This tarded, did not put an end to the designs of was so arbitrary a proceeding, that all the the patriots. The remaining six formed a other corporations in England began to council, corresponded with Argyll and the dread the same treatment, and, in fact, were malcontents in Scotland, and, though they successively induced to surrender their char- widely differed in principles from one anters into the hands of the king. Consider- other, resolved to prosecute the scheme of able sulns were exacted for the restoration the insurrection. Monmouth aspired to the of these cllarters, and all the offices of power crown; Russell and Hampden proposed to and profit were left at the disposal of the exclude the Duke of York from the succes HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 345 sion, and to redress the grievances of the na- popish traitor, and was imprisoned till he tion; Sidney was for restoring the republic; paid the mulct, which he was absolutely inand Essex shared the same wishes and opin- capable of doing. A similar sentence was ions. Lord Howard was an abandoned man, passed upon Dutton Colt; and Sir Samuel who having no fixed principles of any kind, Barnadiston was fined ten thousand pounds sought to embroil the nation, in hopes of for having in some private letters reflected advancing his own private interest during on the government. The government ot the confusion. Charles was now as absolute as that of any Besides these there was a subordinate set of prince in Europe; but to please his subjects conspirators, who frequently imet together, by a popular act, he judged it proper to and carried on projects quite unknown to marry the Lady Ann, his niece, to Prince Mlonmouth and his council. Among them was George, brother to the King of Denmark; Colonel Rumsey, a military adventurer; Lieu- which was the last transaction of this estenant-Colonel Walcot, a man of the same traordinary reign. stamp; Goodenough, under-sheriff of Lon- On the second of February, 1685, about don, a zealous and noted party-man; Fergu- eight in the morning, the king was seized son, an Independent minister; and several with a fit of apoplexy, as he came dressed attorneys, merchants, and tradesmen of Lon- out of his closet, where he had been for some don. But Rumsey and Ferguson were the time after he rose from bed. Being immeonly persons who had access to the great diately bled, he was restored to his senses, leaders of the conspiracy. These men took and hopes were entertained of his recovery. the resolution of assasfinating the king in his But on the fourth day the physicians desway to Newmarket; and as Rumboldt, one paired of his life, and therefore sent for the of the party, possessed a farm upon the road queen. Hie was in his perfect senses when called the Rye-kZoume, the conspiracy was she arrived. She threw herself on her knees, thence called the Rye-hou80s Plot. The and asked his pardon for all her offences. scheme they had fixed on was to stop the He replied that she had offended in nothing, king's coach by overturning a cart on the but that he had been guilty of offences highway at this place, and to shoot him against her, and asked her pardon. He through the hedges. But the house in which spoke with great affection to the Duke of the king lived at Newmarket having acci- York, and gave him excellent counsel for dentally taken fire, he was obliged to leave his future conduct, advising him to adhere -that place eight days sooner than was ex- to the laws with strictness, and invariably pected, and to this circumstance he owed to support the church of England. But his safety. Soon afterwards the conspiracy the duke seemed anxious to convince his was discovered; Russell, Sidney, and Wal- brother before he died how little he intended cot, were executed; Essex cut his owr. throat; to follow his advice. Having removed the Hampden was fined forty thousand pounds; bishops, and several of the lords who attended and scarcely one escaped who had been in at the bedside of the king, he sent for Hud any manner concerned, except the Duke of dletson, a Catholic priest, who, in the preMonmouth, who was the most culpable of all. sence of the duke, the Earl of Bath, adc This was the last blood shed on account of Trevannion, a captain in the guards, gave explots or conspiracies, which had abounded treme unction to the king, and administered during the greater part of his reign. Severe to him the sacrament according to the rites punishments, howeverwere inflicted on many of the church of Rome. All this was done who had treated the Duke of York unworthi- in about the space of half an hour. The Iy. The infamous Titus Oates was fined a doors was then thrown open; and six prehundred thousand pounds for calling him a lates, who had before attended the king, were 346 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. sent for to give him the sacrament. IKenn, inclined to comply with the measures of the Bishop of'Bath and Wells, read the visi- crown, and passed a unanimsus vote, settling tation of the sick, and, after the dying man on James during lifeall the revenue enjoyed man had said he repented of his sins, the ab- by the late king till the time of his decease. solution. The king assisted with seeming For this favor James assured them that he devotion at the service; but his mouth being would secure them in the full enjoyme: t of distorted with fits, and his throat contracted, their laws; but with regard to religion, no he could not swallow the elements. He pro- answer could be extorted from him, for that fessed, however, his satisfaction with the he was resolved at all hazards to change. iHe church of England, and expired on the 6th applied himself to business with unremitting of February, after a reign of twenty-four attention; he managed his revenue with the years, and the fifty-fifth year of his age. strictest economy; he retrenched superfluThe first act of James II.'s reign was to ous expenses, and showed himself zealous assemble the privy council, in which, after for the glory of the nation; he endeavored bestowing some praise on the memory of his to expel from the court the vicewhich had predecessor, he made professions of his reso- prevailed so much during the former reign, lution to maintain the established govern- and to restore decency and morality; he nment both in church and state; and as he presided daily at the council, and at the, had heretofore ventured his life in defence of boards of admiralty and treasury; he even the nation, he declared that he would still go entered into the whole detail of the concerns as far as any lman in maintaining all its just of the great departments of the state. rights and privileges. But whilst every thing remained in tranThe king, however, soon showed, either quillity at home, a storm was gathering that'he was not sincere in his promises, or abroad. For a long time the Prince of Orange that he entertained so lofty an idea of his own had entertained hopes of ascending the Britregal power, that even his utmost sincerity ish throne, and had even used endeavors to could tend but little to the security of the exclude James. Monmouth, who, since his liberties of the people. All the customs, and last conspiracy, had been pardoned, but orthe greater part of the excise, which had dered to depart the kingdom, had retired to been voted to the late king for his life only, Holland, where he was received by the aPrince were levied by James without any new act of Orange with the highest marks of distincfor that purpose. HIe went openly to mass tion, and became his chief favorite. When with all the ensigns of his dignity, and even the news of Charles's death arrived, indeed, sent one Caryl as his agent to Rome to make the prince made a show of changing his tone, submissions to the pope, and to pave the way and dismissed Monmouth, but still kept a for the re-admission of England into the bosom close correspondence with him. The duke of the Catholic church. By the suggestions retired to Brussels; and, having resolved to of these men all his measures were under- invade England, he was seconded by the taken. One day when the Spanish ambas- Earl of Argyll, who formed the scheme of sador ventured to advise his majesty against exciting an insurrection in Scotland. But putting too much confidence in such kind of the generosity of the Prince of Orange did people, "Is it not the custom in Spain," said not correspond with the warmth of his proJames, "for the king to consult with his con- fessions. The unfortunate duke derived from fesssor 2 " "Yes," answered the ambassador, his own plate and jewels the whole sup ply of "and that is the reason why our affairs sue- the war; whilst the enthusiasm of a rich ceed so very ill." widow supplied Argyll with ~10,000, with James's first parliament, which was com- which he purchased three vessels, and load. posed mostly of zealous tories, was strongly ed them with arms and ammunition. -HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 317 Having landed in Scotland, Argyll pub- quite exhausted with hunger and fatigue, tished his manifestoes, put himself at the they both lay down in a field, and covered head of two thousand five hundred men, and themselves with fern. Meanwhile the shep. strove to influence the people in his favor. herd being found in iMionmouth's dress, inBut a formidable body of the king's forces creased the diligence of the search; and by having marched against him, his army fell means of blood-hounds he was detected in away; and he himself, after being wounded his miserable situation, with raw peas in his in attempting to escape, was taken prisoner pocket, on which he had subsisted for some by a peasant, carried to Edinburgh, and, days. IIe burst into tears when seized by after suffering many indignities, publicly his enemies, and petitioned, with abject irn executed. portunity, for his life. By this time Monmouth had landed in He also wrote to the queen dowager; he Dorsetshire with scarcely a hundred fol- sent a letter to the reigning queen, as well lowers. His name, however, was so popular, as to the king himself; and he begged his and so great was the hatred of the people to life, when admitted into the presence of Janes on account of his religion, that in James, with a meanness unsuitable to his four days he had assembled a body of above pretensions and high rank. But all his entwo thousand men, and continuing tomake a treaties and submissions were of no avail. rapid progress, in a short time found him- James told him that he was much affectself at the head of six thousand men; but ed at his misfortunes, but that his crime was he was daily obliged to dismiss great num- too dangerous in its example to be left unbers for want of arms. Alarmed *at his in- punished. In his last moments Monmouth vasion, the king recalled six regiments of behaved with a magnanimity worthy of his British troops from Holland; and a body former courage. When he came to the scafof regulars, to the number of three thousand, fold, he conducted himself with decency and was sent, under the command of the Earl of even with dignity. I-le spoke little, he made Feversham, and of Lord Churchill, to check no confession, nor did he accuse any of his the progress of the rebels. They took post friends. The circumstances attending his at Sedgemore, a village in the neighborhood death excited horror among the spectators. of Bridgewater, and were joined by con- The executioner missed his aim, and struck siderable numbers of the country militia. him slightly on the shoulder. Monmouth Here Monmouth resolved to make a stand; raised his head from the block, and looked and having drawn up his followers in the him full in the face, as if reproaching liim.n best order he could, he drove the royal in- for his mistake. The man struck twice again, fantry from their ground, and was on the but feebly, and then threw away the axe. point of gaining a complete victory, when The sheriff forced him to renew his attempt; the cowardice of Gray, who commanded the and the head of the duke, who seemed horse, ruined all. This nobleman fled at the already dead, was at last severed from his first onset; and the insurgents being charged body. in flank, gave way after a contest of three Those concerned in the Duke of Monhours. About three hundred were killed ill mouth's conspiracy were punished with the the engagement, and a thousand in the pur- utmost severity. Immediately after the batsuit. Monmouth fled about twenty miles tle of Sedgemore, Feversham hanged up from the field of battle, till his horse sunk above twenty prisoners, and was proceeding under him. He then alighted, and, exchang- with his executions when the Bishop of inlg clothes with a shepherd, fled on foot, at- Bath and Wells informed him that these un tended by a German count who had accorm- happy men were now by law entitled to a panled him from Holland. Being at length trial, and that their execution would be 348 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. deemed murder. Nineteen were put to the privy council. Accordingly fcur Catholic death in the same manner at Bridgewater lords, Powis, Arundel, Bellasis, and Dover, by Colonel Kirke, a man of a thoroughly sav- were admitted as members. Sunderland, age and bloody disposition. No fewer than who saw that the only way to gain prefereighty were executed by his orders at Dor- ment was by Catholicism, became a convert. chester; and on the whole, at Exeter, Taun- Rochester, the treasurer, was turned out of ton, and Wells, two hundred and fifty are his office because he refused to conform. computed to have fallen by the hand of jus- Even in Ireland, where the Duke of Ormond tice, as it was called, under the auspices of had long supported the royal cause, this Judge Jefferies, who had been sent down to nobleman was displaced as being a Protesttry the delinquents. This man, not satisfied ant, and the Lord Tyrconnel, a furious with the sacrifice of the principals, charged Catholic, was placed in his stead. In his the juries to search out the aiders and abet- zeal for Romanism, it is said that James tors of the rebellion; and those persons who, stooped so low as even to attempt the conin compassion for the wretched fugitives, had version of Colonel Kirke; but the daring afoirded them an asylum, were denounced soldier told him that he was pre-engaged, for and punished as such. Even women did not he had promised the King of Morocco, when escape, and two, Lady Lisle and Mrs. Gaunt, he was quartered at Tangiers, that if ever he were sentenced to be burned alive for simi- changed his religion he would turn Mohamlar acts of humanity. Jefferies, on his re- medan. At last the clergy of the church of turn from his campaign in the west, was im- England began to take the alarm, and commediately created a peer, and soon after menced an opposition to court measures. invested with the dignity of chancellor. In The pulpits now thundered out against his AMemoirs James complains, with apparent Rome; and it was in vain that James at. indignation, of "the strange havock made tempted to impose silence on this topic. by Jefferies and Kirke in the west," and at- Instead of avoiding the controversy, the Protributes the unpopularity which afterwards testant preachers pursued it with greater deprived him of the crown to the violence warmth. and barbarity of those pretended friends of To effect his designs, the king determined his authority. to revive the High Commission Court, which James now began to throw off the mask, had formerly given the nation so much disand to endeavor openly to establish Roman- gust, and which had been abolished for ever ism and arbitrary power. I-Ie told the House by act of parliament. An ecclesiastical comof Commons that the militia were found by mission was accordingly issued, by' which experience to be of no use; that it was seven commissioners were invested with full necessary to augment the standing army; and unlimited authority over the whole and that he had employed a great many church of England. The rLext step was to Catholic officers, in whose favor he had allow liberty of conscience to all sectaries thought proper to dispense with the test re- This was done in the belief'hat the truth ot quired to be taken by all those who were em- the Catholic religion would, upon a fair trial, ployed by the crown. These stretches of pow- gain the victory. Besides. the same power er naturally led the Lords and Commons into that granted' liberty of conscience might resome degree of opposition; but they soon strain it; and the Catholic religion alone acquiesced in the king's measures, and then would thus predominate. He therefore isthe parliament was dismissed for their tardy sued a general indulgence, declaring that compliance. non-conformity to the established religion The parliament being dissolved, James' was no longer penal; but in Scotland he next step was to secure a Catholic interest in ordered his parlarament to grant a toleration HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 345 only to the Catholics, without interceding in immediately issued for their comimitment to the least for the other dissenters. In Ireland the Tower, and the crown lawyers received the Protestants were totally expelled from directions to prosecute them for a seditious all offices of trust and profit, and Catholics libel.'The king gave orders that thej should put in their places. These measures suffi- be conveyed to the Tower by water as the ciently disgusted every part of the British whole city was in commotion in their favor. empire; but to complete the work, James But the people when informed of their publicly sent the Earl of Castlemaine as am- danger, ran to the river side in great multibassador extraordinary to Rome, in order to tudes, craving their blessing, and calling express his obedience to the pope, and re- upon Heaven to protect them; whilst the concile his kingdoms to the Catholic com- very soldiers by whom they were guarded munion. This proceeding was too precipi- kneeled down before them and implored tate to be relished even by the pope himself; their forgiveness. The 29th of June, 1686, and therefore the only return he made to was fixed for the trial of the bishops this embassy was the sending a nuncio into Twenty-nine peers, a great number of gen England. Soon after this the Jesuits were tlemen, and an immense crowd of persons, permitted to erect colleges in different parts waited upon them to Westminster Hall. The of the kingdom, and to exercise the Catholic discussion was learnedly managed by the worship in the most public manner. lawyers on both sides. The jury withdrew In 1686, a second declaration in favor of into a chamber, where they passed the whole liberty of conscience was published almost in night; but next morning they returned into the same terms with the former, but with court, and pronounced the bishops not guilty. this particular injunction, that all divines Westminster. Hall instantly rang with loud should read it after service in their churches. acclamations, which were communicated to The clergy resolved to disobey this order. the whole extent of the city, and even reachLoyd, Bishop of St. Asaph, Kenn of Bath ed the camp at Hounslow, where the king and Wells, Turner of Ely, Lake of Chiches- was at dinner in Lord Feversham's tent. ter, White of Peterborough, and Trelawney His majesty demanded the cause of those of Bristol, together with Sancroft the pri- rejoicings, and being informed that it was mate, concerted an address in the form of a nothing but the soldiers shouting for the depetition to the king, which, with the warm- livery of the bishops, "Call you that nothest expressions of zeal and submission, signi- ing 2" said he; "but so much the worse for fled that they could not read the declaration them." consistently with their consciences or the re- As the king found the clergymen everyspect they owed the Protestant religion. The where averse to his measures, he was willing king received their petition with marks of next to try What he c6uld do with the army, surprise and displeasure. IIe said he did thinking that if one regiment could be not expect such an address from the church brought to promise implicit obedience, their of England, particularly from some amongst example would soon induce others to comthelm; and persisted in his orders for their ply. HIe therefore ordered one of the regiobeying his mandate. As the petition had ments to be drawn up in his presence, and been delivered in private, the king summon- desired that such as were against the late ede the bishops before the council, and there declaration of liberty of conscience should questioned them whether they would ac- lay down their arms. Ile was surprised to knowledge it. ~ They for some time declined see the whole battalion ground their arms, giving an answer; but being urged by the except two officers and a fiw Roman Cltthochancellor, they at last owned the petition. ic soldiers. A few days before the acqilittal On their refusal to give bail, an order was of the bishops the queen was delivered of a 350 HISTORY OF THE WOR'LD. son. This, if any thing could at that time, sect in the kingdom. To the church party might have served to establish James on the he sent assurances of favor and regard; prothrone; but so violent was the animosity testing that his education in Holland had no against him, that a story was propagated way prejudiced him against Episcopacy. To that the child was supposititious; and the the non-conformists he sent exhortations not monarch's pride scorned to take any precau- to be deceived by the insidious caresses of tions to refute the calumny. their known enemy, but to wait for a real Thoughl the enthusiasm of James himself and' sincere protector. In consequence of was sufficiently extravagant, the wildest of these insinuations, the prince soon received his religious projects seem to have been sug- invitations from the most considerable pergested by his enemies in order to accomplish sons in the kingdom. Admirals Herbert his ruin. The Earl. of Sunderland, whom he and Russell assured him in person of their chiefly trusted, was a man of abandoned own and the national attachment. Henry principles, insatiable avarice, and fitted by Sidney, brother to Algernon, and uncle to nature for stratagem, deception, and intrigue. the Earl of Sunderland, came over to him The love of money was his ruling passion, with assurances of a universal combination and he accordingly sold his influence to the against the ling. Lord Dumblane, son to highest bidder. To such a degree was he the Earl of Danby, being master of a frigate, mercenary, that he became at once the pen- made several voyages to Holland, and carried sioner of the Prince of Orange and of the from many of the nobility tenders of duty, King of France. The former, who had long and even considerable surms of money, to the fixed his eye on the English throne, watched Prince of Orange. Soon after, the Bishop James' motions, and took every advantage of London, the Earls of Danby, Nottingham, of his errors. He had laid his schemes so Devonshire, Dorset, and several other lords, extensively, that nothing but the birth of a gentlemen, and principal citizens, united in male heir to the crown of England seemed their addresses to him, and entreated his likely to prevent him from obtaining an speedy descent. The people, though long almost immediate possession of the kingdom; divided between whig and tory, now joined and he had the address to render two-thirds against their misguided sovereign as against of the powers of Europe interested in his a common enemy. William therefore detersuccess. The treaty of Augsburg, formed mined'to accept their invitation; and this to break the power of France, could not ac- the more readily, as he perceived that the complish its object without the accession of malcontents had conducted themselves with England. The house of Austria, in both prudence and secrecy. Having the prinits brancles, preferred their political views cipal servants of James in pay, he was to their zeal for the Roman Catholic faith, minutely informed of the most secret actions and promoted the dethronement of James as and designs of that prince. HIis intelligence the only means of huTmbling Louis XIV. came through Sidney from Sunderland, who Odescalchi, who under the name of Innocent betrayed the very measures which he himXI. then filled the papal chair, was also self had advised. The prince had a fleet gained to the measures of the Prince of ready to sail, and troops prov l'ed for action, Orange by other considerations, as well as before the beginning of June, 1688. through his fixed aversion to France. The King of France was the first to give See'ng the national discontent now raised James warning of his danger, and ffered to to the highest pitch, the Prince of Orange assist him in repelling it. But he declined resolved to take advantage of it. Ite began this friendly offer, lest it should be said that by giving one Dykevelt, his envoy, instruc- he. hlad entered int D a private treaty with tions to apply in his name to every religicons that monarch to the prejudice of the Protest HISTORY OF THIE WORLD. 351 ant religion. Being also deceived and be- by whom six thousand men were thrown into trayed by Sunderland, he had the weakness Maestricht; and the design of Louis being to believe, that the reports of an invasion thus rendered impracticable, it was laid aside. were invented in order to fiighten him into James had now no resource but in retreata strict connection with France. He gave ing from those precipitate measures which credit to the repeated assurances of the States, had plunged him into inextricable distress. that the armament preparing in their ports He paid court to the Dutch, and offered to was not designed against England; nay, he enter into any alliance with them for their even believed the assertions of the prince common security. Hie replaced in all the himself, whose interest it was to deceive. counties in England, the deputy lieutenants Sunderland descanted against the possibility and justices who had been deprived of their of an invasion, and turned into ridicule all commissions for their adherence to the test who believed the report. I-Iaving, with the con- and penal law. He restored the charters of sent of James, taken possession of all the for- such corporations as he had possessed himself eign correspondence, he suppressed every kind of, annulled the High Commission Court, reof intelligence that might alarm and all others instated the expelled president and fellows of whom James trusted, except Dartmouth, af- Magdalen College, and even caressed the fected long to place no faith in the reports bishops whom he had so lately persecuted of an invasion. Louis finding his first offers and insulted. But all these concessions were rejected, next proposed to march down his now too late, and were regarded as the army to the frontiers of the Dutch provinces, effects of fear, not of repentance. and thus detain their forces at home for their In the mean time, William set sail from own'defence. But this proposal met no bet- I Helvoetsluys with a fleet of near five hunter reception than the former one. StillLouis, dred sail, and an army of about fourteen unwilling to abandon a friend and ally whose thousand men. Fortune, however, seemed interest he regarded as closely connected at first very unfavorable to his enterprise.. with his own, ventured to remonstrate with He was driven back by a dreadful storm; but the Dutch against the preparations they were he soon refitted his fleet, and again set sail making to invade England. But the Dutch for England. It was given out that this intreated his remonstrances as an officious im- vasion was designed for the coast of France; pertinence, and James himself declined his and many of the English, who saw the fleet mediation. pass along their coast, little suspected the The king of England, having thus rejected place of its destination. It happened that the assistance of friends, and being left to the same wind which sent the Dutch to their face the danger alone, was astonished with an place of destination, detained the English fleet advice froml his minister in Holland, that an in the river; so that the Dutch passed the invasion was not only projected, but avowed. Straits of Dover without molestation, and, When-he first read the letter containing this after a voyage of two days; landed at Broxinformation, he grew pale, and the letter drop- holme in Torbay, on the.5th of November, ped from his hand. He saw himself on the 1688, the anniversary of the gunpowder brink of destruction, and knew not to whom treason. to apply for protection. In this emergency, But although the invitation from the Eng Louis wrote to James in his own hand, that lish was general, the prince for some time to divert the Dutch from their intended in- had the mortification to find himself joined vasion of England, he would lay siege to by very few. He continued for ten days in Maestricht with thirty thousand men. James expectation of being joined by the malconcommunicated this intelligence to Suander- tents, and at last was beginning to despair land, and the latter to the Prince of Orange,,,f success, and to deliberate about re-embark. 352 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ing his forces, when he was joined by several he thought he could place most confidence, Iersons of consequence; and the whole he became suspicious of all, and was in a mancountry soon afterwards flocked to his stand- ner deprived even of the power of deliberaard. The first person who went over to the tion. In this extremity of distress, the Prince prince was Major Burrington, and he was of Denmark, and Ann, James's favorite quickly followed by the gentry of the coun- daughter, perceiving the desperation of his ties of Devon and Somerset. Sir Edward circumstances, resolved to take part with the Seymour made proposals for an association, Prince of Orange. Informed of this event, which was signed by great numbers; and the king was stung with the most bitter anevery day there appeared some new proof of guish. "God help me," said he; " my own that universal combination into which the children have forsaken me." To add to his nation had entered against the measures of distress as a parent, he was accused of being the king. This was followed by the defec- accessory to the death of his own child. tion of the army. Lord Colchester, son to On the 30th of November, 1688, James the Earl of Rivers, first deserted to the prince; dispatched three noblemen to treat with the Lord Cornbury, son of the Earl of Clarendon, Prince of Orange. But though the latter carried off the greatest part of three regi- knew very well that the king's commissioners ments of cavalry at once; and several offi- were in his interest, his behavior showed cers of distinction informed Feversham their plainly that he now thought the period of general, that they could not in honor fight treating was past. For some time he would against the Prince of Orange. Soon after not admit them to an audience; and when this the unhappy monarch found himself de- he did, he gave no satisfactory answer. James serted by his own servants and creatures. now began to be alarmed for his personal Lord Churchill had been raised from the rank safety; but what most affected him was the of page, and had been invested with a high terror of the queen for herself and her infant command in the army; he had been created a son. HIe therefore resolved to send them peer, and owed his whole fortune to the abroad. They crossed the river in a. boat, at king's bounty; yet even he deserted among Whitehall, on a stormy day, and were carthe rest, and carried with him the Duke of ried to Gravesend in a coach, under the con-.Grafton, natural son to the late king, besides duct of the Count de Lauzun; a yacht, comColonel Berkeley and'others. manded by Captain Gray, which lay there In this universal defection, James, not ready for the purpose, soon transported them lkowing where to turn, began to think of in safety to Calais. rt questing assistance of France, when it was The king was now so dispirited and disn, w too late. HIe also wrote to Leopold, tracted, that he resolved to leave the kingEi iperor of Germany; but that monarch only dom at once, and thus plunge every thing ret trned for answer, that what he had fore- in confusion. He threw the great seal into seen, had happened. James had some de- the Thames; he left none with any authority pen. lence on his fleet; but in reality they were to conduct the government in his absence; entil;ly disaffected. In a word, his interests and he vainly hoped to derive advantage to were deserted by all, for he had long deserted his affairs from anarchy and disorder. About themn himself. His army, however, still twelve at night, on the 10th of December, amounted to twenty thousand men; and had he disguised himself, took a boat at Whitehe led them immediately to battle, it is pos- hall, and crossed the river. Sir Edward sible 1 hey might then have fought in his Hales, with another friend, met him at Vauxfavor. But his misfortunes had deprived hall with horses. te mounted; and being conhim of his natural firmness and resolution; ducted through by-ways by a guide, he passed and see:ng himself deserted by those in whom in the night-time to the Medway, which he UISTORY OF THE WORLD. 353 cm assed by Ailesford-bridge. At Woodpeck manders of the militia showed him no rehe took fresh horses, sent thither before by spect; and he was even insulted by the comShelden, one of his equerries, who was in the mon soldiers. A letter which he intended to secret of his flight. Itaving arrived at Emby- send to London for clothes, a change of linen, ferrynear Feversham, hefound a custom-house and some money, was stopped by those who hoy, hired by Sir Edward Hales lying ready pretended to protect his person. to receive him on board. But the wind blew In the meantime the Prince of Orange fresh, and the vessel had no ballast. The exercised in his own person all the functions master, therefore, easily persuaded the king of royalty. HIe issued a declaration to the disto permit him to take in some ballast at Shil- banded army to re-assemble themselves. He ness. It being half ebb when they ran ashore, ordered the secretary of war to bring him they intended to sail as soon as the vessel a list of the king's troops. He commanded 3hould be afloat; but when the vessel was al- the Lord Churchill to collect his troops of most afloat, she was boarded by three fishing horse guards. He sent the Dulre of Graftoeboats belonging toFeversham, containingfifty to take possession in his name of Tilbury men, who seized the king and his two com- Fort. The assemnbly of peers adjourned to panions, under the pretence of their being Pa- the council-chamber at Whitehall, and, to pists who wanted to escape from the kingdom. give the appearance of legality to their meetThey turned up Feversham water with the ing, chose the AMarquis of Halifax as their tide; but still the king remained unknown. president. Whilst this assembly was sitting, Sir Edward Hales placed privately fifty guin- on the 13th of December, a poor countryman, eas iw the hands of the captain, as an earnest who had been engaged by James, brought of more should he permit them to escape. an open letter from that unfortunate prince lHe promised, but so far from keeping his to London. It had no subscription; and itword, lie took what money they had, under was addressed to none. It described in one the pretence of keeping it from the seamen; sentence only, his deplorable condition in and having possessed himself of their all, the hands of a desperate rabble. This poor left them to their fate. The unfortunate fugi- messenger of a fallen sovereign waited long tives were at length carried in a coach to at the council door, without being able to Feversham, amidst the insults, clamors, and attract the notice of any who passed; but shouts of the sailors. When the king was when the Earl of Mlulgrave became apprised brought to the inn, a seaman who had served of his business, his lordship had the courage under him knew him, and melted into tears; to introduce him to the council. He delivered and James himself was so much moved at his open letter, and told the unhappy state this instance of his affection, that he wept. of the king. The assembly were much moved, The other fishermen, who had previously and sent the Earl of Feversham with two treated him with indignity, when they saw his hundred of the guards towards Feversham. tears, fell upon their knees. The lower class His instructions were first to rescue James of inhabitants gathered around him; but the from danger, and afterwards to attend him better sort fled from his presence. The sea- to the sea coast, should he wish to retire. men, however, formed themselves into a I-e chose, however, to return to London; but guard, and declared, that " a hair of his head the Prince of Orange sent a message to him, should not be touched." In the meantime, desiring him to approach no nearer the capiSir James Oxendon, under pretence of guard- tal than Rochester. The messenger missed ing him from the rabble, came with the mili- James by the way; and the king sent Feverstia to prevent his. escape. The king found ham with a letter to the Prince of Orange, a change in his condition when he was taken requesting his presence in London to setout of the hands of the sailors. The com- tie the nation, while he himself proceeded mr.-23 M34 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. thither, and safely arrived on the 16th of giance. Your army, though disbanded, is December. not dispersed. Give me your commission. I The Prince of Orange received the news will gather ten thousand of your troops. I of his return with little satisfaction. IHis will carry your standard at their head aim from the beginning was to force him through England, and drive before you thle by various means to relinquish the, throne. Dutch and their prince." The king replied, The Dutch guards were ordered to take that he believed it might be done, but that possession of Whitehall, and to displace the it would raise a civil war, and he would not English; and the king was soon after com- do so much mischief to a nation that would manded by a message, which- he received in soon come to their senses again. Middleton bed at midnight, to leave his palace next urged his stay, though in the remotest part morning, and to depart for Itam, a seat of of the kingdom. "Your majesty," said he, the Duchess of Lauderdale's. But he de- "may throw things into confusion by your sired permission to retire to Rochester, which departure; but it will be but the anarchy of was readily granted. The harsh measures a month. A new government will soon be of the prince had now taken effect, and the settled, and you and your family will be king meditated an escape to France. Sur- ruined." rounded by the Dutch guards, he arrived at These spirited remonstrances had no effect Rochester on the 19th of December. The upon James. IHe resolved to quit the kingrestraint put upon his person, and the man- dom; and having communicated his design ner in which he had been forced from Lon- to a few of his friends, he left the house where don, raised the indignation of many, and be had lodged at midnight, accompanied by excited the compassion of all. The English his son the Diuke of Berwick, and went in a army, both officers and soldiers, began to boat to a smack which lay waiting foi him murmur, and had it not been for the without the fort at Sheerness. In the morntinliditj and precipitation of James him- ing of Tuesday the 25th December, the king self, the nation would probably have return- landed at Ambleteuse in France, and taking ed to their allegiance. He remained three post, soon joined his consort at St. Germains. nights at Rochester, in the midst of a few James having thus abandoned his dominfaithful friends, the Earls of Arran, Dum- ions, the Prince of Orange remained master barton, Ailesbury, Litchfield, and Middle- of all. By the advice of the HIouse of Lords, ton, and, amongst other officers of merit, the only member of the legislature remaining, Lord Viscount Dundee. They all argued he was desired to sunimon a parliament by against his intended flight; and several circular letters; but the prince, unwilling to bishops, some peers, and many officers, en- act upon so imperfect an authority, conventreated his stay in some part of England. ed all the memberswho had sat in the House They represented that the opinions of men of Commons during any parliament of Charles began to change, and that events would II., to whom were added the mayor, aldermen, daily rise in favor of his authority. Dundee and fifty of the common council of London; added his native ardor to his advice.' The and being thus supported by an assembly question, Sir," said he, "is, Whether you deriving its authority from himself, he wrote bhall stay in England or fly to France? circular letters to the counties and corporaWhether you shall trust the returning zeal tions of England, directing them to return of your native subjects, or rely on a foreign members to this parliament or convention. power? 1HIere you ought to stand. Keep When the house met, thanks were voted te, possession of a part, and the whole will sub- the Prince of Orange for the deliverance he mit by degrees. Resume the spirit of a had wrought; after which they proceeded to Idng. Sulnmnon your subjects to their alle- settle the kingdom. A vote soon passed HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 355 both houses, that King James II. having en- testants who had been in place on the first deavored to subvert the constitution of the of the precedingDecember. On the 17th of kingdom, by breaking the original contract the month he formed his privy council, which between the king and the people, and having consisted chiefly of those persons who had by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked been most active in raising him to the throne. persons violated the fundamental laws, and To gratify as many as possible of his friends, withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, had the several boards, and even the chancery, abdicated the government; and that the were put into commission. The benches of throne was thereby vacant. the Exchequer and Common Pleas were The ling being thus deposed, it was easy filled with persons who had distinguished for William to get himself appointed his sue- themselves against the measures of the late cessor. Proposals were indeed made by king. But the Earl of Nottingham, who some for electing a regent; and others were had violently opposed the elevation of Wilfor investing the Princess of Orange with liam, and the Earl of Shrewsbury, who had regal power, and declaring the young prince adhered to his views, were made secretaries suppositions. But to these proposals William of state. The Marquis of HIalifax, and the opposed the decisive argument, that he had Earl of Danby, though rivals in policy, were been called over to defend the liberties of admitted into the cabinet; the first as lord the British nation, and that he had happily privy seal, the second as president of the effected his purpose; that he had heard of council. William's Dutch friends in the several schemes proposed for the establishing meantime were not forgotten by the king.'of the government; that, if they chose a re- Though these instances of gratitude were gent, he thought it incumbent upon him to no doubt necessary to William, the generality inform them that he would not be that re- of the nation were displeased. The tories gent; that he would not accept of the crown were offended at being excluded from favor, under the princess -his wife, though he was especially as they had departed from their convinced of her merits; that therefore, if usual principles in order to serve him. The llLeither of these schemes was adopted, he could tion in general were much prejudiced against give them no assistance in the settlement of foreigners, and universal discontent ensued the nation, but would return home to his own upon seeing them preferred. The king, who country, satisfied with his aims to secure had been bred a Calvinist, was also strongly the freedom of theirs. Upon this, after a inclined to favor that sect; and findinog the long debate in both houses, a new sovereign clergy of the church of England but little was preferred to a regent by a very small inclined to take the oaths to the new govern. majority. It was agreed that the Prince ment, he began openly to indulge his own and Princess of Orange should reign jointly prejudices in favor of dissenters. Having as king and queen of England; whilst come to the Iouse of Lords to passsome bills the administration of government should be on the 16th March, he made a speech, urging placed in the hands of the prince only. The the necessity of admitting all Protestants Marquis of Halifax, as Speaker of the House indiscriminately into the public service. He of Lords, made a solemn tender of the crown informed them, that he was employed in to their highnesses, in the name of the Peers' filling up the vacancies in offices of trust; and Commons of England. The prince ac- lie expressed his hopes that they had become cepted the offer; and that very day, the 13th sensible of the necessity of a law to settle of February, 1689, William and Mary were the oaths to be taken by such persons as proclaimed king and queen of England. should be admitted into place; and he doubtWilliam1 began his reign with issuing a ed not, that whilst they provided against proclamation for continuing in office all Pro- Catholics, they would, t the same tinme leave 356 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. room for the admission of all Protestants who with the servants of tle crown and inflaminll were able and willing to serve their country. the army. The former they alarmed with But this proposition was rejected with ve-. the prospect of a sudden change; the latter hemence. The adherents of the church com- they roused into indignation by the alleged plained that the ruin which they feared from preference shown by William for his countrythe Catholics in the preceding reign was men the Dutch. now to be dreaded from the Protestant dis- Though the kingdom of Scotland did not senters; and they affirmed, that if the estab- at first recognize the authority of William, lished religion was to be destroyed, it mat- yet the party of James never attained suffitered little by whose hands it might fall. A cient strength to be of any effectual service bill brought in by the ministry for abrogating to him in that kingdom. Thirty Scottish the former oaths of supremacy and allegiance peers, and near eighty gentlemen, then in was rejected; and an attempt to dispense London, had waited on the Prince of Orange with the sacramental test was made without in the beginning of January, and, without success in another form. The court party any authority from the regency still subsistproposed that any man, by producing a cer- ing in Edinburgh, formed themselves into tificate of his having received the sacrament a kind of convention. The Prince of Orange in any Protestant congregation,'should.be in a formal manner asked their advice; and held sufficiently qualified for office. But this when he withdrew, they adjourned to the motion was also rejected in the House of council chamber at Whitehall. The Duke Lords by a great majority. William repeated of Hamilton being chosen president, exhis attempts at a comprehension; but he was plained the distracted state of Scotland, reultimately unsuccessful, and in the corona- presenting that disorders, anarchy and contion-oath the church party inserted a clause, fusion prevailed, and urging the necessity of that the king should maintain the Protestant placing the power somewhere till a convenreligion " as established by law." tion of estates should be called to form a For these and other reasons the govern- lasting and solid settlement. When the heads ment of William was for some time in a of an address to the Prince of Orange had very tottering condition. The king, either been settled, and ordered to be engrossed, through want of health or inclination, inter- the Earl of Arran unexpectedly arose and fered but little in the affairs of the nation; proposed to invite back the king. The meetIreland was strangely neglected; whilst ing, however, adhered to the Prince of OrHalifax and Danby, who had in a manner ange, and waited on him in a body, requestraised the king to the throne, caballed with ing him to take the administration into his his enemies. They perceived that the people, own hands. He thanked them for the trust with the same levity which had induced them they had reposed in him; and a convention to desert their former sovereign, were begin- was ordered to meet at Edinburgh on the 14th ning to be discontented with their new prince. of March, it being provided that no exception Everything seemed to tend to a change. iHali- or limitation whatever shotld be made, exfax himself declared, that were James to con- cept that the members should be Protestants. form with the Protestants, he could not be This convention, however, was opposed keptl four months from re-ascendillng his by some of the partisans of James; and the thrrone; and Danby averred, that, were the Archbishop of Glasgow, the Earl of Balear. late kinlg to give satisfaction for the security ras, and the Viscount Dundee, were author-,f religion, it would be difficult to oppose his ize'd by an instrument signed by him, at restoration. From these apparent discontents that time in Ireland, to call a convention of of the nation, the friends and emissaries of the estates at Stirling. But this measure James assumed more boldness in tampering was disappointed, Lrst by the wavering dis HISTORY OF THE WORLID. 357 position of the M[arquis of Atholl, and after- misfortune, now turned their eyes to the Viswards by the procrastination and folly of the count Dundee, who having been in vain party. At last Viscount Dundee, pretending urged by the convention to return, was at alarm on account of a design alleged to have length declared a fugitive, an outlaw, and a' been formed by the Covenanters to assassi- rebel. General Mackay had been sent to nate him, left Edinburgh at the head of fifty Scotland by William, with four regiments of horse. As he passed under the walls of the foot and one of dragoons. But Dundee,.Lpcastle, the Duke of Gordon, who then held prised of the general's design to surprise the command of the fortress, and favored the him, retired to the Grampian Mountains cause of James, called him to a conference. with a few horse, and thence marched to Dundee scrambled up the precipice, and in- Gordon Castle, where he was joined by the formed the duke of his designs in favor of Earl of Dunfermline with fifty gentlemen. James, at the same time conjuring him to He next passed through the county of M3oray hold out the castle, under a certainty of to Inverness, which Macdonald of Keppoch being relieved. The novelty of the sight had invested with seven hundred men, after collected a multitude of -spectators. The having ravaged the lands of the clan of lMacconvention took the alarm. The president kintosh in his way from his own country. ordered the doors to be locked, and the keys Dundee promised to the magistrates of Into be laid upon the table. The drums beat verness to repay, at the king's return, the to arms in the town; and a parcel of ill- money extorted from them by Macdonald, armed retainers were gathered together in and thus induced the latter to join him with the street by the Earl of Leven. Dundee all his men. But as he could not prevent in the mean time rode off with his party. the Highlanders from first returning home But as soon as they found themselves secure, with their spoil, he accompanied them to tile Duke of Iiamilton adjourned the conven- Lochaber, and on the 8th of May arrived in tion, which relieved the adherents of James Badenock, whence he wrote letters to the from dreadful apprehensions for their own chiefs of the different clans, appointing them safety. Fifty members retired from Edin- to meet at a general rendezvous in Lochaber burgh; and that circumstance produced on the 18th of the same month. In the unanimity in all the succeeding resolutions meantime, passing suddenly through Athole, of the convention. Soon after this it was he surprised the town of Perth, and hoping determined in a committee that James had to gain over two troops of Scottish dragoons "forefaulted " his right to the crown, by who lay at Dundee, he marched suddenly to which was meant that he had perpetually that place; but the fidelity of Captain excluded himself and his whole race from Balfour, their commander, disappointed his the throne, which was thereby become views. Dundee then returned through vacant. This resolution being approved by Athole and Rannoch to hold the diet of renthe convention, another was drawn up rais- dezvous at Lochaber; and there he was reining William and Mary to the vacant throne; forced by several Highland chieftains, so and in consequence they were publicly pro- that his little army was increased to about claimed at Edinburgh on the 11th of April, fifteen hundred men. He now turned 1689. against AMackay, who had advanced to InThe castle of Edinburgh was still kept in verness, but on the approach of Dundee re. the name of James by the Duke of Gordon; treated to Strathbogie, leaving the whole but despairing of any relief, and pressed by Iliglands exposed to the enemy. a siege, his Grace surrendered it on the 13th But notwithstanding this partial suo-,ess, of June, upon honorable terms. The ad- Dundee found himself surrounded with herents of James, terrified at this unexptected manv difficulties. The officers of the Scot. 858 HISTORY OF. THE- WORLD. tish dragoons, who maintained a secret cor- of July, 1689, near the head of tie Pass of respondence with him, sent him false intelli- Killikrankie. The Highlanders took post gence, as an excuse for their own fears, in- on the face of a hill, a little above. the house forming him that a party of Irish, who had of Urrard, and to the westward of the great endeavored to land in Scotland under the Pass; whilst the king's forces were drawn Duke of Berwick, were driven back, and up on a level piece of ground. in the form the duke himself taken prisoner; and that of an amphitheatre, bounded on two sides Mackay hadbeen reinforced with a regiment of by the heights, and on the third by the river English horse, and another of foot. Crediting Garry. Dundee delayed his attack until this information, Dundee retreated to Bade- about sunset, when suddenly the Highlanders noch; othe natives of the low country who rushed down like furies, covering thems Ives served in his little army quitted him with- from the fire of the king's troops with their out leave; the Highlanders plundered the targets. "At last," says an eye-witness, country wherever they went; and he him- "they cast away their muskets, drew their self at last fell sick, while Mackay hovered broadswords, advancing furiously on the on his rear. A slight skirmish occurred, in king's troops, broke them, and obliged them which the Highlanders had the advantage; to retreat; some flying to the water, some but they nevertheless lost their baggage dur- another way." The charge was like a toring the action. Dundee at length arrived at rent, fierce, rapid, irresistible; and the rout Ruthven; but Mackay, reinforced with a complete. The 21st or Scotch fusileers was body of twelve hundred men, advanced on the left of General Mackay's front line, against him, and other regiments had arrived Hastings' and Leslie's, now the 13th and at Perth and Duwnblane, on their way to join. 15th regiments, in the centre, and Lord The Highlanders now deserted every night Leven's, now the 25th, on the right; the by hundreds, and their leader was forced to whole consisting of two regiments of cavalry retire to Lochaber, where only two hundred and nine battalions of infantry. After the of his whole force remained with him; right of the line had given way, the regiwhilst, to complete his misfortunes, he at ments on the centre and the left, which vere the same time received intelligence of the covered by the river- Garry and the woody surrender of the castle of Edinburgh. precipice below the house of Urrard, kept Meanwhile, letters having arrived from their ground, and for a short time withstood King James promising immediate succors the shock of the Highland charge with the from Ireland, Dundee ordered the neighbor- broadsword; but at length they gave way ing clans to assemble round his standard. on all sides, Hastings' flying through the But still he wanted the necessary means for Pass on the north side, and the fusileers prosecuting the war. The Highlanders dashing across the river, followed by the were armed only with their own proper wea- Highlanders. But Dundee having fallen pons, and he had no more than forty pounds early in the attack, the consternation occaweight of powder in his whole army. All sioned by his death prevented an immediate difficulties, however, were surmounted by pursuit through the great pass. Had they the activity of the general, for whom his been closely followed, and had a few men army entertained an enthusiastic zeal. Hav- been placed at the, southern entrance, not a ing collected a force of about two thousand man of the king's troops would have escaped five hundred men, including three hundred to tell the story of their defeat. As it was, Irish recruits, he resolved to give battle -to they lost nearly two thousand men, and the Mackay, who, with a force considerably remainder were completely broken and dissuperior in numbers, was advancing against persed. But the victory, though gallantly him. The encounter took place on the 17th achieved, was productive of notlhing but HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 3;1 barren glory; and with the fall of Dundee the king, subsisted by depredation, and disc ended all the hopes of James of Scotland. regarded all discipline. The Protestants in Colonel Cannon, who succeeded him in the the north armed themlselves in their own decommand, possessed neither his popularity fence; and the city of Londonderry, reliying lor his abilities. After some insignificant on its situation, and a slight wall, shut its actions, in which the valor of the soldiers gates against the newly raised army. Pro. was more conspicuous than the conduct of testant parties also appeared everywhere, detheir leader, the Highlanders dispersed in claring their resolution to unite in self-dedisgust; and the war soon afterwards ended fence, to preserve the Protestant religion, to favorably for William, without the trouble continue their dependence on England, and of repulsing his enemies. to promote the meeting of a free parliament. During the trouble in England, which had In these circumstances William sent Genterminated in placing William on the throne, eral Hamilton, an Irishman and a Roman the two parties in Ireland were kept in a Catholic, to treat with Tyrconnel; but inkind of tranquillity by their mutual fears. stead of persuading that lord to yield to The Protestants were terrified at the pros- William, Hamilton advised him to adhere to pect of another massacre; and the Catholics James. In the meantime James himself expected every day to be invaded by the assured the lord-deputy that he was ready to united force of the English and Dutch. sail from Brest with a powerful armament; Their terrors, however, were ill founded; upon which Hamilton marched against the for although Tyrconnel sent several mes- northern insurgents, who were routed withsages to the prince, stating his readiness to considerable slaughter at Drumore, whilst deliver up the kingdom to any force that Hillsborough, where they had fixed their reight make a surrender decent, his offers head-quarters, was taken without resistance, were always rejected. This is said to have The city of Londonderry, however, resolved been owing to Halifax, who is alleged to to hold out to the last extremity. have represented to the king, that if Ireland On the 7th of March, 1689, James eamyielded, no pretence would remain for keep- barked at Brest. The whole force of his exing an army in pay; that without an army pedition consisted of fourteen ships of war, to protect his authority, he might be as six frigates, and three fire-ships; whilst easily turned out as he had been brought twelve hundred of his native subjects in the in; that the English- nation could never re- pay of France, and a hundred French offimain long in a state of contentment; and cers, composed his army. He landed at that they had already begun to show symp- Kinsale without opposition on the 12th of toms of strong disaffection with the new the month; and his first care was to secure, government. in the fort, the money, arms, and ammunition Tyrconnel, disappointed in his views of which he had brought from France, and to surrendering Ireland to the Prince of Orange, put the town in some posture of defence. affected to adhere to King James. The This done, he advanced to Cork, where Tyrwhole military force of the kingdom at that connel arrived soon after, and brought the time amounted only to four thousand men, and intelligence of the rout at Drumore. Tho of these six hundred were in Dublin; whilst king was so much pleased with his attachall of them were so much disposed to quit ment and services, that he created him a the service, that the lord-deputy was obliged duke, and than began his advance towards to issue commissions for levying new forces. Dublin. ]3ut the condition of the rablblce The effect of this was, that there suddenly who flocked to his standard was not calclt appeared in varieus parts of the kingdom a lated to raise his hopes of success. Theih half-armed rabble, who, having no pay from very numbers distressed their sovereign, and 360d HISTORY OF THE. WORLD. ruined the country; irnsomuch that James coin copper pieces, which should be received resolved to disband the greater part of them. in lieu of silver. The inconveniences and More than one hundred thousand were al- iniquity of this measure were obvious; but ready on foot in the different parts of the all Ireland possessed not the means of pay. island. Of these he reserved fourteen regi- ing the army in current coin till the middle ments of horse and dragoons, and thirty-five of June. Of the French remittances only regiments of foot; the rest he ordered to 200,000'livres remained; and the king their respective homes, and armed those who found it absolutely necessary to reserve that were retained in the best manner he could. sum, in order to forward his measures reOnil reaching Dublin, James immediately garding Britain, and to procure intelligence proceeded to business. He ordered all Pro- of the motions-of his enemies. The army testants who had abandoned the kingdom was satisfied even with this mock semblance to return; he commanded all Papists, except of money, and the people received the fictiti.. those in his army to lay aside their arms, ous coin in hopes of being repaid in a more and put an end to the depredations which favorable state of affairs. A tax of ~20,000 they had committed in the excess of their a month, granted for thirteen months by the zeal; he raised the value of the currency by parliament, furnished government with an proclamation; and he summoned a parlia- appearance of resources; and in the meanment to meet on the 7th of May, in order to time the king endeavored to support the settle the affairs of the kingdom., The Pro- former revenue by opening a trade with testant clergy represented their grievances France to supply the want of commerce in an address; and the university of Dublin with England. appeared with complaints and congratula- To add to the distress of James, Ireland tions. I-e assured the, first of his absolute was now invaded by ten thousand men under protection, and a full redress; and he prom- the command of the Duke of Schomberg. ised the latter not only to defend, but even On the 12th of August, 1689, they appeared to enlarge, their privileges. in ninety transports, on the coast of DonaghOn the 8th of April, he left Dublin, re- adee, in the county of Down; and next day solving to lead his army against the insur- Schomberg landed his army, horses, and train gents in person; but as they retired before of artillery, without opposition. On the 15th him, lie resolved to lay siege to Londonderry. he marched to Belfast, and continued in that The place, however, made a vigorous resist- place four days to refresh his troops. He ance; -but being reduced to the last extrem- then invested Carrickfergus, and threw into ity, it would have been obliged to surrender it a thousand bombs, which laid the houses in had it not been relieved on the 20th. of July, ashes. When the garrison had expended by seven ships laden with provisions, upon their powder to the last barrel, they marched which the siege was immediately raised. In out with all the honors of war; but Schomthe mean time, the distressed situation of berg's soldiers broke the capitulation, disE James, and his absolute dependence upon armed and stripped the inhabitants, without France drove him to the adoption of mea- regard to sex or quality, and perpetrated sures equally odious and impolitic. His many disgraceful cruelties by way of retaliasoldiers had for some time been supported tion on the Catholics. Schomberg was an by their officers, or subsisted by depredation. experienced general, who had passed a life But the funds of the officers were at length of eighty years almost continually in the exhausted, and the country itself could no field; yet he found himself at a loss how to lorger endure the riot and injustice of the carry on the war with Ireland. Not considsoldiers. Press: d by these difficulties, he ering the dangers which threatened the health resolved, by the advice of his council, to of his troops by confining them too long in HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 361 one place, he kept them encamped in a low against the spot where for the moment he damp situation near Dundalk, almost with- stood. The shot killed several of his followout fuel; the consequence of which was, that ers, and he himself was slightly wounded in the men. were seized with fevers and fluxes, the shoulder. The report of his being slain and died in great numbers. Nor were the en- was instantly propagated throughout the Irish elrmy less afflicted with similar disorders. In camp, and even transmitted to Paris; but as both camps sickness prevailed; and as the soon as the wound was dressed, William rode rainy season was now approaching the hostile through the camp, and quickly undeceived armies, after remaining for some time in sight his army. The next day, being the 30th of of each other, quitted their camps at the same June, the battle began at six o'clock in the time, and retired into winter quarters. morning. William directed the river to be The ill success of this campaign, and the forded in three different places, and the atmiserable situation of the Protestants in Ire- tack to be simultaneously commenced from land, at length induced William to attempt as man'y points. Schomberg, with the right their relief in person. Accordingly, he left wing, consisting of ten thousand men, passed London on the 4th of June, 1690, and ar- the fords up the river, traversed a bog on the rived on the 14th at Carrickfergus; whence opposite side, and attacked with great impethe passed to Lisburn, the head-quarters of the uosity the left of James, which, after a short Duke of Sehomberg. At Lough-Britland he resistance, gave way, and retired precipitately reviewed his army, which amounted to thirty- to secure the pass of Dunleck, which formed six thousand men, consisting of English, the only line of retreat. The centre next Dutch, Germans, Danes, and French; and crossed the river, but were gallantly opposed being supplied with every necessary, as well by the French and Irish, with whom they as in high health and spirits, they seemed maintained a doubtful contest, till William, certain of victory. The Irish aremy aban- passing the river farther down at the head doned Ardee at their approach, and fell back of his cavalry, threatened the enemy's flank, to the south of the Boyne, where they were and forced' them to fall back on the rest joined by James, who had marched from of the army of James, which was retiring in Dublin at the head of the French auxiliaries. a body around their king. The left met The banks of the Boyne were precipitous, with little or no resistance from the force and on the south side the ground was hilly, opposed to them; and, indeed, the whole of and intersected with ditches. The river James's dispositions seem to have been made itself was deep, and it rose to a considerable for retreat rather than for battle. Hence, height in consequence of the tide. These with a comparatively small loss, William sueadvantages induced James, contrary to the ceeded in forcing his position at all points; opinion of his officers, to maintain possession and in establishing his whole army on the of this post. His army was inferior in num- opposite bank of this deep and difficult river. bers, in discipline, and in every other quality, Whilst the armies were yet engaged, James, to that of his adversary; but convinced that who had so often shown the most heroic coura retreat would dispirit his troops, and tar- age in battle, rode ingloriously off the field. nish his own reputation, he resolved to put This dispirited his troops, who fell into irrethe fate of Ireland on the issue of a battle. trievable disorder, and fled in all directions, William had no sooner arrived on thle ground neglecting his injunction to defend the Pass than he rode along the river in sight of both of Dunleck, and leaving nearly two thousand armies, to examine the position of the hostile men killed and wounded on the field. The force, and make proper dispositions for bat- loss sustained by William's army was, owing tie; but being observed by the enemy, a can- to the difficlilt nature of the ground, conrisidnon was privately brought out and pointed orably greater, though much inferior to what 362 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. it would have been if James had skilfully post at Aughrim, ten mi.es distant, where he availed himself of the strength of his posi- determined to wait the English army. Gincktion, and headed the columns of attack as el, though he had only eighteen thousand they debouched from the fords. Among the men, whilst the Irish were above twenty-five slain; was the brave Duke of Schomberg. thousand strong, did not decline the combat. He was killed by a discharge from his own A fierce contest ensued; but St. Ruth having troops, who, not knowing that. he had been fallen, his troops gave way on all sides, and accidentally hurried into the midst of the retreated in disorder to Limerick, where they enemy, fired upon the body of men who sur- determined to make a final stand, after having rounded him. When James first deserted lost nearly five thousand of their best men. his troops, O'Regan, an old Irish captain, Ginckel, wishing to put an end to the war was heard to observe, that if the English at once, suffered as many of the Irish as would exchange generals, the conquered chose, to retire to Limerick. In this last rearmy would fight them over again. James treat, however, the Irish forces made a brave withdrew precipitately to Waterford, where defence. The siege commenced on the 25th he immediately embarked for France. of August, 1691; and six weeks were spent But the victory at the Boyne was by no before the place without any decisive effect. means decisive, and the adherents of James The garrison was well supplied with proviresolved to continue their opposition. Sars- sions, and provided with all means of defield, a popular and experienced general, put fence. On the other hand, the winter was himself at the head of the army which had approaching, and Ginckel had orders to been routed at the Boyne, and took measures finish the war upon any terms. Accordingly, for defending the banks of the Shannon. he offered conditions to the Irish, which, But James superseded him in the command, even had they been victors, they could scarcewhich he conferred on St. Ruth, a proceeding ly have refused with prudence. He agreed which gave great dissatisfaction to the Irish. that all persons in arms should be pardoned; On the other hand,'General Ginekel, who that their estates should be restored, their had been appointed to command the English attainders annulled, and their outlawries army in the absence of William, who had reversed; that none should be liable for gone over to England, advanced towards the debts incurred through deeds done in the Shannon to meet the enemy. The only course of hostilities; that all Roman Cathoplace where the river was fordable was at lies should enjoy the same toleration in regard Athlone, a strong walled town, situated on to their religion as in the reign of Charles both bankls of the river, and in the posses- II.; that the gentry should be permitted to session of King James's party. The English retain their arms; that the inferior class soon made themselves masters of that part should be allowed to exercise their various which was on the one side of the river; but callings and professions; that no oath but the part on the opposite bank being defended that of allegiance should be required of any with great vigor, it was resolved in a council one; and that if the troops, or any number of war that a forlorn hope should ford the of them, should chose to enter into any stream in the face of the enemy; and this foreign service, they should be conveyed to desperate enterprise being performed with the Continent at the expense of the king. great resolution, the enemy were driven from Sarsfield, who had obtained the title of Ear]. their works, and the town surrendered at dis- of Lucan from James after his abdicationi, cretion. St. Ruth marched to its relief, but was permitted to retain a dignity which the he came too late, and, as he approached, his laws could not recog _ize. The lords justices own guns were turned against him. Upon having arrived from Dublin cn the ist of this he instantly counter-marched, and took October, signed the articles along with HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 363 Gilhkel, and thus the Irish Catholics put pie, afterwards Earl of Stair, being inl atten. a period to a war which threatened their dance upon William as secretary of state for party with absolute ruin. In consequence Scotland, took advantage of Macdonald's of this treaty, about fourteen thousand of neglecting to take the oaths within the time those who had fought for King James passed prescribed, and procured from the king a over to France in transports provided by warrant of military execution against that government for conveying them thither; and chief and his whole clan. This was done at in this manner all James's expectations from the instigation of the Earli of Breadalbane. Ireland were entirely frustrated, and the whose lands the Glenco men had plundered, kingdom submitted quietly to the English and whose treachery to government in nego. government. clating with the Highland clans Mlacdonalk In the beginning of the year 1692, an had himself exposed. The king was accord.. action of unexampled barbarity disgraced ingly persuaded that Glenco was the main,he government of William in Scotland. obstacle to the pacification of the Highlands; In the August preceding, a proclamation and the fact of the unfortunate chief's subhad been issued, offering an indemnity to mission having been concealed, the sanguisuch insurgents as should take the oaths nary orders for proceeding to military executo the king and queen on or before the last tion against his clan were in consequence day of December; and the chiefs of such obtained. The warrant was both signed tribes as had been in arms for James soon and countersigned by the king's own hand; after took advantage of the proclamation. and the secretary urged the officers who But M/[acdonald of Glenco was prevented commanded in the Highlands to execute by accident rather than design from tender- their orders with the utmost rigor. Camp ing his submission within the limited time. bell of Glenlyon, a captain in Argyll's regiIn the end of December he went to Colonel ment, and two subalterns, were ordered to Hill, who commanded the garrison in Fort repair to Glenco on the first of February William, to talke the oaths of allegiance to with a hundred and twenty men. Campthe government; and the latter having fur- bell, being uncle to young Macdonald's wife, nished him with a letter to Sir Colin Camp- was received by the father with all manner bell, sheriff of the county of Argyle, directed of friendship and hospitality. The men him to repair immediately to Inverary to were lodged at free quarters in the houses make his submission in a legal manner before of his tenants, and received the kindest that magistrate. But the way to Ilnverary entertainment. Till the thirteenth of the lay through almost impassable mountains, month the troops lived in the utmost harthe season was extremely rigorous, and the mony and familiarity with the people; and whole country was covered with a deep snow. on the very night of the massacre the officers So eager, however, was Macdonald to take passed the evening at cards in Macdonald's the oaths before the limited time should ex- house. In the night Lieutenant Lindsay, pire, that, though the road lay within half a with a party of soldiers, called in a friendly mile of his own house, he stopped not to manner at his door, and was instantly advisit his family, and, after various obstruc- mitted. Macdonald, while in the act of ristions, arrived at Inverary. The time had ing to receive his guest, was shot dead elapsed, and the sheriff hesitated to receive through the back with two bullets. IHis his submission; but Macdonald prevailed by wife had already dressed; but she was his importunities, and even tears, in inducing stripped naked by the soldiers, who tore that functionary to administer to him the the rings off her fingers with their teeth. oath of allegiance, and to certify the cause The slaughter now became general, and ~f his delay. At this time Sir John Dalrym- neither age nor infirmity was spared. Some 364 HIISTORY OF THE W ORLD. women, in defending their children, were then, and condemned. Ashton was executed killed; boys, imploring mercy were shot without making any confession; but Lord dead by officers on whose knees they hung. Preston wanted equal virtue or resolution, In one place nine persons, as they sat enjoy- for on an offer of pardon, he discovered a ing themselves at table, were butchered great number of associates, amongst whom by the soldiers. In Inverriggon, Camp- were the Duke of Ormond, Lord Dartmouth, bell's own quarters, nine men were first and Lord Clarendon. bound by the soldiers, and then shot at The French having at last become sensiintervals, one by one. Nearly forty persons ble of their bad policy in not better supportwere massacred by the troops; and several ing the cause of James, resolved to attempt who fled to the mountains perished by fanr- a descent upon England in his favor; and, inc and the inclemency of the season. Those in pursuance of this scheme, James was supwho escaped owed their lives to a tempestu- plied with an army consisting of a body of ous night. Liutenant-colonel HIamilton, who French troops, some English and Scottish had received the charge of the execution refugees, and the Irish regiments which had from Dalrymple, was on his march with been transported. into France from Limerick, four hundred men, to guard all the passes and by long discipline and severe duty had from the valley of Glenco; but he was become excellent soldiers. This army was obliged to stop by the severity of the weather, assembled between Cherbourg and La Hogue, which proved the safety of the unfortunate and commanded by King James in person. clan. Next day he entered the valley, laid 3More than three hundred transports were the houses in ashes, and carried away the provided for landing the expedition on the cattle and spoil, which were divided among opposite coast; and Tourville, the French the officers and soldiers. admiral, at the head of sixty-three ships of But the total reduction of Ireland, and the line, was appointed to favor the descent; the dispersion and extermination of' the his orders being at all events to attack the Highlhand chieftains who favored his cause, enemy in case they should oppose him. did not entirely put an end to the hopes'Every thing therefore promised a change of of James. His chief expectations were fortune to the exiled king, and be might now founded on a conspiracy among his English entertain hopes of recovering his crown. adherents, and in the succors promised him But these preparations on the side of France by the French king. A plot was first formed were soon known at the English court, and in Scotland by Sir James Montgomery, a measures taken for a vigorous and effective pei on who, from being ari adherent of Wil- resistance. The secret machinations of tilhe liam's, now turned against him; but as the banished king's adherents were discovered project was ill-contrived, so it was as lightly to the English ministry by spies; and it was discovered by the instigator. To this sue- thus found that the Tories were more faithceeded another, which seemed to threaten ful than even the Whigs, who had placed more serious consequences, as it was man- King William on the throne. The Duke of aged by the Whig party, the most formida- -Marlborough, Lord Godolphin, and even the ble in the state, a number of whom joined Princess Anne herself, were violently sus. themselves to the Tories, and made advances pected of disaffection. to the late king. They assembled together; Preparations, however, were made with and, in order to lose no time, it was resolved great tranquillity and resolution, to resist the to send over to France two trusty persons, coming storm. Admiral Russell was ordered Lord Preston and Mr. Ashton, to consult with to put to sea w.,h all possible expedition; the exiled monarch. Both of them, however, and he soon appeared with ninety-nine ships were seized by order of Lord Caermar- of the line, lesides frigates and fire-ships. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 365 At the ]lead of this formidable fleet he set throne of England after the death of Wil. sail for the coast of France; and, near La liam. William with little hesitation agreed Hogue, he discovered the enemy under to this request, and even engaged to proTourville, who prepared to give him battle: cure the repeal of the act of settlement, anl The engagement began between the two the passing of another declaring the Prince flag ships with the greatest fury, and the of Wales his successor to the throne. iBut rest of the ships in succession followed their this proposal was also rejected by James. example. The battle lasted ten hours; but IHe told the king of France, that though he at length victory declared in favor of num- could endure with patience the usurpation bers, and the French fled for Conquet road, of his nephew, he would never permit his having lost four ships in the action. The own son to be guilty of the same injustice; pursuit continued for the two days follow- that sholld his son reign in his father's lifeing. Three French ships of the line were tine, that circumstance would amount to a destroyed on the day succeeding the princi- formal renunciation; and that the Prince of pal conflict; and eighteen more, which had Wales, by succeeding to the Prince of Ortaken refuge in the bay of La Iogue, were ange, would thereby yield his sole right, burnt by Sir George Rooke. The ships which devolved to him through his father were drawn up in the shallows, and seemed. alone. to be secure against attack; but the British: From this time James lost every hope of seamen, crowding in barges, under cover of being restored to the throne, and resigned such frigates as could be brought sufficiently himself entirely to religious austerities. His near, boarded the enemy's ships, overpow- constitution, though vigorous and athletic, ered their crews, and then set them, on fire. had for some time begun to yield, to the inThe battle of La Hogue, which took place firmities of age, and to that melancholy Xn the 21st of Mlay, 1692, put an end to the which superstition, uniting with misfortune, hopes of James. No further attempts were had impressed on his mind. In the beginmade in his favor, except some plots to as- ning of September, 1701, whilst he was at sassinate King William, which ended only public prayers, according to his daily cusin the destruction of those who had formed tom, he fell suddenly into a lethargy; and them. But it was never thoroughly proved; though he recovered his senses soon after, he that James countenanced these designs; and languished for some days, and expired on the it rather appears that he expressed abhor- 6th of September. The French king paid rence of such attempts. In 1697, the Abb6 hirh several visits during his sickness, and Se Polignac, ambassador of France to Po- exhibited every symptom of compassion, af-.and, wrote to his master that thoughts were fection, and even respect. entertained of the late king of Britain in the Embarrassed as to how he ought to pro-. new election which happened on the death ceed upon the unexpected death of James, of John Sobieski; and that James had al- Louis called a council to deliberate whether ready been ianamed by some of the diet as lhe should acknowledge the Prince of Wales his successor. Louis was eager to seize an as king of Great Britain and Ireland. The opportunity of ridding himself with honor king himself had hesitated long in this deliof a prince whose pretensions lie could no cate point; but the Dauphin, the Duke of longer support; and the friends of James Burgundy, and all the princes of the blood, were also sanguine as to the project; but he declared that it would be unbecoming the himself refused it. The same year, at an in- dignity of the crown of France not to own terview between Iiing William and Louis that the titles of the father had devolved XIV., it was proposed that the Prince of immediately on the son. Louis approve(l of Wales, James's son, should succeed to the this view, and determined in person to ac 366 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. quaint the dying king with his resolution. ance of power and the interests of Europe When he arrived at St. Germains, James lay But in attending to foreign affairs he over. almost insensible from his disorder; but looked internal polity; and, as he formed alrousin- himself, he began to thank his most liances abroad, he increased the influence Christian majesty for all his fJvors. Louis, of party at home. In accepting the crown, however, interrupted him: " Sir," said he, William had resolved to preserve as much "what I have done is but a small matter; of the prerogative as could decently be rebut what I have to say is of the utmost im- tained; and he sometimes exerted a branch portance." The people then began to retire, of it, the power of refusing his assent to bills but Louis ordered them to remain. "I come which had passed both houses, with equal to acquaint you, Sir," he added, " that when firmness and decision. Hence perpetual God shall please to call your majesty from bickerings took place between him and his this world, I shall take your family under my parliaments. But William at last became protection, and acknowledge your son as fatigued with opposition, and admitted every king of Great Britain and Ireland." restraint which they chose to impose on the Though the defeat of the French fleet at prerogative in England, upon condition of La Ilogue had put an end to all danger of being properly supplied with the means neany further attempt from that quarter, Wil- cessary for humbling France. liam by no means possessed his throne in The war with France continued during any degree of tranquillity. The want of a the greater part of this king's reign; but at common enemy produced dissensions amongst length the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, put the people, and the king began to experi- an end to a contest in which England had ence as much trouble fronm his parliament at engaged without policy, and from which she home as from any enemy in the field. The came off without advantage. In the general uneasiness he felt on account of the refrac- pacification her interests seemed entirely tory disposition of his subjects was not a lit- neglected; and for all the treasures she hadtie heightened by the death of his queen, transmitted to the Continent, and all the who was carried off by the small-pox on the blood which had been shed there, the only 28th of December, 1694. The grief he felt equivalent received was an acknowledgment for her loss was deep and sincere; but all. of William's title by the king of France. private concerns were soon merged in the The king being now freed from foreign greatness of his apprehensions for the bal- war, set himself to strengthen his authority ance of power and the fluctuating interests at home; and as he could not endure the of Europe. William's chief motive for ac- thoughts of a king without an army, he concepting the crown had been to engage Eng- ceived hopes of keeping up, in time of peace, land more deeply in the concerns of Europe; those forces which had been granted him and as his great object had been to humble during the time of danger. The Commons, the French, so his politics mainly consisted however, to his great mortification, passed a in forming'alliances against France. But vote that all the forces in the pay of Engmany of the English had no such animosity land, exceeding seven thousand men, should against that country; and considering the be forthwith disbanded, and that those reinlterests of the nation as sacrificed to for- tained should be natural-born subjects ol eign connections, they complained that the England. At this vote the king's indignacontinental war fell most heavily on them, tion was kindled to such a degree, that lihe though they had the least interest in its sue- actually conceived a design of abandoning,ess. These complaints were at first heard the government From this, however, his oy William with indifference; and he con- ministers diverted him, and persuaded him,inued to bestow all his attention on the bal- to consent to the passing of the bill. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 367 These altercations continued during the constitution; and by this time it had become remainder of this reign. William consid- almost quite exhausted by a series of contin ered the Commons as a body of men desir- ual disquietude and action. Ife had enous of power for themselves, and consequent- deavored to repair his strength, or at least ly bent upon obstructing all his projects for to conceal its decay, by exercise on horsesecuring the liberties of Europe; and he back. But on the 21st of February, 1702, seemed but little attached to any particular whilst riding to Hampton Court from Kenparty in the house, all of whom he found at sington, his horse fell under him, and he was times deserted or opposed him. HIe there- thrown with such violence that his collarfore inclined to Whigs and Tories indiscrim- bone was fractured. His attendants coninately, as interest or the immediate exigen- vcyed him to the palace at Hampton Court, cy demanded. He considered England as a where the fracture was reduced; and in the place of labor, anxiety, and altercation. If evening he returned to Kensington in his he had any time for amusement or relaxa- coach. But the jolting of the carriage distion, he retired to Loo, Holland, where, united the fracture; and although the bones among a few friends, he indulged in such were again replaced by Bidloo his physician, festivities as he was capable of relishing. this accident proved ultimately fatal. For Here he planned the succession of the differ- some time indeed he appeared to be in a fair ent princes of Europe, and labored to under- way of recovery; but falling asleep on his mine the schemes and the power of Louis, couch, he was seized with a shivering, which his rival in politics and fame. But however terminated in a fever and diarrhcea, that refeeble might be William's desire of other sisted all remedial means employed to abate amusements, he could scarcely exist without them. Perceiving his end approaching, he being at variance with France. Peace had exhibited another example of the ruling pashardly been concluded with that nation sion strong in death. The objects of his forwhen he began to think of resources for car- mer care lay nearest his heart; and the fate rying on a new war, and enlisting his Eng- of Europe seemed to render him insensible lish subjects in a confederacy against France. to his own. The Earl of Albemarle arrivSeveral arts were used for inducing the peo- ing from Holland, he conferred with hlim in pie to second his aims; and the whole nation private on the posture of affairs abroad; and seemed at last to join in desiring a French having received the sacrament from Archwar. HIe had been in Iolland concerting bishop Tennison, he expired on Sunday, the with his allies operations for a new cam- 8th day of March, having lived fifty-two paign; and he had entered into a negotia- years, and reigned thirteen. tion with the Prince of Hesse, who assured William was succeeded by the Princess him that if he would besiege and take Cadiz, Anne, who had married George, Prince of the admiral of Castile and several other gran- Denmark. She ascended the throne in the dees of Spain would declare for the house of thirty-eighth year of her age, to the general Austria. The Elector of Hanover had con- satisfaction of all parties. William had died curred in the same measures; the King of on the eve of a war with France; and the the Romans, and Prince Louis of Baden, un- present queen, who was generally guided by dertook to invest Landau; and the emperor the advice of her ministry on every imporpromised to send a powerful reinforcement tant occasion, was now urged by opposite into Italy. But death unexpectedly put a councils, one part of the ministry being inperiod to the projects and ambition of this Rclined for war, and another for peace. At prince, Vwho, with all his defects, was, in the head of those who opposed a war with many particulars, a truly great man. France, was the Earl of Rochester, lord lieuWilliamn was nat'rally of a very feeble tenant of Ireland, first cousin tc the queen; 368 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. and the chief of the Tory faction; whilst subsequent conduct showed t1;ai no person the opposite party was led by the Earl, could possibly have been chosen with greater afterwards Duke of }Iarlborough, and sub- propriety. He had learned the rudiments sequently so much and justly renowned for of war under Turenne, having served as a his victories over the French. After both volunteer in his army; and that celebrated parties had given their opinions, that of Marl- commander had prognosticated his future borough preponderated. The queen resolved greatness. to declare war; and having communicated The first attempt which 1Marlborough her intentions to the House of Commons, by made to deviate from the general practice whom it was approved, war was proclaimed of the army was to advance the subaltern accordingly. In this declaration Louis was officers, whose merits had hitherto been taxed with having taken possession of a neglected. Regardless of seniority) wher great part of the Spanish dominions;. with a ever he found ability he was sure to promote design to invade the liberties of Europe, and it; and thus all the upper ranks of command to obstruct the freedom of navigation and were filled with men rather remarkable for commerce; with having offered an unpar- their skill and talents than for their age and donable insult to the queen and her throne, experience. In his first campaign, in the beby acknowledging the title of the pretender; ginning of July, 1T02, he repaired to the and with attempting to unite Spain to his camp at Nimeguen, where he found himself own dominions, by placing his grandson up- at the head of sixty thousand men, well proon the throne of that kingdom, and thus en- vided with all necessaries, and long discipdeavoring to destroy the balance of power lined by the best officers of the age. lIe that subsisted among the states of Europe. was opposed on the part of France by the This declaration of war on the part of England Duke of Burgundy, a youth of very little was seconded by similar manifestoes by the experience in the art of war; but the real Dutch and Germans. acting general was MIarshal Boufflers, the Louis XIV., whose power had been great- second in command, an officer of courage 1v circumscribed by William, expected, on and activity. But wherever Marlborough the death of the latter, to enter on a field advanced, the French were obliged to retire open for new conquests and fame. At the before him, leaving all Spanish Guelderland news of the English monarch's death, there- at his discretion. The Duke of Burgundy, fore, he could not suppress his satisfaction; finding himself obliged to retreat before the whilst the people of Paris, and indeed allied army, rather than expose himself throughout the whole kingdom, testified longer to such a mortifying indignity, retheir joy in the most public manner. The turned to Versailles, leaving Boufilers to French monarch was filled with indignation command alone. The latter then retired to at seeing such a combination against him; Brabant; and,arlborough ended the cambult his resentment fell chiefly on the Dutch, paign by taking the city of Liege, in which and he declared with great emotion, that as he found an immense sum of money and a for those gentlemen peddlers, they should one greater number of prisoners. day repent their insolence and presumption This good fortune seemed to console the in declaring war against him, whose power nation for some unsuccessful expeditions at they had formerly felt and dreaded. By sea. Sir John Munden having permitted a these threats, however, the affairs of the French squadron of fourteen ships to escape allies were no way influenced. Mlarlborough by taking shelter in the harbor of Corunna, was appointed general of the British forces, was dismissed the service. An attempt was and by the Dutch he was chosen general- made upon Cadiz by;ea and land, Sir issimo of the allied army; and indeed his George Rooke commanding the navy, and HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 369 tile Duke of Ormond the land forces; but to augment her forces; and upon this it was this also miscarried. At Vigo, however, the resolved that ten thousand more men should British arms were attended with better sue- be added to the continental army; on concess; and the French fleet which had taken dition, however, that the Dutch should imrefuge there was burnt in order to prevent mediately break off all commerce with its falling into the hands of the English, France and Spain. whilst ten ships of war were taken, together In the beginning of April, 1703, the Duke with eleven galleons, and about a million of of Marlborough crossed the sea, and assemmoney in silver. In the West Indies, Ad- bling the allied army, opened the campaign miral Kenbow, who had been stationed with with the siege of Bonn, the residence of the ten ships to distress the enemy's trade, hav- Elector of Cologne, which held out but a ing received information that Du Casse the short time. He next retook TIuy, the garriFrench admiral was in those seas with a son of which, after a vigorous defence, surforce equal to his own, resolved to attack rendered prisoners of war. Limburg was hlim; and having discovered the enemy's then besieged, and surrendered in two days; squadron near St. Martha steering along the and the campaign concluded by securing the shore, he quickly gave the necessary orders country of Liege, the electorate of Cologne, to his captains, and forming the line of bat- on the Lower Rhine, against the designs of tie, began the action. But the rest of the the enemy. fleet having taken some causeless disgust at In the campaign of 1704, the Duke of his conduct, permitted the admiral to sus- Marlborough, having informed the Dut-h tain, almost alone, the whole fire of the ene- of his intention to march to the relief of the my. Nevertheless, the engagement con- empire, which had been for some time optinued till night, and he determined to re- pressed by the French forces, the states gave new it next morning; but he had the morti- him full powers to act as he thought proper, fication to perceive that all the rest of his with assurances of assistance in all his efforts. ships had fallen back except one, who joined The French king, finding Boufflers no longer him in urging the pursuit of the enemy. capable of opposing Marlborough, appointed During four days this intrepid seaman, assist- the Marshal de Villeroi to command in his ed by only one ship, pursued and fought the room. But Marlborough, having no great enemy, whilst his dastardly officers remained fears from Villeroi, immediately marched to at a secure distance. In the last day's bat- the assistance of the emperor. Taking with tie, which was more furious than any of the him about thirteen thousand British troops, preceding conflicts, the admiral's leg was he advanced by rapid marches to the banks shattered by a cannon-ball, and he himself of the Danube, defeated a body of French died soon after of his wounds. Two of his and Bavarians stationed at Donawerth to associates were shot on their arrival in Eng- oppose him, and, passing the river, laid unlland; one died on his passage h3me; and der contribution the electorate of Bavaria, the remainder were justly disgraced. who had taken part with the enemy. Villeroi, The next parliament, which was convened who at first had attenlpted to follow his moby the queen, evinced great satisfaction at the tions, soon lost sight of him; nor was the success of the British arms on the Continent. French commander apprised of his route till The House of Commons, composed chiefly informed of his successes. But, in the mean of Tories, voted forty thousand seamen, and time, Marshall Tallard prepared by another the like number of land forces, to act in con- line to obstruct Marlborough's retreat, with junction with those of the allies. But soon an army of thirty thousand men; and being afterwards the queen informed her parlia- soon after joined by the forces of the Eleeto, mnent that she was pressed by the allies of Bavaria, the French army in that part o2 m.-24 370 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the Continent amounted to sixty thousand French army, through the space left open by veterans, commanded by two generals then the defeat of the cavalry, the English troops reputed the zest in France. To oppose this effected a total separation between them, powerful f(rce the Duke of Marlborough whilst the large force imprudently posted in formed a junction with a body of thirty the village of Blenheim had its communica thousand men under the celebrated Prince tions intercepted by another strong detachEugene'; so that, with-this reinforcement, ment. In this situation Tallard flew to the allied army amounted to about fifty- rally some of his squadrons; but, being two thousand combatants. After various short-sighted, he mistook a Hessian for a marches and countermarches, the two armies French corps, and was made prisoner. On met at Blenheim. The French under Tal- the left Prince Eugene had encountered a lard, were posted upon the hill near the town vigorous resistance and been thrice repulsed; of Hochstet, having their right covered by but, having received some reinforcements the Danube and the village of Blenheim, from Marlborough, he at last succeeded in their left by the village of Lutzengen, and dislodging the enemy opposed to him. The their front by a rivulet, the sides of which battle was now won. The French fled in were steep and the bottom marshy; and in the utmost confusion, while the corps of thirthis strong position they seemed to bid defi- teen thousand men which occupied Blenance to their adversaries. But Marlborough heim were surrounded and made prisoners. and Eugene, having carefully examined the About twelve thousand French and Bavariground, resolved to attack them, and accord- ans were killed. on the field or drowned in ingly advanced upon the plain in front of the Danube; whilst one hundred colors, their position. The battle began by a can- two hundred standards, three thousand tents, nonade on both sides, which lasted from all the baggage, and the military chest of nine in the morning until half an hour after the French army, formed the trophies of tlhis mid-day. At this moment Marlborough, glorious day. Of the allies not less than who had completed all his dispositions, thirteen thousand were killed, wounded, or crossed the rivulet at the head of the Eng- missing; but the conquerors by the victory lish, and attacked the cavalry of Tallard on gained a territory of a hundred leagues in. the right, while that officer was engaged in extent, and inflicted a blow on the power of reviewing his troops on the left. An hour France from which it did not soon recover. elapsed, however, before Prince Eugene Having finished the campaign the duke recould bring up his forces to attack the other paired to Berlin, where he procured a reinwing of the enemy commanded by the Elec- forcement of eight thousand Prussians to tor of Bavaria; but, during this time Marl- serve under Prince Eugene in Italy, and borough's attack had been completely sue- then proceeded to negociate for succors at cessful; and when Tallard repaired to the the court of Hanover; after which lie rescene of action he found that the French turned to England, and was received with cavalry had been thrice repulsed. He then every possible demonstration of joy. The attempted to lead the charge a large body of manor of Woodstock was conferred upon troops which he had posted in the village; him; and the lord-keeper, in the name of but these being furiously assailed by a strong the Peers, honored him with the praises detachment of English troops, were scarcely which his talents and conduct had so well able to maintain their ground, while the merited. French, taken in flank and in reverse, were Nor were the arms of Britain less fortunate totally defeated. This success led to a move- by sea than by land. The town of Gibraltar ment which proved completely decisive, was taken by the Prince of Hess and Sir Penetrating between the two wings of the George Rooke; but so little was the value HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 371 of the conquest at that time understood, that assistance of the British and Portuguese, to:t was for some time debated whether the arm in his cause. On his way to his new admiral should be thanked for making it, dominions, he landed in England, where, on and at last it was considered as unworthy of his arrival, he was received by the Dukes public gratitude. Soon after, the British of Somerset and Marlborough; kindly greetfleet, to the number of fifty-three ships of ed by the queen; and furnished with twc the line, came up with that of France, con- hundred transports, thirty ships of war, and sisting of fifty-two men-of-war, commanded nine thousand men, under the command of by the Count de Toulouse, off the coast of the Earlof Peterborough, a man of romantic Malaga. Battle began at ten in the forenoon, bravery and high military genius. The first and continued with great fury for six hours, attempt of this general was on the city of when the van of the French began to give B3arcelona, at that tim-e defended by a garriway. The British admiral for two days at- son of five thousand men. The fort of tempted to renew the engagement; but this Monjuic, situated on a hill which commandwas cautiously declined by, the French, who ed the city, was attacked; and the outworks at last disappeared totally. Both sides being taken by storm, as well as the powderclaimed the victory, although the result magazine blown up, the fort surrendered, showed that it was in favor of the British. and in a short time afterwards the city capiMeanwhile the Spaniards, alarmed at the tulated. The conquest of all Valencia succapture of Gibraltar, sent the Ilarquis of ceeded the capture of Barcelona; Charles Villadurias with a large army to retake it. became master of Aragon, Carthagena, GreFrance also dispatched a fleet of thirteen nada, and 2i[adrid; and the British general ships of the line; but some of them paxtcld having entered the capital in triumph, there company in a gale, and others were taken proclaimed Charles king of Spain, without by the British. lNor was the land force opposition. more successful. The. siege continued for These successes, however, were very soon four.months, during which time the Spaniards eclipsed by the victories of the Duke. of repeatedly attempted in vain to scale the MIarlborough, which alone engrossed public rock; and at last, losing all hopes of taking attention. In 1706 he opened the campaign the place, they were contented to draw off with an army of eighty thousand men. The their men and abandon the enterprise. armiy of Villeroi, in the vicinity of Tirlemont, Whilst the British were thus victorious was ofnearlyequalstrength,and hehadorders by land and sea, a new scene of contention to attack the allies before the Danish and Pruswas open on the side of Spain. Philip V., sian contingents could join. But, whilst it grandson of Louis XIV., had been raised to was his intention to become the assailant, the throne of that kingdom, having been Villeroi, was himself attacked, in a poposition nominated as successor to the crown by the which prevented his developing the whole of late king of Spain's will. But in a former his force. He had the river Mehaigne or treaty among the powers of Europe, Charles, his flank, and his centre occupied the villageson of the emperor of Germany, was ap- of Ramillies, while a marsh covered his left. pointed heir to the crown; and this treaty Marlborough skillfully availed himself of the had been guaranteed by France herself, al- disposition made by his antagonist; and knowthough she now resolved to recall that con- ing that Villeroi's left was paralysed by reasent in favor of a descendant of the house son of the marsh in front, whllich effectually of Bourbon. Charles was still further led prevented its acting on the offensive, he dito urge his pretensions to the crown of Spain rected his principal attack lupon the centre, by the invitation of the Catalonians, who de- which formed the key of the position. The latred in his favor, and promnised, with the issue of the conflict was never for a mnoment 372 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. doubtful; the village was carried in the most tracting a ruinous war, for his own private gallant style, and both wings being at once emolument and glory; and as the country separated and turned, a complete rout en- was oppressed with a load of taxes, which a sued. About six thousand French were made continuance of the war would inevitably inprisoners, and upwards of eight thousand crease, discontent began to spread, and the killed and wounded. The whole of Barbant Tories wanted only a few determined leaders became the reward of the victors. The French to assist them in removing the present mintroops were now dispirited; the city of Paris istry. was in confusion; and Louis,who had long beeni In the meanwhile, a succession of losses flattered with conquest, was humbled to such began to dissipate the conquering mania which a degree as almost to excite the compassion had seized the nation, and to incline them to even of his enemies. Hie sued for peace, but wish for peace. The Earl of Galway, who in vain; the allies carried all before them; commanded the English Army in Spain, was and his capital began to dread the approach completely defeated at Almanza by the Duke of the conquerors. But what neither his of Berwick; and in consequence of this armies nor his politics could effect, was victory all Spain, except the province of brought about by the intrigues of a party in Catalonia, returned to their duty to Philip England. The dissensions between the Whigs as their lawful sovereign. An attempt was and the Tories saved France, which now made upon Toulon by the Duke of Savoy and seemed tottering on the very brink of ruin. Prince Eugene by land, and an English fleet The councils of the queen had hitherto by sea; but to no purpose. The fleet under been governed by a Whtig ministry; for Sir Cloudesley Shovel, having set sail for though the Duke of Marlborough began his England, Was driven by a violent storm on career in the interest of the opposite party, the rocks of Sicilly, where his own ship was lie soon joined the Whigs, whom he found lost, and every person on board perished; most sincere in the design of humbling while three more ships met with the same France. The people, however, were now in fate, and four others were saved with the utfact beginning to change their sentiments, mdst difficulty. In Germany, Marshal Viland to imbibe the slavish spirit of Toryism. lars carried all before him, and was upon the The queen's personal virtues, her successes, point of restoring the Elector of Bavaria. her deference for the clergy, and their great The only hopes of the people lay in the acveneration for her, all contributed to give tivity and conduct of the Duke of Marlher great influence with the nation. Persons borough, who opened the campaign in 1707, of every rank were not ashamed to defend about the middle of May; but even here they the most servile tenets, when these tended were disappointed. The duke declined an to flatter or increase the power of the sover- engagement; and, after a variety of marches eign, and to argue in favor of strict heredi- and countermarches, both armies retired intc tary succession, divine right, and non-resis- winter quarters about the end of October. tanhe to the regal power. The Tories, though The French made vigorous preparations for joining in vigorous measures against France, the next campaign; and. the duke returned were never very ardent enemies of that to England to meet with a reception which country; but they secretly hated the Dutch, he did not at all expect, and which he cerand longed for an opportunity of bieaking tainly did not deserve. with that people. With this view they be- The most remarkable transaction of this gan to meditate schemes of opposition to year, and indeed of this whole reign, was the the Duke of Miarlborough, whom they re- union between the two kingdoms of Scotland presented as an interested man, who sac- and England. Though governed by one rificed the real interests of the nation, in pro- sovereign since the time of James I. of Eng HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 373 land, yet each nation had continued to be trade as England; but the queen being per ruled by its respective parliament, and often suaded to pay two visits in person to the corn professed to pursue interests opposite to those missioners, exerted herself so vigorously, that of its neighbor. The union had often been a majority was at last gained over; and all unsuccessfully attempted before, and had in- the rest yielded, though with reluctance, exdeed been the cause of the bloody wars in the cepting Lockhart of Carnwarth, who could times of Edward I. and Edward III. of Eng- not by any means be persuaded either to land. In all the former proposals on that sign or seal the treaty. head, both nations were supposed to remain The articles being fully prepared on the free and independent; each kingdom having 22d of July, were presented the next day to its own parliament, and being subject only her majesty by the lord-keeper in the name to such taxes and other commercial regula- of the English commissioners; and at the tions as those parliaments judged expedient same time a sealed copy of the instrument for the benefit of their respective states. But was delivered by the lord chancellor of Scot after the destruction of the Darien colony in land. The articles were most graciously rethe manner already related, King William ceived; and the same day the queen dictated had endeavored to allay the national ferment an order of council, threatening with proseby resuming the affair of a union with as cution such as should be concerned in any much assiduity as his warlike occupation discourse or libel, or in laying wagers, with would allow. The terms proposed were the regard to the union. But notwithstanding same with those formerly tendered; namely, all this harmony the treaty was received with federal union, somewhat like that of the the utmost disapprobation in Scotland. The states of Holland. With this view the Scots terms had been carefully concealed, so that were prevailed on to send twenty commission- nothing transpired till the whole was at once ers to London, who, with twenty-three on the laid before parliament. The ferment then part of England, assembled at Whitehall in became general; and all ranks of people, howthe month of October, 1702. Here they ever, divided in other respects, united against were honored with a visit from the queen, in this detested treaty. The nobility and gentry order to enliven their proceedings and stimu- were exasperated at the annihilation of parlilate them to the more speedy dispatch of busi- ament, and the consequent loss of their infiuness; but the treaty was entirely broken off ence and credit. The most violent disputes at this time by the Scottish commissioners took place in the parliament. Almost every insisting that the rights and privileges of article of the treaty was the subject of a protheir countrymen trading to Africa and the test and addresses against it were presented to Indies should be preserved and maintain- parliament by the convention of royal burghs, ed. It was, however, resumed in the year the commissioners of the general assembly, 1706, when the commissioners again assem- and the company trading to Africa and the bled on the 16th of April, in the council chai- Indies, as well as from shires, stewartries, er of Whitehall. The Scottish commissioners burghs, towns, and parishes, without distinestill proposed a federal union; but the English tion of Whig, Tory, Presbyterian, or Episwere determined on an incorporation, which copalian. Nor was the resentment of the should not afterwards be dissolved by a Scot- common people without doors less violent tish parliament. Nothing but this, they said, than that of the members within. A coalition could settle a perfect and lasting friendship was formed between the Presbyterians and betwixt the two nations. The commissioners Cavaliers; and to such a height did the r:from Scotland, however, continued to resist sentment of the people rise, that they actu. the article which subjected their country to ally chose officers, formed themselves ir tc the same customs, excises, and regulations of regiments, provided horses and ammunition, 371 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. burnt the articles of the union, justified their the 25th of March, 1707; when the Duke of conduct by a public declaration, and resolved Queensberry finally dissolved that ancient to take the route to Edinburgh and dissolve assembly, and Scotland ceased to be a sep-,he parliament. arate independent kingdom. In the meantime the privy council is- We must now return to the Duke of Marlsued a proclamation against riots, command- borough, who had gone over to Flanders to ing all persons to retire fromn the streets open-the campaign. Peace had been more whenever the drum was beat; ordering the than once offered, and treaties entered upon. guards to fire on those who disobeyed this but as often frustrated. After the battle of command; and indemnifying them from all IRamillies, the king of France had employed prosecution for maiming or slaying the lieges. the Elector of Bavaria to write letters in his But even these precautions were insufficient. name to tlie Duke of Marlborough, containThe Duke of Queensberry, the chief promo- ing proposals for opening a congress,'and ter of the union, though guarded by double offering to renounce either Spain and its dolines of horse and foot, was obliged to pass minions, orthe kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, through the streets at full gallop, amidst the to Charles of Austria, and to concede a barcurses and imprecations of the populace, who rier to the Dutch in the Netherlands. But pelted his guards, and even wounded some these terms were rejected; and the two of the persons who attended him in the coach. armies once more met in nearly equal numnIn opposition to all this fury, the friends of the hers at Oudenarde, on the Scheldt, where measure magnified the advantages that would an engagement ensued, in which the French accrue to the kingdom from the union; they were defeated with immense loss; and Lisle, abated the resentment of the clergy, by pro- the strongest town in Flanders, with Ghent, moting the insertion in the treaty of an act Bruges, and all the other towns in that counby which the Presbyterian discipline was de- try, soon after fell into the hands of the vicldared to be the only government of the tors. In this battle the electoral prince of church of Scotland, unalterable in all sue- Hanover, afterwards George II. of Britain, ceeding times, and a fundamental article of greatly distinguished himself, and had the the union. Emissaries were also employed merit of conducting the first attack. Mis to disunite the Cameronians and the Cavaliers, horse was killed under him, and Colonel by demonstrating the absurdity, sinfulness Luschki was slain by his side. The camand danger, of such proceeding. The India paign ended with fixing a barrier to the Compatny was flattered with the pro3pect of Dutch provinces, and it now only remained an inlemnification for the losses they had to force a way into the provinces of the sustained, and individuals by sharing an enemy. equivalent. And the last manemuvre con- The French king, being now in a manner sisted in bringing over a party of the S*ot- reduced to despair, again sued for peace; tish parliament, nicknamed the Squad;rone but the demands of the allies were so high, Folante, from their fluctuating between the that he was obliged to reject therm, and preministry and the opposition, without attach- pare for another campaign in the year 1709. ing themselves to any party till the critical The first attempt of the allies was against moment, which was either to cement both the city of Tournay, garrisoned by twelve kingdoms by a firm union, or involve them thousand men, and exceedirgly strong both in the calamities of war. B13y this unexpected by nature and art. After a terrible siege of stroke, the ministry obtained a decisive vic- twenty-one days, the town capitulated; and tory, and all opposition was henceforth vain; a month afterwards the citadel, which was The articles of the treaty were ratified by still stronger than the town, surrendered. parliament, with some trifling variations, on INext followed the bloody battle of Malpla HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 375 quet, where the allied army, consisting of of the allies before he had declaied that he a hulnrdred and ten thousand, strongly was not to act in concert with them; and the posted, and fortified in such a manner behind queen herself commanded him to pursue this the woods of La Merte and Tanieres, with shameful course, nay even acted in a similar triple entrenchments, that their position manner herself. Prince Eugene complained seemed quite impregnable. Nothing, how- much of the inactivity of the English gelt. ever, could resist the energy of Marlborough eral, though apparently unacquainted with and the bravery of his troops. The French his treachery; while the whole army loaded were driven from all their positions, and him with execrations, calling him a stupid totally defeated. But the victory cost the tool, and a general of straw. All this, how allies very dear;; for twenty thousand of ever, was in vain; the duke continued to their best troops lay dead or wounded on the prefer the commands of his sovereign to field of battle. The consequence of this vie- every other consideration, and Ormond lost tory was the surrender of the city of Mons, what Marlborough had gained. which ended the campaign. The disgrace of the Duke of Marlborough The last campaign of the Duke of Marl- had been. owing to the prevalence of the borough, which happened in the year 1711, Tory party, who had now got the Whig probably excelled all his former exploits. ministry turned out; and the consequence He was opposed by Marshal Villars, who was, that notwithstanding all the remonhad commanded the French in the battle of strances and entreaties of the allies, the Malplaquet; but he contrived his measures British army in Flanders was ordered not to so, that, by marching and countermarching, act offensively. Hence the operations lanhe, without striking a blow, forced the enemy guished, a considerable body of the allies to quit a strong line of entrenchments, which was cut off at Denain, and the French he afterwards took possession of. This en- retook several towns. A peace, however, terprise was followed by the taking of Bou- was at last concluded in 1713 between chain, which was the last military achieve- France and Britain. In this treaty it was ment of this great general. By a continua- stipulated that Philip, now acklinowledged tion of conduct and success almost unparal- as king of Spain, should renounce all right leled, he had gained to the allies. a prodigious to the crown of France, the union of two tract of country. But on the duke's return such powerful kingdoms being thought from this campaign, he was accused of having dangerous to the liberties of Europe. It taken a bribe of six thousand pounds a year was agreed that the Duke de Berri, Philip's from a Jew who had contracted to supply brother, and next after himn in succession, the army with bread; and the queen thought should also renounce his right to the crown proper to dismiss him from all his em- of Spain in case he became king of France. ployments. And it was stipulated that the Duke of SaOn the removal of this great general, the voy should possess the island of Sicily with command of the British forces was conferred the title of king, together with Fenestrelles, on the'Duke of Ormond. The transactions and other places on the Continent; and this which followed are by no means creditable increase of dominion was in some measure to the character of the British nation. The provided out of the spoils of the French people at large, blinded by a headstrong and monarchy. The Dutch had the barrier furious clergy, wished to revive the ceremo- granted them which they so much desired; nies of the Roman religion, and to unite the and if the crown of France was deprived of English and G~allican churches; the general some dominions to enrich the Duke of Savoy, of the army acted a most insidious part, by the house of Austria was also taxed to supgiving the enemy intelligence of the designs J ply the wants of the Hollanders, whlo were 376 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. put in possession of the strongest towns in further than that the Tory influence con Flanders. The fortifications of Dunkirk tinnued to prevail. were demolished. Spain gave up Gibraltar The violent dissensions between these par. and the island of Minorca. France resigned ties, with their cabals and tumults, made the iher pretensions to Hudson's Bay, Nova Sco- queen's situation very disagreeable; her tia, and Newfoundland, but was left in pos- health visibly declined. On the 28th of session of Cape Breton, with the liberty of July, 1714, she fell into a lethargic insensidrying fish upon the shore. Among the bility; and, notwithstanding all the mediarticles creditable to the British nation, their cines prescribed by the physicians, the dissetting free the French Protestants confined temper gained ground so fast, that next day in the prisons and galleys for their religion her life was despaired of. The members of was not the least meritorious. In behalf of the privy council were now summoned from the emperor, it was stipulated that he should the different parts of the kingdom, and possess the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of began to provide for the security of the conMilan, and the Spanish Netherlands; and the stitution. A letter was sent to the Elector King of Prussia was to have Upper Guelder- of Hanover, informing him of the queen's land. A period was fixed for the emperor's desperate condition, and desiring him to acceding to these articles, as he had for some repair to Holland, where a British squadron time obstinately refused to assist at the ne- would attend to convey him to England; gotiation. This famous treaty was signed at and instructions were at the same time di.eUtrecht on the last day of March, 1713. patched to the Earl of Strafford at the Hague, The same year was also remarkable for an to require the states-general to be prepared attempt of the Scottish Peers and Commons to guarantee the Protestant succession Pre. to dissolve the union, which, as already cautions were also taken to secure all the stated, had proved exceedingly disagreeable sea-ports; and the command of the fleet was and distressful to the nation. During the bestowed upon the Earl of Berkeley, a prodebates on this subject the Earl of Peter- fessed Whig. These measures answered a borough endeavored to prove tile impossi- double purpose, as they argued the alacrity bility of dissolving the treaty; but the Duke of the Whigs in the cause of their new soyof Argyll, who had originally promoted the ereign, and seemed to imply that the state union, now declared against it, and said, that was in danger from the disaffection of the unless it were dissolved he did not long ex- opposite party. On the 30th of July the pect to have either property in Scotland or queen seemed somewhat relieved by the liberty in England. This motion was, how- medicines which hadbeen administered; and ever, overruled; but the discontent of the having risen from her bed about eight in the people still continued; addresses were pre- morning, she -walked a little; but she was pared throughout the kingdom; and matters soon afterwards seized with an apopletic were'in danger of coming to the worst ex- fit; and although she recovered somewhat tremities, when the attempt of the pretender by the assistance of Dr. hMead, she continued in 1715 so divided the minds of the people all night in a state of stupefaction, and exas to render it impossible for any unanimous pired the following morning, at seven, having effort afterwards to be made for the repeal lived forty-nine years, and reigned upwards of the union. of twelve. This princess was remarkable The history of the latter portion of this neither for learning nor capacity. Like all reign consists entirely of the intrigues of the the rest of her family, she seemed rather Whigs and Tories against each other, which, fitted for the duties of private life than those fs they are now of no importance whatever, of a public station. it is needless tc take up tie in relating, The queen had no sooner resigned her..;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-I HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 377 breath thail the privy councilmet, and three from the royal favor. The king did not instruments were produced, by which the seem sensible that the monarch of a faction Elector of Hanover appointed several of his rules but one-half of his subjects; and it was adherents to be added as lords justices to the his misfortune to be surrounded by men who, great officers of the kingdom. Orderswere whilst they pretended to secure the crown also issued for proclaiming George, son of for the king, used all their arts to conform Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick, and their own interests, extend their connections, of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., king and give laws to their sovereign. In conseof England, Scotland, and Ireland; and the quence of these partialities, the greatest disregency appointed the Earl of.Dorset to carry content was excited throughout the whole to him the intimation of his accession to the kingdom. The Tories or Jacobites raised crown, and to attend him in his journey to terrible outcries; and had the pretender been England. a man of judgment or ability, a fair opporThe king landed at Greenwich, and tunity now offered him of striking a decisive walked to his house in the park, accompa- blow. Instead of this, he remained a calm nied by a great number of the nobility and spectator on the Continent, and only sent other persons of distinction. George I. was over his emissaries to disperse ineffectual fifty-four years of age when he ascended the manifestos and delude the unwary. At this British throne; and his mature age, his ex- time the Catholic religion was much hated perience and sagacity, his numerous alliances, in England; but the principles of the Disand the general tranquillity of Europe, all senters were little, if at all, more agreeable contributed to establish his interests, and to the generality. The Tories affirmed that, promise him a peaceable and happy reign. under a Whig administration, heresy and lHis virtues, though not shining, were solid; impiety were daily gaining ground; whilst and he was of a very different disposition the lower orders of the clergy joined in these from the Stuart family whom he succeeded; complaints, and pointed out several tracts for, soon after his arrival in England, he was published in favor of Arianism and Socinianheard to say, " My maxim is, never to aban- ism. The ministry, however, not only redon my friends, to do justice to all the world, fused to punish the delinquents, but silenced and to fear no man." To these qualities of the clergy themselves, and forbade their furesolution and perseverance he joined great ture disputations on these topics. application to business; but, unfortunately The parliament having been dissolved, for England, he studied the interests of the another was now called by a very extraorterritory he had left more than those of the dinary proclamation, in which the king comkingdom he came to govern. plained of the evil designs of men disaffected The new king early discovered a natural to his succession, and of their misrepresentaenough inclination to support those who had tions of his conduct and principles; expressed raised him to the throne, or, in other words, his hopes that his subjects would send up to the Whig party. Immediately after his parliament the fittest persons to redress the landing, he sent for such of the nobility as present disorders; and entreated that they had distinguished themselves by their zeal would elect such in particular as had exfor his succession. He expressed the great- pressed a firm attachment to the Protestant est regard for the Duke of Marlborough, who succession. In the election of this importhad just then arrived from the Continent, ant parliament, uncommon vigor was exerted whither he had been driven by the violence on both sides; but by dint of the monied inof the Tories; and he professed the same terest which prevailed in corporations, and friendship for the other leaders of the Whigs, the activity of the ministry, a great majority while the tories found' themselves excluded of Whigs was returned both in England and 378 HISTORY OF THE WORI~.D. Scotland. Upon the assembling of the new well armed and provided; an(d having se parliament the most violent measures were cured the pass at Tay of Perth, where his resolved on against the late ministry. A headquarters were established, he made himcommittee was appointed to inspect all the self master of the province of Fife, and the,apers relative to the recent treaty, and to se- whole sea-coast on that side of the Frith of lect such of them as might furnish grounds Forth. IIe then marched to Dumblane, as of accusation against the former ministry; if with the intention of crossing the Forth at and the Earl of Oxford was impeached of -Stirling Bridge; but there he was informed high treason, and sent to the Tower. Nor that the Duke of Argyll, who had been apwas the violence of the Commons answered pointed commander-in-chief of all the forces with less vehemence without doors. Tu- in North Britain, was advancing against him mults became every day more frequent, and from Stirling with his own clan, assisted by each new ebullition served only to increase some troops from Ireland. Upon this he at the severity of the legislature, which at first judged it proper to retreat; but being length passed an act, declaring, that if any soon afterwards joined by reinforcements unpersons to the number of twelve, unlawfully der the Earl of Seaforth, and General Gorassembled, should continue together one hour don, an experienced officer, who had signaafter being required to disperse by a justice lized himself in the Russian service, he reof peace or other officer, and after hearing solved to face the enemy, and directed his the' acts against riots read in public, they march towards the south. The Duke of should be deemed guilty of felony without Argyll, apprised of his intentions, and anxbenefit of clergy. These proceedings excited ious to prove his attachment to the present the indignation of the people, who perceived government, resolved to give him battle in that the avenues of royal favor were closed the neighborhood of Dumblane, though his against all but a faction; and a rebellion forces did not amount to half the number of commenced in the sister kingdom, where to the enemy. Accordingly, in the morning he other grievances was added that of the union, drew up his army, which did not exceed four which all considered as an oppression. The thousand men, in order Qf battle; but he soon malcontents of that country had all along found himself greatly outflanked by the inmaintained a correspondence with their surgents. The duke, therefore, perceiving friends in England, and some of the Tory the earl making attempts to surround him, party who were attached to -the Protestant was forced to alter his dispositions; but, from religion, and of moderate principles in gov- the scarcity of general officers, this was not ernment, began to associate with the Jacob- done so expeditiously as to be completed beites, and to wish in earnest for a revolution. fore the insurgents began the attack. The Scotland first showed them the example. left wing of the duke's army received the The Earl of Mar, assembling three hundred centre of the enemy, and supporting the first of his vassals in the Highlands, proclaimed the charge without shrinking, seemed for a time pretender at Castleton, and setting up his. victorious. The chief of Clanronald was standard at Braemar, assumed the title of killed; but'Glengarry, who was second in Lieutenant-General of his Majesty's forces. command, waving his bonnet and crying out To second these attempts two vessels arrived " Revenge?' animated the rebel troops to from France with arms, ammunitici, and a such a degree, that they fol owed him close number of officers, together with assurances, to the points of the enemy' bayonets, and that the pretender himself would shortly got within their guard, when a total rout encome over to head his own forces. In con- sued of that wing of the royal army. Gensequence of this promise, the earl soon found eral Witham, their commander, fled full airnself at the head of ten thousand men speed to Stirling, and gave out that the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 379 rebels were completely victorious. B3ut Ar- But the insurrection in the northern coungyll, who commanded in person on the right, ties attained to greater maturity. In the having in the meanwhile attacked the left of month of October, 1715, the Earl of Derwentthe enemy, drove them before him for two water and Mr. Forster took-the field with a miles, notwithstanding they often faced about body of horse, and, being joined by some genand attempted to rally; and having entirely tlemen from the borders of Scotland, probroken and driven them over the river Allen, claimed the pretender. Their first attempt he returned to the field of battle. Here, how- was to seize upon Newcastle, in which they ever, to his great mortification, he found the had many friends; but finding the gates shut enemy victorious, and patiently waiting the against them, they retired to iHexham. To attack. But instead of renewing the engage- oppose them General Carpenter was detached ment, both armies continued to observe each by the government with a body of nine hunother, neither caring to recommence the con- dred men; and an engagement was hourly test; and towards evening each drew off. expected. The rebels had two courses, by Both sides of course claimed the victory; but pursuing which they might have conducted all the advantages of success belonged to Ar- themselves with prudence and safety. The gyll. lHie had arrested the progress of the one was, to march directly into the western enemy; and, in their circumstances, delay parts of Scotland, and there joined General was defeat. In fact, the Earl of Mar soon Gordon, who commanded a strong body of found his losses and disappointments increase. Highlanders; and the other was, to cross The Castle of Inverness, of which he had ob- the Tweed and boldly attack General Cartained possession, was delivered ul) by Lord penter, whose forces did not exceed their Lovat, who had hitherto professed to act in own. But, from the infatuation attendant the interest of the pretender; the Marquis of on the measures of the Jacobite party, Tullibardine also forsook the earl, in order to neither of these courses was pursued. They defend his own part of the country; and took the route to Jedburgh, by which they many of the clans, seeing no likelihood of hoped to elude Carpenter, and penetrate into coming to a second engagement, returned England by the western border. But this quietly home. was the most effective means of cutting them[Nor was the rebellion more successfully selves off from either assistance or retreat. prosecuted in England. From the time the A party of Hiighlanders, who had by this time pretender had undertaken this wild project joined, at first refused to accompany them in at Paris, in which the Duke of Ormond and so desperate an incursion, and one-half of Lord Bolingbroke were engaged, Lord Stair, their number in consequence returned to the English Ambassador there, had penetrat- their own country. At Brampton Mr. Fored all his designs, and sent faithful accounts ster opened his commission of general, which of all his measures and of all his adherents to had been sent him by the Earl of Mar, and the ministry at home. Upon the first ru- there proclaimed the pretender. The inmor of an insurrection, therefore, several surgents then continued their march to Penlords and gentlemen of whom they had sus- rith, where a body of the militia, assembled picions were imprisoned; and although these to oppose them, fled at their approach. From, precautions were insufficient to stop the in- Penrith they proceeded by the way of Kensurrection in the western counties, where it dal and Lancaster to Preston, of which they had already begun, all the preparations of the took possession without any kind of resist. insurgents were weak and ill conducted, ance. But this was the last stage of their while every measure was betrayed to gov- ill-fated advance; for General Wills, at the e'nment as socn as projected, and many re- head of seven thousand men, came up to atvolts were rep sssed in the very outset. tack them, and from his activity their was ne 580 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. escaping. They now, therefore, raised bar- even prostitutes were mtrusted with the ricad.s about the town, put the place in a management of his negotiations. From such posture of defence, and repused with success instruments and such councils nothing could the first attacks of the enemy's force. But be augured but folly and disaster. next day Wills, re..nforced by Carpenter, in- The pretender, in fact, might easily have vested the town on all sides. In this deplor- seen that his affairs were desperate; yet, with able situation Forster proposed to capitulate his usual infatuation, he resolved to hazard with the general; and accordingly sent Col- his person among his friends in Scotland, at onel Oxburgh, who had been taken prisoner, a time when such a measure was too late to with a trumpeter, to propose terms. Wills, serve any rational purpose. Accordingly, however, refused to listen to such a proposi- traveling through France in disguise, and tion, alleging that he could not treat with embarking in a small vessel at Dunkirk, he rebels, and that the only favor they had to arrived, after a short voyage, on the coast of expect was to be spared from immediate Scotland, with only six gentlemen in his train. slaughter. This was a hard condition; but He passed unknown through Aberdeen to as no better could be obtained, thay laid down Fetteresso, where he was met by the Earl of their arms, and were put under a strong Mar, witl about thirty noblemen and gentleguard. All the noblemen and leaders were men of the first quality, and solemnly prosecured, and a few of their officers were tried: claimed; and his declaration, dated at Comfor deserting from the king's army, and shot erey, was printed and dispersed. He then by order of a court-martial. The common proceeded to Dundee, where he made a pubmen were imprisoned at Chester and Liver- lie entry; and in two days more he arrived pool; whilst the noblemen and considerable at Scone, where he intended to have the cerofficers were sent to London, and led through emony of his coronation performed. He orthe streets pinioned and bound together, in dered thanksgivings to be offered for his safe order to intimidate their party in the me- arrival; he enjoined the ministers to pray for tropolis. him in their churches; and, without the But, however il the schemes of the pre- smallest share of power, he enacted all the tender may appear to have been conducted ceremonial of royalty, which served to throw in Britain, they were still more so in France. an air of ridicule upon his pretensions. IHavBolingbroke had been appointed his secretary ing thus spent valuable time in useless paat Paris, and Ormond his prime minister. rade, he next abandoned the enterprise with But these statesmen quickly found that no- the same levity with which it was undertaken. thing could be done in favor of his cause. He made a speech to his grand council, in The King of France, who had ever warmly which he informed them of his want of the espoused the interest of the exiled family, was money, arms, and ammunition necessary for just dead; and the Duke of Orleans, who undertaking a campaign; and deploring the succeeded to the government of the kingdom, necessity he was under of leaving them, he was averse to lend the pretender any assist- once more embarked on board a small French ance. His party, however, which was corn- ship that lay in the hariJor of Montrose, acposed of the lowest and most ignorant exiles companied with several lords, his adherents, from the British dominions, affected the ut- and in five days arrived at Gravelines. lmost confidence, and boasted of a certainty The rebellion being thus ended, the law of sucecess. The deepest secrets of his cabinet, was put in force in all its rigor; and the pris-,and all his intended measures, were bandied ons of London were crowded with deluded about in coffee-houses by persons of the low- persons, whom the ministry seemed resolved est rank both in fortune and abilities; whilst not to pardon. The Commons, in their ad subaltern officers aspired to be generals, and dress to tile crown, declared they would HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 381 prosecute, in the most rigorous manner, the but acquitted. Mackintosh and several other authors of the late rebellion; and their meas- prisoners subsequently broke fiom Newgate, ures were as vindictive as their resolutions having mastered the keeper and turnkey, and were speedy. The Earls of Derwentwater, disarmed the sentinel. The court then proNithsdalc, Carnwath, and Wintoun, the ceeded to the trial of the remainder, and four Lords Widrinton, Kenmuir, and Nairne, or five were hanged, drawn, and quartered, were impeached; and, upon pleading guilty, at Tyburn. The judges appointed to try the all except Lord Wintoun received sentence rebels at Liverpool found a considerable of death. No entreaties could prevail on the number of them guilty of high treason; ministry to spare these unhappy men. The twenty-two were executed at Manchester and House of Lords even presented an address to Preston; while about a thousand experienced the throne for mercy, but without effect; the the king's mercy, and were transported to king only answered, that on this, as on all the plantations. other occasions, he would act in the manner The rebellion being thus extinguished, the which he thought imost consistent with the danger of the state was made a pretence for dignity of the crown and the safety of the continuing the parliament beyond the term people. Orders were accordingly issued for fixed for its dissolution. An act was therethe execution of the Lords Derwentwater, fore passed, repealing that which provided YNithsdale, and Kenmuir, immediately; the for the triennial dissolution of parliaments, rest were respited. Nithsdale, however, had and the term of their duration was extended the good fortune to escape in woman's clothes, to seven years. which were brought him by his mother on Domestic concerns being thus adjusted, the the eve of the day fixed for his execution. king resolved upon a voyage to the Continent. Derwentwater and Kienmuir were broughllt at IHe foresaw a storm gathering from Sweden. the time appointed to the scaffold on Tower Charles XII., highly provoked at his having uill, were both underwent the sentence of entered into a confederacy with the Russians the law with calmn intrepidity, and apparent- and Danes during his absence at Bender, and ly less moved than those who witnessed their purchased from the King of Denmark the execution. towns of Bremen and Yerden, which conAn act of parliament was next passed for stituted part of his dominions, maintained a trying the private persons in London, and close correspondence with the dissatisfied not in Lancashire, where they had been subjects of Great Britain; and a scheme taken in arms. This was considered, by was formed for landing a considerable body some of the best lawyers, as an alteration of Swedish forces, with the king at their of the ancient constitution of the kingdom, head, in some part of the island, where it according to which it used to be held, that was expected they would be joined by all the every prisoner should be tried in the place malcontents in the kingdom. Count Gyllenwhere the offence charged against him had burg, the Swedish minister in London, was oeen committed. In the beginning of April, peculiarly active in the affair; but having commissioners for trying the rebels met in been seized, with all his papers, by order of the Court of Common Pleas, when true bills the king, the confederacy was for the time were found against Forster, Brigadier Mack- broken up. A bill was, however, passed by intosh, and twenty of their associates. For- the Commons, prohibiting all commerce with ster escaped from Newgate, and reached the Sweden, although the trade with that counContinent in safety; the rest pleaded not try was at the time of the utmost conseguilty to the charge. Pitts, the keeper of quence to the English merchants. George Newgate, having been suspected of conniv- having passed through IHo land to Hanover, ing at Forster's escapd, was tried for his life, in order to secure his German dominions, 382 HISTORY Of THE WORLD. entered into a new treaty with the Dutch the Spanish fleet, on board of t'hich the and the Regent of France, by which they army was embarked. Upon coming round agreed mutually to assist each other in a case Cape Faro, he perceived two small Spanish of invasion; and, for his further security, vessels, and pursuing them closely, came upon the Commons granted him ~250,000. But their main fleet, which, before noon he disthe death of the Swedish monarch, who was covered in line of battle, amounting in all to soon afterwards killed at the siege of Fred- twenty-seven sail. The Spaniards, however, eriesthal in Norway, put an end to all dis- notwithstanding their superiority of number, quietude from that quarter. attempted to sheer off; but finding it irmAmong the many treaties for which this possible to escape, they kept up a rulnning reign was remarkable, one had been con- fight, the commanders behaving with great eluded, called the Quadruple Alliance, in courage and activity, notwithstanding which which it was agreed between the emperor, they were all taken except three, which were France, Holland, and Britain, that the emn- saved by the conduct of their vice-admiral, peror should renounce all pretensions to the a native of Ireland. crown of Spain, and exchange Sardinia for The rupture with Spain was thougght faSicily with the Duke of Savoy; and that vorable to the interest of the pretender; the succession to the duchies of Tuscany, and it was hoped that, by the assistance of Parma, and Placentia, should be settled on Cardinal Alberoni, a new insurrection might the queen of Spain's eldest son, in case the be excited in England. The Duke of Orpresent possessors should die without male mond was the person fixed upon to conissue. This treaty, however, was by no duct this expedition; and he obtained from means agreeable to the King of Spain; and the Spanish court a fleet of ten ships of war it became prejudicial to the English, as it and transports, having on board six thousand had the effect of interrupting the commerce regular troops, with arms for twelve thousand with that kingdom. A war soon afterwards more. But fortune was still as unfavorable commenced between Spain and the emperor, as ever to the cause of legitimacy. IHaving who was considered'as the principal contriver set sail, and proceeded as far as Cape Finisof the treaty; and a numerous body of Span- terre, he encountered a violent storm, which ish forces were sent into Italy to support disabled his fleet, and frustrated the expePhilip's pretensions in that quarter. The dition. This misfortune, together with the Regent of France attempted in vain to dis- bad success of the Spanish arms in Sicily suade him, and the King of Britain offered and other parts of Europe, induced Philip his mediation with as little success, their in- to agree to a cessation of arms; and at last terposition being considered as partial and he consented to sign the quadruple alliance, unjust. A Spanish war was then resolved by which means peace was again restored to on; and a squadron of twenty-two ships Europe. equipped with all expedition. The corn- Tranquillity being thus established, the mand was given to Sir George Byng, who ministry proceeded to take measures for sehad orders to sail for Naples, which was at curing the dependence of the Irish parliathat time threatened by a Spanish army. Ile ment upon that of England. One Maurice was received with the greatest joy by the Annesley ha ing appealed to the Ilouse of Neapolitans, who informed him that the Peers of England from a judgment of the Spaniards, to the amount of thirty thousand, Iish Peers, the decree of the latter was rehad thti actually landed in Sicily. In this versed, and the British Peers ordered the exigency, anl whilst no assistance could be Barons of Exchequer in Ireland to put Mr. afforded by land, he resolved to proceed Annesley in possession of the lands which lhitller by sea, fullyr determined to pursue he had lost by the decree 9f the Lords in that HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 38, kingdom. The Barons obeyed this order; alternative of either accepting a lower rate but the Irish Peers passed a vote against of interest, namely five per cent., or of being them, as having attempted to diminish the paid the principal. In point of fact, the difjust privileges of the parliament of Ireland, ferent companies chose rather to accept of and at the same time ordered the barons to the reduced rate of interest than to be paid be taken into custody by the usher of the the principal; and the South Sea Company black rod. On the other hand, the House in particular, having advanced loans to the of Lords in England resolved that the Barons extent of ten millions, were contented to of Exchequer in Ireland had acted with cou- take ~500,000 annually as interest, instead rage and fidelity; and addressed the king to of ~600,000, which they previously received. signify his approbation of their conduct by And in the same manner, the governors and some marks of his favor; while, to complete company of the Bank, and other associations, ~their object, a bill was prepared by which consented to receive a diminished interest the Irish HIouse of Lords was deprived of for their respective loans, which of course all right of final jurisdiction. This bill was lessened considerably the burdens of the naopposed in both houses, but particularly in tion. the Commons, where it was asserted by Mr. In this situation of things, one Blount, a Pitt that it would only serve to increase the scrivener, proposed to the ministry, in the power of the English Peers, who were al- name of the South Sea Company, to buy up ready but too formidable. lMr. Hungerford all the debts of the different associations, in also demonstrated that the Irish Lords had order that the South Sea Company might always exercised the power of finally decid- become the sole creditors of the state. The ing causes; but, in spite of all opposition, it terms he offered to government were exwas carried by a great majority, and soon tremely advantageous. The South Sea Coinafterwards received the royal assent. pany was to redeem the debts of the nation This blow was severely felt by the Irish, out of the hands of the private individuals but it was by no means so great as that who were creditors to the government, upon which the English about this. time received such terms as could be agreed on; and for from the South Sea Scheme, which com- the interest of the money thus redeemed and menced in the year 1721. To understand taken into their own hands, they were to be the genesis of this delusion, it is necessary allowed by government five per cent., for to observe, that ever since the Revolution, six years; after which the interest was to be owing either to the insufficiency of the sup- reduced to four per cent. and to be at any plies granted by parliament, or to the time time redeemable by parliament. For these required for collecting those which were purposes, accordingly, a bill passed both actually granted, the government was obliged houses of parliament. But now came the to borrow money from several different com- part of the scheme which was big with fraud panies of merchants; and among the rest and ruin. As the directors of the South Sea from that which traded to the South Seas. Company could not of themselves be supIn the year 1716, the government was in- posed to possess money sufficient to buy up debted to this company upwards of nine the debts of the nation, they were empowermillions sterling, for which interest at the ed to raise it by opening a subscription to an rate of six per cent. was agreed to be paid. imaginary scheme for trading in the South But as this company was not the only credi- Seas; and as immense advantages were tor of the government, Sir Robert Walpole promised from this suppositions commerce, formed a design of lessening the national and still greater expected by the rapacious debt, by giving the several associations which credulity of the people, all the creditors of had advanced funds for the public service an government were invited to come in and ex 384 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. change their securities for that of the South in their own right; and the remaining capiSea Company. The dire.:tors' books were tal stock was also divided among the former accordingly no sooner opened for the first proprietors at the rate of thirty-three pet subscription, than crowds veme to effect the cent. Petitions from all parts of the kingexchange of government foi South Sea stock; dom were in the meanwhile presented to the and the delusion was artfully propagated house, demanding justice; and the whole am continued. In a few days subscriptions nation seemed exasperated to the highest or shares sold for double the price at which degree. Public credit sustained a terrible they had been purchased; the scheme suc- shock. Some leading members of the adceeded beyond even the projector's hopes; ministration were deeply implicated in these and the whole nation was infected with a fraudulent transactions. A run was made spirit of avaric'ous enterprise. The infatua- upon the bank; and nothing was heard but tion, in fact, be ame epidemic, and the stock the ravings of disappointment and the cries rose to a surprisi lg degree, even to a thousand of despair. per cent. premi im on the original value or By degrees, however, the effects of this price of the sha:es. But after a few months terrible calamity wore off, and mattPers rethe people awak'd from their dream of riches, turned to their former condition. A new and found that all the advantages which they war with Spain, however, commenced in expected were purely visionary, whilst thou- 1726. Admiral Hosier was sent to South sand of families were involved in utter ruin. America, to intercept the Spanish galleons; Many of the directors, by whose arts the peo- but the Spaniards, apprised of his design, ple had been taught to expect such benefits relanded their treasure, and thus defeated from a traffic to the South Seas, had indeed the object of the expedition. Mean while amassed enormous fortunes in consequence the greater part of the British fleet sent on of the credulity of the public; but it was this service was rendered entirely unfit for some consolation to the people, to find that service. The seamen were cut off in vast the parliament, sharing in the general indig- numbers by' the malignity of the climate nation, had resolved to strip these plunderers and the length of the voyage, whilst the adof their ill-gotten wealtn. Accordingly, or- miral himself died, it is said, of a broken ders were first given to remove all the direc- heart. By way of retaliation the Spaniards tors of the South Sea Company from their undertook the siege of Gibraltar; but they seats in parliament, and the places they held soon found that this attempt was hopeless; under government; and the principal delin- and Frande offering her mediation, a temquents were punished by a forfeiture of all porary peace ensued, although both'sides such possessions and estates as they had ac- only watched an opportunity for renewing quired during the continuance of the popn- hostilities with the prospect of success. lar frenzy. The next care of parliament was Soon after the dissolution of parliament in to afford some relief to the sufferers. Several the year 1727, the king, resolving to visit his just and proper resolutions were in conse- electoral dominions of Hanover, appointed a quence adopted, and a bill was speedily pre- regency to govern in his absence, and erapared for alleviating the sufferings of the barking for Halland, landed at a little town people as far as the power of the legislature called Voet. Next day he proceeded on his in such a case could possibly extend. Out journey; and in two days more, betwixt ten of thle profits arising from the South Sea and eleven at night, he arrived at Delden, scherne, the stun of seven millions was re- to all appearance in perfect health. He stored to the original proprietors; several supped there very heartily, and continued his additions were also made to their dividends journey early the next morning; but betwixt clt )f what was possessed by the Company eight and nine he ordered his coach to stou; HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 885 and it being perceived that one of his hands creasing taxes, would at last become an inlay motionless, Fabrice, who had formerly tolerable burden to the poor. These argubeen servant to the king of Sweden, and ments were offered, canvassed, rejected; the now attended King George in the same ca- court party was constantly victorious, and pacity, attempted to quicken the circulation every demand was granted with equal cheerby chafing the king's hand between his own. fulness and profusion. As this had no effect, however, the surgeon The next thing worthy of notice in the who followed on horseback, was called, and reign of George II. is the Charitable Corporubbed it with spirits. iBut the friction was ration. A society of men had united themunavailing; the king's tongue began to swell, selves into a company under this name, with and he had just strength enough to bid them the professed intention of lending money at hasten to Osnaburgh; after which he fell in- legal interest to the poor upon small pledges, sensible into Fabrice's arms. I-e never recov- and to persons of higher rank upon proper ered; but expired about eleven o'clock the security. Their capital was at first limited next morning, in the sixty-eighth year of his to thirty thousand pounds; but they afterage and thirteenth of his reign. His body wards increased it to six hundred thousand. was conveyed to Hanover, and interred This money was supplied by subscription, among his electoral ancestors. and the care of conducting the capital. was On the accession of George II. who suc- intrusted to a proper number of directors. ceeded to his father in the forty-fourth year This company having continued in existence of his age, the two great parties into which for more than twenty years, the cashier, the nation had been so long divided again George Robinson, member for narlow, and changed their names, and were now called the warehouse keeper, John Thomson, disapthe Court and Country Parties.. Through- peared in one day; and five hundred thouout the greatest part of this reign there seem sand pounds of capital were found to be to have been two objects of controversy, sunk or embezzled by means which the prowhich rose up in debate every session, and prietors could not discover. In a petition to tried the strength of the opponents; namely, the House, therefore, they represented the the national debt, and the number of forces manner in which they had been defrauded, to be.kept in pay. The government, on the and the distress to which many of them had present king's accession, owed more than in consequence been reduced; and a secret thirty millions of money; and although committee having been appointed to examthere was a long continuance of profound ine into this grievance, a most iniquitou peace, yet this sum went on constantly in- scene of fraud was discovered,, which had creasing. I-Iow this could happen was much been carried on by Thomson and Robinson, wondered at by the country party, and it in concert with some of the directors, for was as constantly the business of the court embezzling the capital and cheating the pro. to give plausible reasons for the increase. prietors. Many persons of rank and quality Hence demands for new supplies were made were concerned in this infamo~us confederacy; every session of parliament, for the purpose and even some of the first characters in of securing friends upon the Continent, of the nation did not escape censure. No guarding the kingdom from internal conspi- less than six members of parliament were racies, or of enabling the ministry to act expelled for the mort sordid acts of knavery. vigorously in conjunction with the powers in In 1739, a new war commenced with alliance abroad. It was vainly alleged that Spain. Ever since the treaty with Utrecht, these expenses were incurred without fore- the Spaniards in America had insulted and sight or necessity; and that the increase of distressed the commerce of Great Britain; the national debt, by multiplying and in- whilst the British merchants, on the other m.-25 386 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. hand, had endeavored to carry on an illicit Having refreshed his men at the island of trade with their dominions. As a right of Tinian, he set sail for China; and returning cutting logwood in the Bay of Campeachy, by the same route, he at last discovered the claimed by the British, gave them frequent galleon, which he engaged and took; and opportunities of introducing contraband com- with this prize, valued at upwards of three modities into the continent, the Spaniards hundred thousand pounds, together witl] resolved to put a stop to the evil by refusing other captures to the value of about as much liberty to cut logwood in that place. The more, he returned home, after a voyage of guarda-costas exercised great severities, and three years. By this expedition the public many British subjects were sent to the mines sustained the loss of a fine squadron of ships, of Potosi. One remonstrance followed an- but a few individuals became possessed of other to the court of Madrid; but the only immense fortunes. answers given were promises of inquiry, Another expedition which was fitted out which produced no reformation. Accord- ended still more unfortunately. The armaingly, in 1739, war was declared with all ment consisted of twenty-nine sail of the line, proper solemnity; and soon after Admiral and an almost equal number of frigates, furVernon, with only six ships, destroyed all nished with all kinds of warlike stores, near the fortifications of Puerto Bello, and came fifteen thousand seamen, and as many land away victorious, with scarcely the loss of forces. The most sanguine hopes of success a man. were entertained; but the ministry detained As the war was thus successfully begun the fleet without any visible reason till the seasupplies were cheerfully granted to prosecute son for action in America was nearly past. it with all imaginable vigor. Commodore At last, however, the squadron arrived before Aason was sent with a squadron of ships to Carthagena, and soon captured the strong distress the enemy in the South Seas, and to forts which defended the harbor. But co-operate occasionally with Admiral Vernon though by this means they were enabled to across the Isthmus of Darien. This squadron approach nearer the town, they still found was designed to act a part subordinate to a great difficulties before them. From an formidable armament which was to be sent erroneous belief that the ships could not get against Mexico or New Spain; but through near enough to batter the town, and that the mismanagement of the ministry both therefore the remaining forts must be atthese schemes were frustrated. Anson was tempted by escalade, this dangerous experidetained till too late in the season, when he ment was tried; but the guides were slain set out with five ships of the line, a frigate, by the enemy's fire, and the forces, mistaktwo store-ships, and about fourteen hundred ing their way, instead of attempting the men. But having entered the South Sea at weakest part of the fort, attacked the strongthe most unfavorable period of the year, he est, where they were exposed to the fire of encountered terrible storms; his fleet was the whole town. Their scaling ladders were dispersed, and his crew deplorably afflicted also too short; and at last, after sustaining a with scurvy, so that with the utmost difficul- dreadful fire with great resolution for some ty, he reached the island of Juan Fernandez. hours, they retreated, leaving six hundred Hiere, however, he was joined by one ship men dead on the spot. The ravages of the and a frigate of seventeen guns, and sailing climate now began to prove more dreadful from thence along the coast of Chili, he than the casualties of war; and the rainy plundered and burnt the town of Paita. He season commenced with such violence, that next traversed the Pacific, in hopes of meet- it was found impossible for the troops to ing with one of the rich galleons which'continue in their encampment. And, as traded from tlhe Philippine Islands to Mexico. if to aggravate these calamities, dissension HISTORY OF THE VWORLD. 387 arose between the commanders of the sea of these continental disputes, it is necessary and land forces, who blamed each other, and to go back for several years. After the Duke at last could only be brought to agree in one of Orleans, regent of France, died, Cardinal mortifying measure, namely, the re-embarka- Fleury undertook to settle the confusion ir tion of the troops. which the kingdom was then involved; and The miscarriage of this enterprise pro- under him France repaired her losses, and duced the greatest discontents, more espe- enriched herself by means of commerce. cially as other causes of complaint occurred During the long interval of peace which this at the same time. Sir John Norris had minister's counsels had procured for Europe, twice sailed to the coast of Spain at the head two powers, hitherto disregarded, began to of a powerful squadron, without effecting attract the notice and the jealousy of the any thing of consequence. The commerce neighboring nations. These were Russia and of Britain was greatly annoyed by the Span- Prussia, both of which had been gradually ish privateers, who had taken upwards of rising into power and consequence. The four hundred ships since the commencement other states were but little prepared to renew of the war; whilst the British fleets remained the war. The empire remained under the quite inactive, and suffered one loss after government of Charles VI., who had been another, without endeavoring in the least to placed on the throne by the treaty of luake proper reprisals. These discontents burst Utrecht; Sweden continued to languish, from out all at once against Sir Robert Walpole; the destructive projects of Charles XII.; a majority was formed in the House of Com- Denmark was powerful enough, but inclined mons in opposition to the ministry of which to peace; and part of Italy still remained he was the head; he was created Earl of subject to those princes who had been imOrford; and the parliament having ad- posed upon it in consequence of foreign treatjourned for a few days on purpose, he ies. All these states, however, continued to resigned all his employments. enjoy profound peace, until the death of The removal of this minister gave univer- Augustus, king of Poland; an event by sal satisfaction. Ifis antagonists entertained which a general flame was once more kindled great hopes of seeing him punished; but he in Europe. The emperor, assisted by the had laid his schemes too well to be under arms of Russia, declared for the elector of any apprehensions on that account; and, Saxony, the son of the deceased king; whilst in fact, the new ministry had no sooner France, on the other hand, espoused the cause got into office than they trode in the foot- of Stanislaus, who had long ago been nominatsteps of those whom they had so much ed king of the Poles by Charles of Sweden, and exclaimed against. The nation had now whose daughter the king of France had since become disgusted with naval operations. married. Stanislaus was gladly received at The people desired a renewal of their vie- Dantzic, and acknowledged as king of Potories in Flanders, and the king ardently land; but having been besiegedthere by ten joined in the same wish. An army of six- thousand Russians, the city was taken, and teen thousand men was therefore shipped he himself with difficulty made his escape. and sent to Flanders, to take part in the France, however, still resolved to assist him, quarrels that were then beginning to break as the most effectual method of distressing out on the Continent. Immense triumphs the house of Austria; and her views were seewere expected from this undertaking; but onded by Spain and Sardinia, both of which it was somehow forgotten that the army hoped to be enriched by the spoils of Austria. was not now commanded by John Duke of A French army, therefore, overran the em Marlborough. pire, under the conduct of the old Marshal In order to give some notion of the origin Villars; whilst the Duke of MIontemar, tLe 388 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Spanish general, was equally victorious in the Yet, however prejudicial these continer ta,4 kingdom of Naples. The emperor was soon measures might be to the true interests'of obliged to sue for peace, which was granted; Great Britain, they effectually retrieved the but Stanislaus was neglected in the treaty, it Queen of Hungary's affairs, and soon turned having been stipulated that he should re- the scale of victory in her favor. The Frencl nounce all claim to the kingdom of Poland; were driven out of Bohemia; while her genwhile the emperor gratified France with the eral, Prince Charles of Lorraine, at the head duchy of Lorraine, and other valuable terri- of a large army, invaded the dominions of tories, as an indemnification. Bavaria. Her rival, the nominal emperor, The emperor dying in the year 1740, the was obliged to fly before her; and, abandoned French thought the opportunity favorable for by his allies, as well as stripped of his heredtheir ambition, and regardless of treaties, itary dominion, heretired to Frankfort, where particularly that called the Pragmatic Sanc- he lived in obscurity. Meanwhile the Brittion, by which the late emperor's dominions ish and Hanoverian army advanced in order were settled upon his daughter, caused the to effect a junction with that under Prince Elector of Bavaria to be crowned emperor. Charles, by which they would have outnumThus the queen of Hungary, daughter of bered their enemies; and to prevent this the Charles VI., was at once stripped of her in- French opposed an army of sixty thousand heritance, and left for a whole year without men, upon the Maine, under the command of any hopes of succor; and at the same time Marshal de Noailles, who posted his troops she -lost the province of Silesia by an irrup- on the eastern side of that river. The Brittion of the young king of Prussia, who took ish army was commanded by the Earl of the opportunity of her defenceless condition Stair, who, although he had learned the art to renew his pretensions to that province. of war under Eugene and Marlborough, suf. France, Saxony, and Bavaria, attacked the fered himself to be enclosed by the enemy on rest of her dominions; and Britain was the every side, near a village called Dettingen; only ally who seemed willing to assist her; and in this situation the whole army, with but Sardinia, Holland, and Russia, soon after the king himself, who had by this time arconcurred in the same views. It must be rived in the camp, must have been taken owned that the only reason which Britain prisoners, had the French behaved with orhad for interfering in these disputes was, that dinary prudence. But their impetuosity the security of the electorate depended upon saved the combined force from destruction. nicely balancing the different interests of the They passed a defile which they ought to empire; but the ministry were nevertheless have contented themselves with guarding, Willing to gratify the king by engaging the and, under the conduct of the Duke de country in a war. His majesty informed the Grammont, their horse charged the British parliament that he had sent a body of Brit- foot with great fury; but they were received ish forces into the Netherlands, which he had with unshaken firmness, and at last obliged augmented by sixteen thousand Hanoverians, to repass the Maine with precipitation, and the to operate a diversion on the side of France, loss of about five thousand men. The Britin favor of the queen of Hungary. But when ish monarch, who was present in the battle, the supplies by which this additional number displayed equal courage and judicious conof Hanoverian troops was to receive pay from duct, and in some measure atoned for an crBritain for defending their own cause came ror which otherwise might have proved fatal. to be considered, violent parliamentary de- But though the British were victorious in bates ensued; and although the ministry car- this engagement, the French were very little ried their point by the strength of numbers, disconcerted by it. They opposed Prince they had little reason to boast of their victory. Charles, and interrupted his attempts to pass HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 389 the Rhine; and in Italy they also gained town of that name, on some eminences which solme advantages; but their chief hopes were completely commanded the defile which placed on an intended invasion of England. formed the only approach to the position. From the violence of parliamentary disputes At two in the morning the assailants quitted in England, France had been persuaded that their camp, and about nine the British inthe country was lTpe for revolution, and only fantry, formed in a kind of grand square, wanted the presence of the pretender to attacked the centre of the enemy's line, which bring about a change. An invasion was was drawn up in a sort of avenue to receive therefore projected; the troops* destined for them. But from the confined nature of the the expedition amounted to fifteen thousand; ground, the obstinacy of the resistance in and preparations were made for embarking front, and the flanking fire kept up from some them at Dunkirk and some of the ports near- woody heights which domineered over the est to England, under the eye of the young defile, this fine body of troops was never able pretender. The Duke de Roquefeuille, with to develop its attack, nor to clear the defile; twenty ships of the line, was to see them safe- yet, in spite of every effort of the enemy, it ly landed on the opposite shore; and the fa- maintained its ground till three in the aftermous Count Saxe was to command them when noon, preserving its formation unbroken, disembarked. Butthewholeprojectwasdis- notwithstanding the plunging fire of the concerted by the appearance of Sir John Nor- French artillery, and the concentrated musris, with a superior fleet, which obliged the ketry of their infantry, to which it was withFrench squadron to put back; while a severe out intermission exposed; and at last it regale of wind damaged tlheir transports, and tired in perfect order, facing round at interthus entirely frustated the scheme of a sud- vals, and checking the pursuit of the enemy den descent. But the national joy for Sir The loss of the allies amounted to twelve John Norris's success was soon damped by thousand men, and that of the French was the miscarriage of Admirals Mathews and even greater; but the victory nevertheless Lestock, who, through a misunderstanding, gave them the superiority (luring the rest of suffered a French fleet of thirty-four sail to the campaign, as well as during the remainescape them near Toulon. der of the war. The capture of Tournay was In the Netherlands the British arms were the first fruit of this dear-bought success; also attended with ill success. The French and though the Elector of Bavaria, whom had there assembled an army of a hundred they had proclaimed emperor, was now dead, and twenty thousand men, commanded by the French were too much elated by success Count Saxe, natural son of the late king of to relax in their operations against the allies. Poland, and an officer of great experience. To balance the defeat of Fontenoy, howThe English were under the Duke of Cum- ever, Admirals Rowley and Warren retrieved berland, whose army was much inferior in the honor of the British flag, and made sevnumber to that of the enemy, whilst in point eral rich captures at sea. The fortress of of knowledge of war the disparity between Louisbourg, a place of great consequence to him and the French general was still great- the British commerce, surrendered to Gener. Count Saxe, therefore, carried all before eral Pepperel; and a short time afterwards him. In the year 1743, he besieged Fri- two French East India ships, and a Spanish bourg, and in the beginning of the campaign ship from Peru laden with treasure, put into of 1744, he invested the strong city of Tour- the harbor, supposing it still their owvn, and nay. To save the place, if possible, the allies were taken. resolved to hazard an engagement; and this During this gleam of returning success, brought on the memorable battle of Fonte- Charles Edward, the son of the old pretendnoy. Tile French were posted behind the er to the British crown, resolved to make an 390 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. attempt to recover what he called his right. great hopes, from the impression it produced; Being furnished with some money from and had the pretender marched directly to France, he embarked for Scotland on board England, the result might perhaps have of a small frigate, accompanied by the Mar- been fatal to the house of Hanover. But he quis of Tullibardine, Sir Thomas Sheridan, was amused by the promise of succors which and some others; and for the conquest of the in fact never arrived, and thus induced to rewhole British empire, he only brought with main in Edinburgh till the season for action him seven officers, and arms for two thousand was lost. Ie was joined, however, by the men. Fortune, however, seemed nowise Earl of Kilmarnock, Lord Balmerino, Lordo more favorable to this attempt than to others Cromarty, Elcho, Ogilvy, Pitsligo, and the similar to it. tIis convoy, a ship of sixty eldest son of Lord Lovat, who with their vasguns, was so disabled in an engagement with sals considerably increased his army; and an English man of war, that it was obliged Lord Lovat himself, so remarkable for his to return to Brest, whilst he continued his treachery, was favorably disposed towards the course to the western parts of Scotland. On pretender, although unwilling to act openly the 27th of July, 1745, he landed on the for fear of the government. But whilst coast of Lochaber, and was in a little time Charles was thus trifling away his time at joined by the Highlanders to the number of Edinburgh, the British ministry were taking fifteen hundred men. The ministry at first more effectual methods to oppose him. Six could scarcely be induced to credit the story thousand Dutch troops, which had come over of his arrival; but when it could no longer to assist the government, were dispatched be doubted, they sent Sir John Cope with a northward under the command of General small body of forces to oppose his progress. Wade; but this force was then in some A favorable opportunity offered for striking measure incapable of acting, being prisoners a blow at Corryarrick; but Cope, who seems of France upon parole, and under engageto have been equally devoid of conduct and ments not to oppose that power for a year. of energy, withdrew to Inverness, thus un- Be this as it may, however, the Duke of covering the road to the low country. Cumberland arrived soon afterwards from The young adventurer, availing himself Flanders, and was followed by a detachment of this blunder, immediately marched to the of dragoons and infantry, well disciplined south, and arrived at Perth, where he per- and inured to action; whilst volunteers offormed the ceremony of proclaiming his fered their services in every part of the kingfather king of Great Britain. He then pro- dom. ceeded towards Edinburgh, and, his forces At last Charles resolved upon an irruption continually increasing, entered the capital into England. He entered that country by without opposition; but he was unable, from the western border, and took the town of want of cannon, to reduce the castle. Here Carlisle; after which he continued his march he again proclaimed his father; and prom- southwards, having received assurances that ised to dissolve the union, which was still a considerable body of forces would be landconsidered as one of the national grievances. ed on the southern coast to create a diversion In the meantime, Sir John Cope, having ar- in his favor. He established his head-quarrived from Inverness, and been reinforced by ters at Manchester, where he was joined by two regiments of dragoons, resolved to give between two and three hundred English battle to the enemy. The insurgents, how- formed into a regiinent under the command ever, attacked him at Gladsmuir, near Pres- of Colonel Towuley; and thence he pursued tonpans, and in a few minutes put him and his march to Derby, intending to go by the his troops to flight, with the loss of five hun- way of Chester into Wales, where he hoped dred men. This victory gave the insurgents to be joined by a great number of malcon. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 391 tents; but in this he was prevented by the mingled in one common rout; and the whole factions among his followers. artillery and tents of the royal army fell into Having now advanced within a hundred the hands of the conquerors. miles of London, that capital was thrown But the victory of Falkirk was the last of into the utmost consternation; and had he the triumphs of the rebel army. The Duke proceeded with the same expedition which of Cumberland having arrived, put himself he had hitherto used, he might perhaps have at the head of the troops at Edinburgh, made himself master of it. But he was pre- amounting to about fourteen thousand men; vented from pursuing this or any other ra- and with these he marched to Aberdeen, tional plan by the discontents which began where he was joined by several of the nobilto prevail in his army. The young pretend- ity attached to the house of Hanover, the er was in fact but the nominal leader of his enemy in the meantime retreating before forces; and his generals, the Highland chiefs, him. He next advanced to the banks of the were equally averse to subordination and ig- Spey, a deep and rapid river, where the norant of command. They now, however, Highlanders might have successfully disbecame unanimous in their resolution to re- puted his passage; but their mutual contenturn to their own country; and Charles was tions had now risen to such a height that forced to comply. Accordingly they retreat- they could scarce agree in any thing. At ed to Carlisle without sustaining any loss; last, however, they resolved to make a stand, and thence crossing the Eden and Solway, and for this purpose selected Drummossie entered Scotland. They next marched to Muir, near Culloden, nine miles distant from Glasgow, which was laid under severe con- Inverness; the only ground in the whole tributions; and thence proceeding to Stir- country where cavalry and artillery, the two ling, they were joined by Lord Lewis Gor- arms which they had most reason to dr6ad, don at the head of some forces which had could act with effect against them. Their been assembled in his absence. Other clans numbers amounted to about eight thousand; likewise came in; while sdme supplies of and after an abortive attempt to surprise the money received from Spain, and some skir- royal army at Nairn, they returned to their mishes with the royalists, in which he was vic- position and drew out to receive the attack. torious, caused the pretender's affairs to as- At one in the afternoon of the 15th of April, sume a much more promising aspect. Being 1746, the cannonading commenced; and joined by Lord Drummond, he invested the whilst the artillery of the rebels, from being castle of Stirling, in the siege of which much miserably served, did little or no execution, valuable time was consumed to no purpose. that of the royal army, at every discharge, General Hawley, who commanded a consid- made frightful gaps in the Highland ranks. erable body of forces near Edinburgh, under- During the continuance of the cannonade took to raise the siege, and with this view Cumberland observing that the right of the advanced as far as Falkirk, in order to give Highlanders was covered by a wall, ordered battle to the Highland army. After some a body of men to advance and to pull it time spent in mutual observation, an engage- down. The Campbells to whom this service ment ensued on the 17th of January, 1746, was committed, promptly obeyed the order; in which the king's troops were entirely de- and the right wing of the Highlanders being feated. The Highlanders advanced to the thus uncovered, they became exposed to a attack with their usual impetuosity, threw flanking fire as well as to that in front, which in a volley or two, and then drawing their was now kept up with the greatest vivacity. claymores, rushed forward, sword in hand, to In this trying situation a body, chiefly Ath close with the enemy. The onset proved ir- ole men, about nineteen hundred strong, un resistible; infantry and cavalry were inter- able any longer to sustain the galling fire 392 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. which was poured in on their ranks, and con- der fled with a captain of Fitzjames's cavalry; scious that their real strength lay in close and when their horses were fatigued, they combat, advanced to the attack sword in both alighted, and separately sought for hand; broke through Burrell's and Monro's safety. There is a striking resemblance beregiments in an instant; and pressed on, tween the adventures of Charles II.5 after with diminished numbers but dauntless reso- the battle of Worcester, and those of the lution, against the second line of the royal pretender after the battle of Culloden. For army, amidst a concentrated and terrible fire six months the unfortunate Charles continued from every gun that could be brought to to wander in the mountains of Glengarry, bear upon them. The second line steadily often hemmed round.by his pursuers, but awaited the onset of this forlorn hope, re- still rescued, by some providential accident, serving their fire till it came quite close, from the impending danger. At length a when a destructive volley was thrown in, privateer of St. Maloes, hired by his adhewhile Wolfe's regiment, opened at the same rents, having arrived in Lochranach, he eminstant a flanking fire. The force of the barked on board that vessel for France. Accharge was thus completely broken; a few companied by Sullivan and Sheridan, two and but a few of the assailants escaped; and Irish adherents, who had shared all his cathe bravest, who did not fall by the murder- lamities, together with Cameron of Lochiel, ous fire, perished in a desperate conflict with his brother, and a few other exiles, he set sail the English bayonets. Unfortunately the for France, and, after having been chased by 1lighland regiments on the left did not ad- two English men-of-war, arrived in safety at vance to close combat, or support the gallant a place called Roseau, near Morlaix, in Breattack which has just been described: had tagne. they done so,'the issue might have been very While the pretender was thus pursued, the different. After exchanging a volley or two scoffolds and gibbets were preparing for his -with the right wing of the duke's army, and brave adherents. Seventeen officers were answering the fire of some dragoons who hanged, drawn; and quartered, at Kenning. hovered near, they retreated, and separating ton Common, in the neighborhood of Loninto small parties, were cut up in detail, los- don; nine were executed m the same maning more men in proportion than the brave ner at Carlisle, and eleven at York. A few band who had made so gallant and vigorous obtained pardons, and a considerable numan effort to retrieve the fortune of the day. ber of the common men were transported to In less than thirty minutes the battle was America. The Earls of Kilmarnock and lost, and with it a final period was put to all Cromarty, and Lord Balmerino, were tried the hopes of the young adventurer. The and found guilty of high treason. Cromarty conquerors behaved with the greatest cruelty, was pardoned, but iKilmarnock and Balrefusing quarter to the wounded, the unarmed, merino were executed; as was also }Mr. Radand the defenceless; and some were slain clifie, brother to the Earl of Derwentwater, who had only been spectators of the combat; who received sentence upon a former conwhilst soldiers were seen'to -anticipate the viction. Lord Lovat was tried, and suffered base employment of the executioner. The some time afterwards. duke, immediately after the action, ordered Immediately after the suppression of the thirty-six deserters to be executed; the con- rebellion, the legislature undertook to estabquerors spread terror wherever they went; lish regulations in Scotland, conducive to the and in a short time the whole country around happiness of the people and the tranquillity became one dreadful scene of plunder, of the united kingdoms. The IHighlanders slaughter, and desolation. had till that time continued to wear the miliImmediately after the battle, the preten- tary dress of their ancestors, and never went HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 393 without arms; in consequence of which they with six ships of war, took about forty considered themselves as a body of people French ships richly laden from St. DomiIidistinct from the rest of the nation, and were go; and about the same time the French ready upon the shortest notice to second the fleet was defeated by Admiral Hawke, who projects of their chiefs. Their habits were took seven ships of the line and several frignow reformed by an act of legislature, and ates. they were compelled to wear clothes of the For a long time Louis had been desirous common fashion. But what contributed still of peace, and this desire he even expressed more to destroy the spirit of clanship was to Sir John Ligonier, who had been taken the abolition of the hereditary jurisdictions prisoner at the battle of Lafeldt. But now which their chieftains exercised over them. the bad success of his admirals at sea, and The power of the chiefs was totally destroyed, his armies in Italy, the frequent bankruptcies and every subject in that part of the kingdom of his merchants at home, and the election was liberated from the state of vassalage in of a stadtholder in Holland, who gave spirit which they had formerly lived. to the opposition; —all these contributed to Soon after the battle of Culloden the Duke make him weary of the war, and to propose of Cumberland proceeded to Flanders, where terms of accommodation. This was what he resumed the command of the army, to the allies had long wished for, but had been which he was by no means equal. The French ashamed to demand. A congress was therecarried every thing before them, and reduced fore held at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a treaty under their dominion all the strong places concluded, by which it was provided that all which had been taken by the Duke of Marl- prisoners on each side should be mutually borough, and formed a barrier to the united given up, and all conquests restored; that provinces. They gained a considerable vic- the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastory near Rocoux, though at a great sacrifice talla, should be ceded to Don Philip, heirof men, which, however, they could easily apparent to the Spanish crown, and after spare, as they were much more numerous himn returned to the house of Austria; that than their adversaries; and another victory the fortifications of Dunkirk towards the sea which they obtained at Lafeldt served to de- should be demolished; that the British ship press still further the spirit of the allied annually sent with slaves to the coast of New army. But the taking of Bergen-op-Zoom, Spain should have this privilege continued the strongest fortification of Brabant, was for four years; that the king of Prussia the event which naturally reduced the Dutch should be confirmed in, the possession of to the greatest alarm and distress. Silesia; and that the queen of Iungary These victories and successes in Flanders, should be secured in the possession of her however, were counterbalanced by almost patrimonial dominions. But the most mortiequaldisappointments. In Italy, the brother fying clause was, that the king of Great of Marshal Belleisle, attempting to penetrate Britain should immediately after the ratifiinto Piedmont at the head of thirty-four cation of this treaty, send two persons of thousand men, was defeated and killed. A rank to France as hostages, until restitution fleet had been fitted out for the recovery of should be made of Cape Breton and all other Cape Breton, but without success; and two British conquests during the war. No menothers were equipped, the one to make a de- tion whatever was made of the searching of scent upon the British colonies in America, British vessels in the American seas, though and the other to carry on the operations in this was the original cause of the quarrel; the East Indies; but these were attacked by the limits of their respective possessions in Anson and Warren, and nine of their shins North America were not ascertained; nor taken. Soon after thlis, CommodoreFox, did they receive any equivalent for those 394 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. forts which they had restored to tlhe ene- river; and General Braddock against Fort my. du Quesne. In these expeditions Monkton In the year 1751, Frederick, Prince of was successful; Johnson was also victorious, Wales died of a pleurisy, which was not though he failed in taking the fort against thought at first to be in any way dangerous. which he was sent; Shirley was thought to HIe was much regretted, for his good nature have lost the season of operation by delay; had rendered him popular, and those who and Braddock was defeated and killed. opposed the present administration had But, in return for this failure of success, grounded their hopes of redress upon his the British made reprisals at sea; and hero accession to the throne. they were so successful that the French navy Some time before this, in the year 1749, a was unable to recover itself during the conscheme had been entered upon, from which tinuance of the war. The first measure of the nation in general anticipated great ad- the French was to threaten an invasion. vantages; namely, encouraging those who Several bodies of their troops were sent down had been discharged from the army or navy to the coasts opposite Britain, and these were to become settlers in Nova Scotia, a country instructed in the manner of embarking and cold, barren, and almost incapable of culti- re-landing from fiat-bottomed boats, which vation. Nevertheless, on account of this were made in great numbers for the purpose. barren spot, the English and French actually The number of men amounted to fifty thourenewed the war. The possession of this sand but all discovered the utmost reluctance country was reckoned necessary for the de- to the undertaking. The ministry were greatfence of the English colonies to the north, ly alarmed, and applied to the Dutch for six and for preserving their superiority in the thousand men, which they were by treaty fisheries in that part of the world. The obliged tofurnish in case of invasion. But French, however, who had been long settled this supply was refused, the Dutch alleging in the back parts, resolved to use every that their treaty was to send the troops in method to dispossess the new comers, and case of an actual, and not of a threatened, spirited up the Indians to begin hostilities. invasion. The king, therefore, finding he Another source of dispute also sprung up in could not reckon upon the Dutch forces till the same part of the world. The French, their assistance would be too late desisted en pretending to have first discovered the mouth tirely from his demand; and the Dutch with of the river Mississippi, claimed the whole great cordiality returned him thanks for adjacent country towards New Mexico on withdrawing his request. Upon this ten the east, and to the Apalachian Mountains thousand Hessians and iHanoverians were on the west; and, in order to assert their brought over; a proceeding whichoccasioned claims, as they found several English who had great discontent. The ministry were reviled settled beyond these mountains, they dispos- for such disgraceful conduct, as if the nation sessed them of their new settlements, and was unable to defend itself; whereas the peobuilt such forts as were calculated to com- ple only demanded a vigorous exertion of mnand the whole country round about. Ne- their own internal strength, and then feared gotiations and mutual accusations were fol- no force that could be led to invade them. lowed by hostilities; and in 1756, four opera- The threatened invasion, however, never tions were undertaken by the British in took place. But a French army landed in America at once. Colonel Monkton had or- Minorca, and invested the citadel of St. ders to drive the French from the province Philips, which was reckoned the strongest of Nova Scotia; General Johnson was sent in Europe, but the gal rison was nevertheless against Crown Point; General Shirley weak, and nowise fitted to stand a vigorous against Niagara, to secure the forts on the siege. To raise this siege, Admiral Byng HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 395 was dispatched with a squadron of ten men- connection, and conclude a treaty with the of-war, with orders to relieve Minorca, or at King of Prussia.. As both monarchs wished any rate to throw a body of troops into the only to prevent the invasion of Germany, garrison. But this last lie reckoned too haz- they soon came to an agreement to assist ardous an undertaking, nor did he even at- each other mutually; and from this alliance tempt it; and soon afterwards a French fleet a new combination took place among the appeared nearly equal in force to his own, European powers, quite opposite to the forwhen he resolved to act only on the defensive. mer one. Britain opposed France in America, The French advanced, and a slight engage- Asia, and on the ocean. France attacked ment ensued with part of the English fleet; Hanover, which the King of Prussia underafter which the enemy slowly withdrew, and took to protect; whilst Britain promised him no other opportunity occured of coming to a troops and money to assist his operations. close engagement. Upon this it was resolved Austria having aims on the dominions of in a council of war to return to Gibraltar to Prussia, drew the Elector of Saxony into the refit, and agreed that the relief of Minorca same designs; and in these views the Auswas impracticable. For such pusillanimous, if trians were seconded by France, Sweden not treacherous conduct, Byng was brought and Russia, who had hopes of acquiring a home under arrest, tried, condemned to death settlement in the west of Europe. and shot. He suffered with the greatest res- Thus the King of Prussia launched into the olution, after delivering a paper filled with tumult of war, having only the King of Briprotestations of his innocence as to any treach- tain for his ally; whilst the most powerful erous intention. states of Europe were his antagonists. He After the conquest of Minorca, the French now performed a series of exploits which, declared that they would revenge all injuries taken as a whole, are not surpassed in the which they might sustain in their colonies annals of modern times, and of which a paron the King of 1Britain's dominions in Ger- ticular account has been given in the article many. Upon this the court of London, eager PRussIA. The British ministry, in order to to preserve Hanover, entered into a treaty create a diversion in his favor, planned an with the court of Russia, by which it was enterprise against the coast of France; but stipulated that a body of fifty thousand the destination of the fleet equipped for this Russians should be ready to act in the British purpose was kept a profound secret. At service, in case Hanover should be invaded last however, it appeared before Rochefort by the French; for which the Czarina was where the commanders, having trifled away to receive ~100,000 annually, to be paid in their time in deliberating how to proceed, advance. But the treaty was opposed -by took the little island of Aix, an easy and the King of Prussia, who had long considered useless conquest,and soon afterwards returned himself as guardian of the interests of Ger- home without attempting any thing else. many, and was therefore alarmed at a treaty By this miscarriage the ministry were so which threatened to deluge the empire with discouraged that they had thoughts of abasm an army of barbarians. Besides, he was doning the King of Prussia to his fate; and already apprised of an agreement between the king was actually meditating a negotiathe Austrians and Russians, by which the tion of this nature, when he was prevented latter were to enter the empire and strip him by the expostulations of his distressed ally. of his late conquest of Silesia. He therefore From motives of generosity, therefore, more declared that he would not suffer any foreign than of interest, it was resolved to continue forces to enter the empire, either as auxiliaries to assist him; and success, which had long or principals; so that the King of Britain fled from the British arms, once more began folund himself obliged to drop his Russian to return with double splendor. 396. HISTORY OF, THE WORLD. It was in the East Indies where this return first that succeeded. The siege was begun of good fortune first manifested itself; but with vigor, and promised an easy conquest; the British conquests in the western part but General Prideaux being killed in the of the world speedily eclipsed those in the trenches by the bursting of a mortar, the eastern. These successes must, in part at conmand devolved on General Johnson. A least, be ascribed to the vigorous adminis- body of French troops, sensible of the imtration of Mr. William Pitt, who about this portance of the place, attempted to relieve it, time came into power. An expedition was but were utterly defeated and dispersed; and set on foot against Cape Breton, under Gen- soon afterwards the garrison surrendered eral Amherst and Admiral Boscawen; anoth- prisoners of war. On his arrival at the forts er under General Abercrombie, against of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, General Crown Point and Ticonderoga; and a third Amherst found them deserted and destroyed. under Brigadier-General Forbes, against Fort There now remained, therefore, but one dedu Quesne. The fortress of Louisbourg, which cisive blow to be struck in order to reduce defended the Island of Cape Breton, was the whole of North America under the Britstrong both by nature and art; the garrison ish dominion; namely, by the capture of was numerous, the commander vigilant, and Quebec, the capital of Canada. This expedievery precaution had been taken to prevent tion was commanded by Admiral Saunders a landing; but the activity of the British sur- and General Wolfe. The enterprise was mounted every obstacle; and the place hav- attended with difficulties which appeared ing been surrendered by capitulation, its for- insurmountable; but all these were overcome tifications were demolished. The expedition by the admirable conduct of the general, and against Fort du Quesne was equally success- the great bravery of his men. Ile engaged ful; but that against Crown Point once more and put to flight the French under Montcalm; miscarried. General Abercromabie attacked but, to the great regret of the British, he was the French in their entrenchments, but was killed in the action nearly at the same instant repulsed with great slaughter, and obliged to that his adversary also fell. The surrender retire to his camp at Lake George. But of Quebec was the consequence of this victory, though in this respect the British arms were and it soon followed by the cession of all unsuccessful, yet, upon the whole the cam- Canada The next season, indeed, the French paign of 1758 ended greatly in their favor. made a vigorous effdrt to recover the city; The taking of Fort du Quesne served to re- but by the resolution of Governor Murray, move from their colonies the terror of the and the appearance of a British fleet under incursions of the Indians, whilst it interrup- the command of Lord Colvile, they were bed the communication along a chain of forts obliged to abandon the enterprise. The whole with which the French had environed the province was soon after reduced by the pruBritish settlements in America; and the suc- dence and activity of General Amherst, who ceeding campaign promised still greater suc- obliged the French army to capitulate; and cess. it has ever since remained as a dependency In 1759, it was resolved to attack the of the British empire. About the same time French ia several parts of their territory at also the Island of Guadaloupe was reduced once. General Amherst, with a body of by a force under Commodore More and Gentwelve thousand men, was commanded to eral Hopson. attack Crown Point; General Wolfe was to At the beginning of the war the British undertake the siege of Quebec; whilst Gen- affairs in Germany had worn a very unfavoreral Prideaux and Sir William Johnson were able aspect. The Hanoverians were comto attempt a French fort near the cataracts manded by the Duke of Cumberland, who of Niagara. rhs last expedition was the greatly outnumbered by the enemy, was o0) HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 397 liged to retire beyond the Weser. The pas- tion with him. A small body of British forces sage of this river by the enemy might have was sent over to join Prince Ferdinand under been disputed with success; but the French the Duke of Marlborough; but after some were suffered to effect it unmolested. The, inconsiderable successes at Crevelt, the Duke Hanoverians were then driven from one part of Marlborough died, and the command of of the country to another, till at length they the British forces devolved on Lord George made a stand near a village called Hasten- Sackville. A misunderstanding, however, bach, where it was hoped the numbers of the arose between him and Prince Ferdinand; enemy would not avail them in a general en- the effects of which appeared at the battle of gagement. The Hanoverians, however, left Minden, that was fought shortly after. Lord the field of battle to the French after a feeble George, who commanded the British cavalry, resistance. The latter pursued, and the duke pretended that he could not understand the retired towards Stade; by which means he orders sent him by the prince, and of conmarched into a country where he could sequence did not obey them. The allies neither procure provisions nor attack the gained the victory but it would have been enemy with any prospect of success. And more decisive had the British commander here,being unable either to escape or advance, obeyed his orders. I-e was soon after recalled, he was compelled to sign a capitulation, by triedby a court-martial, found guilty of diswhich the whole army laid down their arms, obedience, and declared incapable of serving and were afterwards dispersed into different in any military command for the future. After cantonments. By this disgraceful surrender, this victory it was generally imagined that which was called the capitulation of Closter one reinforcement more of British troops Seven, Hanover was obliged to submit quietly would terminate the war in favor of the allies; to the French, and the latter were t'hus left and that reinforcement was accordingly sent. at full liberty to turn their arms against the The British army in Germany was augmented King of Prussia. to upwards of thirty thousand men, and sanSoon after this capitulation, both sides guine hopes ofconquest were generally enterbegan to complain that the treaty had not tained. But these hopes proved to be ill been strictly observed. The Hanoverians founded. The allies were defeated at Corbach exclaimed against the rapacity of the French but retrieved the honor of their arms at general and the brutality of his soldiers. The Exdorf. A victory at Warbourg followed French retorted the charge, accusing the shortly after, and this was succeeded by HIanoverians of insolence and insurrection; another at Zierenberg.' But they suffered a and being sensible of their own superiority, reverse at Compen; after which both sides resolved to bind them strictly to their terms retired into winter quarters. of agreement. The lHanoverians, however, On tile 25th of October, 1760, died George only wished for a pretence to take arms, and II. He had risen at his usual hour, and ohfor a general to head them; and neither was served to his attendants, that as the weather long wanting. The oppressions of the tax- was fine, he would take a walk into the gargatherers whom the French had appointed den of Kensington, where he then resided. were considered as so severe, that the army But in a few minutes after his return, being rose to vindicate the freedom of their left alone, he was heard to fall heavily on the country; and Prince Ferdinand of Bruns- floor; and the noise bringing his attendants wick put himself at its head. As soon as into the room, they lifted him into bed, when this became known in Britain, large supplies he desired in a faint voice that the Princess were granted, both for the service of the Amelia might be sent for; but before she King of Prussia, and for enabling the Ha- could reach the apartment his majesty expired, noverian army to act vigorously in conjune- in the seventy-seventh year of his age and B398 HISTORY OF THE WORLD thirty-third of his reign. An attempt was to establish a peace on a lasting foundation made to bleed him, but without effect; and the king of Spain might be induced to guar afterwards the surgeons, upon opening him anteee the treaty; and to prevent the differ discovered that the right ventricle of the ences which then subsisted between Britain heart had been ruptured, and a great quantity and Spain from producing a fresh war in of blood discharged through the aperture. Europe, it was proposed, that in this negoKing George III. ascended the throne tiation the three points which had been disamidst the greatest successes both by sea and puted between the crown of England and land. When his majesty had met his parlia- Spain might be finally settled. These were, ment, which was on the 18th of November, first, the restitution of some captures made 1760, he confirmed the hopes of his allies, upon the Spanish flag; secondly, a recogni and gave assurances of his intention to pros- tion of the privilege of the Spanish nation to ecute the war with vigor. By this time, fish upon the banks of Newfoundland; and, however, the people were weary of conquests, thirdly, the demolition of the English settleespecially those in Germany; and the gener- ments in the Bay of Honduras. But this al current of popular opinion seemed adverse memorial was returned as wholly inadmissito the German war. But for some time no ble. Mr. Pitt declared that it would be change took place in the method of carrying looked upon as an affront to the dignity of it on. In 1761, however, proposals of peace his master, and incompatible with the sinwere interchanged amongthe belligerent pow- cerity of the negotiation, to,make any furers of Europe; but the French, designing to ther mention of such a circumstance. Being draw Spain into a confederacy with them, now convinced of the sinister designs of were not sincere in their intentions; and in Spain, this minister also proposed immediatethis way the treaty came to nothing. An ly to declare war against that country. But enterprise was projected against Belleisle, on the proposal being rejected, he resigned his the coast of France, which was conducted by employment of secretary of state; upon which Commodore Keppel and General Hodgson, he was created Earl of Chatham, and had a and terminated in the capture of the island, pension of 13,000 per annum settled upon with the loss of eighteen hundred men killed him for three lives. and wounded on the part of the British; and The new administration, however, soon however unimportant such a conquest might found that iMr. Pitt was in the right; and war be, the rejoicings on account of it were great. was accordingly declared against Spain. As In Germany, however, the campaign was un- Portugal was the ally of Britain, the French successful on the part of the allies. At first, and Spaniards resolved to attack that kingindeed, they drove the French out of the ter- dom, which was then in no condition to defend ritory of Hesse, and laid siege to the city of itself. The Portuguese monarch was haughtCassel; but being defeated at Stangerod, ily commanded to accede to the confederacy they were forced to raise the siege,:retire be- against Britain, and threatened with the hind the Dymel, and again abandon Hesse vengeance of France and Spain in the event to the enemy, after which they were followed of refusal. It was in vain that he promised and attacked by the French; and though to observe a strict neutrality, and urged the the latter were defeated, they could with dif- obligations he was under to the king of Britficulty be prevented from making themselves ain. This moderate and reasonable re] reInasters of Munster and Brunswick. sentation only led to more haughty and InDuring all this time appearances of nego- suiting demands. His Portuguese majesty, tiation were kept up; but at length M. Bussy, however, continued to reject their proposals on the part of Fra ce, delivered to Mr. Pitt in the most resolute manner; and concluded a private memorial, signifying, that, in order his last declaration by stating, that it would HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 399 Effect him less to be reduced to the last ex- ward to- Castello Branco, and marching to the tremity, than to sacrifice the honor of his southward, approached the banks of the Tacrown, and all that Portugal held most dear, gus. During the whole of their progress, by submitting to become an unheard-of ex- and indeed throughout the whole campaign, ample to all pacific powers, which would no Great Britain and Portugal had nothing that longer be able to enjoy the benefit of neutrali- deserved the name of an army in the field; ty, whenever a war should be kindled between and all that could be done was by the defence other powers with which the former was of passes, by skirmishes, and by surprises. connected by defensive treaties. This declar- The third Spanish army had assembled on ation was issued on the 27th of April, 1762; the frontiers of Estremadura, with the design and soon aftewards France and Spain jointly of invading the province of Alentejo; and if declared war against Portugal. this body of troops had been joined to the As the design of the courts of France and others, they would probably, in spite of all Spain in making war with Portugal was pro- opposition, have forced their way to Lisbon fessedly to deprive Great Britain of the mil- itself; whilst by acting separately, it might itary and commercial use of the harbors of have so distracted the defenders of the counthat kingdom, their principal endeavors were try as to enable the other invading forces to directed against the two great ports of Opor- penetrate to that city. The Count of La to and Lisbon. With this view, three in- Lippe Buckeburg, therefore, having arrived roads were to be made; one to the north; in Portugal, resolved if possible to prevent another more to the south; and the third in their entrance into that kingdom; and with the intermediate provinces, in order to sus- this view he dispatched Brigadier-general tain the other two bodies, and preserve a Burgoyne to attack an advanced body of communication between them. The first Spaniards which lay on the frontier in the body of troops was commanded by the MLar- town of Valentia de Alcantara. On the 27th quis of Savria, and entering by the north- of August the town was surprised, and the east of Portugal, marched towards Miranda, general who was to have commanded the inwhich he entered on the 9th of May, through vading force taken, together with one colonel, the breaches made by the accidental explo- two captains, and seventeen subaltern officers, sion of a powder magazine. From Miranda whilst one of the best regiments in the Spanthe invaders marched to Braganza, which ish service was also entirely destroyed, and speedily surrendered; and Moncorvo was in the enemy thus prevented from entering like manner taken. They became masters of Alentejo. That part of the Spanish army nearly the whole of the extensive province which acted in the neighborhood of Castello of Tras os Montes; and every thing being Branco having made themselves masters of clear before them to the banks of the Douro, several important passes, the combined army Oporto was given up for lost, and the admi- of British and Portuguese pretended to retire ralty prepared transports to carry off the ef- before them, in order to draw them into the fects of the British merchants. But on the mountainous tracts. They attacked the rear Douro the career of this body was stopped of the allies, but were repulsed with loss; yet by the peasants, who, animated and guided they still continued masters of the country, by some British officers, seized a difficult pass, and nothing remained but the passage of the and drove the enemy back to 3Moncorvo. Tagus to enable them to take up their quarThe second body of Spaniards entered the ters in the province of Alentejo. But this province of Beira, and being joined by strong the count designed to prevent; and accorddetachlments, immediately laid siege to Al- ingly he employed General Burgoyne, whc mneida, which surrendered on the 25th of having formed a design of surprising them, August. The Spaniards then pushed for- committedthe execution of itto Colonel Lee. 400 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. In the night of the 6th of October, this officer Britain secured every avenue of the Spanish fell upon their rear, dispersed the whole body trade, and interrupted all communication be with considerable slaughter, destroyed their tween the different parts of the vast but unmagazines, and returned with scarcely any connected empire of Spain. loss. The season was now far advanced; During this time the war in Germany had immense quantities of rain fell; the roads continued with the utmost violence; but were destroyed; and the Spaniards having although the allies under Prince Ferdinand obtained possession of no advanced post had given the highest proof of valor, no deciswhere they could maintain themselves, and ive advantage had been gained over the being unprovIded with magazines, fell back French. It was, however, no longer the mto the frontiers of their own country. terest of Britain to continue a destructive Nor were the British arms less successful contest. A peace was at length concluded in America and the East Indies. From the at Paris on the 10th of February, 1763. The French were taken the islands of Martinico, terms granted were, in substance, that the St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Grenada; from French king'should relinquish all claims to the Spanish the strong fortress called Hava- Nova Scotia; that he should likewise give na, in the island of Cuba. The conquest of up the whole country of Canada; and that the latter cost a number of brave men, more of for the future the boundary betwixt the Britwhom were destroyed by the climate than by ish and French dominions in America should the enemy. To this success in the western be fixed by a line drawn along the middle of world may be added the capture of the Span- the river Mississippi from its source to the ish register-ship called the Hermione, by the river Ibberville, and thence by a line along Active and Favourite king's ships. This hap- the middle of this river, and the lakes Maurpened on the 21st of May, 1762, just as the epas and Pontchartrain to the sea. The I-ermione was entering one of the ports of islands of St. Pierre, Miquelon, Martinico, Old Spain; and the prize was valued at lit- Guadaloupe, Marigalante, Desirade, St. Lutle short of a million sterling. In the East cia, and Belleisle, were restored to France; Indies an expedition, undertaken against the whilst Minorca, Grenada, and the GrenaPhilippine Islands, was committed to Colonel dines, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, Draper, who arrived on this service at Madras were ceded to Great Britain. In Africa, the in the latter end of June, 1762. The seven- island of Goree was restored to France; arvd ty-ninth regiment was the only regular corps the river Senegal, with all its forts and dethat could be spared for the expedition; but pendencies, ceded to Great Britain. In the every thing was conducted with the greatest East Indies, all the forts and factories tttken celerity and judgment. The British forces from the French were restored. In Europe, landed at Manilla on the 24th of September; the fortifications of Dunkirk were to be de. on the 6th of October, the governor was stroyed; and all the countries, fortresses, and obliged to surrender at discretion; and soon posts, belonging to the Electorate of Hanover, after, the galleon bound from Manilla to the Duke of Brunswick, and the Count of Acapulco, laden with rich merchandise to the La Lippe Buckeburg, restored. In regard value of more than half a million, was taken to Spain, the British fortifications on thb by the frigates Argo and Panther. By the Bay of Honduras were to be demolishei.; conquest of Manilla there fell into the hands and the Spaniards were to desist from tElfir of the British fourteen considerable islands, claim of right to fish on the Newfoundltnd which, from their extent, fertility, and con- bank. The Havana was restored, in corsevenience for commerce, were of the greatest quence of which Florida, St. Augustine, and importance. By this acqusition, joined to the Bay of Pensacola, were ceded to Britain the successes in the western hemisphere, the Spaniardswere to make peace with Por HISTORY OF THE -WORLD. 401 tungil; and all other countries not particular- - coach, which -carried him before the secrely mentioned were to be restored to' their re- taries of state for examination. On the first spective owners at the- beginning of the war. intimation of Wilkes's being in custody, apThe conclusion of the war did not by any: plication-was made for a ha6eas'corpus; but means tend to heal those divisions which had as this could not be sued out till four in the arisen on:the resignation of Mr. Pitt; on the afternoon, several of his friends desired adcontrary, it furnished -abundant matter of mittance to him, which was, however, refused complaint for the discontented:party, whose on pretence of an order from the secretaries views at that time- seem to have been the of state. But the order, though repeatedly embarrassment and disturbance of an admin- demanded, could not be produced, or at least istration which they were unable to subvert. was not so; and on this account the gentleVirulent libels, the audacity of which far men, conceiving that they were not obliged exceeded any thing known in former: times, to pay any regard to messengers acting only now made their appearance; and such was by a verbal commission, entered the place the general intemperance in this respect, that where he was without further hesitation. it would be difficult to determine which side - This illegal step- was followed by several paid least regard to any kind of decency or. others in rapid succession. Wilkes's house decorum. The peace, the Scots, and the ad- was searched, and his papers seized in his abministration supposed to be directed by Scot- sence; and though it was certain that a- hatish influence, afforded'such subjects of abuse beas corpus had now been obtained, he was to the pretended patriots, that ministry re- nevertheless committed to the Tower. On solved at last to make an example of one of the third of May he was brought before the them by way of deterring the rest from Court of Common Pleas, where he made a such licentiousness. For this purpose they speech, setting forth the great love he had made choice of the paper called the fNorih for his majesty, the bad conduct of ministry, Briton, which, in language somewhat supe- and especially his own grievances, alleging tieor to most other political productions of that. he had been treated worse than a Scotch the time, had abused the king, the ministry, rebel. IIs case having been arguled by sevand the Scots, in: an extravagant manner. eral eminent lawyers, he was remanded to One particular paper (No. xlv.) was deemed the Tower for three days; after which he by- those in power to be actionable; and was ordered to be brought up, that the affair John Wilkes, member for Aylesbury, was might be finally settled. The judges decided supposed to be the author of it. A warrant that the warrant of a secretary of state was was therefore granted for apprehending the in no respect superior to that of a common author, printer and publishers, of this per- justice of peace; that Wilkes's commitformance, but without mentioning Wilkes's ment was illegal; that his privilege as a name, nevertheless three messengers enter- member of parliament had been infringed; ed-the house of that person on the night be-, that this could not be forfeited except by tween the.29th and 30th of April, 1763, treason, felony, or breach of the peace, none with an intention to seize: him.: He objected, of which was imputed to him; and that a however, to the -legality of the warrant, be- libel, even though it had been proved, had cause his name was not mentioned in it, and only a tendency to disturb the peace, withlikewise to the lateness of the hour; and on out amounting to any actual breach of it. It being threatened with violence, the messen- was therefore resolved to discharge him; and gers thought proper to retire for the night. the prisoner was accordingly set at liberty. Next morning he was apprehended without Wilkes, now determined to make the best rreaing any resistance, though some violence use of the victory he had gained, eommenewas neeessary to get him into a hackney- ed a prosecution in the Court of Commot I.-26 t02 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Pleas against the under secretary of state, of government, was the consideration of a for seizing his papers; and the cause being project for raising a revenue from the determined in his favor, the defendant was American colonies. The result of the passsubjected in L.1000 damages, with full costs ing of the Stamp Act, and all the action of of suit. The prosecution with which Wilkes the English government, touching the Revohad been threatened was now carried on lution in America, will be found at length in with great vigor; but in the mean time, the history of the United States. In other rehaving grossly affronted Mr. Martin, mem- spects, the ministry took such steps as they ber for Camelford, by his abusive language judged necessary for supporting the honor in the Norbth Britorn, he was challenged by and dignity of the nation. Some encroachthat gentleman, and dangerously wounded ments having been made by the French and in the belly. Whilst he lay ill of his wound, Spaniards, remonstrances were made to their the House of Commons put off his trial from respective courts, and satisfaction obtained; time to time; but beginning at last to sus- and though every trifle was sufficient to set pect that there was some collusion betwixt on the popular party, they were as yet unhim and his physician, they ordered Doctor able to find any just cause of complaint. HI]eberden, and Mr. Hawkins, an eminent Nevertheless, the disposition to tumult and surgeon, to attend him, and report. Wilkes, insurrection seems to have become general. however, did not think proper to admit these In this state of affairs, the administration gentlemen; and soon afterwards took a jour- was once more disturbed by the appeararce ney to France. The Commons being in- of John Wilkes, who had returne. from formed that lie had refused to admit the exile, and, on the dissolution of parliament physician and surgeon sent by them, now in 1768, whilst his outlawry was still unre.ost a 1 patience; and proceeding against versed, stood candidate for the city of Lon him in absence, he was expelled the house. don. Failing, however, in his design oft an A prosecution was also commenced against presenting the city of London, he instantly him before the House of Lords, on account declared himself a candidate for Middlesex. of an obscene and blasphemous attack on a Innumerable tumults and riots immediately spiritual peer; and failing to appear and took place; and so great was the animosity:answer the charges against him, he was out- betwixt the two parties, that a civil war lawed. But the severity shown to Wilkes seemed to be threatened. Any particular did not at all extinguish the spirit of the detail of these transactions would, however, party. A general infatuation in favor of li- be superfluous. It is sufficient to state, that centious and abusive writings seemed to have on a trial the outlawry of Wilkes was reverstaken place. At the very time that Wilkes ed, and he was condemned for his offences to was found guilty of publishing the infamous pay a fine of L.1000 and to be imprisoned pamphlet above mentioned, the common for twelve months. Idolized by the people, council of London presented their thanks to however, and powerfully supported by nmerthe city representatives for their zealous and chants and persons of property, he was respirited endeavors to assert the rights and peatedly chosen member for Middlesex, and liberties of the subject; and in gratitude to as often rejected by the House of Commons. Lord Chief Justice Pratt for his decision in Tumults frequently occurred; and the interWillkes's affair, they, presented him with the position of the military was construed by the freedom of the city, and desired him to sit patriots as indicative of a design to establish for hlis picture, which was to be placed in ministerial authority by the most barbarous Guildhall, methods. Butt by far the most momentous affair These dissensions did not pass unnoticed wh:ieh, at this time, occupied thIe attention by the other European powers, particularly HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 403 the French and Spaniards. Both had ap- formed on the eastern pait of the same plied'themselves with assiduity to the in- island in which Commodore Byron had escrease of their marine; and many began to tablished an English colony on the western prognosticate an attack fiom one or other or side. But the French adventurers soon beboth of these nations. The Spaniards first came weary of their new colony; and M. showed an inclination to come to a rupture Bougainville, having been reimbursed for' with Britain. The subject in dispute was a his expenses, the French gave tip every claim settlement formed on the Falkland Islands, of discovery or right of possession; while near the southern extremity of the American the Spaniards, landing some troops in 1766, continent. A scheme of this kind had been took possession of the fort built by the thought of as early as the reign of Charles French, and changed the name of the har. II., but it was not till after Lord Anson's bor to Port Solidad. In 1769, Captain IHunt voyage that any serious attention had been of the Tamar frigate happening to be on a paid to it. In the printed account of this eruize off the Falkland Islands, fell in with expedition, his lordship pointed out the dan- a Spanish schooner which had been at Port ger incurred by our navigators through the Solidad, and charged the commander to detreachery of the Portuguese in Brazil, as part from that coast, which he declared to be well as the importance of discovering some the property of his Britannic majesty. The place more to the southward where ships schooner, however, soon returned, bringing might be supplied with necessaries for their an officer from the governor of Buenos voyage round Cape Horn; and, with this Ayres, who gave a similar warning to Capview, he indicated the Falkland Islands as tain Hunt; and the latter, not choosing to an eligible rendezvous for vessels in these push matters to extremities, set sail for Enghigh southern latitudes. His lordship also, land, where he arrived in June, 1770. On when at the head of the admiralty, forward- the departure of Captain lHunt, two frigates ed the scheme, and some preparations were were left at the Falkland Islands; but one made for putting it in execution; but as it of these was lost a short time afterwards. met with opposition at home, and gave of- Oni the 4th of June, 1770, a Spanish frigate fence to the court of Madrid, it was laid arrived at the English settlement named aside till the year 1764, when it was revived Port Egmont, with a number of guns and by Lord Egmont. Commodore Byron being other warlike implements for carrying on a then sent out with proper necessaries, took regular siege; and in three days four other possession of these islands in the name of frigates arrived laden in the same manner; his majesty, and represented them in a favor- so that the English commander, finding all able light; but his successor, Captain Mac- resistance vain, was obliged to capitulate. bride, affirmed that the soil was utterly in- The English were ordered to depart within a capable of cultivation, and the climate in- limited time, carrying with them what stores tolerable. Be this as it may, however, the they could; and the Spanish commander deislands in question had also attracted the no- elared himself answerable for whatever they tice of the French; but as that nation had might leave on the island. been greatly reduced by the late war, no So audacious an insult to the British flag project of the kind could yet be put in exe- seemed to render war inevitable, if suitable cution at the public expense. M. Bougain- reparation should be refused. It was accordville, therefore, undertook, with the assist- ingly mentioned in the speech from the ance of his friends, to form a settlement on throne in November, 1770, when an imriethe Falkland Islands at their own risk; and diate demand of satisfaction for the injury the scheme was put in execution in the be- was promised; and it was further intimately ginning of the year 176i, and a settlement that the necessary preparations for war, 404 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. which had been begun, should not be dis- officers from France and Germany actually continued. -The affairs of America were entered the American service, and by their also noticed; and, where grounds of com- military talents greatly contributed to the plaint still existed, an assurance of redress exertions which the colonies were afterwards was given. But these promises, especially enabled to make. This assistance, however, in regard to the Falkland Islands, were far would have been but trifling, had nmot the from giving satisfaction; and a motion was French court also interested itself in their now made in both houses for an inquiry behalf; and about the time when the news into the conduct of the Spaniards, as well of General Burgoyne's disaster arrived in as for the production of all papers and Britain, a treaty was on foot between the letters relative thereto. But the demand French court and the United States of Ameriwas opposed by the ministry, upon the ca. Even before this time France had shown grounds that the interest of the public ser- such a partiality towards the Americans, as vice precluded the idea of exposing letters might plainly have -indicated a design of. ulor papers transmitted in confidence while timately assisting them in their national cathe negotiation was depending, and that the pacity. The encouragement given to the Ki:ng of Spain had disavowed the conduct ot American privateers in all the ports of France his officer, and promised satisfaction. had produced strong remonstrances on the The outbreak of the war of Independence part of Britain; an order was at length dein America, now engrossed the attention of manded that all these privateers with their Parliament to the exclusion of almost every prizes should depart the kingdom. With other subject, and the foreign complications this the French court found it necessary at to which it gave rise now threatened to in- that time to comply, lest reprisals should be volve Great Britian in another continental made by capturing their whole Newfoundwar. The European states in general had land fleet then engaged in the fishery. But long cherished a feeling of resentment to- so many delays were occasioned on various wards England. The news of the disaster pretences, that not a single vessel was disat Saratoga was therefore received by them missed from any of their ports; and so far with the same undisguised exultation as the were the French court from entertaining any intelligence of the defeat of Charles the design of this kind, that in the month of XII., at Pultowa was by the powers whom July, 1770, the whole body of merchantsle had so long overawed. Of these the throughout the kingdom were assured by French, for obvious reasons, were the most government that they might depend on proactive in supporting the insurgent Ameri- tection for their trade with America. -Meancans. Numbers of the young nobility were while the greatest preparations for war were eager to signalize themselves in the Ameri- made throughout the whole kingdom of can cause; and among the rest the Marquis France; and, in fact, the most judicious polide la Fayette, a young nobleman of high rank ticians were of opinion that a rupture with and fortune, occupied a conspicuous place. that power would have immediately followed. Impelled by an enthuiastic ardor in favor of the commencement of hostilities with Amerithe American cause, he purchased a vessel, ca. But, whatever might have been the loaded her with military stores, and sailed motives of the British ministry, it is certain, with several of his friends to America, where that in defiance alike of probability, and of he offered his services to Congress; and the acrimonious censures of opposition, they meeting with a most gracious reception, he continued to pretend ignorance of any hoswas invested with a command, in which he tile intentions upon the part of France, until lost no opportunity of distinguishing him- that country of its own accord thought proself. Besides this nobleman, several other per to announce them. This was done by a,. m~~~~~~~~~~~ Fli 7] V~ vI{I~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD:. 405 formal notification to the court -of Britain in alive to lift nup my voice- against the dismem the month of March, 1778, couched in the berment of this ancient and most noble mon most insolent terms.. In this declaration it archy." He was replied to with great rewas announced,' not only: that a treaty of spect by the Duke of Richmond, when on atfriendship and commerce had been concluded tempting to rise again he fell back. before betwixt France -and America, but Britain uttering a word, in a. convulsive fit, from:was insulted by being told that America was which he never recovered, and died a few actually in possession of independence, as if,, days-after, in the 70th year of his age, May the former had already exerted her utmost 11, 1778. His merits were transcendent, efforts without being able to reduce them.. and his death was lamented as a national A merit was also made -of having entered -loss. Apart from the aberrations originating into no commercial stipulations in favor of in an ardent love of power, his course was France exclusive of Britain. Nothing, there- splendid and magnanimous; and it was truly fore,'could be more offensive than this noti- said of him by Lord Chesterfield, that his fication; and though it could not decently private life was stained by no vices, and be said, on the part of the French monarch, sullied by no meanness. Contemporary praise that he wished for war, yet his pacific inten- and posthumous honors were showered down tions were conveyed in such haughty terms,: upon the man of whomn the nation was justly that the whole could only be considered as a proud. His remains were interred, with declaration of that hostility which he pre- solemnity, in Westminster Abbey; and the tended a desire to avoid. city of London erected a flattering tribute to The operations of the French in America, his memory in Guildhall. with the various success of the war, will be A French squadron was sent from Toulen fully related under the head of UNITED: to the assistance of America, under the comSTATES. mand of Count d'Estaing, who reduced the An invasion of England being afterward'island of Grenada, while a body of his forces time threatened by the French, an address made themselves masters of St. Vincent. In was moved for recalling the fleets and armies -other parts of' the.West Indian seas the from America, and stationing them in a British arms were ably supported by the place where they might more effectually con- bravery and vigilance of the admirals Hyde tribute to the defence of the kingdom. This Parker and Rowley. - On the 27th of July, measure was vigorously opposed by the ad- an indecisive action was fought off Brest, ninistration, and by some members of the between the French fleet, under M. d'Orvilopposition. Lord Chatham, whose infirmi- liers, and a British squadron, under Admiral ties had lately prevented him from attending Keppel. Sir Hugh Palliser, the second in in his place in parliament, evinced his decided command, accused the admiral of not having disapprobation of it: he had entered the done his duty; he was accordingly tried by house in a rich suit of black velvet, a full a court martial, and honorably acquitted; in wig, and wrapped in flannel to the knees; fact, it appeared that he had been so badly And was supported to his seat by his son and supported by Palliser, that he was unable to son-in-law, Mr. William Pitt and Viscount make any use of the slight advantage he obMIahon It is said that he looked weak and tained. emaciated; and, resting his hands on his Sir Charles Hardy, a brave and experi crutches, he a' first spoke with difficulty, enced officer, whose services had been rebut as he grew warm his voice rose, and be- warded with the governorship of Greenwich came, as usual, oratorical and affecting. Hospital, was appointed to succeed Keppel "My lords," said he, "I rejoice that the in the command of the channel fleet. In grave hlasnot closed upon me, that I am still the meantime, the Spanish court was pre 406 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. vailed on by the French to take up arms in their attachment to the government; and ae. defence of America, and to accede to the cordingly they presented a loyal and dutiful general confederacy against Great Britain. address to the king, containing the strongest As the danger to which the nation was now assurances of affection and fidelity to his exposed was become truly alarming, it was person and civil government. They declared thought advisable to raise volunteer cor- that their exclusion from many of the benepanies in addition to the militia; and in fits of that constitution had not diminished this the spirit and magnanimity of the peo- their reverence for it; and that, though they ple reflected great credit on the national did not presume to point out the particular character. Strengthened by the alliance of means by which they might be allowed to Spain, the French began to extend their testify their zeal and their wishes to serve ideas of conquest; and thinking that a blow the country, they would be perfectly ready, near at hand was more likely than operations on every occasion, to give such proofs of carried on at a distance to alarm the fears of their fidelity, and of the purity of their inthe English, they made attempts on the tentions, as his majesty's wisdom and- tho Islands of Guernsey and Jersey, but in sense of the nation should at anytime deem each they were completely frustrated. expedient. This address was presented to The emissaries of America and the other the king on the 1st of May, 1778, and was enemies of Great Britain are said to have signed by the Duke of Norfolk, the Earls of been active in fomenting these discords, Surrey and Shrewsbury, the Lords Stourton, which at this period rose to a height un- Petre, Arundel, Dormer, Teynham, Clifford, known for a century past. But the ministry and Linton; and by a hundred and sixty continued firm, and, previous to taking any three commoners of rank and fortune. of the petitions into consideration, insisted The only obstacle which stood in the way on going through the business of the sup- was the difficulty of overcoming the prejuplies. dices of the lower classes, who were disposed The last victory of the administration con- to disapprove of and condemn any indulfirmed the unfavorable opinion which the gence shown to those of a persuasion which people had conceived of the majority of they had been taught to regard with horror their representatives; and in the height of and detestation. But notwithstanding the the ill humor which the conduct of the par- prepossessions of the vulgar, it was resolved liament had created in the multitude, those by several individuals of generous and liberal discontents broke out which were so near in- sentiments, to espouse their cause as far as volving the kingdom in a species of civil it could be done consistently with the prinwar. The hardships under which individuals ciples of the constitution and the general of the Roman Catholic persuasion labored temper of the times. Accordingly, about in this country had lately engaged the con- the middle of May, Sir George Saville made sideration of enlightened and liberal-minded a motion for the repeal of some of the dismen; whilst the inutility as well as absurd- qualifications under which the Catholics ity of persecuting people from whom no labored. IHe grounded his motion on the danger was to be apprehended, and who necessity of vindicating the honor and assertwere not suspected of disaffection to the ing the true principles of the Protestant recivil constitution of the country, had induced ligion, of which the peculiar merit consisted several persons of rank and influence to un- in an abhorrence of persecution. He repre. dertake to procure them relief from tile dis- sented the address above quoted as a conabilities under which they labored. Mean- vincing proof of the loyal disposition of the while the calamities of the times had afforded Roman Catholics, and as an unfeigned testi. the Catholics a proper occasion for manifesting mony of the soundness of their political IHISTORY OF THE WORLD. 407 principles; and, to silence the objections of ed by their subjects or by any otheis; and those who might suspect the Catholics of du- that the pope of Rome, or any other foreign plicity, a test was proposed of so binding prelate or sovereign, is entitled to any tem and solemn a nature, that no authority could poral or civil jurisdiction or pre-eminence, annul its effl3acy. either directly or indirectly, in this kingdom. The pains and penalties of the statutes to The favor shown to the Roman Catholics be repealed were laid Lefore the house by in England encouraged those of the same Mr. Dunning. By these statutes it was made persuasion in Scotland to hope for a similar felony in a foreign clergyman of the Catholic relief; and several Scottish gentlemen of communion, and high treason in one who high rank and character, who had seats in was a native of this kingdom, to teach the the house, not only expressed their warmest doctrines, or performn divine service accord- wishes for the extension of the indulgence ing to the rites, of that church; the estates to their own country, but declared their inof persons educated abroad in the Catholic tention to bring in a bill for the purpose the persuasion were forfeited to the next Pro- ensuing session. The design was approved testant heir; a son, or any other nearest re- of by the General Assembly of the Church lation, being a Protestant, was empowered of Scotland; and a petition on behalf of the to take possession of his own father's, or Roman Catholics in Scotland was in consenearest kinsman's estate, during their lives; quence prepared. But these favorable prosand a Roman Catholic was disabled from ac- pects were for a time obscured by a dense quiring any legal property by purchase. The cloud of religious fanaticism, looming large nzildness of the British government did not and high in the political horizon. The opindeed countenance the enforcement of the position was at first chiefly conducted by severities enacted by these statutes; but still persons at Edinburgh, who assunled the title the prospect of gain subjected every man of of The Committee for the Protestant Interest, the Roman Catholic persuasion to the ill and under that denomination carried on a usage of informers; and on the evidence of correspondence with all those who coincided such miscreants the magistrates were bound, in their opinions, being in fact a very large however unwilling, to put these cruel laws proportion of the common people in Scotin execution. land. This committee, from its residence in In consequence of such representations, the capital of the kingdom, was. naturally the motion made in favor of the Roman supposed to consist of persons of weight and Catholics was received without a dissentient influence; and hence it in a manner directed voice; and a bill conformable thereto was the motions of all the others. They exerted brought into and passed through both houses. themselves so effectually, indeed, that the The test or oath to be taken by the Catholics principal gentlemen of the Catholic persuawas conceived in the strongest terms. They sion thought it requisite to convey to the were to swear allegiance to the king's person ministry an intimation of their desire to deand family, and to abjure especially the pre- sist for the present from applying for an intensions to the crown assumed by the person dulgence similar to that which had been excalled Charles III. They were to declare tended to their fellow-subjects of the same their disbelief and detestation of the doc- communion in England. But matters had trines, that it is lawful to put individuals to now gone too far to be conciliated by any death on pretence of their being heretics; concessions. that no faith is to be kept with heretics; On the 2d of February, 1779, the populace that princes excommunicated by the pope met according to appointment, in order to and council, or by the see of Rome, or any carry into execution the various projects other authority, may be deposed or murder- which they had in contemplation. They 408 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. began by an attack upon the house inhabited settle as to the manner in which they should by the Roman Catholic bishop, and others present a petition to the House of Commons of his persuasion, which: they committed to against the repeal of the penal statutes; and the flames, togetherwith the place of worship on this occasion a long speech was delivered adjoining to it; and having in the same man- by the president, who represented the Roman ner destroyed another house, which also con- persuasion as gaining ground rapidly in the tained a chapel, they proceeded to vent their. country, and affirmed that the only method resentment on several individuals of the same of stopping its progress, was to go up with a persuasion by burning their effects. The spirited remonstrance to their representatives next objects of their vengeance were those and to tell them in plain and resolute terms who had patronized the Roman Catholics. that they were.determined to maintain their They beset the houses of Dr. Robertson and religious freedom against all enemies, and at Mr. Crosby; but the friends of these eminent whatever sacrifice. This harangue being repersons, on hearing of the intentions of the ceived with the loudest applause, Lord George rioters, came to. their assistance in such num- next moved that the whole body of the associabers, and so well prepared to repel force by tion should meet on the second day of June, force, that the populace did not dare to com- in St. George's Fields, at ten in the morning, mit the violence they had premeditated. This to accompany him to the House of Commons spirited conduct, which was followed by the for the presentation of the petition; which adoption of the necessary precautions against was also assented to unanimously. Lord their malevolent designs, put an end to the George then informed the meeting, that if attempts of a mob at Edinburgh. But the he found himself attended by fewer than spirit of dissatisfaction on account of the in- twenty thousand persons he would not pretended indulgence remained in full force; sent the petition. Three days:previous to and the ministry being held out as harboring the presentation of the petition, he gave notice a secret determination to undermine the of it in the ordinary form to the house, and Protestant religion, and to introduce popery, stated the manner in which it was to be prewere in consequence loaded with the most sented; but this was received with as much outrageous invectives. indifference and unconcern as all his former Matters, however, did not stop here. The intimations. same ungovernable spirit was soon communi- On the second day of June, according to cated to a part of the English nation; the cry appointment, about fifty or sixty thousand against popery became daily louder among persons assembled in St. George's Fields; and the inferior classes; and that inveteracy which drawing up in four divisions, as had been time appeared to have mitigated began to arranged, proceeded to the parliament house revive in as powerful a degree as if the nation with Lord George Gordon:at their head... An were actually under the impending horrors of immense roll of parchment was carried before persecution. them, containing the names of those who had Hence a society was formed in London, signed the petition. On their way to the, under the designation of the Protestant Asso- house they behaved with propriety and deciation, and Lord George Gordon, who had cency; but immediately on their arrival disrendered himself conspicuous in Scotland by turbances commenced. The rioters began by his opposition t the repeal, was elected its compelling all the members of both houses president; and this body now prepared to - whom they met to put blue cockades in their act in a decisive manner against the resolu- hats, and call out "No Popery;" they forced tions of the legislature. some to take an oath that they would vote On the 29th 9f May, 1780, the members of for the repeal of the popery act as -they styled the association hell a meeting in orderto it; and they treated others witll great indig HI S TORY OF:: T HE WOR L D. 409 —..........., nity, posting themselves in all the avenues against all persons of that persuasion. On to both houses, the doors ofwhich they twice the 4th of June, they assembled in great numendeavored to break open. But their rage bers in the eastern parts of London, and atwas chiefly directed against the members of tacked the chapels and houses of the Roman the House of Lords, several of whom nar- Catholics in that quarter, stripping them of rowly escaped being murdered. their contents, which they drew into the During these disturbances Lord George street, and committed to the flames. They Gordon moved for leave to bring up the pe- renewed their outrages on the following day, tition, which was readily granted; but when destroying several Romish chapels, and dehe moved that it should be taken into imme- molished.the house of Sir George Saville, in diate consideration, his proposal was stren- resentment of his having brought into paruonsly opposed by almost the whole house. liament the bill in favor of the Roman CathEnraged at this opposition, he came out sev- olics. On the 6th both houses met as usual; eral times to.the people during the debate, but finding that no business could be done, acquainting them how averse the house ap- they adjourned to the 19th. peared to grant the petition, and naming During this and the following days the particularly those who had spoken against it. rioters were absolute masters of the metropolis Several members of the house expostulated and its environs. Some of those who had with him in the warmest terms on the unjusti- been concerned in the demolition of the chapfiableness of his conduct; and one of his re- els belonging: to foreign ministers having lations, Colonel Gordon, threatened to run been seized and sent to Newgate, the mob him through the moment any of the rioters collected before that prison, and demanded should force their: entrance into the house., their immediate release; and this being refusIt was some hours before the house could ed, they proceeded to throw into the keeper's carry on its deliberations with any regularity, house firebrands and all manner of combustwhich was not done till the members were ibles, which communicating fire to that and relieved by the arrival of a party of the guards. other parts; of the building, the whole of the As soon as order had been restored, the bus- immense pile was:soon in flames. Amidst iness of the petition was resumed, when Lord this scene of confusion, the prisoners, amountGeorge Gordon told the house that it had -ing to about three hundred, were all released, been signed by nearly a hundred and twenty including several who were under sentence thousand British Protestant subjects, and of death. In the same manner they set fire he therefore insisted that the petition should to the King's Bench and Fleet prisons, and be considered without delay. But nothwith- to a number of houses belonging to Roman standing the dangers with which they were Catholics. The terror occasioned by these menaced, and the proof which the mover incendiaries was such that most people hung of the petition had given that no means would out of their windows pieces of blue silk, which be left unemployed to compel them to grant was tle color assumed by the rioters, and it, the Commons continued immovable in their chalked on their doors and shutters the words determination, and of two -hundred mem-: "No Popery," by way of signifying they bers then present in the house, six only voted were friendly to their cause.for taking the petition into immediate con- The night of the Tth of June concluded sideration. these horrors. Not less than thirty-six difIn the mean time the mob had dispersed ferent conflagrations were counted at the itself into various parts of the metropolis, same time. The Bank had been threatened, where they demolished two Roman Catholic and was twice assailed; but being well guardchapels belonging to foreign ministers, and ed, both attempts failed. in the evening, openly vented the most terrible menaces large bodies of troops arrived from all parts, 110 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. happily in time to put a stop to the progress We now proceed to notice the opAerationm of the rioters, and falling upon them wher- of the war, which, notwithstanding the pow ever they appeared, multitudes were killed erful confederacy against Great Britain, were and wounded, whilst numbers perished rather in her favor than otherwise. The thrnugh intoxication. It was not until the Spaniards had commenced their military afternoon of the 8th, however, that people operations with the siege of Gibraltar, but began to recover from the ir consternation. with very little success; and the close of the During the greater part of the day, the dis- year 1779, and beginning of 1780, were proorders of the preceding night had created so ductive of considerable naval advantages to terrible an alarm, that the shops were almost Great Britain. On the 18th of December, universally shut in every part of London. 1779,the fleet under the command of Sir Hyde Nor were the melancholy effects of misguided Parker in the West Indies captured nine sail zeal confined solely to the capital. The out- of French merchant ships under the convoy rageous disposition of the populace was pre- of some ships of war; and two days afterparing to enact the like horrid scenes in other wards he detached Rear-Admiral Rowley in parts of England, and the mob actually rose pursuit of three large French ships, which in Hull, in Bristol and in Bath; but through were supposed to form part of M. la M/ottethe timely interposition of the magistracy Piquet's squadron returning from Grenada. these places were saved from their fury. About the same time several other vessels On the subsiding of this violent and unex- were taken by the same squadron commanded pected commotion, Lord George Gordon was by Sir Hyde Parker. On the 8th of Januarrested, and committed close prisoner to the ary, 1780, Sir George Briydges Rodney, who Tower after having undergone a long examin- had been intrusted with the command of a ation before the principal lords of the coun- fleet, one object of the destination of which cil. was the relief of Gibraltar, fell in with Nothing could have happened more op- twenty-two sail of Spanish ships, and in a portunely for the ministry than the Prot- few hours captured the whole fleet. In litestant riots; for such were the alarm and ter- tle more than a week afterwards the same ror occasioned by them, that the ardor which fortunate admiral met with still more signal had been manifested in favor of popular meet- success. On the 16th of the month he enings and associations, as they were called, for gaged, near Cape St. Vincent, a Spanish fleet, opposing the measures of government, was in consisting of eleven sail of the line and two a great degree suppressed. The county meet- frigates, under the command of Don Juan ings were also represented as having a ten- de Langara. The Spaniards made a gallant dency, like the Protestant association, to defence; but four of their largest ships were bring on insurrections and rebellions; many taken, and carried into Gibraltar. Two began to consider all popular meetings as other seventy gun ships were also taken; extremely dangerous; and among the corm- but one of them was driven on shore among mercial and moneyed classes, some were so the breakers and lost, and the other was panic-struck by the late riots, that all atten- likewise driven on shore, but afterwards retion to the principles of the constitution was covered. Four ships of the line and the two overruled by their anxiety about the preser- frigates escaped; but two of the former vation of their property. Had it not been were much damaged in the action, during for these events, it is probable that the spirit which one ship, the San Domingo, of seventy of opposition which then prevailed in the guns and six hundred men, was blown up. different counties would have compelled the When Admiral Rodney had supplied the administration to make some concessions to garrison of Gibraltar with provisions, amthe people. munition, and money, he proceeded on his HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 411 voyage to the West Indies; having sent In the month of June, Admiral Geary, home part of his fleet, with the Spanish who commanded the grand fleet, toolk twelve prizes, under the command of Rear-Admiral valuable merchant, ships bound from Port Digby. On the twentieth of March an ac- an-Prince to Bourdeaux and other ports of tion was fought in the West Indies, between France; but in the month of July a very some French and English men of war, the unexpected and important capture was made former under the command of IMI. de la by the Spaniards, which excited considerable Motet-Piquet, and the latter, forming part of alarm in Great Britain. On the 8th of AuSir Peter Parker's squadron, under that of gust, Captain Moutray, who had under his Commodore Cornwallis. The contest was command the Ramillies, of seventy-four guns, maintained on both sides with great spirit; and two frigates, with a fleet of merchantbut the French were at length forced to sheer men bound for the East and West Indies off, and make the best of their way for Cape under convoy, had the misfortune to fall in Frangois. with the combined fleets of France and Soon after Admiral Rodney had arrived Spain, which had sailed from Cadiz the prein the West Indies, and assumed the com- ceding day. The Ramillies and the two friimand of his majesty's ships at the Leeward gates escaped; but the rest were so comrnIslands, an action took place between the pletely surrounded, that five East Indiamen, fleet under his orders and that of the French and fifty merchant ships bound for the West under the command of Count de Guichen. Indies, were taken. This was one of the This occurred on the 17th of April. The most complete naval captures ever made, and action began a little before one, and continu- proved a heavy stroke to the commerce of ed till about a quarter after four in the after- Great Britain. The prize, however, great as noon. Admiral Rodney was on board the it was, scarcely compensated the Spaniards Sandwich, a ninety gun ship, which beat for the capture of Fort Omoa, where upthree of the French ships out of their line wards of three millions of dollars were seof battle, and entirely broke it. But the cured by thevictors, and other valuable cornmSandwich and several other ships were so modities, including twenty-five quintals of much crippled that an immediate pursuit quicksilver, for extracting the precious metals was impossible, without compromising the from their ores, and the loss of which consesafety of the disabled ships. The victory quently rendered the mines useless. was accordingly claimed by both sides, but But whilst the British were making the no ship was taken on either, and the French most vigorous efforts, and upon the whole retired to Guadaloupe. On the 15th of May gaining advantages over the powers who opanother action took place between the same posed them in the field, enemies were raised commanders. But as it did not commence up throughout all Europe, who, by reason of till near seven in the evening, and only a few their acting indirectly, could neither be opships were engaged, nothing decisive took posed nor resisted. The power which most place. The fleets met again on the 19th of decidedly manifested its hostile intentions the same month, when a third action ensued; was Holland; but besides this, a most forbut this, like the former, terminated without midable confederacy, under the title of the any material advantage to either side. On Armed Neutrality, was formed, evidently this occasion the British lost upwards of two with the design of crushing the power of hundred men killed and wounded; while, Great Britain. Of this powerful confederacy according to the French accounts, the total the Empress of Russia avowed herself the loss sustained by the enemy in the three ac- head; and her resolution was intimated on tions, amounted to nearly a thousand killed the 26th of February, 1780, ir a declaration and wounded. addressed to the courts of London, Versailles, 412. H ISTORY OF TH.E WORLD. and Madrid. In this paper it was al- communicated to the States-General by leged, that her imperial majesty's subjects Prince Galitzin, envoy extraordinary of Rushad often been molested in their navigation, sia, who invited them to make common and retarded in their operations, by the ships cause with the empress for the protection of and privateers of the belligerent powers; but commerce and navigation; and similar comrnthat before adopting any serious measures, munications and invitations were made to -and to prevent all new misunderstandings, the. -courts of Copenhagen, Stockholm, and she thought it just and equitable to expose Lisbon, in order, as was alleged, that the navito the eyes of all Europe the principles which gation of all the neutral trading nations she:had adopted as the guides of her con- -might be established and legalized, and a duct, system adopted founded upon justice, and And these were contained in the following calculated to serve as a sort of maritime code propositions: First, that neutral ships should for future ages. enjoy a free navigation, even from port to The memorial of the Empress of Russia, port, and on the coasts of the belligerent though proceeding upon principles unfavorpowers; secondly, that all effects belonging able to the views of Great Britain, and into the subjects of the belligerent powers compatible with her maritime superiority, should be looked upon as free on board such: received a civil answer from that court; but neutral -ships, excepting only such goods as other powers, as might have been expected, were stipulated contraband; thirdly, that' received it with far greater cordiality. In the principles recognized, and the articles- the answer of France it was observed, that enumerated as contraband, in the treaties be- what her imperial majesty claimed from the tween Great Britain and Russia in 17M34 and belligerent powers was nothing more than M166, should still be adhered to. -Her impe- the rules prescribed to the French navy; the rial majesty further proposed, fourthly, that execution of which was maintained with an in order to determine what characterizes a exactness known and applauded by all Euport blocked up, that denomination should rope. Strong approbation was expressed of not be granted, except to: places before which theprinciples and views of her imperial- mathere were actually a number of enemy's- jesty; and it was declared, that from the ships stationed near enough to render its en- measures now adopted by Russia, solid -adtry dangerous; and, lastly, that these princi- vantages would undoubtedly result, not only ples should serve as rules in judicial proceed- to her subjects, but also to those of all naings and in sentences as to the legality of tions. Sweden and Denmark likewise accedprizes. Her imperial majesty declared, that ed formally to the armed neutrality proposed she was firmly resolved to maintain these by Russia; and the States-General, after an principles; that, in order to protect the hon- interval of some months, followed their exor of her flag and the:security of the corn- ample. It was further resolved by the parmerce and navigation of her subjects, she had ties to this armed league, to make common given an order to fitout a considerablenaval cause at sea against any of the belligerent force; that this measure, however, would powers who should violate, with respect-to have no influence on the strict and rigorous neutral nations, the principles which had neutrality which she was resolved to observe, been laid down in the memorial of Russia. as long as she should not be: forced to depart But though the British ministry could not from her principles of moderation and im- openly engage in war with all the other powpartiality; and that::it was only in such an ers of Europe, they singled out the smallest extremity that her fleet would be ordered to:of these, thte Dutch, on whom to take venact, wherever honor, interest, or: necessity, geance for the rest. Ever since the comshould reoluire. This declaration was also mencement of hc:tilitieswith the Americans, HIS-TO:RY OF THE WOR RLD.: -41i the Dutch had shown a decided inclination ty which afterwards became the subject of a in theii favor. Frequent memorials and re- discussion in parliament, -and drew- upon -the monstrances had in consequence passed be- nation the ill will of all Europe. tween the two nations, and the breach grad- By August, 1781, the Dutch had equipped ually grew -wider and wider, until at last a considerable squadron, the command of matters came to extremities, by a discovery which was given to Rear-admiral Zoutman; that the town of Amsterdam was. about to and on the 5th of that month this squadron enter into a commercial treaty with- America. fell in with the British fleet commanded by This came to light in the beginning of Sep- Admiral Hyde Parker. No gun was fired tember, 1780, by the capture of Mr. Laurens, on either side till the fleets were within half lately president of the American congress,: musket-shot distance. The -action began and who had been empowered by that body about eight in the morning, and continued to conclude a treaty with Holland. Mr. with the utmost fury for three hours and Laurens himself was instantly committed forty minutes. Both sides fought with equal prisoner to the Tower, and a spirited remon- ardor, and little advantage was gained by strance was addressed to the States of Hol-:either. When the action ceased both squadland, requiring a formal disavowal of the rons lay like logs on the water; but after a transaction. The States, however, answered time the Dutch ships of war, with their conevasively, that they would take the matter voy, bore away for the Texel, whilst the Enginto consideration according to the forms and lish were too much disabledto follow them. usages of the country, and that a reply The impossibility of crushing the power would be given as soon as the nature of their of Great Britain by any force they could government would admit. bring was now beginning to be evident even The British -government could not possibly- to her enemies. In Europe, the utmost efmistake this answer; and accordingly the forts of France and Spain were able to effect most vigorous measures were instantly re- nothing more than the annual parade of a solved on. On the 25th of January, 1781, mighty fleet in the Channel; and this called it was announced to the House of Commons forth the apparition of a British fleet, so forthat his majesty -had directed letters of midable that the enemy- never durst attack marque and reprisal to be issued against the it. The States of Holland had sent out their: States-General and their subjects. For the force; and this too was opposed by one which, causes and motives of his majesty's conduct if insufficient to conquer, was at least able to in this: respect, the house were referred to a prevent their effecting anything detri. public manifesto against that republic, which mental to her posssesions. In the East Inhad been:ordered to be laid before Parlia- dies the united powers of the French and mont. Indians had been conquered, and the Dutch But before this resolution could have been settlements had suffered severely. communicated officially to the naval com- In the year 1781, however, the British namanders in the West Indies, the Dutch were val power in the West Indies seemed to sink, actually attacked. The island of St. Eusta- and some events took place which threatened tills was, oil the 3d of February, 1781, sum- serious results. This was owing to the great moned by Admiral Rodney and General superiority of the combined fleets of France Vaughan to surrender to the arms of Great and Spain, by which that of Britain was now Britain, and only one hour was given for so far outnumbered, that it could not achieve consideration. Submission was inevitable. anything of consequence. An ineffectual The island accordingly surrendered; the attempt was made by Admiral Rodney on property found on it was confiscated, and a the island of St. Vincent, and an indecisive sale instituted, with circumstances of rapaci- engagement took place on the 28th of April, 414 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 1781, between Admiral Hood and the Count on by the Count shortening sail to preven de Grasse. But the damage done to the the loss of a disabled ship, by parting with British ships having obliged them to retire which he might have avoided the disaster to Barbadoes to refit, the French availed that followed. This memorable engagement themselves of'he opportunity to effect a de- took place off the island of Dominica, three scent on the is,.and of Tobago; and although days after the former. The British fleet conthe governor made a gallant resistance, he sisted of thirty-seven ships of the line, and was at last obliged to surrender. Admiral the French of thirty-four. The engagement Rodney had sent Rear-admiral Drake with commenced at seven o'clock in the morning, six sail of the line, three frigates, and some and continued with unremitting fury till halftroops, to the assistance of the island; but past six in the evening. It is said that no they were dispatched too late, as the island other signal was made by the admiral but had capitulated before the intended relief the general one for action, and that for close could have reached it. combat. Sir George Rodney was on board The ill success of Britain in America has the Formidable, a ship of ninety guns; and already been taken notice of. The disaster the Count de Grasse was on board the Ville of Cornwallis had produced a sincere desire de Paris, a ship of a hundred and ten guns, of peace with America; but this could which had been presented to the French king not be accomplished without making peace by the city of Paris. In the course of the with France also; and that power was still action, the Formidable fired nearly eighty haughty and elated with success. Minorca broadsides; and for three hours the admiral's had now fallen into the hands of the Span- i ship was involved in so thick a cloud of iards, and they now projected the most im- smoke that it was almost invisible to the ofportant conquests. Nothing less than the ficers and men of the rest of the fleet. The entire reduction of the British ~West India van division of the British fleet was comislands was contemplated by the allies; and manded by Sir Samuel Hood, and the rear indeed there was too much reason to suppose division by Rear-admiral Drake; and both that this object was within their reach. In these officers greatly distinguished themselves the beginning of the year 1782, the islands in the course of the action. But the decisive of Nevis and St. Christopher were obliged turn on this memorable day was given by a to surrender to Count de Grasse, the French bold manceuvre of the Formidable, which, admiral, and the Marquis de Bouille, who taking advantage of a favorable shift in the had already signalized himself by several wind, passed through the French line, and exploits; and Jamaica was marked out as threw them into irretrievable confusion. the next victim. But the end of all these The first French ship that struck was the aspiring hopes was fast approaching. The Ciesar, of seventy-four guns, the captain of advantages hitherto gained by the French which fought nobly, and fell in the action. in their naval engagements with the British When she struck she had scarcely a foot of fleet had proceeded entirely from their keep- canvass without a shot hole. Unfortunately, ing at a great distance during the time of soon after she was taken possession of, she action, and from their good fortune and dex- took fire by accident, and blew up, when terity in gaining the wind. At last the about two hundred Frenchmen perished in French admiral, De Grasse, prompted by his her, together with an English lieutenant and natural courage, or induced by circumstan- ten English seamen. The Glorieux and the ces, determined, after an indecisive action Hector, both seventy-four gun ships, were on the 9th of April, 1782, to risk a close en- also taken bythe British fleet; together with gagenient with his formidable antagonist, the Ardent of sixty-four guns; and a French Admiral Rodney. The action was brought seventy-four gun ship was also sunk in the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 415 engagement. It was almost dark when the took some of them; and having formed a Ville de Paris, on board of which the Count little army of the Indians in those parts, head de Grasse had fought gallantly, struck her ed by Colonel Despard, they attacked and colors. Five thousand five hundred troops carried the posts on the Black River, making were on board the French fleet, and the havoc prisoners of about eight hundred Spanish among them was very great, as well as among troops. The greatest disaster which befell the French seamen. The British lost in this power, however, was their failure before killed and wounded about a thousand men. Gibraltar, which happened in the month of It was universally allowed that in this en- September, 1782, and was accompanied with gagement the French, notwithstanding their such circumstances of horror and destruction defeat, behaved with the greatest valor. De as evinced the absurdity of persisting in the Grasse himself did not surrender till four enterprise. Thus all parties felt that it was hundred of his people were killed, and only high time to put an end to the contest. The the admiral and two others remained without affair of Cornwallis had shown that it was a wound. impossible for Britain to conquer America; Though the designs of the French against the defeat of De Grasse had rendered the reJamaica were now effectually frustrated, the duction of the British possessions in the victory was not followed by those beneficial West Indies impracticable by the French; results which many had expected from it, the final repulse before Gibraltar, and its reand none of the British islands which had lief afterwards by the British fleet, put an been takes by the French in the West Indies end to that favorite enterprise, in which alwere afterwards recaptured. most the whole strength of Spain had been In the beginning of May an expedition employed; and the engagement of the Dutch was undertaken to the remote and inhospita- with Admiral Parker showed them that ble regions of Hudson's Bay; and though nothing could be gained by a naval war with no force existed there capable of making any Britain. resistance, a seventy-four gun ship and two Negotiations for a general peace eommencthirty-six gun frigates were employed in the ed at Paris, under the auspices of Austria service. All the people in that part of the and Russia; and the basis of it being arworld either fled or surrendered at the first ranged, it was speedily ratified. Great Brisummons. The loss of the Hudson's Bay tain restored the island of St. Lucia to France; Company, on this occasion, amounted to also the settlements on the Senegal, and the ~500,000; but the humanity of the French city of Pondicherry, in the East Indies; commander was conspicuous, in leaving a while France gave up all her West India sufficient quantity of provisions and stores conquests, with the exception of Tobago. of all kinds for the use of the British who Spain retained Minorca and West Florida, had fled at his approach. Another expedi- East Florida being also ceded in exchange tion was undertaken by the Spaniards to the for the Bahamas. And between England Bahama Islands, where an equally easy con- and Holland a suspension of hostilities was quest was obtained. The island of Provi- agreedtoin the first place; but in the sequel denuce, defended only by three hundred and it was stipulated that there should be a gensixty men, could make no resistance when eral restitution of all places taken during the attacked by five thousand. An honorable war, excepting the town of Negapatarn, with capitulation was granted by the victors, who its dependencies, which should be ceded to likewise treated the garrison with kindness. Great Britain. Some settlements on the Mosquito shore were In the treaty with America, the King of also taken by the Spaniards; but the Bay- Great Britain acknowledged the thirteen men!, assisted bv their negroes, bravely re- United States to be " free, sovereign, and in 416 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. dependent," relinquishing for himself, his ed the blow by drawing back, when he made heirs, and successors, all right and claim to, another thrust at him, but was prevented the same. To prevent all disputes in future from effecting her purpose by a yeoman of on the subject of boundaries between these the guards who seized her at: the instant. states and the adjoining provinces, lines were On being examined before the privy council, minutely drawn:; the right of navigation on it appeared that she was a lunatic; her name the Mississippi was declared common to the Margaret Nicholson. two powers; and no confiscations or persecu- I Nothing at this period excited equal intertions of the loyalists were to take place. est to the trial of Mr. Hastings, the governor A new administration was now formed, in of Bengal, who had returned to England poswhich. Mr. Pitt was appointed first: lord of sessed, as it was asserted, of inordinate wealth the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. obtained by unfair means. The trial was It being, however, impossible to carry on conducted by Mr.:Burke, who exhibited public business while the coalition party had twenty-two articles of impeachmei-t- against a majority in the House of Commons, a dis- him. On the part of the prosecution Mr. solution of parliament became unavoidable. Sheridan:. appeared vindictively eloquent. The elections turned out favorably for the lie said, "the administration of IMr. IHastnew ministers, and when the parliament as- ings formed a medley of meanness and outsembled, his majesty met the representatives rage, of duplicity and depredation, of prodiof the people with evident satisfaction. He gality and oppression, of the most callous directed their attention to the affairs of the cruelty, contrasted with the hollow affectaEast India Company, advising them at the tion of liberality and good faith." Mr. same time to reject all such measures as might Hastings, in his defence, declared, "' that he affect the constitution at home. Mr. Pitt had the satisfaction to see all his m easures had strenuously opposed Mr. Fox's India bill; terminate in: their designed objects; that his and now finding himself ably supported, political conduct was invariably regulated by framed a new one for the government of truth, justice, and good faith; and that he India, which transferred to the crown the in- resigned his charge in a state of established fluence which Mr. Fox had designed to in- peace and security; with all the sources of trust to parliamentary commissioners, but its abundance unimpaired, and even improvleaving the whole management of commer. ed." The trial lasted seven years, and endcial affairs with the Court of Directors. ed in the acquittal of Mr. HIastings, at least The year 1785 furnishes little matter for of all intentional error; but his fortune and the hlistorian, except the contentions between his health were ruined by this protracted the rival politicians. A very important effort prosecution. at legislation was made by Mr. Pitt, which The debts of the Prince of Wales engrossconsisted of an attempt to establish a system ed much of the public attention at this peof commercial union between Great Britain riod.'His expensive habits and munificent and Ireland. It passed both houses; but, in disposition had brought his affairs into a very the meantime, a great part of the Irish par- embarrassed state; and the subject having liament became dissatisfied with its details; undergone parliamentary ldiscussion, an adthe consequence of which was, that the ad- dition of t10,000 was ma(le to his: former ministration did not press its adoption. income of ~50,000, and the sum of ~181,000 On the 2nd of August, 1786, as the king was granted by parliament for the payment was alighting from his carriage, a woman ap- of his debts. proached him under pretence of offering a An event occurred about this time petition, and, attempted to stab him with a in Holland which threatened the tranknife she had concealed. His majesty avoid- quillity of Europe. Ever since the acknowl HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 417 edge3ment of the independence of the Uni- the examination of the physicians before the ted Provinces, two powerful parties had been privy-council, the house twice adjourned; continually struggling for the superiority; but hearing on their reassembling the second one was the house of Orange, which had time that there was a great prospect of his been raised to power by their great services majesty's recovery, though the time was unto the state, both against the tyranny of Spain certain, both houses turned their thoughts to and the efforts of France; the other was the the establishment of a regent during his maaristocratical party, which consisted of the jesty's incapacity. The right of the Prince most wealthy individuals in the country. of Wales to this office was asserted by Mr. This party was secretly favored by France, Fox, and denied by Mr. Pitt, who affirmed, and was denominated the "party of the states" that for any man to assert such a right in the or " the republican party." The Prince of Prince of Wales was little less than treason Orange being at length compelled to leave to the constitution. After violent altercathe Hague, he applied for protection to Eng- tions, a modified regency was carried in favor land and Prussia, who lent their aid, and the of the prince; the queen to have the custody stadtholder was reinstated. of the royal person, and the appointment to It was during this session that the atten- places in the household. For the present, tion of parliament was first engaged in at- however, these arrangements were not needtempting the abolition of the slave trade. ed, for the health of the king was rapidly This inhuman traffic, so abhorrent in its improving; and on the 10th of March his nature to all principles of humanity, seems majesty sent a message to Parliament, to acto have been carried out by Great Britain quaint them of his recovery, and of his abiliand other nations for a length of time ty to attend to the public business of the without having attracted the notice of the kingdom. public. It was first pointed out by the Passing over the parliamentary debates, quakers in the independent provinces of and a few events of minor interest, we come South America, who in many instances had to the momentous epoch of the French revoemancipated their slaves. A number of pam- lution, when scenes of unparalleled interest phlets were published on the subject; sever- were about to be exhibited in Europe. al eminent divines of the established church When, by an abuse of that policy which recommended it in their discourses and writ- had once produced a vigilant attention ings; the two universities, and after them, to the balance of power, Russia and Austhe whole nation, presented petitions pray- tria had formed the project of extending ing for the interference of parliament to for- their dominions, and when Prussia, probably ward the humane design of African emanci- nothing loth, found it expedient to concur in pation. Mr. Wilberforce brought the subject their policy, it became evident that the situbefore parliament; but as many circumstan- ation of Europe must speedily undergo great ces arose to retard the consideration of it, a changes; whilst the French revolution, which resolution was carried to defer it to a future had reduced that once powerful monarchy to opportunity. a state of complete debility, seemed to afford Towards the close of the year the nation an opportunity for the extension of the sys was thrown into grTat dismay by the fact tem of spoliation, by enabling the greaL that the king was suffering so severely under powers to regard its ample territories as a a mental malady, that on the 4th of Novem- further subject of partition. In another point ber it was necessary to consult the most emi- of view, however, this revolution had now nent physicians, and to assemble the princi- begun to be an object of no small alarm pal officers of state. His majesty's disorder The distinguished place which France had not abating, but the contrary appearing from held among the nations of Europe renderedi 4:18 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the late change of the government an object liberal spirit than any other royal family in of universa. attention; and there was a dan- Europe, and had given greater encourageger that it might come to be regarded as an ment to letters, and to every kind of inobject of imitation. The public discussions provement. It is not wonderful, therefore, which took place in her national assemblies, that the desire of improving the condition and in printed publications, were conveyed, of mankind, and simplifying the arrangethrough the medium of a language univer- ments of society, which had been so successsally understood, to the most obscure corners fully pursued in other countries, should have of Europe; and kings, nobles, and priest, be- become extremely prevalent in France. Uncame apprehensive that the contagion of in- fortunately, however, though the character novation might not be confined to the coun- of the reigning monarch, led him to encourtry in which it had originated. Hence a age such projects, yet his undecided and ingeneral wish prevailed among the ruling active spirit, together with the embarrassed classes that an effort should be made, before state of the finances, prevented him from it was too late, to overwhelm the country from taking the lead in these changes, or from rewhich so much danger to established govern- pressing them when inordinately pursued by ments was anticipated. Nor was this alarm others. Meanwhile the example of prosperity altogether groundless. Men had almost every- enjoyed under the free constitution of Great where outgrown their institutions; and whilst Britain, and the pride of having recently the former had been rapidly advancing, the contributed to the establishment of a republatter remained stationary. The diffusion of lican government in North America, fixed wealth and of knowledge had created new the character of any changes of a political interests, and led to the formation of new nature, which at this period originated in opinions; whilst a new class, formerly con- France, whether among men of letters, the sidered by rulers as of little or no importance army, or the people at large. But in formwhatever, except as subjects of taxation or ing a political constitution, the vanity of the instruments of ambition, was gradually and French, which induced them to avoid the steadily rising into importance. The power appearance of servile imitation, had unhapof the nobility was rapidly passing away. pily led them to differ in one most essential The establishment of standing armies ren- point from the British constitution. Their;dered them of little importance in war; and legislature consisted only of a king and a their wealth, as the great landholders of single house of representatives; whereas in Europe, was daily more and more eclipsed Britain, by means of an intermediate estate; by the opulence of the industrious classes; that of the peerage, naturally jealous of popuwhile, though titles of honor still remained, lar innovation, laws injurious to the royal prethe estimation in which they were held was rogative were prevented from being enacted from various causes much diminished. But without the king being involved in dispute prodigious abuses remained. The privileges with the Commons. But in France the king of the nobles and of the clergy rendered tax- himself was under the necessity, in such ation unequal; and commerce was embar- cases, of preventing the passing of the law, rassed by restrictive laws and the privileges by personally interposing a negative; that is, of old incorporations. There was therefore he was placed in the unpopular and absurd much to be reformed among the continental situation of opposing his single judgment to states of Europe, and the desire to obtain this the united will of a nation, and that too in reform was daily increasing. perilous and critical times, when I4e could In France,though the house of Bourbon had not fail to be suspected of disliking a constisupported the Roman Catholic religion, yet, tion by which his power was taken away. upon the w-hole, they were of a much more Still, however, the representative government HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 419 of Britain had been the model on which the should have no reason for the apprehensions French proceeded; and there is no doubt which arose from the present weakness of that they expected, during any contest in the internal government of France. This which they might be involved with the acknowledged intention produced a proposal powers of the Continent, that they would en- on the part of the French king to the national joy, if not the support, at least the neutrality assembly, which was readily acceded to, for and favorable countenance of the British na- declaring war against the IKing of Hungary tion. But, on the other hand, the passion for and Bohemia; and in a short time war was innovation which seized the French nation, in like manner declared against Prussia and had in many instances proceeded to extrava- Sardinia. gant lengths; and there was reason to antic- The details of these early campaigns having ipate, on the part of the court of London, already been given in the History of France, some alarm lest this passion might communi- we here confine ourselves to the part which cate itself in an inconvenient degree to Brit- England took in the war. ain, Where, though political abuses were less After the French king had been dethroned, flagrant, and the passion would consequently Earl Gower, the British ambassador, was refind less food for its exertion, enough might called; but the French ambassador. M. Chauyet exist to kindle disturbances and produce velin, still continued to reside in London. On anxiety. the 15th of December, Mr. Fox moved that The eyes of all Europe were now turned a minister should be sent to Paris to treat towards France; and the combination which with the provisional executive government the continental monarchs were known to of France; declaring, that by this motion he have formed against that country was expect- meant not to approve of the conduct of the ed speedily to issue in action. The King of French government, but simply to record it Sweden, who was fond of war, having now as his opinion, that it was the true policy of settled all disputes with Russia, offered to every nation to treat with the existing governlead in person the armies of the combined ment of every other nation with which it had powers, to destroy.n France those new institu- relative interests, without regarding how that tions and opinions which threatened to sub- government was constituted. This motion vert the whole ancient system of public order gave rise to a very animated debate, in which in Europe. But continuing at variance with the opposition were accused of desiring to his nobility, he was assassinated at a masque- encourage discontent and sedition, and were rade on the 16th of March, by an enthusiast defended by Mr. Taylor, Mr. Grey, and Colof the name of Ankerstr6m, who boasted, on onel Tarleton. But Mr. Fox's motion was being seized, that he had liberated his coun- last. try from a tyrant. In the meanwhile Leo- On the 19th of December Lord Grenville pold, Emperor of Germany, had also died, introduced into the House of Lords what has and been succeeded by his son Francis II. been called the Alien Bill, authorizing govLeopold had chosen to temporize with France; ernment to dismiss from the kingdom such but his successor thought it unnecessary to foreigners as they might think fit, and which observe any measures of caution with that passed after some opposition from the Ear] country. On some remonstrances being made of Lauderdale and the Marquis of Lansdown. by the French government against his per- Affairs were now fast hastening to an open mitting troops to assemble on the frontiers, rupture with France. On the 17th of Dehe avowed the concert of princes against the cember M. Chauvelin transmitted a note to constitution of France, and stated it to be Lord Grenville, one of the secretaries of state, one of tile conditions necessary to the preser- in which, in the name of the executive counvation o peace, that the neighboring powers cil of the French Republic, he demanded to 420 HISTORY OF THE WORLD.know whether his Britannic majestywas to and the minister, Le Brun, transmitted to be considered as a neutral or hostile power. England by a private gentleman letters to Lord Grenville's answer to this note, which Lord Grenville, in which he requested pass. tears date 31st December, 1792, disclaimed ports for M. Maret to repair to Britain. in considering M. Chauvelin in any other public order to negotiate peace; but no public no, character than that of minister from his tice whatever was taken of the application. most Christian majesty. It affirmed that the To promote the success of the war, a conneutrality of Holland had already been vio- vention had been concluded in the spring lated; and that the unimportance of the between the English court and that of St. Scheldt would only render the opening of its Petersburg, stipulating for the prosecution navigation a clearer proof of the existence of of hostilities till the French relinquished all an intention to insult the allies of England their conquests. A treaty was soon afterby violating their rights, which were guarded wards entered into with the landgrave of by the faith of treaties. Hesse Cassel, for a subsidiary body of eight An official note from the executive power thousand men, which, by a subsequent agreeof France was transmitted through M. Chau- ment, was extended to twelve thousand; and velin in reply to Lord Grenville's answer, the King of Sardinia engaged, for ~200,000 in which another effort was made to explain per annum, to keep up an army of fifty thouthe obnoxious decree of the 19th of Novem- sand men, to be employed in the particular deber. In this document all intention of ef- fence of his dominions, and in general service fecting a conquest of the Netherlands was against the enemy. Compacts of alliance disclaimed; and it was added, that if the were also adjusted with Spain, Naples, PrusBelgians, from any motive whatever, con- sia, Austria, and Portugal; and besides the sented to deprive themselves of the naviga- stipulation of vigorous hostilities, it was tion of the Scheldt, France would not oppose agreed that the conduct of other powers it. In an answer to this note by Lord Gren- should be watched with extraordinary cirville, these explanations were declared to be cumspection, lest they should abuse their prounsatisfactory. On the 17th of January, M. fessed neutrality by protecting the coinChauvelin sent to Lord Grenville his creden- merce or property of the French. tials as ambassador from the French Republic; On the part of Britain the general plan of but on the 20th of the same month Lord the war does not seem to have been well conGrenville sent him a letter refusing to receive trived or properly carried into effect. A great his credentials, or to consider him in any part of the western coast of France was in other character than as one of the mass of full possession of the royalists, whilst the foreigners resident in England; and on the British navy at the same time commanded 24th his lordship sent M. Chauvelin a pass- the ocean. It would therefore have been comport for himself and his suit, declaring that, paratively an easy enterprise to land an army after the fatal death of his most Christian on the French coast for the assistance of the majesty, he could no longer be considered as royalists, and to advance through anl open holding any public character in Britain. country, destitute of fortified towns, to the In consequence of this correspondence the capital, and against a convention whose auFrench convention declared war against Eng- thority was scarcely acknowledged by a third land and Holland on the first of February. part of the nation. Instead of this, the coinAnd thus Britan became a party in the most bined armies were directed against the French sanguinary and eventful war that ever de- Netherlands, where they wasted the sumsolated Europe or afflicted humanity. In the mer, as well as their own strength, in the month of April the French government made siege of a few of the fortresses which defended aniother attempt t enter into negociations, that frontier; and thus the attack upon j HISTORY OF THE. WORLD. 421 France was made upon its strongest side, at British ministry, and in the pride of victory a distance from the centre of its power, and menaced England with invasion. It is evident where the means of protracted resistance were that they had still too much business upon greatest; whilst leisure was afforded to the their hands on the Continent to be able to convention to establish its authority, to call make the slightest attempt to carry their out immense levies for the defence of the threats into execution; but the British adcountry, and before the close of the year to ministration, taking advantage of the threat, turn the tide of success in its favor. Toulon expressed their fears that it might be sucwhich had been surrendered by the royalists cessful; and proposed the arming of associawas taken under the masterly direction of tions of volunteers, both cavalry and infantry, Bonaparte, who then first appeared on the throughout the island, for the defence of the revolutionary stage; and the Spaniards were nation against foreign invasion, and the efbeaten in the south; whilst, on the northern forts of disaffected persons at home. They frontier, the British army was repulsed be- also encouraged the raising of subscriptions fore Dunkirk, and the commander-in-chief of to defray the expenses of these armed associthe allies, the Prince of Cobourg, before Man- ations; and although the measure was disbeuge. The Duke of Brunswick and Gen- approved'by the minority in parliament, as eral Wurmser were also driven across the an unconstitutional mode of raising money, Upper Rhine near AMetz, in the last two weeks it was supported by the majority. An act of the year, after a succession of sanguinary was passed authorizing the embodying and conflicts, in which the French, by daily bring- training of volunteers, and the measure was ing forward fresh troops, at last succeeded carried to a considerable -extent throughout with their raw levies in wearing d6wn the the country. In like manner, though the polistrength and courage of their veteran enemies. tical ferment occasioned by the French revolu. During the war of which we are now treat- tion had now considerably subsided, the admirning, Mr. Pitt's administration derived in- istration, aware of the strength derived from credible strength from these two sources of keeping the country in a state of anxiety upon terror; the fear of invasion, and the dread political subjects, announced to parliament, of conspiracy by disaffected persons. Nor by a royal message, that seditious practices did he want skill to profit by them. At the had been carried on by certain societies of commencement of the war it had been be- London, with a view to overturn the constilieved by most persons, and perhaps by go- tution, and introduce the system of anarchy vernment, that it would be of short duration, which prevailed in France; and that their the state of anarchy which succeeded tile papers had been seized, and were submitted overthrow of the monarchy in France seem- to the consideration of the house. ing to render that country an easy prey to the In the early part of his administration, Mr. powerful armies by which it was invaded; Pitt had endeavored to rest his' reputation, and when any doubt of success was expressed, in a considerable degree, upon the improveit was answered, that after making trial- of ment of the finances, and the hope which he the war for a year, we might desist in held out paying off the national debt. IIe case we were unsuccesful. But although now deserted all such views; and taking adthe original state of affairs had been consider- vantage of the uncontrolled power he posably altered by the successes of the French, sessed at home, and the pitability of parliayet the British government still resolved to ment, he engaged in a career of unexampled presist in the war, which, however, was now expenditure, in corrupting successive parties daily becoming less popular. On the other in France, or in the management of the war. ~hand, the French leaders were greatly irri- From its first rise to eminence as a Eupotated by the persevering hostilities of the pean pol er, Prussia considered France as its 422 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. protector against the ambition of Austria. powers, excepting Russia, Sweden, and During the present year, notwithstanding Denmark, were actively engaged. At sea, the resistance of a party in Poland, headed where her strength could be more effectual. by the brave KIosciusko, that country was ly exerted, Great Britain was eminently partitioned, and Prussia obtained an ample successful. An expedition under Sir Charles share of its territory. But the partition of Grey and Sir John Jervis was sent to the France was an object from which Prussia had West Indies, where Martinique, St. Lucie, every thing to fear, as it would destroy the and other islands, were taken. In the Medionly power by which Austria, the inveterate terranean the French were driven from the enemy of Prussia, had at all times been kept island of Corsica, and the inhabitants acin awe. When the Prussian monarch found knowledged the king of Great Britain as it necessary, in conjunction with his allies, their sovereign. But the most signal victory to invade France in 1792, he retired upon was that gained by Lord tIowe over the the first appearance of a tolerably firm oppo- French fleet on the first of June, near Brest. sition, and gave the republic a respite of During the first year of the revolution France another winter, during which to arrange its had suffered much distress from a scarcity strength, and call into action its resources. of grain; and such was the inveteracy with In the year 1793, the Prussians remained which the present war was conducted, that extremely inactive till towards the close of the British government had formed a plan the campaign, when at last, in consequence of of subduing that nation by famine, by prerepeated remonstrances from the allies, they venting their obtaining supplies of provisions advanced against Alsace; but being there re- from any foreign country. In their distress pulsed, and the republic beginning- to exhibit the French rulers had applied for assistance on all sides a firm military front, the King of to the United States of America, which still Prussia declared that the expenses of the war owed a considerable debt to France, conwere more than his finances could sustain, and tracted during the war by which their own required the other German states to supplyhim revolution had been accomplished; and they with money, threatening in case of refusal to now offered to accept payment of this debt abandon the common cause; and on their in corn, a commodity abounding in America. declining to comply with his demands, he The Americans, accordingly, delivered the actually began to withdraw his troops. But grain in their own ports, and a hundred and by this time the British ministry had engaged sixty sail of vessels laden with grain set out in the war with a degree of eagerness which in- for France. As soon as this became known, duced them to make every sacrifice to obtain Lord Howe was dispatched, in order, if possuccess; and therefore, to avoid losing the as- sible, to intercept this valuable convoy; sistance of Prussia, they offered a subsidy, while the French Admiral, Villaret-Joyeuse, which was finally adjusted, upon the condi- sailed from Brest to hazard an engagement tion that his Prussian majesty was to furnish with the British fleet, for the sake of presixty-two thousand troops, or thirty thousand serving the convoy. The force of the hostile beyond his contingent; for which his Bri- fleets was nearly equal, the British having tannic majesty was to pay him t50,000 a twenty-six, and the French twenty-five sail month, ~100,000 a month for forage, ~400,- of the line; but the French line was broken, 000 to put the army in motion, and ~100,000 and, after an obstinate engagement, six of on their return, and in all, for the remaining their ships were taken, and two sunk. Benine months of the year, ~1,350,000. fore the battle, however, the French admiral All Europe looked forward with great had detached a considerable force for the anxiety to the approaching campaign as de- protection of the convoy, which was thus encisive of the contest; in which its whole abled with safety to reach its destined port. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 423 This victory produced very great exultation quarter, he had brought back his troops; in iBritain; and the fear of invasion which and was afterwards sent with them to dc. had been previously excited was abated by fend Ostend, where, learning the difficult so decided a proof of naval superiority. nature of the Duke of York's situation, and On the part of the French, however, these perceiving that Ostend could not long be colonial and naval losses were greatly over- protected after the rest of Flanders had been balanced by the general result of the cam- deserted, he marched across the country, and paign. The allies still concentrated their in the face of much danger, and under great principal force against the Netherlands, and hardships, effected a junction with the prin. with that view, at the commencement of the cipal British army, to which this reinforcecampaign besieged and took Landrecies; ment afforded seasonable aid. but the fortune of the war was speedily The French were no less successful on the changed. General Pichegru advanced into Upper Rhine, and on the frontiers of Italy maritime Flanders, and in a variety of en- and of Spain. At the end of the campaign, gagements defeated Count Clairfayt, an Aus- an intense frost having set in, they reintrian general of great activity, who ruined forced their armies, and Pichegru invaded his army by incessant and sanguinary efforts Holland. After a variety of engagements to drive back a superior enemy. An attempt the British and Hanoverians, together with made by the grand army to cut off the re- some Austrian auxiliaries, whom Britain had treat of Pichegru proved unsuccessful; and subsidized, were repulsed, and found it necesthe latter having in turn manceuvred to in- sary to abandon Holland to its fate. lMany tercept the communigation of the imperial- Dutch families sought refuge in Britain. ists with their magazines at Ghent, was in When Utrecht had submitted to the enemy, like manner repulsed;- but the obstinate con- the stadtholder, knowing that Amsterdam fiict which he maintained, and the steady would not be defended, left his country, and fire of his troops, during a succession of con- escaped in a fishing-boat to England, where he flicts, which lasted from daybreak till sunset, and his family became immediate objects of convinced the allied armies that the invasion royal liberality, and were treated with the of France had become a hopeless project. respect due to their rank and misfortunes. At last the French advanced, under General The Dutch, who had viewed the English with Jourdan, from the eastward, and at Fleurus a very unfriendly eye since the revolution gained a victory which cost the Austrians of 1787, appeared to be highly pleased with nearly fifteen thousand of their best troops. this change in their affairs. They had treated M[utual disgust, as well as discouragement, the British soldiers with great illiberality, now prevailed among the allies. The Aus- and refused to alleviate by kindness or comtrians retreated, leaving the Duke of York passion the sufferings of the wounded, or the at the head of the British and Hanoverian distress of the fugitives, who at length effectforces in considerable peril; but, with the ed their retreat to Bremen, after a long and assistance of the Earl of Moira, his royal severe trial of their patience and fortitude. highness made good his retreat. This noble- The United Provinces were now revolutionman, who had distinguished himself an the ized on the French model. Liberty, equalAmerican war, was opposed to the present ity, and the rights of man, were proclaimed; war, which he had reprobated in his place in representatives of the people were chosen; parliament. But having nevertheless been and the regenerated state was named the Basent by the administration with a feeble arma- tavian Republic. But the pretended friends; meint to assist the royalists on the western of the Hollanders, in rescuing them from~ coast of France, and finding himself too weak what they termed a disgraceful yoke, did not to effect any thing of importance in that allow them real freedom or independence. 124 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. The result of these successes was, that the ing from the ~Mediterranean, and also made King of Prussia perceiving France restored prize of part of a Jamaica fleet. to more than her ancient energy, and eapa- As the Dutch, though nominaL'y Ihe allies ble of humbling his enemy and her ancient of the French, had in fact, become i-ubject to rival, the house of Austria, deserted the them, letters of marque were issued against coalition, refused to accept of any further them by Great Britain, and directions given subsidy from Britain, and took under his to seize their colonial territories, under the protection, as neutral states, the whole princes professed intention, however, of restoring of the north-west of Germany; thus becom- them when the stadtholder's government ing the ostensible head and guardian of a should be re-established. The Cape of Good large division of the empire, which was en- Hope was taken, together with Trincomalee abled to recover its tranquillity, and to be- and the other Asiatic settlements of the come a calm spectator of the prolonged con- Dutch, excepting only Batavia. Their territest, which the rest of the empire under tories in the West Indies were not attacked Austria continued to carry on against France. during the present year, on account of the Spain was also under the necessity of imita- difficulties which the British experienced in ting the example of Prussia, though upon that quarter in keeping in subjection the less favorable terms, being constrained to re- islands captured from the French, where linguish, as the price of peace, her half of various insurrections were incited by their the island of St. Domingo; and the Duke of ancient masters. Jamaica was also kept in Tuscany, also deserted a contest in which he a state of great alarm by a small tribe of inhad reluctantly engaged. dependent negroes, called Maroons, who had In the year 1795, a treaty of marriage long existed in the mountainous parts of was concluded between the Prince of the island. These people, having quarreled Wales, and the Princess Caroline of Bruns- with the white inhabitants, committed many wick. cruel ravages, and were not subdued till The incidents of the war during the year Spanish hunters and blood-hounds were pro1795 were less memorable than those of the cured from the island of Cuba, and employed preceding years. Lord Bridport, with an against them, which induced them at last to inferior force, attacked a French fleet near submit to deportation from the island. Port l'Orient, and took three of their ships. The British ministry resolved, when it was Vice-Admiral Hothaml pursued to the Gen- too late, to give assistance to the royalists in oese coast a fleet which had sailed from the western parts of France; and an expeToulon to attempt the recovery of Corsica, dition, planned by Mr. Windhaim, and guidand had captured one of his detached ships; ed by French emigrant officers, with troops, and having brought the enemy to a partial many of whom consisted of prisoners of war, engagement, he took two sail of the line; relieved from confinement on condition of but he afterwards lost one of his own ships bearing arms against their native country, in consequence of damage sustained in the set sail for the French coast, and landed upconflict. On the western coast of France, on the extremity of the narrow peninsula cf the enemy, with thirteen sail of the line and Quiberon. Here they fortified themselves; fourteen frigates, avoided coming to an en- but many of the troops proving unfaithful, gagement with Vice-Admiral Cornwallis, and the expedition being otherwise ill conwho had only eight ships including frigates. ducted, they were speedily overpowered by These events occurred early in summer. But the republicans, who put to death such of notwitlistanding the vigilance of the British their countrymen as they found in arms navy, the French captured, in the month of fighting against them. By this feeble and July, thirty sail of a valuable convoy return- ill-timed invasion of thle French territory, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 425 nearly ten thousand men were killed or the war was blamed as tending to aggravate taken prisoners. the distress which they thus suffered. PreThe continental campaign on the side of vious to the assembling of parliament some Germany was of little importance during meetings were held by the London Correthis year, but upon the whole it proved un- sponding Society, for the purpose of petitionfavorable to the French. The convention ing the king and parliament in favor of peace had shaken off the yoke of that sanguinary and of parliamentary reform; and as the faction which, under Robespierre and his meetings were held in the open fields, they frantic associates, had deluged the interior were very numerously attended, but the perof France with blood, but had nevertheless sons composing them dispersed without' disthlie merit of calling forth with astonishing turbance. At the opening of parliament, energy the powers of the country for the however, some riots took place, and an atsupport of its independence. The present tack was even made on the person of the leaders possessing less activity, and affecting king, as he was proceeding to the House of a milder course of conduct, the military Lords in his carriage. operations languished; and the French army After some fruitless negotiation with Great remained inactive till autumn, when it cross- Britain, an extremely active campaign was ed the Rhine near Mentz under General now opened by the French upon the ContiPichegru, but was speedily repulsed, and an nent. Their generals, Mlioreau and Jourdan, armistice concluded for the winter. The penetrated into Germany; but they were convention, however, established a new form ultimately repulsed by the Archduke Charles, of government, consisting of an executive though not till they had reached the vicinity directory of five persons, elected by two of Ratisbon. The retreat of Moreau, amidst representive bodies, to which the powers of hostile armies, and through the difficulties legislation were intrusted, and it was ex- and entanglements of the Black Forest, pected, that if the war continued, the new formed one of the principal events of the executive power would endeavor to dis- war, and has been much lauded by some tinguish itself by some important opera- military writers, though severely criticized tions. by Napoleon. On the side of Italy the The British parliament was again assem- French obtained greater success. Their new bled at an early period, namely, on the 29th general in that quarter, Bonaparte, turned of October. The state of public affairs wore the Alps by the Col di Tende, and gaining at this period an unfavorable aspect. The in rapid succession the victories at MonteFrench armies had been inactive during the notte, Millesimo, and Dego, compelled the summer, but they had lost nothing; for the King of Sardinia to desert the allies, and to new republic retained possession of the terri- purchase peace at the expense of a considertory extending from the Pyrenees to North able portion of his territory. He next deHolland, and consequently of an immense scended into the Milanese; and after a mullength of coast opposite Great Britain. Mean- titude of sanguinary conflicts at Lodi, Arwhile, a dearth of provisions began to prevail cole, Lonato, Castiglione, Rivoli,' and other at home. The winter, which had set in with places, he succeeded in subduing, by famine, extreme severity at the close of the year 1794, Mantua, the only fortress that remained to and had enabled the French to conquer Hol- the Austrians in Italy. Few maritime events land with little difficulty, was followed by an of much importance occurred. The Dutch ungenial summer, during which the crop were deprived of their whole intertropical failed in consequence of almost incessant possessions, with the exception of the Unn rains. This state of things was productive healthy but rich settlr'ment of Batavia, in of discontent among the lower orders, and the island of Java; and they also lost a 426 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. squadron which tl'y had sent out to attempt difficulty occurred in the managen ent of the the re-capture of the Cape of Good Hope, British funding system. The large sums of but which was itself made prize of by the money sent abroad as subsidies to foreign British admiral Sir George Elphinstone, princes by government had diminished the afterwards Lord Keith. On the other hand, quantity of gold and silver in Great Britain, the British were under the necessity of aban- whilst the administration,through the medium doning Corsica, in consequence of the con- of the Bank of England's paper, had issued quests of Bonaparte in Italy, and the unsub- immense sums for the public expenses, and dued spirit of his countrymen the Corsicans. in payment of the additional interest of the The result of the campaign was, that the national debt. The alarm occasioned by the British ministry, in order to appease the na- Irish invasion coming in addition to these tion, found it necessary to send Lord Malmes- circumstances, produced a run upon the bank bury to Paris on the pretence of attempting to exchange its paper for specie; and as their to negotiate a peace; but it was afterwards coffers were soon drained, they found themadmitted by Mr. Pitt that they had no wish selves under the necessity of giving a preto conclude a treaty, and that the measure mium for bullion, which they paid with their was adopted merely in compliance with the paper. This made matters worse, as certain wishes of the public. Accordingly, as the persons secretly melted down the guineas French'still refused to relinquish their hold which the bank had caused to be coined and of the Netherlands, this was accounted a issued, and sold the gold to the bank as bulsufficient reason for persevering in the war. lion for the sake of the premium. A ruinIn the early part of the session of Parlia- ous traffic was thus carried on by the bank, ment, which met on the 6th of October, which purchased bullion at a high rate, while there occurred few debates, on account of they gave out their guineas at par. The dithe intention to attempt an immediate ne- rectors, therefore, were under the necessity gotiation, which had been announced in the of laying their case before the privy council, king's speech, and afterwards from expecta- which, after considering the circumstances of tion of its issue. But at the close of the the case, issued an order authorizing the year the French directory, in consequence of bank to discontinue the payment of their an invitation from a disaffected party in Ire- notes in cash. Considerable alarm was ocland, sent an expedition of seventeen ships casioned by this step; and committees of of the line and many smaller vessels, having both houses of Parliament were appointed on board an army of eighteen thousand men to inquire into the state of the bank's affairs. under General Hoche, to invade that coun- But although these were reported as prospertry. The violence of the weather prevented ous, yet each committee recommended a this armament from assembling at the ren- continuance of the restriction; and an act dezvous in Bantry Bay, and no landing was was therefore passed for confirming it, while, in consequence attempted; so that the fleet to render it less inconvenient, bank notes for returned home with the loss of two ships of one and two pounds were put into circulathe line and two frigates, which perished in tion. a tempest, and of one frigate taken by the During the preceding year the emperor English. Shortly afterwards the French dis- had received a subsidy, under the name of a embarked on the coast of Pembrokeshire, loan, from the British government, and a new twelve hundred and fifty criminals, whom subsidy was now given him under a similar they had sent as soldiers upon the Irish ex- denomination. To supply this and the rest pedition, and knew not how to dispose of of the national expenses, ~27,64:T,000 were after the failure of that attempt. voted early in the session, and afterwards At this period the first instance of serious above fifteen millions additional were thought HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 427 necessary, and voted. Two loans were ne- she had reached the rear; whilst the others gotiated by government; one of sixteen were so warmly received that they put about, millions and a half, in the usual way, from and did not again appear in the action till money-brokers; and another of eighteen towards its close. The admiral now made a millions, called the Loyalty Loan, from the signal to tack in succession; but Nelson, nobility and gentry being requested to fill whose station was in the rear of the British it up, which they did with great eager- line, perceiving that the Spaniards were ness. bearing up before the wind with an intention The French had now acquired such an as- of forming their line, going large, and joincendency over the Spanish monarchy, as to ing their separated ships, or avoiding a close induce the government of that country to engagement, disobeyed the signal, without a declare war against Britain; and soon after- moment's hesitation, and ordered his ship to wards the Spanish fleet, amounting to twen- be wore. This at once brought him in conty-seven sail of the line, attempted to join a tact with the Santissima Trinidad, of a hun French armament; but they were attacked dred and thirty-six guns, the San Josel of a by Sir John Jervis on the 14th of February, hundred and twelve, the Salvador del IMunnear Cape St. Vincent, with only fifteen sail do of a hundred and twelve, the San Nicolas of the line; and four of their ships, of from of eighty, the San Isidro of seventy-four, seventy-four to a hundred and twelve guns, another seventy-four, and another first-rate; were made prizes by the British fleet. This but Trowbridge, in the Culloden, immediatevictory may be regarded as the first of that ly joined, and nobly supported him; and for mighty series of naval triumphs with which nearly an hour did the Culloden and the Capthe name of Nelson is indissolubly associated. tain, Nelson's ship, maintain the most terriThe British force consisted of two ships of bly unequal contest recorded in the annals a hundred guns, two of ninety-eight, two of of naval warfare. At length the Blenheim, ninety, eight of seventy-four, and one of six- passing between theml and the enemy, gave ty-four, with four frigates, a sloop, and a them a respite, while she poured in her fire cutter. The Spaniards had one four-decker upon the Spaniards. The Salvador del Mlunof a hundred and thirty-six guns, six three- do and San Isidro now dropped astern, and deckers of a hundred and twelve, two eighty- were fired into in a masterly style by the Exfours, and eighteen seventy-fours; with ten cellent, Captain Collingwood. The San Isifrigates and a brig. The disparity of force dro struck, and the Salvador also hauled was therefore prodigious. The British were down her colors; but Collingwood, disdainformed in two lines in the most compact ing the parade of taking possession of beaten order of sailing; and, by carrying a press of enemies, pushed on, with every sail set, to canvass, Sir John Jervis came up with the save his old friend and messmate, Nelson, in enemy's fleet at half-past eleven on the 14th, the Captain, which was at this time fired before it had time to collect and form a re- upon by three first-rates, by the San Nicolas, gular order of battle. Not a moment was and by a seventy-four; whilst the Blenheim to be lost; so, departing from the regular was ahead, and the Culloden, crippled, astern. system, the British passed through their fleet, Ranging up in the noblest style, and hauling in a line formed with the utmost celerity, up his mainsail just astern, Collingwood passtacked, and thereby cut off nine ships, or one ed within ten feet of the San Nicolas, and third, from the main body. The vessels giving her a tremendous fire, passed on to thus separated attempted to form on the lar- the Santissima Trinidad. The San Nicolas board tack; but only one of them succeed- then luffed up, while the San Josef fell on ed, under cover of the smoke, which pre- board her, and Nelson resumed his station vented her intention being discovered till abreast of them, and close alongside. But 428 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the Captain being now incapable of further ing disobedience of orders which rendered service, either in the line or in chase, Nelson the battle decisive. directed the helm to be put to starboard, and At the commencement of the summer an the boarders to be called up. His orders event occurred which, had the French been were instantly obeyed; the San Nicolas was prepared to attempt an invasion of this boarded, and, after a short but sharp contest country, might have been productive of sehand to hand, carried in the most brilliant rious evils. This was a mutiny in the fleet. manner. But a fire of pistols and musketry Gross impositions had for some time been having been opened on the victors from the practiced upon the seamen, both as to the stern gallery of the San Josef, Nelson, di- quantity and quality of the provisions alrecting his captain to send more men into lowed them; and they had made an anonythe prize, gave orders for boarding that ship mous application for redress to Earl Howe. from the San Nicolas; and, leading the way But the application was disregarded, because himself, exclaiming "Victory or Westminster the strictness of discipline prevented the Abbey!" the thing was executed in an in- open avowal or appearance of discontent, stant, with an energy and enthusiasm which which his lordship inconsiderately supposed rendered all resistance hopeless. But the had no existence; and the seamen, disapSpaniards had still eighteen or nineteen pointed of the expected relief, resolved to ships which had suffered little or no injury enforce the consideration of their claims. and as the part of the fleet which had been Accordingly, when orders were given to preseparated from the main body in the morn- pare for putting to sea, the crew of the Queen ing was now coming up, Sir John Jervis Charlotte, and other ships lying at Spithead, made signal to bring to. If the enemy had refused to act; and treating with contempt chosen at this moment to avail themselves the remonstrances of the officers, they made of their great superiority of force, the sitna- choice of delegates, who after a formnal contion of the British admiral would have been sultation drew up petitions to the board of most critical. His ships could not have admiralty and the House of Commons. Earl formed without abandoning those which they Spencer, first lord of the admiralty, dreading had captured, and running to leeward; the a dangerous mutiny, and not thinking the Captain was lying a perfect wreck on board demands of the seamen unreasonable, proher two prizes, with her fore-topmast shot mised compliance; and the king readily ofaway, and not a sail, shroud, or rope left, fered full pardon to all who should immedi. while her wheel was smashed; and many of ately return to their duty. But the seamen the other ships were so shattered in their would not be satisfied till the parliament had masts and rigging as to be wholly unman- confirmed the promises of the admiralty; ageable. But the Spanish admiral, Don and as some delay thus ensued, the irritation Josef de Cordova, having inquired of his of their minds led to a contest with Vicecaptains whether they judged it proper to Admiral Colpoys, in which some lives were renew the action, and nine having answered lost. An act, however, was passed for the in the negative, whilst others gave their gratification of the seamen in point both of opinion in favor of delay, abandoned all idea pay and provisions; and subordination was of recommencing the battle, and drew off, restored at Spithead and Plymouth. The leaving the British in possessionof the prizes concession of these claims encouraged the which they had so gallantly won. For this seaman at the Nore to insist on a more pT.mcvictory the commander-in-chief was reward- tual discharge of arrears, a more equal dised with the title of Earl St. Vincent, and tribution of prize-money, and a general Rear-Admiral Nelson had the order of the abatement of the severit- of discipline. A Bath given him. It was his skillful and dar- council of delegates was elected, at the head HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 429 Df which was a seaman named Richard Par- The order was promptly and gallantly obey. ker, who took the command of the fleet, and ed; Vice-Admiral Onslow, in the Mor arch, prevailed upon the men to reject repeated bore down on the enemy's rear, his division offers of pardon. I-He robbed two merchant following his example; and about forty minships of provisions, obstructed trade by the utes past twelve o'clock the battle comdetention of other vessels, and fired on some menced. Admiral Duncan, in the Venerable, ships of war which refused to accede to the also passed through the enemy's line, at the mutinous combination. An act of parlia- head of his division, and began a close action ment was passed in the beginning of June, with the enemy's van, which lasted two denouncing capital punishment against all hours and a half, when all the masts of the who should hold intercourse with the rebel- Dutch admiral's ship were observed to go by lionus ships, or voluntarily continue on board; the board, and she not long afterwards struck and as the public strongly disapproved of to her opponent. The Dutch vice-admiral's this last mutiny, for which no excuse could ship being also dismasted, surrendered to be offered, the seamen gradually returned to Vice-Admiral Onslow, and nine others betheir duty. Parker was apprehended, and, came the prizes of the conquerors. along with several other mutineers, punished While their allies, or rather subjects, were with death; and a considerable number were suffering these disasters by sea, the French also condemned after trial, but the greater armies triumphed on the Continent. Bonapart of them were pardoned. parte advanced from Italy against the centre During the summer the ports of Cadiz was of the Austrian dominions, and, after several blockaded by the British fleet under Sir John sanguinary conflicts, crossed the Alps where Javis, afterwards Earl St. Vincent; an at- they approach the frontiers of Hungary, and tempt was made against the Spanish islands forced the emperor to conclude preliminaries of Teneriffe, butwithout success. AIeanwhile of peace at Leoben, on the 18th of April, another fleet under admiral Duncan watched which were followed by a definitive treaty, the Texel; but the blockading force having signed at Campo Formio, near Udine, on the retired for a short time, the Dutch fleet, under 17th of October. The emperor acquired the Admiral De Winter, put to sea. Intelligence city of Venice; but he relinquished the Miof this event having been brought to Admiral lanese and the Netherlands, and, by secret Duncan at Yarmouth, he instantly proceeded articles, consented that the Rhine should in quest of the enemy; and about eleven form the boundary of France. Britain being oclock in the forenoon of.the 11th October, now left alone in the contest into which she 1797, he got sight of the squadron which had had originally entered as an auxiliary to Ausbeen left to watch -their motions, and which tria and Prussia, the government opened a nedisplayed signals of an enemy to leeward. gociation towards the close of the summer; Admiral Duncan immediately:made sig- and as both the French and British nations nal for a general chase, and soon got sight eagerly wished for a termination of this sanof the Dutch, forming in a line on the star- guinary contest, it is probable that adminisboard tack to receive him, the land between tration seriously wished to conclude a treaty; Camperdown and Egmont being then about but at this time a party, headed by the dinine miles to the leeward. On making this rector Barras, had gained the ascendency in discovery, he shortened sail to connect the France, and resolved to continue the war. squadron; and finding th'ere was no time to A demand was therefore made that Britain be lost in making the attack, he made signal should renounce every conquest as a prelilmto bear up, break the enemy's line, and en- inary to negociation, whilst France reserved gage each ship her opponent to leeward, a right to make further demands; and on without waiting to form the line of battle. this being refused, the British ambassador 430 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Lord iMalmesbury, was dismissed from Lisle, to return, has never been explained. Ike ac. where the negotiations had been opened. cused Admiral Brueys, after that officer's During the summer of this year a rebel- death, of having lingered on the coast, conlion broke out in Ireland, the particulars of trary to orders; and the same charge is rewhich will be stated in their proper place. peated in the memoirs which he transmitted Upon the Continent, the world was siamus- from the place of his exile. But it is scarceed with a negotiation carried on at Rlastadt, ly credible that any officer, situated as Brueys between the French Directory and the Ger- was, would have incurred the heavy responman Empire. It was conducted with much sibility which such disobedience ipcars; and slowness, and ultimately proved ineffectual. the more probable supposition therefore But whilst it was in progress, the French seems to be, that the fleet was detained by government, having contrived to quarrel with Bonaparte's orders. It arrived at Alexanthe Swiss Cantons, invaded and seized their dria on the first of July; and Brueys, not country, and converted it into a new repub- being able to enter the port which time had lic, under their own influence. ruined, moored his ships in Aboukir Bay, in Meanwhile the weakness of the French a strong and compact line of battle; the navy rendered it impossible for them to en- headmost vessel being close to the shoal on gage in any serious attack against the Euro- the north-west of the bay, and the rest of pean part of the British empire. The French the fleet forming a curve along the line of government, however, with the double view deep water, so as not to be turned by any of attacking the rich empire which Britain means in the south-west. He had in fact had acquired in Asia, and of removing a made the best of his situation, and chosen successful military chief, whose ambition was the strongest position which he could possialready accounted dangerous, formed a de- bly take in an open roadstead; so nmuch so, sign of sending Bonaparte, with an army, to indeed, that the commissary of the fleet seize upon and colonize Egypt. To accom- thought they were moored in such a manner plish this scheme with the greater safety, the as to bid defiance to a force doable their own. threats of invading England were loudly re- Besides, the advantage of numbers, in ships, newed; the troops stationed on the coast guns, and men, was in favor of the French. were denominated the Army of England; They had thirteen ships of the line and four and Bonaparte being now appointed their frigates, carrying 1196 guns, and 11,230 men. commander, visited them in person. But The Englislh had the same number of ships suddenly departing, he embarked at Toulon of the line, and one fifty gun ship, the Lewith a powerful army, before his intentions ander, carrying only 1,112 guns, and 8,086 were suspected in Great Britain; Malta was men. The French had one three-decker of a surrendered to him on his passage; and de- hundred and twenty guns, and three eighty parting thence, he landed in safety in the vi- gun ships, whilst the English ships were cinity of Alexandria, and soon made himself all seventy-fours. The moment Nelson master of all Egypt. Here, however, his perceived the position of the enemy, his successes terminated. I-Ie was closely pur- intuitive genius suggested to him the desued by a British fleet under Admiral Nel- cisive conception, that where there was room son; and the French admiral, Brueys, having for a French ship to swing, there was room remained at anchor near the sh6re in the for an English ship to anchor; and the plan Bay of Aboukir, afforded an opportunity for he accordingly adopted was to keep entirely the British navy to earn one of its proudest on the exterior side of the French, and station and most decisive triumphs. his ships, as far as he was able, one on the Why Bonaparte, having effected a landing outer bow, and another or the outer quarter in Egypt, should not have suffered the fleet of each of the enemy's, thus doubling on HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 431 them in the way which had been projected The Vanguard, bearing the admiral's flag, by Lord Howe when he intended to attack and leading his division, now anchored on the French fleet at their anchorage in Gour- the outside of the enemy's line, within halfjean road. pistol-shot of the Spartiate, and veering half As the British squadron advanced the ene- a cable, instantly opened a tremendous fire, my opened a fire from the starboard side of under cover of which the Minotaur, Bellerotheir whole line into the bows of the leading phon, Defence, and Majestic, passed ahead ships. It was received in silence and with to occupy their several stations. On this stern composure; whilst the men on board side the French were completely prepared; of every ship were employed aloft in furling and in a few minutes every man stationed the sails, and below in tending the braces, at the first six guns in the fore part of the and making ready for anchoring. Captain Vanguard's deck was either killed or woundFoley led the way in the Goliath, outsailing ed. The Minotaur anchored next ahead of the Zealous, which for some minutes disputed the Vanguard, and took off the fire of the the post of honor with him; and intending Aquilon, the fourth in the enemy's line. The to fix himself on the inner bow of the Guer- Bellerophon passed ahead and anchored by rier, kept as near the edge of the shoal as the the stern on the starboard bow of the Orient depth of water would admit; but his anchor of a hundred and twenty guns, Brueys' own hung, and having opened his fire, he drifted ship, and the seventh in the line, "whose to the second ship, the Conquerant, before difference of force was in proportion of more it was clear, then anchored by the stern in- than seven to three, and whose weight of ball side of her, and in ten minutes shot away from the lower deck alone exceeded that from her masts. Captain Hood in the Zealous the whole broadside of the Bellerophon." took the station which the Goliath intended The Defence took her station ahead of the to have occupied, and in twelve minutes to- Minotaur, and engaged the enemy's sixth tally disabled the Guerrier. The Orion, Sir ship, the Franklin, by which judicious proJames Saumarez, next passed to windward ceeding the British line remained unbroken. of the Zealous, discharging her larboard guns The Majestic having got entangled with the as long as they bore on the Guerrier; and main rigging of one of the French ships running inside the Goliath, sunk a frigate astern of the Orient, suffered severely from which annoyed her, hauled round towards the heavy fire of that three-decker; but she the French line, and anchoring inside be- at length swung clear, and engaging the tween the fifth and sixth ships from the Guer- Heureux, or ninth ship, on the starboard bow, rier, took her station on the larboard bow of received also the fire of the Tonnant, which the Franklin and the larboard quarter of the was the eighth in their line. The remaining Peuple Souverain, receiving and returning four ships of the British squadron, having the fire of both. The Audacious, Captain been detached previous to the discovery of Gould, pouring in a heavy fire into the Guer- the French, were at a considerable distance rier and the Conquerant, fixed herself on the when the action commenced, which was at larboard bow of the latter, and, when that half-past six; and as night closed about seven, ship struck, passed on to the Peuple Souver- they had no other light to guide them in goain. The Theseus, Captain Millar, followed, ing into action than the fire of the 3ontendand having brought down the Guerrier's ing fleets. main and mizzen masts, anchored inside the Trowbridge in the Culloden, the foremost Spartiate, the third ship of the enemy's line. of the remaining ships, being two leagues The sun was now nearly down; but Nelson's astern, came on sounding as the others had lecisive manceuvre had already been corm- done; but as he advanced the darkness intely executed in its mcst critical parts. creased the difficulty of the navigation; and 432 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. suddenly, after having found eleven fathoms and fifth, were taken possession of; and about of water, and before the lead could be hove nine a fire broke out in the Orient, which again, he was fast aground; nor could all ex- soon mastered the ship, illuminating the conertions get off tLh ship in time to bear a part tending fleets with the light of the conflagrain the action. This accident, however, tion. About ten o'clock the ship blew up proved in some degree fortunate, since the with an explosion so tremendous that the Culloden served as a beacon to the Alexan- firing immediately ceased on both sides, and der and Swiftsure, which would otherwise for a time no sound was heard to break this have gone upon the reef, and thus enabled awful pause, except the dash of her shattered them to enter the bay and take their stations yards, masts, and timbers falling into the in the darkness. As the Swiftsure was bear- water from the great height to which they ing down she fell in with what at first seem- had been projected. The firing recommenced ed to be a strange sail, but proved to be the with the ships to the leeward of the centre; Bellerophon, which, overpowered by the and at daybreak the Guillaume Tell and tho Orient, was' now drifting out of the line to- Gen6reux, the two rear ships of the enemy, wards the lee side of the bay, with her sails formed the only portion of their line which hanging loose, her lights knocked overboard, had colors flying. Not having been engaged, nearly two hundred of her crew killed or these ships cut their cables in the forenoon wounded, and all her masts and cables shot and stood out to sea, accompanied by two away. Suspecting how it was, Captain Hal- frigates, being the only portion of the enelowell, with great judgment, abstained from my's fleet which escaped. It is needless to firing; and occupying with the Swiftsure the add that the victory was complete. Of thir station of the disabled ship, he opened a teen sail of the line, nine were taken and heavy fire on the quarter of the Franklin and two burnt; and of four frigates one was the bows of the French admiral; whilst burnt and another sunk. The British loss in Captain Ball, in the Alexander, passed under killed and wounded amounted to eight hunthe stern of the Orient, and anchoring with- dred and ninety-five; while of the French in side on her larboard quarter, raked her, three thousand one hundred and five, includat the same time keeping up a severe fire of ing the wounded, were sent on shore by car musketry on her decks. Lastly, the Leander, tel, and five thousand two hundred and finding nothing could be done to get off the twenty-five perished. About two hours afCulloden, advanced with the intention of ter the commencement of the action, Nelson anchoring athwart hawse of the Orient; but received a severe wound on the head from a the Franklin being so near ahead that there piece of langridge shot; and Captain Westwas not room for him to pass clear of the cott of the Majestic fell. Brueys was killed two, he tookl his station athwart hawse of the before the fire broke out which destroyed his latter. noble vessel. He had received three wounds, This description will serve to convey ~an yet would not leave his post; but a fourth accurate idea both of the plan of attack and cut him almost in twain, and he died like a of the mode in which it was carried into exe- hero on the deck. From the description of cution. Though fiercely contested and san- this battle, it must be obvious that its triguinary, the issue of the battle was never for umphant success was owing to a skillful an instant doubtful. The first two ships of repetition, with necessary variations, of the the French line had been dismasted within a manceuvre which had decided the victory at quarter of an hour after the commencement Camperdown; and in fact Nelson, although of the action, and the others had suffered so not acquainted with Lord Duncan, wrote to severely that victory was already certain. him, soon after the battle, to tell his lordship At half-past eight o'clock the third, fourth, how " he had profited by his example.' HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 433 From the time of the battle of Actium, Thus, by the victory of the Nile, Great by which the sovereignty of the Romlan em- Britain was enabled to procure allies, willing pire was decided, no naval victory was ever to send abundance of troops against her eneattended with consequences so immediately my, provided she consented to defray the neand obviously important as this. The French cessary expense. In the mean time, the acdirectory had concealed their intended enter- quisitions and losses of Britain were nearly prise from the Ottoman Porte, which laid equally balanced in other quarters. An claim to the sovereignty of Egypt, but had armament sailed towards the island of Minever been able to make its claim fully norca, and a descent was effected near the effectual. The grand signior, however, con- Creek of Addaya. Here a body of Spaniards sidered the present attempt as an act of threatened to surround the first division of hostility against himself; and the maritime the invading army; but they were soon revictory above mentioned encouraged him to pulsed, and the British tro ops gained a podeclare war, in the name of all true Moham- sition from which they might have attacked medan believers, against that host of infidels the enemy with advantage, if the latter had which had invaded the land from which the not retired in the evening. The army seized sacred territory of Mecca is supplied with the post of Mescadal, and a detachment took bread. In Europe similar consequences took the town of Mahon and Forte Charles. It place. The irresistible career of Bonaparte was expected that the principal stand would had compelled Austria to submit to peace, have been made at Civadella, where new upon terms which left France in a state of works had been added to the old fortificamost dangerous aggrandizement. But as tions; but the approach of the English drove this victorious chief, with the best part of the Spaniards within the walls of the town, his veteran army, was now held under block- and General Stewart summoned the goverade by the British fleet in a distant country, nor to surrender it without delay. Intimithe hopes of Austria began to revive, and dated by the movements of the troops and there seemed reason to expect, that by re- the appearance of the squadron, the garrison newing the contest, her anicent rank in Eu- capitulated, and thus the whole island was rope might be recovered. The King of Na- reduced without the loss of a single man. ples entered into these views with great But towards the end of the same year, the eagerness, and rashly declared war against British troops, which during a considerable France, without waiting for, and following, length of time had occupied a great number as he ought, the movements of the greater of positions upon the coast of the island of powers. The Empress of Russia was now St. Domingo, found it necessary to abandon dead, and her son Paul had succeeded to the the whole. The power of the French govthrone of the Czars. The empress had never ernment there had nearly been annihilated contributed more than her good wishes to- by a negro commander, Toussaint-Louverwards the war which the other powers of ture, to whom the ZBritish surrendered PortEurope had waged against France; but her au-Prince and St. Marc. The losses incurred son, a man of a furious and passionate char- in consequence of the unfortunate attempt acter, had not the sense to follow the same made by the British government to subjucautious policy, or to remain a quiet specta- gate the island of St. Domingo were imtor of the issue of a contest against the mense. French republic; and, encouraged by the The necessity of providing for the enornaval victory of the Nile, which seemed to mous subsidies with which Great Britian en insure the absence of Bonaparte and his abled the continental powers to carry on the army, he declared his willingness, to join in war, led to the- first introduction of the ina new combination against France. come tax in this year. nm. -28 434 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. The fear of a French invasion had in a power at home, than careful to maintain the former age induced the English nation so far armies upon the frontiers and in the conto overcome their own prejudices as to con- quered countries in a proper state of force sent to an incorporating union with Scotland. and efficiency. A French army under GenThe rebellion in Ireland, together with the eral Jourdan advanced into Suabia in the dread that by means of French aid Ireland month of March, but was encountered and might be dismembered from the British em- beaten at Stockach by the Archduke Charles. pire, as the American Colonies had been, The importance of the possession of Switzernow produced a sense of the necessity of do- land instantly displayed itself. The vaning that which ought to have been done quished French army immediately crossed three centuries before this date; that is, of the Rhine into Switzerland, and in that uniting Ireland to Britain, by incorporating mountainous country contrived to make a into one the heretofore distinct legislatures stand during the greater part of the summer. of the two islands. The measure was at The Austrians advanced as far as Zuricrh, of this period very practicable, because Ireland which they obtained possession; but before was in fact under the dominion of forty they could proceed further, the French thousand troops, who had been collected to armies, having been reinforced towards the crush the rebellion, and protect the island end of the season, were enabled in their turn against the French; and because the friends of to assume the offensive. the government were too much intimidated In Italy the French manueuvred unskillfulby the confusion and the scenes of bloodshed ly at the opening of the campaign. Instead which had recently occurred here, to venture of concentrating their forces, they attempted to oppose vigorously a measure which prom- to retain possession of the whole of that ised for the future to preserve the tranquil- country, and were thus beaten in various en lity of the country inviolate. On the 31st gagements at different points. of January Mr. Pitt proposed the measure The advantage derived by the French in the British House of Commons. Mr. from the possession of Switzerland having by Sheridan opposed a union, as particularly this time begun to be understood, a resoluunseasonable, amidst the irritation which at tion was in consequence formed to close the this period prevailed in Ireland; and he de- campaign, not by sending Suwarof from Italy precated the accomplishment of, the object into the south of France, but by directing by means of force or corruption. The meas- him to turn his arms northward against the ure, however, was approved of by a very Alps. The Archduke Charles had spent the large majority; and in the House of Lords summer in pressing upon the French in that the same subject was afterwards discussed quarter, but had not been able to advance with a similar result. But in the Irish parlia- beyond Zurich; here, however, he left a conment the proposal was resisted with such vehe- siderable body of Austrians and Russians, mence, that the administration, finding them- and proceeded with a division of his army selves supported only by a small majority, towards Manheim and Philipsburg. Su-warof thought fit to avoid pressing the matter fur- advanced front Italy at the head of eighteen ther at this time. thousand men to take the command of these During the present year the British power troops; but his views were anticipated by in India was greatly augmented, and its ter- the French General MAassena, who, finding ritory extended, by the fall of Tippoo Sultan, the Archduke Charles and Suvwarof at the the son and successor of Hyder Ali. distance of more than a day's march on his In Europe the present campaign proved left and right, instantly attacked the troops extremely eventfu_. The French directory stationed near Zurich. The Austrians per. had been more anxious to establish its own i ceiving the hazardous nature of their sitna HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 435 tion, retreated with only a moderate loss; to raise the siege of that place, after fifty but the Russians, from an ill-judged con- nine days of open trenches, and delivering tempt of their enemy, total ignorance of the five unsuccessful assaults; and having recountry, and want c ~kill in the art of con- turned into Egypt, and destroyed a Turkish ducting war in it, maintained their ground army at Aboukir, he ventured upon a step till they were hemmed in on all sides. Their which is without example in the history of order was at last broken, and their retreat modern Europe. Having learned from an converted into an utter rout. Suwarof was old newspaper the great reverses which the at the same instant advancing rapidly to Freich armies had experienced in the early their relief; but the victorious enemy now part of the campaign, and the general disturned quicldy Upon him, and attempted to content produced by these misfortunes, he encompass him on all sides. By incredible resolved to trust to fortune and return to exertions, however, and following paths France. With this view he secretly emwhich were believed to be utterly impracti barked, along with a select party of friends, cable, he effected his escape with about five on board a small vessel, leaving the comthousand of his troops, in want of every mand of his army, which was now com. thing,'and retaining only the muskets in pletely insulated in the country, to General their hands. Kleber, an officer of high reputation for Thus terminated on the eastern side of military genius and enterprise; and after France this active and brilliant campaign. escaping a thousand perils he landed safely The allies remained masters of Italy; but at Frejus, in the south-east of France. FindFrance was still enabled to menace that ing a party willing to second his views, Bocountry, as well as Germany, by retaining naparte now took advantage of the satisfacpossession of Switzerland. In the meanwhile tion occasioned by his arrival, together with the British attempted, with the aid of Rus- the discontents arising from the corruption sian auxiliaries, to drive the French out of and mismanagement of the directorial adHolland. On the 27th of August, a landing ministration, to usurp the government, was effected under Sir Ralph Abercromby cashier the directory, and to dissolve the at the mouth of the Texel; and the Zuyder representative legislature. Zee was immediately entered by a British Affairs on the Continent now began to asfleet under Admiral Mitchell. Upon this sume a most unpropitious aspect. The Emthe Dutch admiral, Storey, surrendered the peror of Russia, being exasperated at the deaeet under his command, alleging that his feats sustained by his troops towards the' men refused to fight. HIere, however, the clocse of the campaign, became dissatisfied effectual success of the expedition terminated. with his allies, and withdrew from the alliThe Duke of York afterwards assumed the ance; and there was reason to dread that command, and forces amounting to thirty- his irascible and unreasonable temper might five thousand men were landed; but it was lead him not merely to desert but to quarrel soon discovered that the invasion had been with them. In the meanwhile Bonaparte, ill concerted and ill directed. under the title he had assumed of First ConAt the end of this campaign the French sul of the French Republic, resolved to siggovernmentunderwent anew change. After nalize his acquisition of power by an atthe conquest of Egypt Bonaparte had invaded tempt to procure peace. With this view he Syria, and subdued or conciliated most of the thought proper to address a letter, signed by native tribes; but his career of victory was himself, to the King of Great Britian. An stopped at St. Jean d'Acre by the Turkish unsatisfactory answer fromn Lord Grenville, governor of that town, assisted by the Brit- as secretary of st ate, was the only responlse ish under Sir Sidney Smith. HIe was forced Overtures made to the court of Vionna, met ,436 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. with no better treatment; and the war con- and the troops along with him to land in tinued. France, and to fulfill every part of Sir Sidney The great measure of a legislative union Smith's treaty; but the state of affairs had with Ireland was carried into effect during changed; Kleber had been assassinated by a the present session of parliament. The ad- fanatical Arab, and his successor, Menou, reministration had found it necessary to delay fused to evacuate Egypt; so that it became this matter in consequence of the opposition necessary, at a future period, to send an army In the Irish parliament; but during the re- from Britain to drive the French out of the cess they had obtained a more ample majori- country which they had proposed to evacuate ty; and as the British parliament had al- without firing a shot or shedding a drop of ready, on Mr. Pitt's \ motion, passed resolu- blood. tions in favor of the union, the project was The French campaigns in Italy and Gerformally introduced to the Irish parliament manyhave been already related in the article on the 5th of February, 1800, by a message on France. from the lord-lieutenant. After a long and In the meanwhile Great Britain was greatspirited debate, the ministry prevailed by a ly distressed by a scarcity of provisions, and majority of forty-three. riots broke out in London and some provinDuring the present year the war proved cial towns. On this account Parliament asextremely eventful. The army which Bona- sembled on the 11th of November, and the parte had left in Egypt under General I(le- principal discussion which occurred in it relatber, entered into a negotiation with the ed to the scarcity which prevailed throughTurkish grand vizier and Sir Sidney Smith; out the country, and involved in great diffithe result of which was, that the French culties both the middle and lower classes of soagreed to abandon the whole of Egypt, on ciety. The members of the opposition asserted condition of being permitted to return un- that the war and the scarcity were closely molested to France. The British govern- connected; whilst Mr. Pitt and his colleagues ment, suspecting that some proposal of this contended that a more obvious cause might kind might be made, sent secret orders to be found in the deficiency of the two preVice-Admiral Lord Keith not to consent to ceding crops, owing to cold and rainy seaany arrangement which might leave so large sons. an army at liberty to act in Europe, or which At the commencement of the following should not include the surrender of all the year government laid an embargo on all Rusships in the port of Alexandria. The conse- sian, Danish and Swedish ships in British quence was, that Lord Keith refused to ratify ports, in retaliation for their conduct in withthe treaty of El Arish which Sir Sidney drawing from the alliance; so that Great Smith and the Turkish grand vizier had con- Britain was now at war with nearly all Eucluded, and detained as prisoners General rope. Austria, indeed, ventured to renew Dessaix and a number of troops which' had hostilities; but the French general, Iloreau, been sent from Egypt. The French general having defeated the Archduke John with Kleber immediately intimated to the Turks tremendous loss, at Hohenlinden, drove back a determination to resume hostilities. ie the Austrian army upon their capital, advanattacked and totally routed their army, con- cing within seventeeen leagues of Vienna; sisting of forty thousand men, in the neigh- whilst at the same time signal defeats were borhood of Grand Cairo; and multitudes sustained by them both in Italy and in Franperished by slaughter in the desert, while the conia. From the necessity of their affairs, French remained complete masters of the therefore, the Austrians were compelled to.ountry. When it was too late, an order ar- sue for peace, which was accordingly conrived fiom Britain to permit General Dessaix eluded at Luneville. The Netherlands and HISTORY OF THIE WORLD. 437 the Milanese were resigned; France extended if possible to break up the northern confeder. her boundary to the Rhine; and Tuscany acy, an armament was fitted out in the Britwas relinquished by the grand duke, who was ish ports, consisting of eighteen sail of the to receive an indemnification in Germany; line and as many frigates, sloops, bombs, firewhilst, on the other hand, the city of Venice ships, and smaller-vessels, as made the whole and a portion of its ancient territory were amount to about fifty-three sail. This fleet given up to Austria. The German princes under the command of Admiral Sir HSyde who suffered by the treaty were to receive an Parker, with Vice-admiral Lord Nelson as indemnification out of the ecclesiastical states his second, sailed from Yarmouth on the 12th of the empire; thereby weakening still fur- of MSarch, 1801, and soon afterwards reached ther the influence of the house of Austria. its first rendezvous at the entrance of the By this treaty the French became masters of Cattegat. Europe to the southward of the Rhine and of It was at first hoped that Denmark, notthe Adige. withstanding her hostile demonstrations, The commencement of the year 1801, was would prefer negotiation to war; but this exmarked in Great Britain by the termination peetation having been disappointed, and the of Mr. Pitt's administration. When this Danish government, instead of conciliation, event was announced to the public, it created having assumed a tone of open defiance, prepno small degree of astonishment. Since Mr. arations were made for forcing the passage Pitt had come into office a new generation of the Sound, though in these much valuable had sprung up; and a succession of the most time was lost through the irresolution of the extraordinary public transactions had occur- admiral, Sir Hyde Parker. At length, howred, amidst all of which that minister, with his ever, the British fleet weighed anchor at six kinsman Lord Grenville, and his friend Mr. o'clock in the morning of the 30th March, Dundas, had remained firmly established in and with a fine breeze at north-north-west power. The authority and influence of these entered the Sound in a line a-head, the van men had in some measure interwoven itself division commanded by Lord Nelson in the in the opinions of the: people, and they were' Elephant, the centre division by the commansurrounded by a train of powerful adherents, der-in-chief, and the rear division by Reardependent on their patronage; whilst, at the admiral Graves. At seven the batteries at same time, Mr. Pitt himself retained such a Elsineur, which had been represented as tredegree of popularity as caused his dismission mendous, commenced firing at the Monarch, or resignation to appear a very bold measure which was the leading ship, and the other in the present state of affairs. ships as they passed in succession; but the At the time when the change of ministry distance was so great that not a shot took took place, the king became affected with a effect, nor did any of the British ships fire severe illness, sapposed to be the result of in return except the van division, which only anxiety and agitation of mind. In making discharged a few broadsides. Asthe strait at choice of a new prime minister, however, he Elsineur, however, is less than three miles aavoided admitting into power the party which cross, a mid-channel passage would undoubtedhad opposed the war; and selected Mir. Ad- ly have exposed the ships to a fire from Crondington, who, as we have already mentioned, enburg Castle, adjoining Elsineur, on the one was originally patronized by Mr. Pitt, and side, and from the Swedish town of Helsinwho, as speaker of the House of Commons, burg on the other; but the British having had gained approbation by his good temper, observed that the batteries of the latter mountprudence, industry and conciliating manners. ed only eight guns of a small calibre, inclined In she meanwhile, to prevent the active to the Swedish shore, where not even a show 3o-ope'ation of Denmark with Russia, and of opposition was made, and passing within 438 ~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. less than a mile of it, avoided a fire which, wind; the small craft pointed out the course as proceeding from nearly a hundred pieces distinctly; Rion led the way in the Amazon; of cannon, could scarcely have failed to do and coasting along the edge of the right hand much injury to the ships. About noon the shoal or Middle Ground until they reached fleet anchored at some distance above the and partly rounded its southern extremity, island of Inuen, which is about fifteen miles the squadron anchored off Draco Point just from Copenhagen; and the commander-in- as the darkness closed, the headmost of the chief, Vice-admiral Lord Nelson, and Rear- enemy's line not being more than two miles admiral Graves, accompanied by Captain distant. Captain Hardy now proceeded in Domett and the commanding officers of the a small boat, under cover of the night, to exartillery and troops, proceeded in a lugger amine the channel' between the anchorage to reconnoitre the enemy's defences. These and the Danish line, and actually approached wvere soon ascertained to be of the most for- near enough to sound round the first ship of midable description. It was apparent that the latter, using a pole least the noise of throwthe Danes could not be attacked without great ing the lead should occasion a discovery. difficulty and risk; and when a council of Having completed his task, he returned about war was called in the afternoon, much, as eleven o'clock, and reported to the admiral usual, was urged to show the propriety of fore- the depth of the water, and the practicability going, or at least delaying, the attack. But of the channel up to the Danish line. This happily the opinion of Nelson prevailed, and was gratifying news to Nelson, though it addhe offered his services for the attack, requir- ed to his impatience, and prevented him from ing ten sail of the line and all the small craft. sleeping during the remainder of the night, Sir 4Hyde Parker willingly accepted the ten- the whole of which was spent in preparing del, gave him two more line-of-battle ships instructions and receiving reports. than he asked, and wisely left every thing The force now about to be attacked was of to his own judgement. the most formidable description. It consisAn attack from the eastward was first med- ted of eighteen vessels, all two-decked ships, itated; but a second examination of the Dan- but some of them old and dismantled, with ish position, on the 31st, and a favorable frigates, praams, and radeaux, mounting altochange of the wind, determined the vice-ad- gether about six hundred and fifty guns, and miral to attack from the south. Accordingly moored in a line of about a mile in extent, on the morning of the first of April, the Brit- flanked at the north end, or that nearest the ish fleet removed to an anchorage within town by two artifical islands called the Trektwo leagues of the town, off the north-western r6ner or Crown Batteries, one of thirty twenextremity of the Middle Ground, a shoal ex- ty-four pounders, and the other of thirtytending along the whole sea front of the city eight thirty-six pounders, with furnaces for of Copenhagen and leaving an intervenincg heating shot, and commanded by two-decked channel of deep water called KIonigstiefe, or block-ships. The entrance into the harbor King's Channel, about three quarters of a and docks, which are situated in the heart mile wide. In the course of the forenoon of the city, was protected by a chain drawn Nelson, accompanied by Captain Riou of the across it, and also by some batteries on the Amazon, reconnoitered for the last time the northern shore, particularly the Trekr6ner position which he was about to attack; and already described; and, in addition to this, soon after his return at one o'clock the signal two seventy-four gun ships, Dannemarck and to weigh appeared at the Elephant's mast- Trekr6ner, a forty-gun frigate, two eighteen head. It was received with a shout through- gun brigs, and several armed zebecs, provided out the whole squadron, and promptly obeyed. with furnaces for heating shot, were moored Thiley weighed with a light and favorable in advantageous positions off the mouth of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 439 the harbor. Along the shore of Amak island, not a moment was to be lost. Theywere ura little to the southward of the floating line ged to be steady, to be resolute, and to deof defence, were gull and mortar batteries; cide; but they wanted the only ground for and as the Danes were animated by an en- steadiness and resolution in such a case; and thusiastic spirit of patriotism, and eager Nelson had now reason to regret that he had by every possible means to repel the assail- not trusted to Captain Hardy's single report. ants, there was no want of men, skillful and At length MIr. Alexander Briarly, the master brave, to work theguns either afloat or on of the Bellona, undertook to lead the fleet; shore. and his proposal being acceded to, the capThe day of the second of April broke, as tains returned to their ships, and at halfNelson had hoped it would, with a favorable, past nine sthe signal was made for the ships south-easterly wind; and the signal for all to weigh in succession, and advance to the the captains to come on board the flag-ship attack. was hoisted as soon as it could be seen. As The Edgar led the way; but the Agacircumstances prevented the admiral's plan memnon, which was next in order, having anof attack being strictly followed, it may suf- chored rather outside than off the great fcce to state that all the line-of-battle ships shoal, could not weather it, and was obliged were to anchor by the- stern abreast of the to bring up again in six fathoms of water, different vessels composing the enemy's line, where the current was so strong that, alan operation for which they were already though she afterwards re-weighed, and conprepared by having cables out of their stern- tinued for a long time to warp with the ports. The Amazon, Blanche, Alcmene, stream and kedge anchors, she was compelled Arrow and Dart, with two fire-ships, all under again to bring up nearly in the spot from the direction of Captain Riou, were to co-op- which she had last weighed. When the erate in the attack on the ships stationed at misfortune of the Agamemnon was discoverthe mouth of the harbor, andto act otherwise ed, the admiral made signal for the Polyas circumstances might require. The bomb- phemus, which followed the Edgar; and the vessels were to station themselves outside the Isis steered after the Polyphemus. The BelBritish line, and to throw their shells over lona, notwithstanding a fair wind and ample it; while the Jamaica, with the brigs and gun- room, kept too close on the starboard shoal, vessels, was to take a position for raking the and grounded abreast of the outer ship of southern extremity of the Danish line; and the enemy. The Russell following the Bela similar stat'on was assigned to the Desiree. lona, also grounded; and although both were It was also intended that the forty-ninth reg- within range of shot, their absence from their iment, under Colonel Stewart, and five hun- intended stations was severely felt. Three dred seamen under Captain Freemantle of ships of the squadron were now aground and the Ganges, should storm the principal of the comparatively useless; so that Nelson was Trekrdner batteries, the instant that its fire compelled to begin the attack with one ship should be silenced by the cannonade from of the line less than he had calculated upon the ships. Between eight and nine o'clock as absolutely necessary. In compliance with the pilots, most of whom had been mates in the wish of the pilots, each ship had been Baltic traders, were ordered on board the El- ordered to pass her leader on the starboard ephant. But as they hesitated about the bear- side, from a supposition that the water shoaSing of the east and of the shoal, and the ex- ed on the larboard; but, as Captain Hardy act line of deep water, it became evident that had proved, the water deepened all the way their knowledge was not to be trusted. Nel- to the enemy's line. The Elephant, flagson was extremely perplexed. The signal for ship, camne next; but Lord Nelson, as soon action had been made; the wind was fair; as he perceived the state of the Be!llola and ~40 HISTORY OF THE WORLD'. Russell, ordered his helm to be put a star- know the real state of the contending parties, board, and passed within those ships; and suffered the most dreadfil anxiety; and from all the ships astern followed his example. the reports made to him that signals of disBy this act of promptitude on the part of tress were flying at: the nast-heads of two the admiral, the greater part of the fleet British line-of-battle ships, and the signal of 1were saved from going on shore. At the inability on board a third; from observing moment when Lord'Nelson's squadron the zig-zag course and slow progress of the weighed, Admiral Parker's eight ships did Defence, Ramnillies and Veteran, which he the same, and took up a position somewhat had dispatched as a reinforcement; and from nearer the mouth of the harbor, so as to the distance of the London, which bore his menace the northern wing of the defence; flag, preventing his judging of the relative but a nearer approach was impracticable in condition of the contending parties; Sir time to render any active service in the en- IIyde Parker was induced to throw out the gagement. signal for discontinuing the action. When The cannonade commenced at five min- this was reported to Nelson, he continued to utes after ten, and for nearly an hour the walk the deck without appearing to take any principal ships engaged were the Polyphe- notice of it. At the next turn the signal mus, Isis, Edgar, Ardent and Monarch. By lieutenant met him, and having stated that half-past eleven, however, the Glatton, Ele- the commander-in-chief had thrown out numphant, Ganges and Defiance, got to their ber thirty-nine, asked if he should repeat it. respective stations, as did also several frigates " No," replied Nelson, "acknowledge it;" and smaller vessels, and the action now be- and presently he called after the officer to came general. The Desiree proved of great know if the signal for close action was still service in raking the Provesteen, and draw- flying. Being answered in the affirmative, ing part of her fire from the Polyphemus he said, "Mind you keep it so;" and, after and Isis; but owing to the strength of the pacing the deck for some time, moving the current, the Jamaica, with the gun-vessels, stump of his lost arm in a manner which alcould not get near enough to be of any ser- ways indicated great emotion, he accosted vice in the action; and the bomb-vessels were one of the officers thus: "Do you know," not able to execute much. The absence of said he, "what is shown on board the comthe Agamemnon, Bellona and Russell, dis- mander-in-chief. Number thirty-nine." The concerted the plan of the attack, and caused officer asked what that meant. " Why, to several of the British ships to sustain a leave off action." Then, shrugging up his heavier share of the enemy's fire than had shoulders, he exclaimed, "Leave off action! been allotted to them, or they were well able No, damn me if I do. You know, Foley," to bear; and among the sufferers on this ac- turning to the captain, "I have but one eye; count was the Amazon frigate, which, along I have a right to be blind sometimes:" and with four others under Captain Riou, had then putting the glass to his blind eye, in boldly taken a position right against the sportive bitterness, he exclaimed, "I really Trekrbner batteries. The cannonade had do not see the signal;" adding, after a mocontinued three hours, and few if any of the mentary pause," Damn the signal! Keep Danish block-ships, praams, or radeaux, had mine for closer battle flying. That's the way ceased firing, nor had the contest as yet I answer such signals. Nail mine to the taken a decisive turn to either side. Mean- mast!" The three frigates and two sloops while the commander-in-chief, near enough nearest to the London, however, obeyed the to the scene of conflict to know the iun-favor- signal, and hauled off from the Trekr6ner bat. able accidents w'iich had deprived Nelson of teries; when " the gallant, good Riou" was one-fourthl of his force, and yet too distant to killed by a raking shot, which cut him in two, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 441 just as the Amazon presented her stern to while the wind was fair; and preparations one of the latter. were making for this purpose, when the About nalf-past one the fire of the Danes Danish adjutant-general Lindholm came, began to slacken, and at a little before two bearing a flag of truce; upon which the it had ceased along nearly the whole of their Trekrbner discontinued its fire, and the acline. Some of the praams and light vessels tion, after having lasted five hours, during had also gone adrift; but few if any of the four of which it had been hotly contested, vessels whose flags had been struck would was brought to a close. suffer themselves to be taken possession of, The negotiations continued during the five and fired on the boats as they approached; following days. On the 9th an armistice for whilst the batteries on the isle of Amak aid- fourteen weeks was, after much discussion, ed them in this irregular warfare. Nelson agreed to; and Denmark engaged to suswas justly irritated at this conduct on the pend all proceedings under the treaty of part of the Danes; and at one time had armed neutrality which she had entered into thoughts of sending in the fire-ships to burn with Sweden and Russia. the vessels which had surrendered. But, as This was a murderous action. The Enga preliminary measure, he retired into the lish loss in killed and wounded fell little stern gallery, and wrote to the crown prince short of twelve hundred; whilst that of the of Denmark that celebrated letter, which Danes, including prisoners, amounted to will ever be memorable in the history of about six thousand. For the battle of CoEngland: " Vice-Admiral Lord Nelson is penhagen Nelson received the title of Viscommanded to spare Denmark when she no count; a paltry reward for services equally longer resists. The line of defence which splendid in themselves, and important to the covered her shores has struck to the British maritime interests of England. flag; but if the firing is continued on the On the 12th the British fleet sailed from part of Denmark, he must set on fire all the Copenhagen roads by the difficult channel prizes that he has taken, without having the of the Grounds, between the islands of Amak power of saving the men who have so nobly and Saltholm, and steered for the northern defended them. The brave Danes are the extremity of the island of Bornholm, in order brothers, and should never be the enemies of to intercept a Swedish squadron, reported at the English." This letter was carried on nine sail of the line. The Swedish admiral, shore with a flag of truce by Sir Frederick however, whose force consisted of only six Thesiger, who found the crown prince at a sail of the line, sought refuge behind the sally-port. Meanwhile a destructive cannon- forts of Carscrona; and here a negotiation ade was still kept up by the Defiance, Mon- was opened, which, on the 22d, ended in an arch, and Ganges, while the near approach agreement by his Swedish majesty to treat of the Defence and Ramillies silenced the for the accommodation of all existing differfire of the Indosforethen, Holstein, and the ences. On the 5th of May, Sir Hyde Parkships next to them in the Danish line. But er was recalled, and Nelson invested with the the great Trekrdner still continued its command, which ought never to have been fire. This formidable work, having had no- for one moment intrusted to another. On thing but frigates and sloops opposed to it, the 8th he informed the Swedish admiral, and that only for a time, was comparatively by a flag of truce, that although Sir Hyde uninjured; and as it had just been manned Parker had consented not to interrupt Swewith nearly fifteen hundred men, it was con- dish navigation, he, Lord Nelson, would act sidered as too strong to be successfilly storm- against the Swedish fleett if he found it at ed. It was now judged advisable to with- sea; and he left Captain Murray with six draw the fleet out of the intricate channel sail of the line, the Glatton, and a frigate, 442 HISTOtRY OF THE WORLD. to cruise off Carlscrona. On the 14th his and to leave her in their hands. The loss on lordship anchored off Revel roads, prepared, board the English squadron was considerable. if necessary, to let Russia feel "the Nelson The admiral had scarcely reached harbor touch," under which Denmark and Sweden when he was apprised that the Frenc:h linehad quailed; but events had already occur- of-battle ships, disabled in the action of the red in that country which changed the aspect 6th, were on the 8th reinforced by a squadof affairs, and brought on an accommodation ron of five Spanish ships of the line under without any further hostilities. the command of Don Juan de Mozen, and a On the 23d of March the emperor Paul French ship of seventy-four guns; and that died suddenly. His son and successor, Alex- they were all under sail on the morning of ander, immediately disclaimed all hostility the 12th of July, together with their prize, against Great Britain, and made reparation for the Hannibal. He had almost despaired of the damage which their merchants had suffered having a sufficient force in readiness to opfrom the embargo laid upon their ships. A pose such numbers; but by great exertion convention was adjusted with Russia in the he was able to warp out of the Mlole with all month of June, which put an end to the the ships under his command, the Pomp&e dispute with the northern states, as Sweden excepted, which had not time to get in her and Denmark could not of themselves hope masts. The object of the British admiral to resist the power of Great Britain. being to intercept this powerful force on its The war between France and Great Brit- way to Cadiz, he observed, late in the eveuain was now reduced to merely maritime ing, that the enemy's ships had cleared Caboperations, and these were of no great mag- rita Point, and at eight he bore up after nitude. One of the most important occurred them. About eleven the Superb came up upon the coast of Spain, between Sir James with the hostile squadron, and opened her Saumerez and a squadron of French and fire at not more than three cables' length. Spanish ships of war. On the morning of At this critical period a mistake of the enethe 6th of July, the British admiral stood my decided the fate of the action. In the through the Straits of Gibraltar, with the darkness and confusion, the Spanish ships intention of attacking three French line-of- fired upon each other; the Real Carlos took battle ships and a frigate, which were lying fire and blew up; whilst the Hermenegildo, at anchor off Algesiras. On opening Ca- mistaking her for an enemy, ran on board of brita Point he found that the ships lay at a her, and shared her melancholy fate; and considerable distance from the batteries on the San Antonio, of seventy-four guns and shore, and having the advantage of a leading seven hundred and thirty men, being thus wind, he conceived that he had every pros- left unsupported, struck to the Superb. The pect of success. He had previously directed remaining ships of the enemy now crowded Captain Hood in the Venerable to lead the all sail and stood out of the straits; and at squadron; but the wind failing, this officer daybreak there appeared in sight only one found it impossible to occupy the station as- French ship, which was standing towards signed to him. Captain Stirling in the Pom- the shoals of Cavil.'But at this juncture p6e, however, having anchored opposite the the wind failing her, the Venerable was able inner ships of the enemy, commenced the to bring her to action, and had nearly siaction; while, in the ardor to engage, the lenced her when the loss of the rn.\rinmast obHiannibal unfortunately ran aground. Every liged the captain of the Venerable to desist; effort was now made by the admiral to cover and this ship, which was one of eighty-four this ship from the enemy's fire; but as she guns, escaped along with the rest. was only three cables length from one of the As the French had now resumed their batteries on shore, he was obliged to retire, usual menacing project of invasion, and ap HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 443 peared to be collecting a force in the harbor until the 8th, and no disembarkation could of Boulogne, an attempt was made by Lord be effected; but on that day the first divi. Nelson to obstruct their preparations; and sion made good their landing at ten o'clock he succeeded in doing some damage, which in the morning, in the face of a body of appears to have encouraged him to make a French, who, evidently aware of their inten. more serious effort. Boats intended for tion, were posted in fbrce, with considerable boarding the French vessels were sent off in advantage, on some sand hills opposite the the night in four divisions, under the con- landing place. The front of the disembarkduct of the Captains Somerville, Parker, Cot- ation was narrow, and a hill which commandgrave and Jones; and launches furnished ed the whole appeared almost iraccessible; with howitzers were detached under Cap- yet the British troops ascended it under a tain Conn to join in the enterprise. Parker's fire of grape and musketry with the utmost division first approached the enemy, and intrepidity, and forced the French to retire, commenced a furious attack, making strenu- leaving behind them seven pieces of artillery, ous efforts, with the most undaunted courage, and a number of horses. The disembarkaand sanguine hopes of success. But an un- tion was continued during that and the folforeseen obstacle baffled all their exertions. lowing day; while the troops which landed This was a very strong netting traced up to on the 8th advanced three miles during the the lower yards of the French vessels, which same day. On the 12th the whole army were also fastened by chains to the ground moved forward, and came in sight of the and to each other; and so effectual was French, who were formed advantageouslyon the resistance of the enemy thus protected, a ridge, with their left resting on the canal that the crew of Captain Parker's boat were of Alexandria and their right towards the repulsed in their attempts to board a large sea. As it was determined to commence the brig, by a furious discharge of cannon attack on the 13th, the British force marched and musketry, which killed a number of the in two lines by the left, with an intention of assailants, while many more were wounded turning the right flank of the enemy. But and maimed. Captain Parker died of his the attack was in some measure anticipated wounds after the return of the fleet to the by the French, who descended from the Downs. The number of British seamen heights on which they were formed, and askilled and wounded on this occasion anlount- sailed the leading brigades of both lines. The ed to nearly two hundred. British troops were therefore compelled to Owing to the refusal of the former ad- change their front, which, though one of the ministration to ratify the capitulation of El most difficult operations in war, was execuArish, negotiated between General Kleber ted with the greatest precision; and the rest and Sir Sidney Smith, the French still re- of the armny immediately followed their extained possession of Egypt. To remedy this ample. After a severe conflict, victory deunpardonable blunder a considerable force clared in favor of the English, though not had been dispatched from Great Britain, un- without considerable loss. der the conduct of an experienced and gal- The French commander-in-chief, Abdallah ant officer, Sir Ralph Abercromby. The Alenou, appears to have acted upon this British forces under Lord Keith and Gen- occasion with but little judgment. Instead eral Abercromby, after unexpected de- of bringing down nearly his whole force to lays on the coast of Asia Minor, arrived the coast, which would have enabled him off Alexandria on the 1st of March; greatly to outnumber, and consequently, in and the following day the fleet made all probability, to defeat the invaders, who sail for the bay of Aboukir, where it were less acquainted with the country than anchored. The sea continued to run high his own officers, he thought fit to hazard an 444 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. engagement on the 21st of March with only Colonel Spencer, aided by a body of Turks. half his force. The battlecommenced before The French garrison, amounting to eight daylight in the morning, by a false attack on hundred men, made but a feeble resistance, the left of the English under Major-General and retired to the right bank of the Nile, Craddock, in which the French were repulsed. leaving a few men killed and prisoners. But the most vigorous efforts of the enemy While such was the state of affairs in the were directed against the right of the English neighborhood of Alexandria, Admiral Blanarmy, which they endeavored by every pos- ket, with a considerable force froin the East sible means to turn. The attack on this point Indies, effected a landing at Suez. The ad. was begun with great impetuosity by the miral had been separated from the rest of his French infantry, sustained by a strong body squadron in the dangerous and difficult pasof cavalry, who charged in column. The sage of the Red Sea; but before the end of contest was unusually obstinate. The French April he was joined by a large reinforcement were twice repulsed, and their cavalry were under the command of General Baird, who repeatedly intermixed with the English infan- had with him Colonels Wellesley and Mulrtry. While this was passing on the right, the ray, and other officers of distinction. French attempted to penetrate the centre of As the capture of Grand Cairo, next to the British army with a column of infantry, that of Alexandria, was a great object with who were also repulsed and obliged to retreat. the allies, a force was detached early in May A corps of light troops, however, advanced, for its reduction. On the 9th General Hutch. supported by infantry and cavalry, to keep inson, with four thousand British and an in check the left of the English, which was equal number of Turks, attacked the French the weakest of the line; but all their efforts near Rhamanieh; and the latter being driver, were fruitless, and the British remained mas- in, retreated in the night towards Cairo, leav. ters of the field. The loss on their side was ing a small garrison at Rhamanieh, which on great, amounting in killed, wounded and the following day surrendered to the British. missing, to upwards of fifteen hundred. The The loss of the English on this occasion did loss of the French was calculated in the Eng- not exceed thirty men. About the same lish accounts at three thousand. One of the time a body of French and Copts, who had French generals, Roiz, was killed, and Gen- moved forward from Cairo to attack the erals Lanusse and Bodet died of their wounds. Turks, were defeated by the grand vizier, A French regiment which had been styled who was essentially assisted by Colonel Mur Invincible was destroyed in this battle, and ray and other British officers. The Frenc} its colors fell into the hands of a serjeant of are said to have lost fifty men, and the Turks the 42d regiment, called Sinclair, having, it about thirty in this action. The whole numis said, been picked up on the field by a ber of French engaged amounted to nearly Maltese, named Anthony Lutz. The victory five thousand, and the Turkish army to about of the 21st decided the fate of Egypt. In nine thousand. this battle, however, the British army suf- From various causes, it was the middle of fered a great calamity in the loss of its gen- June before the British army under General eral. Hutchinson reached the vicinity of Cairo, After the death of Sir Ralph Abercromby, where he found the works very much extendthe command devolved upon General Hutch- ed, though the garrison did not exceed five inson, who lost no time in proceeding towards thousand in number. The capitan pasha at Alexandria, where the principal force of the the same time invested Gizeh, a suburb of enemy was now concentrated. In the mean Cairo, on the left bank of the Nile, and the time the t.wn and castle of Rzosetta were grand vizier took aposition within cannon shot taken )y a livision of the British army under of the city. Thus invested on every side, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 445 the garrison, on the 22d, sent a flag of truce its motions. On the Continent his mcasures to the English general, offering to treat for were not less arbitrary. A considerable por the evacuation of Cairo upon certain condi- tion of Lombardy, with Mlilan as its capital, tions. After a negotiation of several days, which had been erected into what was called the surrender was finally agreed upon in a the Italian or Cisalpine Republic, and conconvention of twenty-one articles; the sub- tained some millions ofpeople, was now unistance of which was, that the French army ted to France, by the form of nominating at Cairo and its dependencies were to be con- Bonaparte to the office of president over it. veyed in the ships of the allied powers, and These transactions could scarcely fail to at theirexpense, together with theirbaggage, be noticed in Britain, and to become the armns, ammunition and other effects, to the subject of animadversion in the public newsnearest French ports in the Mediterranean; papers.. Even the personal character of the and of this convention General Menou was first consul was not spared; and it cannot be to be at liberty to avail himself. The port of denied that he was often libelled in the grossAlexandria was all that now remained in pos- est manner. Bonaparte appears to have session of the French; it was attacked by sea early become sensitive and irritated on this and land, and at length surrendered by capit- head. A great degree of irritation was thus ula tion on the 2d of September. produced in the French government against By the time when intelligence of this event England; and the first consul even went so reached England, the views of men had been far as not only to prohibit the importation turned to a new state of things. The adminis- of English newspapers into France but to tration had seriously entered into negotia- demand from the British government restrictions of peace, which were conducted by Lord tions upon the liberty of the press. I-awkesbury on the part of Great Britain, In the meanwhile some difficulties occurand M. Otto, who resided in London as agent red in the execution of the treaty of Amiens. for the French prisoners of war, and who The British ministry had avoided engaging was now intrusted on the part of the French in a quarrel with Bonaparte on account of with this important business. his continental usurpation, because they found By the preliminary articles, which were no power willing to join them in resisting signed at London on the 1st of October, by him; but his restless ambition induced him 3M. Otto on the part of the French Republic, to endeavor to lay hold of the island of Malta; and Lord Hawkesbury on the part of his and his impatient spirit prevented his conBritannic majesty, Great Britain agreed to the ducting the plan in such a manner as might restoration of all &her conquests, the island of have enabled him to avoid suspicion and iil Trinidad and the Dutch possessions of Ceylon sure success. That island was destined by excepted. the treaty to be intrusted to the order of St. To negotiate the definitive treaty of peace, John of Jerusalem. Without waiting till the Marquis Cornwallis went to Paris towards the British had abandoned it, Bonaparte inthe close of the year, and thence proceeded stantly set on foot negotiations with the difto Amiens, where the negotiations went on ferent countries to which the knights of the very slowly, and were not concluded till the order belonged, to procure the abolition of 27th of /March, 1802. the order, the confiscation of its revenues, During the dependence of the negotiation, and the prohibition of the future enrolment the first consul, Bonaparte, without waiting of knights, and their departure for Malta. till a definitive treaty of peace had been con- And having accomplished these objects, he eluded, sent a large army to St. Domingo, required the British government to deliver which obliged Britain to despatch a power- up the island to a grand master, appointed, ful fleet to the West Indies in order to watch at his instigation, by the pope; or to the King 446 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. of Naples, who was to receive possession, in and acknowledged as an independent state; the first instance, for behoof of the knights. that the territories of the Batavian republic Strictly speaking, there was thus no longer should be evactuated by the French forces any order of Malta to defend the island; and within one month after the conclusion of a as the King of Naples was at all times at the convention founded on the principles of this mercy of France, the evacuation of Malta by project; that the king of Etruria and the the British troops would, in the actual pos- Italian and Ligurian republics should be acture of affairs, have been equivalent to the knowledged by his majesty; that Switzerland transferring it to the latter power. The Bri- should be evactuated by the French forces; tish ministry had submitted to the late con- that a suitable territorial provision should be tinental acquisitions of France from want of assigned to the King of Sardinia in Italy; means to oppose them; but they resolved to and, in a secret article, that his majesty should oppose the seizure of this island, which may not be required by the French government be considered as the key of the Mediterranean, to evacuate the island of Malta until after because the superiority of the British fleet the expiration of ten years. The proposed enabled them successfully to do so. This de- stipulations relative to the king of Etruria, termination appears to have greatly perplex- the Italian and Ligurian republics, and the ed the vehement and irritable mind of the King of Sardinia, were merely inserted as first consul. At the drawing-room, where make-weights; and accordingly in an adhe was waited upon by the whole am- ditional article, it was provided that they bassadors of Europe, and by a numerous might be omitted, but that, if inserted at all assemblage of persons of high rank from they must be inserted together. all countries, he could scarcely observe This ultimatum having been rejected, war the ordinary forms of civility to the British was announced on the 16th of May, by a ambassador; and on one occasion he openly message from the lking to the two houses of insulted Lord Whitworth who then filled parliament; and on the 21st of May a declathat position. ration, justifying this measure, appeared in The negotiations in the mean time pro- the London Gazette. ceeded; and Bonaparte still insisted upon War having been declared on the 18th of the literal fulfillment of the treaty of Amiens. May, the French troops advanced from Hollie appears to have flattered himself that the land, and entered the electoral capital by the British ministry would not venture to renew 5th of June. To attempt resistance would the war on account of Malta. But encouraged have been folly; but in a season when soldiers by the support of the people the English ad- were so much wanted in England, and so ministration rose in their demands; and on great an expense was incurred in training the 12th of May, Lord Whitworth presented them, it was a matter of regret that the the ultimatum of the British government, iHanoverian troops, in number about fifteen' which was in substance that the French gov- thousand, should not have been marched ernment should engage to make no opposition down to the coast, and embarked in a body, in. to the cession of the island of Lampedosa to stead of being disbanded and obliged at his majesty by the king of the Two Sicilies; pledge themselves not to serve against that, in consequence of the present state of the France until exchanged. island of Lampedosa, his majesty should re- On the side of France the aspect of v ai main in possession of the island of Malta until was displayed in a great encampment at such arrangements should be made by him Boulogne, and in the dispatch from all the as might er:able him to occupy Lampedosa ports along the coast, of flotillas of boats to as a naval station, after which period the join the armament preparing in that central island sho-J d be given up to the inhabitants, rendezvous. These convoys had instructions HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 447 to tempt the English cruisers to attack them, naturally productive of the worst impressions and to draw them, at fit occasions, under the in regard to the English national honor both fire of land-batteries; and they were some- in Spain and her colonies, and led soon after. times successful in doing so. The main ob- wards to a declaration of war by that power. ject of Bonaparte was to excite alarm; a Bonaparte was now provided with addicourse which, however politic toward some tional means of threatening the distant poscountries, was certainly ill judged in regard sessions of Great Britain. A squadron of to one where the executive power, in its in- five sail of the line escaping from Rochefort, ability to coerce, often seeks support in the landed a body of nearly four thousand men apprehensions of the public. The general on the island of Dominica, and burned the impression of dread facilitated the measures chief town; the island of St. Kitt's escaped of defence, and led to the volunteer system, with paying a contribution and the loss of which was carried to an unparalleled extent. some merchantmen. But this was only a Such was the aspect of the war during prelude to the arrival of a much more fortwo years, in which the British naval superi- midable fleet, which, to the number of eighority led to an easy conquest of several of teen sail of the line, French and Spanish, the Dutch and French West India colonies. reached the West Indies in the end of May, St. Lucie surrendered on the 22d of June, and spread alarm throughout the islands; an 1803; Tobago, on the Ist of July; Deme- alarm not dispelled till the arrival of a force rara and Berbice, on the 23d of September; inferior by nearly one-third, but commanded and Cape Town, the last spot in the French by Lord Nelson. The hostile fleet soon after half of St. Domingo, occupied by French set out on its homeward voyage. Intellitroops, capitulated to the Blacks on the 30th gence to that effect was opportunely received of November. Next year was taken the by Lord Barham, then at the head of the adsmall island of Goree, on the coast of Africa, miralty; and a fleet, detached to cruise on and soon after the important Dutch colony their supposed track, had the good fortune of Surinam. On the other hand, England to fall in with them on the 22d July. An was not successful in her attempts on the action took place; two sail of the line, SpanFrench flotillas on their own shores. ish ships, were captured; night terminated The war hitherto had been with France the conflict; and though it might have been and ilfolland only; but a new power was now renewed on the succeeding days, an unfortuto be added to the list of antagonists. Spain nate indecision on the part of the English had been allowed by Bonaparte to avoid par- admiral,Sir Robert Calder, allowed the enemy ticipating in the contest, on condition of pay- to escape. They soon afterwards repaired to ing a large annual contribution; a condition Ferrol, whence they sailed with augmented so contrary to real neutrality, that for some force, and reached Cadiz. time past the government had kept a vigil- To watch them there, or to engage them ant eye on the expected arrival of her treas- on their coming out, was now an object of ure ships from America. A small squadron the highest moment; and it was to Lord Nelof four frigates, sent out to intercept these son that this important trust was committed. valuable si:pplies, met, on the 5th of October, Joining the English fleet off Cadiz on the 20th 1804, a Spanish squadron of a similar num- September, he avoided keeping in sight, and ber proceeding towards Cadiz; and the Span- even dispensed with the aid of six sail of the ish commodore refusing to surrender, an line, which he sent to a distance along the engagement ensued, attended with the cap- coast; judging that the enemy, when apture of three of the Spanish frigates, and the prised of their absence, would be induced to explosion of ti.e fourth, accompanied with come out, Accordingly, the combined fleet the loss of many lives Thisdecisive act, was left Cadiz on the 19th of October, to the 448 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. number of thirty-three sail of the line, eigh- fighting began at noon, became general in teen French and fifteen Spanish, commanded less than half an hour, and lasted' from two by Admiral Villeneuve, and early on the 21st to three hours; in the case of a few ships it came in sight of ~he British fleet, consisting continued longer, but all firing was over by of twenty-seven sail of the line, off Cape half-past four o'clock. The victory was comTrafalgar, aboid; half way between Cadiz plete, but purchased by the death of Nelson, and Gibraltar. The enemy, convinced that who was mortally wounded by a musket ball their former defeats at sea had been owing fired from the mizzen-top of the Redoutable, to the want of concentration and mutual sup- by one of the enemy's riflemen, and expired port, now formed a double line, every alter- just as the action closed. Nineteen sail of nate ship being about a cable's length to the line struck; but unfortunately gales of windward of her second ahead and astern, so wind, after the action, wrecked part of theirthat any of the English ships, attempting to prizes, and necessitated the destruction of penetrate, would be exposed to the fire of two o thers. Four sail, however, were preserved; or of three antagonists. Nelson, while yet dis- and four more, which had escaped, under tant, perceived their arrangement, and under- Rear-admiral Dumanoir, were met on their stood its object. It was new, but he was satis- northward course, on the 2d of November, fled thatno concentration in the open sea could and captured off Cape Ortegal, by a squadprevent his vessels from coming to close aec- ron under Sir Richard Strachan. tion with their opponents, in which case the The course of events on the continent; the result could not long be doubtful. iHe con- glorious campaigns of Ulm and Austerlitz sequently made no alteration in his previous have already found their place in the history plan, which was to make the order of sailing of FRANCE, and we pass them over here. the order of battle, the fleet being in two The proceedings which had been comlines, with an advanced squadron of eight of menced against Lord Melville by the comthe fastest sailing two-deckers; but directed missioners of naval inquiry, made a deep the fleet to advance to the attack in two impression on Mr. Pitt, and deprived him divisions, one of which, under Admiral Col- of his only efficient coadjutor, at a time when, lingwood, intersected that part of the enemy's from the magnitude of his public cares, he line which gave it nearly an equal number was more than ever in want of support. The of ships to encounter; whilst Nelson, with consequent fatigue and anxiety made severe the other division, acted on a similar plan. inroads on a constitution naturally not strong. Such was the only general manceuvre in this His indisposition became apparent in the great action. By their superior seamanship, early part of winter, and, on the meeting of and their ships keeping near each other, they parliament, it was understood to have reachhad in some cases a local superiority; but the ed a dangerous height. His death took general character of the fight was a conflict place on the 23d January, 1806. A motion, of ship to ship; and its decision in their favor brought forward a few days after, to grant a was owing to that skill in working the guns, public funeral, and to erect a monument to to that dexterity in an occasional change of the late excellent minister, excited much position, and that confidence of success which discussion. Mr. Fox paid a high tribute to characterizes a naval force in a high state of the financial merits of his great rival, which, discipline. Their loss, amounting to sixteen in fact, were extremely questionable; but he hundred men, was in part caused by the rifle- could not join in ascribing the epithet of men in the enemy's rigging: an ungenerous "excellent" to measures which he had so mode of warfare, which may deprive an op- often opp )sed. lMr. Windham also opposed posing force of officers, but can have little the vote, and the Grenvilles chose to'be abeffect on the general issue of a conflict. The sent. Still the motion was carrietd by two T~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~W a II-..... ~'~/~!lllf~~~~~~~~~l///////llll II/'//t' ~~ ~ ~~,~............~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.........'"".."'.....'.' X' X W' "" N Xr.- - X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... --- -------- HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 449 hundred and fifty — eight against a hundred fairs; Lord Castlereagh for the war, and Lord and sixty-nine. To a subsequent proposition Liverpool for the home department. for a grant of ~40,000 for the payment of The alteration of fortune by sea and 1 and Mr. Pitt's debt, no opposition was made. was so great, that 1806 had hardly commencThe public attention was now fixed on the ed when fresh successes were obtained over approaching change of ministry. The king, the French navy. A division of the Brest in concurrence, it is said, with the death-bed squadron, after landing troops in the Spanish recommendation of MIr. Pitt, sent for Lord part of St. Domingo, was overtaken by a suGrenville, desired him to form a ministry, perior force, and three sail of the line capand made no opposition to the admission of tured and two burned. Admiral Linois, lMr. Fox into the cabinet; but he is said to returning from India, was captured in the have expressed a desire that the Duke of York Marengo of eighty guns; and, at a subsequent should retain the office of commander-in-chief date, of a squadron of frigates detached from The new administration was formed on a Rochefort for the West Indies, four fell into broad basis, comprising the friends of Lord the hands of the English. Grenville, those of Mr. Fox and those of Lord It was under these circumstances that a Sidrnouth. negotiation for peace was for some months The trial of Lord Melville before the House carried on at Paris. It began in consequence of Peers began on the 29th of April, 1806. of an overture from Talleyrand, eagerly emThe charges against him, little understood by braced by Mr. Fox; and Lord Yarmouth, the public at large, related to an infraction who happened to be under detention in of his official duty, not as a member of the France, was made the first medium of comcabinet, but in his early and inferior station munication and conference. In its more ad. of treasurer of the navy. The trial closed vanced stage, the negotiation was intrusted on the 12th of June. The articles of im- to Lord Lauderdale; and at one period:, peachmernt had been extended to the num- namely, in September, the conciliatory t own ber of ten, and on all of them there was a ofthe French inspired a hope of peace; a hopQ majority of peers for his acquittal. soon disappointed, when it was found t t The bill for the abolition of the slave-trade the offers of Bonaparte were followed bt~ th was now brought forward with all the weight demand of Sicily. of government support, and carried by tri- The humiliation of Austria left- PmapartQ umphant majorities; in the Lords by a hund- at liberty to direct his manceuvres, both d-ip red to thirty-six, in the Commons by two lomatic and military, against her northern hundred and eighty-three to sixteen. This rival. prompt termination of a struggle of twenty The discussions between Frane and Prusyears showed how easily the measure might sia continued during the summer of 1806, have been carried had not Mr. Pitt de- and from the blind confidence of one party, clined to give it ministerial support; a and the artifice of the other, assumed at course suggested to him probably by a last a serious aspect. War was declared; the dread of offending the West India planters. battle of Jena deprived Prussia of her army, This proved the last important bill of the her capital, and her fortresses; and her court Grenville ministry, whose removal from office was fugitive in the north of Poland, ere there took place very unexpectedly, in consequence had been time to send, or even to concert of a difference with the sovereign about the the sending of succors from England. TB: Irish Catholics. Grenville ministry, less eager than their pe Of the new mninistry, the efficient members decessors to embark in continental war, eonru were, Mr. Perceval, chancellor of the exche- fined themselves to sending a general officer, quer; Mfr. Canning, minister for foreign af- Lord EIltchinson, to the Russian headquarar. — 2 450 N HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ters, and to the grant of a limited subsidy. days with very great effect. A capitulation For some time the difficulties of the country, now took place; the citadel, dock>-yards and and the firm resistance of the Russians, par- batteries were put into their hands, and no ticularly at Eylau, enrouraged the hope of time was lost in fitting out the Danish men arresting the progress of Bonaparte; but this of war for sea. All stores, timber and other hope was disappointed by the battle of Fried- articles of naval equipment, belonging to govh.and, aud still more by the approximation of ernment, were taken out of the arsenals, emthe court of Russia to that of France. barked and conveyed to England. The treaty of Tilsit excited alarm, less from The Cape of Good Hope surrendered in its specific provisions, than from the probable January, 1806, to an armament sent from consequences of the co-operation of the con- England. After this, Sir Home Popham, tracting powers. Among these, some persons who commanded the naval part. of the expereckoned, or pretended to reckon, the equip- dition ventured to make, without the sanction ing of the Danish navy, a force of sixteen sail or even knowledge. of the government, an of the line, not manned or ready for the sea, attempt on Buenos Ayres. The troops, albut capable of being fitted out without a great though under two thousand in number, effectsacrifice. The mJc;Mtry of 1807 founded ed a landing, and occupied the town. Intelli. their claim to public favor on a system of gence to this effect having reached England, vigor, on a course altogether opposite to the popular notion that Buenos Ayres would the cautious calculations of their predeces- prove a great market for her manufactures, sors. No sooner were they apprised of the induced the government to take measures fir treaty of Tilsit, than, without waiting for its completing the new conquest. And though effect on the Danish government, they de- the inhabitants soon rose and drove out the terrmined on the as yet unexampled measure feeble detachment under Sir Home Popham., of taking forcible possession of a neutral an armament, which arrived in January, 807 fleet. A powerful armament of twenty thou- under command of Sir Samuel Auchmuty, sand troops and twenty-seven sail of the line, attacked the strongly fortified town of Monte -prepared ostensibly against Flushing and Video, and carried it by assault, which was Antwerp, was directed to proceed to the conducted with great skill and gallantry. Sound, there to await the result of a negoti- But a very different fate awaited their next ation opened at Copenhagen. This negoti- enterprise, an attack on Buenos Ayres, plan. ation was intrusted to a special envoy, who ned by General Whitelocke, an officer wholly represented the danger to Denmark from unfit for this or any other kind of service. France and Russia, and demanded the deliv- The troops, eight thousand in number, were, ery of the Danish fleet to England, under a under every disadvantage, successful in some solemn stipulation of its being restored on parts; but failing in others, the result was a the termination of their war with France. negotiation, and a convention that Britain The Danes, justly offended at this proposal, should withdraw altogether from the country, and aware that their agreeing to it would on the condition of her prisoners being reexpose them to the loss of the continental stored. part of their territory, refused; the envoy re- But in another part of the world, and turned on board the English fleet; the army against an enemy in general far more formid. was landed, and Copenhagen invested by land able, her arms had been attended with sucand sea, while a part of the fleet cut off all cess. Naples had been engaged in the coal.,communication between the continent and the ition of 1805, with a view to assail the French Island on which it stands. After a fortnight on the side of Lombardy; but an Anglo-Rus. passed in preparations, a heavy fire was sian army, landed for that purpose, had been opened on the city, and continued during two prevented from marching northward by th~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 451 disastrous intelligence from Germany. They they approached within a short distance of were subsequently re-embarked, the British their second line, they halted, fronted and withdrawing to Sicily, and Palermo becom- opened a fire of musketry on our line, which ing once more the refuge of the Neapolitan did not follow up the charge to any distance, court. The court, eager to excite insurrec- but halted to allow the men to draw breath, tion against the French in Calabria, prevailed and' to close up any breaks in their formaon General Sir John Stuart, in the beginning tion. They were soon ready, however, to adof July, 1806, to lead thither a detachment vance again; and the order to charge having of troops. They landed, and soon after re- once more been given, the brave troops rushceived intelligence, that at Maida, distant ed forward to the onset, the enemy, as before, only ten miles from the English encamp- making a show of determination to remain inent, was a French corps, already equal to firm. But their courage again failed them; the English, and hourly expecting consider- they would not stand the shock; and giving able reinforcements. The troops marched to way in greater confusion than before, their attack them on the morning of the 4th July, first line was thrown upon the second, and and at nine o'clock drew near to their posi- both became intermingled in great disorder. tion, which had a river in front. But Gen- Seeing himself thus completely foiled in his eral Regnier, who commanded the French, attack on the front, and being driven back having received his reinforcements the pre- more than a mile, Regnier now made an atceding evening, and seeing that the small tempt to turn the left flank; but this was British army was unprovided with cavalry, defeated by the British second line, which, caused his men to march out of their camp, refusing its left, opened an admirably directand advance to charge them on the plain. ed and destructive fire, which quickly drove The French marched towards them with back the enemy with great loss. Their great confidence, not expecting them to stand efforts were equally unsuccessful against the the charge. The British line, however,formed, right of the British line, which also charged in faced the enemy and advanced; the forward the most gallant and decisive manner, and movement of the opposing ines lessening the field of battle remained entirely in posthe intervening distance in a double ratio. session of the English. The French loss in On a nearer approach the enemy opened their killed and wounded was upwards of two field-pieces, but, contrary to the usual prac- thousand; the English only between three tice of the French artillery, with little effect. hundred and four hundred. This brilliant Not so the British; for when their artillery exploit produced the evacuation of part of opened, every shot told, and carried off a file Calabria by the French, but had no other of the enemy's line. The lines were'now result. fast closing, being within three hundred yards The next operation in the Mediterranean distance, and a fire having commenced by was an unsuccessful menace of the Turkish the sharpshooters on the right. At this mo- capital. The court refusing to enter into the ment the enemy seemed to hesitate, halted plans of hostility to France, the English amand fired a volley. The British line also bassadorwithdrew, andre-entered the Straits halted, returned the salute, and having thrown of the Dardanelles with a squadron of seven in a second volley, advanced at full charge. sail of the line, exclusive of frigates and The enemy, apparently resolved to stand the bombs..They suffered considerably in pass. shock, kept perfectly steady, till, intimidated ing the narrow part of the straits, between by the advance, equally rapid and firm, of an the ancient Sestos and Abydos, now called enemy whoT 1 they had been taught to de- the castles of Romonia and Natolia. Aun spise, their hearts failed, and they faced choriilgat a distance of eiglht miles from Con about andl fled, but not in confusion. When stantinople, the admiral, Sir J. Duckwvortl HISTORY OF THE WORLD. threatened to burn the seraglio and the city, on projects which would necessarily involve but in vain. The Turks continued adverse the sacrifice of the British troops. On this to the demands, and employed the interval, he lost no time in returning to Gott enburg, wasted by the British commander in useless and soon afterwards brought back the armanegotiations, in strengthening the formidable ment to England, to be employed on a more batteries of the Dardanelles. It soon became promising service. indispensable therefore to withdraw, and to The influence possessed by Bonaparte over repass the straits; but this was not accom- Spain had long inspired him with the hope plished without a considerable loss in killed of overawing Portugal, and of obliging that and wcunded, the cannon at the castles being country to dissolve her alliance with England. of great size, and discharging granite balls, To this hope the humiliation of Germany, one of which,weighing eight hundred pounds, and his new alliance with Russia, gave doucut in two the mainmast of the Windsor man ble strength; and, in the latter part of 1807, of war. A descent made soon after in Egypt the most peremptory demands were made on was equally unfortunate. A detachment of the court of Lisbon. To part of these, imtroops landing at Alexandria, occupied that plying the exclusion of British merchantmen town, but suffered a severe loss at Rosetta, from the harbors of Portugal, compliance was and eventually withdrew, on the Turks corn- promised; but the demand of confiscating senting to give up the prisoners they had taken. English property, and detaining the English Peace was soon after concluded with the resident in Portugal, was met by a decided Turks, and the operations in the Levant were refusal. A French army now marched toconfined to the capture of the Ionian Islands wards Lisbon, and threatened openly to overfrom the French. Zante, Cephalonia, Ithaca throw the house of Braganza; but the latter, and Cerigo, were taken by a small expedition after some momentary indications of indecisin 1809, and Santa Ml/aura the succeeding ion, took the determination of abandoning year. their European dominions, and proceeding to On the side of Sicily, the English com- Brazil. This spirited, and by many unexmanders, though pressed by the court of Pa- pected measure, was carried into effect in lermo, refused to make descents on Calabria, the end of November, and Lisbon was forth%which could lead to nothing but partial insur — with occupied by French troops. A few rections, followed, on the return of a superior months afterwards occurred the transactions force, by the death of the most zealous of at Bayonne, and the general declaration of their partisans. They took, however, in hostility by the Spaniards to Bonaparte. The June, 1809, the small islands of Ischia and English cabinet now determined to postpone Procida, near the coast of Naples; and, in the all other projects to that of a vigorous effort autumn of 1810, repelled an attempt of Mu- in Spain and Portugal. With that view, an rat to invade Sicily. A body of nearly four armament of ten thousand men, collected at! thousand Italians, who had landed on this Cork, and said to be intended for Spanish i ccasion, were driven back with loss. America, sailed in July for the Peninsula, The hostility of Russia consequent on her and offered its co-operation to the Spaniards Connection with France produced a menaced in Galicia. They, however, thought it best unvasion of Sweden, now the only ally in the that England should confine her aid to Spain iorth. To aid in repelling it, Sir John Moore to arms and money, directing her military was sent to Gottenberg with a body of ten force against the French army in Portugal. thousand men. This force did not land; but Accordingly, the troops, after passing an inthe general, repairing to Stockholm, entered terval at Oporto, were I tnded to the southnto communications with the king, and had ward, in Mondego Bay, where, after receivthe mortification of finding that prince bent ing the co-operation of another division of j HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 45i British, and a few Portuguese, they proceed- confidential military adviser. The public, ed on their southward march towards Lisbon. however, called for inquiry; the ministers The first actions took place with French felt the necessity of acceding; the three gen. detachments at the small town of Obidos, and erals were ordered home from Portugal; and, at Rorica. Neither was of much import- after along investigation and divided opin ance; the French, inferior in number, re- ions, the chief error was found to consist in treated; but their commander at Lisbon, was stopping General Ferguson in the career of Junot, an officer trained in the school of victory, when about to cut off the enemy's revolutionary enterprise. lie determined retreat to Lisbon, and in the loss of the twenforthwith on assuming offensive opera- ty-four hours which followed the battle of tions, advanced from Lisbon, and reach- Vimeiro. ing the British army on the 21st of Au- Meantime the command of the troops in gust, 1808, attacked it in its position at Portugal was vested in Sir John Moore, and the small town of Vimeiro. The force on arrangements were made for moving them either side was about fourteen thousand men. forward into Spain. But from the badness The principal column of the enemy, headed of the roads, it was necessary to advance in by General Laborde, and preceded by a mul- two divisions, one marching due. east, and titude of light troops, mounted the face of another northeast; while a further force, the hill forming the crest of the British posi- which had arrived from England at Corunna, tion, and crowned the summit; but, shattered was' nstructed to hold a southeast course. The by a terrible fire of the artillery, breathless lateral divisions received, in their progress, from their exertions, and riddled by a dis- orders to adapt the direction of their march charge of musketry from the fifteenth regi- to existing circumstances; but the result was, nient at half pistol-shot distance, they were that both converged towards the central divigorotsly charged in front and flank, and vision, conducted by Sir John Moore in peroverthrown. Equal success attended the son. British in other parts of the line, and the loss Sir John Moore reached Salamanca on the of the enemy was three thousand men and 13th of November, aware that the Spaniards thirteen pieces of cannon. The object now had been defeated at Burgos, and soon after ought to have been to follow up this success, apprised that a French corps was advancing before the French had time to recover them- to Valladolid, within sixty miles of his front. selves, and fortify the almost impenetrable In this situation he received from Madrid the mountains on the road to Lisbon. In vain most urgent solicitations to advance thither did Sir Arthur Wellesley urge this, first on with his army, either in whole or in part. Sir Harry Burrard, who had now taken the He knew the ardor of his country for the command, and next day on Sir Hew Dal- cause of Spain, and directed his movements rymple, who arrived and replaced him. A in the view of complying, as far as should be precious interval was thus lost. The French at all advisable, with the representations occupied the passes, opened their negotiation pressed on him; but day after day the intelin a tone of confidence, and obtained, by the ligence became more discouraging. At last, treaty called the Convention of Cintra, a free the fall of Madrid, ascertained by an interreturn to France on board of British shipping. cepted letter of General Berthier, removed The ministry, though disappointed, deter- every doubt, and left him no other plan but mined to defend this convention; judging it that of uniting his three divisions, and leterindispensable, partly from the communica- mining on a retreat; but, as his army was tions of Sir HIew Dalrymple, more from its now augmented to twenty-five thousand men, bearing the unqualified signature of Sir Ar- he determined, if possible, to strike a blow thur Wellesley, who was, even then, their against the detached French army undo; F 54 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Soult, stationed at some distance to the north- the 17th, and completed on the 18th, after east. With this view, he advanced on the 11th which the whole set sail for England. December towards the small town of Saha- The failure in the campaign of 1808-9 was gun, and a partial action which took place be- far from discouraging the government from tween the opposite vanguards, was to his new efforts. Austria was preparing to at. advantage; but intelligence arriving that tack the allies of Bonaparte in Germany; Bonaparte was directing, by the passes of and the Spaniards, though repeatedly beaten the Guadarama, a superior force on a point in close action, continued a destructive warin rear of the British, it became indispensa- fare in the shape of insulated insurrections. ble to make a prompt and uninterrupted Sir Arthur Wellesley was accordingly sent retreat. with a fresh army to Lisbon, and General Meanwhile, Soult, marching by a different Beresford with a commission to discipline the road, hoped to cross the British line of re- Portuguese forces. They found the French treat at Astorga; and the Spaniards having threatening Lisbon in two directions; from abandoned the position which covered the the east, with a powerful force under Victor; access to that town, it required both prompt, from the north, with a less numerous body and skillful exertion to enable the English under Soult. Sir Arthur Wellesley advanced army to occupy it before the enemy. The against the latter, drew near his rear guard on weather was severe, provisions scanty, the in- the banks of the Douro, drove it over that river, habitants cold and unfriendly; while priva- and crossing immediately after, forced Soult tions and disappointment relaxed the discip- to a precipitate retreat from Oporto. Returnline of the soldiers, who called loudly to be ing to the southward, he obliged the force unled to action, as the close of their distress. der Victor to draw back; and having, someRetreat, however, was unavoidable; and, in time after, effected a junction with a Spanish this state of suffering and insubordination, army, he took the bold determination of the army performed a march of more than moving forward in the direction of Madrid two hundred miles; the general keeping in by the valley of the Tagus. The French now the rear to check the French, who followed sent reinforcements to the army of Victor, with their usual audacity. On the 13th, 14th and the opposing forces met at Talavera de and 15th, the sick and artillery were em- la Reyna, a town to the north of the Tagus, barked on board the English men of war; near the small river Alberche. The British while the troops remained on shore, to await force was nineteen thousand, and that of the the enemy, and to cover the reproach of re- Spaniards above thirty thousand; the French treat by some shining exploit. This led to the army amounted to upwards of forty-seven battle of Corunna. On that day the position thousand men. Lord Wellington was too was good on the left, but very much other- distrustful of the discipline of his allies wise on the right; thither, accordingly, the to venture an attack on the French, but lihe French'pointed their strongest column, and saw no imprudence in trying, as at Vimeiro, thither also, Sir John Mloore repaired in per- the chance of a defensive action. Stationing son. iHe directed the necessary movements, the Spaniards on strong ground on the right, first to obstruct, and afterwards to charge, he occupied with the British a less strong the advancing enemy. These orders' were but yet favorable position on the left. Against gallantly executed, and the attack of the the army thus posted the French advanced in French repelled; but the English general re- the afternoon of July 27th, driving in the Engceived a wound, which soon after proved lishadvancedpost, and attacking an eminence mortal, from a cannon ball that struck him on their left. This eminence, the key of the in the shoulder, and knrcked him off his position, would have been assailed from the gorse. The embarkatio was continued on beginning by Bonaparte, with a formidable HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 455 column; but the rifle corps and a single bat- time the ally of France, to take lrp arms; talion sent against it by Victor were speedily but Austria was unrestrained, and thought driven back. A second attack, made in the the season favorable for the renewal of the evening by three regiments of infantry, was contest. Her troops took the field in April, at first successful, but it was soon repelled by and invaded Bavaria under the Archduke a fresh division of British troops. The main Charles, but were worsted at Eckmuhl, after body of the French, surprised at this failure, a series of the most splendid military combinawaited impatiently for morning to renew the tions, and Vienna was a second time entered attack; they advanced, marched through a de- by Bonaparte. His impatience to attack the structive fire to the top of the rising ground, Austrian army on the north side of the approached the British cannon, and were on Danube led to his failure in the sanguinary the point of seizing them, when the line battle of Aspern, and necessitated the advance rushed forward with bayonet, and drove them of almost all his regular troops into the heart oack with great loss. Their commanders of Germany, at a distance of several hundred tow determined to suspend all attacks on the miles from the coast. But the battle of right of the position, and to bring a mass of Wagram at length decided the fate of the force against the front and flank of the campaign, and placed Austria again at the British left. A general attack took place at feet of France. four in the afternoon, and the troops directed Of the naval stations exposed in conseagainst the heights now consisted of three quence of the withdrawal of the troops, by divisions of infantry, or about eighteen thou- far the most important was Antwerp, situ~ sand men. Crossing the ravine in their front, ated on a part of the Scheldt of as great a the first division scaled the height amidst depth and as accessible to ships of the line volleys of grape-shot; but its general fell, a as the Thames at Woolwich. From Ant. number of officers shared his fate, and retreat werp to the mouth of the Scheldt is a disbecame unavoidable. No attempt was now tance of about fifty miles. The first fortified made to carry the eminence in front; attacks town, on coming in from the sea, is Flushing, were now made on left and right, but were, the batteries of which, though formidable, ineffectual, This battle, which was one of are not capable of preventing the passage of hard, honest fighting, reflected little credit ships of war through a strait of three miles or the generalship of either party. The loss in width.. The English armament, consisted on both sides was unusually severe. of nearly forty sail of the line and thirtyNotwithstanding this dear-bought success, eight thousand military. It crossed the narit became necessary for the allied army to row sea with a fair wind; and, in the mornretire; the French divisions in the north- ing of the 30th of July, the inhabitants of west of Spain having united and begun to the tranquil coast of Zealand were astonished march in a direction which would soon have by an unparalleled display of men of war and brought them on its rear. The English army transports. The troops landed and forthcrossed the Tagus at Arzobispo, and held a with occupied Walcheren and the islands to south-west course till it reached Badajos, the north. No resistance was offered except where it remained during the rest of the year, at Flushing; but the commander, the Ear, in a position which covered that fortress. of Chatham, showed himself wholly incapDoubtful as was the aspect of the great able of discriminating the causes of success contest in Spain, it employed a large portion or failure when he stopped to besiege that of Bonaparte's military establishment, and, place. It ought only to have been watched, revived the hope of independence in Ger- whilst the main body of the troops should many. Prussia was too recently humbled, have landed in Dutch Flanders, on the south and too closely connected with Russia, at that of the Schelclt, and march straight to AnS 456 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. werp, which, even with artillery, might have petuous, marched up the mountain; one di been reached in a few days. The French, vision reached the top of the ridge, where never doubting the adoption of this plan, they were immediately attacked by a corps and conscious of their weakness, had moved of British and Portuguese, and driven from their men of war up the river, beyond the the ground. In other parts the same result town, previous to setting them on fire. But took place before the French reached the top. a delay of a fortnight took place before Flush- The loss on the English side was a thousar 1 ing, and time was thus given to the enemy men, that of the enemy between two and three to strengthen the forts on the river, and to thousand. Massena desisted from further atcollect whatever force the country afforded.: tacks; but turning the flank of the English Still, as an attack by water was not indispens- position by a mountain, Lord Wellington, able to success, there yet remained a chance; instead of heading the enemy's columns ten days more, however, were lost; the re- as they debouched from. the defile, retreated linquishment of the main object of the expe- in the direction of Lisbon, till he reached the dition became thus unavoidable; and the only ground which he had previously determined further measure was to leave a body of fifteen to occupy at Torres Verdas, in order to cover thousand men in the island of Walcheren. that capital. There, accordingly, they remained during The tract of country to the north of Lisbon several months, suffering greatly from an un- is not above twelve miles in breadth, having healthy atmosphere, and doing nothing ex- the sea on the west and the Tagus on the cept destroying, on their departure, the dock- east; the ground is extremely mountainous, yards of Flushing. and accessible only by passes, which were ~We turn from the banks of the Scheldt to occupied by their troops and batteries. Masa scene more honorable to ]British arms. The sena felt all the strength of this position, and troops under Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards the repulse at ZBusaco made him beware Lord Wellington, had passed the winter in the of a second encounter on disadvantageous interior of Portugal, moving northward as ground. The armies remained opposite to spring advanced, but delaying active opera- each other above four months, during which tions. Bonaparte's determination now was time thle French were greatly straitened for to make Massena penetrate into Portugal, provisions and forage, being obliged to get and not to expel those auxiliaries who were convoys of biscuit under escort from France, the mainspring of the obstinate resistance whilst the command of the sea secured abundexperienced by him in Spain. The first ance to the British. Still Massena presisted enterprise of the French army was the siege in keeping his position, hoping to combine of the frontier fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo, his operations with the army of Soult, then which surrendered on the 10th of July. The advancing from the south-east of Spain; an next object of attack was the Portuguese army which was but too fortunate, having fortress of Almeida, which was invested in attacked and taken by surprise a Spanish the end of July, and taken unfortunately too camp on the banks of the Guadiana. A numsoon, in consequence of the explosion of the ber of boats had been constructed by Masmagazine. Soon after, the French army, sena to cross the Tagus and co-operate with now a formidable body, advanced into Por- Soult; but in the beginning of March inteltugal, Lord Wellington retiring before them, ligence arrived that a convoy of biscuits long but determined to embrace. the first oppor- expected from France had been intercepted tunity of fighting on favorable ground. This by the Guerillas. There was now an end to occurred when occupying the highest ridge all offensive projects, and there remained of tnhe mountain of Busaco, directly in only the alternative of retreat. It began on bee of the enemy The French, always irn- the 5th of March; the British followed; and HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 457 the movements of either army, during a very of the hill there took place a similar conflict long march, afforded an admirable exempli- with a similar issue; both sides fought with fication of the rules of war. The English courage, and both sustained a heavy loss; advance was so rapid that the French were that of the British was above twelve hundred, frequently obliged to move hastily from one and that of the enemy nearly double. position to another; but they kept their best About the same time, but at a distance of troops in the rear, collected in solid bjodies, two hundred miles to the north of Cadiz, the and afforded no opening to their enemy. important fortress of Badajos fell into the The retreat lasted a month, and closed near hands of the French. This painful intelthe fortress of Almeida, on the frontier of ligence reached Lord Wellington when folSpain. The French, however, were soon again lowing up the retreat of Massena; and no in a condition to act, and advarced to relieve time was lost in detaching a body of troops Almeida, of which the siege was now begun. to the south of Portugal, to enable MarThe chief fighting took place on the 3d and shal Beresford to advance and form -the 5th of May, near a village called Fuentes de siege of Badajos. This called from the HIonor, which was repeatedly taken and re- south the army of Soult, twenty-three thioutaken; but all their efforts were ultimately sand strong. On their approach Marshal ineffectual, and Almeida was left to its fate. Beresford raised the siege of Badajos, and The chief part of the garrison, however, prepared to meet the enemy with a force hufound means to escape by a nocturnal march. merically superior, but of which only seven Meanwhile the south or rather the south-west thousand consisted of British troops. Soult of Spain was the scene of very active opera- quitted Seville on the 10th of May, 1811, tions. A body of Spaniards and British, but lBeresford remained in a state of un marching northward from Gibraltar, ap- certainty till the 12th, when he commenced proached the south-western extremity of the raising the siege. On the 13th he held a line occupied by the French troops engaged conference with the Spanish at Valverde, in the blockade of Cadiz. General Graham where it was agreed to receive battle at commanded the British, and on the 5th of the village of Albuera. The conflict, one 3March, at noon, was drawing near to the of the most important of the war conclose of a long march, when he received in- tinued for several hours, and resulted in telligence of the advance of a French force. the defeat of the French. It was one Knowing the height of Barrosa, which he had of the bloodiest battles in English Hisjust left, to be the key of the position, he im- tory. When all was over of six thousand mediately countermarched his corps, and had British troops fifteen hundred stood unproceeded but a short way when he found him- wounded upon the heights which they had self unexpectedly near to the enemy, whose held against the attacks of Soult. left division was seen ascending the hill of Lord Wellington reached the army someBarrosa, while the right stood on the plain time after the battle of Albuera, and deterwithin cannon-shot. To retreat was wholly mined to renew the siege of Badajos. Breaunadvisable; an immediate attack was ches were made in the walls and two attempts therefore determined on by General Grahamj at assault were hazarded (6th and 9th June), though unsupported by the Spaniards, and but in vain; the advance of the French army inferior to the enemy. A battery opened from the north, in concert with that of the against the right division of the French south, necessitated the raising of the siege. caused them considerable loss, but they con- IHere ended the active operations of the tinned to advance until a charge with the year. The army remained some time en. bayonet drove them back with great slaugh- camped in the central part of Portugal, after Ler. WBth the other division on the ascent | which Lord Wellington marched northward 458 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. and threatened Ciudad Rodrigo, but retreat- men. Secure on the south, Lord Wellington ed before a superior force collected by the now marched towards the north, and detached French. Sir Rowland Hill to make a sudden attack The session of 1810-11, opened in Nov- on the French station at Almaraz, where the ember, 1810, more early than was intended, bridge over the Tagus served as the chief in consequence of the mental indisposition military communication between the northof the king. Repeated adjournments, how- ern and southern army. The expedition was ever, took place in the vain hope of a recov- successful, the entrenchments being stormed ery, and it was not till the 20th of December and destroyed. Lord Wellington now marchthat resolutions for a regency were moved in ed against the French army in the north, both houses. They formed the chief subject commanded by Marmont, and reached Salaof discussion during the ensuing month. manca on the 16th of June. The forts in Their principal characteristics consisted in that town being taken after some sharp the restrictions imposed on the prince for the fighting, the French retreated to the Douro; succeeding year, during which he was not but being soon reinforced, resumed the offenpermitted to confer the rank of peer, to grant sive, and obliged the English army to retreat an office in reversion, or even a place or pen- in its turn. These movements continued sion, except during the king's pleasure; several weeks, Lord Wellington being obwhilst the management of the royal house- liged to yield ground to his opponent, but hold was vested in the queen. Resolutions ready to attack him on the commission of so obnoxious to the prince called forth a any material fault. Such an opportunity at strong opposition; and a motion that the last occurred on the 22d of July, near Salaroyal power should be conferred on him manca, when the French, rendered confident without restriction was supported by two by their enemy's continued retreat, extended hundred against two hundred and twenty- their left, and presented an opening, which four. was instantly seized by their vigilant adverThe campaign of 1812 commenced very sary. Columns were sent forward against early, Lord Wellington invested Ciudad Rod- the enemy's left and centre; the former suerigo on the 8th of January. The siege was ceeded completely, the latter met with much pressed with activity, and a breach being opposition. Great gallantry was shown, and made, the town was carried by storm on the heavy loss sustained on both sides. At last 19th of January, though with a great loss, the French centre and right were both driven particularly in officers, among whom was from the field. The darkness prevented General Mackinnon. Soon afterwards Lord making prisoners, but a body of cavalry joinWellington turned his forces to the south, ing in the night, the hostile rear-guard was and invested Badajos, already the scene of attacked next morning, and obliged to sursuch obstinate contests. Here, also, the op- render. erations were pressed with great rapidity, The consequences of the victory of Salathrt they might be brought to an issue before manca were the pursuit of the French army; t.he arrival of tile French army from Cadiz. the occupation of Madrid on the 12th of On the night of the 6th of April, IBadajos August by the allies; the abandonment by was attacked on several points by escalade; the French of the works constructed at vast but the attack was repulsed in every direc- expense against Cadiz; the evacuation of tiorn except at the castle, which was fortu- Andalusia, Grenada and all the south of nately carried; and as it commanded all the Spain. But as this loss of territory was not woi ks, the consequence was the surrender of attended by a loss of troops, it became inthe town next day, after a siege which, short curnbent on Lord Wellington to prepare as it had been, cost very nearly five thousand against a vigorous attack from forces that HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 459 were rapidly concentrating. He made re- check of importance received by that compeated attempts to take the castle of Burgos. mander in all his campaigns in Spain. Soo~ and the military stores collected there; but after this success, the army was engaged in this fort, defended by a strong garrison and the bold plan of proceeding by sea to Cata a vigilant commander, General Dubreton, lonia, and besieging Tarragona. The wind baffled all his efforts, and proved the cause proved favorable; the main body was landed of a considerable sacrifice of lives. Mean- near Tarragona; and a detachment succeeded time the approach of Soult from the south, by great exertion, in taking Fort St. Philip and of the army that had fought at Salaman- on the mountain called the Col de Balaguer, ca from the east, obliged Lord Wellington which blockaded the nearest road for the arto adopt the alternative of retreat. He be- rival of the French from the South. Suchet gan his march on the 20th of October, and however, lost no time in marching northward, proceeded westward, in a line nearly parallel and Sir John Murray, considered his force, to the Douro, taking above three weeks to which was chiefly Spanish, as unable to withrecross the country to the scene of his vic- stand the French. He therefore embarked tory at Salamanca. There, united with Gen- and returned to Alicant, a measure which eral Iill, and at the head of fifty thousand incurred censure, but appears fully justified men, he remained on ground lately so pro- by circumstances, and still more by the conpitious, hoping that an opportunity might duct of his successors in the command. offer to attack the enemy, though now in- Suchet, though successful on this occasion creased, by the junction of their two armies, soon found himself unable to retain his exto the number of seventy thousand. But tensive line of occupation. The battle of Soult's positions were found too strong for Vittoria brought a new enemy on his rear attack, and the interval afforded him by and obliged him to withdraw first from ValLord Wellington was diligently employed in encia, and subsequently as far as Barcelona. pushing forward detachments to cut off com- The English army now advanced by land, munications with Portugal. Retreat now and resumed the siege of Tarragona, with became indispensable; and here, amidst the power of retreating, not as before, by sea hasty marches, and a scarcity of five days, but on the country behind; an alternative to there occurred scenes of insubordination which a second advance by Suchet soon coznwhich recalled all the disorders of the march pelled the new commander, Lord William to Corunna, and drew from Lord Wellington Bentick. The French, however, unable to a most severe censure in general orders. For- occupy an extended position, blew up the tunately, similar privations on the side of works of Tarragona and retired. The Engthe French prevented them from making lish army advanced anew, but was again many prisoners, and, on the 20th of Novem- checked and obliged to draw back, exhibiting ber, on the frontier of Portugal, was closed a striking proof of the impractibility of op-,nis eventful campaign. posing an active enemy with a mixed force, The campaign of 1813 opened in the east of which the Spaniards formed a large proof Spain, by an attack on the allied army un- portion. der Sir John Murray, stationed not far from We now turn to the western part of the Alicant. The ground it occupied was strong peninsula, the field of the commander-inout the length of the position, two miles and chief. Lord Wellington averse to open the i half, made Suchet, who commanded the campaign till every part of his troops was French, conceive the hope of penetrating it ready to co-operate with efficiency, did not at one point or another. In this, however, move from quarters till after the middle of he was foiled with a loss of from two to May. The strength of the enemy lay in the three thousand men; this being the only line of the Douro, which they expected to 460 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. defend with advantage, but all this was pre- their position had been defended by the vented by Lord Wellington making his left river and two tetes depont; but the troops division cross the river on the Portuguese of the British left wing had taken, first the territory, and advance along its northern heights commanding these forts, and soon bank; whilst he and Sir Rowland Hill, at after the forts themselves, baffling every ef the head of separate corps, marched, after fort of the enemy to retake them. The great several feints, in a diagonal direction, so as road leading to the north was thus in posto support this movement, and effect a jnnc- session of the allies; hence general alarm and tion in an advanced position. The French, confusion spread throughout the French threatened with being taken in the rear, army. Their reserve was hastily withdrawn evacuated one town after another, and, even from its position, and pressed, with the whole at Burgos, declined to fight on ground where army, along the only remaining road to the late recollections would have been so anima- eastward; abandoning all their artillery, their ting; they continued to retreat, increasing ammunition and their baggage. The loss from time to time their numbers by the of the battle was imputed by the French to garrisons of the evacuated towns, until at last Jourdan,whom Bonaparte, in a luckless hour, they took a position at Vittoria, a town in had allowed his brother to substitute for Biscay, near the north-east frontier of Spain. Soult. The position of the French extended from The next operation of consequence con north to south, and was of great length. sisted in the siege of San Sebastian, a frontier Their left rested on heights; part of their fortress of great importance,which the French centre also occupied heights, as their right made the most vigorous efforts to relieve. was near the town of Vittoria. The Zadorra, Their army, provided' anew with ammuni. a stream of considerable size, but crossed by tion and cannon, advanced under the comseveral bridges, ran nearly parallel to their mand of Marshal Soult, and, after some sharp *front. Both armies were numerous, partic- actions, drove back the British corps posted ularly that of the allies. It was the first in the passes of the Pyrenees. The troops time that nearly forty thousand British troops retreated to the vicinity of Pamplona, where, had fought together in, Spain. Lord Wel- on the 27th, and still more on the 28th, they lington acted on the offensive throughout, sustained a succession of impetuous attacks and began active operations by taking pos- from-the enemy. On the 29th,Lord Wellington session of the heights near the extreme left resumed the offensive, drove the French from of the enemy. This was easily effected; their strong position, strong as it was, and but the importance being soon perceived by obliged them to retrace their steps through the French, a strong effort was made to re- the Pyrenees. cover them; and an obstinate contest took At San Sebastian the English had been replace, but the British on the heights repel- pulsed in an assault on the 25th of July; the led every assault. Under cover of these siege was continued, and a final assault, on heights the right wing advanced and took a the 31st of August, led to the capture of the village (Sabijana) in front of the enemy's place, though with a loss of two thousand centre. It was in vain that the French at- five hundred men. The further operations tempted to retake this village. The centre of were, the entrance of the army on the French the allies crossed the river near it, and the territory on the 7th October, the capitulacentre of the French withdrew from their tion of Pamplona of the 26th, and a general position, retreating to the town of Vittoria. attack on the position of the French near St. At first this retreat was effected in good or- Jean de Luz on the 10th November, after der; but an alarming account soon reached which they retreated across the Nivelle. But the French from their right. That part of thlis mountainous country afforded a numrrbe HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 461 of positions, and the next task was to drive Ist of March, adjourned to the 21st; and, on the enemy from behind the Nive, a large their re-assembling at that date, Lord Castleriver flowing northward from the Pyrenees. reagh being still absent on the Continent, This was partly accomplished on the 9th of the business transacted during several weeks December; but on several succeeding days was of inferior interest. the French, commanded by Sounlt, made im- We have now arrived at the period when, petuous attacks on the allied army, all anti- after a contest which, as far as regards Engcipated by Lord Wellington, and all repulsed land and France, may be termed a war of with heavy loss. Still the rains of the season, twenty years, Europe was restored to a conand the size of the mountain streams, re- dition which promised long-continued peace. tarded operations. In January, 1814, the During the two last years of which we army made some further progress, and, on have just spoken, Great Britain was also the 25th of February, attacked the French engaged in war with America. The particin a position near Orthbs, behind the Gave ulars of this second conflict with the United de Pau, another large river flowing from the States, which arose from the imperious Pyrenees. This attack was successful; and commercial policy of England, and her disthe retreat of the French was followed by regard of the rights of neutrals, will be the desertion of a number of their new levies. found in the last volume of this work. Soult's army now drew back, not in a north- The treaty of peace of this war was signed erly, but easterly direction, to join detach- at Ghent, on the 24-th of December, 1814, ments from the army of Suchet in Catalonia. and its terms afforded a curious exemplifiea. At Tarbes, on the 20th of MIarch, the fight- tion of the futility of warlike struggles. ing was of short duration; but a sanguinary The territorial possessions of both countries battle took place at Toulouse on the 10th of were, with a very trifling exception, left on April; a battle attended with a loss to the the same footing as before the war; and not allies of nearly five thousand men, which, as the slightest notice was taken of the queswell as a great sacrifice of lives on the part tions which had most strongly excited the of the French, might have been prevented had spirit of hostility on both sides,-neither of earlier intelligence arrived of the overthrow the impressment of seamen, a point so im of Bonaparte, and the change of government portant to the Americans, nor of the limitaat Paris. tion of the rights of neutral traffic, a topic The causes of this great change are ex- so often urged among the English. plained under another head. The ratification of the p'eace with America The cheering expectations with which had not been received from the other shore parliament separated were happily realized in of the Atlantic, when Bonaparte returned the course of the autumn; and parliament from Elba and raised in Europe a fresh re-assembled on the 4th of November with alarm of war. He ventured to land with a the knowledge that the victory at Leipsic had force barely sufficient to secure his personal secured the independence of Germany. safety in a march, and to supply emissaries On the 17th of November parliament for mixing with the opposite ranks. The adjourned to the first of March, evidently in French soldiers are fond of glory, and their the hope that before that period the advance attachment revived at the sight of their of the allied arms into France would lead to leader. They first refused to oppose, and a general pacification. This result, justified- soon after pressed forward to join him; and by sc und calculation, was delayed by the pre- he proceeded in a rapid and'unresisted march cipit.-ncy of the Prussians, and the conse- to the capital. Ought England to particique~_t cheeks received by thelml and their pate in the coalition formed to expel this inallies; so that parliament, when it met on the truder, and to reinstato the Bourbons? On ~62 EHISTORY OF THE WORLD. this question there existed, either in parlia- important naval operation, namely, the at, ment or the public, very little difference of tack upon Algiers. A project had been opinion; so great was the enmity inspired submitted to the sovereigns assembled a;t by Bonaparte, and such the dread of inces- Vienna in 1814, and at Paris in 1U15, for sant war under his sway. The ministry the expulsion of the Turkish militia from soon took their determination; their conti- the Barbary states; but the representatives nental aLies were unanimous in the cause; of the cabinet of London opposed this proand not a day was lost in preparing for the position, on the pretext that the existence of invasion of France. The Netherlands, it these states had been guaranteed by treaties; was evident, would be the first scene of op- and as the scheme for expelling the Turks erations. Thither the Prussians pressed; had been coupled with an absurd proposal thither were conveyed from England troops, to replace the janissaries with the conventual ammunition, and stores, with all the dispatch and military order of the knights of Malta, afforded by the command of the sea. By the success of the English opposition exthe end of May, or beginning of June, the cited no regret. It was generally agreed, Prussian and British force in the Netherlands however, that an end ought to be put to was superior to any that could be mustered Christian slavery. This was a necessary conby Bonaparte. It was not till the second sequence of the principle which had been week of June that his disposable force, to adopted and promulgated relative to negro the number of a hundred and fifteen thou- slavery; and England, which had procured sand men, was collected in front of the allied the recognition of the one, undertook the line. This was effected with great secrecy honorable task of effecting the other. But and dispatch. He joined the camp on the the measures at first resorted to were by no 14th, and caused his troops to march early means adequate to the accomplishment of on the 15th, driving in successively the the end in view, and, of course, failed. An Prussian outposts at Charleroi and Fleurus. attempt was made to mediate between the From the point whence he marched to Ligny, regency of Algiers and the kingdoms of the Prussian head-quarters, the distance was Sardinia and Naples; and Lord Exmouth, thirty miles; to Brussels, the head-quarters with a fleet of twenty-six ships, of which of Lord Wellington, was nearly twice as six were of the line, was employed to super. far; and all Bonaparte's hope rested on intend this negotiation. An account of fighting his opponents separate and unsup- Lord Exulouth's expedition has already found ported. The failure of his plan in the dis- its place in the article on ALGIERS. astrous campaign of Waterloo, has already A general want of work and reduction of been told in the history of FRANCE. wages continued during the year, subjecting This was followed by the second treaty of the iower orders to great distress, and ex. Paris, concluded after many vain appeals to posing them to the arts of designing demathe generosity of the allies, and which bur. gogues. Large assemblages, particularly in dened France with contributions to the Spafields, took place previous to the meeting amount of nearly thirty millions sterling, of parliament; and on the day of its openexclusive of the support of an allied army ing (the 28th of January) the regent was inon her frortier. This army, amounting at sulted on his way to the House of Lords. first to a hundred and fifty thousand men, The new parliament met on the 14th of was reduced in 1817 to a hundred and twenty January, 1819, and on the 21st proceeded thousand, and withdrawn in the end of 1818, to business. The demise of the queen havwhen all bore the aspect of continued tran- ing taken place during the recess (on the quillity on the Continent. 17th November), one of the first measures The year 1819 was distinguished by an was to vest the custody of the king's person - HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 46'3 in the Duke of York, who, very imprudently, but was soon after brought together by an under the circumstances of the country, de- event which, however comformable so the manded and received from parliament an course of nature, was not at that time exannual allowance of ~10,000 for discharging'pected, namely, the death of George III. an act of filial duty. The day after the demise, agreeably to estabThe revival of commercial activity in 1818 lished usage, both houses met, and took the proved unfortunately of short duration. Dis- oath of allegiance to the new sovereign. On tress returned towards the end of that year, the 2d February they adjourned till the 17th, and assumed an aggravated aspect in the the day after the interment of his majesty. course of 1819. This produced popular as- On that day both houses voted an address of semblages, and led, on August 16th, to an condolence to the present king, after which unfortunate scene at Manchester, in which they proceeded to transact such business as the interference of the yeomanry cavalry to was pressing, and might, according to law, disperse a very numerous meeting of the have continued to sit during six months; people was productive of loss of life to a but ministers judged fit to resort to a dissonumber of persons, and of bodily injury to a lution. Another election now took place ungreat many. The irritation excited among der circumstances of general distress. The the lower orders by this proceeding, and by new parliament met on the 21st April, and the continued pressure of poverty, led to the was opened on the 27th by George IV., in a dissemination of a spirit of discontent and speech declaring his anxiety for strict econoinsurrection which necessitated the assem- my, but regretting that the state of the counbling of parliament on the 23d of November. try was such as to admit of no reduction of The speech of the regent, as well as the dis- the military force. cussions of both houses, were directed to this In the mean time the government was bepainiful subject; and the alarm excited among ginning to learn by experience the effects of the aristocracy, joined to other considera- attempting to repress by arbitrary enact tions, having finally detached the Grenville ments the public expression of popular feelparty from the opposition, the latter now ing, in the growth of those dark and sanguinmustered in less formidable array. On the ary plots which are ever the consequence of division for an amendment upon the address violent attempts to stifle complaint. Arthur to the regent, the numbers were a hundred Thistlewood, a man of respectable connecand fifty against three hundred and eighty. tions, and originally of some property, but Several bills were afterward introduced by who, by his own profligate habits, had been ministers for the prevention of disturbances. reduced to a state of abject poverty, entered These bills produced long and animated de- into a conspiracy, with a few others of like bates; but the most considerable division on desperate fortunes, to overturn the governthe side of opposition, namely, that for limit- ment. Thistlewood's plan was to seize the ing the act against seditious measures to opportunity of the late king's funeral, when three years instead of five, consisted of only it was expected that all the military would a hundred and fifty votes against three hun- be engaged at Windsor, to make themselves dred and twenty-eight. A motion of a more masters of London, and plunder the shops. comprehensive nature for a committee on It was resolved to assassinate the ministers, the state of the country was negatived in the when assembled at a cabinet dinner at Lord Lords by a hundred and seventy-eight to Harrowby's. While one party effected the forty-seven; in the Commons by three hun- massacre, others were to seize the two pieces dred and ninety-ave to a hundred and fifty. of cannon in Gray's-inn Lane, and the six After transact ng this and other business pieces in the artillery ground. cf an urgent n;rre, parliament adjourned; The conspirators were as deficient in can 464 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tion as their plot was in any reasonable like- a triumphant progress; and her reception lihood of success. They were surprised in there by the populace most enthusiastic. the garret or hay-loft in Cato street, where On the 6th of June the Earl of Liverpool, their meetings were held, on the evening of in the Peers, and Lord Castlereagh in the the 23d of February, the same on which Commons, presented a message from the the massacre of the ministers was to have king, recommending to the immediate atten been perpetrated. After a desperate resist- tion of these bodies "certain papers respect. ance, in which one police-officer was killed, ing the conduct of her majesty since her de. and several severely wounded, the greater parture from the country." The Lords, after part of the band were apprehended. This- slight discussion, referred the communication tlewood and some others were not secured to a secret committee. The same course till next day. A few of the more cowardly wasadopted by the Comimons, after a vioturned king's evidence, and the guilt of the lent debate. Not a few members declared, conspirators was clearly established. Five that without examining witnesses, they were of them, Thistlewood, the- originator of the convinced of her majesty's innocence by the plot, Brunt his lieutenant, Ings, who was to line of conduct which the government had have been secretary to the provisional gov- pursued. ernment, Tidd, and Davidson, a man of co]- A brief sketch of the proceedings in the or, were ordered tor execution, and suffered House of Lords will suffice to show the charthe penalty attached to treason on the 29th acter of the prosecution. On the 5th of July of April. Lord Liverpool presented a bill of pains and The events to which we have hitherto ad- penalties against the queen. IHer petition verted served either to indicate the strength to be heard by counsel was presented the of the ministry or to increase it. But a dis- same evening, and refused. On the 6th her cussion was impending over them, which majesty again petitioned the house, requestthreatened to task their powers to the ut- ing, that if their Lordships were resolved to most. The dispute between the Prince and refuse her a hearing at that stage, and likePrincess of Wales was a matter of very see- wise to refuse a list of the witnesses to be ondary importance compared with that be- adduced against her, they would at least altween the King and Queen of England. The low her counsel to state at their bar the nahatred which George IV. entertained for his ture of her claims. This request was in so consort was invincible. Her name was omit- far complied with, that M/[essrs. Brougham ted in the liturgy; the utmost anxiety was and Denman were heard relative to the displayed to avoid, if possible, making any mode and manner of the proceedings to be parliamentary provision for her as queen; had upon the bill, and the time when these the common civility of announcing to her proceedings should take place. Their arguthe death of her father-in-law, who was more- ments were ineffectual. A list of witnesses over her blood relation, was not observed; was refused. The bill was ordered to be and she was given to understand that if she read a second time, and evidence to be led attempted to return to England, she Would during its second reading. The proceedings be instantly visited with a bill of pains and commenced on the 17th of August, and were penalties. But her majesty stood upon her continued, with scarcely any intermission, rights; and after several ineffectual negotia- till the 4th of November. On that day the tions on the part of those friends of the royal Lords resolved that the bill should be read a disputants, who feared the consequences of a second time, by a majority of twenty-eight, public agitation of the question at issue be- in a house of two hundred an:t eighteen. tween them, she landed at Dover in the The, divorce clause was warmly attacked in month of June. Her journey to London was the committee, but finally retained by a ma HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 465 jority of sixty-seven in a house of a hundred queen. Her safety once assured, and an aland ninety-one. When their Lordships came lowance settled upon her by parliament, she to divide upon the question of the third read- naturally ceased to have any interest for the ing, it was still carried in the affirmative, a public, which had been led to espouse her hundred and eight voting for, and ninety- cause from a conviction of the injustice witb nine against it. Lord Liverpool immedi- which she had been treated, not from any ately announced, that looking to the narrow personal attachment, which her character majority and the temper of the country, he was but ill qualified to inspire. She made nad come to the determination not to pro- one last desperate effort to regain her notorceed further with the measure. He accord- iety, which was rapidly subsiding at the time ingly moved that the bill do pass that day of the coronation; but failing in her attempt, six months. she was seized with such chagrin that she On opening the parliamentary session of soon afterwards died. Her death in some 1821) his majesty mentioned the queen by measure re-awakened the national sympaname, and recommended to the House of thy; and an attempt on the part of the minCommons a provision for her maintenance. isters to interfere with an expression of reAt first she declined to accept any pecuniary spect to her remains increased the unpopuallowance until her name was inserted in the arity of the sovereign. liturgy: but she subsequently altered her The year 1822, though not marked by any determination, and an annuity of ~50,000 great event, foreign or domestic, was one of was settled upon her. much interest as regarded the number of During this session the subject of parlia- important questions discussed in parlirament. mentary reform excited much interest; the Among the leading subjects of debate were borough of Grampound was disfranchised for agricultural distress in England, arising from its corruption; and the necessity of economy a superabundant supply and consequent low and retrenchment in all the departments of prices, and the scarcity and distress in Irel government was repeatedly brought forward land, which from the prevalence of agraiain and urged by Mr. Hume, whose persevering outrage and other causes, amounted to exposition of the large sums that were use- positive famine. lessly swallowed up in salaries and sinecures The state of Ireland did indeed demand made a great impression on the public; and the most serious attention of the legislature. though none of his motions were carried, the On one hand, coercive measures were neeesattention of ministers was thereby directed sary to repress the wild disorder that reigned to the gradual diminution of the enormous throughout the island; for owing to the darexpense incurred in the different public of- ing nocturnal bands of Whiteboys, etc., flees, wherever it could be done without det- neither life nor property was safe. On the riment to the public service. other hand, so universal was the failure of While these important debates were agi- the potato crop, that the price was quadrutating the legislature and the country, the pled, and the peasantry of the south were in a monarch was engrossed with the gorgeous state of actual starvation. To meet the pageantry of his coronation, and pleasure ex- former evil, it was found necessary to susperd cursions to Ireland and to Hanover.> All the habeas corpus act, and to renew the inthree entailed a great expense upon the coun- surrection act. To alleviate the latter, a cointry, and not one of them was rendered con- mittee was formed in London, and corrvns ducive to any useful purpose. Devolving ponding committees in different parts of the upon other shoulders the cares of state, country. British sympathy was no so oner George IV. would have led a life ofunalloy- appealed to than it was answer ed with zeal ed ease, but for that thorn in his side, the ous alacrity; and.such was the benevolence nm. —30.. 466 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. of individuals, that large funds were speedi- The new year, 1823, presented more cheers ly at their disposal; so that before the close ing prospects than any which had for a long of the year the subscriptions raised in Great time preceded it; the foreign demand for Britain for the relief of the distressed Irish, goods of English manufacture kept the cotamounted to ~350,000; parliament made a ton, silk and woollen factories at work, and grant of ~300,000 more; and in Ireland the greatly benefitted others, particularly the local subscriptions amounted to ~150,000; hardware and cutlery businesses. Those enmaking altogether a grand total of ~800,000. gaged in the shipping interest, also, particiFrom the beginning of the year to the end pated in the general improvement. But it of the session in August, the houses of par- was not so with regard to the agriculturists; liament were almost incessantly occupied on and during the month of January, no less questions of the highest importance; agri- than sixteen county meetings were called to cultural distress, for which various remedial take into consideration the causes of their measures were proposed; Lord John Russell's distresses. The usual topics-parliamentary plan for a parliamentary reform; Mr. Van- reform, remission of taxes, a commutation of sittart's scheme for relieving the immediate tithe, a depreciation of the currency, etc. — pressure of what was called the "dead were generally suggested; and in some inweight;" the currency question, which refer- stances, where Mir. Cobbett and his supportred to the increased value of money caused ers had sufficient influence, resolutions of a by Mr. Peel's act of 181.9, for the resump- more ultra-radical kind were carried. Partion of cash payments; the improvement of liament was prorogued by ccr`mission on the the navigation laws, etc. 19th of July; a great Imass of busines ha.Parliament was prorogued on the 6th of ing occupied the attention of the members, August; and on the 10th the king embarked and much altercation having taken place be at Greenwich for Scotland. On the 15th he tween Mr. Canning and his political opponlanded at Leith, and on the 19th held a levee ents. But he had the satisfaction at the in the ancient palace of Holyrood, where he close of the session, of dwelling on the appeared in the Highland costume. Having flourishing condition of all branches of cornenjoyed the festivities which his loyal sub- merce and manufactures, and a considerable jects of Edinburgh provided for the occasion, abatement of the difficulties felt by the agrihe re-embarked on the 27th, and in three culturists at its commencement. lays was again with his lieges in London. A convention between Great Britain and During his majesty's absence the unwel- Austria was laid on the table of the House of come intelligence was brought to him of the Commons, by which the former agreed to acdeath of the Marquis of Londonderry, secre- cept ~2,500,000, as a final compensation for tary of state for the foreign department. claims on the latter power, amounting to This nobleman, who for some years had been ~30,000,000 —a composition of one shilli ng the leading member of government, was in and eight-pence in the pound. his fifty-fourth year; and in a temporary fit of One of the first steps in legislation in 1825, insanity'committed suicide, by cutting the was an act to suppress the Catholic Associacarotid artery. tion of Ireland. The Catholic Relief Bill On the death of Lord Londonderry, lM~r. passed in the House of Commons, but was C aniing, who was about to set out to India rejected in the Lords by a majority of 178 as go.ernor-general relinquished that employ- against 130. ment, and accepted the vacant secretaryship, An astonishing impulse had been given to as one more congenial to his taste, and for speculations of all kinds last year by the the dulies of which he was supposed to be abundance of unemployed capital and the perfectly efficient. reduction of interest in funded property. HISTORY OF THE- WORLD-. 467 The mania for joint-stock companies was of creating iictitious money; the ministers, now become almost universal. During the. therefore, prohibited the circulation of one space of little more than a twelvemonth, 276. pound notes; while incorporated companies companies had been projected, of which the were allowed to carry on the business of pretended capital was ~174,1.14,050. Though banking. many of these were of an absurd character, - Certain leading questions, which had been and nearly all held out prospects that no sane frequently discussed in parliament of late man could expect to see realised, yet the years, had now got such possession of -the shares of several rose to enormous premiums, public mind, that, at most of the- elections, especially the mining adventures in South tests were offered and pledges required from America. But a fearful reaction was at hand. the several candidates. The most importSeveral country banks stopped payment in ant of these were Catholic emancipation, the December. A panic in the money market corn laws, and the slave trade; and out of followed; and in a few days several London the members returned for England and Wales, bankers were unable to meet the calls upon 133 had never before sat in parliament. them. During the three following days The new parliament met on the 14th of five other London banking firms were com- November, and the session was opened by pelled to close; and in a very short space the king in person. No business of any great of time, in addition to the London houses, importance was brought before the house; sixty- seven country banks failed or sus- but an exposure of the numerous joint-stock pended their payments. The abstraction of companies that had been established was capital in mining and other speculations; made by Alderman Waithman. As certain was now felt more severely than had been members of the house, whom he named, expected, even by those who had endeavor- were known to be directors of some of these ed to oppose their progress. It was impos- bubble companies, he moved for a committee sible to calculate when or where the evil of enquiry with reference to the part taken would stop; but that thousands of families by members of parliament in the joint-stock must in the end be ruined was inevitable. mania of 1824-5-6. The enquiry, on the The principal merchants of the city of Lon- suggestion of Mlr. Canning, was restricted to don, at the head of whom was Mr. Baring, the Arigna mining company, of which Mr. feeling that something was necessary to be Brogden had been a director. done to support credit and restore confidence, Augustus Frederick, Duke of York, pre. assembled at the mansion-house, and pub- sumptive heir tothe throne, and commanderlished a resolution to the effect that "the in-chief of the army, died on the 5th of unprecedented embarrassments were to be January, in the 64th year of his age. mainly attributed to an unfounded panic; The first topic of domestic interest was the that they had the fullest reliance on the change of ministry which took place in conbanking establishments of the capital and sequence of Lord Liverpool, the premier, country, and therefore determined to support being suddenly disabled by a stroke of apothem, and public credit, to the utmost of plexy, which, though he survived the attack their power." nearly two years, terminated his public life. The effects of the panic were long and /Nearly two months elapsed before the vacan. most severely felt; but it must be admitted cy occasioned by Lord Liverpool's illness was that the Bank of England made strenuous filled. The king then empowered Mr. Canefforts to mitigate pecuniary distress, and the ning to form a new ministry, of which he course pursued by the government was steady was to be the head. and judicious. The. main cause in produc- Parliament met after the Easter recess; ing the mischief had been the great facility and on the 1st orf June, Mr. Canning brought i68 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Frward the budget. The session was of Rigney, and the Russian squadron, entered short duration, and the greater part of the the bay; and after four hours from the cornime was occupied by charges of political mencement of the conflict, which had been tergiversation which were bandied about, and carried on with great fury, the enemy's fleet the explanations which such charges neces- was wholly destroyed, and the bay strewed sarily elicited. The corn laws came in for a with the fragments of his ships. share of discussion; as did also the law be- It was seen from the first formation of the tween debtor and creditor, the state of the Goderich ministry that it did not possess the court of chancery, and the game laws; while necessary qualifications for a lasting union. Mr. Peel continued his exertions towards a Differences between some of the leading consolidation of the criminal statutes. On members of the cabinet rendered his lordthe 2d of July parliament was prorogued. ship's position untenable, and he resigned his A treaty which had for its object the pa- seals of office. Upon this the king sent for cification of Greece, by putting an end to the Duke of Wellington, and commissioned the sanguinary contest between the Porte him to form a new cabinet with himself at and its Grecian subjects, was signed at Lon- the head; the result was, that his grace imdon, on the 6th of July, by the ministers of mediately entered into communication with Great Britain, France and Russia. Mr. Peel, and other members of Lord LiverFrom the hour that Mr. Canning under- pool's ministry, who had seceded on the eletook the office of premier, he had been suf- vation of Mr. Canning; and, with very few fering under a degree of nervous excitement exceptions, the same parties once more came which made visible inroads on his constitu- into power. The duke, on becoming the tion; but it was expected that a little repose first lord of the treasury, resigned the office during the parliamentry recess would rein- of commander-in-chief. vigorate him. Not so, however; for on the The royal speech, delivered at the open8th of August he expired, the immediate ing of parliament, chiefly referred to the late cause of his death being an inflammation'of " untoward event " at Navarino, but defendthe kidneys. ed it on the ground that the rights of neutral On the death of Mr. Canning there were nations were violated by the revolting exbut few changes in the ministry. Lord Goder- cesses of the Turks. ich became the new premier, as first lord of On the 8th of May the Catholic claims the treasury, and the Duke of Wellington were again brought forward, when Sir Franresumed the command of the army, but with- -cis Burdett moved for a committee of the out a seat in the cabinet. whole house on this subject, with a view to The treaty mentioned as having been a conciliatory adjustment. After a three signed on the 6th of July, for attempting the nights' debate, this was carried by a majority pacification of Greece, not being acceptable of six. A conference with the lords was then to the sultan, he declined the mediation of requested, and held; after which there wvas the allied powers, and recommenced the war a two nights' debate in the Lords, when lihe furiously against the Greeks. To put a stop Duke of Wellington opposed the resolution, to this course of desolation, the combined chiefly on the ground that the church govfleets of England, France and Russia, pro- ernment of Ireland was unconnected with ceeded to the Bay of Navarino, with a deter- the civil governme~p of the empire. The mination to capture or destroy the Turkish resolution was lost by a majority of fifty-four. fleet which lay there, if Ibrahim Pacha re- Soon after the opening of parliament in fused to listen to pacific overtures. No sa- 1829, the ministers declared their intention tisfaction being obtained, Admiral Codring- to bring forward and support the long-agita. ton, followed by the French ships, under I)D I ted question ro Catholic emalncipation; HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 469 order to put an end for ever, if possible, to a last important act of the reign of George grievance which, among the Irish in particu- IV. The country was partially disquieted lar, had "grown with their growth, and during the autumn and winter of 1829. strengthened with their strength." In Ire- The laborers were suffering in many places land the Catholic population was at that time from want of enrployment, and disti ess to a estimated at five millions and a half, where- considerable extent was insinuating itself as not more than one million and three quar- among the agricultural classes. England's ters were Protestants; but in England, Scot- productive powers continued unabated, and land and Wales, the number of Catholics fell the prevalence of want showed that there was short of a million. It was well known that something wrong in her internal arrangethe Duke of Wellington's repugnance to the ments, interfering with the natural tendency measure had been gradually abating; that he of wealth to diffuse itself. In Ireland pubthought the security of the empire depended lie tranquillity was far from being re-estab. on its being carried, and that he had labor- lished, nor was such a consummation reasoned hard to overcome the king's scruples. ably to be hoped for from the redress of one These being at length removed, Mr. Peel, in grievance alone in a country which had been a long, cautious and elaborate speech, intro- governed for centuries by men ignorant of duced the " Catholic Relief Bill" into the its wants and feelings. The boon of emanHouse of Commons on the 5th of March. Its cipation had been attended by an act of general objects were to render Catholics eli- injustice and a gratuitous insult. The former gible to seats in both houses of parliament, was scarcely remembered in the hour *of to vote at the election of members, and gen- triumph, but it afforded a topic for declamaerally to enjoy all civil franchises and offices, tion when the hour.of agitation should upon their taking an oath not to use their arrive; and the latter sent back to Ireland, privileges to " weaken or disturb the Protest- as the avowed and embittered enemy of ant establishment." As it was a course of government, the man who had more power policy which the Whigs advocated, it had their than any other over popular feeling. O'Consupport; the chief opposition coming from nell's progress through Ireland was a conthat sectionofthe Toryparty who thought it to tinued triumph.. Iis re-election for Clare be a measure replete with danger to the Prot- was not contested. And wherever he went estant institutions of the country. The ma- he held up the ministers to the popular odium, jority in favor of the bill, however, at the recounting all their misdeeds, real or imagthird reading, was 320 to 142. In the upper inary, and appealing in turns to every pas house a more resolute stand was made against sion that could be supposed to animate the it; the Lords Eldon, Winchelsea, Tenterden peasant. The Orangemen, on the other and others, backed by the Archbishops of hand, galled by the loss of their ascendency, Canterbury and York, and the Bishops of continued tovociferate empty menaces, which London, Durham and Salisbury, in the most had at least the effect of producing irritasolemn manner denouncing it as a measure tion. The waves of popular hatred and pregnant with the most imminent peril to prejudice continued to dash after the storm church and state as by law established; and that raised them had blown over. powerfully appealing to their fellow peers to At this ominous crisis George IV. breathlluphold the Protestant faith at all hazards, and ed his last. He had long been in an infirmn not sacrifice their principles at the shrine of state, but no immediate danger was anticiexpediency. It was, however, carried on the pated till the commencement of Api il. Ol1 10th of April, and received the royal assent the 15th of that month the first bulletin on the 13th. was issued. He continued to grow weaker, The ceding of the Catholic claims was the and latterly the slightest exertion beeamze 4.70 HISTORY OF. THE W.ORLD. intensely painful. A message was sent to -not to forward,the business (if the country. both houses of Parliament on the 24th of It was evident that every measure having in May, stating that his majesty found it pain- view the better organization of the state ful to sign with his own hand documents, must be wrung from them,. like Catholic which required his sign-manual, and request- emancipation, by: demonstrations of power. ing parliament to provide for the temporary. War was in consequence declared against.discharge of that function of the crown. the cabinet, and prosecuted vehemently by A. bill was immediately passed, allowing the the Ultra-Tories, but by the Whigs, with sign manual to be adhibited by a stamp. more caution. A few matters of business The disease continued to run its course, and which could not be postponed were afterupon the 26th of June his majesty expired. wards hurried through the house with little William IV. ascended the:throne of Great opposition, and on the 23d of July parlia. ZBritain on the 26th of June, 1830. The. ment was prorogued by the king in person; change of the monarch did not occasion any and being next day dissolved by proclamaimmediate change in the state of public af- tion, writs were issued- for a new election. fairs. The Duke of Clarence had accepted A few days afterwards the news of the office unker Mr. Canning, and had been revolution, by which the elder branch of rather unceremoniously deprived of it by the Bourbons was finally expelled from the Duke of Wellington; hence some. people France, reached England. The intelligence augured that he would be unfavorable to his had a powerful effect. The longing for parministry.. In the political.world he was liaimentary reform returned with redoubled scarcely known. An old grudge existed efficacy..Menwere not prepared with any against him from the time of the queen's definite scheme, nor were they agreed as to trial. T.e Tories, who more than half feared the principles- upon which they vindicated his revolt, spread caricatured accounts of the justice of innovation. The news of the the proceeding at Bushy House during his three days in. Paris ripened men's views, and lrother's illness. The plainness of the new showed that wishes were useless whilst unking's manners, however, soon rendered him productive of action. The French received highly popular.. He mingled with the peo- the homage of universal sympathy. This ple, and his familiar address and unostenta- circumstance was turned to use by some actious appearance contrasted so strongly with tive friends of liberty. Meetings were called those of the late king, that he completely in every important town to congratulate the won the affections of that part of the corn- free men of France; and thus reformers munity which, as. it.is the first to deify a were brought together, and taught how nlmonarch, is also the first to cast him off merous a body they were. again. No change, however, took place in All these circumstances operated unfavorthe ministry. William IV. declared himself ably for the ministers at the elections. friendly to their policy, and determined to Wherever the election was popular, the reretain them. formers supported a candidate of their own They were, however, incapable of being principles; and of the close burghs, with much longer sustained in office, even by the the exception of those commanded by govroyal support. The party which they had ernment, a decided majority were in the irritated by carrying the, Catholic bill was hands of the Duke's adversaries. Not one strong in the Commons, and stronger in the candidate appeared on the hustings to claim Lords. The Whigs had lost confidence in the suffrages of the electors as a supporter lthe Duke of Wellington and his coadjutors, of the ministers. The general result of the whose system of policy was temporising, cal- election diminished by fifty the votes upon.ulato I to: keep themselves in power, but which the government could depend. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 471 England row began to rival Ireland in a system whose props one after another had misery and disturbances. While parliament for years been dropping down. continued to sit, its table was covered with Any doubt that remained upon this sub. petitions, describing in the strongest terms ject was removed by the debate which took the distress suffered by the lower classes en- place in the House of Lords when the adgaged in agriculture. It was predicted that dress to the throne was moved. Earl Grey, unless a change for the better took place it adverting to the opprobrious designation —apwould be impossible to restrain them from -plied in the king's speech to the Belgian reoutrage. The harvestwas scarcely concluded volution, observed,-"We ought to learn when this prophecy was fulfilled. The dis- from what was passing before our eyes. He turbances began in the county of Kent. felt persuaded, that unless reform were grant-, Threatening letters were then dispersed ed, we must make up our minds to witness throughout the country, machinery destroy- the destruction of the constitution." The ed, money extorted and barns and stack- Duke of Wellington's reply to this portion yards set on fire. The commotions were the of this speech is only memorable by the dewild aimless efforts of men suffering almost claration made in it, which occasioned his beyond nature and without hope. Viewing subsequent downfall: "The noble earl has the matter in this light, the first rioters ap- alluded to something in the shape of a parprehended were treated with a degree of liamentary reform, but he has acknowledged lenity which encouraged fresh outrages. Dur- that he is not prepared with any measure of ing October, November and December, the reform. * * * I am fully convinced that the riots increased in frequency and boldness, country possesses at the present moment a and spread from Kent into Hampshire, legislature which answers all the good purWiltshire, Buckinghamshire, Sussex and poses of legislation; and this to a greater deSurrey. The frame of civil society seemed gree than any legislature ever has answered breaking up, the wild deluge of human in any country whatever. * ** Under these passion, untamed by moral feeling, un- circumstances I am not only not prepared to checked by law, threatened to overwhelm bring forward any measure of this nature, all. With a nation apparently resolving into but I will at once declare, that, as far as I anarchy, and a government helpless and am concerned, as longas I hold any station in stubborn, there was no hope. Like sailors the government of the country, I shall always in a shipwreck, men began to search for some feel it my duty to resist such measures when thing to cling to in the inpending convulsion. proposed by others."') The demand for reform was raised more The tone assumed by the opposition in clamorously than ever.: Political unions and both houses after this haughty declaration reform associations, having for their object convinced ministers of their rashness in venthe propagation of definite political princi- turing to meet such. a parliament in an offples, and a demonstration of the physical cial capacity. Their embarrassment was strength of the reformers, were everywhere increased in consequence of an injudicious established. manoeuvre, intended to terrify their oppo. Such was the threatening aspect of the nents, by impressing them with an exagcountry when parliament opened on the 2d gerated notion of popular violence. The of November. The speech from the throne king and queen were to dine at Guildhall on contained no indications of the means by the Lord Mayor's day; but, under the pretext which ministers proposed to meet the threat- that there was: a conspiracy on the part off -ening emergency. The ministerial declara- some abandoned characters to attack the tion showed that the Duke of Wellington, in Dulke of Wellington, their majesties were inproud ignorance, was determined to cling to duced to retract their assent. This attempt: 472 HI:STORY OF THE WORLD. by stimulating the loyalty of the nation, and ed, only four were executed; the rest were adroitly confounding the king with his ad- ultimately sentenced tc various terms of visers, to give greater firmness to a wavering transportation and impriinment. Comparagovernment, failed signally. The ministers tive tranquillity was restored; but the misbecame ridiculous. The invectives of the op- chief that had been done was not amended, position in parliament became more pointed nor was a healthy confidence between the and inveterate; and on the 15th of Novem- lower classes and their employers restored. ber Sir Henry Parnell moved " that a select Parliament met, as appointed, on the 3d of committee be appointed to take into consider- Fcbruary,1831. The ministers announced that ation the estimates and accounts presented their plan of parliamentary reform should be by command of his majesty respecting the brought forward by Lord John Russell on the civil list." After a short debate ministers 1st of March. In announcing his scheme, - were left in a minority of twenty-nine in an ILord John Russell proposed the total disunusually full house. i Mr. Hobhouse asked franchisement of sixty boroughs, in which the Sir Robert Peel whether it was the intention population did not amount to 2,000; and of ministers to retain their places after such the partial disfranchisement of forty-seven, an expression of the sentiments of the house, where the population was only 4,000. iBy but received no answer. Next day the Duke this means the number of members would of Wellington in the Peers, and Sir Robert be reduced 168; but which would be supPeel:in the Commons, announced, that in plied by increasing the number of county consequence of the vote of the preceding members, and by giving representatives to evening, they had tendered, and his majesty certain large towns heretofore unrepresented. had accepted, their resignation. He then went into a variety of other details, The king immediately authorized Earl not necessary to be here enumerated; when Grey to form an administration upon the the bill, after a spirited discussion of seven basis of making parliamentary reform a days, was read a first time. The second readcabinet question. There was necessarily ing was carried on the 22d of March, by a a suspension of business in parliament majority of one; the numbers being 302 to till the ministers who had vacated their 301. And on General Gascoyne's motion seats by acceptingo office should be re- for the commitment of the bill, there was a elected. By the time that they were all majority against the ministers ofeigfht. Three restored to their places, it was too late to days afterwards, on a question of adjournthink of maturing and developing their sys- ment, by which the voting of supplies was tem of policy before the Christmas holidays, postponed, this majority had increased to Accordingly, Earl Grey contented himself twenty-two; -whereupon the ministers tenderwith declaring, that it was the intention of ed their resignations to the king. These he the cabinet to introduce a plan for the re- declined to accept, but adopted the advice form of the Commons House of Parliament. of Earl Grey, who recommended a dissolution The interval of parliamentary exertion of parliament, which took place on the 22d was an uneasy one for the country. The of April. riots and outrages in the agricultural districts And now arose the cry of " The bill, the had begun to decline; but the duty of punish- whole bill, and nothing but the bill." Out ing the convicted transgressors of the law of the eighty-two county members for Engremained to be fulfilled. During the latter land, nearly all were pledged to the bill; half of December and the beginning of Janu- as were all the four memberm for the city of;ary, upwards of eight undred - rioters were London. On the t14th of June the new partried before special commissions. Of those liament met, and was opened by the king.~gainst whom sentence of death was record- in person. On the 24th Lord John Russell HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 473 made his seconad attempt. The debate lasted meetings were held, and perfect obedience to three nights, and on a division there was a the law enforced. majority of 136 in favor of the bill. It then un- Parliament re-assembled on the 6th of derwent a long, patient, and severe scrutiny December, 1831. In the speech from the the committee; every clause was carefully throne, a speedy and satisfactory settlement discussed as it arose; many of its crudities of the question of reform was urgently rewere corrected, and many imperfections re- commended. The ministry adhered to theii -medied. These occupied the house almost original purpose of remodelling the repreuninterruptedly till the 19th of September, sentation by three separate bills applicable when, after another eloquent debate of three to the varying social relations of the three nights, the bill, as amended, was carried by a incorporated nations. That which had for majority of 109 in the Commons, and taken its object the reform of the English represenup to the Lords by upwards of 100 members. tation was introduced on the 12th of DecemThe debate on the second reading com- ber. It was confessedly superior to the formenced on the 3d of October, and continued mer in precision of expression; and some during that and four succeeding evenings. of the subordinate arrangements had been The arguments brought forward against the modified with a view to avoid the captious billwere various and contradictory. After this quibbling of the preceding session. The long and fatiguing debate, the Peers of Eng- ministerial members adopted the prudent land, by a majority of forty-one, decided, in resolution of leaving all the speaking to their opposition to a majority nearly triple that opponents; but, nevertheless, the pertinaamount of the House of Commons, and to cious volubility of these orators was so far the almost unanimous voice of the nation, successful in retarding the bill, that it did that a system of cunningly-veiled oppression not pass through the House of Commons beand corruption should be perpetuated. fore the 22d of March. Owing to the firmness of the king, his It was carried up to the Lords with even ministers, and the House of Commons, the more gloomy anticipations than on the fordecision of the Lords was received by the imer occasion. No new peers had been created. people with deep-felt disgust; but, except Lords Harrowby and Wharncliffe, who had in two or three isolated cases, without any seemed at one time inclined to come to terms, alarming bursts of violence. At Derby the resumed a hostile attitude. Between the first rabble broke open the town jail, and demolish- and second reading of the bill, however, these ed the property of some anti-reformers, and noblemen and their Iollowers determined to were only prevented from the perpetration make a concession to public feeling, and alof further violence by the interference of lowed the bill to go into committee. In consethe military. The castle of Nottingham, the qnence of their wavering, the second readproperlty of the Duke of Newcastle, was ing of the bill was carried by a majority of burned by a band of rioters. Some rioting, but nine, and the bill ordered to be committed not of a very serious character, took place in the flrst day on which the house should sit Somersetshire and Devonshire. And atBristol, after the Easter recess. On that day, May the arrival of Sir Charles Wetherell, a strenu- 7, Lord Lyndhurst moved that the disfiranous anti-reformer, to discharge his judicial chising clause should be postponed, and duties, excited a popular ferment, which being the enfranchising clause first considered; met on the part of the magistrates at first with which was carried against ministers, by a plrecpitate violence, and afterwards by cow- majority of 151 to 116. As this was con ardly supineness, hurried the populace on sidered the first of a series of obstruo, to -c:'ks of extensive destruction. In every tions, dexterously contrived to delay and other part of the kingdon, however, large mutilate the reform bill, the ministers an | 174 HISTORY OF- THE WORLD. nounced -their intention to:resign, unless his commission on the 17th of July. Greater majesty would consent to a new creation of difficulty threatened to arise on the question peers. To that expedient the king declined of the Irish bill, for a stro.ng body of the to resort, and the ministers sent in their re- Irish members were- dissatisfied with the signation accordingly. -provisions for the extension of the franchise, The Duke:of Wellington undertook to regarding them as insufficient. But timely form an administration whi;h should take concession on the part of the ministers concili-office upon condition of carrying through- a ated the malcontents; the bill passed the large measure: of reform. At the first hint House of Commons on Friday, the 20th of of this project, the national indignation blaz- July; no essential alterations were made by ed up more fiercely; the timid class of poli- the House of Lords:; and the new constituticians shrunk from the side of their leader; tion of the imperial,parliament was thus, and the duke having abandoned the task as after an arduous struggle, completely estabhopeless, the king was obliged to recall Lord lished. Grey. On the meeting of the first reformed par. On the evening of Friday, the 18th of liament in January, 1833, a trial of strength May, Lord Althorp announced to the House between the parties in the house, and a test of Commons that the ministers had again ac- of the efficiency of the bill, was eagerly excepted office, after receiving assurance that pected by the public. The chief struggle, every power would be placed in their hands however, succeeded in the settlement of which should be found necessary to secure Irish affairs, this subject having been earnthe passing of the reform bill unmutilated. estly recommendedd to: Parliament in the The discussions of the measure in the House opening speech of his majesty. In reference of Lords, subsequent to this communication, to these, he had expressed his confidence were mere matters of form. Few of the that they would entrust him with such addiamendments proposed were ever pushed to tional powers as might be found necessary.adivision. Even the most obnoxious clause for controlling and punishing the disturbers of all, that which gave members to the:me- of the public peace in Ireland, and for pretropolitan districts, was carried by a major- serving and strengthening the:legislative jority of fifty-five, in a house of a hundred.union between the two countries. A fierce and twenty-seven.. A creation of peers was attack followed, from Mr. O'Connell, who not resorted to for the purpose of carrying characterized the speech as a "bloody, bruthe bill. In order to render that supposed tal, unconstitutional address," and ended by evil unnecessary, a sufficient number of no- moving, that the house should resolve itself ble.lords absented themselves from the house into a committee for -its consideration. A to leave. the ministers in a majority on the keen debate ensued, which was carried third reading.. The few who remained, how- through four adjournments, when Mr. O'Conever, expressed in their speechesthe concen- nell's proposal was rejected by 428 against trated resentment of all the absentees. The 40, of which minority, 35 were Irish memnroyal assent was given to the English bill by; bers. The coercion bill for.the suppression commission on.the 7th of June, 1832.. of disturbances in.Ireland was then introThe bills for Scotland and Ireland had duced by Earl Grey into the House of Lords, been merely read a first time, and then al- and carried through without oppositio,. But lowved to lie over until the key-stone of the no such tranquil reception awaited it in the arch, the English bill, had been secured. lower house, where a stormy debate of Six As soon as that object was attained, the dis- days ensued before the first reading of the' cussions upon the other two were resumed. bill was carried.by 466: votes against 89, this: The Scotch bill received'the royal assent by majority having been obtained by the con HISTORY OF THE. WORL D. 475 servative party::supporting the -ministers. former position. This hasty escape from tndismayed by such a union, the Irish- one difficulty, only plunged the ministry inmembers and their adherents continued to to another.- On.seeing the Irish Church oppose the bill at:every step of debate, until thus left to its fate, the English Dissenters, it was passed with some alterations through who had supported the reform bill through a third reading by the large majority of 345 all its stages, imagined that their season for to 86. remonstrance and redress had fully arrived; Another important lparliamentary meas- and a shower of petitions followed, demandure of this year successfully closed the long ing exemption from the payment of church struggle for negro eemancipation. On this rates, and, in some cases, for the entire abooccasion an act was passed, that on the 1st lition of all connection between Church and of August, 1834, slavery should wholly cease State, or, at least, for the general adoption throughout all the British colonies, while the of the voluntary system, by which every perimmense stum of twenty millions sterling was son should not only choose his own church, voted to the West India planters as a com- but support his: own minister. These peti pensation for their loss through the abolition tions, however, only provoked a storm of of compulsory labor.: X counter-petitions, in which Parliament was On the following year the attention of entreated with equal urgency to: preserve Parliament was chiefly occupied, as before, the rights of the Established Church inviowith the affairs of Ireland. The late con- late. [But the chief grievance of which the cessions to that country had been received Dissenters complained, was their virtual exby O'Connell and his party merely as the clusion from literary degrees at the univer. first instalments of a debt, and Catholic sities of Cambridge and Oxford, by the deemancipation itself as a: prelude to the re- mand of conformity to the Church of Engpeal of the union; and thus there was no land, and subscription to its articles; and end to their demands, or limits to their dis- they therefore prayed that these halls of content. This was now shown upon the learning should be thrown:open to all, and -question of Irish tithes, connected with the their honors made accessible to every comrrenewal of the coercion bill, in which the petitor. This petition was signed by sixty. difficulties became so complicated, that Earl three resident members of the senate of Cam. Grey resigned, and was succeeded in office bridge, and introduced to both houses; but, by Lord Melbourne. The new premier then although its demand was limited to the abobrought forward his plan for the adjustment lition of university tests, it was regarded as of: the tithe question, which he stated to be a. prelude to the overthrow of church estabthe ultinzatum, beyond which nothing was lishment itself, and, as such, was rejected in to be granted or expected. It was, that the the Lords by a majority of 187 against 85 tithes were to be collected by the crown and votes, and in the Commons of 321 against paid by the landlord, and thus the:odium, 174. as well: as riots, occasioned- by the former - The only other important measure of this mode of levying them, would -be avoided. session was the bill for altering and amend. But as the revenues of the clergy, in conse- ing the poor laws, upon which a commission quence of this change, were to undergo a of inquiry had been instituted soon after the diminution of twenty-two and a half per accession of the new ministry to office. cent., to defray the expenses of collecting In the ensuing year several important them, the bill was rejected at the second measures were proposed and carried success. reading, and the clergy of the Irish: Estab- fully through both houses.: The first was a lished Church were consigned to the pov-.cabinet plan for the, commutation of tithes erty and uncertainty incidental to- their in England, by wlich provision was made 476 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. for the extinction within two years of the in their places, and honored them with her right of exacting them in kind, by the pay- confidence. In consequence of this disinter. ment of a mloney-rate, according to the value ested commencement, the elections of memof corn ascertained by a seven years' aver- bers for the new parliament went onward age. Another was the general registration as tranquilly as if no change in the occupaof births, marriages and deaths. A third tion of the throne had been experienced. concerned the marriage laws, by which Dis- But while harmony thus prevailed throughsenters were allowed to celebrate the rite out the United Kingdom, the case was very of marriage in their own places of worship, different in the colonial province of Lower or wherever they thought fit, instead of sub- Canada, where the French part of the popumitting to the usages of the Church of Eng- lation had long been in a state of insubordiland. It was also intended during this ses- nation; and, as out of forty members who sion to bring in four bills, having for their composed the Legislative Council, eighteen object certain reforms in the English Church; were French Canadians, there was fuel but on account of the hostility of the radical enough to flame the general discontent. The party, and the lateness of the session, only grievances chiefly complained of, as exhibone was passed, under the name of the Es- ited in a memorial sent to the British Partablished Church bill, by which certain bish- liament in 1828, and signed by 87,000 in oprics were united, two new ones erected, habitants of Lower Canada, were-arbitrary and a reduction effected upon their revenues conduct on the part of the Governor —the to the amount of ~28,500 per annum. appointment of none but creatures of the Such were the principal occurrences of executive government to the legislative counthis reign after the passing of the Reform cil-the illegal appropriation of public money bill, an event that constitutes its chief point -violent prorogations and dissolutions of of interest. It was now closed by the de- the Provincial Parliament-connivance of mise of William IV., who died at Windsor the government at the insolvency of Sir John Castle, on the 20th of June, 1837, in the Caldwell, the receiver-general and certain seventy-second year of his age, and when he acts of the imperial parliament relative to had all but completed the seventh year of Canadian trade and tenures. Since the pubhis reign. lication of that report, the attention of ParOn the accession of Queen Victoria to the liament had been repeatedly occupied with throne of Great Britain, everything gave its details, and in most cases a strong dispo. promise of a prosperous and happy reign. sition had been evinced to meet them with The country was tranquil; and people of all concession. These concessions, however, libclasses, mindful of the prosperity in arts and eral though they were, did not satisfy the arms, that had crowned the eras of Anne colonists, who only became the more extorand Elizabeth, were ready to welcome once tionate in their demands, so that at last they more the rule of a female sovereign. The announced their purpose to withhold any little kingdom of Hanover also, which for rate of supply, until the alterations in the more than a century had been a source to constitution which they demanded were fully vexation to Britain, was at last severed from satisfied. Thus matters went on until 1837, the empire, in consequence of the Salic law awhen the discontent broke out into open re. which prevents the succession of a female to volt, headed by Mr. Papineau, their chief the IHanoverian crown. The moderation of agitator, who, however, fled at the commencethe young queen's first step in government ment of action, and left his followers to shift justified the hopes of her people, for instead for themselves. This they did by a gallant of yielding to the temptations of innovation resistance in several encounters with the and c}lange, she retained the officers of state royalist forces, until they were finally de. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 477 feated and dispersed by Sir John Colbourne, all their conciliatory measures, the colonia. the British commander-in-chief. This ex- discontent had swelled into open insurrec. ample of rebellion in Lower Canada was not tion, and, although this had been promptly lost upon the Upper province, whose malcon- suppressed, a second attempt might soon foltents had been tampered with by emissaries low, more perfectly matured than the first, from the United States; and towards the and more formidable in its consequences. -lose of the year, an association calling itself There were many also at home, and of these, the Provincial Convention, issued a mani- some were in Parliament, who asserted that festo inviting their fellow-colonists to arms, Canada was now ripe for self-government, in language as wild as that of the fifth-mon- and should therefore be released from its dearehy saints of the days of Cromwell. It pendence on the mother-country; and that invited them to buckle on their armor, and the example of the United States should establish a government and perpetual peace show the danger of a refusal. These consid"founded upon the eternal heaven-born prin.- erations occupied the attention of Parliament ciples of the Lord Jesus Christ," and no lon- in 1838; and after several debates, the Canger to be "hood-winked by Baal's ministers, ada bill of Lord John Russell was moved, and tampered with by wolves in sheep's and passed through both houses. Although clothing, who take the wages of sin, and do sufficiently stringent in its character, it was the works of iniquity." For this outburst, reckoned not more so than the crisis requirSir Francis Head, the Governor of Upper ed; and, notwithstanding a fierce resistance Canada, was utterly unprepared; strangely from the Canadian sympathizers, it was carenough, even when the insurrection was ex- ried, after undergoing several amendments, pected, and on the eve of explosion, he had by large majorities. The governor, under cleared the province of all the regular troops, whom this new experiment of colonial govand left nothing for its defence but 6000 ernment over nearly a million and a half stand of arms under the peaceful custody of of discontented subjects was to be attemptthe Mayor of Toronto. Hie was suddenly ed, was also nominated; this was the Earl roused from his security, and even from his of Durham, son-in-law of Earl Grey, whom bed, at ten o'clock at night, by the advance Lord John Russell characterized as possessed of the insurgents, estimated at 3000 strong, of large political experience, combined with but in reality not more than 500, who en- such liberality of sentiment as would best tered Toronto under the command of Mr. secure the confidence of the Canadians. McKenzie, editor of a republican newspaper, Lord Durham accepted the charge with reM. Van Egmont, an ex-officer of Napoleon, luctance, and proceeded to his seat of govlMr. Gibson, a land-surveyor, and Mr. Lount, ernment; but there his rule was both brief a blacksmith. Roused into decisive action and unhappy. Trying at once to punish by this sudden emergency, the governor esx- and conciliate, he only exposed himself to temporized a militia force that was soon the hostility of the Canadians, and the resufficient to keep this motley rebellion at preaches of the home government; and, at bay, until the arrival of reinforcements of last disgusted with his charge, he suddenly loyal volunteers to the amount of 10,000 or resigned it after six months' occupation, and 12,000, obliged the insurgents to betake returned to England, loudlfy complaining that themselves to flight. the ministry at home had not supported him These increasing difficulties in the govern- as they ought to have done. His arrival unment of Canada, that seemed only to have der such circumstances was so unprecedented awaited the commencement of a female reign and ungracious, that on landing, the usual to break out into actual rebellion, much per- salute of guns to him as a representative elexed the ministry at home. In spite of of royalty was withheld, and hle was even 478 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. threatened with impeachment. Indeed, al- net, he recommended Sir Robert Peel as the most simultaneously with his landing, tid- fittest person to be at the head of affairs; ings arrived from Lower Canada that the and Sir Robert having agreed to accept the rebels were again in arms, and in greater premiership, proceeded to fill up the cabinet! force than ever. The debates that followed appointments. But here his first movement upon Canadian affairs bore so hard upon the was an utter shipwreck, for- it was a propoearl, that to justify himself to the country at sal that certain -ladies of the bed-chamber. large, he published his report upon the con- connected by close relationship with his podition of the colony, which he had originally litical- opponents, should be either dismissed, drawn up for the enlightenment of the min- or persuaded to resign their offices. To a istry. In the debates that followed the cool calculating politician this requitemrielt queen's speech in 1839, the Duke of Wel- may have appeared just and necessary in a lington urgently insisted upon the disturbed female court, where ladies must naturally state of the North American possessions, as possess more than the usual influence of well as the precarious tenure by which they their sex; but by the public in general it were held. was indignantly complained of as a most unThe affairs of Canada, which occupied the chivalrous proceeding, which no argument attention of Parliament during this year, of statesmanship could justify, while the were alternated with petitions for the abro- queen at once rejected the proposal as being gation of the corn-laws, and premature at- both contrary to usage, and revolting to her tempts to make this great question the sub- feelings. Such a long period, indeed, had ject of parliamentary discussion- with the elapsed since the days of Queen Anne, that condition of Afghanistan, into which an An- politicians had to learn anew the application glo-Indian army had been marched-with of established court usages to the emergenproposals for further parliamentary reform cies of a female sovereignty. Finding this -and the appointment of a committee of difficulty at th6 outset unsurmountable, Sir inquiry into the state of Ireland, occasioned Robert rejected the offered premiership, by the assassination of the Earl of Norbury. and the Melbourne cabinet was restored to But of still more urgent consequence was office. the condition of Jamaica, where the plan- After this temporary bed-chamber interters were so discontented with the changes ruption had subsided, Parliament proceeded introduced into their government, conse- in its ordinary routine. And foremost among quent on the abolition of negro slavery, as the measures presented for consideration, was to cause apprehension of serious cormo- a ministerial plan for a general and national, tions. In consequence of this, a bill was system of education, proposed by Lord John introduced into parliament, proposing to Russell, in which a board, composed of e suspend the existing cpnstitution of the col- president, assisted by councillors not exceed ony for five years-a daring remedy, which ing five in number, should preside over the was met by the most decided opposition on distribution of the ministerial grants, and the part of Sir Robert Peel. The bill, which the management of the system in general, was a ministerial one, was gained by only a which was to consist of religious and moral majority of five, 289 being against it, and as well as intellectual braining. But here 294 in its favor; and, in consequence of this the high church party toolk the alarm at the significant indication, the Melbourne cabi- latitude which it allowed to the diffelent net, whose popularity had been gradually religious denominations while the Dissentdecreasing, sent in their resignation. On ers themselves opposed t as too exclusively the Dike of Wellington being invited by devoted to the interests of the Established her majesty to assist in forming a new cabi- Church. It was not in this fashion, or thus HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 479 early, that the momentous question of the quest. In the-course of these successful ag. present day was to be settled. Another sub- gressions, Dost Mohammed, sovereign of Ca. ject urgently brought -before the attention bul, finding himself in danger of being disof Parliament by a message from the queen, possessed by the Lion of Lahore, had rewas the administration of government in course to the British for protection; but as Canada, in which it was proposed that the the Indian government was at peace with his upper and lower provinces should be united enemy, the application was refused, whereinto one-a measure that was successfully upon he sought assistance not only from the accomplished in the following year. At Tartars, but also from Persia and Russia. home also the Chartists, who had risen into In this way a door was opened for Muscovite such portentous strength as seriously to intrigue and aggression. Instigated, as was alarm the government, by transmitting a alleged, by pecuniary aid from Russia, the monster petition in behalf of their five points, Shah of Persia marched in July, 1837, at the signed by 1,200,000 of the working-classes, head of 40,000 men, from Teheran to Herat, became so riotous on its rejection, especially to which he laid siege; upon which it was at Birmingham, that the police force of that determined by the Indian government that city had to be largely increased, and 5000 the young sovereign of Persia should be soldiers added to the military establishment. driven out of Cabul, and Shah Sujah, one of Even these precautions were insufficient, for the deposed Afghan kings, but now a British towards the close of the year their discon- pensionary, placed upon the throne. In this tent broke out into action. This was in way, it was hoped, a grateful ally would be Monmouthshire, where 4000 or 5000 rioters, secured, and a frontier barrier erected against armed with various weapons, and headed by Persian and Russian encroachments. AcJohn Frost, a magistrate, attacked the town cordingly, in the middle of June, 1838, a of Newport; but happily they were dis- British army was landed at Karrack in the persed, after a few volleys of musketry by Persian Gulf, of which it took possession; a handful of soldiers and policemen. and the Shah finding his own dominions thus In the parliament of 1840, which was invaded, broke up the siege of Herat, in opened by Her Majesty in person on the which he had made little progress, and has16th of January, her approaching marriage tily retreated homewards. A city that was with Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg-Gotha, the key to the Indian possessions against was announced in the opening of the queen's Persia and Russia was thus fully recovered; speech; and on this occasion the annual sum but unsatisfied with this result, the Angloof ~30,000 was voted out of the consolidated Indian government resolved to complete the fund as a provision for her royal consort. work by the subjugation of Afghanistan itPassing over the events of less importance self. Accordingly war was declared by Lord by which this year was distinguished, we Auckland, governor-general of India, while would now confine our attention to those dis- the conduct of it was committed to Sir Iten-,scers which awaited the British arms in the ry Fane, the commander-in-chief of all InEast. For a long period, the chief dread of dia,. who unwillingly undertook the charge, the security of the empire in India had from a melancholy foreknowledge of the difarisen from the growing ambition of Russia, ficulties with which it was certain to be atand its machinations with Persia and Af- tended. ghanistan, of which last country Runjeet These difficulties were not long in com. Sing, commonly called the Lion of Lahore, mencing. The first was the refusal of Runwho was suspected of leaning towards the jeet Sing to allow the British troops to cross designs of Russia, had obtained dominion his territories at the Punjaub, notwithstandol-er the greater part by intrigue and con- ing his previous agreement by treaty to that 480 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. effect. Then came the treachery of the lions per annum.. was the price of such an unAmeers of Scinde, who ] Ad engaged to fur- desirable tenure. In November, 1841, Sir nish provisions and the means of transport to A. Burnes, the British resident at Cabul, and the English armies; but who, when the cri- two officers, one of whom was his brother, sis arrived, not only broke their engagement, were attacked and murdered in their own but turned against them, and attacked the house by the insurgent Afghans, whose fortroops in the mountain passes. Finally, the midable bands had surrounded the city and health of Sir IHenry Fane, which had been shut out all communication between the Britaffected at the commencement, so completely ish army and the government; the British failed, that he was obliged to resign the com- encampment itself was attacked; and the mand, which was conferred upon Sir John troops demoralized by the confusion of couniKeane; and this change occasioned others, sels that prevailed among their officers, fled that led to jealousy and misunderstanding from the commissariat fort, leaving their proamong the officers, and produced some of the visions, clothing, and stores in the hands of worst errors of the war. In spite of these the enemy. A dangerous retreat or negotiand other obstacles, the Anglo-Indian army ation was now the only alternative, and unadvanced, and was everywhere successful: happily the latter was adopted. For this Ghuzna was taken by storm, Cabul entered purpose, Sir William Macnaughton, the Britin triumph, and Shah Sujah seated upon the ish commander, went out from the cantonmusnud. All danger being now thought at ment to an interview with Akbar Khan and an er It, Sir John Keane returned to Eng- the other insurgent chiefs, and the latter land, where he was raised to the peerage by agreed to allow the British army to retire the title of Baron IKeane of Ghuzna and without molestation, and furnish them with Capoquin, and Lord Auckland was rewarded provisions and the means of transport. But with the rank of Earl. But while the whole instead of fulfilling their bargain, these faithnation triumphed in this conquest of Af- less barbarians murdered all.the sick and ghlanistan, by which the British dominion wounded that fell into their hands, and withwas completed over India, the sagacity of held the promised provisions; and when the the Duke of Wellington was not deceived. British troops were exhausted with hunger, Understanding too well the nature of East- sickness, and the severity of the weather, they ern affairs, he expressed his apprehensions of rose in their demands, and insisted on a pew a coming reaction, and that these conquests treaty. A fresh interview followed, and Sir in Afghanistan were but the commencement William Macnaughton was basely murdalred of fresh difficulties. in the midst of the conference. Utterly disThese forebodings were but too well veri- pirited by this atrocious deed, the army a.:an fled. On the withdrawal of the army, 8000 doned all thought of resistance, and entered of the troops, British and Sepoy, were left at into a composition to secure their fui ther Cabul, independently of Shah Sujah's contin- retreat, by agreeing to abandon all their gent, which was commanded by British offi- guns except six, and all their treasures to cers. In the spring of 1840, as soon as the the enemy; to give bills for the paymmnt of melting of the ice and snow had opened the five lacs of rupees; and to leave the married mountain passes, hostilities were resumed by officers, with their wives and childr.en, as the Afghan tribes, aided by the Ameers of hostages until these terms were fulfilled. It Scinde; and although the army was increased was a miserable treaty for the conquerers of by reinforcements to 16,000, it seemed to be India to make. The retreat purchased unblockaded in a hostile country, rather than der such humiliating circumstances was as a force in successful military occupation, I disastrous, proportioned to the number of the while already an expense equal to three mil- sufferers, as any which history has recorded. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 481! It -was in the depth of winter, and 26,000 who had gained two victories over the Afhuman beings, comprising soldiers, camp fol- ghans, and recaptured Ghuznee, advanced to lowers, women and children, are calculated effect a junction with Pollock. The chiefs to have perished by the severity of the weath- who had hitherto sided with Akbar Khan, ir, by privations of every kind, and by the now turned against him; and a treaty in swords of the perfidious enemy, who hung which pecuniary recompense was largely upon their march and cut down every strag- promised them by the British government gler who was unable to keep up with his was eagerly accepted. The consequence was, companions. In short, of the whole military that after a liberal ransom, the officers,- with force who were thouglht sufficient for the their wives and children, who had been abanconqnest and possession of any eastern king- doned to the enemy as hostages, and who dom, only a few sepoys and camp followers had been often menaced with the most insucceeded in escaping to Jellalabad, still held famous treatment, arrived in safety at headout by General Sale, who had cleared the quarters. pass of Khoord Cabul at the commencement This Afghan war was not the only eastern of the insurrection, and who gallantly re- question that occupied the attention of the tained possession of the fortress, notwith- home government; the maintenance of the standing the desponding orders of his supe- integrity of the Turkish empire, in which rior, Elphinstone, to evacuate it. Britain has so deep an interest, was also at A reverse so remarkable in the history of issue, in consequence of the ambition of MoBritish conquest in India produced a corres- hammed, Ali, the most formidable of Ottopondent depression, and it was resolved to man viceroys. Soon after his accession, Abobtain the liberation of the captive women dul Mledjid, the young G-rand SeigDor, had and children by treaty and ransom. But this offered to his dangerous vassal a full pardon abject step, which would have destroyed all for the past, and the hereditary sovereignty prestige in India, and commenced a train of of Egypt; but the Pacha, not contented with disasters under which the eastern govern- this, demanded possession of Syria also, by ment would have been shaken if not finally which Turkey would have been. dismemberoverthrown, was happily abandoned, and a ed, and its very existence placed at his rmerwar of retrieval commenced. For this Jolla- cy. Upon this unreasonable demand, which.abad afforded a centre and rallying point, Mohammed had full means to enforce, the as it was still gallantly held out by General allied powers, England, Austria, Russia, and Sale, who disturbed the siege of Akbar Khan Prussia, interposed; and as the Sultan had by several successful sallies, and at length no naval power for the recovery of Syria, his defeated him on the 7th of April, 1842, in navy having deserted to the viceroy, the alan open engagement, with only a part of the lied powers, who found that something more garrison. In the meantime, General Pollock, than remonstrance was necessary, entered who had been pressing forward to the relief into an agreement to that effect at London of the fortress, reached it nine days after- on the 15th of September, 1840. Accordwards, when its provisions were all but ex- ingly, a British fleet, aided by an Austrian hausted, and the siege was instantly raised. niaval and land force, reduced the city of The British army thlen advanced upon Cabul, Beyrout, defeated Ibrahim Pacha, and so in the middle of August, and met with little effectually aided the Syrian mountaineers, or no resistance, the successful Afghan chiefs who were disgusted with the oppressive rule being now engaged in war with each other, of the Egyptian army, that the latter was and that too in the very neighborhood of compelled to retreat upon Acre. The city the city which it was their common interest of Sidon was then captured; and on the 3d Jo defend. A.t the same time, General NPott, of November the British fleet advanced tc m.-31 482 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the attack of St. Jean d'Acre, that city which pean military science, discipline and experiNapoleon regarded as the key of the East. ence; and that when they had recourse to this fortress was taken by the British in less temporizing and treachery, these were only than four hours; and the naval force, which followed by fresh disasters. Thus matters only lost 12 men killed and 42 wounded in went on in 1840 and the two following years, the attack, inflicted upon the enemy a loss until the Chinese government was forced into of more than two thousand in killed, wound- submission, and a treaty was signed on the ed, and prisoners. This signal victory de- 20th of August, 1842, in which they made stroyed the pretensions of Mohammed All, full reparation. who yielded to the terms imposed upon him The course of eastern warfare was once by the allies through Admiral Sir Charles more shifted from China to India.: The Napier, the conqueror of Acre. These were, Ameers of Scinde, encouraged by the disasthat he should give up the Turkish fleet to ters of the British army among the Afghan the Sultan, abandon for ever his claims upon mountains in the retreat from Cabul, inSyria, and hold Egypt as an hereditary de- censed at the loss of their transit duties on pendency of the Ottoman Porte. In this merchandise passing up and down the Indus, way the dismemberment of Turkey was de- and apprehensive of losing their huntinglayed. grounds upon the banks of the river by the It was not merely in the Afghanistan war continued encroachments of British dominthat English commercial intei'ests in the East ion, took up arms for a general resistance. hald for a time been in danger: in China also Against these dangerous enemies Sir Charles a war had been commenced against the Brit- -Napier was sent; and on the 17th of Febish, originating in the alterations that had ruaryv, two dclays after the violation of the been made in the East India Company's treaty, he attacked them within twenty milei charter, by which their exclusive monopoly of Hydrabad, upon which city he was adin the Chirla trade was abolished. The Chi- vancing. The Ameers, who had mustered nese, who were immoderately addicted to a numerous army, gallantly contested the the use of 6pium, had hitherto been supplied, ground, and for some time made victory though in limited degree, with that perni- doubtful; but at length they were routed cious drug from India through the Company; by the greatly inferior British force, who on but no sooner was the trade thrown open, this occasion rivalled the brightest achievethan opium was poured into the Chinese ments of the soldiers of Lake and Clive. market without stint, until its effects were Three days after the victory the conquerors soon felt as one of the worst of national evils, entered and took possession of IHydrabad; Alarmed at this, the Chinese government in consequence of which Scinde was re adopted a remedy in its own, despotic fash- duced to a British province, with Napier foi: ion, by suspending all trade with the British, its governor, slavery was abolished, and the seizing and destroying the opium and other Indus opened to the trade of every nation. British property, and firing upon their ships During the same year, and towards its in their passage up the River to Canton. close, a war was commenced with the IMVahThese aggressions were so frequent, and the rattas, who had rebelled against their young treaties that followed them were so ineffect- Maharajah, whom the British were bound nal, that in 1840 war was proclaimed, and by-treaties to support, and committed oth, Cantor. blockaded by a British fleet. The or excesses that made chastisement inevitaresult of the encounters that followed was ble. An army was sent against them under the such as might have been expected: the Chi-: command of Sir Hugh Gough, and a battle nese soon found that mere barbarism, cour- fought at MIaharajpoor on the 29tl of Deage and numbsrs were no match for Euro- cember, 1843, in which the Malhrattas were HIS TORY OF THE WORLD. 483 defeated, though not without severe loss to occasion was marched against them with the British, whose number almost equaled great celerity. An encounter took place at that of the enemy. Upon the same day a Moodkee, on the 18th of December, 1845, and victory was obtained over a I ahratta force although the Sikhs were in great force and at Punniar by a division of the British army advantageously posted, as well as defended under the command of Major-General Grey. by a numerous artillery, in the use of which In consequence of this twofold defeat the they had been trained by European officers, Mahrattas submitted, and their country was while the British, consisting of only foul garrisoned by military occupation. During regiments of foot, and one of light dragoons, this course of a four years' war, extending were exhausted with a long march, and proover Syria, India, and China, events at home vided with only a few six-pounders, the latter were of such minor importance that we can were victorious, although with a heavy loss scarcely afford them a passing glance. The in killed and wounded. Undismayed by principal affairs with which Parliament was this defeat, which fell only upon their adoccupied, independent of these important vanced troops, the main army of the Sikhs movements in the East, were an alarming on the opposite side of the river, crossed the diminution in the revenue, and the question Sutledge, with an overwhelming array of of the repeal of the corn-laws, which, in horse, foot, and cannon, and entrenched themconsequence of the fall of the revenue, was selves at Ferozeshah. There a terrible enforced into final discussion. Against these gagement took place between them and the restrictions on the importation of grain par- British, who were now not only reinforced liament had been petitioned in 1839; in with fresh troops, but aided by the pres1841 the subject was resumed, with almost ence of Sir Henry Hardinge, the governoras much urgency as that which had carried general, who on this trying occasion set aside the Reform bill; and, in the following year, his superiority of rank, and took the comthe popular agitation for the repeal of the mand of the left wing under Sir ITulgh corn-laws was so overwhelming, that a new Gough. This great battle, to which that of cabinet under Sir Robert Peel, after carry- Moodkee had been but a prelude, commenced ing the property and income tax, found that on the 21st of December, and lasted two it could do nothing less than abate, if it did days; while the British, who were defective not wholly abolish, these obnoxious restric- in cavalry and artillery, with which the tions. This accordingly was done by Sir enemy were abundantly provided, were obRobert in March, 1842, when his modifica- liged to depend upon the steadiness of their tion of tle sliding scale, instead of an entire infantry, and charges of the bayonet. On free trade in corn, was introduced and car- this occasion the Sikhs were at last driven ried by a majority of 306 against 104. out of their camp after a gallant resistance, The affairs of India once more becamne the in which the British sustained a loss of more subjects of public attention. Lord Ellen- than two thousand in killed and wounded. borough, the governor-general, was recalled After this double engagement, the Sikhs, in April, 1844, and Sir tIenry Hardinge ap- still undismayed, entrenched themselves at pointed to his room. The latter, on his ar- Sobraon; but there they were attacked by rival in India, found the Sikhs in a state of Sir Hugh Gongh on the 10th of February. wild disorder in consequence of the death 1846, and totally defeated, and driven across of the energetic Runjeet Sing, the Lion of the Sutledge, while the British army entered Lahore, and ready to invade the British ter- the Punjaub. Lahore, the capital, surrenritories, which they soon afterwards did by dered at their approach; and the authority crossing the Sutleige; upon which a mili- of the young Maharajah, Goolab Sing, was tary force that had )een in readiness for the restored. 481 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. While these eastern events were in pro- administration. The commercial prosperity gress,.a great agricultural conflict had been of 1845, so flattering at its commencement, going on at home. This was for the re- had encountered a sudden shock chiefly peal of the corn-laws, which, having lasted through the disease in the potato crop, by their day, were now to be dismissed as mere which there was a deficiency in the available worn-out relics of departed feudalism. The wealth of the country to the amount of sevagitation to that effect, chiefly conducted by eral millions. But fearfully this calamity Mr. Cobden, had acquired a formidable con- had fallen upon Ireland, where the potato sistency and strength by the organization of constitutes the principal article of food, and an anti-corn-law league, well furnished with for the loss of which an immediate remedy influential names and pecuniary contribu- was urgently demanded. A whole nation tions; and, at the close of 1845, the demand was at the starving point. The opening of for a free trade was so loud over England the session was, therefore, earlier than usual, and Scotland, that Sir Robert Peel and his the Parliament meeting on the 19th of Jancabinet, who were divided upon the question, uary, and the subject of Irish destitution gave in their resignation. A new ministry, was the chief subject of discussion. The however, could not be formed, and Sir Rob- temporary expedients proposed and adopted ert was persuaded to resume office only ten on this occasion were parliamentary labor days after. But more urgent still than the upon the farms and public- works, the refiercest popular clamor was the failure of the claiming of waste lands, and the eleemosynpotato crop, and the famine that followed, ary relief of gratuitous rations and soupso that even the agricultural interest was kitchens. The more: permanent remedies obliged to acknowledge the necessity of a introduced totheconsideration of Parliament; repeal. It was hunger that at last ate through were the sale of encumbered estates, the. these stone walls of protection, and prepared conversion of long leaseholds into copyholds. the openings for a free trade in corn; and it and the construction of railways; for which was Sir Robert Peel himself who brought changes it was stated that grants from govinto parliament a bill to that effect, which ernment to the amount of sixteen millions was passed through the House of Commons would be necessary. But costly though the on the 16th of May, 1845, and through that price was, these remedies were subsequently of the Lords on the 21st of June. With adopted, a-nd put in practice. Other meathis daring experiment, not upon individual sures connected with Ireland that occupied - interests, but the national existence itself, the attention of Parliament during the same the popular desire was satisfied, and the session, had reference to the suppression of present famine forgot in the hopes of future crime, which had increased to a fearful abundance. amount, especially in the form of open mur-Next to Mr. Cobden no member of the der, assassination, and conspiracies against Anti-Corn Law League did more to secure the rights of property; and to suppress these the execution of its object than John Bright, evils a bill was introduced and passed through who has since become so distinguished in parliament investing the Lord Lieutenant parlianlent as a powerful advocate of all with almost dictatorial power, which was to liberal measures. After the repeal of the continue in full force until the 31st of Decorn-laws and establishment of free-trade, cemnber, 1849. It was wonderful how easily Sir Robert Peel resigned office and was this measure passed through the ordeal of succeeded by Lord John Russell. the Irish members, few opposing it except The year 1847 was signalized by political those of the O'Connell family. But for this difficulties that would have tried the wisdom silence there was sufficient cause, as their as well as tested the stability of any political great leader, whose voice would have been E ei i~i-,Y b G a: d P ~-; s ~ ~u`i t h:~~-::.-i::,r:: ,i:,,:.,, r::i :(Il:r.....''':' c~........ I,:;;;i."' ~:~1: 5 ~~~ ";" r,:~:~.::~:::::i::::::;:::,g: ~ 1:~~~;~:' ~~~1~~~~~ c::~r-~~::~.:::~:i.:Fij: ~ F ''''::(~.::;;.-~~.:B~ :;r~ u e"'' r,:: .... ~ iii:::~ar: J ~.;.u~~::~' I; ":;?.-:-:-i~ ~::::::~;';I::'"~ C r ~u1' ~-(:~-~ "V.'d ~ a 9, i' r33,u d' c,I 91 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 485 loudest on such an occasion when his country promise that in a few generations more the was to be colonized by the Saxons, had ended marked superiority by which Ulster stood his political career. Daniel O'Connell, the alone would be fully shared by all the provingreat tribune of Ireland, who had won as ces of Ireland. a popular agitator a more than kingly as- During the settlement of these important eendency, died at Genoa, on his way to measures, and while peace still continued at Rome, on the 15th of May, 1847. home, a short but sharp war had broken out While the nation was thus suffering from in India, where the Sikhs, notwithstanding deficient harvests, mercantile depression, and their former defeats and subjection, had a defective revenue, the magnanimity with again risen against the Indian government, which these evils were endured, and the en- and commenced their insurrection with the ergy with which they were surmounted, bore murder of two British officers. The gallant full evidence to the deep-rooted strength and resistance which they made in the field cast stability of the British constitution. An at- an ominous shadow over the security of the tempt, indeed, was made on the part of rule in India, until the public anxiety was Chartism to avail itself of the universal tranquillized by the capture of il[ooltan, a commotion, but all that it could effect was a stronghold of the Sikhs, and their final de. few monster meetings that evaporated in feat at Goojerat. As it was thought. danspeeches, or paltry riots that were easily sup- gerous to enter into further treaty with such pressed by the police. In Ireland also an enemies, or continue-to recognize them as attempt at open rebellion upon a grand scale an independent power, their country, the ended in a trifling skirmish in a cabbage Punjaub, was annexed to the Anglo-Inidian garden, and the capture of Mr. Smith 0O- empire. Brier, the redoukted leader of the move- The triumph obtained by the: free trade ment. Still agrarian riots, violence, and party in the abolition of the navigation laws assassination continued in that unhappy coun- was not lost upon the protectionists; and try as before, and with more formidable re- thinking that their opportunity had fully arsults than open rebellion, so that Irish affairs rived, they followed up the movement of occasioned much parliamentary solicitude their opponents by similar appeals and argue during the following year. To meet those ments in behalf of the agricultural interest. difficulties arising from the destitution which For this purpose a motion Was made by Mr. the potato blight had occasioned, and which Disraeli, now the leader of the protection still continued to increase in severity, various party; to throw a portion of the rates charged temporary measures were adopted, that suf- upon agricultural produce into the general ficed for a few weeks or months to hold the taxation of the country. But, though the evil at bay, and give the sufferers a chance complaints of the agricultural classes, owing of recovery. But the most permanent ben- to the depression which free trade had introefit that could be imparted to such.a country duced among them, were both loud and forwas the Encumbered Estates bill, proposed midable, the motion of Mr. Disraeli was during the previous year, and now carried negatived by a majority of 280 to 189. through both houses, by which land hitherto In the following year, a more favorable useless was thrown into the market, and opportunity still seemed to have arrived, made available to those who had wealth to as the excess of the national income over purchase and spirit to cultivate it. In this the expenditure was somewhat more than way English and Scottish merchants became two millions; and accordingly the propoIrish proprietors; Saxon capital, persever- sal was again brought forward in 1850, ance, and skill were brought to a rich but but only again to be negatived, on this occahitherto Tnproductive soil; and all gave sion, however, by a dim;nished majority of 486 HISTORY.OF THE WORLD. 21, 252 being in favor of the protectionist been very unsatisfactory. It was found al bill, and 273 against it. A still greater par- most impossible to keep the Chinese to the liamentary unanimity happily prevailed in terms of that conventicn, and England had favor of the claims of the colonies to a con- permitted a part of the privileges then grantstitutional government-a benefit which, if ed to remain unexercised, till an act of open not freely conceded, it was thought they violence in the seizure of a vessel under would soon be strong enough to take with- British protection in the harbor of Canton, out the formality of asking. In this way brought- affairs to a crisis. The Imperial the privilege of self-government was claimed Commissioner Yeh would offer neither afor the North American colonies, the South pology nor reparation, and it was found African colonies, the Australian colonies, necessary to send a special ambassador to Van Diemen's Land, and New Zealand. arrange all matters in dispute, and offer a disThese demands were separately discussed; play of British power which should make a and after many amendments, such conces- sufficient impression on the natives' fears. sions were made as were judged best fitted Lord Elgin was appointed to conduct the nefor the progress and necessities of each com- gotiation, and hurried across to Singapore munity. to wait the arrival of the military and naval On the 1st of May, 1851, the Great Ex- expedition which was to enforce the authorhibition of the Industry of all Nations was ity of his requisitions. Meeting General opened by the Queen with great splendor; Ashburnham at Singapore, he learned from it was visited by immense multitudes of both him the first report of the mutiny of the English and foreigners, and it was hoped that Sepoys, and perceiving, at once the danger of the friendly intercourse it had produced the Indian possessions, he changed the destiwould tend to consolidate the peace which nation of the troops sent to support him, Europe had so long enjoyed. During the deferring the punishment of the Chinese till six months it was open, the receipts for ad- some more favorable occasion. mission amounted to ~505,107, which not An account of the outbreak and suppresonly defrayed all the expenses of its con- sion of the Indian rebellion has appeared in struction, but left a surplus of ~150,000, the article on INDIA. After its successful which was expended on the purchase of a termination, and the re-establishment of site for a National Gallery. British power, it became evident that a reorDuring the year 1852, however important ganization of the Indian government was were public events, there was one incident required. Authority so great, a region so that abated the keenness of political interest, extensive, and military forces on such an imand threw a gloom over the public mind. perial scale, seemed no longer fitted for the This was the death of the Duke of Welling- nominal rule of the East India Company. It ton, who, worn out with the toils of a long was resolved to tunite the name of power to and most eventful life, expired at Walmer the reality, which had in effect resided for a Castle, on the 14th of September, 1852, in long time in the government at home. The the eighty-fourth year of his age. tradition of the humble days of widening The next great event in the foreign history trade and increasing dividends, remained of Great Britain, the Russian war, has al- with the board in Leadenhall Street after the ready been described in the history of Rus- decision of higher matters was taken out of SIA, to which we refer the reader for a full their hands. The form of authority still reaccount of its origin and progress. mained; and their seal was still attached to The year 1858 saw the outbreak of new the commissions of the army, and the ap. hostilities in China. The intercourse with pointrent of civil servants who were to rule this country, since the treaty of 1842, had over districts as large as kingdoms. After a HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 487 debate in parliament, the great deed was During the year 1862, the Great Interna ccnsummated in the transference of all the tional Exhibition displayed to the public a remaining power of the company to the im- marvellous: collection of treasures of every perial crown. The successors of the early kind. But the circumstances attending it adventurers trading to the East disappeared were very different from those of the first from history at the same time with the suc- exhibition of 1851. Then the union of cessor of Akbar and Aurumgzebe; and en- nations in contributing the products of couraging peaceful enterprise like the first, science, art, and trade was looked upon and governing a wider empire than owned as no slight guarantee for the continuance the sway of those eastern kings, Yictoria of a general peace. The exhibition of assumed the sceptre over two hundred mil- 1862 opened in the midst of the fearful lions of additional subjects, and on the 2d of civil war in the United States; and the feel. August, 1858, became Empress of Hindu- ings of satisfaction or pride with which it stan. might otherwise have been regarded were Among the more important bills passed miserably dampened by the cotton famine, about this time, was that for the admission which deprived half a million workmen in of Jews into parliament. The measure, in- Lancashire of all means of support. Slowly, troduced by Lord John Russell, provided that but surely, the dearth of cotton resulting a member might take the oath, leaving out from the American blockade had been inthe words-" on the true faith of a Chris- creasing in intensity, until in the autumn of tian." The special services in the prayer- 1862, the dreadful extent of the calamity book for the 5th of November, Guy Fawkes' forced itself on the whole people. But while day, the 30th of January, the execution of ruin was spreading on every side, the nation Charles II., and 29th of May, the restoration was making a determined effort to arrest the of the Royal Family, were also abolished in evil. All that was needed to save the noble 1858. The question of parliamentary reform workmen of Lancashire not merely from was brought up in the house, with no result starvation but from pinching distress, was at the time, however, beyond causing the cheerfully given; and the relief so obtained downfall of the existing ministry. was administered with a singular wisdom. The following years were remarkably de- Nor must it be forgotten that, in the midst of void of interesting historical events in the their own anxieties and dangers, the merannals of Great Britain. In the war on the chants of New York contributed largely tc continent between France, Italy, and Aus- relieve the sufferings of the Lancashire workl tria, she took no active part, closely adhering men. to the policy of non-intervention which, has The most important event in the domestic been her guiding principle through all the history of England in 1863, was the marriage late European contests. During the course of the Prince of Wales to the Princess Alexof the American war for the Union, the andra of Denmark. The wedding was eeleaffair of the Trent almost brought her into brated with great splendor in the Chapel a war with the United States; the tempting Royal, at Windsor Castle, on the 10th of position of a nation, divided by an immense March. The year 1865 was marked by the civil conflict seeming wonderfully to sharpen death of two prominent English politiciiis, the sense of British national honor. Mr. Cobden and Lord Palmerston. The Prince Consort died at Windsor Cas- The year 1866 proved disastrous to the tie on the 14th of December, 1861. The internal affairs of Great Britain. The cattle gloom over the country at the event was plague which had been introduced fiom more universal than on the occasion of the Germany, increased in virulence, and in death of the Duklle of Wellington. tw-elve months caused the death of nearly 4:88 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. three hundred thousand cattle. A panic in force will find their place in the history of the money market, brought about the failure: IRELAND and of CANADA. The disturbance in of some of the oldest bankers in the country; England in most cases, amounted to nothing and the consequent dullness of trade and the more than a few local affrays with the stoppage of manufactures, threw many men police. A project to seize the castle of out of employment, and in consequence there Chester was revealed by informers and prewas great hardship and suffiring among the vented. At Manchester a serious riot occur poorer classes, which, in some cases, caused red in an attempt to rescue some Fenian bread riots. prisoners who were being conveyed to jail. TheReform Bill introduced by the Russell- Several policemen were killed and some othGladstone ministry, a compromise with the ers wounded. Three, of the rioters were claims of the large class of the people who were afterwards executed. While they were unwithout the suffrage, was lost by a majority der sentence in London, a portion of Clerkof eleven, and a cabinet headed by Lord enwell Jail, where they were confined, was Derby and Mr. Disraeli, succeeded to the blown up with gunpowder, killing and defeated administration. The question of wounding many persons in theneighborhood. reform, lost in parliament, was transferred to The Fenlians denied all complicity in the the people; the agitation was carried on with crime. mass-meetings and processions, and the at- Lord Derby resigned in the early part of tempt of the government to disperse an 1868, and Mr. Disraeli rose to the premierassembly in Hyde Park almost led to a seri- ship. The favorable course of his adminisotus riot. tration, which began so prosperously, was The conservative administration was stead- soon interrupted by a resolution introduced ily opposed to the extension of the suffrage, by the great liberal leader, Mr. Gladstone, but the pressure of the general desire of the for the disestablishment of the Irish Church. people at length became so strong that it was The maintenance in Ireland of the English "obliged to yield. After repeated amendments Episcopal Church by the forced contributions and modifications, a bill was passed on the of the people had long been one of the most op15th of June, 1861, giving a vote to every pressive grievances of that misgoverned counman who earned ~100 a year. This arrange- try. Out of a population of nearly six millions, ment brought in about eight hundred thou- four millions and a half were Roman Catholics, sand new electors. In the latter pai-t of and but half the remainder belonged to the September, a military expedition was sent to Church of England. Of course, this propoAbyssinia to effect the liberation of the Eng- sal called forth the greatest opposition from lish subjects who were held in prison by several quarters; for besides the usual "'No KIing Theodore. The details of this cam- popery " cry, there was the loss of the benepaign have already been given under the fices which afforded an easy livelihood to so head of ABYSSINIA. many younger sons of the nobility. But Mr. The peace of Great Britain and the admin- Gladstone's perseverance effected its passage istration of her colonies had been greatly through the House of Commons, defeating disturbed for the two or three preceding the government by a majority of sixty-five. years by a new form of agitation in Ireland. Disraeli, however, refused to resign, declarThis was the organization called the Fenian ing his belief that in the coming election the Brotherhood, a secret society, which directed people would not sanction such a radical its operations, not only against Ireland, but measure. Mr. Gladstone did not attempt to also tried to shake the security of British force him to retire, but merely introduced a rule in the colonies. The operations, hith- bill preventing any action with regard to erto vith little result, of this mysterious vacancies, etc., in the Irish Church forayear .......... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~V HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 489 from August, 1868. This bill was carried the bishops no longer to have a seat in parthrough and parliament prorogued. The liament. The public endowments, that is, following election was one of the most ex- the state grants and revenues, were to return citing ever seen in England. A majority to the state, while the private endowments, of about one hundred and twelve liberals the contributions from private sources since was returned. Mr. Disraeli immediately 1660, were to remain to the church. Other resigned, and 1Mr. Gladstone organized a provisions were made for vested interests. new ministry. At an early period of the The bill, of course, met with greater opposession the bill for the disestablishment of sition in the House of Lords. It was many the Irish Church was introduced, and passed times returned with amendments to the after a long and exciting debate. The Commons, but nearly all the alterations disestablishment was to take place in Jan- proposed were rejected. A compromise was uary, 1870, and was to be total; the eceles- effected, however, and the bill became a law!astical commission was to be abolished and on the 26th of July, 1869. 490 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. SCOTLAND. T will not be expected that in such a Agricola, the exact site of which ha; been sketch of the history of Scotland as is keenly disputed. There seems to be little alone suited to this work, we should enter doubt, however, that previously to its occurinto the great controversy concerning the rence the Roman general had passed the origin of the Scottish people. It will be more Frith of Tay, and that although victorious suitable to mark the progress of the great over the fierce and undisciplined multitudes events in their national history, and to pass which opposed him, lie experienced a check over its minor features; to fix the attention which compelled him to desist from any furupon results rather than to perplex it with ther aggression. Two great events marked details; and to establish a series of points by the last years of the government of Agricola. which an intelligent reader may guide his tIe explored the northern coasts of Scotland memory and direct his studies. by his fleet; and to him tile Roman world, It is well known, that our first authentic in all probability, owed its first certain knowknowledge of Britain comes from Julius ledge that Britain was an island. He enCoasar. Fifty-five years before the Christian deavored, in the second place, to secure his era, this extraordinary man invaded the conquests from future attack by a chain of island from Gaul; but his operations were forts connecting the Friths of Forth and attended with little success, his stay was Clyde. Having completed these defences, brief, and it is certain that he knew nothing he was recalled by the jealousy of Domitian, of Scotland. It was not till nearly a century and left Britain in the year eighty-five. and a half after Cmsar's descent, and during From this time till the reign of Hadrian, the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, that a period of thirty-six years, we hear little of Julius A gricola, at the head of a Roman the Romans, either in southern or northern army, penetrated into the northern parts of 7Britain. Early in the second century, (A. D. Britain. Among various conflicting accounts, 121,) this emperor in person made an expeit seems certain that he first pushed his con- dition into Scotland; and about twenty quests as far as the Friths of Forth and Clyde; years later, Lollius Urbicus, the Roman govthat in succeeding campaigns he penetrated ernor under the Emperor Antoninus, distinnorthwards; and that in his last great expe- guished himself by the courage and ability dition, during which his army was accom- which he displayed against the turbulent and panied by a numerous fleet, which sailed warlike tribes which inhabited the northern along the coast, he was opposed by a barba- parts of the island. Two facts, however, rian chief named (algacus. A sanguinary are admitted by the Roman writers, which battle was fought between this leader and demonstrate how uncertain was the tenure HISTORY; OF THE WORLD. 491 by which these masters of the world held suppose him to have encountered very for their northern possessions in Britain. The midable obstacles. The savage and unclear. Emperor Hadrian, apparently distrusting the ed state of the country, the extent of the sufficiency of the line of forts already form- forests, the unhealthy and interminable ed by Agricola, constructed a wall or forti- marshes, the mountainous ranges which pre. fled rampart from the Tyne to the Solway. sented such formidable obstacles to the march From the adoption of this measure it is of a regular army, the rivers, of which the evident, that the courage and successes of fords were unknown, and the want of subthe barbarians had given much annoyance sistence for his troops, except what he carto the Romans; and this is corroborated by ried along with him, must have combined to the second fact to which we allude, namely, throw infinite difficulties in his way. There that between the period of Hadrian's death seems good reason to believe that the spot and the succession of Antoninus Pius, (A. n. where the Roman eagles terminated their 138,) the wall between the Forth and Clyde flight in this memorable expedition, was the had been so completely destroyed, that Lol- promontory separating the Cromarty and the lius Urbicus entirely reconstructed it. Dur- Moray Friths. Here, according to Chalmers, ing the remaining years of his government, the Caledonians sought for peace, surrenderthis able officer devoted himself to opening ed their arms, and relinquished a portion of up the country by roads; to the construction their country. of various camps and fortalices, of which the Severus retired to York in a feeble state site has been traced with much industry and of health; but it was not to repose upon his success by the latest writer on the subject; laurels, for scarcely had he reached that staand to the introduction of those useful arts tion when news arrived that the Caledonians which were best calculated to raise and hu- were again in arms. Irritated by disappointmanize the character of the northern barba- ment and disease, he determined instantly to rians. I-Is administration in Britain appears renew the war; intrusted the leading of the to have terminated with the death of his army to his son Caracalla; and issued orders master, Antoninus Pius, A.D. 161. to spare neither age nor sex. But death From this period till the beginning of the happily arrested these inhuman projects. third century, all is dark in Britain. But in The emperor expired at York, and the son the year 207, the Emperor Severus received does not appear, on any good evidence, to intelligence that the Caledonians had invad- have executed the orders of the father. ed the Roman provinces; and with a vigor From this period, (A.D. 211,) which marks and alacrity which, considering the distance the commencement of the third, to nearly of the seat of war, and the barren prize to the middle of the fifth century, (446,) the oe contested, is not easily explained, he has- Romans appear to have abandoned all tened in person to reduce the insurgent Cale- thoughts of extending their conquests. For donians. This expedition, making every some time, however, an effort was made to allowance for the exaggeration with which defend the northern Romanized Britons from the exploits of an emperor were usually re- the repeated incursions of the'Caledonians. corded, must have been an extraordinary In the commencement of the fourth century, one. In the comparatively civilized coun- (A.D. 306,) Constans revisited Britain for this try which extended between the walls of Ha- purpose; in the year 368, after a sanguinary drian and Antoninus, he could meet with and destructive invasion of the barbarians, a little opposition; but when he left this last temporary tranquillity was restored by the line of defence, and conducted his army into arms of Theodosius; in 398, Stilicho, alarmed the wild regions beyond the Frith of Forth, by new excesses and increasing weakness in ultimately penetrating into Moray, we must the northern provinces, sent such effectual 432 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. aid as enabled the Roman governors once were afterwards embalmed in the elegant mnore to repel the enemy; and, lastly, in the Latinity of Buchananan. year 422, the Emperor IHonorius, having in Some points in this period, however, have vain endeavored to rouse the provincial in- been ascertained, and they are well worthy habitants to a vigorous effort in their own of notice, We have already seen, that on defence, sent a legion to their assistance, by the entire abdication of Britain by the IRowhose efforts the fortifications of the two mans, the five tribes which inhabited Yalenwalls were repaired, and the barbarians once tia were declared independent. They were more driven back into their more northern no longer provincial subjects of Rome, but a seats. But this was the last relief which free, though an effeminate people. The con could be wrung by her miserable children stant attacks of the Picts rendered it necesfrom a parent who was herself expiring; and sary for them to unite in their own defence; it secured for them but a brief period of and from this union arose a new kingdom, tranquillity. Imperial Rome, with a tardy denominated by ancient authors'sometimes and ostentatious justice, conferred freedom the Regyznum OGtmnbrense, or more freq[uently on the southern Britons; and restoring a the kingdom of Strathelyd. " The metro. country which she was no longer able to hold, polis of this kingdom," says Chalmers, " was informed them that henceforth they must Alclyd, a city which they still retained when trust to their own efforts for the defence of the pen dropt from the hand of the venertheir independence. Having given this part- able Bede, in 734, and which is situated on ing advice to men who appear to have been the north bank of the Clyde, at the influx little able to follow it, the Romans abandon- of the Leven." ed Britain for ever. Among the little kings who reigned over At the period of the Roman abdication, Strathelyd, there are none whose names or we find that north Britain was inhabited by exploits are worthy of preservation, with the the descendants of the Caledonian clans who, single exception of the semi-poetic Arthur. under the name of Picts or Picti, became It is sad that the severer hand of history for four centuries the predominating nation should strip this glorious " Childe " of his in Scotland. Among these we must be care- many-colored robes, and reduce him to the ful to distinguish the five Romanized tribes cold reality of a Cumbrian Pendragon. At who possessed Valentia, or the country be- the commencement of the sixth century, tween the walls of Agricola and Antoninus, Arthur, the chief military leader or Pendranot as a race of different descent, but of im- gon of the Cumbrian Britons, expelled his proved civilization, while their fiercer breth- sovereign, -Iuail or Hoel, from Strathclyde, ren beyond the Forth bore fresh upon them and commenced a reign of which it is imall the stamp of barbarian life. possible to separate the facts from the fictions It would be a vain, and in a sketch of this with which they have become incorporated. nature, an idle labor, to enter upon the ob- But the Pictish period is not only distinscure and sanguinary annals of the Pictish guished by the rise of a new kingdom, it is period; an era upon which, to use a quaint marked by the arrival in Scotland of a new expression of Chalmers, archaeology is loqua- people, the Saxons, a race of Gothic origin, cious, and history silent. During the four who invaded and finally effected a settlement centuries which elapsed between the accession in Lothian. This remarkable event, so im of the first and the last of these monarchs, portant in its remote consequences upon the thi\rty-eight Pictish kings are enumerated. national history, took place in the middle of Of their authentic history there is scarcely the fifth century (A.D. 449.) It was not difa vestige; but the blank has bee7 n filled up ficult for the Saxons, a people who certainly by the fableE of Boyce, which unhappily were far their superiors in courage and in HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 493 arms, to subdue the feebler race of the Otta- the province of Ulster, led a colony into the dini. They do not at first appear to have ancient province of the British Epidii, and attempted to push their conquests to the effected a settlement upon the promontory northward of the Forth, but contented them- of Kentire. As far as any light is afforded selves with the occupation of a portion of by the Irish annals, in this occupation of the province of Valentia. After the lapse iKentire the Scoto-Irish met with but feeble of a century, however, Ida, one of the bold- opposition; and a long period of obscnrity est and most adventurous of the sons of Wo- succeeds, in which little more is distinguilhden, landed at Flamborough, and brought able, except the fact that a series of Scotoan important accession to the strength and Irish kings, or reguli, are found in Scotland, numbers of his countrymen. It was by this from the commencement of the fifth century, great chief that the Saxon kingdom of iNorth- (503,) when Fergus held the throne, till the umbria Was founded; nor was he arrested in accession of Kenneth, the son of Alpin, who his victorious career, till he had extended his reigned from the year 836 to 843, under dominions from the Humber to the Forth. whom the ascendancy of the Scoto-Irish or Ida was succeeded in the Northumbrian Scotch, appears to have been established. kingdom by A ella, and Aella by Ethelred, Already the IRomanized Britons of the under whose reigns occurred no event of im- South had received the true faith, and the portance; but Edwin his successor, who Scoto-Irish appear to have been converted to came to the throne in the beginning of the Christianity by St. Patrick, previously to seventh century, appears to have added es- their establishment in Kentire. St. Ninian, sentially to the extent of the Saxon con- himself a Briton, though educated as a monk quests, and to have impressed not only the at Rome, had, in the commencement of the southern Britons, but his fiercer and more fourth century, founded a monastery in Galnorthern neighbors the Picts, with the terror loway; and in the sixth century, St. Kentiof his arms. There appears little doubt that gern signalized himself by his pious labors Edinburgh or Edwinsburgh, the present cap- among the Britons of Strathclyde; but the ital of Scotland, owes its foundation to this conversion'of the northern Pic ts was reservenergetic Saxon chief. ed for St. Columba. This great and good Hitherto, in speaking of the northern in- man was born in Ireland, in the year 521. habitants beyond the Forth, we have desig- His descent was royal, and his education nated them by the single appellation of the was at first carefully conducted under the Picts. We must now mark the arrival of a best masters which his native island, long different people, although probably sprung before this converted to Christianity, could from the same ancient stock. supply. Of these the most noted was St. At the commencement of the fourth cen- Ciaran the apostle of the Scoto-Irish of Kentury, we find that the ruling or dominant tire; and from him, in all probability, Colpeople in Ireland were the Scots, a Celtic umba imbibed his first desire to introduce race; and although there is no sufficient the gospel into the desolate and barbarous evidence that they had formed any perman- dominions of the northern Picts. It was in eat settlement in Britain previously to the the year 568, that embarking with twelve abdication of the island by the Romans, it is of his friends, in a boat of wicker work certain that in the year 360 they invaded -which was covered with hides, he set out the Roman provinces in that kingdom, and upon his benevolent mission, and landed in were repelled by Theodosius. In the begin- the Island of Ity, or Iona, which was situatning of the sixth century, three Irish chiefs, ed near the confines of the Scottish and PicLoarn, Fergus and Angus, sons of Erc, King tish territories. The difficulties which he had of Dalriada, by which we are to understand to encounter on his first arrival, were of the 494 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. most formidable kind. He found a people dle of the ninth century. There seems every so barbarous that his life was attempted; the reason to believe, that the story of the total king, when the holy man first approached his extermination of the Picts by the sword of residence, ordered its gates to be shut against the victorious Kenneth IM[acalpin, is a fable hi.l; the priests, who were druids, and pos- invented at a later period, and- certainlysupsessed much influence, employed all their ported by nothing approaching to conterneloquence to counteract his efforts; and the porary evidence. A more rational and innature of the country, woody, mountainous, -telligible account ascribes this event, not to and infested with wild beasts, rendered tray- the destruction, but to what may more coreling most dangerous and painful. It is also rectly be denominated the absorption of the said that at first the saint required an inter- Picts by the predominating nation of the preter to make himself intelligible, although Scots. Both were probably a people of the after a short residence he appears to have same race, speaking a similar language, and found little difficulty in conversing with the little different in their manners and civil barbarians. But none of these obstacles was government. Both were animated by tile sufficient to baffle the zeal and courage of emulation of outstripping each other in Columba; and so blest were his labors, so power and extent of territory; and this led rapid the effects produced by the example of to protracted struggles, in which the Picts his virtues, that in a few years the greater maintained their independence with difficulportion of the Pictish dominions was con- ty, and the Scots, gradually enlarging their verted to the Christian faith; churches were dominions, acquired a predominating influerected, monasteries established, in various ence. Such being the relative condition of places, and Columba, as primate, became an the two nations, an event took place which object of the utmost love and veneration united in one person the claim to the Pictish among the barbarous tribes, and fierce and and the Scottish throne. warlike princes whom he had called- from Achaius or Eocha, Kling of the Scots, who darkness into light. At that time his mon- died in the year 826, had married Urgusia, astery was perhaps the chief seminary of a Pictish princess, the sister of Constantine learning in Europe. It was from this nur- and Ungus, successively kings of the Picts. sery, that not only all the monasteries, and His grandson was Kenneth Macalpin, a prince above three hundred churches which he him- of great hardihood and ambition, who sucself had established, were supplied with ceeded to his paternal throne in 836. On learned pastors, but which also gave divines the death of Uven, the Pictish monarch, in to many of the religious establishments 839, Kenneth asserted his claim to the Picamong the neighboring nations. Columba tish throne, in right of his grandmother, died in the year 597, in the seventy-seventh Urgusia. The feeble state of the nation, year of his age; a man not less distinguished and the incapacity of the true heir, combined by his zeal and labor in the dissemination of to favor his ambitious designs; and after a the gospel, than by the simplicity of his man- struggle of three years, he succeeded in unitners, the sweetness of his temper, and the ing the two crowns in his own person. holiness of his life. The union of the two nations of the Picts We have already observed, that it would and the Scots under one powerful prince, forms l)e foreign to the object of this historical the commencement of the third great divissketch, to involve our readers ina the dark ion of Scottish history, which extends from and wholly uninteresting annals of the Pic- the middle of the ninth century (843) to the tish kings. But orm; remarkable event must expiration of the eleventh (1097), a period not escape our notice, we mean the disap- of two centuries and a half. pearance of the Pictish people after the mid- The firstevent which demands our notice, HISTORY. OF THE WORLD. 495 is the commencement of those invasions by but after a sanguinary struggle, in which the Danes, which for several centuries con- they at first succeeded, were ultimately detinued to be the greatest scourge of Scotland. feated by the bravery of the Scots, commandIt was under the reign of Constantine, the ed by Kenneth in person. This contest, second monarch in succession from Kenneth, which appears to. have been: attended with that these fierce pirate leaders, known under an enormous loss on both sides, took place at the name of Vikingkr, or sea-kings, first Luncarty, where many tumuli still remain, made their appearance in North Britain. to mark the field of battle. IHaving established a settlement in Ireland, After this the country enjoyed a quiet of they soon became acquainted with the cornm- nine years; but in 1003, the Norsemen, who modious havens of the Scottish coasts; and had now for some time permanently settled after a partial visit in 866, a more formidable themselves in Orkney, again made their aparmament sailed from Dublin, under Anlaf pearance in great strength upon the coast of and Ivar, in 870. During this invasion, they Moray. They seized and fortified the pro.took Aleluyd, or Dunbarton, ravaged the montory known by the name of the Bnrghwhole extent of North Britain, and returned head of Moray, where they found a commoglutted with slaughter and booty to Ireland. dious harbor, and from which, in 1010, they These sea- wolves having once tasted blood, led an army to plunder that fertile region. were not slow to return. Thrice under the But they were met and defeated with great same reign were their vessels seen on the slaughter by Mialcolm the Second, in the batcoasts of the devoted country, in 871, 875 tle of Mortlach, where the king, in gratitude and 876; and at last, in 881, the Scottish for his victory, endowed a religious house, monarch met his death on the banks of the which became the seat of the ealiest ScotForth, in an ineffectual attempt to defend tish bishopric. his people, and repel their ravages. Reap- These repeated repulses checked and dispearing under the reign of Donald, who suc- heartened the pirate kings; but they disceeded to the throne in 893, they were de- dained to relinquish the contest. Their last feated on the banks of the Tay, in the efforts appear to have been made on the vicinity of Scone, and again, in 904, repulsed coast of Angus and Buehan, where they by the same prince, who lost his life, after were repulsed in successive conflicts, fought he had slain their leader. This, however, at Aberlemno, Panbride, and Slaines Castle. did not prevent their return in: 907, and af- At length a convention, or pacific treaty, was terwards, in 918, under the reign of Con- entered into between Malcolm, and Sweno, stantine the Third, who, with the assistance King of Denmark, in the year 1014, which of the northern Saxons, encountered and was followed by the evacuation of the Burghrepulsed them. at Tinmore; a cheek which head of Moray, and the final departure of appears for a considerable period to hi:ve the Danes. Thus, after a severe struggle, given repose to the kingdom. which at various intervals, and with various In 961, under the reign of Indalf, who had success, appears to have continued for nearly succeeded to the throne in 953, the Vikinghr a century and a half, (866 to 1014,) the enmade a descent in the bay of Cullen, in ergy of the Scots ultimately triumphed over Banffshire; and this monarch with difficulty the efforts of the Norsemen; and while the defeated them in a desperate action, in which Danish rovers established themselves in somle he lost his life. In 970, Kenneth the Third, of the finest countries in Europe, and in who is represented as a monarch of extraor- England alternately fixed themselves as perdinary vigor and ambition, succeeded to the manent settlers, or extorted an odious tribute throne, and under his reign the Danes reap- as the price of their absence, Sweno, though peared with a numerous ftleet in the Tay; one of their most powerful princes, found 496 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. himself at last compelled to desist from the determined struggle. The arms and the en contest. ergy of Kenneth, however, were successful The second event of importance which and one of those gleams of rolr.antic light, marked this period, was the enlargement of which sometimes soften the gloomy annals the Scottish provinces of Malcolm the First, of these ages, fell on the ruins of Strathby the pacific acquisition of Cumberland cluyd. Dunwallon, the last of its kings, after from Edmund the Saxon king of England. exhibiting the utmost courage and resolution Against this young prince, the Danes, who in defence of his people, assumed the relihad established themselves in the northern gious habit, traveled to Rome, and died a part of his dominions, declared war, and monk. calling the Norwegians to their assistance, The last prominent feature which marks threatened to subdue the whole country. Ed- this period, was the further enlargement of mund opposed them with great courage and the Scottish dominions, by the acquisition of success, reduced Northumberland, then a Lothian, hitherto a part of England. It took Danish province, and next turned his arms place in 1016, under the reign of Malcolm against Cumbria, or Cumberland. After the Second, the son of Kenneth the Third, wasting this little country, then inhabited by to whose conquest of Stratheluyd we have the Britons, under their king or chief leader, just alluded. It was this same Malcolm Dunmail, the English prince, aware perhaps whose courage we have seen victorious over of the difficulty of retaining his new acquisi- the Danes at Mortlach, and to whose contion, delivered it up to Malcoim the First, vention with Swe:no, Scotland owed its freeunder the condition that he would become dom from the ravages of the pirate kings. his associate (medwvertha) in war, or, as the In the beginning of the ele,- nth century, terms are explained by Matthew of West- (1018,) this warlike prince engaged in hosminster, "that he would defend the northern tilities with Ughtred, Earl of Northumberparts of England from the invasions of his land. Their forces met at Carham, near enemies, whether they came by sea or by Werk, on the southern bank of the Tweed, land." and a sanguinary battle was fought, which This treaty was followed by the reigns of effectually checked the Scottish prince. Indulf, Duf, and Culen, a dark and sanguin- Ughtred, however, having been assassinated, ary period, occupied by domestic war and was succeeded by his brother Eadulph, a feecivil commotion; but under Kenneth the ble ruler, who, from a dread of a second inThird, who came to the throne in 970, oc- vasion, was induced to purchase the friendcurred another event of no little moment in ship of Malcolm, by the cession of the whole the history of the country. This was the of Lothian. Nor is the remaining portion conquest of the ancient British kingdom of of the Scottish period, from 1018 to 1097, Strathcluyd by the arms of that monarch. unmarked by some great events. In 1031, We have seen this independent state arise, under the reign of Malcolm the Second, in the middle of the fifth century, from a Canute, the Danish king of England, invadunion of the Romanized British tribes, who, ed Scotland. This prince, the most powerful on the desertion of the island by the Romans, monarch of his time, as he possessed not only were drawn together by the ties of common England, but Denmark and Norway, led an danger and mutual defence. From this time, army against 3Malcolm. The cause of the (446,) they had, under various reverses and war is involved in much obscurity. It was multiplied attacks, enjoyed a precarious in- however connected with some claim or disdependence for upwards of five centuries; pute regarding Cumberland, and it terminanor did they permit themselves to be incor- ted in Malcolm retainir. the possession of porated in the Scottish monarchy without a that province, and performing the conditions HISTORY OF T~HE WORLD. 497 upon which it had been formerly transferred minated in 1057, by the defeat of Lulach, to him. and the accession of Malcolm., who was conIn the historical romance of Boyce, and temporary with Edward the Confessor. the classical pages of Buchanan, Malcolm the The accession of Malcolm Ceanmore to Second figures as the first and one of the the Scottish throne was soon afterwards folgreatest of Scottish legislators. It was re- lowed by an event, which, although taking ferred for the learning and acuteness of Lord place in the sister country, produced the Hailes to detect his apocryphal laws as the most important effects upon the history of forgery of a much later age. Scotland. This was the invasion and conMalcolm the Second, whose severe and quest of England by the Normans, and the vigorous reign had been marked by many establishment of an entirely new dynasty in sanguinary domestic feuds, not necessary to that country. The first consequence of this be detailed, was succeeded in 1033 by his change was favorable to Malcolm, as it led grandson Duncan, the " gracious Duncan" to his marriage with a Saxon princess, whose of Shakspeare, whose imperishable drama is character had a marked and favorable infiufoufided upon a fictitious narrative, which ence upon the ruder manners of her husband Holinshed copied from Boyce. Let us for a and his people. This lady was Margaret, moment, in a spirit rather of homage than who was the sister of Edgar AEtheling. She of criticism, disentangle the dross of fact was beautiful, accomplished and pious; and a froln the ore of fiction. Lady Macbeth was union which perhaps, at a distance, had been the Lady Gruoch, and had regal blood in her suggested to Malcolm by ambition, on a veins. She was the grand-daughter of Ken- nearer view was perfected by love. neth the Fourth. Her husband, Macbeth, The marriage of the Scottish monarch was the son of Finlegh Mlaormor, or the su- was soon followed by an invasion of Engpreme ruler of Ross. The real wrongs of land, in which Malcolm mercilessly ravaged the Lady Gruoch, the root of her implacable the bishopric of Durham. The manner in revenge, were even more deep than those of which this predatory inroad was conducted her mighty counterpart. She had seen her marks the ferocity of the times. Malcolm grandfather Kenneth dethroned by Malcolm, and his subjects were Christians; yet even. her brother assassinated, and her husband the churches were destroyed and burnt; burned, griefs amply sufficient to turn her while the unhappy persons who had fled to, milk to gall. Macbeth, on the other hand, them for sanctuary were massacred, or conhad wept a father slain also by Malcolm; sumed in the flames. During the occurrenee and thus revenge and ambition were equally of these savage scenes in England, Gospatric, roused in both their bosoms. The purpose one of the most powerful of the Northumwhich had been arrested by the superior brian barons, whose assistance William the vigor and courage of Malcolm, was executed Conqueror had secured, swept tllrough Malon his more feeble grandson. Duncan, in colm's territory of Cumberland, and laid 1039, was assassinated at Bothgowanan, near waste the country in a miserable manner, upElgin; and Macbeth seized the sanguinary on which the Scottish prince returned home, sceptre, which he held with a vigorous grasp leading captive, says an English historian, for fifteen years, until he was defeated and such a multitude of young men and maidens slain by Macduff, in 1054. "that for many years they were to be found On his death, a contest for the throne arose in every Scottish village, nay, even in every between Lulach, the son of the Lady Gruoch, Scottish hovel." and great-grandson of Kenneth the Fourth, There seems to be little doubt that this and WMIalcolm Ceanmore, great-grandson of expedition of Malcolm was intimately conMalcolm the Second; and this struggle ter- nected with the determined stand made 498 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. against William the Conqueror by the Nor- to Malcolm, Gospatric obtained from Wilthumbrian earls who had carried Edgar 1iam the government of Northumberland; ~Etheling into Scotland. Combining in 1069 but on his return from his successful expediwith their brethren, the Danes, who brought tion against Malcolm, the Norman conqueror, a powerful fleet to their assistance, they ad- from jealousy or disgust, degraded his Nor vanced as far as York, where they put the thumbrian ally, who once more fled to the Norman garrison to the sword; and here it Scottish king. Malcolm, on his part, not is probable they expected to be joined by only forgave him, but presented him with Malcolm, but being disappointed in their the lands and castle of Dunbar, and the cashope they made peace with William, who tle of Cockburnspath. had the address to dissolve the confederacy. The remaining portion of the reign of Malcolm alone continued faithful to the cause this energetic prince (1079-1093), is chiefly of the Saxon Prince; and, though deserted Distinguished by a struggle with William by his confederates, yet by invading England Riufus, who, upon the death of the Confulfilled his ageeement. queror, had succeeded to the English throne. This inroad led to a dreadful retaliation This prince appears to have withheld from on the part of William. "To punish the Malcolm part of the English possessions to revolt," we use the words of Lord Hailes, which he claimed a right; and with the " and to oppose a wilderness to the invasions view of compelling a surrender of them, the of the Danes, he laid entirely waste the fer- Scottish king invaded England, and penetile country which lies between the Humber trated as far as Chester, on the Were. RIuand the Tees." "At this time," says Wil- fus led against him a superior force; and liam of Malmesbulry, "there were destroyed Malcolm, aware of his approach, prudently such splendid towns, such lofty castles, such declined a contest, and, by a timely retreat, beautiful pastures, that had a stranger viewed secured his plunder and his captives. the scene he might have been moved to This appears to have taken place in May,,compassion, and had one inhabitant been left 1091; and in the autumn of the same year, alive, he would not have recollected the the Norman prince, having equipped a fleet, country." Of this fine district the inhabit- and levied a numerous land force, led his ants seem to have been almost wholly exter- army in person against Scotland. He continminated. Many who escaped the sword died ned his march to the shores of the Forth; but of famine, many sold themselves for slaves, here his progress was stayed, in consequence while those of higher quality, ]Norman as of his receiving intelligence that his fleet well as Saxon, sought an asylum in Scotland, had been destroyed by a tempest. Thero and found at the court of Malcolm a favora- were no vessels to transport his troops across ble reception. the Forth. The Scots, with a policy which William having secured peace at home, they early learned, and repeatedly practiced, prepared an armament against Scotland, and had driven away their cattle, and cleared in 1072 he invaded that country, both by the country of its provisions; and at this sea and by land. Malcolm wisely met supe- crisis, when his soldiers were perishing from rior power by an offer of submission. He famine, Malcolm led his army against the sought and obtained peace, gave hostages, English, crossed the Forth, and advanced in and performed homage. to Lothian, a territory originally, as we We have met with Gospatric, the powerful have seen, acquired from the Angles, and Northumbrian earl. He had formerly fled therefore esteemed a part of England, alfrom the Conqueror to the court of Malcolm, though now subject to tie Scottish king..bringing with him the heir of the Saxon 1Here having chosen a strong position, he enline, with his sisters. Pro-:: treacherous camped, and avoiding a battle, harassed the HISTORY OF THE WORLID. 499 enenmy, proposing to cut off: his supplies, and he had been treated, burst into Northumber. expel him by famine. While both parties land, which he wasted with fire and sword. were thus situated, Edgar iEtheling, now Sweeping onwards to Alnwick, he was about with Rufus, and Robert, the king's brother, to possess himself of the castle, when the exerted themselves to conciliate a peace. Scottish army was attacked by Robert de The English monarch, notwithstanding his iMowbray. In the battle which ensued Malfiery temper, knew how to bend his fury to colmi was slain, and Edward, his eldest son, his interest; and 3Malcolm, perceiving that shared the fate of his father. he could obtain his purpose by treaty, wisely The remaining sons of King Malcolm, preferred this to the risk of a battle. It Ethelred, Edmund, Edgar, Alexander, and is important to mark the conditions of the David, were all under age; and his brother agreement. William Rufus, we find, con- Donald, who, on the usurpation of the throne sented to restore to Malcolln twelve manors, by Macbeth, had taken refuge in the 1Tebwhich the Scottish prince had held under rides, appears to have remained in that disthe Conqueror, and to make an annual pay- tant retreat during the whole reign of the ment of twelve marks of gold. Malcolm, late king. These islands were then indeon his part, consented to do homage to Wil- pendent of the Scottish crown. They were liam, and to hold his lands under the same inhabited by a warlike race, whose chiefs tenure of feudal service and obedience to yielded to the Norwegian king a fluctuating him, as he had formerly paid to his father, subjection; and many of these leaders havthe Conqueror. ing joined him, Donald, with a powerful The point of homage seemed thus pru- fleet, invaded Scotland and seized the crown; dently settled; but the proud and fiery tem- but it was for a very brief season. Duncan, per, which appears to have been an infirmity a son of MValcolm, but illegitimate as is genof both princes, soon led to a new contest erally believed, had, in 1072, been delivered between Malcolm and Rufus. A jealousy to William Rufus as a hostage for his father's of the incursions of the Scots had formerly fidelity. He had received his education at led the Conqueror to build two strong cas- the Norman court, and having been knighted ties, the one at Durham, the other at New- by the English monarch, was retained in his castle. To these his successor now added a service. With permission of William, he third at Carlisle; a barrier which, however now invaded Scotland, and, assisted by a necessary, might possibly be considered as band of English and Norman adventurers, encroaching on the freedom of. the lands expelled Donald Bane. He, in his turn, afwhich Malcolm held in Cumberland. A dis- ter a reign of little more than a year, was pute arose, and a personal interview between assassinated, and Donald once more ascended the two kings having been considered the the throne, from which, in 1097, he was best mode of settling their differences, Mal- again expelled by William Rufus, who discolm repaired to Gloucester, where Rufus patched Edgar ~Etheling with ie powerful met him and proposed that he should do army into Scotland. By this 2rince the homage in presence of his English barons. aged usurper was defeated, and Edgar, the This the Scottish monarch refused; although son of Malcolm and Margaret, the nephew Ihe was ready, he said, to perform his homage of Edgar zEtheling, ascended the throne. on the frontiers of both kingdoms, as had This event- took place in the close of the been the ancient usage. The reply was an- eleventh century; and, with the captivity grily received, and the two kings having and death of Donald Bane, who is the lf.st parted with expressions of defiance, Malcolm of the race of Scoto-Irish kings, the Scottlsh assembled an armny, and advancing with a period expires. speed stimulated by the indignity with which Edgar's reign was brief, pacific, and of lit 00- HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tie interest; but his successor, Alexander the he would never agree; and a compromise First, the eldest surviving son of Malcolm, having taken place by which the point was was a prince of a powerful and vigorous left undecided, Alexander, on the death of character. From his accession to the throne, Turgot, altered his ground, and chose for his in the commencement of the twelfth century, successor Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury. The (1106), to the death of Alexander the Third same right of consecration, and founded on (1285), in the close of the thirteenth, a period the same ground of the alleged dependence little short of two centuries, the nation was of the Scottish church upon the primacy of progressive and prosperous in a degree England, was now advanced by Canterbury; unequalled during the whole course of its but it was still more haughtily and perempfuture history. Under a succession of six torily refused by Alexander. A compromise monarchs, Alexander the First, David the again took place. Eadmer accepted the ring First, Malcolm the Fourth, William the Lion, from the king, and took the pastoral staff Alexander the Second, and Alexander the from the altar, as if receiving it frotm the Third, it maintained its independence against Lord; but finding his authority weakened, foreign aggression, and not only preserved and the countenance of the monarch withthe integrity, but extended the boundaries drawn from him, he intimated his resolution of its dominions. Its commerce, its manu- of repairing to Canterbury for advice. This factures, its agriculture, and all the arts which Alexander violently opposed, declaring that improve and humanize an ignorant and as long as he lived, the bishop of St. Andrews fierce people, were encouraged; and through- should never be subject to that see. Nor did out this long period, in the personal char- he fail here, as in all his other enterprises, acters of each of these successive princes, to keep his word; Eadmer remained an though varying in their shades, there was that elected but unconsecrated bishop. At length ingredient of energy and boldness which com- weary of the contest, and trammelled in his municated itself to their people, and main- usefulness, he desired permission to resign, tained the nation at the standard to which restored the ring to the king, replaced the each ruler in his turn had raised it. pastoral staff on the high altar, and returned In tile character of Alexander the First, to Canterbury. Robert, prior of Scone, was everything seems to have been in excess; but elected to fill the vacant see, and the king s happily the qualities which were so over- determined efforts to maintain the indepencharged, were most of them of the better sort. dence of the Scottish church, were crowned lIe is traditionally remembered by the epi- with success. It had continued for fourteen thet of the fierce; and though humble and years, and Alexander survived its terminacourteous to his clergy, whom he deemed en- tion only a single year. I-e died in 1124, )titled to this homage as God's servants, not leaving no children by his wife Sybilla, a his, he was, to use the words of an ancient natural daughter of Henry the First, and and authentic writer, "terrible beyond mea- succeeded by his brother, David the First. sure to his subjects." The leading event of Edgar, the brother of this prince, had, on his reign was the struggle which he main- his death-bed, bequeathed to him that portained for the independence of the Scottish tion of Cumberland which was possessed by church against the pretended rights claimed, the Scottish kings. The legacy had two first by the see of York, and afterwards by good effects. It called the young prince that of Canterbury. On the election of Tur- early to the cares and labors of admilistragot, a monk of Durham, to the bishopric of tion; and it removed him from Scotland to St. Andrews (1109), the archbishop of York a country where he became acquainted with insisted on his having the right of consecra- a more advanced civilization and with better ting him. To this the Scottish king declared regulated government. These advantages HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 501 were not thrown away upon David. His na- The remaining years of the reign of this tural. dispositions were excellent; his love of wise monarch were pacific and prosperous. justice, his capacity for labor, his sense of The war had convinced him that the Engthe natural honor and independence, his af- lish were far superior to his people in arms fection to every class of his people, his ten- and discipline; it had been undertaken in derness to his children, his piety to God, were fulfilment of his oath to Henry, not from any all so conspicuous in his character, that Buch- love of conquest, and having satisfied his conanan, an author who cannot be suspected science, he devoted his life to the arts of of adulation, pronounces him the perfect ex- good government. emplar of a good king; and the progress Towards the close of his reign, it was his made by the country during the twenty-nine misfortune to lose his eldest son, Prince years of his reign goes far to justify the as- Henry, just as he had reached manhood and sertion. exhibited many of the excellent qualities of his His reign was contemporary with that of father. The blow sunk deep into his heart;.Henry the First and of Stephen in England, but David's first care had been for his people, andit openedwithmany difficulties. The ques- and he roused himself to provide for the pation of the independence of the church was cific succession of his grandson, Malcolm, a again started; and before it could be brought child in his twelfth year. By his orders, this to a termination, the fo'cible seizure of the boy, the son of Prince Henry, was carried English crown by Stephen, who deposed in a progress through his dominions, to re Matilda, the daughter of Henry the First, ceive the homage of the barons and the peoinvolved him in a war with that usurper. ple, and was solemnly proclaimed heir to tile During the life of Henry the First, David crown. Having performed this wise but and Stephen had sworn to maintain the mournful duty, the aged king within a year right of Matilda; and the Scottish monarch, followed his son to the grave. It is a ren obedience to his oath, invading England, markable and beautiful circumstance, that compelled the barons of the northern portion of he was found dead in an attitude of devotion. that kingdom to swear fealty to this princess. "His death had been so tranquil," says A1His efforts however were more honorable dred, who knew him well, "that you would than successful; and after a war which lasted not have believed he was dead. He was found three years, David was ultimately defeated with his hands clasped devoutly upon his in the great battle of the Standard, fought breast in the very posture in which he seems on Cutton Moor, in the neighborhood of to have been raising them to heaven." Northallerton. Peace was now concluded, The reign of Malcolm the Fourth, which and the terms to which Stephen consented, lasted only twelve years, offers little for our indicated that, although defeated, the Scot- observation. It began with those evils which tish king was but little humbled. so invariably attend a minority; war withThe earldom of Northumberland, with the out, and insecurity within the kingdom. Somexception of the two castles of Newcastle erled the thane of Argyle, strengthened by tle and Bamborough,was ceded to Prince Henry, naval powers of the Isles, invaded Scotland, David's eldest son. As an equivalent for and for some years continued to halrass tie these fortresses, lands were granted in the country by repeated attacks, which at length south of England; the barons of North- terminated in an amicable agreement. The umberland were to hold their estates of transactions of Malcolm with Henry the fIenry the Prince of Scotland, reserving their Second of England impress us with an unfealty to Stephen; and in return, David and favorable notion of this young prince. It had all hit people became bound to maintain an been a promise of the English monarch made involiable peace with England. to David the First, in 1149, t'at if he sue 502 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ceeded to the' crown of England, he would its recovery by William in 1189. It' Was the cede to Scotland for ever the territory be- wealmkness of William to be guided by impulse. tween the Tyne and the. Tweed. Instead Smitten with admiration for the warlike of insisting on this, Malcolm, overreached by qualities of Henry the Second, and uninstructthe superior sagacity of Henry, or betrayed ed by the misfortunes of his predecessor MIalby the treachery of his councillors, abandoned colm, he first courted this prince, and being to England his whole possessions in the north- disappointed in. his object of procuring from ern counties, and received in return the honor his justice the restitution of Northumberland, of Huntingdon; a measure which created he imprudently defied him. War ensued; and universal discontent in the nation. These the King of the Scots having advanced with feelings of disgust were imprudently increas- his army to Alnwick, was surprised, made ed by an expedition of the young prince into prisoner, and shut up in the castle of Falaise France, where he joined the army of IHenry, in Normandy. I-is impatience under capclaimed from him the distinction of knight- tivity, and the longing of the barons and hood, and outraged the feelings of national clergy for their king, led to a pusillanimous jealousy, by forgetting his station as an in- treaty, which will ever remain a blot upon dependent prince, and fighting under the the national honor. With the consent of his banner of the English monarch. A deputa- barons and clergy, given at Valogne on the tion from the Scots was sent into France to 28th of December, 1174, William agreed to remonstrate against this conduct, nor did become the liegeman of Henry for Scotland, they hesitate in bold language to reproach and all his other territories; to deliver up to their kinog for the desertion of his duty. Gal- the English monarch the castles of Roxburgh, loway rose into rebellion; the inhabitants of ]Berwick, Jedburgh, Edinburgh, and StirMoray about the same time threw off their ling; to give his brother David and some of allegiance; and Somnerled the thane of Ar- lis chief barons as hostages, and to receive gyle invaded the country with a formidable in return his liberty. In this treaty, it is refleet. Although the obstinacy of the king markable, that while little care was shown had brought these disasters upon himself, his as to the independence of the people, a pruenergy and decision met and overcame them. dent, and, as it has been well denominated. IHe hurried from France, conciliated his nobles, a memorable clause was introduced, which invaded and subdued Galloway, repulsed left entire the independence of the Scottish Somerled, and after suppressing the rebellion church; and this clause, the bishops and in Moray, adopted the extraordinary measure clergy took the first opportunity of asserting of dispossessing its ancient inhabitants, com- before the Papal legate in a council held at pelling them to settle in more distant parts of Northampton (1176). his dominions, and planting new colonies in On his return to his dominions, William their room. These energetic measures were appears to have devoted himself with much his last, for he died immediately after, at an energy and success to the cares of governearly age, and was succeeded by his brother ment. His dominions were weakened and disWilliam the Second, son of Henry, Prince of tracted by repeated insurrections in Ross and Scotland, and grandson of David the First. in Galloway. In these wild and remote disThe administration of this prince presents tricts, the native chiefs claimed almost a royal us with the longest reign in the range of sway; and the people, ferocious in their Scottish history, extending from 1165 to 1214, habits, and jealous of all intercourse with nearly half a century. In this protracted pe- England, were ready, upon the slightest proriod, the most important event was, the vocation or encouragement,to rise in rebellion. disgraceful surrender of the national inde- A pretender to the crown also appeared in pendence to H-enry the Second in 1174, and Galloway, in the person of Donald, the grand HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 503 son of Duncan, commonly call the bastard died at Stirling, after a reign of forty-eight king of Scotland. This adventurer having years, the longest, as already stated, in Scot seized Ross, and wasted Moray, William led tish history. HIis name of William the Lion an army against him; nor was it till after a was probably owing to the circumstance that, desperate struggle that Donald fell near In- before his time, none of the Scottish kings verness, and by his death restored tranquil- had assumed a coat armorial. The Lion lity to the country. rampant first appears upon his shield. On the death of Htenry the Second, Rich- William was succeeded by his son Alex. ard Cceur de Lion, his successor, then intent ander, a youth of seventeen, to whom the Upon collecting money for his expedition to Scottish barons had sworn homage in 1201, the Holy Land, invited the King of Scotland and who was one of the wisest of their kings, to his court, and upon William's engagement whether we regard the justice of his adminto pay him the sum of ten thousand merks, istration, the seasonable severity with which agreed to restore his kingdom to its indepen- he subdued all internal commotions in his dence, reserving the honiage formerly due kingdom, the firmness exhibited in his mainby the Scottish kings for the lands which tenance of the rights of the church, or the they held in England. The instrument by wisdom, forbearance, and vigor which markwhich this transaction was completed, de- ed his policy towards England. His reign clares, that Richard had delivered up to Wil- was one of constant action, and full of inciliram, King of Scots, his castles of Roxburgh dent. It commenced with his joining the and Berwick, had granted to him an acquit- English barons who resisted the tyranny of tance of all obligations which had been ex- John. This conduct drew down upon him torted from him:by Henry the Second, in and his kingdom a sentence of excommunicaconsequence of his captivity, and had or- tion (1216); but the papal weapons appear to d'ained the boundaries of the two kingdoms have been little dreaded at this time; and in to be re-established as they existed at the 1218, Honorius not only abrogated the sendate of William's imprisonment. The Scot- tence pronounced by his legate, but confirmtish king was at the same time put in pos- ed the liberties of the Scottish church. session of all his fees in the earldom of Hun- On the accession of Henry the Third to tingdon; and all the charters of homage the English throne, Alexander, who was ocdone to Henry the Second by the Scottish cupied with quelling the repeated insurrecbarons were delivered up, and declared to be tions in the northern parts of his dominions, cancelled for ever. We are to ascribe it to showed every disposition to cultivate amity the wise regulations of this treaty, and the with England; and his marriage to the prinfidelity with which they were observed on cess Joanna, sister of Henry, had a ifavo rable both sides by its authors and their successors, effect in strengthening the ties between the that for a century after its date there oc- two monarchs. curred no national quarrel or hostilities be- One of the striking features which mark tween the two countries. The remaining the reign of this monarch, is the gradual inportion of the reign of William demands lit- crease that is to be observed in the power of tie notice. During the latter years of it, the the nobles, and the corresponding decrease succession of John to-his brother Richard the in the authority of the crown; but if this First threatened to dissolve the pacific rela- had injurious effects upon the general pros. tions between the two countries; but war perity of the kingdomIa, and distracted it by was happily averted, and the Scottish inon- internal private feuds, it encouraged a feel. arch reserved his energies for the pacification ing of independence, and fostered that warof his own realm, disturbed by a rebellion in like spirit which proved the best safeguards the northern counties. In 1214 the king against the encroachments of their more pow 504 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. erful neighbors. This was strikingly shown fee of England, Alexander his vassal, and hie on the occurrence of a rupture between Eng- permission as superior had not been obtained. land and Scotland in 124;4. Some time be- The Pope appears to have rejected his defore this, Alexander had claimed from Hen- mand with promptitude, as derogatory to ry, in right of inheritance, the counties of the rights of a sovereign Prince; and the Northumberland, Cumberland, and West- ceremony of the coronation was performed moreland; and although the English king at the abbey of Scone, the coronation-oath did not grant him his full demand, he ad- being read first in Latin, and afterwards in.mitted its justice, by transferring to him an Norman-French. equivalent in certain lands, which he accept- Alexander soon afterwards, in fulfilment ed in full of all claims. For these lands the of a former treaty, espoused Margaret, the Scottish king did homage; and both mon- youthful daughter of Henry, at York, and archs remained on friendly terms for some exhibited a spirit and intelligence superior years, when jealousies suddenly arose, and to his years in refusing to pay homage for Henry, alleging that homage had been un- his kingdom of Scotland. "' I came," said he justly withheld, led an army against Scot- to the artful monarch who made the propoland. Under these threatening circum- sal; "I came into England on a joyful and stances, the Scottish king although he had pacific errand, not to answer to an arduous recently experienced the resistance of his question, which belongs to the states of my nobles to his personal requests, found him- kingdom." He at the same time made no self strongly supported by the same barons objection to take the oath of fealty for the against the meditated attack of England. lands which he held in England. They raised in a short time an army of a Defeated in his attempt to overreach a hundred thousand foot, and a thousand minor sovereign, Henry commenced a series horse, and this demonstration of the national of intrigues with the Scottish nobles, with strength had happily the effect of restoring the object of obtaining an entire control over.peace without bloodshed. the affairs of the sister kingdom; and the -Iaving engaged in a maritime expedition country was divided and distracted by two against Angus of Argyle, one of those petty factions, the one acting under English influisland chiefs, whose dubious allegiance, in ence, and the other more honestly contendthose remote times, oscillated between Nor- ing for the freedom of their prince and the way and Scotland, Alexander had conducted independent administration of the governhis fleet as far as the Sound of Mull, when ment. These scenes of civil faction and forhe was seized with a fever, and died in a eign interference continued till the monarch, small island there named Kerraray, in the having arrived at manhood, and developing:thirty-fifth year of his reign. He was suc- a character of much energy and judgment, ceeded by his son, Alexander the Third, a took the reins into his own hand, and com-;boy in his eighth year; and the kingdom, pelled his nobility to respect the laws and which had enjoyed under his father's wise support his measures. and vigorous administration, an uncommon Scarcely had this happy change occurred, degree of prosperity, became immediately when the kingdom, which had already sufexposed to the many evils of a minority. fered from the vicinity of the fleets of NorTwo parties divided the nobility; the one way, was threatened with invasion by Haco, led by Walter Comyn, Earl of Menteith, the one of its most warlike princes. The disother by Durward the high Justiciar; and pute which led to this menace originated in Henry the Third secretly wrote to the Pope, a circumstance already noticed; the precarirequesting him to interdict the coronation of ous homage paid by the petty piratical chiefs the young king. Scotland, he said. was a of the Western Isles, who, as circurnstances HISTORY OF TH:E WORLD. 505 pressed on the one side or the other, acknowl- calamity, this child Margaret, the Maiden of edged a feudal dependence on Scotland or Norway, when on her passage from that on Norway. To support them in their inde- country to take possession of her throne, pendence of Alexander, Haco made a de- sickened and died in Orkney; and on her scent on the western coast of Scotland with death arose that celebrated competition for a mighty fleet, but sustained a signal defeat the Scottish crown, which threatened to at Largs, and on his return with the shatter- plunge the kingdom into all the miseries of ed remains of his ships, sickened and died civil war. at Orkney. The results of this victory were The moment was favorable to the designs highly favorable to Scotland. It fixed the of Edward the First, who determined to chiefs of the Western Isles in their allegiance, make himself master of Scotland. While in secured to Alexander the homage of the King that country the various competitors collectof Man, and convinced Norway that Scot- ed their forces and prepared to support their land was not to be so easily subdued or over- claims, the English monarch having given awed as its piratical princes had antici- orders for assembling the strength of his pated. kingdom by a certain day, invited the obtilThe remainder of this reign was prosperous, ity and clergy of Scotland to meet him at as far as the circumstances of the kingdom Norham, for the purpose of deliberating upon are considered, but unfortunate for the mon- the succession to the crown. The competiarch, who found himself suddenly deprived tors for the crown, with a large proportion by death of all his children. His eldest of the nobility and clergy, accepted the meson, Alexander, died soon after his marriage, diation of Edward, and met this monarch at and his only daughter Margaret, the wife of Norham (May, 1291). Eric, King of Norway, was cut off in child- Of these claimants for the crown the two bed, leaving an infant daughter, Margaret, principal were John Balliol and Robert commonly called the Maiden of Norway, the Bruce. It was quite apparent that the que3heiress of the Scottish throne. These calam- tion lay between them, the rights of the ities induced the king, who was a widower, other competitors being evidently inferior to to make a second marriage. Having select- theirs. The title of these two chiefs arose ed Ioleta de Coney, daughter of the Count out of the circumstance, that on the death de Dreux, the nuptials were celebrated at of all descendants of Alexander the Third, Jedburgh; and the nation, under a wise the crown reverted to the descendants of monarch still in the prime of life, flourishing David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother of King at home and at peace abroad, looked forward William the Lion. This David left three to a long season of prosperity. when all its daughters, Margaret, the eldest, who married hopes were overcast in a moment. Alexan- Alan, Lord of Galloway; Isabella, the seeder, when riding in a dark night, on the ond, who married Robert Bruce, father to brink of a dangerous rocky ledge near King- the competitor Robert Bruce, Lord of An - horn, was precipitated from the top to the nandale; and Ada, the third daughter, who bottom and killed on the spot. married John de Hastings. It was evident, The death of the king was deeply lament- therefore, that the question lay between Baled, and not without cause, for he left the liol and Bruce. Balliol pleaded that he was kingdom in most difficult circumstances, ex- entitled to the crown as the descendant of posed to the ambition and attack of Edward the eldest daughter, being great-grandson to the First, one of the ablest princes who had David, Earl of Huntingdon. Bruce admitever reigned in England, and its happiness ted that he sprung from the second daulhat holme dependent upon the precarious life ter, but contended that, being grandson of the of an infant. To fill the cup of Scotland's Earl of Huntingdon, his claim was supeiorr o06 HISTORY OF THE W ORLD. Edward's scheme against the independence his country, and assembling round him a of Scotland was now ripe for execution; and small band of followers, who were weary of announcing his determination to give a just their servitude, commenced that kind of preddecision, he, to the dismay of many present, atory warfare, which led from one success required the Scottish barons to swear fealty to another, till he saw himself at the head of to him as their Lord Paramount. It was a formidable force. With this he boldly dein this character alone, he said, that he scended into the low country, and after hayvwas entitled to give, and as such alone ing defeated the English in the sanguinary that he would pronounce, a judgmient. The battle of Stirling, was soon after chcsen Gov3cene which now ensued was a humiliating ernor of Scotland. This title he only accepted one. The right of Edward was admitted; as acting in the name of John Balliol, whom and Bruce, Balliol, the remaining competi- he had always acknowledged as his hereditors, the barons and the clergy, set their tary king. hands to an instrument, in which they ac- It was however impossible for Wallace, knowledged that the English king was feudal with all his great qualities, to reconcile the superior of Scotland. Edward, accordingly, Scottish nobles to his envied elevation, or to having received their oaths of homage, pro- compose the feuds and jealousies which di. ceeded to investigate the contending claims, vided and weakened their efforts. Edward, and awarded the crown to John Balliol. who had been absent in Flanders when his It was probably part of the plan of the officers were defeated at Stirling, hurried English monarch to quarrel with his vassal back to England, and once more invading king. It is at last certain that he availed him- Scotland at the head of an immense army, self of the earliest appearance of spirit and encountered and defeated Wallace in the batresistance in this unfortunate prince to sum- tle of Falkirk. The result of this victory mon him, in terms of reproach and indignity, was the temporary subjugation of a country, to his court in England, and at last goaded whose allegiance expired the moment its in him and his people into what he termed re- vaders retired. Wallace voluntarily resigned bellion. In the war which ensued, Edward the office of governor, Robert Bruce and found it an easy matter to overrun a king- John Comyn were chosen Guardians, and for dom unprepared to resist so formidable an five years the war was continued with varienemy. The town of Berwick was carried ous success; but Edward, who in this interby storm; Dunbar, the key of the borders, val had thrice invaded the kingdom, by surrendered; Balliol was taken prisoner and these unceasing efforts and superior numerisent to the Tower; while the English prince cal strength, at last subdued the spirit, and concluded what he deemed the conquest of appeared to have completed the conquest of Scotland, by removing from Scone to West- this devoted people. The Guardians subminster the sacred stone upon which the mitted, and were pardoned; sentence of outlong line of its kings had been crowned and lawry was pronounced against Simon Fraser anointed. But at this sad moment Scotland, and the few followers of Wallace who still which in vain looked for a deliverer amongst held out; and at last this great chief himself its feudal nobles, found one in a man of far was betrayed into the hands of the conqueror, inferior rank. and executed at London. It was at this criWilliam Wallace was the son of Sir Mal- sis, which seemed to seal forever the fate and coinm Wallace, who held the estate of Eller- liberty of the Scottish people, that a deliverer she, near Paisley. Having been outlawed arose in the person of Robert Bruce. by the English for an alleged murder, com- Nothing could be more extraordinary, or mitted on one by whom he had been griev- apparently more unpropitious to the cause of ausly injured, he fled into the fastnesses of fieedom, than the circumstances which led HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 507 to this great result. Robert Bruce, Earl of persed, and he himself driven an almost soli Carrick, and grandson of the competitor for tary wanderer through Lennox and Kintyre, the crown, had acted a dubious and interested to seek an asylum in Rachrin, a little island part during the years that Wallace, and the on the northern coast of Ireland. Here he few patriotic barons who adhered to him, remained during the winter, unaware of the made their stand for the independence of execution of his faithful followers, who had their country. Ie inherited, with vast landed fallen into the hands of Edward; of the im. estates, the right to the crown possessed by prisonment of his queen and daughter, and his grandfather; but, had he urged his claim, the extraordinary severity with which the it might have been at the risk of the forfei- English monarch seemed determined to rivet ture of these possessions, which made him the fetters upon his native country. one of the most powerful barons in Scotland; In the spring he passed over from Rachrin and, although in his early career, we can de- to Arran, accompanied by his brother Edtect occasional outbreaks of the patriotic feel- ward Bruce, Sir James Douglas, and about ing, he preserved his allegiance to Edward 300 men. His own castle of Turnberry, on the First, and appears to have been treated the coast of Carrick, was then occupied by with confidence by that monarch. Lord Percy, an officer of Edward. Bruce The injuries inflicted on the country seem attacked it, put the English garrison to the at last to have aroused both Bruce and sword, and, after a variety of minor enterComyn, and they formed a secret agreement, prises, in which, although often repulsed, he to rise against the English. But Comyn's and his followers gained experience and conheart failed him. He betrayed the purpose fidence, he ventured, although at the head to Edward, and meeting Bruce, who had of only 600 spearmen, to meet the Earl of been made aware of his treachery, in the Pembroke, with 3000 cavalry, at Loudon church of the Grey friars at Dumfries, that Hill (May, 1307). The result of this conproud baron reviled him as an informer, and fuiet, owing to the admirable dispositions of stabbed him to the heart on the steps of the Bruce, was the entire defeat of the English; high altar. Ile was instantly proclaimed a and from this point, the crisis of his fortune, traitor by Edward, excommunicated as a to the hour when the liberty of his country sacrilegious murderer by the pope, a price set was for ever secured on the field of Banupon his head; and from the first and most noclkburn, the career of this extraordinary influential noble in the kingdom, he felt that man presented an almost continued series of he must either assert his right to the crown, success. and trust to his sword for its defence, or be It was, perhaps, fortunate for Scotland content to sink into the condition of an out- that he was opposed, not by Edward the law and a fugitive. His decision was in- First, who had died when on his march to stantly taken. He rode with his little band Scotland (1307), but by his son, Edward the to Scone, and was there solemnly crowned; Second, a prince of far inferior talent; yet but being aware of the advance of an Eng- the military resources of England were so lish army, he hastily concentrated his forces, formidable, and the barons who' wielded and after ravaging Galloway, marched against them such experienced leaders, that Bruce, Perth, then in possession of Edward. who had to struggle against domestic eneBut the early portion of Bruce's career mies, as well as foreign invasion, may well was disastrous; and those military talents, be praised for the admirable judgment with which afterwards conducted him through a which he wielded the strength of his little course of unexampled victory, were nursed lingdom. It was his policy to avoid- a genamid incessant defeat and hardship. HIe was elal battle, and to starve and distress the put to flight at Methven, his small army dis- formidable armies which England repeatedly 508 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. sent against him, by wasting the country, hazard a battle. On the field of Bannoclk retiring slowly before his enemies into the burn, near Stirling, 30,000 Scottish foot and woods and fastnesses, and when they were 500 horse, led by the king in person, and compelled by famine or the season to re- under him commanded by Douglas, Ran. treat, by harging on their rear, and cutting dolph and the Steward of Scotland, encountthem off ir detail. Convinced that, from ered and entirely defeated the formidable the poverty of Scotland, it was in vain to array of England. Edward fled from the attempt to rival the mounted chivalry of field to Dunbar, and the broken remains of England, he turned his whole attention to his army, in dispersed bodies, made their rethe formation and discipline of his infantry. treat in much disorder into England (June They were armed with a spear eighteen feet 24, 1314). in length, a sword and battle-axe at their This great victory was followed up'by girdle, a short cut-and-thrust dagger, a steel Bruce with an immediate proposal for peace; bonnet, and a back and breast-piece buckled but he would consent to treat only on the over a tough leather jerkin. They were footing of an independent king, and the trained to form sometimes in squares, some- offer was rejected. From 1314 to 1328, an times in circles, more or less deep, according interval of nearly fourteen years, the war to the nature of the ground and of the ser- was continued with almost uninterrupted vice. Such was the main army of Bruce, success on the part of the Scots; while a his pikemen; but after he had restored series of reverses were endured by England, peace and security to his kingdom, and be- which are chiefly to be ascribed to the pusilgan in his turn to act upon the offensive, he lanimous character of the monarch, and the often employed the only kind of cavalry great military ability not only of Bruce, but which Scotland could raise, the border prick- of the officers whom he had trained, Sir ers, who, lightly armed, mounted on hardy tames Douglas, Randolph, Earl of Moray, little horses, and carrying as their provisions the young Steward of Scotland, and many a bag of meal slung at their saddle-bow, others. It may convey some idea of Bruce's darted upon the richest districts of England, incessant occupation in the field, when it is stripped them of their wealth, and scoured mentioned, that during this interval, Englike a whirlwind across the border, ere the land was twelve times invaded, either by force of the country could be raised in its the king in person, or by his officers, its bordefence. der counties were exposed to ravages, and To pursue the details of his obstinate con- on frequent occasions the fires which marked test with England, is impossible. It was the Scottish march were seen burning beduring the first years a war of defence, in side the gates of York; nor were the Scotwhich Bruce struggled for existence. This tish king's proposals for a peace accepted, secured, it became aggressive; but his ef- till the English districts, which were comnforts were confined to the recovery of his pelled to purchase safety by the payment of dominions out of the hands of those Scottish a heavy tribute, threatened in their misery, barons who had embraced the service of the to throw themselves into the arms of Scotenemy, or his castles from the English gov- land. At last, on the first of March, 1328, ernors to whom they had been entrusted. an English Parliament assembled at York. At last, when Edward the Second, at the Bruce was acknowledged king of Scotland, head of an army 100,000 strong, composed Scotland itself recognized as a free and indeof the flower of his kingdom, and led by his dependent kingdom, and peace established, most experienced officers, had penetrated after a sanguinary war of twenty years. i'.to the country, Bruce found himself driven This great consummation was not long from his favorite maxim, ard c mpelled to survived by him to whom, under God, the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 509 result was chiefly due. The king, whose of David the Second, whose long reign of constitution had been broken by the fatigues forty-two years was divided into a minority and exposure of his early life, began to droop the greater part of which was passed in Boon after he saw the liberty of his country France; a captivity in England, the result permanently established; and he died at of his calamitous defeat in the battle of DurCardross on the 7th of June, 1329. ham; and a train of subsequent reverses all The death of Bruce was a severe trial to occasioned by his headstrong character and Scotland. IIis only son David, who sue- devotion to his selfish pleasures. But the ceeded him, was a boy of six years old; and darkest stain upon David, was his intrigues while the nation was thus exposed to all the with Edward the Third, in which he hesievils of a long minority, Edward the Third, tated not to sacrifice the independence of one of England's most warlike monarchs, the country, to swear homage to the English was just commencing his career, which soon prince for his kingdom of Scotland, and even developed uncommon talents and great am- to propose to his parliament, that the order bition. Randolph, indeed, who was chosen of succession solemnly settled by his heroic Regent, and the good Sir James Douglas, father, should be altered in favor of an Engwith other veteran officers, still remained; lish prince. It is needless to say that so but Douglas was slain in Spain, whither he degrading a proposal was indignantly repelhad proceeded on his way to Jerusalem with led, and that the death of the prince who had his master's heart; and the Earl of Moray offered the insult was regarded as a national only survived the death of Bruce for three deliverance. years. To add to these calamities, the mon- In Robert the Second, who succeelded him archs who successively filled the Scottish as the first of the house of Stewart, and his throne, and on whose personal character, in son, Robert the Third, the nation, though these rude times, much of the success and still exposed to the repeated attacks of Engvigor of the government depended, were lit- land, experienced a short breathing time, tie similar to their great predecessor. From owing to the death of Edward the Third, and the death of Bruce till the reign of James the incapacity of Richard the Second; but the First, the first prince who in any meas- neither of these Scottish princes possessed the ure was worthy of a comparison with him, vigor or the talents requisite to wield the a period of nearly a century elapsed, in which seceptre with success, in the midst of the difthe seeptre passed into the hands of three ficulties by which they. were surrounded. princes, David the Second, Robert the Sec- The second Robert came to the crown when ond (the first sovereign of the house of Stew- age had chilled his vigor; and his son and art, being the son of the Steward of Scot- successor, Robert the Third, was of too indoland, by Maij ory, Bruce's only daughter), lent and gentle a character to hold his part and lastly, Robert the Third. Contempor- against a fierce feudal nobility, led by his ary with these Scottish princes were Edward brothers, the Earls of Fife and Buchan, the the Third, Richard the Second, Henry the first a man of great ambition, the second a Fourth and Henry the Fifth, all, with one monster of crime, who gave himself up to exception in Richard, wise, warlike, and for- every species of lust and rapine, and has been tunate monarchs. The odds, therefore, were traditionally remembered as "the Wolf of infinitely against Scotland, a country far in- Badenoch." ferior in its population and resources to Eng- All this led to great disorder. The king, land, and torn by domestic feuds; and yet unwilling to burden himself with the cares against reiterated attacks it maintained the of government, devolved the administration contest for its liberty. upon his son, the Duke of Rothsay, a young We have above alluded to the degeneracy man of violent passions, though of consider 510 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. able ability, who had made himself particu- authority, by restoring James to his king. lai-lyobnoxious at the time, the Earl of Fife. dom; and the same desire to retain the This led to a fatal collision. Fife, whose power which he had so nefariously usurped, authority was increased by his being made induced Albany to cultivate the friendship, duke of Albany, proved too strong for the and overlook the crimes and excesses of the young prince. eli-s father, the king, was great feudal barons. All this led to dreadful persuaded that the excesses of his son requir- confusion in Scotland, which, although freed ed restraint, and the unhappy youth was for a time from the incessant invasions of its harried to Falkland, and shut up in a dun- more powerful neighbor, was torn by prigeon, where he was intrusted to the care of vate war, whilst the lives and property of its two ruffians, who starved him to death. It people were exposed to the attack of every was at first reported that he had been cut off unprincipled feudal baron who sheltered by a dysentery; but the horrible tale of his himself under the protection of the regent. sufferings soon after transpired. This miserable state of things was at Robert, depressed by this calamity, and in- length terminated by the return of James to capable of exertion, committed the whole his dominions; a prince whose character cares of the government to the Duke of presented a striking contrast to that of his Albany; and the power of that daring man father and grandfather. During the ninewas increased by another event which com- teen years in which he had been unjustifipletely broke the spirit of the king, and was ably detained in England, he enjoyed adprobably the cause of his death. This was vantages which almost repaid him for his the seizure by the English of his eldest son captivity. Henry the Fourth, a prince who James, then a youth in his fifteenth year, and well understood the art of government, had on his passage to France. The consequences made it his generous care that James should were very fatal to the country. The prince receive an excellent education; and he had was carried to the Tower; the father did not the advantage of being instructed in war, by long survive the captivity of the son; and on accompanying his victorious successor, Henry his death, which took place in 1406, his the Fifth, to France. On his return to his brother, the Duke of Albany, succeeded to own dominions, he was in the prime and the prize which had long been the object of the vigor of manhood. Ihis character, formhis ambition, the undisputed regency of the ed in the school of adversity, was one of kingdom. great power. I-e found his kingdom a scene The young king, James the First, was a of lawless excess and rapine; a condition to captive, and Henry the Fourth knew too which it had been reduced from the want of well the value of the prize to part with him. a firm hand to restrain oppression and enFor nineteen years he was detained in Eng- force the laws. Since the death of Bruce land; and, during this long interval, Albany tho power of the aristocracy had been on the became the uncontrolled governor of Scot- increase, while that of the crown had propor. land. It has been suspected that the intrigues tionally lost ground, and fallen into contempt. of this able and unprincipled man with His object, as can be clearly discerned the English monarch, had led to the seizure through the history of his brief reign, was to of the young king. That they prolonged restore the kingly authority, to resculle the the period of his captivity, there can be no commons from oppression and plunder, to doubt. -give security to property, encouragement to It was clearly the best policy of the regent the industry and pacific arts of his people, to c elt vate peace with England, and to con- and to compel his barons to renounce their ciliate HTenry the Fourth, as this prince ideas of individual independence, and becould at any timne put a termination to his come good subjects. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 511 The regency of Albany, his uncle, and of termination to govern the country through his son mirdoch, who had succeeded him, the medium of his parliament. was naturally and justly regarded by James Other points of almost equal interest occua as little else than a long usurpation. He was pied his attention. By his personal prosmortified that Albany, against whom, as the ence in the Highlands, and by the military murderer of his brother, he entertained the force which he brought along with him, deepest resentment, should have escaped his when he visited those remote districts of his merited punishment; and the royal venge- dominions, he introduced laws and order ance fell with a proportionably heavier force where there had formerly been little else upon IMurdoch, his son and successor; nor is than feudal license and contempt for all anit possible to deny that James's retribution thority. Although he cultivated the arts of was cruel and excessive. iMurdoch, the peace, he did not forget that its surest preDuke of Albany, his two sons, the Earl of servative was an attention to the military Athole, and Alexander Stewart, with his strength of his country. -Ieapon-shacwings, father-in-law, the Earl of Lennox, a venerable or military musters, were held periodically; nobleman, eighty years of age, were tried, and having witnessed, when resident in condemned and executed. James, the duke's England, and in the war of Henry the Fifth youngest son, having escaped, collected a in France, the great superiority of the Engband of freebooters, and after sacking and lish over the Scotch archers, he made it his plundering Dunbarton, took refilge in Ire- earnest care that his subjects should cultivate land; but five of his men fell into the king's this warlike accomplishment. hands, and were torn in pieces by wild Amid these severer duties, James gave an horses. So horrid a punishment, and the example to his rude barons of the cultivation exterminating severity exhibited to ail con- of intellectual accomplishments. He was nected with the house of Albany, can admit himself a poet; and the king's book, or of no justification; and there is every reason KIIrG's QUAIR, composed during his captivity to believe, that the early and miserable death in England, is still read by many with deof the monarch, is to be traced to the very light and enthusiasm. He was a reformer deep feelings of revenge with which some of the language of his country; he composed of his nobles from that moment regarded pieces of music, and sang and accompanied him. himself on various instruments. It is prob Having given this severe and sanguinary able, however, that these employments were lesson, the next efforts of the monarch rather the solace of his tedious confinement were addressed to the internal adminis- in England, than objects of serious pursuit tration of his kingdom. From without after his return. he had nothing to dread; he was at peace Having so zealously devoted himself to the with England, and his marriage with Jane best interests of his kingdom, James had the Beaufort, the niece of Cardinal Beaufort, satisfaction to see his measures attended with had, from her near relationship to the English success, and all seemed secure and prospermonarch, strengthened the ties between the ous, when he suddenly became the victim oi two countries. France was the ancient ally a dark conspiracy. Under circumstances of of Scotland; and the INetherlands profited extreme ferocity he was assassinated in the too much from the Scottish trade not to be monastery of the Blackfriars at Perth, by Sir anxious to preserve the most friendly rela- Robert Graham, the Earl of Athole, and lions. The king could therefore direct his some accomplices who had been dependents undivided attention to his affairs at home. of the house of Albany. The court was then His great principle, and it was one worthy at Perth, and James had taken up his resiof so wise a prince, seems to have been a de- dence in the Dominican monastery beside 512 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. the town. The king was betrayed by his powerful barons, whet they remembered the chamberlain, who facilitated the entrance magnitude of James's plans, and the stern of the conspirators, by removing or damag- and sometimes unjust severity with which ing the locks of the royal apartments. he carried them into execution, could not When the alarm was given, it is said that but feel that now was the time to recover a lady who waited on the queen, named the privileges which they had lost, and to Catherine Douglas, thrust her arm into the provide some strong and permanent barrier staple of the door, and thus, before it was against all future encroachments of the* broken, heroically afforded a brief interval crown. in which the king contrived to conceal him- Immediately after his coronation, a strugself in a small vaulted chamber, where for gle commenced for the possession of the some time he evaded discovery. The con- chief power in the government. In a parspirators, under the idea that he had escaped, liament held at Edinburgh, the queen-mother had dispersed themselves through the palace, was entrusted with the custody of the young and the unfortunate monarch might have king, while Archibald, Earl of Douglas and been safe, if he had not prematurely at- Duke of Touraine, was appointed lieutenanttelnpted to leave his concealment. The general of the kingdom, a title probably innoise which he made recalled one of the eluding all the powers of a military goverruffians, who shouted to his companions; nor. In civil matters the chief authority and springing down into the vault, they seems to have fallen into the hands of the threw themselves upon their defenceless vie- Chancellor Crichton, who had the command tim and murdered him, after a desperate of Edinburgh Castle, in which the queenresistance. mother, with the young prince, had taken The death of James the First was a severe refuge soon after the murder of her husband. calamity to the country, exposing it for the This princess, however, soon found that third time since the death of Bruce to all the Crichton turned the possession of the royal evils of a long minority. His eldest son, person into an engine for his own advancewho succeeded to the throne by the title of ment, and refused to her that frequent inJames the Second, was a boy only six years tercourse with her son which she had exold; and although the character of the queen- pected, and to which she was entitled. mother was marked by considerable talent Having combined, therefore, with Sir and vigor, these qualities were feeble substi- Alexander Livingston, a baron who had been tutes for the masculine wisdom, the deter- in favor with the late king, she contrived, mined courage, and the unwearied care of by stratagem, to possess herself of the perthe husband whom she had lost. IIer first son of the young king, whom she shut up in duty was the arrest and punishment of his a large wardrobe chest, and carried as her murderers; and this she executed with speedy luggage to Leith, from whence she hastened and ininmitigable severity. But the death to Stirling Castle, which had. been assigneQ of the king once more gave a license, and to her as a jointure-house. offered to the feudal nobles an opportunity The kingdom was now divided between of recovering their power of which they were three factions, that of the Queen and Livinognot slow to avail themselves. ston, who possessed the person of the king, Graham, the principal murderer of the late Sir Alexander Crichton the chancellor, and nmonarch, in the midst of the cruel tortures thirdly, the Earl of Douglas, whose immense which preceded his death, had avowed that estates in Scotland, and his foreign wealth the day was at hand when the Scottish nobles and influence as Duke of Touraine, rendered would venem ate his memory for having rid him by far the most formidable baron in the them of a tyrant; and these proud and country. From this moment to the period HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 513 when James, having attained majority, began of open aggression. This conduct was atto act for himself, an interval of thirteen tended with the best results. The Earl of years, the history of the nation presents little Douglas, finding his consequence decreasing, else than one uniform scene of civil anarchy and his power on the wane, retired for a and of unpunished crime. In this melan- while from Scotland, and respect for the choly drama the chief parts were played by character of the monarch increased with the Crichton and Livingston, who, deeming it feeling of security derived from an improved for their interest to crush the overgrown administration of the government. During power of the house of Douglas, inveigled the absence of the chief, James had time the young earl and his brother into the to reduce the minor barons who were his Castle of Edinburgh, brought suddenly dependents, to attach his own friends more against them a charge of treason, and put powerfully to his interest, and to concentrate them to instant death. a strength, which, on Douglas's return from It was fortunate for the country that, Italy, convinced him that he must consent when thus torn by domestic factions, its to play a second part to his prince. The foreign relations were of a pacific character, result was what might easily have been anEngland, France and the Netherlands being ticipated. A collision took place between all animated with the most friendly disposi- this haughty potentate and the young sovtions, while the young king, as he advanced ereign whose commands he had so often defrom boyhood into maturer years, developed fled. Douglas, naturally rash and fearless, a character of prudence, vigor and intelli- had consented, under a safe-conduct bearing gence which appeared destined to restore a the royal signature, to visit James in the better state of things to his kingdom. Hav- Castle of Stirling. After the royal feast ing married the daughter of the Duke of the king remonstrated with his guest; disGueldres, he assumed the government, and closed to him the proofs he possessed of his selected as his principal councillor, Kennedy, combinations against the government; reBishop of St. Andrews, a prelate of great proached him for the frequent murders of wisdom and integrity, whose rank as head his subjects committed by his order; and of the church, invested him with an author- condescended to intreat him to forsake such ity to which the people, amid the general dangerous courses, assuring him of his pardon corruption, looked with much reverence and and favor. Douglas, instead of embracing affection. It was probably by his advice the offer, replied to it with haughtiness and that James, whose passions were naturally insolence; and James, losing all command violent, and who viewed with indignation of himself, anct braved to his face, drew his the arrogance of the Earl of Douglas, en- dagger and stabbed him to the heart. Fallgaged in a systematic plan for the reduction ing at his feet, he was instantly dispatched of his overgrown power. Without attempt- by the nobles, who, hearing the commotion, ing at once, and by any arbitrary exertion rushed into the apartment. of strength, to deprive this potent chief of This atrocious murder was followed by a hiis high offices, a measure which might have struggle between the royal party and the been followed by extreme commotion, he friends and vassals of the unfortunate baron, gradually withdrew from him his counten- in which the king was completely successance and employment; surrounded himself ful. Sir James Douglas, who succeeded his by able and energetic councillors, whom he brother in the earldom, attempted to brave promoted to the principal places of trust; the monarch, renouncing his allegiance, and and thus weakened the authority of the proud throwing himself into the arms of England; baron, rather by the formidable counterpoise but his projects against his country were dewhich he raised against it, than by any act feated. He was equally unfortunate in his m.-33 514 HISTORY OF TH1E WORLD. alliance with the Lord of the Isles, whose country to the expatriated monarch Henry naval force he directed against the west of the Sixth, should have deeply incensed his Scotland; and at length, in a fruitless effort rival; but the facility with which he purto regain his lost power by invading the chased his instruments, and found them in Merse along with the Earl of Northumber- the ranks of the Scottish nobles, who beland, he was totally routed by the Earl of came the vassals of England, is a mortifying Angls, and driven a landless fugitive into fact. England. From these general remarks it is easy to The remainder of this reign was employed anticipate the history of this reign and the by the king in an endeavor to complete the scenes which it presented. Into their minute work which he had begun; by strengthen- details it is impossible to enter. For a while ing the power of the crown, and giving the energy of the queen-mother supported security to the persons and property of his the government. On the news of the death subjects; by attaching to his party the great of her husband, instead of giving herself up and influential body of the clergy, carrying to unavailing grief, she repaired with all into effect various parliamentary enactments speed to the camp before Roxburgh, carryfor the defence. of the borders against the ing with her her infant son, now king; him attacks of England, and cultivating the war- she presented to the nobles, and urged them, like character of his people. Amid these for him and his father's sake, to press forward kingly cares, he unwisely suffered himself to the siege. She was obeyed, and Roxburgh be entangled by the contests between the was taken; but fatal disputes soon succeeded Yorkists and Lancastrians; and having to this success, and it required all the vigor espoused the party of Henry the Sixth, of the queen, with her chief minister, Bishor levied an army, and met his death by the Kennedy, a man of high character and talent, bursting of one of his own guns at the siege to struggle against the difficulties which surof Roxburgh. He was succeeded by his son, rounded them. In the northern parts of the James the Third, a boy in his eighth year. kingdom all was unsettled; and the Earl of The death of a sovereign thus cut off in Ross espousing the cause of Edward the the prime of his manhood and usefulness, Fourth, proclaimed himself king of the leaving an infant successor, would have been Hebrides, while the Earl of Angus, on whom, a deep calamity at all times, but it was espe- after the fall of the house of Douglas, a cially so at this moment. James the Second a large share of their power had devolved, had, with uncommon vigor and judgment, undertook to support the party of Henry reduced the overgrown power of his nobles; the Sixth, contrary to the wishes of the but he died before his plans were matured, queen and Bishop Kennedy. At this crisis, leaving the nation at war with England, the the young sovereign lost his another, Mary seeds of civil disunion lurking in his king- of Gueldres; and, after a few years, Bishop dom and ready to spring up, and the more Kennedy followed her to the grave; events northern parts of the realm held by fierce which deprived the government of its best, chiefs, who were disposed, on the slightest or rather of its only support. Yet amid all provocation, to throw off their allegiance. these complicated dangers, it is remarkable With these island lords, Edward the Fourth that, for fifteen years, the interval occupied entered into a strict alliance; and the banish- by the minority of this prince, the affairs of ed Douglases, now become English subjects, the country were prosperous. agreed to assist him in a confederacy, the On the death of Bishop Kennedy, the object of which was nothing less than the chief power in the government had fallen conquest and partition of Scotland. It was into the hands cf William Lord Boyd, the to be expected that the favor shown by that I High Justiciar a baron hitherto little known, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 515 but whose power rose, in a few years, to a such had already been the success of this height which almost rivalled that of the once reign, it seemed not unreasonable to look formidable Douglases. He became gover- forward to still greater prosperity in after nor of the king's person; filled every office years; and yet the history of the country, with his dependents; married his eldest son, from the moment when the monarch attainwho was created Earl of Arran, to the king's ed his majority, presents a melancholy consister; and acquired so much influence over trast to this beginning. This reverse we are the young king, rather, it would seem, by inclined to ascribe partly to the personal terror than by love, that he appeared com- qualities of the king, partly to some changes pletely subservient to his wishes. The decay in the power and dispositions of the great of this family was as sudden as its rise. - A body of the feudal nobles, which are discernmarriage had been negotiated between the ible at this period, not in Scotland only, but king and Margaret, Princess of Denmark, in all the feudal kingdoms of Europe. and scarcely was it concluded when a faction To return from such remarks to the events of the nobles, at the head of whom was the of this reign, the king now engaged in a monarch himself, suddenly attacked the contest with his two powerful brothers, AlBoyds, arraigned them of high treason, bany and Mar. To the first had been enseized and confiscated their large estates, trusted the wardenship of the east marches, and brought to the scaffold their principal the government of Berwick, and the castle leader. A divorce was instituted against of Dunbar, the principal key of the kingthe Earl of Arran and his wife, the Princess dom; and there seems no doubt that he had Mary, sister to the king; and she was com- abused his high powers to an extent which pelled to give her hand to Lord Hamilton, a bordered upon treason. Against Mar was favorite of the young monarch. It was brought a still more atrocious charge. IHe through this marriage that the family of had plotted, it was said, to cause the king's Itamilton, which now rose into great power death by magical arts; and being convicted upon the ruin of the Boyds, became, in the by the evidence of his wizard accomplices, subsequent reign of Mary, the nearest heirs was imprisoned, and, according to one acto the crown. count, secretly executed. Another story asJames had now attained majority, and in cribes his. death to the consequences of a assuming the full administration of the gov- fever, for which having a vein opened, he ernment, he found his kingdom more opu- in an excess of phrensy tore off his bandages lent, more secure and more powerful, than and bled to death. Against Albany the king could have been anticipated from the strug- proceeded with unusual vigor. lIe attacked gles of his minority. The important isles him in Dunbar, made himself master of the of Orkney and Zetland had been acquired fortress, and would have seized his person, with the daughter of Denmark; the rich but the rebellious prince availed himself of tow n of Berwick, and the border fortress of the situation of the castle, which was open Roxburgh, had been occupied by the Scots; to the sea, and fled first to England, and the earldom of Ross had been annexed to afterwards to France. the crown; the independence and liberty At this moment, Louis the Eleventh was of the Scottish Church established by the at war with Edward the Fourth, and he unerection of St. Andrews into an archbishop- fortunately possessed such influence over the ric; and, lastly, a marriage treaty with Eng- Scottish king, that he brought about a rupland, by which the youngest daughter of ture between James and Edward. It was a Edward the Fourth was betrothed to the a step signally impolitic. Albany, the king's king's eldest son, seemed to promise security brother, returning from France, threw himand peace in this formidable quarter. If self into the arms of England; the nobility 516 HISTORY OF TH3E WORLD. were full of complaints against the govern- not the full extent of his treachery. He ment; the Lord of the Isles embraced the attached Edward the Fourth to his service interests of Edward; and after a long inter- by the sacrifice of the national independence val of peace had softened the national ani- In a secret treaty, the English prince en mosity between the kingdoms, it was a mis- gaged to' assist Albany, who hitherto had erable sight once more to witness the renewal only assumed the title of lieutenant-general of hostilities. of the kingdom, in placing the crown on his This contest led to some extraordinary own head; and as the base price of this asscenes. Albany having openly: avowed his sistance, the new king and his nobles agreed purpose to dethrone his brother, assumed the to withdraw their oaths from King James, title of Alexander, King of Scotland, and and to live under the sole allegiance of the entered into a treaty with Edward, by which King of England. It may give us some idea he basely consented to sacrifice the indepen- of the low estate to which the nobles of denuce and dismember some of the finest por- Scotland had fallen, when we mention, that tions of the kingdom. To effect his designs, not' only the Earl of Douglas, now banished he had the address not only to secure the and living in England, but the Earls of Anco-operation of the banished Earl of Douglas, gus, Buchan, Athole, and many others, were with the Lord of the Isles and his northern willing parties to this wanton sacrifice of vassals, but he detached from James's ser- their country. vice Angus, Gray, HIuntly, Lennox, and The plot, however, was defeated, and hapmany others of the leading nobility in Scot- pily a party yet remained among the nobles, land. A conspiracy was formed against the who, though their vengeance had been dimonarch and his favorites; the conjuncture rected against the king's favorites, were of his assembling his army, preparatory to his friends to the crown and to the country. invasion of England, was deemed the most They had joined Albany with the object of favorable moment for the execution of their sacrificing Cochrane and his associates, but purpose; and in the camp at Lauder its sue- had been kept in ignorance of his ultimate cess was equally sudden and terrible. The intentions; and the moment these became nobles, led by Angus, seized Cochrane, apparent, they united with the king and James's favorite, who, from a mean station, overwhelmed the opposite faction. And had been promoted to high rank and enrich- here, in the manner in which Albany was ed with the earldom of Mar; they then broke treated, is to be found the cause of all the into the king's tent, made him prisoner, ar- subsequent misfortunes of the king. His rested the band of ignoble associates who brother deserved punishment, and ought to shared his confidence, and proceeded to in- have met with no pity. -He had been guilty flict summary vengeance on them all. Coch- of open and repeated treasons, had levied rane was hanged over the bridge of Lauder; war against his prince; had imprisoned his Rogers, a musician, Hommel, Leonard, Pres- royal person, leagued himself with his eneton and others shared his fate; and the un- mies, sold the independence of his country, fortunate monarch, having been conveyed to and assumed the title of king. Iis guilt the capital, was shut up in the castle of Ed- and ambition had seduced from their allegiinburgh. The result of this success was ance a large party of the nobles; and if ever what might have been expected. Albany, there was a time in which a great example who all along had acted from motives of was to be made, that time was now come. personal ambition, having once possessed him- Yet, instead of this wholesomne severity, the self of the king's person, ruled the govern- Duke of Albany was treated with a lenity ment at his will. for which it is impossible to account. On But usurpation of the supreme power was acknowledging his manifold treasons, and HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 517 laying down his office of lieutenant-general, who was thus delivered from his most powhe not only received a full pardon, but was erful enemies, would have been permitted permitted to retain not only his vast estates, to reign in peace. But he was destined to but his wardenship of the marches, and was be unfortunate; and, although his nobles simply interdicted from coming within six had refused to alter the succession in favor miles of the court, or continuing his illegal of his ambitious brother, they soon after apcombination with Angus, Athole, and Bu- pear to have entered into intrigues with chan. England, for the purpose of placing the Whether -we are to ascribe this misplaced crown on the head of his son, the Prince of' mercy to the king's attachment to his brother, Scotland, who was then a youth in his six or to a suspicion that he was not strong teenth year. Much obscurity hangs over enough to inflict a more exemplary punish- the origin of this conspiracy. Advances ment, it is difficult to decide; but the result seem first to have been made by the faction demonstrated what has been so often taught, of the prince to Richard the Third, who, althe folly of a misplaced lenity. In a few though he was animated by an anxious deweeks Albany was again in rebellion. At sire to remain at peace with Scotland, did his invitation, an English army invaded Scot- not scruple to hold out secret encouragement land; Dunbar, the most important castle in to James's enemies. To what extent such the kingdom, as the key of the eastern bor- secret negociations proceeded, it is not easy ders, was delivered up by this base person to discover; but after the death of Richard to the enemy, while he himself fled into they were renewed, and his successor, Ienry England, and organized with Edward the the Seventh, showed as little scruple as his Fourth the plan of a more formidable inva- predecessor in encouraging the malcontents. sion. At this crisis occurred the death of The two parties of the king and the conthe English monarch, and the seizure of spirators first tried their mutual strength in the crown by Richard the Third; events a parliament. It was proposed by the popwhllich gave James an interval of rest, in ular faction that an amicable adjustment of which he actedl with unusual firmness and all disputes should take place between themenergy. He assembled a Parliament at selves and the sovereign, and that such barEdinburgh, in which the sentence of forfeit- ons as were still obnoxious to a charge of ure was pronounced against the Duke of treason, should receive a full pardon. To Albany and all his adherents; he entered this the party of the king peremptorily reinto an intimate alliance with Charles the fused their consent. James, aware of the Eighth of France, and he concluded a truce unworthy conduct of his son, the heir appawith Richard the Third, who was too much rent, created his second son Duke of Oroccupied with his own complicated affairs, mond, and seemed to point him out as his to have leisure or inclination to continue the successor. He at the same time rewarded war with Scotland. Thus strengthened, the the principal barons who had espoused his king found it no difficult matter to resist the interest, and took decisive measures, by the last effort of Albany and Douglas, who hav- appointment of vigorous officers, to have the ing once more invaded Scotland at the head laws against treason severely administered. of a small force, were completely defeated These steps convinced his opponents that at Lochmaben; an event followed not long their proceedings had been discovered; and after by the death of Douglas, in the abbey without giving the monarch time to assemof Lindores, where he had been confined, ble an army, or even take measures for his and of Albany who was slain in a tourna- personal defence, they threw off the mask, n'ent in France. broke out into open rebellion, declared that It might have been expected that James, James the Third, by his crimes and oppres. 518 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. sions, had forfeited all title to the throne, and and his friends and adherents supported with proclaimed his son, by the title of James the due dignity. It required little penetration Fourth. to foresee that the tranquillity which was Even now, had not the king suffered him- established on such a foundation could not self to be misled by his paternal feelings, long subsist. It was a confession of weakthe conflict might have concluded in his ness pronounced at a time when firmness at favor; for it is evident that a large class of least, if not severity, was the only guide to the nobility, and the whole body of the peo- the permanent settlement of the convulsions ple, were against these nefarious proceedings. which agitated the kingdom. So strong was this feeling, that James, who, The consequences which any person of oron the advance of the rebels to the capital, dinary judgment might have anticipated, had taken refuge in the northern part of his were not long of occurring. James retired kingdom, soon found himself at the head of to his capital, his army was dismissed, the a formidable army, and advanced instantly northern barons, whose valor had saved his against the insurgents, whom he found sta- crown, were permitted to return to their estioned at Blackness, near Linlithgow. tates, and James, anticipating a continuance It was now the time for action, the time of tranquillity, proceeded to reward his for a determined execution of those laws friends and re-organize his court, when he which of late years had seen so constantly received intelligence that his son, the prince, treated with contempt. But whether the affec- with the same fierce barons who had so lately tionate heart of the monarch sickened at the sworn allegiance, were again in arms, and sight of his subjects in mortal array against in more formidable numbers than before. each other, or some symptoms of disaffection In this emergency, indeed, the king acted breaking out in his own force rendered him with courage and promptitude; but having apprehensive of their fidelity, James not disbanded the strongest division of his army, only- congented to an accommodation, but which consisted of his northern barons and offered terms to the prince and his associates, their vassals, the force which he mustered which were culpably lenient. He permitted was much inferior to that of his opponents. the son who had usurped his kingly name It was therefore determined to await in the and prerogative, and the subjects who had capital the arrival of the northern barons; defied the authority of tle, crown and the but unfortunately this -resolution was abanlaws, to negociate with arms in their hands doned, and the monarch, with inferior numon a footing of equality. On the part of bers, attacked the insurgents, who were comthe misguided prince, now no longer a boy, manded by the prince, his son, at Sauchy no petition for forgiveness, no expression of Burn, within a mile of Bannockburn. The penitence was suffered to escape. In the consequences proved most calamitous. The pacification at Blackness, the youth spoke royal forces, after an obstinate struggle, gave throughout, not as a son conscious that he way to their opponents; and James, flying had offended, but as a sovereign transacting from the field, was murdered by an unknown a treaty with his equal. The treaty, in truth, hand, at a little hamlet called Miltown, a was a triumph to the discontented nobles. few miles distant from the field of battle. The prince and his friends who had encour- He perished in the prime of life, and it is aged him to resistance, agreed to become said his youthful successor was seized with obedient subjects on receiving the king's for- overwhelming remorse on being inlformed giveness, while the monarch not only con- of the miserable fate of his father. HIowsented that their lives, honors, and estates, ever this may be, he was immediately proshould be preserved, but that the household claimed king, and the homage of his barons, of the heir apparent should be maintained, the early possession of a sceptre, and the tHISTORY OF THE WOtRLD. 519 lustre of a court, soon stifled his repentant ed into a commercial alliance with Denmark, feelings. and in a parliament held in the capital, diWhen James the Fourth succeeded to the rected his earnest endeavors to the establishthrone left vacant by the murder of his ment of good order, and the administration father, he was in his seventeenth year; but of equal justice throughout the kingdom. his character at that early age had vigor- tHappily the character of Henry the Seventh, ously developed itself, and although it has his caution, sagacity, command of temper, sometimes been asserted, there is no reason and earnest desire for peace, were well calto believe that the prince had been an un- culated to check the ardor and impetuosity willing assistant, or a passive tool in the of the Scottish prince; and for twenty years, hands of the conspirators. Their first care with the exception of a brief effort made by was to hold at Scone the ceremony of the James in favor of Perkin Warbeck, the coronation; their next to conclude a three country enjoyed the blessing of repose. years' truce with England, then under the This interval was wisely occupied by the government of HIenry the Seventh; their monarch in reducing the northern portion third, to assemble a parliament and provide of his dominions to obedience, and in an atfor their own safety, by the forfeiture of tempt, by the frequent convocation of his their enemies and the rewards distributed to parliament, to promulgate useful laws, and, their friends. which proved a more difficult task, enforce The innocence of these barons was, how- their observance. It was evident, that as the ever, far from being generally admitted; and king grew older, he became convinced of the the parliament had scarcely risen, when fatal errors of his early years, and upbraidLennox, IHuntly, Marischal, and other pow- ed himself for having lent himself to a erful chiefs, rose in arms to avenge the death selfish and unprincipled faction, who, unless of their king. Lord Forbes, who had join- he consulted their wishes and gratified their ed them, marched through the country, bear- ambition, might be disposed to treat him as ing the bloody shirt of the unfortunate prince they had treated his father. Aware that suspended from a spear; and had it not been they were too powerful to be quelled, he for the promptitude with which their oppo- prudently adopted a safer course, by gradunents met the enterprise, the movements of ally recalling to confidence and power the Lennox, who advanced upon Stirling, might friends and ministers of his father. Among have delivered the country from their dom- these, one of the ablest was Andrew Wood ination. But this chief, betrayed by some of Largo. This remarkable man, whose of his followers, was surprised and complete- genius for naval adventure was combined ly routed by Lord Drummond at Fallamoss; with a powerful intellect in civil affairs, rose Dunbarton, Lennox's strongest hold, surren- by degrees to be one of James's most confidered, and the defeat added new strength to dential servants, and appears to have been the young king and his friends. almost exclusively trusted in his financial Tranquillity being restored, James as he concerns. We find in him many qualities approached manhood, exhibited signs of con- apparently inconsistent, when judged by siderable ability, and energy in following up modern notions. IHe was originally nothing his purposes. Amid a love of pleasure more than an enterprising merchant; but at which had never been restrained by early this time all merchant ships were armed, discipline, and often hurried him into foolish and generally acted on an emergency as ships and criminal excesses, he did not so far for- of war. Wood, therefore, in the course -of get himself as to neglect his higher. duties. a life devoted to mercantile and commercial iHe cultivated amicable relations with Eng- adventure, had become a sklillfi naval cor land, renewed the Pleaglue with France, enter- mander; and in the cornmmeneemllent of this 520 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. reign, when the English privateers infested IMearns to the head of Loch Rannoch, accomthe narrow seas and attacked the Scottish panied by his chief lords and councillors. shipping, had signalized himself by the cap- In 1493, he twice penetrated into the Highture of five vessels, and the subsequent de- lands, and in the succeding year thrice visitfeat of a second squadron, commanded by ed the isles. Stephen Bull, a London merchant. These One of these voyages, undertaken in 1494, successes endeared him to the king, who had during the spring months, was conducted a passion for naval enterprise, and lost no with great state. lHe was accompanied by opportunity of encouraging such a taste in his chief ministers, his household, and a conhis nobles. The advice of such a councillor siderable fleet, many of the vessels composing as Wood, was of essential service to James. which were fitted out by the nobles at their His travels in different countries had enlarg- own expense. The pomp of the armament ed his mind, and made him ready to adopt was well calculated to impress upon such their improvements in various points in which wild districts an idea of the wealth and miliScotland was behind her neighbors. He had tary power of the prince; while the rapidibeen an affectionate servant of the late king; ty of his progress, the success with which lie and to his advice we are perhaps to trace the punished all who braved his power, his gen coldness and severity with which James now erosity to those who sued for mercy, his fami began to treat some of the leaders in the late liarity with the lower classes of his subjects, rebellion. Yet, while the monarch endeav- and his own gay manners, increased his popored to keep their power in check, he show- ularity, and confirmed the ties of allegiance. ed his prudence in abstaining from such se- On arriving in this voyage at Tarbert in vere measures as might have driven them Kentire, James repaired the fort originally into open opposition; and combining firm- built there by Bruce, established an emponess with gentleness, he contrived to recon- rium for his shipping, transported thither cile the opposite factions among his nobles, his artillery, and by such wise and energetic and to maintain his own authority over them precautions, ensured peace to districts which all. formerly had derided the royal vengeance. In the midst of these cares, the state of The chiefs, aware that the king could carry the Highlands occupied his special attention, hostilities at a short warning into the heart and the principles of his policy were certain- of their territories, submitted to a force ly wise and salutary. He endeavored by which it would have been vain to resist. every means in his power to attach to his in- One only, the Lord of the Isles, had the terests the principal chiefs of these remote folly to defy the royal vengeance, and soon districts; he contrived, through them, to repented his temerity. He was summoned overawe and subdue the petty island princes to take his trial for treason, pronounced who affected independence; he carried into guilty, stripped of his almost regal power, their territories, which had been hitherto and his lands and possessions forfeited to the too exclusively governed by their own capri- crown. cious and often tyrannical institutions, a more We must now advert for a moment to a regular and rapid administration of civil singular episode in the history of the country. and criminal justice, making them obedient Perkin Warbeck, whose mysterious story to the same laws which regulated his lowland still offers some field for historical scepticism, dominions; and lastly, he repeatedly visited after his first unsuccessful attempt upon the the Highlands in person. In 1490, on two English crown, took refuge in Scotland in different occasions, the king rode from Perth the year 1495. There seems strong ground across the " Mount," a term applied to the for suspecting that James, at the request of chain of mountains which extends fromn the the Duchess of Burgimdy, had embraced the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 521 interests of this adventurer at a much earlier ed by the discovery of North America. These period than is generally suspected; but whe- successes roused the adventurous spirit of thel he really believed him to be the prince the Scottish king, and as Scotland had hitherwhose name he assumed, or whether he was to been deficient in anything approaching to induced t- espouse his cause as a means of a navy, he became eager to supply the want, weakening England, is not easily discovera- and maintain his place with other continenble. It is certain, however, that in 1494, tal kingdons. With this view, he paid great the Scottish king had projected an invasion attention to his fisheries, and to foreign comof England in favor of the Duke of York, merce, the best nurseries of seamenu; and those and that the plan miscarried by the treach- enterprisirg merchants and hardy mariners ery of Perkin's friends. who had hitherto speculated solely on their On the arrival of the mysterious stranger own capital, found themselves encouraged at his court, James at once received him by the king and the government. with royal honors, gave him in marriage a While we advert to these laudable exertions lady connected with the royal family, col- of the king, the labors of an enlightened prelected an army, and attended by Warbeck, late for the dissemination of useful learning, invaded Northumberland. But the proceed- ought not to be passed over. Scotland, at ing was rash and impolitic; and its author this period, possessed only two universities, found, within a short time, that the cause of St. Andrews, founded in the beginning of Perkin was unpopular in England, and the the fifteenth century, and Glasgow, founded war unacceptable to his own subjects. So in 1453. To these Elphinstone, Bishop of deep was the national antipathy between the Aberdeen, now added a third. The papal two nations, that the English no sooner saw bull was issued in 1494, but the buildings of the claimant of the crown invading their King's College were not completed till about country at the head of a Scottish force, than the year 1500. It supported professors of'they suddenly cooled in their enthusiasm; divinity, of the civil and canon law, of meand the desolating fury with which James dicine, and of classical literature, in which conducted hostilities, supported by a body its first principal, Hector Boece or Boyce, of foreign mercenaries, completed their dis- was no contemptible proficient. Soon after gust. It was evident to the king that Henry this, James married the princess Margaret of the Seventh held his crown by a tenure too England, daughter of Henry the Seventh; firm to be shaken by so feeble a hand as Per- a wise and politic alliance, although in the kin's; and having drawn back his army, he marriage treaty the diplomatic skill and pensoon after concluded a truce with England, urious habits of her father seemed to have and refusing to deliver him to Henry, took gained a victory over the Scottish commismeasures for his quiet and amicable retreat sioners. from his dominions. From the public rejoicings that followed James now turned his principal attention his nuptials, the king was called to repress a to his navy. It is well known that at this mo- rebellion in the north, which appears to have ment the maritime enterprises of the Portu- been excited by an imprudent alteration in guese, and the discoveries of Columbus, had the policy hitherto pursued in these quarters. created a wonderful sensation throughout This had led to a confederation of the HIighEuarope. Even the cautious and calculating land chiefs, who determined to reinstate in spirit of Henry the Seventh had caught lire his insular sovereingty the grandson of the at the triumphs of the naval enterprise; and last lord of the Isles; and so deep was the an expedition which sailed from England un- discontent, that it required the utmost efforts der the command of Jolhn Cabot, a enetian of the prince to restore these remote dismlerchant, and his son Sebastian, wvas reward- tricts to tranquillity. In this he at last suc 522 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ceeded,: divided them into new sheriffdoms, nation had lately been dazzled by dreams of repaired and garrisoned the castles in the Edward the Third and Henry the Fifth, to hands of the crown, and sen. WNood and Bar- invade France. Louis on the other hand, ton, two of his best officers, with a small negotiated with James the Fourth, and to squadron to co-operate with Arran, his lieu- embarrass the King of England, induced him tenant-general, in reducing the insurgent to declare war against Henry the Eighth. chiefs. Having adopted these measures, It was a fatal resolution; but the Scottish which were soon followed by the complete prince was beloved by his people, and so re-establishment of tranquillity, James, at the popular with the great body of his nobles, head of a considerable force, visited the bor- that his appeal to arms was answered by the der districts, and, assisted by Lord Dacre, muster of one of the most numerous and best the English warden, compelled the Arm- equipped armies, and one of the most formistrongs, Jardines, and other powerful septs, dable fleets ever fitted out by the country. to forsake their habits of plunder, and re- The fleet amounted to twenty-three sail, spect the laws. He then proceeded by ne- of which thirteen were large ships, the rest gotiations to strengthen his pacific relations small armed craft. Of this armament the with France and the Netherlands; while he destination was Ireland, but its command prudently resisted the solicitations of Pope was entrusted to the Earl of Arran, an officer Julius the Second, who endeavored to de- of no experience in naval affairs; and the retach him from his alliance with Louis, and sult was its total dispersion and discomfiture. to induce him to join the emperor and the The land army, on the other hand, which Venetians in their attempt to check the sue- was led by the king in person, amounted to cesses of the French in Italy. a force little short of a hundred thousand Not long after this, occurred the death of strong, with which James invaded England, I-enry the Seventh, an event unfavorable to and after some slight successes, encamped in a Scotland. The proud, capricious, and tyran- strong position on the hill or rising ground of nical character of his son and successor, Flodden, one of the last and lowest eminences Henry the Eighth, rendered him little quali- which detach themselves from the range of fied to respect or preserve the pacific rela- the Cheviots. It was a strong position, imtions with that country, which had been pregnable on each flank, and in front dewisely cultivated by his father; and it soon fended by the Till, a deep and sluggish stream, appeared that the Scottish prince, a spirited which is tributary to the Tweed. monarch, jealous of his own dignity, and lit- Henry the Eighth, before passing with tle accustomed to dictation, was not disposed his army into France, had entrusted the deto submit to it from his brother-in-law. fence of his kingdom to the Earl of Surrey, Matters proceeded smoothly for some time; a brave and experienced officer, who lost no but when I-Ienry the Eighth engaged in war time in collecting a force with which, alwith France, the ancient ally of Scotland, though it did not amount to half the number James at once warmly espoused the party of of the Scots, he did not hesitate to march Louis, and although against the best interests against the king. But what he wanted in of his kingdom, suffered himself to be numbers, Surrey supplied by military expedrawn into the quarrel. The history of the perience and coolness; while James, blind, war is well known. Julius the Second having, obstinate, and attending only to the dictates in conjunction with Ferdinand of Spain, of his personal courage, threw away his adgained all he wished, by the league of Cam- vantages both in numbers and position. The bray, became alarmed at the progress of the result was one of the most calamitous defeats French in Italy, and to check their arms, pre- ever experienced before or since in Scotland. vailed upon HIenry theEighth, whose imagi- Surrey was permitted by the king to cross HISTORY OF THE WORLLD. 523 the Till in the face of his army. Contrary to which continued till nightfall, concluded in the remonstrances of his veteran officers, he the total defeat of the Scots. Among the would suffer no one to attack him; although slain was the king himself, who, surrounded the moment was so favorable that, if Angus, by a circle of his nobles, had fought with Lindsay, and Huntly had been allowed to desperate courage, besides thirteen earls and charge with their men, nothing less than a fifteen lords and chiefs of clans. The loss miracle could have saved the English earl. of common soldiers was estimated at ten To the entreaties of Borthwick, the master thousand men. Of the gentry it is imposof his artillery, he was equally obstinate. sible to say how many were slain. Scarcely Had the guns been brought to bear upon the a family of note could say that they had not enemy when crossing the bridge of the Till, lost one or more relatives, while some had they must either have been beaten back or to lament the death of all their sons. Wheththrown into such disorder as would have ex- er we regard this miserable slaughter of the posed them to immediate route; but this too sovereign with the flower of his nobility and the king would not suffer. With amazing country, or look to the long and sickening folly he renounced the use of his artillery, train of national calamities which it entailed that arm of war which, w-ith so great care upon the kingdom, it is not too mruch to and expense, he had strengthened or rather pronounce the battle of Flodden the greatest created, at the very moment it became ser- misfortune ever endured by Scotland. viceable, and might have saved himself and The news of defeat always flies rapidly, his army. What James's motive was in this, and the full extent of the national calamity unless the indulgence of some idle chivalrous soon became known in the capital, which punctilio, it is impossible to discover, but its was seized with the utmost sorrow and terconsequences were grievous. Surrey com- ror. The magistrates, with the forces of the pleted his arrangements, passed the ford and borough, had joined the king's army, and the bridge, marshalled his army at leisure, many of them shared his fate; but the ruerand placing his entire line between James chants, to whom their powers had been deand his country, advanced by an easy ascent puted, acted with much firmness and spirit. upon the rear of the Scottish army. Upon They armed the townsmen, published a prothis the king set fire to the huts and tempo- clamation, enjoining the women who were rary booths of his encampment, and descended seen waiting in the streets to cease their the hill with the object of pre-occupying an lamentations, and repair to the churches, eminence on which the village of Branksome where they might pray fortheir lords and husis built. His army was divided into five bands, and took all the necessary precautions battalions, some of which assumed the form to defend the city in the event of any imof squares, some of wedges, all being drawn mediate attack. Soon afterwards the welup in a line about a bow-shot distance from come intelligence arrived that Surrey, having each other. The enemy were divided into suffered severely in the battle, had disbanded two battalions, each of which had two wings. his host, and a breathinginterval was allowed. The English van was led by Lord Thomas The infant king was crowned at Scone, the and Lord Edmund Howard, Surrey himself castle of Stirling appointed as his residence, commanded the centre of the host, Sir Ed- the government of it entrusted to Lord Borthward Stanley and Lord Dacre the rear and wick, and the Archbishop of Glhsgow, with the reserve. On the side of the Scots, HIuntly the Earls of Hluntly and Angus, selected to be and IIume led the advance, the king the councillors of the queen-mother, till a parliacentre, and the Earls of Lennox and Argyll ment should assemble. At the same time the rear. The battle commenced at four in suspicions seem to have arisen that too much the afternoon, and after an obstinate contest, influence in the government ought not to be 524 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. given to this princess, whose near connection Huntly, and Crawford. Angus wielded the with England might subject her to foreign whole strength of the house of Douglas; influence; and a secret message was dispatch- Home was chamberlain, and commanded the ed to France inviting the Duke of Albany, eastern borders; while Iluntly and Crawthe next heir to the throne, to repair to Scot- ford ruled the northern districts. The Earl land and assume the office of regent. of Arran, in the meantime, arrived from It was necessary in the meantime to consider France along with the Sieur de la Bastie, the best schemes for the restoration of tranquil- who had been a favorite of the late king, and lity, and the preservation of order under the brought a message from the Duke of Albany. shock which a defeat so terrible had given to Arran was nearly related to the royal family, the country; and the prospect which pre- and entitled, by his high birth, and the office sented itself, on taking a general view of the of Lord High Admiral which he held, to act condition of the kingdom, was discouraging. a leading part in the government; but his The dignified clergy, a class of men who talents were of an inferior order, and unable were undoubtedly the ablest and best educa- to compete with the trying circumstances in cated in Scotland, from whose ranks the which the country was placed. state had been accustomed to look for its Scarcely had the queen recovered from her wisest councillors, were divided into factions confinement when she married the Earl of among themselves occasioned by the vacant Angus, a nobleman of great accomplishments benefices. The Archbishop of St. Andrews, and personal attractions, but, in the words the prelate of Caithness and the Isles, and of Lord Dacre, " childish, young, and attendother ecclesiastical dignitaries, had fallen ed by no wise councillors." Had the prinin the field of Flodden; and the intrigues of cess entered into a second marriage after the various claimants for these high prizes dis- due consultation had been held with the tracted the church and the council. There council assigned to her by parliament, and were evils also to be dreaded from the char- after a decent interval, no one could have acter and youth of the queen-mother. Mar- blamed her. She was yet in the bloom of garet had been married at fourteen, and was her best years, and from her youth, as well now only twenty-four. Her talents were excel- as from her high rank and the important lent, as we know from the testimony of such duties intrusted to her, she required the proable judges as Surrey, Dacre, and Wolsey; but tection of a husband; but the precipitation in some points she too nearly resembled her with which she hurried into the match with brother Henry the Eighth. She was hasty Angus was scarcely decorous, and certainly in her resentment, headstrong, and often unwise, nor was it long before she bitterly ready to sacrifice her calmer judgment to her repented her choice. passion or her pleasure; and in her thirst for The first effects of this unfortunate step power or personal gratification she sometimes was to increase the bitterness of the pre-existcared as little for the purity of the means by ing feuds amongst the nobles. HIome and which these objectswere accomplished. Soon Angus marshalled themselves and their vasafter the death of the late king this princess sals against each other; Arran, assisted by gave birth to a son, who was named Alex- Lennox and Glencairn, aspired to the regenander, and created Duke of Ross; and in a cy; Beaton, Archbishop of Glasgow, an inparliament, which met after her recovery, triguing prelate, supported tl e interests of Alshe was confirmed in the office of regent, bany and the French factior; while iHuntly, and was entrusted with the young king and Lord Drummond, and the Earl Marischal gave his brother. their influence to Angus and the queen, lho At this moment tho most powerful nobles courted Itenry the Eighth, and took the in Scotland were the Earls of Angus, Home, name of the English party. At this unfortu HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 525 nate crisis the country received a new blow French king his master; nor does it appear in the death of Elphinstone, who had been that either his talents or his temper were nominated archbishop of St. Andrews. For calculated to counterbalance such disadvantthe vacant primacy there were three cornm- ages. petitors; Gawin Douglas, uncle to the Earl On his assumption of the government the of Angus, Hepburn, prior of St. Andrews, effects of all this were soon perceived. The and Forman, Bishop of Moray, respectively queen refused to give up the custody of the nominated by the queen, the chapter and the infant monarch; Home, the chamberlain, pope. These ambitious eccleslastics scrupled threw himself into the arms of England; not to muster their armed vassals, and to vin- Angus, guided solely by selfishness and the dicate their claims by an appeal to the sword, ambition of becoming chief ruler, deserted an indecent spectacle, which could not fail his wife, the queen. France, instead of to lower the church in the eyes of the people. assisting her ancient ally to defeat the inIt was under this deplorable state of trigues of Henry the Eighth, which were carthings that Henry the Eighth carried to per- ried on by his able minister Lord Dacre, first fection a base system already begun by his betrayed strong symptoms of a change of father, that of keeping in pay a number of policy, and at length refused to renew the spies an I pensioned supporters. He bribed alliance with Scotland; and although Albany, the Scottish nobles, entertained a constant amid these difficulties, acted with considercorrespondence with the queen his sister, and able spirit and ability, it was impossible for even went so far as to propose her flight with him to compose the jarring elements, or the young king and his brother to the Eng- restore tranquillity and order in the country. lish court. It may give us some idea of the Dissatisfied and dispirited, he retired for loose principles of some of the leading men, a few years to France, and returned to that Angus and his uncle, Gawin Douglas, Scotland only to find the dangers which who ranks higher as a poet than a politician, tueatened the kingdom more imminent, and did not hesitate to give their countenance to the task of encountering them more difficult. a plan which amounted to nothing short of In his absence, De la Bastie, the person who treason. enjoyed his chief confidence, and to whom In the midst of these scenes the Duke of he had entrusted the offices of warden of the Albany arrived from France, and assumed marches and deputy governor, was murdered the regency; but unfortunately his deter- by the Homes in the most savage manner. mined predilection for the French interests The Highlands and Isles, long deprived of was as unacceptabble to many of the wisest regular government, were torn by various and best men in the country, as the queen factions, and exhibited scenes of the wildest and Angus's devotion to England. At this excesses. And Angus, whose feudal power moment Scotland required an upright and was far too great for a subject, had acted in vigorous governor, animated by a sincere open defiance of the laws, and domineered in love of his country, and who could hold the the most tyrannical manner over all who balance with judgment between contending dared to oppose his commands. The arrival parties. But Albany was ignorant of the of Albany compelled this chief to fly from constitution of the language, and of the man- the capital, and the regent exerted himself ners of the country. His family also made with the utmost vigor to put down the deshim an object of suspicion, his father having potism of the Douglases. He was forthwvith traitorously attempted to seize the crown. reconciled to the queen, received from her I-e was the son of a French mother, had the keys of the castle of Edinburgh, and married a French woman, and having his with them the custody of the young king; chief estates in France, constantly styled tile he assembled a parliament, sunmmoned the 526 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Douglases to answer a charge of treason, and, the regent retaliated by breaking into Engalthough thwarted in his administration by land at the head of a large army. He was the intrigues of Lord Dacre and the treach- driven to this solely by a desire to vindicate ery and venality of the Scottish nobles, he the national honor; for he seems to have compelled Angus, his principal enemy, to been conscious of the disadvantages which leave the kingdom. attended a war with England, and he knew It would be difficult, and if easy, unin- that the majority of the nobles were animastructive, to enter into the history of this ted by the same feelings. Under these cirperiod, when the country was torn by con- cumstances he wisely determined to follow tending factions, and exposed to all the mis- Bruce's principles as to war with that couneries incident to a feudal minority. Albany's try, to avoid any protracted invasion, not to worst enemies were Lord Dacre and the hazard a general battle, and while he showed Anglo-Scotian party which he kept in his a determination to maintain the independpay. It was his policy to throw distrust and ence of the country, and to resist any foreign suspicions upon every measure of the regent dictation, to evince at the same time his and the queen; to represent the regent as readiness to conclude an honorable peace. avaricious and tyrannical, to accuse him of a The same disposition being evinced by design to seize the crown, and to insinuate Lord Dacre, the minister to whom Henry that the king's life was not safe in his cus- entrusted the management of Scottish affairs, tody. All of these tales are to be found in a truce was concluded; but Albany, on dishis correspondence with his master, Henry banding his army and resuming his civil the Eighth, and there can be little doubt that duties, found himself surrounded with diffithe greater portion of them were false, and culties. Nothing indeed could be more the whole grossly exaggerated. So at least complicated or irksome than the various we must judge from the conduct of the Scot- contending interests which he had to untish Parliament, which treated a message, derstand and reconcile. His engagements soon afterwards sent by Henry the Eighth, with France prompted him to continue the and founded upon these idle accusations, war with England; his better judgment adwith a calm and resolute denial. This mon- monished him to remain at peace. Amid. arch, acting on the impulse of the moment, the universal corruption and selfishness and thwarted by the politic measures of the which infected the body of the nobles, many regent, had dispatched a herald, who con- of whom were in the pay of England, he veyed a severe reprimand to the queen, and, looked in vain for any one to whom he could at the same time insisted that the Scottish give confidence, or entrust with the execunobles should instantly dismiss Albany. tion of his designs, while the queen-mother, Their reply to this haughty communication with whom he had hitherto acted, betrayed was spirited and dignified. They derided him, and corresponded with Dacre. the fears expressed for the life of the young The impossibility of overcoming these inking, declaring that Albany was a faithful tricate evils without a more powerful miliservant of the country, and had been invited tary force than he could at present bring by themselves to assume the regency. into the field, induced the regent once more This answer was followed, on the part of to pass into France, for the purpose of holdHenry, by an immediate declaration of war. ing a conference with Francis the First, on The Earl of Shrewsbury, at the head of the the best method of reducing the English facforce of the northern counties, invaded Scot- tion. A council of regency was appointed, land on the side of the Merse and Teviot- consisting of Huntly, Arran, Argyll, and dale; an English fleet ravaged and laid waste Gonzolles, a French knight, in whom Albany tihe coasts of the Frith of Forth; and Albany placed great confidence; and after an absence HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 527 of some months, during which the war again iaries and his artillery, the single portion of broke out with great fury, he revisited Scot- this army which had acted with spirit. To land, bringing with him a fleet of eighty- have attempted to fight Surrey with these seven small vessels, in which he had em- alone, would have been the extremity of barked a fine body of six thousand foreign rashness, to have awaited the advance of the troops. English earl with an army which refused to With this strong reinforcement he hoped proceed against the enemy, might have rent to gain a preponderating influence over the dered defeat inevitable. In these critical nobility, and to decide the contest with Eng- circumstances, Albany, who has been unjustly land; but he was miserably disappointed. attacked by some ill-informed writers, adoptThe presence of foreign troops, always unac- ed the only alternative which was safe or ceptable to a people jealous of their rights, honorable. He disbanded the Scottish porwas particularly so to the Scots, who were tion of his army, and he himself retreated poor, and had to support the foreigners at a with his French auxiliaries and his artillery great expense. This rendered the war un- to Eccles, from which, after a short season, popular with the great body of the nation; he returned to the capital, and here he the queen-dowager was devoted to England; assembled the parliament. and the nobles, although prepared to assem- Its proceedings, as might have been anticible an army for the defence of the borders, pated,were distracted and impeded by mutual were opposed to any invasion of England accusations and complaints. The regent upon a great scale, or to a war of continued could not conceal his animosity to those aggression. As many of these barons, how- leaders who had so recently deserted him ever, were at that moment receiving pen- almost in the presence of the enemy. The sions from France, the payment of which nobles recriminated; they blamed him for any too decided demonstration might have squandering the public treasure, and notwithinterrupted, they artfully concealed their re- standing the inclement season of the year, pugnance. An army of forty thousand men insisted on his dismissing the foreign troops, mustered on the Borough-moor beside Edin- whose residence had become burdensome. burgh, and Albany, taking the command in All this was calculated to disgust and mortify person, advanced to the borders; but on the governor; and he requested permission arriving at Melrose the mask was dropped, to retire once more to France, for the purthe leaders showed symptoms of insubordina- pose of holding a conference with Francis tion, the soldiers catching the infection, mur- the First, and inducing him to grant him inured against the foreign mercenaries, and further assistance against the designs of Engdiscontent gathering strength, at last broke land. His request was complied with, on out in an open refusal to advance. No en- the condition that if he did not return to treaties or threats of the regent could over- Scotland within a limited period, the league come this resolution; and after a short season, with France, and his own regency, should be news arrived that the Earl of Surrey, having considered at an end. In the mean season, assembled an army, was advancing against the custody of the king's person was entrustthem. The intelligence of his speedy ap- ed tothe Lords Cassillis, Fleming, Borthwick, proach, strengthened the Scottish nobles in and Erskine, while the chief management of their determination not to risk a battle. So affairs was courwi.itted to a council, composed ~ompletely had the majority of them been of the chancellor, the Bishop of Aberdeen, corrupted by the money and intrigues of and the Earls of Huntly and Argyll. IIavDacre and the queen-dowager, that Albany ing made these arrangements, the Duke of did not venture to place them in the front, Albany quitted the kingdom, convinced, in but formed his advance of the French auxil- all probability, of the impossibility of recon 528 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. oiling the various factions and interests by had long since turned into hatred, fixed her which it was torn in pieces. Although he affections on Henry Stewart, a son of Lord gave hopes that his absence should not ex- Evandale, raised him to the office of treasuceed three months, there is strong reason for rer, and could she obtain a divorce, deterbelieving that when he embarked it was mined to marry him; and Henry the Eighth, with the resolution, which he fulfilled, of who began to find her demands too impornever returning to Scotland. tunate, and her obedience problematical, reOn the departure of Albany, it soon be- called the Earl of Angus from France, with came apparent that a secret understanding the design of making him an instrument in had for some time been maintained between his projects for the reduction of Scotland. two of the most powerful factions in the This baron appears to have increased in excountry, and that his leaving the kingdom perience and talent for intrigue, by his resiwas the signal for the breaking out of an im- dence in that country, but not in public prinportant revolution. The chief actors were ciple; and his first step was to sell himself the Earl of Arran and the queen-mother, and to Henry in a secret treaty, by which he entheir is ample evidence that their proceed- gaged to support the English interests in ings were agreeable to England. The young Scotland. In return, he and his brother Sir king was now in his thirteenth year, and his George Douglas hoped, by Henry's aid, to mother and Arran, having gained to their place themselves at the head of the governinterest the peers to whom his person had ment, and to be restored to the vast estates been entrusted, carried him from Stirling to and power which they had lost. Edinburgh, proceeded to the Palace of Ho- The arrival of Angus in his native counlyrood, declared in a council that he had as- try, was the signal for immediate hostilities sumed the government, and issued procla- between him and the queen-mother, his wife, mations in his name. The peers of Marga- who had raised Henry Stewart to the office ret's party then tendered their allegiance, of chancellor, and detested her husband, in abjured their engagements lately made with proportion to the progress of her avowed and Albany, declared his regency at an end, and indecent attachment to this favorite. Hithpromised to maintain henceforth the author- erto she and her supporters, Arran, Lennox, ity of their sovereign. and the master of Kilmaurs, had been supIt was the evident object of the queen and ported by pensions from the English court, Arran to obtain, by this revolution, the en- and in return, had favored the views of Hentire command of the government. The meas- ry the Eighth; but the principles of this ure was remonstrated against, in the strong- venal association were of course capricious est manner, by the Bishops of St. Andrews and selfish, and the arrival of Angus, who and Aberdeen. They represented the utter now wielded the power of the Douglases, folly of conferring the supreme power on a threatened to break it to pieces. boy of twelve years old, and they stated, with Three factions struggled for the pre-emitruth, that Albany was still the regent; but nence, and tore the country in pieces. The Margaret, supported by her brother Henry first was that of Albany, the late regent, the Eighth, who hoped, through her, to gov- which was supported by French influence, ern Scotland, proved too strong for these and conducted by the chancellor Beaton; prelates, and for a while her schemes suc- the second had for its leaders the Earl of Arceeded. It was, however, only for a short ran and the queen-regent, who held the season. Jealousies arose between her and king's person, and possessed the chief execuArran, who, from his near relationship to tive power; at the head of the third were the crown, aspired to the chief power. The the Earl of Angus and his able brother queen, whose love for Angus, her husband, George Douglas, who were wedded to the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 529 interests of the English government. It is a judicious administration, have looked forimpossible, within our limits, and it would ward to something like tranquillity. The be uninstructive, to enter into a detail of the French party in Scotland had completely continued plots and intrigues which consti- sunk. Dr. Magnus, Henry's English ministute the sickening history of this period. It ter, who, during his residence in Scotland, soon became apparent that the party of the had been an object of great jealousy to the queen-mother was the weakest. Arran, a people, was recalled; and Lord Dacre, whose capricious man, deserted her; her private money and intrigues for so many years had conduct rendered her disreputable in the corrupted the Scottish nobles, and introduced eyes of the people; and soon afterwards a disunion and treachery into all their coutmcoalition between Beaton the chancellor and cils, was removed by death from the scenes Angus, carried the whole power of Albany's of his mischievous activity. All these things party to a union with the house of Douglas. were favorable; and the well affected, who Margaret sunk under this, and consented to sighed for the blessings of peace and good a negotiation. She resigned the custody of government, anticipated a period of repose. her son to a council of peers nominated by It was a vain expectation, destroyed by parliament, and, stripped of her power, con- the precipitate folly of the queen-mother, sented to a reconciliation with Angus, her and the grasping ambition of Angus. That husband, in whom, along with the chancellor powerful baron had hitherto aimed at one Beaton, the chief power in the government great object, which he now deemed himself now centered. A feeble effort indeed was on the very point of attaining; to accomplish made by Arran to destroy the influence of a reconciliation with his wife, the queenthe united factions; but the armed force mother, and possessing her estates, with the with which he advanced to Linlithgow was custody of the young king's person, to endispersed by the prompt attack of Douglas, gross the whole power of the government. and the address of this politic baron soon At this crisis Margaret, so far from becomafterwards prevailed on Arran to join his ing less hostile to Angus, gave herself up party. more inconsiderately than before, to her pasThe Earl of Angus had now gained a sion for Henry Stewart, and procuring a complete triumph over his enemies. He divorce from a husband whom she hated, possessed the person of the young king, he espoused her paramour with a precipitation was assisted by the talents and experience which disgusted the people. of the chancellor Beaton, he had witnessed This imprudent step determined Angus to the gradual decay of the faction of Albany change his ground, and a dread of some and the French monarch, and he had been counter revolution threw him upon new and joined by Arran, who, although personally more violent courses. By a successful stroke a weak man, from his high birth and great of policy, he procured the passing of an act estates possessed much power. His first step of parliament which annulled the authority was wise and temperate. A pacification for of the secret council, the only power which three years was concluded with England; stood between him and absolute dominion. and it was hoped that this might be followed At the same moment, the parliament deby a marriage between the young king and clared that the minority of the young king Henry's daughter, the princess Mary, a was at an end, and that having completed measure which, if guarded so as to preserve his fourteenth year, he was to be considered the independence of Scotland, might have as an independent sovereign. While the been attended with the happiest results. youthful monarch thus nominally assumed The country, so long distracted by border the government, that provision which enwar and internal anarchy, might now, under trusted the keeping of the royal person to 4L- 34 530 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. certain peers in rotation, remained in force; his supper ready, that he might go to h, bed and as Angus had artfully summoned the the sooner, and to have -his desjewvne (bre.~lparliament at that precise time, when it fast) ready by four o'clock, and comnianded belonged to himself and the Archbishop of James Douglas of Pathhead to pass the soonGlasgow to assume their periodical guardi- er to his bed, and caused bring his collation, anship of the king, the consequence of this and drank to James Douglas, saying to him, state manceuvre was to place the whole pow- that he should have good hunting on the er of the government in their hands. morrow, bidding him be early astir. Then A new secret council was nominated, com- the king went to his bed; and James Dougposed solely of the creatures of Angus; the las, seeing the king in his bed, wist that all great seal was soon after taken from Beaton, things had been sure enough, and passed in the young king was watched with the ut- like manner to his bed. When the watch was most jealousy, and compelled to give his con- set," continues Pitscottie, " and all things in sent to every thing proposed to him by his quietness, the king called on a yeoman of new masters. An attempt indeed was made the stable, and desired him bring one of his for his deliverance, first by the Laird of Buc- suits of apparel, hose, cloak, coat, and bonnet, cleugh, one of the most powerful of the bor- and putting them on, stept forth as a yeoder barons, and afterwards by the Earl of man of the stable, and was unperceived of Lennox, who deserted the party of the Doug- the watches, till he had passed to the stables, lases, and to whom the young monarch was and caused saddle a horse for himself, and much attached. But Buccleugh was routed one led, and took two servants with him, with considerable loss, and Lennox defeated namely, Jocky Hart, a yeoman of the stable, and slain. and another secret chamber boy, and leapt Of his own position Janmes, who had now on horse, and spurred hastily his journey to entered his seventeenth year, was perfectly Stirling, and won there by the breaking of aware; and as every hour of his captivity the day, over the bridge, which he caused to made the Douglases more hateful to him, his be closed behind him, that none without limind became intently occupied with projects cence might win that passage. After this for his escape. Nor was it long ere he effect- he passed to the castle,. and was received ed it. With an address superior to his years, there by the captain, who was very glad of the king had either succeeded in lulling the his coming, and prepared the castle with all supicions of his keepers, or a continuance of things needful. Then he caused shut the unchecked power had made them careless. gates, and let down the portcullis, and put James was at Falkland. Angus, Douglas the king in his bed to sleep, because he had his brother, and Archibald his uncle, were ridden all that night." absent on their private affairs; only Douglas Having thus regained his liberty, James's of Pathhead, the captain of the royal guard, first act act was to summon a council, and remained. The young monarch called for issue a proclamation, interdicting Angus and the park-keeper, and, as had been his wont, the Douglases from all approach within six proposed to hunt next morning. Therefore, miles of the court, under pain of treason. says a graphic old chronicler, he " caused Nor did they venture to disobey it. On dishim to warn all the whole tenants and gen- covering the flight of the king, Angus, Artlemen thereabouts who had the speediest chibald, and Sir George had hastily assemrdogs, that they would come to Falkland wood bled a few followers, thrown themselves on on the morn, to meet him at seven hours, for horseback, and were riding to Stirling, when he was determined he would slay a fat buck they were met by the herald, who read the or two for his pleasure; and to that effect act, and commanded them in the king's name caused warn the cooks and stewards to make to halt. For a moment they hesitated, but HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 531 it was only for a moment. Their sovereign constitutional prerogatives to the crown; to was free; the weapons which but a day be- bridle the exorbitant power of the great fore they had wielded with such irresisti- nobles, raising up as a check upon them the ble force, were now ready to be employed large and influential body of his clergy; to against themselves. A single step forward, encourage the mercantile and commercial and they were guilty of treason, their prop- classes of his people; and to facilitate the erty and their lives at the mercy of the administration of the laws, and insure equal crown. All this rose rapidly and fearfully justice to the lowest orders of the combefore them; and aware how vain it would munity. be at such a moment to meet the power of For the accomplishment of such ends, it their enemies, they retreated to Linlithgow. was first necessary to exhibit a wholesome The monarch, who now took the govern- example of retributive justice upon those ment into his own hands, had not completed who had been the greatest delinquents. It his seventeenth year; but he had been was declared treason for any person to hold nursed in the school of difficulty, and his intercourse with Angus, and every Douglas character consequently had acquired a con- was commanded to leave the capital on pain sistency and vigor far superior to his age. of death. Angus himself was commanded The principles which regulated his future to remain beyond the waters of the Spey, government sprung naturally from the cir- and required to deliver his brother Sir cnmstances of his early life. The sternest George Douglas, and his uncle Archibald, resentment against Angus and the house of as hostages, for his answering to his suMnDouglas, was combined with a determination mons of treason. HIaving haughtily disto assert and regain the rights of the crown, obeyed these orders, a parliament assembled. and to abridge the power of an aristocracy, He was proclaimed a traitor, and his lands which had grown intolerable during a long nominally divided among those nobles to minority. Towards his uncle, IHenry the whom James owed his late success. It was Eighth, it was impossible that his feelings easier, however, to promulgate than to execould be any other than those of resentment cute such decrees agaiinst so powerful a and suspicion. It was by this prince that baron; nor was it till after repeated attacks there had been introduced into Scotland an upon Tantallon, some of them led by the organized system of corruption, of which king ii person, that the arch-offender was his able and unscrupulous minister, Lord reduced, and compelled to seek an asylum D)acre, had been the author. Many Scottish in England. nobles had become the pensioned agents of James next directed his attention to the the English government; paid informers state of the borders; and in an expedition swarmed in the court and through the coun- which was long remembered for the vigor, try. All idea of conquering Scotland by dispatch and severity of the royal vengeance, force of arms had been long since aban- inflicted punishment upon the greatest ofdoned; but a more insidious expedient was fenders, among whom was the noted freeadopted, by which the English king, main- booter, Johnnie Armstrong, and reduced the taining the Douglases in their usurped dom- district into a state of tranquillity. Scarcely inion, received in return their homage and was this accomplished, when the Orkneys fidelity, and administered the government at were threatened to be torn from the crown his pleasure. by the rebellion of the Earl of Caithness; James's great objects, which we can trace and the Isles became the scene of a fierce through the whole remaining period of his struggle between the Earl of Argyll and reign, were to put an end to this system of Alexander of Isla, one of the most powerful foreign dictation; to restore its ancient and chiefs of that remote region. The judgment 532 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. and energy of the monarch were shown in with Henry the Eighth, in which he engage the speedy re-establishment of peace in both ed, if properly supported, to dethrone his quarters; and the people, aware that the sovereign, and to " crown the English king sceptre was once more in a firm hand, readily in the town of Edinburgh within a brief and gratefully co-operated with their sover- time;" while the Earl of Angus did not eign in all his labors. hesitate, in the extremity of his resentment, England and France were now at peace, to sell himself to England; and in an origand Henry the Eighth and Francis the First inal writing which yet remains, engaged to united in a strict alliance, which had for its "' make unto Henry the oath of allegiance, to object to bridle the increasing power of the recognize him as supreme lord of Scotland, Emperor Charles the Fifth. Under these as his prince and sovereign." circumstances, I-Ienry proposed a matri- In consequence of these base engagements, monial alliance with Scotland, and the de- war was once more kindled on the borders, sign was encouraged by France; while the and carried on by the Douglases and Henry's emperor, jealous of the power which so near captains with such desolating fury, that a connection with James might give to his James was compelled to call out the whole enemies, offered in marriage to the young body of the fighting men in the country. prince his sister, the Queen of Hungary, or These he divided into four armies, to each his niece, the daughter of Christiern, King of which, in rotation, the defence of the of Denmark, with Norway for her dowry. marches was entrusted. The measure effectFor the present, however, all these offers ually checked the power of the English, and were declined, and the monarch appeared there was little prospect of Bothwell fulfillwholly engrossed with the prosecution of his ing his threat of crowning Henry in the various plans for the melioration of his king- capital; but peace seemed more distant than dom. Finding himself thwarted by the ever, and nothing could be more deplorable nobles, he was compelled to adopt decided than the picture presented by the country. measures, and to promote the clergy to The flames of villages and granges, the dethose offices which had been filled by ten- struction of the fruits, and the cessation of poral barons. Argyll was thrown into pris- the labor of the husbandman, the stoppage on, the Earl of Crawford'stripped of a large put to the enterprise of the merchant, the part of his estates; the determination that increase among the people of the spirit of no Douglas should ever bear sway in Scot- national antipathy, the corruption of the land became a more stern and obstinate nobles by the money of England, the loss principle than before; and while the Arch- among such pensioned adventurers of all afbishop of Glasgow, the Abbot of Holyrood fection for the sovereign, and the decay of and the Bishop of Dunkeld, were principally the healthy feelings of national independconsulted in affairs of state, many of the ence; all these lamentable consequences nobles who had hitherto enjoyed the royal sprung out of the continuance of the war, confidence saw themselves treated with cold- and made the king desirous of securing peace, ness and distrust.. even if it should be at some sacrifice. During these transactions, the Douglases This he at length accomplished. James and their adherents were driven upon violent agreed that the Douglases, by which was and discreditable courses, in proportion as meant Angus, his brother George and his their prospect of reconciliation to the king uncle Archibald, shculd remain unmolested became more hopeless and remote. The in England, supported by Henry as his subEarl of Bothwell, also a powerful border jects, on condition that Edrington Castle, baron, whose excesses James had severely the only spot which the only spot which they held in Scotland, punished, entered into a traitorous alliance should be surrendered, and reparation made HISTORY OF THIE WORLD. 533 for any expedition which they or the English reformers, had been delated of heresy and king might hereafter conduct against Scot- condemned to the flames. The cruel senland. On these conditions a pacification was tence was carried into effect at St. Andrews concluded, for the period of the lives of in 1528, under the minority of James, and Henury and James, and a year after the death while the supreme power was in the hands of hihm who first deceased; and soon after of the Earl of Angus. On taking the govits ratification, the young monarch, whose ernment into his own hand, James, although firmness and talent in the management of decidedly inimical to the principles of Angus his government made him an object of re- in all other things, unhappily followed his spect to the European princes, received the determination to persecute those whom he Garter from England, the Order of St. esteemed the enemies of the truth. David Michael from France, and the Golden Fleece Straiton and Norman Gourlay, who were from the emperor. disciples of the Reformation, were tried for James was now in his twenty-second year, heresy, condemned, and brought to the stake, and his marriage was earnestly desired by on the 27th of August, 1534; and the intolthe country; but he had hitherto shown lit- erant and cruel conduct of the king compeltie inclination to gratify the wishes of his led some who had embraced the same opinions people. With all his good qualities, he un- to fly for safety to England. happily inherited fiom his father an extreme About this time Henry the Eighth exerted devotedness to pleasure, which had been himself to the utmost to prevail upon the rather encouraged than restrained by the Scottish king to imitate his own conduct, Douglases; and his passions getting the bet- and shake off the yoke of Rome. IHe ter of his prudence and principle, sought endeavored to open his eyes to the tyranny their gratification in low intrigues, carried of the pope's usurpations, sent to him the on in disguise, and in pursuit of which he treatise entitled the "Doctrine of a Christian not unfrequently exposed his life to the at- Man," and dispatched Dr. Barlow and Lord tacks and revenge of his rivals. It was now William Howard to request a conference full time that he should renounce these dis- with his royal nephew at York; but the rereputable excesses; and having evaded an membrance of the injuries he had sustained, offer made by the Spanish ambassador, of resentment for HIenry's intrigues with his the hand of the Princess Mary of Portugal, discontented subjects, and an attachment to and declined a similar proposal of Henry the faith of his fathers, indisposed James to the Eighth, who pointed to his daughter the listen to these overtures; and when Paul the Princess Mary, he dispatched an embassy to Third deputed his legate Campeoggio to visit France for the purpose of concluding a ma- Scotland, the embassy found it no difficult trimonial alliance with that crown. matter to confirm the Scottish monarch in It now becomes necessary to attend to the his attachment to the Catholic Church. At rise of the Reformation in Scotland, the prin- the same time he addressed him by the title ciples of which had been for some time si- of which IHenry had proved himself unlently progressing among the people, but worthry, Defender of the Faith, and presentwhich, from this period, exercised a marked ed to him a cap and sword which had been and increasing influence over the history of consecrated by the pope upon the Feast of the government and of the country. It was the Nativity. now nearly six years since Patrick HIamilton, War still continued between Francis the Abbot of Ferne, the friend and disciple of First and the emperor, a circumstance which Luther and Melanethon, having renounced induced the French king to continue an amthe errors of the Roman Catholic Church, icable correspondence with England; and and emblraced the doctrines of these leadiig being aware that Henry the Eiglhth was in 5341 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tent upon accomplishing a marriage with Nor had the conduct of Henry, during Scotland, Francis did not care to disgust James's absence in France, been calculated this passionate monarch by any very speedy to allay those resentful feelings which already attention to James's desires to unite himself existed between them. He had sent into to a French princess. To obviate this, Scotland Sir Ralph Sadler, a crafty and able the Scottish king himself took a voyage to diplomatist, for the express purpose of comFrance, and landing at Dieppe, proceeded pleting the system of secret intelligence infrom thence in disguise to the palace of the troduced, as we have seen, with pernicious Duke of Vendome. Here, being received success by Lord Dacre. This minister was only as a noble stranger, he saw, for the first instructed to gain an influence over the notime, without being much pleased with her, bility, to attach the queen-mother to his in. however, his affianced bride, Marie de Bour- terest, to sound the inclinations of the body bon, the duke's daughter, and transferred of the people on the subject of peace or his affections to Madeleine, the youngest war, an adoption of the reformed opinions, daughter of the French king, to whom he or an adherence to the ancient faith. The was soon after married in the church of Douglases were still maintained with high Notre Dame. In the circumstances in which favor in England. Their power, although Scotland was then placed, the church of nominally extinct, was far from being dcle Rome was inclined to consider this union as stroyed; their spies penetrated into every one of great importance; and it has been quarter, and even followed the young king noted that seven cardinals surrounded the to France, whence they gave information of altar. Nor were these anticipations disap- his most private motions; finally, those fenpointed. James remained for nine months. dal covenants, termed bonds of manrent, in France, and having returned to his own still bound to their interest many of the kingdom, it was soon evident that some most potent of the nobles, whom the vigor great changes were on the eve of taking of the king's government had disgusted or place. estranged. Francis the First, although still nominally In the meantime, scarcely had the rejoicat peace with Henry, had become alienated ings ceased for James's return to his dominfrom him by the violent and dictatorial tone ions with his youthful queen, when it was which he assumed. The pope, who consi- apparent that she was sinking under a condered his own existence as involved in the sumption, which in a short time carried her contest with England, had neglected no to the grave. Although depressed by this method by which he might first terminate calamity, the king did not permit it to divert the disputes between the emperor and the his mind from that system of policy on French king, and then unite them in a coali- which he had resolved to act; and an emtion against Henry, as the common enemy. bassy to France, was entrusted to David We have already noticed the success of the [Beaton, afterwards the celebrated cardinal, court of Rome with James; and it appears who requested for his master the hand of that, in 1537, these intrigues were so far Mary of Guise, the widow of the Duke of successful, that a pacification was concluded Longueville, and sister to the Cardinal of Lorbetween Francis and the emperor. From raine. To this second union, the court of this moment the cordiality between France France joyfully assented and the marriage and England was completely at an end, while took place at St. Andrews, within a year every argument which could have weight in after the death of the former queen. At a young and ardent mind was addressed to this moment the life of the king was twice James, to induce him to join the projected endangered by conspiracy; and although league against Henry. much obscurity hangs over the subject, both HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 535 plots were probably connected with the in- him to throw off his allegiance to the pope, trigues of the house of Douglas. At the to imitate his example by suppressing the head of the first was the master of Forbes, monasteries, and to urge him to maintain a brother-in-law of Angus. The chief actor the peace with England. To thelast request in the second was the Lady Glammis, his sis- the Scottish king replied, that if Henry's ter, who, only two days after the execution conduct was pacific, nothing should induce of Forbes, was accused of an attempt to him to join any hostile league against him; poison her sovereign, found guilty and con- but he assured Sadler that he found his clergy demned to be burned; a dreadful sentence, his most loyal and useful subjects; and althe execution of which she bore with the though he would be anxious to see a reforhereditary courage of her house. mation in the general morals of this body, An event now happened which drew after he did not exactly see how that could best it important consequences. James Beaton, be effected by renouncing the authority of Archbishop of St. Andrews, died, and was his holy. father the pope, the terrestrial head succeeded in the primacy by his nephew, of the church, and thus setting an example Cardinal Beaton; a man far his uncle's supe- of rebellion and confusion. rior in talent, and still more devotedly at- James had for some time meditated an imtached to the interests of the Roman Catho- portant enterprise, which he now executed; lie church. It was to him, as we have seen, a voyage to the most northern parts of his that James had committed the negotiation dominions conducted by himself, and on a for his second marriage; and so great ap- scale such as had not been attempted by allny pears to have been the influence which he of his predecessors. His fleet consisted of acquired over the royal mind, that the king twelve ships, fully armed and provisioned. henceforth selected him as his principal ad- He was attended by Beaton, and the Earls viser. of Huntly, Arran, and Angus; and these Beaton's accession to additional power barons bringing with them their armed vaswas marked by a renewed persecution of the sals, formed a force which, united to the royal reformers; and it is worthy of observation, suite and attendants, was equal to a little that most of the converts to the reformed army. Lindsay, a skilful hydrographer, acfaith belonged to the order of the inferior companied the expedition, and his maps and clergy. Keillor, Forret, Simson, and Bev- charts, the first rude essays in this science eridge, were arraigned before an ecclesiasti- ever attempted in Scotland, are preserved cal tribunal, and soon afterwards Kennedy at the present day. and Russell, out of which number three, The effects of this royal progress were salKennedy, Forret, and Russell, suffered at utary and decisive. The force with which the stake with great meekness and courage. James was accompanied secured a prompt There can be little doubt that such inhuman submission to his commands, and inspired executions operated in favor, rather than these remote districts with a wholesome dread against the progress of the reformation. of the royal name. The coalition between Francis the First This exhibition of increasing energy in and the emperor was now completed under the king only exposed him the more to the the auspices of the papal court; and Henry jealousy of those nobles whose power had the Eiighth, aware of the great efforts made been nourished by long intervals of license, to induce James to join the league against and who now clearly perceived, that unless him, dispatched Sir Ralph Sadler'into Scot- they were prepared to resign their rights, a land. The object of this able negotiator struggle between them and their sovereign was to rouse James's jealousy against the in- could hardly be averted. A proof of this was creasing power of the clergy, to prevail upon shown on James's return to court from his 536 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. northern voyage, when a conspiracy against north, and soon afterwards Sir James Bowes, his life was detected, the third which had with the force of the east marches, marched occurred within no very long period. Like across the border. The banished Angus, his the rest it is involved in obscurity; but the brother Sir George Douglas, and a large proof was considered as sufficient, and its body of the retainers of the Douglases, had author, Sir James Hamilton,scommonly call- joined him; but they were encountered, ed the bastard of Arran, was tried, convict- and completely defeated by Huntly and ed and executed. It is said that the king HIome. was thrown into a state of great despond- This, however, was merely a preliminary ency and gloom by the discovery of this outbreak; and as such border outrages had plot; that it opened his eyes to the manifold frequently occurred without drawing after dangers which surrounded a prince at vari- them more serious consequences, James made ance with his nobles; and that he began to a last effort to avert the storm, by sending feel that he was engaged in a contest in commissioners first to York, and afterwards which they might prove too strong for him. to meet the Duke of Norfolk, who, at the Whatever credit we may attach to these head of an army of forty thousand men had reports, the conduct of James gave decided crossed the Tweed, and already given many proofs that he was determined to continue the of the granges and villages to the flames. struggle; and in a parliament which soon It was in vain, however, to attempt negotiaafterwards assembled in the capital, he tion; and aware that the crisis had arrived, strengthened his own hands by annexing to the Scottish king commanded Huntly and the crown the whole of the Hebrides, by Home, upon whose fidelity he had most rewhich we are to understand the isles north liance, to watch the progress of Norfolk, and south of the two IKintyres. But this while he himself assembled the main force was not all. To these new acquisitions were of his kingdom on the Borough-mnoor near added the Orkney and Zetland isles, many Edinburgh. extensive lordships, Jedburgh forest, and the With this army) which mustered thirty demesnes of Angus, Glammis, Liddaldale, thousand strong, he advanced to Fala-moor, and Evandale. and when encamped there, received the welAt this crisis, the Scottish king evidently come intelligence that Norfolk, compelled by dreaded being prematurely hurried into war. the want of supplies and the severity of the lie was in debt, he suspected the fidelity of winter, was in full retreat. It was now the his nobles, he was well aware that a feudal time to retaliate, and James issued orders for monarch at variance with his barons, the sin- an immediate invasion of England. But ews of his strength, was likely to be dishon- the nobles felt their own strength. They ored and defeated. He had lately lost his had long regarded the measures of the court only children, Arthur and James, and he be- with distrust, some even with indignation lieved that Beaton's anxiety for war was die- and a desire of revenge; they recalled to tated by selfish motives, and influenced by mind the proceedings of the monarch, the his intrigues with Rome. Under these cir- threatening attitude lately assumed by the cumstances, public policy and personal feel- crown towards the whole body of the arising alike made him dread any immediate tocracy; and when commanded to cross the hostilities with England, and he endeavored borders, they haughtily and unanimously reby an embassy to avert the rupture; but fused. It was in vain that James, stung with Henry would listen to no message of con- such an indignity, threatened, remonstrated, ciliation. War was resolved on, the east and and even entreated them, as they valued their middle marches were put into a state of de- own honor and his, to proceed against the fence, Berwick inspected, nln;ters raised in the English. The feeling of attachment to their HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 537 prince, or revenge against the enemy seemed whelmed the king. He had eagerly awaited to be completely extinguished in a resolution at Caerlaverock the first news from the army, to assert their power, and procure a redress and he anticipated a victory which should of their grievances; and the sovereign was efface the late dishonor, and restore the feelat last compelled to disband the army, and ings of cordiality between himself and his return outbraved and defeated to his capital. barons. In an instant the hope was blasted. There can be no doubt that so mortifying and gave place to the most gloomy despona reverse sunk deep into the heart of James, dency. He became the victim of a low fever, but his pride, and the natural vigor of his and from a proud monarch, lately in the character supported him. Though deserted vigor of his strength and the prime of his by the majority, he had still some powerful age, he sunk into a state of silent melancholy. friends among the nobles, the clergy were When in this hopeless condition, the news unanimously in his favor, and it was resolved arrived that his queen had given birth to a to make a second effort to re-assemble the daughter. He had already lost his two sons, army for the invasion of England. Its sue- and clung to the hope that his next child cess, though partial, once more gave a gleam might be a boy. But here too he was met of hope to the monarch. A force of ten by disappointment; and wandering back in thousand men was collected chiefly by the thought to the time when a daughter of exertions of Lord Maxwell; with this it was Bruce brought to his ancestor, the Steward of resolved to break across the western marches, Scotland, the dowry of the kingdom, he receivand the king took his station at Caerlaverock, ed the intelligence with the melancholy rewhere he eagerly awaited the result of the mark, "It cam wi' a lass, it will gang wi' a expedition. A distrust of his nobles, how- lass:" "It came by a girl, and will. go with a ever, still haunted him; and secret orders girl." As he said this, a few of the most faithwere issued, that as soon as the army reached ful of his nobles and councillors stood round the river Esk, his favorite, Oliver Sinclair, his bed; and as they strove to comfort him, he should be intrusted with the chief command. stretched out his hand for them to kiss, and Nothing could be more unwise than this re- regarding them with great affection, closed solution. It was received with murmurs of his eyes, and placidly expired. lie died in discontent; and when the new general ex- the thirty-fifth year of his age, and the hibited himself to the camp, and a herald at- twenty-ninth of his reign. tempted to read the royal commission by The rout at the Solway Moss, followed, as which he was appointed, the whole army be- we have seen it, by the death of the king, came agitated, disorderly, and almost nmutin- gave an alarming advantage to Henry the ous. At this crisis, Dacre and Musgrave, Eighth. The Earl of Angus, Sir George two English officers, advanced to reconnoitre Douglas, and the numerous supporters of this at the head of three hundred horse, and ap- house, still powerful though in banishment, proaching near enough to perceive the con- had been long devoted to his interests, in the dition of the Scots, boldly charged them. support of which they saw the only sure hope The effect of this surprise was instantaneous of their own restoration. To these were addand fatal. Ten thousand Scots fled from three ed the prisoners of highest rank who were hundred English cavalry, with scarcely a mo- taken in the late disgraceful flight. To them mentary resistance. In the panic the greater the English monarch now proposed an alternumber escaped, but a thousand prisoners native, trying indeed, but in the choice of were taken, and among them many of the which no citizen of a free country ought to leading nobles, Cassillis, Glencairn, Maxwell, have hesitated. On the one hand, they were Somerville, Gray, Oliphant and Fleming. threatened with imprisonment in the Tower, This second calamity completely over- to which they had been conducted imrumedi 538 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ately after their being taken. On the other, unjust and degrading demands cf Henry, they were promised freedom, and a return to considered a marriage with England, under their native country, but coupled with extra- due safeguards, as a wise and politic step. ordinary conditions. A bond was drawn up Into the details of the struggles between which they were required to sign. By it these opposite factions, it belongs not to our they acknowledged Henry as lord superior plan to enter. We must touch only the of the kingdom of Scotland; they promised great leading events; but these, even in to exert their influence to procure for him their most general form, are full of interest. the government of the kingdom, and the On the death of the king, Beaten produced resignation into his hands of all its fortresses; a will which appointed him chief governor they engaged to have their infant queen de- of the realm, and guardian to the infant livered to his keeping; and they solemnly queen; but the paper was thrown aside as a stipulated, that if the parliament of Scotland forged instrument; Arran, the nearest heir resisted such demands, they would employ to the crown, was chosen governor; and the their whole feudal strength to co-operate with cardinal having contented himself with seEngland in completing the conquest of the curing the interest and support of France, country. To this engagement they were re- prepared for a determined struggle with his quired to swear fidelity; and if they failed opponents. At this moment, the Douglases in accomplishing the wishes of the king, the and the Solway prisoners arrived, of which penalty was to be their immediate return to party Sir George Douglas, brother to Angus, their prisons in England. It must have been and father of the celebrated Regent Morton, apparent to the Scottish prisoners that such was the leader. Their first act was bold and an engagement virtually annihilated the ex- successful. Beaten was arraigned of a treaistence of their country as a separate king- sonable correspondence with France, and dom; and yet it is mortifying to add that it hurried to prison; a parliament was summonwas embraced by the Earls of Glencairn and ed for. the discussion of the proposed alliance Cassillis, with the Lords Maxwell, Somerville with England; and as the governor, Arran, and Oliphant. These were among the chief appeared to be completely under English inprisoners taken in the rout of Solway Moss; fluence, it was confidently expected that the rest were of inferior rank, and remained Henry's schemes of ambition were not far in captivity, while Angus, Sir George Doug- from their accomplishment. But they were las and the strength of their house, cordially defeated by his own violent and intolerant co-operated with Henrm'y. conduct. He insisted on having the cardinal It was the policy of these lords on their delivered up to be imprisoned in England; return to Scotland, to conceal the full extentI he upbraided the Douglases for their delay of their engagements, and to proceed with to surrender the fortresses of the kingdom; great caution. On their arrival they found and instead of being contented with the prothe country divided into two factions. On ceedings of the parliament, which agreed to the one side, was Cardinal Beaten the chan- the marriage between tlhe Scottish queen cellor, supported by the queen-mother MVary and his son, he expressed the most violent of Guise, the whole body of the clergy, the resentment, because the estates insisted that Roman Catholic nobility, and the interest of their country should preserve its liberties as France. On the other stood the Earl of Ar- a separate and independent kingdom. ran, nearest heir to the crown, a weak and Amidst these collisions the secret treachery indolent man, who leaned to the reformed of the Douglases and the Solway lords began opinions; all the nobles who had forsaken to transpire. Beaton nearly about the samene the ancient faith, the adherents of the house time recovered his liberty, and after an inefof Douglas, and many who, ignorant of the fectual attem')t to secure a matrimonial alli HISTORY OF THE WO'RLD. 539 ance with England on just and equal grounds, alarmed at the success of the cardinal; and, he placed himself and the great party of flattered by a proposal of the English king which he became the leader in determined to make him sovereign of Scotland beyond hostility to Henry. A last effort, however, the Forth, declared his readiness to co-operwas made, and a Scottish embassy sought the ate with an English army for the entire subEnglish court. In a personal interview, the jugation of the country. In the meantime, ambassadors explained to the king the con- he held a convention of the nobles in the ditions on which the country would agree to abbey church of HIolyrood, and in his charthe marriage of Mary with the Prince of acter of governor of the realm, ratified the Wales. To their astonishment, the monarch, marriage treaty with England, unmindful of overcome by passion, proclaimed himself the protestations of Beaton and his party, lord paramount of Scotland, and insisted that they were no parties to such a transacthat the government of that kingdom, and tion, and would not hold themselves bound the custody of its infant sovereign, belonged by a decision contrary to the opinion of the of right to him. This disclosure, which was majority of the nobles and the wishes of the made in a moment of passion, and against people. the earnest entreaties of the English faction, Henry, who was thoroughly unprincipled, produced an instantaneous effect. It was re- and cared not what means he used to rid ceived in Scotland, as had been predicted, himself of his opponents, attempted to r'ewith a universal burst of indignation. It move the cardinal, by hiring iBrunston, gave the cardinal and the French party an Grange, Rothes, and some of the opposite immediate ascendency; the governor, Arran, faction, to seize or assassinate him; but he and his friends joined their ranks; and the once more failed in this nefarious project, people became so exasperated, that Sadler, and, foiled and iimitated, let loose his venthe English ambassador, could not safely show geance in the shape of a naval invasion. An himself in the capital. English fleet of 100 sail, under Lord Lisle, To counteract all these effects, Sir George high admiral, appeared suddenly in the Douglas exerted himself with indefatigable Forth, and disembarked a force which plunactivity. Henry was prevailed upon to re- dered Leith, sacked Edinburgh, which had nounce the most obnoxious part of his de- been deserted by its inhabitants, ravaged the mands. Arran, with his characteristic ca- adjoining country with merciless cruelty, price, deserted his new friends; and in a and left upon land a considerable force, convention of the nobles, which was not at- which, in its retreat, was as remorseless in tended by the opposite faction, the treaties its devastations as the fleet had been in its of marriage and pacification with England attack. Such was Henry's mode of wooing, were finally arranged. of which it was well observed by Lord HerTo fulfil this treaty, however, was found bert, that he did too much for a suitor, and no easy matter. It was averred by the op- too little for a conqueror. posite faction, that it had been carried It was at this moment, when all was gloom through by private influence, unsanctioned and despondency, that the Earl of Angus, by the highest nobles, unauthorized by any who, with his brother, had been lately reparliament, contrary to the wishes of the stored to his estates, and absolved in parliapeople; and at this very crisis the cardinal ment from the sentence of treason, encounobtained possession of the person of the in- tered and totally defeated Sir Ralph Evre fant queen, who had hitherto been strictly and Sir Brian Layton at Ancram M]uir. guarded by the governor and the Hamiltons. These English leaders had procured from To balance this success, Arran, whose char- ITenry a grant of all they could conquer in acter had hitherto been only weak, became Teviotdale and the Merse, where AnLgus' es 510 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tates chiefly lay; and penetrating at the head Lord of the Isles, to attack Scotland on the of 5000 men to Melrose, they not only rav- west coasts; and, having heard that Beaton, aged that district, out plundered the abbey, his able and indefatigable enemy, meditated and wantonly defaced the tombs of the house a visit to France for the purpose of subsidizof Douglas; an insult which Angus revenged ing a large auxiliary force for the continuin the most signal manner, by attacking the ance of the war, he determined to make a English in their retreat, dispersing their last effort to cut him off, and with this view, force, with the slaughter of 800 men, leav- resumed with the Laird of Brunston the plot ing Evre and Layton dead on the field, and for his assassination. making a capture of 1000 prisoners. Into the details of this remarkable conspirThis victory, although resulting not fiom acy, and the various parties whom HIenry patriotic principle, but personal revenge, had contrived to bring together for the execua good effect in restoring confidence to the tion of his sanguinary purpose, we cannot people; and it was followed up by the reso- here enter. Fanaticism of the sternest kind, lution of Francis the First to equip a fleet which had been worked up into action by for the invasion of England, and to assist the cardinal's cruel execution of George WisScotland by an auxiliary force. Beaton, en- hart, commonly called the martyr, united itcouraged by this expected aid, having con- self to more mercenary motives with some centrated his party, prevailed upon the ma- of the conspirators, and with others, to the jority of the nobles, in a convention held in desire of private revenge; and on the mornthe capital, to refuse every advance of the illg of the 28th of May, a band of desperate English monarch, and to declare the treaty men, who are now known to have been in of peace and marriage at an end; while the pay of England, and some of whom had Henry, enraged to the utmost pitch by this been on former occasions urged by the Engsuccess, eagerly encouraged a second plot of lish king to the commission of the murder, the Earls of Cassillis, Angus and Glencairn, broke into the cardinal's apartments in the for the murder of the cardinal. The king, castle of St. Andrew's, beat down the barrihowever, enjoined Sir Ralph Sadler to pro- cades with which the miserable man had pose the assassination, as coming from him- attempted to defend the door, and putting self, and the conspirators at this moment him instantly to death, hung out his naked would not act without Henry's direct ap- mangled body over the window of his bedproval. chamber, in savage and brutal triumph. In the midst of these dark plots, a French They then seized the castle, dismissed unfleet arrived in Scotland with 3000 men. harmed the household servants of the cardiThis led to decisive measures. A Scottish nal, sent off a messenger to the English court army was assembled; but torn as usual by to inform Henry of their success; and, beinternal dissensions, and betrayed by the ing soon afterward joined by John Knox, Douglases, who held a prineipal command, and a considerable band of his friends, who its operations were insignificant, and its re- considered the death of Beaton as favorable treat almost immediate. This was followed to the reformation, they determined to deby a cruel invasion of the English, in which fend the castle for Henry against any force the Earl of llertford, at the head of an army, which might be brought against them. whose numbers rendered opposition fruitless, These confident anticipations were, for a invaded Scotland, and after a desolating time, overthrown by the death of Henry the progress, sent word to his master, that for Eighth, an event soon followed by that of three hundred years there had not been such his rival Francis the First; but the accesravages committed. Henry, at the same time, sion of Edward the Sixth in England, and engaged the Earl of Lennox, and Donald, that of Henry the Sec'nd in France, did not HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 541 materially alter the policy of either kingdom had sustained no defeat in the least degree towards Scotland. approaching to this at Pinkey, and had it For nine years after the assassination of been followed up by the protector, the con-:Beaton, the Earl of Arran continued at the sequences must have been of the most serihead of the government; and during that ous kind, perhaps fatal to the liberty of the period some events took place which drew country. But happily Somerset, at the very after them important effects. The warlike moment of his victory, received accounts of preparations of Somerset induced the French a conspiracy which his enemies at the Enggovernment to anticipate his motions; and lish court had organized against him; and a French fleet of sixteen armed galleons impatient to confront them in person, his having entered the Frith, bombarded and measures were hurried, confused and ill-dicarried the castle of St. Andrew's, in which gested. After a brief stay in the capital, he the conspirators against Beaton, and Knox commenced his retreat through Teviotdale, the Scottish reformer, had deemed them- and the fleet at the same time weighed anselves secure. chor and returned to England. Immediately after the siege of St. An- The consequences of the defeat at Pinkey, drew's, the protector, Somerset, invaded and the effects of a subsequent and cruel inScotland at the head of an army 14,000 road into Annandale by Lord Wharton and strong, and supported by a fleet of thirty- the Earl of Lennox, were to exasperate the four ships of war. He was met by Arran, feelings of national antipathy, and to throw the governor, at 3Musselburgh, or Pinkey- the governor and the queen-mother more cleugh, within about six miles distance from decidedly into the arms of France. A conthe capital, where an army considerably more vention was held at Stirling, in which it was than double the number of the English had determined to request the immediate assistencamped in so strong a position on the ance of a French force, and to send Mary, banks of the Esk, that with proper military the young Queen of Scots, to be educated at skill on their part, any attempt to dislodge the court of Henry the Second. Soon afterthem might have brought ruin on their as- wards, the Sieur AMontalembert, commonly sailants. The inexperience and folly of Ar- called Monsieur d'Esse, one of the ablest offiran, the governor, threw away this advan- cers in the service of that country, arrived tage. He mistook a movement of Somerset, in Scotland with 6000 men. In a parin which the English leader meant to pos- liament ~eold at lHaddington, the marriage sess himself of an adjoining height, for an of the French dauphin to the Queen of Scots intention to communicate with his fleet and was finally determined; and the infant Mary, re-embark his army; and, contrary to the then in her sixth year, took her voyage to remonstrances of his best officers, he gave France, accompanied by Lords Erskine and orders for the whole army to strike their Livingston, her governors, and arrived in tents and cross the river on which he had safety at the court of St. Germain, in Auencamped. The order was at first resisted, gust, 1548. at last unwillingly and imperfectly obeyed; It belongs not to an historical sketch of and in the midst of the confusion which en- this kind, to enter into the details of that sued, the English attacked the Scottish di- sanguinary and obstinate war which now visions in detail, and after a sanguinary con- took place between England and the united flict, gained a complete victory. Fourteen strength of France and Scotland. The slaughthousand were slain in the battle and in the ter at Pinkey, the burning of their sea-ports chase, while the English loss was compara- and shipping, and the pitiless severity with tively trifling. which the repeated invasions of their coun Since the fatal day of Flodden, Scotland try were accompanied, had at length ani 542 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. mated the Scots with a common feeling of marriage between the young Queen of Scots revenge, which gave to the contest a charac- and the dauphin was concluded with much ter of peculiar ferocity, and manifested itself solemnity at Notre Dame; and in a parliain shocking excesses. Happily the struggle ment held at Edinburgh, it was agreed that did not continue long. The peace of Bou- the youthful husband should bear the title logne, between France and England, led, in of King of Scotland during the continuance 1550, to a cessation of hostilities in Scotland, of the marriage, that all letters in Scotland where for some time before, the tide of sue- should run in the joint names of Francis cess had run in favor of the,governor and and Mary, and that the arms of both kinghis foreign auxiliaries; and thus, after a war doms should be quartered in the great seal which had lasted for seven years, dating it and the current coin of the realm. These from the year 1543, when Henry the Eighth transactions had not been long concluded, determined to enforce the observation of the when Mary of England, broken-hearted by treaty, the English saw themselves obliged the loss of Calais and the neglect of Philip, to abandon the extravagant project of com- sunk into the grave; and Elizabeth's accespelling the Scots into a matrimonial alliance. sion to the throne was hailed with universal This war, for the accomplishment of the delight by the Protestant party in Europe. marriage, was not long afterwards followed When the English queen placed herself at by the still more important and eventful the head of the Reformation, this great moral struggle for the establishment of the refor- revolution had made no inconsiderable promation. The queen-dowager, Mary of Guise, gress in Scotland. The return of Knox to a woman, by the confession of her enemies, his native country in 1555, and the influence of good judgment, and sincere and upright which his fiery zeal and popular eloquence principles, succeeded in procuring the retire- soon gained over the Congregation, determent of Arran and her own nomination to milled them to make a formal separation the regency (April, 1554). She was enabled from the Catholic Church; and, although to accomplish this chiefly by the influence the reformer was once more compelled, probof France, then high in Scotland; but she ably by fears for his life, to retreat to Gewas assisted also by the leaders of the Prot- neva, the danger appears soon to have passed, estant party, whom she courted and attach- and the leaders of the Congregation, coned to her interest. Her possession of the scions of increasing strength, entered into supreme power was soon followed by the that memorable bond or covenant, by which death of Edward the Sixth and the accession they engaged to establish the word of God, of Mary, a princess, as is well known, sin- to maintain the gospel of Christ, to labor to cerely devoted to the ancient faith; but have faithful ministers, and to execute judgthese changes were not accompanied by any ment upon what they termed the superstiimportant political events. The queen-dow- tions and abominations of the ancient faith. ager, indeed, when she saw England and The Roman Catholic clergy received such Spain engaged in Italy in a struggle with a denunciation of the national faith with France and the pope, deemed it her duty to alarm and indignation; and resorting once support her country and attack England; more to those weapons which had already but, although the Scottish barons assembled so deeply injured their cause, they deemed an army, it was only to act on the defensive; it expedient to hold up an example which they refused to cross the border, and the re- should strike terror into the new converts. gent, hitherto on the most amicable terms Walter Mill, a priest who had embraced the with the nobles, dismissed them with undis- reformation, was seized, tried, delivered over sembled resentment. to the secular arm and burned at St. AnTo make up for this disappointment, the drews. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 543 Against this cruel execution, the lords of sonal interest the measure of their duty, and the Congregation, Glencairn, Argyll, Mor- to think and act as they pleased, a revolution ton, Erskine of Dun, and others, presented which contended for liberty of conscience a remonstrance to the queen-dowager. This and the license ofprivatejudgment, must have was soon after followed by a supplication to warmly recommended itself; and when they Parliament, in which they requested that all considered the history of the English reformstatutes by which churchmen were empow- ation, and the appropriation of the churcl ered to proceed against heretics, should be lands by Henry and Edward, they could not, suspended until the controversies in religion we may believe, be totally dead to the leswere determined by a general' council of the son. The church of Rome in Scotland was, church. comparatively as rich as her sister had been This petition was received by the queen- across the border; and if the reformation regent with concealed dissatisfaction, by the was to be as complete in their own country great body of the Roman Catholic clergy as in England, it was not difficult for these with undisguised scorn and reprobation. It shrewd barons to persuade. themselves that suited, however, the regent at this moment they might imitate, perhaps improve the exto dissemble. She required the aid of the ample. Protestant lords to carry her favorite ineas- Over an aristocracy of such a character, ures in this parliament, the obtaining the Elizabeth and her ministers at once perceivcrown-matrimonial and the title of King of ed how easy it would be to acquire an infl;lScots for the dauphin; and entreating the ence. From the first moment of her accm slords of the Congregation to withdraw their sion, therefore, she favored the leaders of the petition and articles for a season, she prom- Congregation, directed their measures, supised them her protection, and a favorable ported them with money, and received from consideration of their demands. To this they them in return a respect and deference suagreed, but under a protestation which was perior to that which they paid to their own publicly read in parliament. sovereign. It was at this crisis, when the lords of the But if the effects of the accession of ElizaCongregation had taken their stand on the beth upon the body of the Scottish nobles, ground which they never afterwards desert- were important in reference to the reformaed, and when the queen-regent, having ob- tion, the consequences of inox's re-appeartained her wishes, considered herself inde- ance were not less momentous upon the pendent of their support, that Elizabeth sue- character of the people. Hitherto the healthy ceeded to the throne, and Knox, who soon patriotic feeling, the resolution to defend after his first return had left Scotland, again their independence as a separate kingdom arrived in his native country. Both events from foreign domination and attack, had exproduced the most important events. It was isted almost exclusively in the middle and was one of the great principles of Elizabeth's lower orders, the commnercial classes, and the policy to increase her own security by weak- laborers of the soil. But among these, the ening her neighbors; to accomplish which, principles of the reformation had taken a she invariably fomented a secret faction deep root. They had adopted them, not which opposed itself to the existing govern- like many of the nobles, from interest, but ment. Of those nobles who had been ready, from conviction; and upon their minds the without any feelings of shame, to renounce popular eloquence of Knox, his fiery zeal, their allegiance to their country, and to be his denunciations of superstition, his sarcasbought over by England, many had em- tic attacks upon the ignorance and the vices braced the principles of the reformation. To of his opponents, produced a powerful ilnmen so long accustomed to make their per- pression. 544 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Such were the feelings of the Scottish no- it was judged expedient to attempt a meas. bles, and the great body of the people, with ure of conciliation; and Erskine of Dun, a reference to the momentous struggle between gentleman of ancient family, and grave exthe reformation and the Roman Catholic perience, leaving his brethren, proceeded to faith, which was now about to convulse the the court at Stirling, where he was admitted country. Had the queen-dowager continued to an interview with the regent. He asto act with the same judgment and caution sured her that their single demand was to which had distinguished the commencement be allowed to worship God according to their of her government, it is possible that the conscience, and to secure liberty for their struggle might have been for a time avert- preachers. She replied, that if he would ed; but at this moment the powerful princes prevail on the Congregation to disperse, of the house of Guise deemed it expedient their preachers should be unmolested, the to join the league which had been concluded summons discharged, and their grievances between the pope, the King of Spain and the redressed. emperor, for the destruction of the Protest- To this Erskine consented. He commuant, and the re-establishment of the Catho- nicated the agreement to his brethren; the lic faith in Europe. They immediately com- people were disbanded; and when the remunicated with their sister, the regent, in formers looked for toleration and redress, Scotland; and such was unfortunately their the queen-dowager, with a perfidy which was influence over her mind, that after a feeble as base as it was unwise, reiterated the sumresistance she joined the papal coalition. mons, and on their failure to appear, deThis fatal step was followed, as might nounced the ministers as rebels. Such conhave been expected, by an immediate collis- duct inflamed the resentment of the Congreion between the two parties. In a conven- gation to the utmost degree; and, tKnox tion of the clergy which was held at Edin- having seized the moment to deliver a stern burgh, in March, 1559, the lords of the Con- and impassioned sermon against idolatry, gregation, in addition to the demands which the people were wrought up to a state of they had already presented, insisted that high excitement. Observing a priest about bishops should not henceforward be elected to celebrate mass, after the preacher had rewithout the consent of the gentlemen of the tired, they burst in upon the altar, tore down diocese, nor parish priests, except by the its ornaments, shivered the shrines and relvotes of the parishioners. These proposals ics, and speedily demolished every monawere met by the queen with a determined ment which seemed to savor of idolatry. refusal. A proclamation was issued, com- From that moment the fate of the Roman manding all persons to resort daily to mass Catholic church in Scotland was decided. and confession. It was declared that no lan- Having once broken through restraint, and guage but the Latin could be used in public found their own strength, the multitude prayers, without violating the most sacred rushed to the religious houses of the -Black decrees of the church; and the Protestant and Grey friars, and inflicied on them an ministers who had acted in defiance of these equally summary vengeance They then atinjunctions, were summoned to appear at tacked the charter-house or Carthusian monStirling, and there answer to the accusations astery, which experienced a similar fate; which should be brought against them. and the infection of tumult and destruction They accordingly did appear; but it was spreading throughout the country, many exwith Knox at their head, and surrounded cesses of the same kind were committed in by crowds of their devoted followers, who the provincial towns. That Knox or his diswere led by the principal barons of Angus ciples directly advised such spoliation canand Mearns. On reaching Perth, however, not be proved; that the principles which he HISTORY OF THE. WORLD. 545 laid down, and his stern: denunciations of terwards the Regent Murray, a young man his opponents as idolators, led to these ex- of great talents and ambition, who had hithcesses, is certain. erto adhered to the regent, though possessThe effects of such scenes on the queen- ing reformed opinions, deserted her. Argyll, dowager, were to rouse her to instant activ- a powerful and influential nobleman, followity, and to array the two parties in deter- ed his example; and, faithful to their remined opposition to each other; for, al- newed covenant, the army of, the Congregathough some of the Protestant leaders, dis- tion assembled in strength at St. Andrews. claiming all intentions of rebellion, disap- Knox in the meantime, whose voice Sadler, proved of the late violence, and still acted the English ambassador, compares in his letwith the regent, their neutrality was so ters to the sound of a thousand trumpets, short-lived that it scarcely demands atten- set out on a preaching tour through the tion. It had the effect, however, of produc- country. Directing his powerful and popuing a momentary spirit of conciliation. The lar eloquence against the evils of superstiProtestants presented an address to the tion, and the misery of the thraldom which, queen, to the nobility, and to the Roman by means of foreign mercenaries, the house Catholic clergy. In the first they professed of Guise were attempting to fix upon their their loyalty, deprecated her injustice, and country, he so powerfully excited the people, demanded liberty of conscience, and the right that they determined to take the reformaof hearing their own preachers. In the see- tion into their own hands, and levelled with ond they vindicated their conduct to their the ground the monasteries of the Francisbrethren of the Roman Catholic nobility can and Dominican orders. It was in vain from the charge of heresy and sedition, while that the regent exerted herself to check they upbraided those who first espoused and these popular outrages. The phrensy gained now deserted their cause. The third epistle, strength; the nobles and leaders of the Conto the Roman Catholic clergy, whom they gregation felt proportionally encouraged, and broadly stigmatized as the generation of anti- advancing with their forces upon Perth, they christ, was a denunciation of war, composed opened a cannonade, and in a short time in that spirit of coarse and abusive railing made themselves masters of the town. Stimuwhich unfortunately marks the style of the lated to a high pitch of excitement by such early reformers. Such accusations were lit- success, the multitude, contrary to the entie calculated to produce pacific feelings; treaties of Knox, attacked and destroyed the but the queen-regent, who had assembled abbey church and palace of Scone; after her army, finding it inferior in strength to which, a portion of the army of the Congrethe Congregation, proposed an armistice, gation, under Lord James and Argyll, made which on certain conditions was accepted. a rapid march upon Stirling, which they ocThe Congregation having bound themselves cupied, hastened afterwards to Linlithgow, to each other in a new covenant, disbanded and having in both towns pulled down the their forces, and for the second time, as they altars, destroyed the shrines, and, as they allege, were overreached by the treachery of said, purged the places of idolatry, they the dowager, who, against a solemn stipula- compelled the regent to make a rapid retion, occupied Perth with a body of French treat to Dunbar, and entered the capital in soldiers, expelled the magistrates who fav- triumph, in June, 1559. ored the reformation, and garrisoned the This last success, while it gave the higrhtown with troops in the pay of France, est courage to the party of the reformation, though in reality Scots. convinced the queen-regent that every hope This unwise and unjustifiable duplicity to avoid a civil war must be abandoned, and bad the worst effect. The Lord James, af- that the crisis called for her most determined m.'-35 546 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. exertions. She instantly communicated her It belongs not to this sketch to enter iinto dangerous situation to France, and received details of hostilities, and happily for both in return a large reinforcement of French countries the war was of brief duration. The troops, whose discipline, skill and equipment, queen-dowager, sinking under a broken conbeing superior to the common feudal militia stitution, died at Edinburgh, on the 10th of which the congregation brought into the June, 1560. The Congregation, disheartened field, at once gave her a superiority. The by some reverses, and weakened by disunion reformers, on the other hand, threw them- among their principal leaders, felt no incliselves upon the protection of England; and nation to prolong the struggle; and ElizaElizabeth, although she scrupled to send beth having offered her services as a mediathem either money or troops, encouraged trix between the two parties, a meeting of them with general promises of approval, the English, French and Scottish commisand, in case of extreme danger, with some sioners took place at Edinburgh, by whom a hopes of support. In addition to this, her treaty of peace was concluded, having for minister, Cecil, hinted in his letters the ex- its basis the withdrawal of the French troops pediency of using their present power to from Scotland, and a recognition of the valid"strip the Romish Church of its pomp and ity of the treaty of Berwick between Eliza-: wealth," and, as he termed it, "to apply beth and the party of the Congregation. Into good things to good uses;" while the terms this last proviso the French commissioners in which the Congregation replied, seem to sent over by the young Queen- of Scots and point to a more secret communication, in her husband the dauphin, were entrapped which this unscrupulous politician had ad- by the diplomatic skill of Sir William Cecil, vised the deposition of the regent, and a one of the English commissioners, contrary change of the government. to their express instructions; and its validFor the queen-dowager to have agreed to ity was never admitted by the Scottish queen; this would have been equivalent to the giv- but in the meantime it greatly strengthened ing up of the whole question, and would the hands of the Congregation. At the same have been to establish Protestantism on the moment the leaders of this party presented ruins of what she esteemed the true church. to the commissioners certain " articles" conShe accordingly met the demands of the cerning religion; but Elizabeth had directed Congregation by a peremptory denial. In Cecil and Woolton to decline all discussion return they withdrew from their allegiance, upon the subject; and the reformers, who and in the name of their sovereign, whose looked to the convention of Estates for the authority they unscrupulously assumed, sus- settlement of the question, did not press the pended her fromn the high'office which she point. had abused. A parliament accordingly assembled at The war now broke out with a violence pro- Edinburgh, on the 10th of July, 1560. The portioned to the exasperated feelings of lesser barons who had for some time suffered either faction. The Congregation, at first their rights of sitting in the convention of intimidated by the superiority in the disci- estates to fall into disuse, were mostly atpline of the French troops, began to dread a tached to the doctrines of the reformers, and calamitous result; but they soon saw them- looked with deep interest to the debates selves strengthened by the arrival of an whichwere about to take place on the subject English fleet, while a land force under the of religion. They accordingly met, claimed Duke of Norfolk advanced to Berwick, and their right, and after some opposition, were after a negotiation with the reformed leaders, allowed to take their place. This threw a pushed forward into Scotland, and was joined preponderating weight into the party of at Preston by the army of the reformers. the Congregation; and the "Confbssion of HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 547 Faith," together with a "Book of Disci- queen of Scotland, and presumptive queen pline," which embodied the great principles of France, she had been flattered and caof the reformed church, and protested against ressed; and as she was extremely beautiful, the errors, abuses and superstitions of the possessed of amiable manners, highly accomRoman Catholic faith, was submitted to Par- plished, generous, and kind-hearted, she had liament. The Confession of Faith passed received from every class of her French subwith little opposition. jects the unaffected homage of their admiThree acts followed the adoption of this ration and regard. All was now to be Confession of Faith. The first abolished for changed; and on turning her eyes from ever in Scotland the power and jurisdiction France to her own country a melancholy of the pope; the second repealed all former contrast soon presented itself. statutes passed in favor of the Catholic As soon as the king's death was known in Church; the third inflicted the highest pen- Scotland, a parliament assembled at Edinalties upon any who thenceforward should burgh, of which the proceedings appear to dare to say or to hear mass. have been overruled by the Congregation. It was not to be expected that their youth- It was resolved to invite their sovereign to ful sovereign, educated in the bosom of the return to her kingdom, and for this purpose Roman Catholic church, and accustomed to to send the Lord James to France, while the look for direction and guidance to the advice Roman Catholic party dispatched Lesley, -of her uncles the Guises, could possibly ratify afterwards the celebrated Bishop of Ross. the extraordinary proceedings of this parlia- on the same errand. The Lord James, after. ment. It had, by a few sweeping acts, abol- wards the Regent Murray, was the natural ished the national faith, confirmed the treaty son of James the Fifth by Lady Margaret which a faction of her subjects whom she Erskine, who afterwards married the Laird had all along treated as rebels, had entered of Lochleven. From his earliest years he into with England; and by sending an em- had exhibited marks of an extraordinary bassy to Elizabeth, composed of men of ambition, and a genius for affairs of state. higher rank and greater influence than San- His apparently blunt and careless manner, dilands, who was deputed to wait upon their disposed men to treat him with confidence, sovereign, it was intimated pretty signifi- and enabled him, when he was least suspected, cantly, that the Congregation were deter- to carry on the most deep-laid and ambitious mined to treat the English princess with designs. At this moment he was regarded equal if not superior deference to that with as the leader of the reformed party; and it which they regarded their own queen. She is a remarkable proof of his talents, that, on accordingly received the Scottish envoy with his arrival in France, although at first suscoldness, and peremptorily refused to ratify pected by Mary, he acquired an extraordi. tlhe treaty of Edinburgh. nary influence over her character. At this moment Mary had the misfortune It was the misfortune of the Queen of to lose her husband, Francis the Second, the Scots, who was now only eighteen, that she young king of France; an event which was surrounded by difficulties which would made it necessary for her return to her own have required to meet them a matured expekingdom, and at once threw her from a con- rience, and the most attached and faithful dition of much contentment and prosperity councillors. Elizabeth, who saw her opporinto circumstances of extraordinary trial and tunity, and was determined not to lose it, embarrassment. She had been educated in dispatched the Earl of Bedford to demand the most brilliant and accomplished, but, it the confirmation of the treaty of Edinburgh; must be added, one of the most profligate and when this was refused, she exhibited her courts in Europe. From her infancy, as resentment by declaring that Mary, who had 548 HIST-ORY OF THE WORLD. 1 at first intended to pass through England of this marriage should succeed to the Eng. into her own realm, should receive no safe lish throne. Nothing can be more certain conduct; a circumstance which made her than that she had no such intention; but resolve to sail at once from Dieppe to Leith. the farce was so well acted, that not only But Elizabeth was at least an open oppo- Mary and the Lord James, now Earl of Murnent, and the young queen, aware of her ray, but Randolph, the English ambassador enmity, could secure herself against it. Mur- at the Scottish court, were deceived; and ray, on the other hand, to whom she too when at last the bubble broke, and it was heedlessly gave her confidence, had already discovered that, from first to last, Elizabeth visited the English court on his passage to had been playing her usual dark and double France, communicated his plans to Eliza- game under the mask of friendship, the inbeth, and received his instructions from Ce- dignation of the sufferers was roused, as cil, her prime minister. On his return from might have been expected, to the highest Paris he again passed through England, con- pitch. sulted with the English queen on the best Under these circumstances, and when agimethods of detaining Mary in France, and tated by such feelings, Mary saw the Lord actually carried his double dealing so far as Darnley, the eldest son of the Earl of Lento devise'means for intercepting her, should nox, who, with his father, had lately returned she persist in her determination to set sail. to Scotland. This young nobleman could This she at last determined to do at all boast of a royal descent, his grandmother risks; and having had the good fortune to being a sister of Henry the Eighth, and he escape the English cruisers, which were di- himself, next to Mary, the nearest heir to rected to be on the look out, she arrived at the English throne. He was now in'his Leith, and was received with the utmost en- twenty-first year, and had not yet discovered thusiasm by all classes of her subjects (Au- that weals intellect and propensity to low gust 19, 1561). vices which betrayed themselves soon after The first point on which the two queens his marriage. It was the misfortune of the came into collision was on the delicate sub- Scottish queen that she acted under impulject of marriage. Mary's great object, at ses. She had been deceived by Elizabeth, this moment, was to marry with Elizabeth's and she determined to show her that she approbation, and to procure a declaration of could choose for herself. Without giving her right of succession to the throne, failing herself time to study his disposition, and Elizabeth's issue. She accordingly declared abstaining from any previous communication that she would regard her advice upon this of her intentions to England, she selected subject as that of a mother, and consulted Darnley as her future husband, and dispatchher sister of England with an openness and ed Lethington to Elizabeth, not, as before, devotion which, if not perfectly prudent, ap- to ask her counsel, but to inform her of her pears to have been perfectly sincere. resolution. In return for this confidence, the conduct The consequences of this step were extraof the Queen of England was marked by ordinary. Darnley and his father were that insincerity, selfishness and want of truth strongly suspected of being Roman Catholics. which too frequently characterized her policy. Murray and Lethington saw in this alliance In the course of these negotiations, after ob- little else than the demolition of their own jecting to every foreign alliance, the English power; the party of Knox and the kirk anqueen at last proposed her own favorite, ticipated the restoration of the ancient reLeicester, and held out as a bait to Mary, ligion; and Elizabeth not only declared herwho justly deemed such an alliance beneath self hostile to the alliance, but bitterly accused her rank, the promise that the issue, if any, the Scottish queen, insisted that Lennox and HISTORY OF THE WORILD. 549 Darnley were English, not Scottish subjects, and permitted to retire to Carlisle, where and sent them orders to repair instantly to the Earl of Bedford received secret instrucher court. It was hardly: to be expected tions to supply their wants during their banthat so ridiculous a command should be ishment. obeyed, and the opposition of England only While such was the course of events in rendered Mary more determined upon the England, Mary's satisfaction in the triumph marriage. A convention of her nobility was over her rebels was grievously diminished held at Stirling; it was numerously attend- by discovering that her husband was weak ed; the queen communicated to them her and profligate, the dupe of every artful comintention of marrying Darnley; the measure panion whom he met, and unworthy of the was approved without a dissentient voice; confidence and affection with which she had and, although Murray, and the faction with treated him in the first ardor of her passion. whom he acted, attempted to instigate the To entrust him with any responsible share people to opposition and rebellion, the en- in the government was impossible; and Murdeavor was signally unsuccessful, and the ray's friends who remainded at court, and queen carried her wishes into effect. She watched theincreasing estrangement between was married to Darnley in the chapel of the queen and her husband, determined to Holyrood, on the 29th of July, 1565. turn it to their advantage. Previously to the queen's marriage, Mur- It was the misfortune of the Scottish queen ray, Argyll, Lethington, and the party of that she had few or no servants whom she the kirk had been encouraged by Elizabeth could trust. Her secretary, Maitland of to rise against their sovereign; and had they Lethington, had betrayed her interests to received from the English queen the snubstan- Elizabeth, and was in disgrace, and, in the tial assistance which she promised, the result meantime, the queen had availed herself of might have led to the dethronement of her the services of Riccio, her foreign secretary. whom they represented as the oppressor of This person had entered her service at first as her nobility, and the bitter enemy of the a singer in her band, but afterwards, by his truth. But their schemes were defeated by skill and fidelity, he raised himself to this the energy and promptitude of the Scottish confidential employment, much to the anqueen and the timid parsimony of her sister noyance of the young king, who regarded of England. It was in vain that Murray him with peculiar aversion; and, incredible and his brother insurgents reminded Cecil as it may appear, Darnley having persuaded of their desperate situation, and the necessity himself that he had stolen from him the afof speedy assistance both in money and in fection of the young queen, resolved to assoldiers. Neither the one nor the other could sassinate him. Nor was it difficult, among be wrung from Elizabeth. They were pro- a fierce and unscrupulous nobility, to find claimed traitors, driven from one position to associates in his flagitious- schemes. THis another by the Queen of Scots, who herself father, the Earl of Lennox, Mlorton, the lord headed the forces which she led against them, chancellor, Lethington, the ex-secretary, Murand were at last compelled to fly to England ray and his friends who were in banishment, and throw themselves upon the protection of and many of the stern supporters of the reElizabeth. To their dismay she disowned formation, who suspected Riccio of intriguand repulsed them; upbraided Murray as a ing with the papal court, willingly joined in traitor to his royal mistress; and, although the conspiracy. The parliament was at herself the encourager of their revolt, com-r hand in which it was intended to pronounce celled them publicly to declare that she sentence against the banished lords; it had knew nothing of the matter. They were been reported that measures were in prepathen dismissed from the queen's presence, ration for the establishment of the Roman I-_ 550 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Catholic faith; and it was determined to ar- to be confined in Stirling till she should conrest both the one and the other by striking sent to the full establishment of the reformed the blow against Riccio. Accordingly, when religion; and the Earl of Murray and his Mary, who was then six months gone with associates were to be restored to their former child, sat at supper in a small cabinet ad- favor and power. In a single day all these joining her bed-room in the palace of Holy- intentions were overturned. Mary, left alone rood, the king led the conspirators up a se- with her husband, regained her ascendency cret stair which communicated with the over him; she convinced him of the perfidy apartment, while the Earl of Morton with a of Morton, Ruthven, and his associates, obband of armed soldiers seized the gates of tained from him a confession of all the sethe palace. The Countess of Argyll, Ers- crets of the conspiracy, escaped with him to kine, captain of her guard, the comptroller Dunbar, and being instantly joined by eight of her household, Riccio, her.secretary, and thousand men, advanced with such rapidity one or two domestic servants formed the against the conspirators, that they fled in queen's party, some sitting at table and oth- dismay to Berwick, and solicited the protecers being in attendance. Indeed, the little tion of Elizabeth. closet or cabinet was so small that three or Darnley, in his confessions to Mary, had four persons could with difficulty have seated betrayed his brother conspirators, whilst he themselves. But its narrow dimensions pre- solemnly asserted his own innocence; but vented escape and favored the ferocious pur- Morton and his associates produced in their poses of the conspirators. Led by the king own defence various bonds and letters, which they burst into the cabinet, overturned the were signed by the king, and fully estabtable, and threw themselves upon Riccio, lished his guilt; and Mary saw, to her inexwho sprung for protection behind the queen. pressible grief and disgust, that the cruel In a moment his fate was decided. One outrage was planned by her husband. From ruffian threatened Mary with his dagger, an- this moment this miserable prince became other held a pistol to her breast, a third, an object of contempt and aversion to all. snatching the king's dagger, stabbed Riccio His conduct had been a tissue of cowardice, over her shoulder; and at last tearing him cruelty, falsehood, and weakness; to treat from the closet, amidst the shrieks of the him with confidence, or to entrust to him women, and the shouts and execrations of any share in the government was impossible; the conspirators, they dispatched him, or and the unhappy queen, without a stay to rather cut him to pieces in an adjoining rest on, fell into a state of the deepest deapartment, with fifty-six wounds. spondency. Under these complicated diffiAfter this atrocious murder, which, con- culties, the queen pursued the course which sidering the situation of the queen, might she deemed most likely to ensure success. have caused her and her infant their lives, She broke with none, pardoned some of the the conspirators detained her as a prisoner in conspirators, affected to believe her husband, her palace, permitted no one but the king hoping even against hope, and restored Murray and their own party to hold any communi- to some portion of the power of which he had cation with her; and having been joined been deprived. Such was the state of things next morning by the Earl of Murray and when, the period of her confinement having the exiles from Carlisle, it was determined arrived, she gave birth to a son in the castle to make a complete change in the govern- of Edinburgh. The child was named James ment. Darnley, weak and profligate as he Charles, and on the death of Elizabeth sucwas, they rewarded by placing at the head ceeded to the English throne. of their new system, being well aware that When her recovery permitted Mary to athe would soon be their tool. The queen was tend to the affairs of the country, it was ap HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 551 parent that unless immediate steps were confidence; and in the anguish of a wounded taken to establish something like a strong spirit, she sometimes lamented that she had government, the kingdom would fall to not died at Jedburgh. pieces; and yet, such was the weakness and It was in this season of depression and treacherous nature of the king, that to admit despair that Murray and Maitland proposed him to a share in it was impossible. She to her a divorce from the king. They had next turned to her nobles. Of these the previously confided their project to Huntly, most powerful were Murray, Bothwell, Hunt- Argyll, and Bothwell; and at first Mary ly, Argyll, Lennox, Morton, and Lethington; seemed inclined to follow their advice, probut there had long existed a feud between vided the divorce could be lawfully procured, Murray and Bothwell, while Morton, Leth- and without prejudice to her child. But afington, Lennox, and their partizans were still ter weighing the whole matter, her opinion in disgrace for the murder of Riccio. It changed, and when nMaitland urged that was necessary to make an effort, and the means could be found to free her of Darnley queen succeeded in reconciling Murray to without injury to her son, declaring that Bothwell; Huntly was made chancellor, Murray would look on and say nothing Lethington, was pardoned and restored to his against it, she broke off the conference. "I office of secretary; while Murray, Argyll, will," she said, "that ye do nothing through his brother-in-law, and Bothwell, were en- which any spot may be laid to my honor or trusted with the chief management of af- conscience; let the matter be in the state it fairs. is, abiding till God of his goodness put reEnraged at his exclusion from power. the medy thereto." king sullenly retired from court, threatened Having failed in this device, a conspiracy to murder the Earl of Murray, and at last for the murder of the king was entered into declared he would leave the kingdom. It by Maitland, Bothwell, Huntly, Argyll, and was in vain that his father remonstrated Sir James Balfour. It has been disputed against his resolution; in vain that the queen whether Murray was, or was not, a party to herself, leading him before her council, con-, this atrocious design. Such was the state of jured him to detail his grievances, and if matters when the baptism of the young prince: she had injured him in any respect, to accuse took place at Stirling. From this ceremony her without reserve. He declared she had the king obstinately absented himself, alherself given him no cause of complaint; leging in excuse the neglect and rigor with but afterwards, in a letter, he complained which he was treated. Soon afterwards he, that he had no power in the state, that lie left the court and retired to Glasgow, where, was neglected by the nobility,'and would he was seized with the small pox, and apbear it no longer. Soon after this the un- peared in imminent danger. I{is situation happy princess was seized by a fever at Jed- appeared to awaken the tenderness of the burgh, during which her life was despaired queen, she sent her own physician to wait on of. Her enemies ascribed it to the injurious him, and soon after visited him herself,, and effects of a rapid ride which she took from administered to his wants. When his conJedburlgh to visit Bothwell, who had been valescence permitted him to be removed, she wounded in a skirmish with some border returned with him to Edinburglh, and placed thieves; it had more probably its origin in him, for the benefit of the air, in a house in that anxiety which followed the conduct of the suburbs called the Kirk-of-Field. It was Darnley; but be this as it may, she re- here that the'conspirators determined to covered only to be the victim of more ag- carry their dreadful purpose into effect. At gravated sufferings. Partial reconciliations the solicitation of Elizabeth and the French were followed by no revival of affection or king,. Morton had been pardoned and per 552 HISTORY OF THE -WORLD. mitted to return; and in a secret interview the imprisonment of the persons named in between him, Maitland and Bothwell, the par- the anonymous handbills, and Bothwell deticulars of the murder were arranged. Both- claring his innocence, demanded an instant well undertook the chief part, and his men trial. It was granted, and Lennox received having obtained access to the cellars of the due notice of it; but on the day of trial BothKirk-of-Field, undermined the foundation, well appeared surrounded by upwards of four and placed gunpowder in the cavities which thousand of his friends and adherents; and they had formed. According to another ac- Lennox, intimidated by the array, or finding count, they deposited it in the queen's bed- it impossible to collect sufficient proof, rechamber, which was immediately under that quested an adjournment. This, however, was of the king. While all this had been se- peremptorily refused, and the accused was cretly carrying into effect, MIary continued acquitted by the jury, who considered it her attendance upon Darnley; their recon- established by sufficient evidence that Bothciliation appeared to be perfect, she often well could not have been at the Kirk-of-Field slept in the house, and on the evening of the when the explosion took p lace. 9th of February, when she took leave of him Soon after this acquittal the parliament to attend a marriage of one of her servants, assembled, and the majority of the nobility which was to be held at the palace, it was prevailed upon the queen to consent to an remarked that she embraced him tenderly, act by which all the grants of crown proptook a ring from her finger, and placed it on erty which had been made during the present his. On that night, after she had retired to reign were confirmed, and herself and her her chamber in the palace, a sudden and ter- successors deprived of all power of revo carific explosion was heard, which shook the tion. In the same assembly of the estates, the city, and it was soon discovered that the Kirk- verdict passed upon Bothwell, which many of-Field was blown up. The dead bodies of the accused as informal, was declared just and king and his page were found at a little dis- legal, and soon afterwards a bond was drawn tance in the garden. It is well known that up by twenty-four of the principal peers. It this miserable catastrophe has given rise to affirmed in solemn terms the innocence of a celebrated historical controversy, in which this profligate baron, whom the public clamor authors of great name and talents have taken still denounced as the murderer of the king; different sides; some insisting that the queen recommended him as a proper husband to was cognizant of the plot for the murder of the queen; and bound its authors, as they her husband, and others as positively assert- should answer to God, to defend him from all ing the contrary. The limits of this histori- danger, and to promote this unhallowed marcal sketch render it impossible that we riage to the utmost of their power and ability. should enter into its details. - In the preced- The tragedy now hurried on to its conclusion. ing narrative we have carefully avoided the Bothwell, at the head of a thousand men, introduction of a single controverted fact; intercepted the queen on her way from Stirin the sequel we shall as sedulously follow ling to Edinburgh, and carried her captive, the same rule. with the slender suite by whom she was acScarcely were the citizens of the capital companied, to Dunbar castle. Among her recovered from the horror and dismay which attendants were iHuntly, Maitland, and Melwas incident to such a calamity, when bills ville, but the first two were in Bothwell's appeared on the walls of the Tolbooth, which interest, and had signed the bond. The last accused Bothwell of the murder, and added was completely in his power, and so was the that the queen had assented to it. Soon af- unfortunate queen. He proposed marriage, terwards, the Earl of Lennox, the unhappy and on her refusal exhibited the bond signed father of the late king, earnestly required by her nobles. She still, it is said, resisted HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 553 his request, and hoped for a rescue; but it evening she was conveyed by the Lords Lindwas a vain expectation. He became more say and Ruthven a prisoner to Lochleven, a peremptory, and if we may trust the expres- strong castle in the middle of a lake, from sions of Mary, corroborated by Melville and which all escape seemed hopeless. her enemies, he compelled her by fear, force,, From those who had thus shamelessly and other unlawful means, to yield to his broken their solemn engagement, little less wishes, and admit him to her bed. From could be looked for but additional indignity Dunbar he now carried his victim to Edin- and outrage. Mary was soon visited in her burgh. A divorce was procured from his prison by Lord Lindsay'of the Byres, whose wife on the ground of adultery, and the pro- fierce temper and brutal manners peculiarly cess having been hurried through the court, fitted him for the mission on which he was and the sentence passed, Bothwell was mar- sent. He presented to her three written inried to the queen at Holyrood, within a struments. By the first she was made to month after his acquittal of the murder of resign the crown in favor of her son; by her husband, (May 15, 1567.) the second, the Earl of Murray was nominatEvents of the deepest and most tragic in- ed regent during the king's minority; by the terest now crowded on each other. The no- third, a temporary regency was appointed to bles who had advised the marriage, who had act until Murray'returned from the continent. acquitted Bothwell, and abetted him in his When Lindsay threw those deeds on the career of ambition and outrage, at once table, he plainly informed the queen that no dropped the mask, assembled their forces, alternative was left, but either to sign them and declared their determination to separate without delay, or prepare for death, as the the queen from the murderer of her husband. murderer of her husband. We are not to As they advanced and occupied Edinb-urgh, wonder that, aware that her life was in the the earl and the queen retired; but in a hands of her bitterest enemies, Mary instantly few days they found themselves strong enough obeyed. to confront their enemy on Carberry hill, The king was now crowned, and Murray near ~Musselburgh. Both factions, however, having arrived from France, assumed the seemed anxious to avoid a battle, and an ex- regency, and entered upon the cares of the traordinaryagreement took place. -Bothwell, government. HIe had not, however for j whom they had declared their determination many months enjoyed the sweets of power, to seize, and punish as the murderer of his when the queen, by the assistance andclsovereign, was permitted, without molesta- ingenuity of a youth of sixteen, namned tion, to ride off the field. The queen was Douglas, escaped in the night from Lochassured of their unshaken fidelity; and so leven, and riding first to Seaton, and next day completely did she credit their asseverations, to Hamilton, soon found herself surrounded that she gave her hand to Grange, and suffer- by a band of her nobles, and at the head of six ing him to lead her to his associates, was con- thousand men. Mary was desirous to avoid ducted by them to the capital. war, and addressed repeated pacific proposals Within an hour she discovered that she had to the regent, who was then at Glasgow. surrendered herself to hermortal enemies. On She offered to call a free parliament; she her entering the city, a furious mob assailed was ready to deliver up to justice all whom her with execrations,and displayed before her a he accused as guilty of the murder, provided broad bainer bearing the figure of her murder- those whom she arrainged of the same crime ed husband. Amidst these indignities she was were also delivered up. This was perempcarried to a house, where she was so strict- torily refused, her messengers were arrested, ly guarded, that tiit even her maids were her adherents denounced as traitors; and the allowed access. And on the succeeding queen, aware that it must come to the deci-... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ii 554 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. sion of the sword, determined to await the iA commission was accordingly held at arrival of additional forces, when she was York, but it led to political intrigues rahurried into an engagement with the regent, ther than judicial investigation. After who threw himself ill her way at Langside, some interval Murray was summoned to hold as she was on her march from Hamilton to a private interview with Elizabeth at WestDunbar. The result was calamitous. Her minster; and Mary again demanded to be army was completely defeated, and she her- admitted to the same presence, and collfrontself compelled to fly from the field with a ed with her accuser. This was denied, while slender train, who rode to Dundrennan, a dis- the English queen permitted Murray to bring tance of sixty miles, before they draw bridle. forward his charge, and to attempt to subNext day she intimated her resolution of stantiate it by letters, affirmed to be in the throwing herself on the protection of Eliza- queen's hand-writing, addressed to Bothwell, beth. From this step her friends passionate- and conclusive, as he contended, of her guilt. ly dissuaded her; but she declared she would Again Mary demanded by her commissioners trust to the assurances which she had re- to be heard personally in her defence; and ceived from her good sister; and crossing the this being refused, they protested against Solway, she proceeded through Cockermouth further proceedings, and declared the conto Carlisle. The return for this act of gener- ference at an end. Cecil, however, insisted ous confidence and dovotedness is well known. that the inquiry should proceed; and having Elizabeth refused to see her, gave orders procured all the evidence which he judged that she should be detained, kept her in necessary, he attempted to persuade the Scotprison a miserable and heart-broken captive tish queen, as the only way of avoiding an for fourteen years, and at last brought her to ignominious exposure, to resign her crown. the scaffold. Her reply disconcerted him. "They have The imprisonment of Mary left Murray accused me," she said, " of the murder of my the undisturbed possessor of the supreme husband. It is a false and calumnious lie. power in Scotland; but the queen strenuous- It was themselves that counselled and conly and indignantly asserted her innocence of trived the murder, some of them were even the atrocious crimes of which she was accused; its executioners. Give me what I am justly and as the English queen could bring for- entitled to, copies of the letters they have ward no possible justification of her conduct produced; let me see and examine the origiin retaining Mary, except her alleged acces- nals, and I pledge myself, in presence of the sion to the murder, it was evident that an queen, to convict them of the atrocious crime investigation of the circumstances, if de- they have had the audacity to impute to me." manded by the accused party, could not in This bold and unexpected tone embarrassed justice be refused. Mary offered to hear the Elizabeth; and Mary having repeated her accusation of her enemies in the presence of charge, insisted on having copies of the Elizabeth, and in the same presence to un- letters produced against her. The English dertake her defence; but this was denied queen evaded the request, and advised her her. It was then proposed by the English to resign her crown. To this she declared ministers that she should consent to a public that no persuasion would ever induce her; trial; but this she rejected as beneath the and under such circumstances the conferences dignity of an independent sovereign. It was were abruptly terminated. Murray, with lastly suggested that her enemies shoulld be his associates, received permission to return summoned to produce their proofs before to Scotland. He carried away with him certain English and Scottish commissioners, those alleged original letters, which the party and that the cause should be left their de- whom they inculpated was never permitted, cision to examine; and he left behind him copies, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 555 which were also concealed from 3Mary and testants who adhered to the young king, and her commissioners. It is from these copies regarded Elizabeth as their protector; on the which the accused was never permitted to other the queen's friends, who, being animacompare with the originals, that future an- ted with the utmost rancor against their thors have been obliged to infer the guilt opponents, prepared instantly to appeal to or innocence of the queen; and certainly, if the sword. Previously to this, however, the opinion of Elizabeth is entitled to weight, they assembled a parliament at Edinburgh, it is clear that she considered the proof as and fulminated denunciations of treason defective. against their enemies; while the Protestants The subsequent career of Murray was bold in their turn having chosen the Earl of Lenand brief. He found himself called to con- nox regent, convoked the estates at Stirling, test with a party, headed by the Duke of and soon afterwards having made themselves Norfolk in England, and by Maitland and masters of Dunbarton by a successful night Grange in Scotland, whose object was, the attack, they took prisoner the Archbishop of restoration of the Scottish queen, and her St. Andrews, who had shut himself up in the marriage to Norfolk. The project had been fortress, and executed him on the instant, encouraged by the regent, whether at first without even the sembance of a trial. This sincerely or for selfish and ambitious pur- outrage led to retaliation, and a civil war, poses, is not clear; but in the end he betray- remarkable for its ferocity, began to spread ed the plot to Elizabeth, and was the main havoc through the country. instrument in bringing this unfortunate no- Into the details of the contest we cannot bleman to the scaffold. enter; and indeed it had lasted but a short The principles on which his government time, when Lennox was slain in a skirmish was conducted were entirely Protestant and at Stirling, and the Earl of Mar, one of the English; and Elizabeth, who knew well and most upright-minded and honorable noblevalued so able an assistant, cordially co-oper- men in Scotland, was chosen to supply the ated with him to overwhelm the queen's vacant regency. To promote a reconciliation friends, and to extinguish all hopes of the between the two factions, and to restore Roman Catholic party in either country. peace, order, and security of property, to a But the task was more difficult than had country distracted by intestine war, was the been anticipated. She succeeded indeed in single purpose to which the new governor extinguishing the great rebellion, led by the devoted himself; but he was thwarted by the Earls of Westmoreland and Northumberland; ambition of Morton, and many of the higher but Murray found it impossible to prevent nobles. These had so long been accustomed the intrigues of such men as Maitland, to derive individual advantage from public Grange and their associates, who had known misery, that they labored as earnestly to inhim long, and having assisted to raise him crease the contentions of the two parties, as to the supreme power, were indignant to find Mar to remove them; and the governor, at themselves treated with severity or neglect. last worn out by the struggle, and hopeless of It was in the midst of this struggle between effecting a reconciliation, sank into the the regent and his former associates in ambi- grave. tion and guilt, that he was assassinated in IHe was succeeded in the regency by the the streets of Linlithgow, by Hamilton of Earl of Morton, a man who has been justly Bothwellhaugh, who was incited to this act described as possessing all the faults, some of revenge by a private injury, of which of the talents, but none of the good qualities Murray was only the remote cause. of the regent Mulrray, of whom he was an His death found Scotland divided between old and tried ally. On his accession to the two parties. On the one side were the Pro- supreme power, the regent found the friends 556 HISTORY.OF THE WORLD. of the imprisoned queen still able to make parliament. It was numerously attended; head against him. The Duke of Norfolk, and Morton, to the astonishment of all, the who had been pardoned by Elizabeth, re- moment he learned the king's wishes, desumed his project of marrying Mary, and dlared his willingness to carry them into engaged in a correspondence with her. The effect, and instantly resigned his regency. Duke of Chastelherault, and the Earl of This ready and implicit submission was reHuntly, Lord Claud Hamilton, the lairds of warded by the passing of an act of indemBuccleugh and Fernihirst, with the indefa- nity, which included ageneral pardon for any tigable Maitland, and Grange, who was re- alleged transgressions, and ratified his whole puted the best soldier in Scotland, still sup- conduct as regent. It is in his anxiety to ported her cause. Morton, however, strong procure this, that we are to find the secret of in his own resources, and supported by his sudden relinquishment of the supreme Elizabeth, continued the war with success, power; and scarcely was it procured when and at last triumphed over opposition. Nor- this extraordinary man, by means of a sucfolk was brought to the scaffold, and the cessful intrigue with a portion of the family Earl of Northumberland, treacherously de- of Mar, found means again to become master livered up by the Scottish regent, shared a of the king's person, and re-emerged into as similar fate. At last the castle of Edinburgh great power and ascendency as before. His was invested by Sir William Drury, who usurpation, however, was this time more short joined the Scottish army with a formidable lived. Atholl, Argyll, and some of the most battering train. In this fortress, the single powerful nobles, assembled their forces, and remaining hope of the Queen of Scots, IKir- declared their resolution to liberate the sovkaldy of Grange commanded; and he held ereign from his ignominious captivity. Init bravely till the walls were destroyed, his stead of a battle, however, the opposite facguns silenced, and his provisions exhausted. tions came to a compromise, by which the Under these circumstances he surrendered, veteran tyrant was shorn of a large part of with his companion Maitland. To this step, his power; and the young king recovered Drury had induced him by a promise of something of his independence. favorable terms; but the English queen dis- James began now to show that strong regarded the stipulation, and handed over propensity to favoritism which marlked his the prisoners to Morton. Kirkaldy and his future career; and the effects of this brother were immediately executed, and weakness were seen in the sudden rise into Maitland only escaped the same scaffold by power of Esme Stewart, Duke of Lennox, taking poison. and Captain Stewart, second son of Lord Morton now deemed himself so strong as Ochiltree, and afterwards the notorious Earl to be independent of all parties, and his of Arran. Of these, the first was a high-born avarice and spoliations knew no bounds. nobleman, of graceful address, amiable feelHe oppressed the church, of whom he had ings, and commonplace understanding; but formerly affected to be the steadiest patron; the second, of birth and connections mnuch and treated the young king and the nobles with inferior to Lennox, was ambitious, intriguing, so much haughtiness and severity, that he daring, and unprincipled, and soon managed soon became an object of universal dread to gain an influence over both the young and hatred. James was now twelve years king, and the duke his favorite. With these old, and it was not difficult for a faction of advantages, an overwhelming opposition was the nobles, who detested the regent, to per- soon raised against Morton; and as his exacsuade the young monarch that he ought no tions and cruelty had made him universally longer tc be treated as a child. Acting by odious, it was in vain that his steady friend, their advice, he accordingly summoned a the English queen, interposed to save him. HISTORY OF THE W-ORlLD. 557 Her interference indeed rather accelerated change of masters, James was really disgusthis fate, and the news that she meditated an ed with the durance in which he was held by invasion, roused the spirit of the young king Gowrie and his faction. With an ability and of his people to instant opposition. which proved the more successful, because When Elizabeth, however, received intelli- his adversaries were unprepared for it, he gence that a Scottish army was assembled, contrived to organize a party, and free himshe prudently withdrew from the contest; self from his servitude; but it happened unand Morton abandoned to his fate, was fortunately that at this crisis the Earl of arraigned as an accomplice in the king's Arran regained his liberty, and returning to murder, at the instance of Captain Stewart, court, soon resumed his baneful influence who had recently been created Earl of Ar- over the fond and facile monarch. It was ran. Of his guilt there can be little doubt, by his advice that the king, who had:first and he himself, after the jury brought in been inclined to use his victory over the factheir verdict, and he had received sentence of tion of Gowrie with moderation, exchanged death, acknowledged that he was privy to this wise resolution for vindictive measures; the intended murder. But his trial was and although Elizabeth strongly remonstratconducted even in those days of prostituted ed against it, he brought Gowrie to the justice, with a reckless disregard of every scaffold, and drove his associates into banform of law; and all were aware that the ishment. jury, of whom many were his bitter enemies, Arran was now supremely powerful; but would, under any circumstances, have found the venality, tyranny, and abuses of his govhim guilty. He died as he had lived, boldly, eminment, soon became intolerable, and workexpressing a calm contempt of death, and ed their own cure by producing a counterexhibiting all the outward marks of repent- revolution, in which the despotic favorite, ance. after having first courted and then quarreled The death of Morton was followed by the with the Scottish church, in vain attempted nominal accession of the young king to the to recover his influence by means of the supireme power, but by the actual transmis- English queen, and was at last chased from sion of that power into the hands of his favor- court by the associated lords, who made ites, Lennox and Arran. This last noble- themselves masters of the king's person. A man, owing to the weak and flexible charac- government, upon a model which admitted ter of Lennox, soon came to rule all, and his the principal nobility to share in the councils rapacity, profligacy, and open defiance of of the state was now established; and Arran, public opinion, completely disgusted the na- deserted by all parties, sank into insignifi tion. The result was a conspiracy for his cance. ruin, headed by the Earl of Gowrie. This It was impossible that Mary, who had been nobleman and his associates having contrived detained a captive by Elizabeth, contrary to to make themselves masters of the king's every principle of honor and justice, should person,.at the castle of Ruthven, and having not have exerted herself to regain her freedom; removed Lennox and Arran from all authority and the Roman Catholic party in England in the state, directed the government as they were not only interested in her success, but judged best for their own interests. But regarded her as their best security against the character of the king, although full of Elizabeth and the Protestant faith. This many strange contradictions, began now to led to a succession of intrigues, which were exhibit a greater degree of talent and energy discovered by the penetration and activity than his opponents were aware of; and of Elizabeth's ministers, the discovery only although compelled to dissemble, and show- serving to increase the rigor of her confineing no symptoms of discontent with this ment. At last the Scottislh queen having 558 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. been arraigned (unjustly as afterwards ap- her personal feelings, or alienate her Protestpeared) of an accession to the conspiracy of ant subjects, by appearing to place himself Babington, the object of which was the at the head of the Roman Catholic party, assassination of Elizabeth, and the restora- who burned to avenge the death of their tion of the ancient religion, she was brought royal mistress. In vain, therefore, they to trial before a commission, whose jurisdic- looked to the king, who, after a short intertion she at first peremptorily declined as an val, relapsed into his usual pacific frame of independent and sovereign princess. It was mind, and celebrated his entrance upon ma. unfortunate for Mary that she did not con- jority, by an attempt to abolish those santinue in this resolution; but in the idea that guinary feuds amongst his nobility, which a refusal might be construed into an admis- had increased to an alarming height, and sion of guilt she at last condescended to threatened to pull the country to pieces. plead. The consequence was, what might This laudable endeavor, which did not have been expected from the nature of the meet with the success it merited, was followevidence, the constitution of the court, and ed by James's marriage to the princess Anne the supreme authority of Elizabth. Mary of Denmark; an alliance which Elizabeth, was found guilty of having compassed divers with her usual jealous and capricious policy, matters tending to the death of the queen; endeavored to prevent. Bat the Scottish and after many affected delays, and an atro- king, with unwonted spirit and energy, cious attempt to induce her keeper, Paulet, sought his bride in person in her father's to despatch her secretly, Elizabeth signed the court, and having solemnized his marriage warrant for her execution, which was car- at Upslo, returned with her to Scotland. ried into effect on the 7th of February, 1587. During his absence the kingdom had been The meekness with which she received the unusually prosperous and happy; but it was intimation of her sentence, and the admira- soon afterwards embroiled by the intrigues ble and saintly fortitude with which she and ambition of the Earl of Bothwell, who, suffered, formed a striking contrast to the leaguing with the Roman Catholic faction, despair and agony which not long afterwards attacked the palace of Ilolyrood with the dedarkened the death-bed of the English sign of seizing the king's person, and plaequeen. ing himself at the head of the government. It might have been expected that if any- A second attempt of the same kind at Falkthing could have roused the King of Scots, land was not more successful; and yet such it would have been the cruelty and injustice was at this time the impotent state of the law to which his mother had fallen a sacrifice; and the weakness of the royal authority, that and for a moment there was an ebullition of these repeated treasons escaped unpunished, indignant feeling. But Elizabeth sent him and Bothwell lived not only to defend but to an artful apology. The blame of the execu- repeat them. tion was laid upon Davison, her secretary, These combined causes transformed the an innocent and upright man, who simply kingdom into a scene of almost perpetual obeyed her orders, and with that unscrupulous tumult and bloodshed; but the monarch at falsehood which this princess seldom hesitat- last becoming convinced of the treasonable ed to employ when necessary to carry through purposes of the Catholic earls, assembled an her designs, the unfortunate statesman was army, and reduced them to the last extremity sacrificed, that his royal mistress might of distress. Bothwell, too, was driven into escape. But the English queen had still a exile, and the country began to breath anew, firmer hold over the young King of Scots. when James found himself involved in a Iie regarded the succession to her throne as contest with the Protestant ministers. The his undoubted right, and dreaded to irritate cause of this dispute was the king's wish to K-~"F~i~;A~e~B~"'~:. 3l ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0 K ~ K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:i K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iL /3~ B#BH1IU11 IHIIlltf;i Iies"llllb~~~~~~~ss K ~ 3. ~ ~ ~ ~~~~;i~8tl K-~ 3 3, 3~ii K; K:i~~ K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i K I~~ C, K - K:-ir 6 I:S~~~~~~~~~~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 559 lean to the side of mercy in his conduct to story, to accompany him with a slender train the Catholic lords. It was reported that from Falkland to his brother's house at Perth. Huntly, their leader, had been admitted to Here he contrived to separate James from a secret interview. The clergy, alarmed to his attendants, and leading him into a remote the utmost, appealed to their congregations; apartment, threw himself upon him, seized they defended the conduct of Black, a minis- him by the throat, and drew his dagger. ter who had openly. attacked the court and The king struggled to get to the window, the queen in a seditious harangue; they and calling out "Treason," alarmed his nobles, haughtily declined the authority of the privy who rushed into the room, stabbed Ruthven council; and, by their violence, they excited to the heart, and, when Gowrie attempted a a tumult in Edinburgh, which compelled the rescue, put him also to death on the spot. monarch to retire to Linlithgow. Under Both these unfortunate men being slain, the these trying circumstances, the king acted utmost pains were taken -to detect their aswith extraordinary.energy, and jealous of so sociates, to unravel the plot, and to ascertain bold an interference with his prerogative, their precise object, but with so little sueeess, restored tranquillity to the capital, punished that to this day the mystery is not solved. the insurgent citizens, compelled the minis- The Queen of England, now in her soventers to fly to England, and according to his tieth year, began soon after this to droop, and original intentions, extended his forgiveness her constitution, hitherto uncommonly vigorto the Catholic lords who made a recantation ons and unimpaired, was evidently' breaking of their errors. up. Of all this James was well aware. I-e James, who had been alarmed at the late had secured the friendship and good offices of violence exhibited by the Presbyterian clergy, Sir Robert Cecil, her chief minister, who unnow became intent upon a plan for new-mod- known to his mistress, carried on a secret elling the church; but when the monarch correspondence with tihe Scottish king; and was thus employed, and his kingdom was acting by his advice, he had employed every enjoying a degree of tranquillity to which it effort to conciliate the affections of the Enghad been long a stranger, the minds of the lish people, and to acquire the support of the people were suddenly agitated by a mysteri- most powerful of the English nobility. These ous attempt made at Perth upon the life of judicious precautions were attended with -the the king by the Earl of Gowrie and his wished-for result. James was Elizabeth's brother Alexander Ruthven. These young undoubted heir; and on the death of this men were the sons of the Earl of Gowrie who princess, an event which took place on the had been executed for treason, and it is prob- 23d of March, 1603, he succeeded with the able that a desire to revenge their father's unanimous consent of the nation, to the death led to their miserable and ill-concert- throne of England. This great and auspied enterprise; but much obscurity hangs cious event closes the history of Scotland as over the whole transaction. It is certain a separate kingdom. that Ruthven induced the king by a feigned 560- HISTORY OF THE WORLD....... - -.............. -I R EL AND \ CCORDING to the native historians, ter, as to force the scanty remains of this Partholan, the sixth in descent from second colony to return to the country whence Magog, Noah's second son, settled in Ireland they had originally emigrated. They took at the head of a thousand men, and took their departure in three companies. The possession of a country in which no one ap- first, under Breac, proceeded to Thrace, peared to dispute his right of occupancy. where they took the name of Belgse; the But he did not enjoy his possession of it in second, under Jobath, proceeded no farther tranquillity; for at the same time, or shortly than Bceotia; and the third, under Bridtan, afterwards, there arrived a band of lawless repaired to the neighboring island of Britain, adventurers, of the stock of Nimrod, the where they formed the tribe of the Brigandescendant of H-am, who were distinguished tes. From this Bridtan, the Psalter of by the name of Fomorians, or Fawmorries, a Cashel, a record of great authority in the name still applied to strangers by the native first and second ages of the Irish, traces Irish. With these took place a series of the origin of the Welsh. deadly hostilities, which terminated in a The Fomorians, when sole masters of the battle so bloody and so decisive, that not a country, went to war amongst themselves, single stranger was left alive; and the ground and carried their dissensions to such a height was so infected with the putrefying corpses, of animosity, that the island was a second which the residue of the followers of Par- time utterly depopulated, and continued so tholan were now too few and weak to inter- until some of the descendants of the Thrathat a plague broke out, which destroyed all cian Nemedians, to the number of about five the survivors, and left the country totally thousand men, returned thither) under the uninhabited for thirty years. command of the five sons of Dela. The At the termination of this period, Neme- Irish annalists distinguish this colony by the dius, another descendant of Japhet, made a name of Fir-bolgs; a name said to be app'Jed settlement on the island with a thousand to tribes living in caves, whither the natives men, from the borders of the Euxine. The used to have recourse for shlelter in cases of tranquillity of his settlement was also dis- extremity. To this colony is attributed the turbed by the incursions of tribes of Fo- division of the country into five principalimorians, here said to be African pirates, with ties, which continued, though not without whom his followers carried on an incessant interruption, till the English invasion. The warfare, but with different ultimate success; names of the state. of the pentarchy were for the strangers, being reinforced with fresh Lemster, Munster, Ulster, Connaught, and supplies from their own countrymen, at length Meath. The principal chieftain of each didefeated the Nemedians with such slaugh- vision was honored with the title of king, a HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 561 name applied very liberally at all times to kings of Great Britain. The Belgse defendthe petty dynasts who arrogated supreme ed themselves for some time with great authority over their own territories, however spirit, but they were at length totally delimited; but the ruler over Leinster was feated. Numbers of them withdrew to the recognized as sovereign, to whom submission neighboring islands and coasts of Scotland; was tendered, and from whom protection was and those who remained were reduced to a claimed, by the other members of the pen- state of abject slavery, under which they. tarchy in cases of danger. This system of remained during the whole time their enegovernment continued undisturbed for eighty mies held the dominion, which the latter years, through a succession of nine sovereign were enabled to do, without molestation from rulers, when it was broken in upon by the a foreign enemy, for a hundred and ninetyintrusion of another colony of the same stock, seven years, under a succession of nine sovecalled by the Irish writers Tuatha-na-IDa- reigns. nans; a name said by some to have been The dynasty of the Tuatha-na-Danans was given them as being the descendants of terminated by an event similar to those the three sons of Danan, a profound adept which had extinguished the two previous in the art of magic, and by others, as being colonies. An expedition from Spain, under divided into the three tribes of Tuatha or the eight sons of 1Milesius, landed in the commanders, Dee, druids or priests, and Da- south-west of Ireland, and after encounternan or bards. The chronicles of the time ing many perils, partly by the violence of a state, that having been driven out of Boeotia storm, by which five of the leaders were by their inveterate enemies the Fomorians, lost, partly by the resistance of the old setafter wandering through various countries, tlers, they obtained possession of the entire they settled in Norway, where they were country, which was divided between Herehospitably received; whence they removed mon and Heber, two of the surviving sons to Scotland, and, after a residence there of of Milesius, Amergin, the third, having no seven years, proceeded to Ireland, carrying share in the government, but acting rather with them several necromantic curiosities, as a councillor to both, a function which his the most remarkable of which was the fatal literary acquirements entitled him to assume. stone, or stone of destiny, to which tradition The southern part fell to ieber; Leinster attached the belief that the sovereignty and Connaught to Heremon, who fixed his would remain with that nation whose king residence at Teamor, now called Tarah,b in was crowned upon it. The tale would be IMeath. A war soon broke out between unnworthy of historical notice, were not an the brothers, which was terminated by the observance of the present day connected with total defeat of Hieber, the aggressor, who the superstitious credence to which it owes was killed in a battle fought at Geisiol, or its birth. The stone, after having been pre- Geashil, in the King's County. But his served for many generations in the line of death did not put an end to the domestic disthe Irish Milesian monarchs, was taken to sensions of the family. A few years after Scotland by a king of that family, by whom Ieremon put his remaining brother to death, it was fraudulently detained, and used as the and thus obtained the sole dominion, wlich inauguration stone of the Scottish kings un- he held for thirteen years, till his death. til the time of Edward I. of England, who, His time was chiefly employed in repelling on his conquest of the country, transferred invasions of the tBritons and of the Picts. it, together with all the other appendages of The government then continued through a royalty, to London, where it is still kept, race of twenty kings of the same family, of under the name of Jacob's stone, and is used whom nothing worthy of mention is recordin the ceremonial of the coronation of the ed; the annals of the period containing m.-36 562 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. merely the intestine dissensions of the chiefs practice any mechanic art. The foundation of the several branches, and their wars with of the royal palace of Eamania, near Arthe Britons ar.d Picts, until the crown de- magh, is attributed by some writers to him; scended to Ollav Fola, of the family of Ir, whilst others give the credit of it to his one of the sons of Milesius who had perished widow, who succeeded him, and reigned on the first landing in Ireland. During his seven years, when she was cut off by her reign, which commenced about 900 years be- successor, who in his turn fell by the hand fore Christ, the Fez, or triennial meeting of of IIugony the Great, in revenge for the the subordinate chieftains, priests, historio- death of his foster mother. This last-named graphers, and bards, was instituted at Tea- monarch, with whom the line of Ileremon mor, or Tarah, in which, besides the regula- would have terminated had he died without tion of all matters affecting the government issue, was married to the daughter of a king and the enacting of laws, a minute investi- of France, and kept possession of the crown gation was entered into of the national mon- during a vigorous and active reign of thirty uments and records. Whatever was then years. IHe obliged the Picts to pay tribute, deemed genuine and authentic, was inserted and extended his dominion over the Western in a volume called the Psalter of Tarah. Isles. IIe also abolished the pentarchical This legislator closed a reign of forty years, form of government, dividing the country spent with benefit to his subjects and honor into twenty-five provinces, over each of which to himself, by a natural death, a circumstance, he placed one of his twenty-five sons, and very unusual in the annals of those times, causing the public revenues to be collected and left the undisputed succession to his son, according to this arrangement. But neither who enjoyed it for seventeen years, and also his virtues nor his abilities were ifficieint to lhad the unusual good fortune to die in the save him fromn the usual fate oi Irish mon same manner. The annals of the succeeding archs, nor to prevent the recurrence of acts monarchs, for tle space of 260 years, present of slaughter amongst his posterity. He was nothing but a reiteration of war and mutual slain, after a reign of thirty years, by his destruction, to such an extent, that out of own brother, who fell by the hand of one of thirty-one kings, who held the reins of gov- Hugony's sons, who in his turn perished by ernment during that period, all but three the treachery of his only brother. Amongst are recorded to have fallen in battle, or by a the successors of Hugony, Eochy, surnamed violent death. The only occurrences worthy Feileagh, or the Melancholy, has made his of notice that can be gleaned from the his- reign memorable by founding the royal seat tory of this barren period, are, the erection of Croghan, in Connaught. It is also celeof a mint, the formation of a standing army brated as being the era of the red-branch by the allowance of a fixed pay to the sol- knights of Ulster, who were said to have diery, and the invention of the small boats, had a residence at the palace of Eamania. formed of wicker-work and covered with His successor Eochy introduced the custom hides, now called corraghs. of burrying in graves instead of burning. IKimbath, who ascended the throne 460 Conary More, who reigned for thirty years, years before Christ, has obtained an honora- according to some writers, and sixty accordble celebrity by his efforts to revive and im- ing to others, is famous for having enjoyed prove the institutions of Ollav Fola. let the longest, happiest, and miost tranquil reign formed a national police, and regulated the in Irish history. Such periods are not those artificers and tradesmen, whom he placed whicll furnish most materials for the annalunder the jurisdiction of a council'of sixty ist. Of the particulars of his life, though of the nobles and learned men, without so highly celebrated, little is recorded. IHe whose license no person was permitted to was killed in battle by tile King of Wales, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 563 though other accounts state that he was and priests were to have recourse on the treacherously burned in his own palace of: last day of October, to perform a. solemn Teamor, which also became a prey to the sacrifice, and to supply fire to all the people, flames. In the reign of Crimthan, one of who were bound to extinguish their usual his successors, who had married the daughter fires at that time, and to relight them from of a Pictish chieftain, the Irish were the this hallowed source. He built similar palauxiliaries of the Picts against the Romans. aces and temples at Uisneacht in Connaught, The information of the leader of a rival fac- at Flaodha in Miunster, and at Tailtean in tion to this prince is said to have induced Ulster, where there was a fair, to which paAgricola to entertain the idea of conquering rents brought their grown-up children and the island with a single legion and some contracted them in marriage. Ile also was auxiliaries. Whatever might have been the the originator of the fine, afterwards known result of such an invasion under a general by the name of the Borome, or Leinster tribof acknowledged military talents, it is cer- ute, imposed upon the king of that province tain that the Roman power in Britain de- for having caused the death of two daughclined so rapidly from this time, that the ters of Tuathal, whom he inveigled away Irish made frequent irruptions into the Ro- under a treacherous promise of marriage. man province, and returned to their own This monarch died in battle. The reign of country loaded with spoil. Feredach, one Conn Keadcahagh, or Conn of the Hundred of the successors of Crimthan, owes his title Battles, is best known by the division of of the Just to his chief councillor Moran, Ireland which he was compelled to make whose rigid impartiality in the dispensation with Mogha lNuod, King of Munster. The of justice is recorded, in the figurative lan- line of demarcation was fixed by a rampart guage of the bards, under the allegory of a and fosse, extending across Ireland from collar, invented and handed down by him to Dublin to Galway, the country to the south his successors in office, which had the super- of which was called Leagh Mfogha, or Monatural effect of pressing upon the neck of gha's share, that to the north Leagh Cuin, the wearer in case his decision deviated from or Coun's share; names still familiar among the strict rule of equity, so as to strangle the Irish. Cormac, the grandson of Conn him if he persevered in his iniquity. Fere- of the Hundred Battles, signalized himself dach was killed after an unsettled reign of by his efforts to restore the ancient regulaseven years, by an insurrection of the peas- tions of the monarchy; but having lost an antry, to whom the name of Attaeots was eye in suppressing a rebellion excited by one given; a name which afterwards was carried of his own family, and being thus excluded into North Britain, where, though at first from the throne through the prevalence of a applied to disturbers of the public peace, it prejudice which forbade a mutilated person ultimately became the distinguishing title of to continue monarch, he closed his life in rea tribe inhabiting the country adjoining the tirenent, during which he drew up a treatise, Romaan wall. After a period of civil corn- yet extant, called the Book of Advice to motion, Tuathal, upon attaining the sovereign Kings; a work extolled by the native writpower, exerted himself to restore the ancient ers as worthy to be written in letters of gold, constitution of Ollav Fola, and the pent- a perfect standard of policy to all ages. In archical division of the country. To him is his reign flourished the celebrated Irish miliattributed the appropriation of the central tia, known by the name of Fiana Erion, and province of Meath, as a demesne or mensal commanded by Fein Mi'Cooil, commonly land for the supreme monarch. Here he re- called Flngal. It was a military association, stored the royal residence, and founded an into which admission was attainable only by edifice for the sacred fire, to which the Druids convincing testimonies of great strength, ac 564 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. tivity, and intelligence; besides which, an for him the title of the Apostle of Ireland. engagement was required on the part of the He was a native of North Britain. When newly-admitted member to choose a wife sixteen years old he was brought prisoner to solely for her merits, never to ill-treat a wo- Ireland by Nial of the Nine Hostages, durman, and not to turn his back upon an ene- ing one of his foreign expeditions, and spent my, even though nine times as numerous as seven years in slavery in the country, where the body to which he belonged. The regular his employment was the herding of swine. number of this force was said to be nine The law of bondage at that time extended thousand men, divided into three battalions. no longer than the seventh year, at the exAfter a variety of exploits, which have fur- piration of which time he returned to his nished matbrials to much of the legendary native country; and, after having studied romance of the time, the body was annihi- under his uncle, the ]Bishop of Tours, he lated during the succeeding reign, at the found his way to Rome, where he was selectbattle of Gabra or Gawra, in Meath, where ed by the pope to renew the attempt which Oscar, the son of Ossian the poet, fell. Pass- had already failed; an undertaking for which ing over a series of several kings known only his knowledge of the language, acquired by name, Nial of the Nine Hostages signal- during his captivity, peculiarly qualified him. ized himself by his military expeditions in To Ireland, therefore, he proceeded with Scotland, England and Franlce. His career twenty disciples or assistants, which number of conquest was cut short in the last-named was increased to thirty-four in England, country, where he died of the wound of an where he touched during his voyage. I-is arrow treacherously discharged against him first reception on his landing at Wicklow on the banks of the Loire. His immediate was very discouraging. The report of his successor, Dahy, met with an untimely fate arrival had already reached the Pagan prince in the same country by lightning. He was who had expelled his predecessor. The the last pagan king of Ireland. In the third same spirit of hostility was directed against year of Logary, or Lac-ra, who succeeded the new comer, and Patrick and his company Dahy, Palladius arrived in Ireland, being were assailed and forced to take refuge on sent on a mission thither by Pope Celestine board their ships. But, though discouraged, for the conversion of the natives. He was lhe was not disheartened. Instead of relinnot, however, the first who had been thus quishing his purpose, he proceeded to the employed. The names of St. Albe, Declan, island afterwards named Holm-patrick, where, Iber, and Iiirian, are quoted as his predeces- having refreshed himself by a short leisure, sors in the pious work. But their labors he proceeded to Ulster, and preached before were confined to particular districts, nor does the chieftain of the district so forcibly as to it appear that they acted under the authority convert him and his family, and to obtain of the see of Rome. Either through igno- license to found a church there. In the rance of the language, or want of spirit to second year of his mission he presented himwithstand the ferocious opposition of his pa- self before the Fez, or council at Tarah, gan adversaries, Palladius was compelled, where he proved equally successful, Logary after having founded three churches, to re- the king declaring himself a convert, and linquish the design, and to quit the country, many of his subjects following his example. in order to save his own life and those of his Nor does it appear that the subsequent profollowers; but he was prevented by death gress of the apostle was checked by any unfrom returning to Rome to give anl account toward circumstance. The remainder of his of his mission. The completion of the work life, which was protracted to an unusual so inauspiciously commenced was reserved length, was spent in traversing the country, for St. Patrick, whose success has acquired spreading around a knowledge of the Chris HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 565 tian doctrine, gaining over converts, and a reiteration of the turbulence, crime, and founding churches and monasteries. The desolation, that had marked the era of pachief of his religious foundations was at Ar- ganism. The only event of importance that magh, which soon became a school of theol- diversifies the tissue of domestic and foreign ogy, so famous that students flocked to it warfare which forms the subject of the annals from all quarters in such numbers, that at of those days, occurred during the reign of one time it was said to have communicated Hugh, the son of Ainmireagh, in which an instruction to seven thousand students. The assemblage was convened at Drumkeath, in exertions of Patrick were not wholly confined Derry, for the express purpose of curbing the to the preaching of the gospel. He gave license of the bards, now become intolerable. his advice and assistance in the reformation The privileges annexed of old to this order, of the government. At his suggestion, Lo- whose properties as well as persons were ingary sunmmoned an assembly of the princes, violable in all civil commotions, whose lands historians, and antiquaries, to revise the rec- were freed from tribute, and whose houses ords and chronicles of the country; and were respected as sanctuaries, had rendered their amendments were deposited in the the numbers of the profession so great, and public archives, under the name of "The entailed such a burden on the state for their Great Antiquity." Fragments of copies support, that they were several times before taken from this work were to be met with about to be banished from the country. At for many centuries afterwards, under the the assembly now held, they found a zealous names of the Book of Armagh, the Psalter and useful friend in the celebrated Columbof Cashel, the Book of Glandaloch, the kill, who left his monastery of Ionatobe preLeabhar Gabala, and others, from which sub- sent here, and prevailed so far as to procure sequent writers have derived much of their a mitigation of their treatment, by changing information respecting the ancient history the decree for their banishment into one for of the country. Patrick did not retain the the diminution of their numbers. It was theregovernment of the bishopric erected by him- fore resolved, that in future the king of Ireself in Armagh; but having appointed Bi- land, each provincial sovereign, and the lord nen, or Benignus, his successor in the see, of every subordinate territory was to mainand having made a visit to Rome, he spent tain a bard to preserve the genealogies and the remainder of his life chiefly at Saul, near record the acts of the respective families; Downpatrick, where he had founded a mon- and that a suitable salary was to be allowed astery, in which he closed a career of active him, in return for which lie was also to and successful labors, in the hundred and instruct the youth in history, poetry, and twentieth year of his age, and was buried in antiquities. The whole body was placed the neighboring abbey of Downpatrick. under the control of an arch-poet, in whom Although the exertions of St. Patrick pro- was vested the power of admitting qualified duced an effect so great upon the public mind persons. Thus restrained as to numbers and that, for many years after, the founding of means of acquiring wealth, their properties religious institutions, and the lives and deaths were as hitherto exempted from taxation, of the ecclesiastics engaged in maintaining and their persons privileged. Yet, during and extending the new faith, formed the this gloomy period, in which the internal chief subjects of history, it does not appear state of the country exhibits so little to cheer that the change of religion produced the the inquirer, it became celebrated throughbeneficial alteration that might have been out Christendom, on account of the piety noped for from it on the political aspect of and learning of the inmates of its religious affairs. The brief notices of the civil occur- establishments. In the fifth century Sedu rences continue to exhibit little more than lius made himself knowvn as a poet, an oratox 566 HISTORY OF -THE WORLD. and a divine, and spread a knowledge of made them better acquainted with its ferhis acquirements, and the fame of the coun- tility, their bands became more numerous, try in which he had imbibed them, through and better prepared for continued hostilities; France, Italy, and the western regions of whilst at the same time the unsettled state Asia. Columbkill, already transiently no- of the country, caused by the intestine wars ticed as the founder of the monastery of Iona of the native princes, carried on either for or Hy, the burial-place of the Scottish kings, the purpose of attaining the supremacy, or adorned the sixth century. So also did Con- for exacting tribute from their inferiors, pregall, the founder of the monastery of Bangor, vented that combination of defence which famed for the multitude of religious men alone could ensure success against the forwhom its learning and the strictness of its eign enemy. In the middle of the same cenrules led to it. In the seventh century fou- tury, Turgesius, King of Norway, had virrished Columba, the founder of several mon- tually rendered himself monarch over the astic institutions in France and Italy; Aidan, greater part of the island. He maintained to whom the conversion of the Northumbrians himself in it with all the cruelty and arrois attributed; Finan, who followed him in gance of an usurper. Danes were placed in the same field of missionary labor; Argobast, all the subordinate kingdoms. Every district who preached in Alsace, and was thence had a Danish officer placed over it, and even raised to the see of Strasbouro; Adamnanus, every house was required to maintain a Danwho visited the court of Alfed, King of Northish soldier. The use of arms was prohibited w~o visited the court of Alfed, King of Northumberland; and Cuthbert, the son of one of to the petty kings of Ireland, who, after having thirteen years under this complication of inbeen prevailed on. with much difficulty to sult and injury, until it was at length roused take charge of the bishopric of Holy Island, to shake of the degading yoke. Turgesius had erected a rath feor his resisence in the in the same part of England, resigned it for a life of studious retirement in the Isle of neighborhood of Tarah, where ]i-sd Malacl-y Farn, where he closed his life. In the eighth who still retained the title of king among century lived Sedulius the younger, who as- the Irish. Turgesius claimed his daughter. century lived Sedulius the younger, who as- Nrv Malaehy, conscious of his inability to resist sisted at a council held at Rome by Gregory Maachy, coiiscious Of his inability to resist n - the demand openly, yet unwilling to sacriII., and was afterwards a bishop in Spain; the demand openly, yet unwilling to sacrialso Vergilius, a philosoper as well as a divine, fice his only child without an effort, sent along as appears by a treatise of his on the Antipodes with her a number of young men disguised written against the then received opinion of as her female attendants, who fell uponl the shape of the earth, which he proved to the Danes in the rath, slaughtered them, seizbe a globe, and not a plain surrounded by ed Turgesius, and handed him over bound the heavens at its verge. HIe spent some to Malachy, who had advanced with a band time in France at the court of King Pepin, of armed men to their aid. The captivity hrby whorm hPe wasi highly esteemed. of the tyrant was the signal for a general inThe state of Ireland was now destined to surretion of the Irish, by which the Danes suffer from another element of convulsion. were forced either to fly aboard their shipAbout the commencement of the ninth centu- ping, or to take refuge in the maritime towns ry,the Danes began to extend to it their preda- that acknowledged their authority. Turtory ravages. Their first attacks were trifling gesius, after being kept some time in prison, and occasional, more of the nature of pirat- was drowned in Lough Innel. On the exical incursions than preconcerted invasion. pulsion of the Danes, the country reverted to But in proportion as the success of their first its former state of internal 6rissension. Corassaults ren.dered them more daring, and their mac M'Cuillenan, King of lMunster, and Bishmore exte lded knowledge of the country op of Cashel, a union of civil and spiritual HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 567 jurisdiction then not uncommon, claimed a proclaimed and inaugurated at Tarah. After tribute from the King of Leinster, which on receiving the submissions of the kings of U1refusal of payment, he proceeded to enforce ster and Connaught, and reducing some reby the power of his arms. But on entering fractory chieftains who disputed his author. his adversary's territory, he found him ity, he directed the combined energies of strengthened by the support of the King of all the states against the Danes, whom he, Irelanud. The unexpected intelligence threw expelled from the island, with the exception such a damp upon the spirits of his troops, of such as consented to embrace Christianity. that many deserted him before the battle: These lie located in the great sea-ports of those who stood firm were soon routed, and Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Limerick, and Cormac himself was killed by a fall from his Cork. Having thus removed the obstacles horse, whilst endeavoring to escape among the arising from a foreign enemy, he directed his fugitives. attention to the general civilization of the The internal dissensions of the country en- kingdom, by founding or restoring the places couraged the Danes to make another effort of worship and seminaries of education, buildfor subjugating the island. A large force..sing bridges, opening passes, erecting fortlanded in Leinster, under the command of resses, and fitting out a fleet to oppose the Setrick, said by some writers to have been a Danes on their own element, before they son of Turgesius, by whom Dublin was taken, could effect a landing. In the accomplishing and the possession of it secured by a signal of these objects, he spent the latter part of a victory obtained over the combined forces of long and glorious reign. But its termination the Irish, in which Nial, King of Ireland, was marked by a circumstance that undid all and many of his generals, fell. The distrac- his labors. The subordinate King of Leinster tions of the country, thus augmented by the irritated at an insult offered to him in the presence of a foreign enemy, obtained a tem- court of Brian, made overtures to the King po ry intermission by the accession of Brian of Denmark for a union to expel him from Boree to the sovereignty. This prince, the the throne. These were gladly accepted. A great hero of the Irish, was brother to the large fleet was sent from Denmark, which King of Munster, on whose death he succeed- landed a body of troops near Dublil, where ed to the throne of that province, from which they were joined by those of the King of he not only expelled the Danes, who had Leinster. Brian was not negligent in dismade a settlement in Limerick, but extended covering, or tardy in adopting measures to his dominion over the whole southern division resist, this new combination. At the head of Ireland. The brilliancy of his achieve- of a numerous and well-appointed army, colments against the common enemy induced lected from all other provinces, he marched the rest of the subordinate chieftains to unite to meet the enemy. The battle was fought in a confederacy for deposing Malachy, the on the plains of Clontarf. It was bloody and reigning monarch, and raising Brian into his desperate, but decisive; the Danes were utplace. The object was effected with little terly defeated, and forced to fly to their ships. difficulty, and, what was more unusual in The Leinster men, abandoned by their foreign the revolutions of the country, with no blood- friends, were cut to pieces without mercy. shed. Malachy was of a mild and undecided The exultation of triumph would have been character. After a feeble effort to revive the as unmixed as the victory was glorious, had spirit of loyalty among the subordinate princes it not been clouded by the death of the mon of the northern division, to the chief of whom, arch, who, though too far advanced in years O'Neill, he offered a large portion of his do- to take part in the engagement, led the arm ilinions, he resigned the crown without a my to the field, and was killed in his tent, struggle. The new monarch was publicly whither he had remained during the conflict, 568 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. by a~ party of straggling Danes, as they were breach Of the laws of hospitality in carrying flying. His eldest son, Mortogh, fell in the off the wife of O'Ruark, King of Breffney, battle. Malachy, the deposed monarch, seiz- gave particular offence to Roderic, by whom ed the opportunity of reviving his claim to he was consequently driven from his domilnthe vacant throne. His conduct during the ions. In his distress, he had recourse to Henlate crisis had been more than dubious. He ry II. of England, under whom he offered to had made a show of assisting the Irish with hold his crown as a tributary if restored by the forces of Meath, which province he had that monarch's exertions. The offer was been allowed to retain, but on the cor- very grateful to Henry. He had long before mencement of the battle, withdrew his men turned his thoughts to the acquisition of Ireto a neighboring eminence, where he contin- land. As early as the year 1154, he had proued an inactive spectator of the struggle. cured a bull from Adrian, who owed his eleHis claim was acquiesced in. But his resump- vation to the papacy to Henry's influence, tion of the reins of authority proved only the conferring on him the sovereignity of the issignal for the renewal of those scenes of tur- land, in order to its civilization, upon paybulence and anarchy which the commanding ment of the tribute of Peter's pence to the talents of his predecessor had kept under con- court of Romne. But his domestic difficulties trol. The apprehensions of subjugation to and continental engagements had hitherto a foreign power were indeed removed. The obliged him to postpone any active measures victory of Clontarf discouraged any further to accomplish his object. He was now in effort of the Danes, whom alone the native Guienne, embarrassed by rebellion amongst rulers dreaded. These were left to carry on his French subjects, and by his disputes with undisturbed their schemes of self-aggrandize- the papal see; and, therefore, was forced to ment and mutual contention. The only event confine himself to general expressions of asto diversify the gloomy monotony of inces- sent, confirmed by a permission to all his sant civil discord, was a synod of the clergy English subjects to assist in the restoration at IKells, held in 1152, und er Cardinal Pap- of his new ally. Supported by this authority, iron, the Pope's legate. Heretofore the con- Dermot turned homewards; and, after vainnectionof the Irish Church with the see of ly attempting to engage adventurers in BrisRome had been very slight, and altogether tol, he at last formed a treaty with Richard voluntary. It was governed by the two arch- Clare, Earl of Pembroke, better known by bishops of Armagh and Cashel, and a num- the name of Strongbow, a Welsh baron, who, ber of bishops, whose system of control was having impaired his patrimony, was easily regulated by domestic synods. At theassem- engaged to take part in a desperate enterblage now spoken of, the supremacy of the prise, on the uncertain expectation of inhersee of Rome was acknowledged, and four iting the kingdom of Leinster after Dermot's palls were given to the Archbishops of Ar- death, by a marriage with his only daughter, magh Cashel, Dublin and Tuam. which was to be the reward of his exertions, Things continued in this state till the time if successful. Through Strongbow's infiuof Roderic Connor, whose reign forms the ence, he also engaged the assistance of Robcommencement of a new era, which over- ert Fitzstephens, constable of Abertivi, and threw all the ancient forms and constitutions of Maurice Fitzgerald, a Welsh chieftain. of government, and gave to the tide of poli- Having secured these auxiliaries, Dermot retical events a new turn, by which they have turned to Ireland, where he lived concealed been influenced to the present time. in the monastery of Ferns, the confidence of Dermot M'Murrough, King of Leinster, whose inmates he had gained by liberal dohad incurred the hatred of his own subjects, nations to their house, until the arrival of his and of the other pi inces, by his tyranny. His new friends warranted him in asserting his HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 569 former station, and endeavoring to regain it aged by the hope that this new supply would by their aid. be the prelude to the influx of fresh bands of Fitzstephens was the first to fulfil his en- well-trained warriors, he indulged in the prosCgagement. He landed at the headland of pect of gratifying his revenge on the causes Bag-and-Bon, in the estuary of the Bannow, of his degradation, and even of seating himself with a following of but thirty knights, fifty on the throne of supreme sovereignty, througl,; gentlemen, and three hundred archers. Small the powerful aid of his English allies. For as the number was, their discipline and supe- this purpose, after having reduced the city riority in military equipment justified Der- of Dublin to submission by the devastation mot in throwing off the veil on their appear- of the neighboring district of Fingal, thus ance. The first movement of the combined establishing his rule over the whole of his force was upon the town of Wexford, a Dan- former dominions, he sent to urge Strongbow ish dependency of the crown of Leinster, to hasten his arrival. which surrendered on the first appearance of This nobleman, not satisfied with the gen the enemy, and was, with the two adjoining eral permission already given by I-Ienry, cantrids of Forth and Bargie, given to Fitz- went to that prince, then in Normandy, and stephens by Dermot, as a foretaste of what having obtained a vague and equivocal assent, was to be hoped for in his service. The next prepared for the vigorous prosecution of his enmovement was againt the King of Ossory, terprise. He first sent over Raymond le Gros, in the Queen's County, who, after a gallant with a detachment of ten knights, and sevenstruggle was also forced to acknowledge the ty archers; who, landing near Waterford, superiority of the Norman mode of warfare. defeated a body of three thousand Irish, colAfter a hard-fought contest of three days, the lected from the neighboring country on the passes of his borders were forced and himself spur of the moment, and maintained his compelled to fly. The news of these succes- position in an intrenched camp until supses soon compelled Roderic to take the most ported by Strongbow himself, who brought decisive measures. At the head of an army to his relief a body of two hundred horse and collected from all the subordinate provinces, upwards of a thousand archers. He then, aidhe advanced to drive the rebel king and his ed by the junction with Dermot, who had foreign auxiliaries into the sea; but the in- hastened to the place, made himself master terference of the clergy prevented the appeal of Waterford, and thence proceeded to Dubto arms. A treaty was concluded by which lin, which was taken by assault. Roderic, Dermot was restored to his former rank on alarmed at the success of the English, after condition of dislnissing his foreign forces, and having called in vain on Dermot to abide by paying a fine for his outrage against O'Ruark. the late treaty, and having, according to some His son was delivered to Roderic as a hostage accounts, beheaded that king's son, in consealong with others for the fulfilment of the quence of his father'e refusal to fulfill the terms. terms of it, collected another army to oppose The arrival of Maurice Fitzgerald, who the invaders. Dermot's death at this junclanded at Wexford with ten knights, thirty ture gave a new character to the contest. gentlemen, and one hundred archers, gave a Strongbow, by his marriage with that prince's new turn to affairs. Fitzstephens, who was only daughter, had succeeded to his royal then engaged in erecting a fortified post at rights; but being unsupported by any of the Carrig, which commanded a pass on the Sla- Irish chieftains, who viewed with apprehenney, near Wexford, resolved to maintain his sion and envy this intrusion of a stranger, position. Little influence was necessary to lhe found himself cooped up in the city of induce Dermot to aid an effort as profitable Dublin, with his small band of Englishmen, in expectation as perfidious in act. Encour- to stand the brunt of the entire Irish army, ________________________________ _ L*Lj 57C HISTORY OF THE WORLjD. with which Roderic had invested the city. to the king, to be holden at his good pleaBut he was delivered from this critical situa- sure. HIe was restored to favor, and appointed ation by one of those exertions by which a seneschal of this new lordship, with the exvigorous mind surmounts difficulties. He ception of Dublin and other fortified cities, had been reduced to the necessity of propos- which the king retained in his own hands. ing a capitulation. The only terms offered Henry soon afterwards went over to Ireland him were the immediate evacuation of the with a train of 500 knights, and a large body country. Such a surrender of all their bril- of soldiers. Landing at Waterford, he proliant prospects was to these daring adven- ceeded without molestation to Dublin, where turers a prospect worse than death. Mito de he received the homage of a numerous adCogan, by whose valor in leading the assault semblage of the native chieftains, whom he the city had been taken, now proposed a sally. entertained in a pavilion hastily constructed His advice was followed. Strongbow, at the of wicker-work without the walls, as the city head of a select body of ninety knights, at- then contained no building suitable for their tacked the Irish camp. The assault was so accommodation. He also held a great counsudden and unexpected, that Roderic had cil or parliament at Lismore, in which the scarcely time to escape from the bath, where English laws were received and sworn to. he was then refreshing himself. The panic At the same time a synod of the clergy at spread through all parts; and this great army Cashel adopted the rules of doctrine and was dissipated almost without a blow. The discipline of the English church for their English followed up their good fortune by future regulation. After spending the marching on Wexford to relieve Fitzstephens, Christmas in Dublin, and dividing the diswho was blocked up by the Irish in his Cas- tricts that acknowledged his authority among tle of Carrig. In the passage thither, the the chief leaders of the adventurers by whose army had to force its way through the passes valor they had been acquired, he returned of Idrone, where O'Ryan, the dynast of the to England early in spring, to allay the comterritory, disputed the ground with it suc — motions which threatened to break out there. cessfully, until his death turned the fate of His absence gave rise to dissensions amongst the day. It is said that the English were so the English leaders, which led to revolt severely pressed in the engagement, that amongst the natives, who had so lately subStrongbow's son, a lad rising into manhood, mitted. To aid the efforts of the Irish, Rodfled from the fight, for which he was hewn eric made another attempt to regain his lost in two by his indignant father. A mutila- dominionis, and to expel the strangers. He ted figure on a small monument placed by invaded Ieath, which had' been given by the side of Strongbow's tomb in Christ Henry to an English baron of the name of Church, Dublin, is still adduced as evidence De Lacy, with such fury, that Raymond de of the truth of this extraordinary event. Gros, the favorite general of the English, The successes of Strongbow excited the who was then celebrating his marriage with jealousy of Ienry, who began to apprehend in the sister of Strongbow, was forced to quit them, not the enriching of a subject, whence Wexford in the morning after his nuptials, the monarch might derive honor, but the in order to make head against the Irish. But agograndizement of a rival in power. He they, content with the devastation committed forbade any of his subjects going to the as- in Meath, had already retired across the sistance of the English in. Ireland, and coin- Shannon, and Raymond turned his arms manded the immediate return of all those against Limerick, which city he took by storm a.lready there. I-e was, however, appeased with little difficulty. Roderick, convinced by the appearance of Strongbow himself, of his inability to cope with success against who surrendered all his possessions in Ireland the superior power of England, sent deputies HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 571 to the king, proposing to dohomage, and paya self there for some time in a kind of suborstipulated tribute, in return for which he dinate sovereignty, against all the efforts of was to hold the kingdom of Connaught, and the neighboring princes, and even made an all his other lands and sovereignties, as fully, attempt to extend his conquests into Conin other respects, as before the arrival of the naught, in doing which, though he failed in the English. the main object of his ambition, he estabOn the death of Strongbow, who died and lished his power in the neighborhood of was buried in Dublin, leaving behind him an Armagh. The death of Henry II. made no only daughter, the heiress of his princely do- change in the government of Ireland. Richminions, the government of Ireland was cornm- ard, intent on his schemes of foreign conquest, mitted to William Fitz-Andelm, a nobleman permitted John to retain the title and auallied to Henry by blood; but the complaints thority conferred on him by his father. The arising from his indolent and corrupt ad- only event which varied the scene of intestine ministration became at length too loud to commotion in Ireland during this reign, was remain unnoticed. He was therefore re- the death of Roderic, the last sovereign of all moved, and John, the king's favorite son, Ireland. The latter years of his life were was appointed Lord of Ireland, at the early embittered, in addition to the loss of his indeage of twelve years. On his arrival at Water- pendence, by the rebellious conduct of his ford, at the head of a train of young and ar- own sons, which at last compelled him to rogant noblemen, the native chieftains hasten- seek in the retirement of monastic seclusion, ed to pay their respects and to do him homrn- the tranquillity he had vainly sought for on a age; but when they approached to testify throne. He died in the monastery of Cong, their alliance according to the custom of the in 1198, in extreme old age. country, by saluting him with the lip, the John, in the early part of his reign, paid prince's English attendants repelled them with little attention to the affairs of Ireland, which insolence, plucked them by their beards, and was now much distracted by the feuds cartreated them with every mark of studied in- ried on between De Lacy, son of him who dignity. The high-minded natives quitted had been killed at Durrow, and De Courcy. the court, and their cause was espoused by In this struggle the artful management of all who heard their tale. The alarm of war the former gained him the advantage over was spread throughout every part of the De Courcy's blunt and boisterous ferocity. country. The castles already built by the He accused him of having imputed to John English on their newly-acquired territories in the murder of his nephew Arthur, in conseMleath were stormed and razed, some of their quence of which, De Courcy was summoned owners killed, and others driven from their to the court in London; and when he treated settlements. John was recalled, and the the mandate with contempt, he was treachgovernment entrusted to De Lacy, who was erously seized by his enemy De Lacy, while soon afterwards assassinated by one of the performing his religious penance unarmed natives whilst superintending the erection in the church of Down, and sent prisoner to of a fortress which he was building, sacrile- England, where he was long kept in confinegiously, according to the opinion of the times, ment. A proceeding as unworthy as this which on the ruins of an abbey dedicated to Col- exposed De Courcy to the royal indignation, umbkill at Durrow. He was succeeded in brought John a second time to Ireland. The the government by De Courcy, a nobleman lady of William de Braosa, who had received celebrated for his gigantic size and prowess. a large grant of land in Thomond, or Northl He had been given such parts of Ulster as he Munster, on being required to send her childcould conquer; and having established his ten to the English court as hostages for her head-quarters at Down, he maintained him- husband's allegiance, refused to obey; alleg-. 572 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ing as a reason, that she would not intrust of a hundred merks. On the departure of her children to the care of the murderer of John, who continued but a short time in the his own nephew. The insult was unpardon- country, the government was intrusted to able, and John went over in person to avenge John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich, who, conit. Upon his arrival in Dublin, upwards of ducted it with prudence and vigor; and aftwenty chieftians attended to the homage; terwards by Henry de Loundres, Archbishop but he performed no military act worthy of of Dublin, the most remarkable act of whose notice. The unfortunate De Braosa was administration was the erection of a castle forced to fly to France, leaving his wife and in Dublin, now the acknowledged capital of family behind, who were seized by the the English territory. tyrant and sent to England, where they died Immediately after the accession of Henry of the severity of their treatment in prison. III. the Irish transmitted to England a list During his short stay, John paid much at- of the encroachments made on their rights tention to the internal management of the in the preceding reign, with a petition to be country. He ordained that the laws of Eng- taken under the royal protection. Henry land should be introduced, with all their ju- sent them in answer a copy of the Miagna dicial forms, a copy of them being left under Charta, whereby they were to be placed on his great seal, in the exchequer of Dublin. the same footing as English subjects. This He also divided the districts which acknowl- charter was confirmed by others of similar edged his authority, and which were after- tendency, transmitted by the same monarch. wards distinguished by the name of the Pale, He also gave O'Brien, King of Thomond, a into the twelve counties of Dublin, Meath, grant of that territory, to be held by EngKildare, Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, ]ish law, in lieu of the Irish tenure by which Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Lim- he had hitherto possessed it. The change erick. In the remainder, which comprehend- was considered of such value as to be worth the ed two thirds of the island, the king's supre- payment of a thousand merks, and an anmacy was nearly nominal. Connaught, nual sum of a hundred and thirty. But which Roderic in his treaty with Henry the king's promise of impartial protection to had specially reserved to himself, after suf- the Irish was grossly violated in the instance fering dreadfully by the contentions of that of Cathal Croove-derg, who was now deprived monarch's sons, and by the irruptions of the of the third part of his kingdom that had English leaders, who endeavored, by their in- been allowed to remain with him by John, terference in these family quarrels, to obtain this portion being granted, together with all. some footing in it for themselves, fell ulti- the rest of Connaught, to Richard de Burgho. mately into the hands of Cathal, surnamed Catllal died soon after this unjust deprivation Croove-derg, or the Bloody-handed. But the of his property. His subjects, assisted by influence of the De Burghos, a branch of the O'Neill, Prince of Tyrowen, placed his brofamily of Fitz-Andelm, proved too powerful ther Tirlogh on the throne; but he was refor him. After many a desperate struggle moved by the lord-deputy, and Aedh, a soun with the intruders, in which undisciplined of Cathal, substituted in his place. Aedh valor enabled him to cope at times success- being shortly afterwards killed in a skirmish, fully with the well-marshalled followers of the the lord-deputy again removed Tirlogh, whom English chieftain, he was compelled to sur- the people of Connaught had reinstated, and render two parts of the country to the King placed Feidlim, another son of Cathal, upon of England, in order to secure to himself the the throne. But a title held under a tenure peaceable possession of the remainder; at so precarious and degrading could not be the sanme time acknowledging himself a vas- satisfactory. Feidlim, therefore, crossed over sal, and binding himself to a yearly tribute to England, and threw himself on the pro HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 573 tection of the king, by whom he received a fered the king six thousand merks for a charspecial assurance of security in the possession ter from him to be governed by the laws of of his territories, which enabled him to re- England. This reasonable request, which tain them unmolested till his death. implied nothing more than the enforcing of Towards the conclusion of his reign Henry the previous charters of John and Henry to made a grant o Ireland to the eldest son of Ed- the same effect, was neutralized by the opward; with a proviso, however, that it was to position of the barons, whose oppressions it be always connected with and dependent upon was meant to curb. A second application the crown of England. The country derived of a similar nature during this reign met no benefit from the arrangement. Edward with a similar fate. The conduct of Edward was drawn away to pursue schemes of more to one of the lord-justices, De Ufford, whoml brilliant promise in the Holy Land, and he called over to explain why such quarrels Ireland was suffered to continue under the were permitted during his administration, management of subordinate officers. Its state proves that the king was not over anxious to at this time was truly miserable. In addi- probe this malady to the bottom. De Ufti on to the struggles of the Irish chieftains ford's defence of himself was, that "he deemto regain their patrimonial rights of property ed it expedient to suffer one knave to destroy and independence, the districts which ac- another, to save expense to the king." Edknowledged the English rule were torn to ward was satisfied with this evasive answer, pieces by the hostilities of rival barons. To and sent him back to his government. - The such a pitch did this state of anarchy increase, wars of the barons were still tolerated; and that in a contest between the De Burghos and the Irish, who wished for the protection of the Fitzgeralds, the latter faction seized upon English law against their tyranny, were still Richard de IRupella, the lord-justice of Ire- forced to purchase it by special charters of land, and threw him with several of his denization, by the fees of which the officers adherents, into prison, from which it required of the court were enriched. These charters the authority of parliament to liberate him. were mostly the consequence of intermarThe neglected state of the country during riages with some of the great English families. the reign of Edward I., whose attention was The accession of Edward II. afforded a absorbed by the nearer and more pressing prospect of the restoration of the royal anaffairs of Scotland and Wales, increased the thority, and the suppression of the exorbi. turbulence and audacity of the English tant power of the English barons. The king, barons. A dispute between Sir William de compelled to part with his favorite Gaveston, Vesci, the lord-justice, who had married an sent him into Ireland as lord-lieutenant, as heiress of the Pembroke family, and John into a kind of honorable exile. On his arFitzthomas, one of the heads of the Fitzger- rival, Gaveston obtained some advantages alds, was carried to such a pitch, that each over the Irish septs in the neighborhood of accused the other of high treason; and the Dublin; but, however flattering the appearaffair was brought before the king in person, ances arising from this change of administo be decided by the law of duel. On the tration, they proved delusive. Edward, unday appointed for the combat, Vesci was not able to endure longer his favorite's absence, forthcoming. IHIe had fled to France. The recalled him, and the country fell back into king transferred his lands in Ireland to his the anarchical sway of the barons. The royal accuser, which contributed considerably to mandates were set at naught, and private wars the future aggrandizement of the Fitzgerald were carried on without restraint or control. family. So grievously was the great body Frightful as were the state and prospects of of the Irish pressed down by the arrogant the country, a fresh element of misery was tyranny of these feudal lords, that they of- now thrown in. Robert Bruce, King of Scot 574 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. land, elated with the victory of Bannockuarn; of the restoration of the mlonarcy of Ireland. resolved on a measure which, if successful, Bruce, after refreshing his troops, marched would have added considerably to the security to Dublin. To guard against his assaults, of his own kingdom, and to the weakening the citizens set fire to their suburbs, with of his most formidable enemy. Hie proposed such precipitation, that one of the churches to detach Ireland from England, and to con- was involved in the conflagration; and innect it with Scotland, either as an ally or a trenching themselves within the walls, they dependency. With this view, and also to presented such a face as deterred the besiegers give employment abroad to an ambitious from continuing: the siege. Bruce therefore and ardent relative, he proposed to his bro- proceeded to Kildare, which he ravaged, and ther Edward the conquest of the country. thence penetrated through the passes of The offer was accepted. The first attempt Ossory into Munster, spreading havoc and on the northern province failed, because the desolation on all sides. Want of provisions, means were insufficient for the magnitude of and the intelligence, on one hand, of another the object. But Bruce was not to be dis- army having been collected against him, uncouraged by a single check. The attempt der the command of Roger Mortimer, sent was soon afterwards renewed with enlarged from England as lord-justice, and on the other, resources. In the summer of 1315, Edward of new supplies from home, led by his brother Bruce landed in the north of Ireland, at the in person, induced him to retrace his steps head of six thousand men, where he was towards Ulster. By forced marches he rejoined by numbers of the discontented Irish. treated unmolested into Meath. He was folDe Burgho, Earl of Ulster, aroused by the lowed by the English, nowunder the command danger which threatened his possessions, aid- of Sir John Bermingham. Both armies met ed by Feidlim, King of Connaught, marched at Faugher, near Dundalk. The Scotch to oppose the invader. Their combined force army was the more numerous, but it was much was defeated at Coleraine, and Bruce, fol- exhausted by fatigue and famine; the Englowing up his victory, reduced Carrickfergus; were well equipped and armed, and in a high penetrated into Meath, where he defeated, state of organization. It is said that Edward at Kenlis or iKells, a second army sent to op- Bruce, on hearing that his brother was adpose him; advanced still further to Skerries, vancing, pressed on the engagement, in the where he encountered and routed Sir Ed- hope of securing to himself the undivided mund Butler, the lord-justice; and returning honor of victory. The result was deserving to Dundalk, through want of provisions, was of the arroganee which led to an act so ill there crowned king of Ireland. His affairs advised and precipitate. After a sanguinary were now singularly prosperous. His brother struggle, the Scottish army was totally decame to his assistance front Scotland, but was feated. The body of Bruce was found, after forced, through the scarcity of provisions, to the engagement, in the midst of heaps of return, leaving with him a part of lis troops. slain, lying under that of an English knight Feidlim joined his party, and was followed of the name of lnaupas, who had pressed by O'Brien of Thomond, and several lesser forward to the honor of being captor of the chieftains. The English barons now began Scottish general, Robert Bruce, on hearing to be sensible that the tenure of their posses- of the result, immediately retu ned home, and sions was at stake. They collected a numer- made no further attempt upon the country. ous body of troops, which were sent, in The expulsion of the Scotch gave little rethe first instance into Connaught, to put lief to the people, who still continued to down Feidlim. A sanguinary battle ensued groan under the feudal oppressions and interat Athenree, in which the Irish prince was minable quarrels of their rulers. On the acslain, and with him terminated the last hope I cession of Edward III., they addressed them HIST-ORY OF THE WORLD. 575 selves again to the throne, in order to pro- inhabitants, at the will- and pleasure of the cure a general charter of admission to the soldier, who had no other means of subsisrights of British subjects. The petition tence. This extortion was originally Irish, was favorably received; but being referred, for they used'to lay Bonaught, as they called like former applications of the same kind, to it, upon the people, and never gave their the Irish parliament, through the lord-justice, soldiers any other pay. But under the Engit was, like these, rejected. The Irish, dis- lish it was still more intolerable, as with them appointed in their hopes of good government, the oppression was not temporary or limited broke out into acts of insurrection. The either in time or place, but, because there king, unable to restore tranquillity by ener- was everywhere a continual war, either offengetic measures, had recourse to others, the sive or defensive, and every lord of a country, evil effects of which were long felt. The and every marcher, made war and peace at greater part of Leinster had been parcelled his good pleasure, it became universal and out into five palatinates, in favor of the five perpetual, and was, indeed, the heaviest opgrand-daughters of Strongbow, on whom pression that ever was inflicted on any kingthis princely inheritance had devolved in dom, Christian or heathen. failure of male issue. Meath and Ulster had The effects of this feeble policy proved also been granted in like manner. The num- the reverse of what its devisers may be supber of these exempt jurisdictions, in which the posed to have expected. Internal turbulence superior lord exercised most of the preroga- and discord increased. To heighten the contives of royalty, was now increased, by erect- fusion, William de Burgho, who united in ing the county of Desmond, or South 1Mun- his own person the government of the two ster, into a palatinate in favor of Maurice palatinates of Meath and Ulster, and hlad Fitzthomas, a branch of the Fitzgerald family; also the greater part of Connaught, was asand another was shortly after erected in Tip- sassinated at Carrickfergus by his own doperary, for James Butler, created Earl of mestics. His only daughter was carried to Ormond. In consequence of the great pri- England for protection. O'Neill of Tyrowen, vileges bestowed on these noblemen, the to whose family the northern palatinate of king's authority was proportionally contract- De Burgho had formerly belonged, seized on ed, and a few powerful chieftains were en- the opportunity to recover by force a conabled, under color of asserting their rights, siderable portion of the inheritance of his to overawe or control, by their combination, forefathers. The estate in Connaught was the wholesome exercise of the powers of also seized on by two of the younger branches the constitution, or to convulse the country of the De Burgho family, who, conscious of to its centre, by their mutual contests for the illegality of their claim according to the superiority. This ruinous system was car- rules of English law, renounced their allegirieed still further. The chief governor, un- ance, assumed the Irish name of M'William, able to collect men in numbers sufficient distinguishing themselves from each other to cope with the insurgent Irish, applied for by the surnames of Eighter and Oughter, or military aid to the Earl of Desmond. The the Hither and Further M'William; the request was readily acceded to, and ten former holding the lands in Galway, the latthousand men were sent him; but as the ter those in Mayo, and both conforming to deputy was deficient in the means of paying the laws and tenures of the Irish, set the or feeding such a body, the troops were al- authority of the king's justice at defiance. lowed to live on the country at free quarters, But the act which tended most to destroy or, as it was then called, on coygne and the English power, by unhinging the conlivery, which consisted in the taking of man's nection between the parent country and the meat, horse's meat, and money, of all the colony that had sprung from it, was an ordei 576 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. that all public officers whose property existed monopoly which gave birth to this distincwholly:in Ireland should be displaced, and tion, though repressed, was not extinguished; their places supplied by persons born in and fresh occasion was soon given it to blaze England, and having lands in that country. forth from a quarter whence it might least This act gave rise to the distinction between have been apprehended. Lionel, afterwai ds the English by blood and the English by Duke of Clarence, Edward's second son, had birth, causing those of the former class, married the heiress of the late Earl of Ulster, through irritation at the insulting degrada- and thus became entitled to the lordships of tion by which they were deprived of their Ulster and Connaught. To add weight to the fair share of the honors and emoluments enforcement of his claim, which he was about earned by the blood of their ancestors, not to assert in person, the king invested him only to attach themselves to the native Irish with the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland. But, by the ties of marriage and community of born and educated in England, he carried interests, but to exceed them in intensity of over with him all his English prejudices and hatred to the new intruders; and hence they prepossessions. Surrounded by men of Engwere said to be more Irish than the Irish lish birth, and taught by them to look on themselves. The effects of this unjust and the ancient settlers, not only as unworthy impolitic ordinance were not long in show- of his confidence, but as disaffected to his ing themselves. A common interest united government, he forbade, by proclamation, the descendants of the old settlers into a any of the old English, or of the king's subgeneral combination. Alarmed at the spirit jects of Irish birth, to approach his camp. which they indicated, the lord-justice, Sir This imprudent measure deprived him of John Morris, deemed it expedient to assem- the only aid which could render his operable a parliament at Dublin, whereby a less tions against the common enemy of the Engdangerous vent might be afforded to the ex- lish government effectual. Left, amongst pression of the grievances of the discontent- strangers to the country, to traverse uned. But the injured party adopted another known districts, and to contend against an and a more spirited course. Not content enemy of whose movements and mode of with absenting themselves from parliament, action he was wholly ignorant, he found they held another assembly, totally independ- himself enclosed in a position in which adent of it, at Kilkenny, under the auspices of vance was impossible and retreat perilous, the Earl of Desmond, in which they drew and from which he was extricated solely by up a remonstrance, to be presented to the an appeal to those whose services he had at ling, which exhibited a striking view of the his first landing so haughtily and unwisely aggressions of the government, and the griev- rejected. After a short stay he was recalled, ances which had excited general discontent. but retulrned in a few years, improved in the The king's answer was gracious and conde- knowledge of the science of governing a scending. Assurance was given them of country of habits dissimilar to those of his immediate relief from the more gross griev- own. On his second visit he directed his ances, and of inquiry into all. His anxiety attention to the general reformation of the to procure aid for his continental expedi- parts of the island that yielded a willing tions appears to have been one cause of the obedience to the royal autbo rity. A parliareadiness with which these concessions were ment was summoned at Kiikenny, the result granted; for we are informed that the Earls of whose deliberations was an ordinance, of Desmond and IKildare attended him with since known by the name of the Statute of numerous followers into France, and the lat- Kilkenny, which forms one of the great po. ter distinguished himself greatly at the siege litical epochs in the history of the country. of Calais. But the spirit of self-interested By this statute it was enacted, that mar HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 577 riag, fostering, or gossipred with the Irish, which no freeman was to be subjected, ex should be deemed treasonable; and conform- cept in case of abjuration for felony, or by. ity to the rules of Irish law was subjected to act of parliament. So far was the English a similar penalty. The use of Irish names, power reduced towards the close of this language, or apparel, by any person of Eng- reign, that, as the authority of the English lish birth or descent, was punishable by for- law had extended during the time of Johnl feiture of lands or imprisonment. Penalties over the twelve counties already named, and were also imposed on those who permitted over the greater part of Connaught, it was their Irish neighbors to graze on their lands, confined, in the thirtieth year of the present who presented them to ecclesiastical bene- reign, to the four counties of Meath, Louth, flees, who admitted them into religious houses Dublin and Carlow; and of these the greater as members, or who gave encouragement to part was - border-land, governed by march the Irish bards, musicians or story-tellers. law, Which wG as little more than another word The execution of this statute was enforced by for the arbitrary will of the lord of the the anathemas of the church against its viola- marches. The last effort made by Edward tors. Vhatever might have been the effects to restore the English government, was a of an enactment so rigorous towards uniting mandate directing a stated numbnher of bishthe English settlers more closely among ops, knights and burgesses to attend the themselves, it is evident that it severed comn- king in his parliament in England, to assist pletely any links of the bonds of mutual in enacting laws for Ireland. The proceedcharity and community of interests that ex- ings of this parliament are lost, but the existed between them and the Irish. The pres- istence of writs to the several counties, cities enee of an English nobleman of royal birth, and boroughs, directing them to defray the connected by marriage with the descendant expenses of the persons sent over, proves and representative of a family now nearly that it had assembled. About the same time Irish through length of residence, might the trade with Portugal was thrown open to have led to the introduction of a system of the Irish, but the disorders of the country generous equity towards the natives of the were too deeply rooted to admit of the peocountry, the former rightful possessors of the pie availing themselves of the privilege. soil. But the wording of this statute pro- -In the beginning of the reign of Richard nounced the Irish to be irreclaimable. The II., Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, was apopportunity for the amalgamation of conflict- pointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland by the ing interests was lost; and ages passed over joint consent of the king and the English without another such presenting itself for a nobility; the latter party wishing thus to renewal of the experiment. The Duke of break the connection of favoritism that Clarence was again recalled, and the admin- bound him to the former. But after an istration of the government left, as before, equipment, fitted out on a princely scale, the to deputies. The low condition to which project failed. He had proceeded as far as the country was now reduced may be in- Wales, when Richard, who had accompanied ferred from the fact related as to Sir Rich- him to the w ater's edge, found his attachard Pembridge, warden of the Cinque Ports, ment too violent to bear the separation, and he who, being appointed to the lieutenancy, re- brought him back to London. Commissionfused to undertake the office, in consequence ers were afterwards deputed to inquire into of the distracted state of the country; and the state of the country, butwith no beneit was adjudged that his refusal was strictly ficial result. At length Richard resolved to legal, inasmuch asresidence i1 Ireland, even visit this part of his dominions in person. in the elevated station assigned to him, was He landed at Waterford with an army of looked upon, as but an honorable exile, to 4000 men-at-arms and 30,000 archers; but m.-37 678 HISTORY OF THE WORLD, after nine months spent in an empty display sustained by famine, hardship and battle, of regal pageantry, during which he received that Richard had to wait for a reinforcement the submission of seventy-five native Irish or from England before he could resume hosdegenerate English chieftains, and granted tilities. In the meantime the news of the pardons to others, whom an apprehension of successes of the Duke of Lancaster compelled ill treatment kept at a distance, he returned him to hasten his departure, in order to opto England. The only stipulation for re- pose this new enemy. The unfortunate and storing tranquillity made during his visit disgraceful termination of his reign belongs was, that the province of Leinster should be to English history. evacuated by the Irish; but when the con- The intestine commotions in Ireland were dition was to be enforced, after the removal aggravated in the reign of HEenry IV. by of the terrors of a royal army, the requisi- invasions of the Scotch, who assisted the tions of the government were followed only Irish of Ulster in driving the English from by excuses and delays, and ultimately by this province, and acquired some settlements insurrection, in the course of which Roger there, whence they were never afterwards MIortimer, Earl of Marche, whom Richard wholly removed. Henry's second son, Thomhad left behind him as his lieutenant, was as, Duke of Lancaster, was sent over as lordkilled at Kenlis, in a skirmish against the lieutenant. IHis government was vigorous, O'Byrnes, whom he had driven from their and in some degree effective. The native mountain fastnesses in Wicklow. Irish of Wicklow were cheeked; the degenMortified and irritated by a result so con- erate English in Meath and Uriel were comtrary to the anticipations entertained from pelled to submit; and M'XMurchad, who stil. }.is expensive armament and pompous recep- maintained himself in the western parts of tion in Ireland, Richard undertook a second Leinster, in defiance of the government, wag military expedition thither. lie landed again defeated in a severe and well-contested batin Waterford, and after spending some time tle. The citizens of Dublin fitted out several there and at Kilkenny, in an idle display of naval expeditions against the Scotch and royalty, he proceeded to Dublin, in the full Welsh; and though, in their first engageconfidence that now, as previously, his jour- ment with the former enemy, they suffered ney thither would be but a progress of pa- a total defeat on the coast of Ulster, they cific parade. In this expectation he was afterwards revenged the insult by carrying buoyed up by the appearance of several of the war into the islands and coasts of Scotthe Irish lords, who, presenting themselves land, and by their depredations in Walesj with halters round their necks, fell at his whence they brought back in triumph a feet and implored forgiveness with the most shrine of St. Cubin, and lodged it with much abject humility. But on entering into the ceremony in Christ Church, as a proud inonuwoods and defiles of the marches of Leinster, ment of their victory. But this favorable his reception was very different. M'Mlurchad, change was merely temporary. The lordthe principal chieftain of the province, who, lieutenant was wounded, and his forces beaten notwithstanding the pensions he had receiv- back, under the very walls of Dublin; and ed, and the submissions lie had entered into, he soon afterwards quitted the country altowas still the inveterate enemy of the English, gether. The residents in the border counrushed out unexpectedly from the cover of his ties were now reduced to the degrading woods, at the head of 3000 chosen men. so well necessity of purchasing peace and protection appointed, and with such a display oi valor, from the neighboring Irish chieftains, by the as to stop the advance of the royal army for payment of a stipulated tribute called black some time; and though it ultimately forced rent. its way to the capital, such were the losses The arrival of Sir John Talbot, Lord Fur HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 579 nival, in the succeeding reign, a man dis- their revolts; and their insurrections, far Qinguished for his military talents, gave hope friom being excited by a general desire of of a change for the better. By his activity exterminating the whole body of their inand valor he compelled several of the neigh- vaders, were usually occasioned by some local boring Irish chieftains, not only to desist dispute or act of private oppression. from their incursions, but also to do homage In the beginning of the reign of Henry and give hostages. Yet though bound to VI. the two Anglo-Irish families of Desmond keep the peace, they still retained their inde- and Butler began to assume the high politipendence, and the English pale was not en-:cal position which they retained long after. larged. The lord-lieutenant, likewise, hayv- James, the first Earl of Desmond, obtained ing brought with him no supplies either of the leadership of the family and the title, to men or money, had no means of maintain- the prejudice of his nephew, who had deing his position, except the oppressive and graded himself in the eyes of his followers ruinous system of coygne and livery. The by marrying a peasant's daughter. The unEnglish settlers were thus reduced to a state cle was secured in the estate by authority-of of extreme degradation and distress. Looked parliament, and also constituted governor of upon by the Irish as aliens and intruders, the counties of Waterford, Cork, Limerick, they were treated by the new comers from and Kerry, over which he exerted an almost England as slaves, and considered by the royal jurisdiction. The Earl of Ormond, English in general as in nowise better than the head of the Butler family, after having the natives. In the beginning of this reign, been removed from the chief government of the parliament at London, in consequence Ireland by the machinations of his enemies, of the swarms of needy adventurers from -was protected against their further efforts Ireland, whom the devastations of their own by the personal kindness of Henry VI., country had driven to seek an asylum abroad, which laid the foundation of a lasting attachpassed an act to oblige all Irish to quit the ment to this monarch on the part of the kingdom. Even the students who resorted earl and his descendants. A change now to London for education, though expressly took place in the government, more imporexcepted from the severe provisions of the taut in its effects than any hitherto recorded. statute, were contemptuously excluded from Richard, Duke of York, descended from an the Inns of Court, from a prejudice as impol- elder brother of the prince through whom itic as it was unjust, since it not only pre- the reigning family derived its claim to the eluded them from an intercourse tending to throne, was universally beloved. The conconciliate their affections to England, but trast between him and his inglorious soverdebarred them from the means of acquiring eign was too glaring to remain unnoticed. a knowledge of the laws, which were the It was therefore resolved to remove him out only effective means of preserving the con- of England; and he was appointed lord-lieunection between the countries. Indeed, the tenant of Ireland, with extraordinary powcontinuance of such connection was preserv- ers. Ilis administration presents one of the ed at the present period, more by the igno- few bright gleams of Irish history. It was rant prejudices of the native princes them- long quoted as the time when peace and selves, than by the exertions of the govern- prosperity flourished, when faction was re ment. Contented to rule over their petty pressed by even-handed justice, and when septs, their aversion'to the English was the natives, the English by blood, and the scarcely more violent than'that entertained English by birth, coalesced in an honest exby them against the neighboring tribes of ertion to improve the country. Aware, on their own race. They united in the most his arrival, of the bitter jealousy which excordial attachment with the old English in isted between the rival families of the But 580 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. lers and Geraldines, and although he knew ers. The exhaustion thus produced waw that the former was attached by gratitude nearly fatal to the English interests in Ire. to his rival, he scorned to be swayed by any land. Towards the close of Ienry's reign, suspicions on that account; but, on the birth the Irish or rebellious English had conquered of his son, afterwards the unfortunate Duke or subjected to tribute the greater part of of Clarence, by engaging the heads of both the counties of Limerick and Tipperary, tofamilies to be sponsors at the infant's bap- gether with those of Kilkenny and Wexford, tism, he bound each to himself and to the and almost the whole of Carlow, Kildare, other by the tie of gossipred, a relationship Meath, and Uriel, so that little was left of respected to a degree of veneration amongst which the English could claim the undisputed the Irish. Being called away to Englancld to possession, excepting the county of Dublin. clear himself from some imputations on his The only meth6d to secure peace was by the loyalty, he intrusted the- administration to purchase of the protection of the heads of the Earl of Ormond, who was succeeded by the Irish septs, who, gratified with such acSir Edward Fitz-Eustace, a knight of great knowledgement of their superiority, looked military fame, by whom the O'Connors of with contemptuous disregard on the moveOffaly were defeated, and the sept of the ments of the Saxons, as the English were O'Neills, who had presumed to insult the called by them. city of Dublin by plundering some of the The attachment of the Geraldines to the ships in the bay, and carrying off the arch- house of York was rewarded by Edward bishop, were so roughly treated at Ardglass, IV. oil his attainment of the royal d ignity-, as to check for a long period any efforts of by appointing the Earl of IKildare to the the northern'toparch against the pale. In lord-lieutenancy. Ile was shortly afterwards the meantime the Duke of York, though superseded by the Duke of Clarence, the successful in his first effort to seize the Eng- king's brother, who appointed the Earl of lish crown, was totally defeated at Blore- Desmond his deputy, in return for having heath, and forced to fly into Ireland, where crushed an effort made by the Butlers in fahe was recceived more like a sovereign prince vor of the house of Lancaster. But his than a discomfited traitor. The parliament continuance in power was short-lived. On passed an act for his protection, and decreed the king's marriage with Elizabeth Grey, he that whosoever should attempt to disturb had incautiously thrown out some reflections him, under pretence of writs fiom England, upon the meanness of her birth. Tiptoft, should be deemed guilty of high treason. Earl of Worcester, was soon afterwards sent An agent of Ormond, who ventured to vio- over as lord-deputy, and, in a parliament late the law, was executed. On the Duke's summoned at Droghleda, he caused an act to subsequent change of fortune, numbers of be passed against the Earls of Kildare and his Irish adherents followed him to England. Desmonld, for allying themselves by mar The palatinate of MIeath, inl particular, was riage, and fostering with the Irish enemy. almost deserted by the English settlers, who Kildare, though arrested, was fortunate hastened to enrol themselves under the ban- enough to effect his escape. Desmond, renel of the white rose. I-Ie appeared in Lon- lying either on his innocence or his influence, dlol with this gallant train; but the war be- came forward to justify his conduct, and i;ng unexpectedly renewed, he was encoun- was immediately seized and executed withtered at Wakefield by an army four times out even the formality of a trial. This mennrlore numerous than his own, which con- strous outrage did not long go unpunished. sisted but of five thousand men, mostly Irish, Kildare justified himself so effectually before and fell in the unequal contest, together the king, that he was not onlly restored to with the greater part of his devoted follow- his titles and estate, but appointed chief __ ____ _____.._ -....,....-......_....-...... —...,. _ __Jj HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 581 governor; and Tiptoft, being recalled into arrival of a body of German auxiliaries from England, suffered, ill a new revolution, the Flanders, under the command of Martin same fate which he had inflicted upon Des- Swart, inspired the partisans of Simnnel with mond. The defence of the confined limits such an overweening eonfidence in their own of the pale was now intrusted to a military strength, that they determined to transfer order established by authority of parliament, the seat of war to England. Thither Simneander the name of the Fraternity of St. went, attended. by the flower of the Irish George. It consisted of thirteen leaders of nobility, and a numerous following of the the first consequence in the four counties of natives, He was met at Stoke, in NottingDublin, Meath, Kildare, and Uriel, who had ham, and defeated by Henry with immense under them forty knights, as many squires, loss, as the Irish, whose light arms could and a hundred and twenty mounted archers. make no impression on the compact and ironThe appointment of a force so inadequate bound ranks of their adversaries, refused to preserve the peace even of the contracted quarter, defending themselves singly, even limits it was intended to protect, evinces in when routed, until they fell overwhelmed the strongest manner the reduced state of by numbers. Simnel, when taken prisoner, the English power after the termination of was punished, not by severity, but degradathe desolating conflict between the rival tion. He ended his life as a scullion in the roses. royal household. The actors in this hasty The short and distracted reign of Richard and ill-digested movement were not treated III. allowed no time to attend to the state harshly. Even the city of Dublin was parof Ireland. His successor, for what reason doned, on its humble submission. But, in it is not known, suffered the government to the hope of securing the future allegiance continue in the hands of the Fitzgeralds, the of the great. residents, Sir Richard Edgeavowed friends of the house of York. The combe was sent over as a special commuisevil consequences of this policy, or negli- sioner, with a train of five.hundred men, to gence, were not long in showing, themselves. receive their submission, and administer the Lairbert Sinnel, who had been set up by oath of allegiance.- On his arrival at Kinthe king's enemies on the Continent to per- sale, his apprehensions at first prevented him sonate the Earl of Warwick, son of the late from landing, and he received the homage Duke of Clarence, was sent by them to Ire- anid oaths of Lord Thomas Barry, a princiland, as the place most favorable for the de- pal nobleman of the district, on board his sign. IHe was received by the Earl of Kil- ship; but he afterwards landed, and was redare, then lord-lieutenant, as the lawful ceived in Cork, Waterford, and Dublin, in a sovereign; proclaimed king; publicly crown- manner befitting his mission. The Earl of ed in Christ Church, with a crown taken for IKildare hesitated for a time, but at length the purpose from a statue of the Virgin joined with the others in tendering this proof AMlary; and borne thence to Dublin Castle of submission to the ruling power. on the shoulders of Darcy of Platten, ac- Another claimant of the throne now apcording to a form used in the inauguration peared in th; person of Perkin Warbeck, of the native Irish kings. A parliament who was, or pretended to be, the Duke of convened by his writ, under the title of Ed- York, second son of Edward IV. He landed ward VI., granted subsidies, and enacted at Cork, where his identity was acknowlsevere laws against those who refused to edged. On his arrival there he wroto to the recognize his right, amongst whom the chief Earls of Desmond and Kildare. The former were the families of Butler and Berming- recognized him at once; but before the lat. ham, and the citizens of Waterford. For- ter could decide on the part he ought to take, tunately for the peace of the country, the the adventurer had removed to the French 582 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. court. whither he had been invited for the "Spare your evidence," said he; "I did burn purpose of more effectually annoying the the church, but I thought the bishop had English king. Henry now sent over into been in it." This extraordinary plea raised Ireland Sir Edward Poynings, a knight of a laugh amongst all present. His accusers distinguished ability, accompanied by several in a rage exclaimed,'"All Ireland cannot English lawyers to fill the offices of judges; rule this earl." "Is it so?" replied Henry; those then on the bench, who owed their ele- " then this earl shall rule all Ireland;" and vation to party influence, being notorious he sent him back as lord-deputy. The event for their incapacity. justified Henry's sagacity. Kildare repaid The administration of this government his sovereign's confidence by a government forms a new era in the history of the coun- of unremitting zeal, energy, and fidelity. try. A parliament assembled by him enacted The boundaries of the pale were gradually several useful laws, two of which were pe- extended; several septs, to whom tribute culiarly influential in breaking down the had hitherto been paid, were forced to subexorbitant power of the nobility. By one mit. He marched a gallant army into Conof these, all the statutes hitherto passed in naught, against Ulick de Burgho, the head England were made law in Ireland; by the of the degenerate English in that province; other, it was enacted that no parliament more, it must be acknowledged, to gratify should be held until the reasons for holding private resentment than to pronote the it, and the statutes to be proposed in it, interests of his royal master. The armies should be approved by the privy council of met at Knocktow, near Galway. The vicEngland. Warbeck made a second attempt tory of the deputy was sullied by the ferocity upon Ireland, in which he was openly as- of his troops, who refused to give quarter, sisted by the Earl of Desmond; but -after and continued the massacre until night forced an unsuccessful attempt on Waterford, he them to desist. This. victory reduced the was forced to quit the country, and take ref- whole of Connaught to' obedience. Tile uge with the King of Scotland. The enemies O'Neills and the O'Briens were the only of Kildare were not remiss in seizing this septs of any consequence who still refused opportunity to crush him; and the Butlers to tender their allegiance. importuned the lord-deputy to imitate the The Earl of Kildare was continued in the example of Tiptoft, and consign him at once government by -Ienry VIII., lwho t6stified to the executioner. But Poynings rejected his approbation of his services by appointthe cruel and impolitic suggestion, content- ing his son Gerald his successor. The young ing himself with sending the earl to England earl, with the characteristic valor of the to answer in person the allegations brought family, inherited a more than ordinary share against him. This proceeding, as just as it of their pride and imprudence. Too haughwas merciful, led to a conclusion wholly op- ty to court the favor of 5Wolsey, then in the posite to the anticipations of his enemi'es.. zenith of his greatness, by meanness and When warned by the king to choose able subserviency, lhe incurred that proud prelate's counsel to defend himself against the heavy hatred, which was heightened by the artfid charges advanced against him: "Yes," said suggestions of his rival, the Earl of Ormond. Kildare, "I choose the ablest in the realm; Through the machinations of this nobleman I take your highness as my counsel against he was removed, and summoned to England these false knaves." Charge after charge to account for his conduct. I-Here, strengthwas alleged against him, and answered; ened by a marrite with the daughllter of the amongst others, that of having burned the Marquis of Dorset, he was enabled to baffle church of Cashel. On hearing this brought the efibrts of the cabal formed against him. forwnard, KIildare interrupted the speaker: He attended Henry at his celebrated inter HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 583 view with Francis I., and, by the splendor I The news of his fsither's imprisonment could of his suite, and the brilliancy of his equip- not fail soon to arrive in Ireland. Common age, contributed largely to the splendor of fame, aided by the artifices of the enemies " the Field of the Cloth of Gold." On his of the family, swelled it into an assertion of return home, the struggle between the rival his execution. The young lord lent a credu famnilies attained to such a height, that cornm- lous ear to these falsehoods, and, as impetu. missioners were sent from England to inves- ous as he was credulous, instantly had recourse tigate the case. Their report, when laid be- to means of vengeance as desperate as they fore HIenry, induced hiln to remove from the were chivalrous. Attended by a retinue of head of affairs Pierce, Earl of Ormond, bet- a hundred and forty followers, equipped in ter knowln in the chronicles of the times by a style of gaudy display, which, even in those the name of Red Peter, the deputy to the times of courtly splendor, earned for him Earl of Surrey, then lord-lieutenant, and to'the title of " the Silken Knight," he proceed substitute his rival in his place. The decis- ed to St. Mary's Abbey, on the northern ion proved eventually fatal to this nobleman. bank of the Liffey, where the privy council Inflated with an opinion of his own great- were assembled; and there, throwing down ness, he acted so as to excite a suspicion of the. sword of state, he solemnly renounced aiming at the assumption of independent his allegiance, and declared himself the morpower in Ireland. His enemies pressed the tal enemy of the English government. All charlge against him, and a peremptory order the other members of the council gazed on wvas issued for his immediate attendance at him in silent astonishment. Archbishop court. Unwilling to quit the seat of power, Cromer, then primate and chancellor, alone conscious, most probably, that his conduct interfeled, and remonstrated with the fiery would not bear a strict investigation, he el- young man on the madness of the act he was deavored, through his wife's relations, to committing. The appeal to his better judgevade obedience; but finding all his efforts ment was interrupted by the family bard, who ineffectual, he ultimately repaired to Lon- unconscious, through his ignorance of the don, after having supplied all his castles with langu ge, of what was going forward, comarms and ammunition from the royal stores, menced a rhapsody on the glories of the Gera measure tending most powerfully to con- aldines, the treatment of their chief, and the firm the prejudice raised against him. On vengeance which it claimed. Passion prehis arrival there he was forthwith thrown vailed over prudence. The voice of age and into the Tower. wisdom was drowned in the clamors of his That the royal anger against the earl had attendants, and the young lord tore himself not been very violent, it is evident, notwith- from the chancellor, rushed out of the counstanding the harsh treatment thus inflicted cil board, and, without premneditati`n or on him, from the fact that hlie was permitted preparation, plunged into a war against the to commit the government during his ab- whole power of England. sence to some person for whose conduct he Baffled in an attempt to surprise the castle should be responsible. By a step more un- of Dublin, Lord Thomas ravaged all the disaccountable than any of those that had in- trict of Fingal, in its northern neighborhood, volved him in suspicion, he intrusted the in which Allen, Archbishopofi Dublin. one administration to his eldest son, Thomas, a of the determined enemies of his fanmily, stripling scarcely twenty-two years of age, was taken prisoner. When brought before whlo, to the rashness of youth, and a natural him, his hasty expression,' Away with the violence of temper, added an insolent con- English churl," was translated by his rude tenpt of his rivals, and a boyish confidence Irish followNer into a mandate for execution, in tlhe ilrresistible power of the Geralclines. and the wretched man wvas immediately iunt 584 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. chered. He then renewed his attempt to when pursued by the same spirit of despicable seize the castle, but was prevented, and even- malignity, he fled to Germany, and finally tually driven from the city by the citizens, found shelter in Rome,: nder the protection who even burned parts of the suburbs, to of Cardinal Pole, who, in defiance of Henry's prevent them from affording shelter to his protestations, received and educated him as troops. From being the aggressor, he was his kinsmann, and, by his favor and support, now forced to act on the defensive. May- enabled him to recover his birthright, and nooth Castle his strongest fortress, was in- restore the otherwise extinct honors of the vested, and after a resistance of fourteen house of Kildare. days, was captured by the treachery of a A period now arrived in which religion, foster brother of Lord Thomas, who, after hitherto little noticed in the political events having been paid the pecuniary remunera- of the country, was forced to assume a characation of his treason, received a more ade- ter as'dissonant to its real nature as 9rejudicial quate recompense by being hanged by the to its true interests. Henry determined to orders of the English deputy. The irregular extend to Ireland the reformation he had army of the insurgents began to dissolve with so little opposition established in Engon the intelligence of this disaster, and their land. Commissioners were sent over to proleader was driven to a desultory warfare in the cure an acknowledgment of the king's sufens and mountains, from which he was in- premaecy, who, though opposed by Cromer, veigled by a solemn assurance of pardon by the Archbish6p of Armagh, a stren uous the English general Lord Grey, and confirm- champion for the religion at that time estabed by the communion of the holy sacrament. lished by law, succeeded in obtaining it. A Grey was rewarded for his services by tile parliament, assembled at the special suggesoffice of lord-justice. HIis first act of govern- tion of Browne, the first Protestant.Archment was one of atrocious perfidy. In spite I bishop of Dublin, exhibited a subserviency' of. his previous solemn promise, he sent his to the royal wishes as great as even the prisoner to London, where the first news the despotic character of Henry could require. wretched youth received was, that his father It pronounced the lking's marriaoe with Cathehad died, not by legal'execution, but through rine of Aragon null; declared the inherigrief at his insane rebellion. This act of tance of the crown to be in the king's heirs Grey was followed by a similar one, if pos- by Anne Boleyn; and as the passing of this sible, of deeper guilt. Henry breathed the declaration was followed by an account of that nmost furious revenge against the whole family unhappy lady's condemnation and death, and of Kildare, and sent orders to have the five the king's subsequent marriage with Jane uncles of the young lord seized. To effect Seymour, it altered the succession anew this, the lord-deputy invited them to a ban- to correspond with the new change in the quet, where, in the midst of the pretended kiig's disposition. It also acknowledged hospitality, they were arrested, forced on the king's supremacy in the fullest manner, board ship, hurried to England, and execut- forbade the appeals to Rome, renouinced the ed along with the real instigator of the rebel- authority of the Roman see, and decreed lion. A brother of Lord Thomas, a boy about the suppression of most of the monastic intwelve years of age, who was also included stit-Lutions.- An act, more creditable to the n this decree of blood, after having been body whence it emanated, was also passed, sheltered for some time, at no small risk, by by which schools were to be founded in every his aunt, the widow of M'Arthy, a IMunster parish for instructing the natives in the Engchieftain, was conveyed to France, and, when lish language, and in the rudiments of useful -lenry had the meanness to claim him as a klnowledge. slubject, he esc aped to Flanders. Thence, But words anld writings were not of them HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 585 selves sufficient to accomplish the mighty the heads of the great families. O'Neill was undertaking which Henry's impetuous zeal made Earl of Tyrone, with the singular privhad conmenced. The'Irish clergy in gen- ilege of transmitting the title and estate to eral were averse to a change. Many of themi an illegitimate son, to the prejudice of his relinquished valuable preferments rather than lawful issue. Ulick de Burgho was created submit to it. The Irish cchieftains found in Earl of Clanricarde, and O'Brien Earl of it a new motive to animate themselves and Thomond. Several of inferior note were to influence their followers against the Saxons. created barons. The feeling was fomented by a communica- But the happy prospect which now began to tion from Rome, exciting the northern chief- dawn over the country was marred by the tains, and more particularly O'Neill, to rally mismanagement of the English government. round the sacred standard of their forefathers. O'MlTore and O'Connor of Offaly had renewO'Neill joyfully accepted the post thus as- ed their incursions into Leinster. They soon signed him. He proclaimed himself head were driven back into their fastnesses, whence of the northern Irish, assembled a numerous they were lured, by a delusive expectation force, advanced to Tarah, and there had him- of pardon and favor, on condition of presentself proclaimed on the ancient hill of royalty ing themselves to the king. Scarcely, howof the native monarchs of Ireland; but, con- ever, had they arrived at court when they tent with this idle display of pomp, lie pre- were seized and thrown into prison, where pared, after ravaging the country, to return the former soon sunk under the severity of to his deniesnes. The deputy had expected his treatment. The disgust excited by this this storm, and was prepared against it. With act of treachery was heightened by the manthe forces raised in Dublin and Drogheda ner in which the reformation was pressed he pursued the retiring Irish, and overtook upon the people. When Dowdal, the prithem at Bellahoe, on the borders of 3Meath, mate, who had succeeded Cromer, refused where, after a partial engagement, in which to countenance the new doctrines, an old the van of the latter army only was concern- controversy relative to the superiority of the ed, the Irish fell back on their main body, sees of Armagh and Dublin was revived, and, which, struck with an unaccountable panic, by a royal patent, the title of primacy was immediately gave way and fled. The ad- transferred from the former to the latter see. minitrat ion of Lord Grey ended with this Dowdal, unable to brook the indignity, peevvictory. He was recalled, and thrown into ishly as well as injudiciously deserted his see, the Tower, on charges equally futile and and retired to the Continent. The opposite malicious. Apprehensive of the irritable party, taking advantage of this false step, imntemper of his brutal master, he waived all mediately placed Goodacre, a Protestanlt defence, pleaded guilty, and perished by the bishop, in the see lie had abdicated. Throullghsame fate into which he had so treacher- out the country parts also, the removal of the ously drawn Lord Thomas Fitzgerald and the clergy of the ancient faith, and the introducrest of the ill-fated Geraldines. tion of those of the new doctrines, was carThe next step taken by Henry to complete ried on in a spirit of violence and acrimony the tranquillization of Ireland, was the as- unbecoming the cause and iriitating to the unlmption of the royal title. Hitherto, though people. The garrison of Athlone attacked the exercising all the essentials of sovereignty, ancient and venerated recess of Clonmacnois. the kings of England had contented them- plundered its furniture, defaced its ornaselves with the title of Lords of Ireland. This ments, and defiled its altars. Similar exces, term was now changed by act of parliament ses took place in other parts. Thus the imn into that ofking. The alteration was commemr- pression made by those champions of refolrm orated by conferring peerages on several of was, that the new system sanctioned saferi 586.HISTORY OF THE WORL-D. tege and robbery. In the north, the general Mary, whose names were given to the res. peace was disturbed by the family dissensions pective assize towns of each. of the O'Neills. Shane or John O'Neill, Elizabeth, on her' accession, found the the legitimate son of the first Earl of Tyrone, whole island involved in a state of petty warlabored sedulously to induce his father to fare. The Earl of Thomond contended with alter the arrangement which gave the in- another branch of the O'Briens for the rulerheritance to his natural son Matthew. The ship of North Munster. The Desmonds and latter threw himself for protection on the Butlers renewed their contentions in the lord-deputy, who could devise no better south. ]M'William Oughter rose in arrms means for closing the family schism, than by against the De Burghos of Clanricarde. The seizing on the persons of the earl and his dispossessed inhabitants of Leix and Ofifaly countess, whom he kept in close confinement. revenged themselves by the pillage of the ['he consequence of this arbitrary act was the neighboring districts of Leinster, and Shane throwing the whole of that country into the O'lNeill was making rapid strides towards iands of Shane, who claimed it by the princi- the sovereignty of the whole of Ulster. The ples of the English law, and who, assisted by last named of these parties was the first a body of Scots, committed terrible depreda- pacified. Sir Henry Sidney, the new lordtions on the property of those who disputed deputy, instead of turning the military force his right or set his power at defiance. of the queen against him in the first instance, A new revolution, occasioned by the death had recourse to gentler measnres. Acceptof Edward VI., added to this state of con- ing an invitation to settle the matters in fusion. The religion was again changed. controversy at O'Neill's own residence, he Dowdal was recalled to the primacy; the was received with such splendid hospitality, most violent of his opponents fled the country, and heard such a statement of facts, as inand the great body of the clergy returned to duced him niot only to relinquish all ideas their former faith. This restoration was at- of severity, but.to engage to be his mediator tended with no acts of violence; the Protes- with the queen., O'Neill even attended the tants were not persecuted. On the contrary, lord-deputy to Dublin; but when there, beseveral of the English, who had fled from the ing made more fully aware of the deadly severity of the law in their own country, machinations of his secret enemies, who were received and sheltered by the Catholics thirsted to make his princely property an in Ireland. Not so with the Irish. The object of confiscation, lhe adopted the daring septs of Leix and Offaly resisted the for- resolution of proceeding to London, and layfeiture of their lands. They insisted that ing his case before the queen in person. the offSences of their leaders ought not to in- Attended by a chosen band of followers volve in their confiscation the inferior heads. equipped in the moSt appropriate costume They took up arms in defence of their rights; of the country, he entered that city, to the but they were soon taught the futility of their astonishment and delight of the population, opposition. An armed force was sent into then as well as now fascinated by show and the country, which proceeded to the work of, singularity. A native Irish chieftain, folextermination with such ruthless ferocity, lowed by.a band of men armed in a strange that scarcely a remnant of the ancient resi- fashion, with heads bare, their hair flowing dents could be found to avail themselves of in clustering curls on their shoulders, clad the tardy pardons procured for them by the in saffron linen vests of exuberent folds, surgenerous interference of the Earls of Kildare charged with light and polislec cuirasses. alad Ossory. The territory was reduced into and bearing broad double-edged battle-axes shire-ground, under the names of the King's over the shoulders, caught the fancy and and Queen'sCounties, in honor of Philip and dazzled the imagination, not only of the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 587 populace, but of the queen herself. She re- his arrival, was assailed by a party of his ceived the singular visitant with marked host's followers, upon the futile pretence of favor, and sent him back to Ireland secured a sudden quarrel during the entertainment in the possession of the title and property to which he was invited. Iis head was sent which he claimed as his right upon his fa- to Dublin, and Piers received a thousand ther's death. [But this unexpected tide of pounds for his share in the transaction. The royal favor only whetted the ingenuity of deputy named a feeble old man, named Tirhis enemies at home. Complaint after corn- logh Leynagh, as head of the sept, to prellaint, either of actual offence or of imputed vent this office being filled by a more youthill intention, was sent over to Elizabeth, fill and daring individual. whose answer, "that if he revolted it would The ruin of 0'Neill in the north was folbe better for her servants, as there would be lowed by that of Desmond in the south. A more forfeitures to divide amongst them," small body of Spaniards was brought into excited their hopes, as the prospect of the that part of Ireland by a banished branch of prey had roused their cupidity. Sir HeI-Icnry the Fitzgerald family. Though the Earl of Sidney had placed a garrison in the town of Desmond steadily persevered in avoiding to Derry. This step O'Neill considered as an connect himself with their proceedings, the infringement of his rights, and an intrusion conduct of some of his relations involved on his sovereignty. A body of forces led by him in suspicions, which were then nearly him against it defeated' and slew the gover- tantamount to guilt. His brothers Sir John nor. Shortly afterwards, the church, which and Sir James having joined the invading had been used as a powder magazine, was party, the former disgraced himself, and inblown up by accident, and the garrison forced jured his cause, by the unprovoked murder to evacuate the place. This event was con- of an English gentleman of the name of strued by the people into a judgment from Davels, who had been sent by the deputy to heaven for the profanation. O'Neill then persuade them to continue in their allegiproceeded to Armagh, which he took by ance. The whole force of the government storm, and burned the cathedral; but was was directed against the family. The army baffled in a subsequent attempt upon Dun- of the insurgents was utterly routed at Kildalk. The tide of fortune now set strongly mallock. The earl himself, though as yet against him. Several of the native chief- guilty of no overt act, received a peremptains in the rnorth, and Desmond in the tory order to surrender within twenty days; south, took part with the government. His and upon his declining to appear, he was forces were unequal to contend against such declared a traitor. The war was carried a combination. Finding resistance hopeless, on against him' with unexampled cruelty. his first emotion was to throw himself on the Slaughter, fire and famine, desolated the mercy of the lord-deputy; but the treatment finest parts of the rich province of 3[Munster. of O'More under similar circumstances de- Desmond, driven to desperation, made a vigterred him. lie therefore determined to orous stand. At one time lie heos-essed himseek the protection of a body of Scotchmen, self of the town of Youghal, br t was soon who were encamped in th.:t part of Antrim, afterwards defeated by his old and bitter then known by the name of Claneboy. His enemy the Earl of Ormond. At this time a proposal of joining this party, which was new lord-deputy was sent over in the person readily accepted by them, became known to of Lord Grey. His first effort was an attack the English governor, who sent an officer of upon the O'Byrnes of Wicklow, who were the name of Piers to the Scotch commander, charged with having banded themselves in to persuade him to assassinate his unsuspeet- alliance with Desmonid. Ie determined to ing guest. The plot succeeded. O'Neill, on attack them in their stronghold of Glenda 588 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. logh, in the very centre of the mountains; secure all parties in their persons and prop but, when entangled in the inextricable laby- erties, to administer justice to all alike, and rinths of these mountain fastnesses, he was to reform the gross abuses in the public de. assaulted with such well-judged fury, that partments. Nor were his endeavors unsuc. his army was cut off almost to a man, he cessful. The natives vied with each other himself scarcely escaping to Dublin, over- in tendering proofs of loyalty. The old lords whelmled with shame and confusion. Hence of the pale suspended their feuds, and came he was soon afterwards called away to Mun- up to attend his court in Dublin. A parliaster. A body of Spaniards 700 strong had ment was assembled, which, though with arrived in IKerry to the aid of Desmond; some reluctance, passed an act for the atbut the number was too small to be effec- tainder of the deceased Lord Desmond, totive. On their landing they secured them- gether with a hundred and forty of his selves in an intrenchment, which they named followers, and confiscated his immense estate Fort d'Ore. I-Iere they were blocked up by to the crown. Having thus reduced the the lord-deputy, so as to render escape south to order, he turned his attention to impossible. They surrendered, whether on Ulster. Hugh, the eldest son of AMattheTw, terms or at discretion is uncertain. But the Lord Dungannon, was entitled to the honors subsequent atrocity is as certain as it is de- and estates belonging to the earldom of testable. Lord Grey ordered the whole of Tyrone. HIe had been educated in Engthe garrison to be butchered. I-s instruc- land, and had served with honor in the tions were executed to the letter. Sir Wal- queen's army. I-e now applied for his seat ter Raleigh, and Spenser the poet, were in- in the House of Lords, and for the restoravolved in the infamy of this abominable act, tion of his property. Perrott granted himn the one as the officer presiding at the massa- the first of these requests, and referred him cre, the other as assisting in thle councils to the queen for the second. HIe therefore where it was devised. The war was now at presented himself at court, not, like his prean end, but the chief victim still found means decessor, in the wild attire and equipage of to avoid the indefatigable pursuit of his ene- an Irish dynast, but as a British courtier. mies. Hunted from lair to lair, he suffered He was received with marked partiality, (all the extremity of famine. A few of his and soon restored to his possessions. The daring adherents had seized a prey of cattle close of Perrott's government was stained by for his sustenance. They were traced into an ac't unworthy of him. O'Donnell, the a wooded valley, where, attracted by a light, chieftain of Tyrconnel, was suspected of his pursuers were led to a'hovel, in which meditating a revolt. Perrott undertook to they found only a feeble old man. On being stifle the attempt without difficulty or exassaulted and wounded, he called out for pense. To effect this, he caused O'Donnell's mercy, and told'them he was the Earl of eldest son to be inveigled on board a ship Desmond. This was the signal for his death. sent into Lough Swilly, on pretence of traf. The soldier repeated his blow, and slew him. ficking in wine, and had the young man Hlis head was forwarded to the queen, who brouglit up to Dublin, where he was kept ordered it to be fixed upon London Bridge. for some time in close confinement. But The government of Sir John Perrott, who such had been this governor's general consucceeded Lord Grey, presents one of the duet, that even an act so unjustifiable did bright spots in the history of the country. not deprive him of general confidence. On tHis first act was to publish an amnesty, and his recall, being aware of an impending to denounce the military slaughters and Spanish invasion, he assembled such of the spoliatio.s which were encouraged by too lords and chieftains as were most likely to many of lhe commanders. I-Ie took care to be swayed from their allegiance by the ape HISTORY OF THE WORLD.. 589 pearance of a foreign force, pointed out to O'Neill, ever since his restoration to his them the consequences which must result estate, had been preparing means for the from the apprehended invasion, and per- part he afterwards acted. Amongst the suade(, them to give hostages in proof of stipulations in his favor on his restoration, their determination to adhere to their sove- was the -privilege of being attended with a reign. lIe then quitted the country, fol- certain number of armed men. These he lowed by the blessings and prayers of thou- frequently changed, so as to have in a short sands. The conduct of his successor, Sir time a large numnber of his followers trained William Fitzwilliamn whose sole object ap- to the use of arms. When he conceived peared to be the accumulation of wealth, himself sufficiently prepared to set the Engenhanced the feelings of regret for his de- lish power at defiance, he threw off the parturc. After the defeat of the Spanish mask, and openly laid siege to the fort of Armada, several of the ships belonging to it Blackwater, built some time before for the were lost on the northern coast of Ireland. avowed purpose of keeping him in check. Reports were rife as to the quantities of Sir Nicholas Bagnal was sent to relieve it. money acquired from the wrecks by the The opposing armies met near Armagh. chieftains residing in the neighborhood. Fitz- The numbers on each side were nearly equal', william seized upon some of them, on the but fortune turned the scale of victory. In mere suspicion of their being in possession the heat of the engagement, the explosion of these treasures, and kept them for years of a magazine threw the queen's forces into in close confinement. Hie afterwards impris- confusion. The death of Bagnal, who, whilst oned M'MIahon, the head of the sept that raising his visor, was shot through the brain, held MAonaghan county, on a charge of trea- rendered the confusion irremediable. The son, for having employed a military force to victory of the Irish was decisive, and 1500 collect his revenues, an usual custom in the of the enemy fell in the field. The fort of Irish districts, and brought him to trial be- Blackwater immediately surrendered, and fore a jury of soldiers, by whom he was at Armagh was evacuated by the queen's once condemned and consigned to immediate troops. execution. These and similar severities ex- Elizabeth at length determined to make cited the spirit which they professed to re- one irresistible effort to crush an adversary press. Young O'Donnell, who had been now become truly formidable. She sent the treacherously entrapped by Perrott, found Earl of Essex into Ireland as lord-lieutenant, means to escape from Dublin Castle, andt at the head of 20,000 men; a number deemtook refuge in the mountains of Wicklow, ed more than sufficient to accomplish her whence, after a year's residence, he made object in a single campaign. Essex had his way, through extraordinary difficulties, orders to proceed directly against Tyrone; to his own country, where he was most arc- but he took a course diametrically opposite. tive in fomenting the spirit of discontent Ite directed his march southward through amongst his neighbors. Imunster, where he found an impoverished About this time the university of Dublin and depopulated country, and an enemy that was founded, on the site of a suppressed eluded every effort to bring them into demonastery. The project was first conceived cisive collision. In passing through Leix, by Sir John Perrott, but it was not acted his cavalry suffered heavily from the repeated upon until the time of his successor. It was desultory attacks of O'M3ore, who cherished the only successful effort since the arrival all his ancestor's hereditary hatred of the of the English at imparting to the country English; whilst another division of his army a knowledge of the higher branches of learn- was defeated by the O'3Byrnes of the mouning.. tains. In another quarter Sir Conyers Clif 590 HIISTORY OF THE WORLD. ford, who was sent into Connaught to create confederacy against him. The lands of those a diversion in favor of the main body, was who adhered to him were mercilessly devas routed and killed in the Curlew Mountains, tated. Pardon was granted to the insurgents by O'Ruark, Prince of Ereffney, as the coun- only on the condition of betraying cr murty of Leitri n was then called. These re- dering a relative or friend. A strict adhepeated losses so diminished the numbers and rence to these practices soon wasted O'Neill's broke the spirit of the English, that when strength. He persevered in his resistance, Essex moved northwards to effect his main however, in the hope of succors from Spain. object, he found his means inadequate to the These at length arrived, but fell far short attempt. An interview was proposed and of what his expectations had anticipated, or accepted, which was followed by a truce for the greatness of the emergency called for. six weeks, in consequence of which the Eng- Two thousand men, under the command of lish army returned to its quarters in Lein- Don Juan d'Aquila, were all that Philip of ster. Spain would or could spare tdward this effort The anger of Elizabeth at this termination to crush his rival, or at least to dismember of her expensive expedition was extreme. her empire. To complete the series of illEssex, to ward off its effects, took the des- combined arrangements, the invading force perate expedient of returning unbidden to landed at Kinsale, in the south of Ireland, court, to justify himself in person. The act whilst the ally whose interests it was sent to was as unfortunate as inconsiderate. He maintain was shut up in the northern exwas arrested, imprisoned, and, on a still more tremity of the island. The Spaniards, as frantic effort to excite the citizens of London soon as they landed, were blocked up in against the queen, was tried and beheaded. Kinsale by the combined forces of the lordSir Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, was deputy, and Sir George Carew, president sent to Ireland in the place of Essex. His of Munster. Don Juan wrote in the most love of literature had excited an opinion of urgent terms to O'~Neill and O'Donnell to his effeminacy. O'Neill exulted openly at come to his relief. They advanced at the the appointment of a man "who would lose extraordinary speed of forty miles a day, the season of action whilst his breakfast was through a country already desolated by the making ready." I-Ie was soon to learn that protracted continuance of a war of extermithe graces of polite literature are by no nation. At the same time that they arrived means incompatible with the qualifications near the scene of action, the landing of a of a warrior. At the commencement of second Spanish armament at Castlehaven, Lord Mountjoy's proceedings, an occurrence joined to the intelligence that this was to be took place which excited in his mind strong followed by still further succors, induced doubts of the honesty of the Earl of Ormond, several of the southern chieftains to declare who had still the chief command of the themselves openly in favor of the Spaniards; army. This nobleman having allowed him- and Mountjoy now found himself blocked self to be trepanned into a conference with up in turn, between the garrison of Kinsale O'More, the chieftain of Leix, on pretence on the one side and the Irish army on the of treating as to terms of submission, was other. Under such circumstances, delay seized and long detained prisoner, as Mount- would have been ruin. Famine and disease, joy was not over hasty in paying a large already active in his camp, must soon have ransom for a man who, he shrewdly supsect- accomplished the annihilation of his army. ed, ihad been the secret cause of his own The impatience of the Spanish general, and calamity. The proceedings against O'Neill the want of concert among the Irish, saved were conducted with much policy. The in- him. O'Neill was prevailed upon to hazard ferior chiefs were bribed to joined in the | an attackl upon the English lines. In this HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 591 he was anticipated. 3Mountjoy, aware of his dient adopted by Elizabeth to parry the intention, marched to meet him with part ruin, ultimately served only to aggravate of his forces, leaving the remainder to keep the distress. the besieged in check. The enemy were With the exception of an effort made in taken by surprise, and, after a short resist- the cities of Waterford and Cork to restore ancte, the main body of the Irish was broken the old forms of worship, which was speedand scattered. O'Donnell, who commanded ily put down with the effusion of but little the rear, fled without striking a blow. blood, the submission of Tyrone restored the O'Neill, after some ineffectual attempts to general tranquillity to such a degree, that rally his men, still much superior in num- IMountjoy felt justified in proceeding to Engbers, gave up the attempt in despair, and land to present himself before his new sovhurried back to the north. The Spanish ereign, leaving Sir George Carew in his general, finding himself deserted, and, as he place as lord-deputy. He was accompanied thought, betrayed, by his new auxiliaries, sur- by O'Neill and O'Donnell, the former of rendered upon terms. The war of desolation whom was confirmed in his title of Tyrone, was now carried into the northern province. and the latter created Earl of Tyrconnel. The forts of Charlemont and IMountjoy were Before his departure le published a general erected to curb the Irish in that quarter. amnesty, and received into the protection of The open country was desolated. Large the English law the whole of the Irish people tracts were converted into deserts, where the hitherto exposed to the ill-defined rule of miserable remnant of the population endeav- their respective chieftains. But the dawn ored to support nature by feeding on grass, of tranquillity was darkened by the appreor the filthiest garbage. O'Neill's friends hension of fresh convulsions. An anonyand adherents gradually fell off. Iie at mous letter was found in the council-chainlength applied to be received into mercy. ber of the castle, hinting at the existence of Mountjoy, at this time aware of the preca- a conspiracy carried on by somle of the great rious state of Elizabeth's existence, was Irish lords against the state. On the alarm equally anxious to terminate the struggle. being given, the Earls of Tyrone and TyrAfter receiving from O'Neill an abject sub- connel, actuated either by a consciousness of mission on his knees at 3Mellifont, he admit- guilt, or by an apprehension that they were ted him to pardon, and encouraged him with specially marked out as the objects of perthe hope of restoration to his title and estate. secution, left the country, and took refuge Scarcely had the ceremony been concluded in Spain. Their flight was considered as when the news of Elizabeth's death arrived. sufficient proof of their guilt. They were O'Neill, on hearing of it, burst into a flood attainted, and their immense possessions forof tears, occasioned, as he said, by his regret feited to the crown. In one district of the for a princess whose kindness he had so un- north the flame of insurrection broke out gratefully repaid, but, with more probability, openly. Sir Cahir O'Doglherty, proprietor of by the reflection that an earlier intimation Innishowen, who had hitherto espoused the of the event might have enabled him to take cause of the English, disclaimed his allegi. advantage of it for procuring terms less de- ance, seized by treachery the f rt of Cul grading. Thewar could not have been much more, and thence proceeded to attack the longer continued. It had worn itself out; town and fort of Derry, which he took by the resources of the country were completely storm, putting the whole garrison, with the exhausted; the population was reduced to commandant, to the sword; but after conthe number of from 600,000 to 800,000; tinuing his ravages for five months, his folthe finances were in the most ruinous- state; lowers were routed, and himself slain in an and the debasement of the coin, an expe- engagement, by Sir Arthur Chichester, the 592 H-ISTORY OF THE WORLD. lord-deputy, who found his presence neces- from all the counties of Irelaid were sent. sary for the complete suppression of the in- To secure a preponderance in favor of the surrection. crown, a number of new boroughs was The death of this chieftain and the flight created, in the charters of which the right of the two earls having placed nearly the of election was placed in hands which sewhole of Ulster in the king's hands, he re- cured subserviency to the ruling power of solved to remodel the province, by removing the day. Notwithstanding this precaution, the ancient possessors, and introducing a the political aspect which this assemblage colony of English and Scotch settlers in presented was by no means promising. In their stead. The tract on which the experi- the Upper House, which consisted of but mrent was to be made comprehended the four earls, five viscounts, sixteen barons and counties of Tyrconnel, since called Donegal, twenty-five bishop, the numbers of the latTyrone, Derry, Fermanagh, Armagh and ter order gave the crown an irresistible preCavan, spreading over upwards of half a ponderance. But in the House of Commons million of acres. The lands were to be por- the parties were more equally balanced. The tioned out into estates varying from one to election of a speaker served as a trial of two thousand acres, the proprietors of which strength. The court party proposed Sir John were bound to build substantial residences Davis, the attorney-general, an Englishman, in them after the English fashion, and to and author of the celebrated tract on the people them with English and Scotch ten- Causes why Ireland hacd never been comantry. The City of London was peculiarly pletely subdued. The country party set up active in promoting this plan. A company Sir John Everard, an Irish lawyer of respectof merchants and undertakers there, under able family. The election went in favor of the name of the Irish Society, contracted for the former, by a majority of a hundred and large tracts of land, which they still hold twenty-seven votes to ninety-seven. The under this tenure. The remainder was por- defeated party, not content with protesting tioned out amongst private individuals, either against the unfair construction of the House, English or Scotch, who thus became the took advantage of the absence of the mafounders of most of the principal families jority, who had left the apartment for the now residing in these counties. The order purpose of being counted on the division, of baronets was instituted in order to pro- put their own speaker in the chair, and mote the execution of this favorite project were proceeding to- pass resolutions, when of James. The number of its members was the excluded members returned, and, failing limited to two hundred, each of whom pur- in an attempt to eject Everard from the chair, chased his rank by the payment of a sum placed their own nominee in his lap. The adequate to support thirty men on the new scene of disgraceful tumult which followed plantation for three years. About the same was at length terminated by the secession time, the county of WTicklow, heretofore the of the minority, after they had protested property.of the septs of the O'Byrnes, and against all the acts that should be passed, as O'Tooles or O'Tothils, was made shire- informal and unconstitutional. ground, after the natives had been dispos- Charles I. began his reign by sending a sessed by a summary process, somewhat sim- large force to Ireland, both to provide against ilai tc that employed in the settlement of the danger of foreign invasion, and to curb the northern counties. internal disaffection; but, through a d efi In order to secure the permanence of these ciency of pecuniary means to support the changes by positive law, a parliament was troops, he had recourse to the exertion of convoked, after a lapse of twenty-seven his prerogative, and quartered' them on the years. It was the first to which members counties and principal towns, obliging the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 593 inhabitants to supply them, not only with ing, he took no pains to conceal or palliate lodging, but with money and provisions. his desertion. "You see, gentlemen," said The murmurs against this oppressive impost he to some of his former political friends, were loud and frequent. A meeting of the " I have quitted you." " We see you have," principal Catholic recusants and great landed replied one of these sturdy republicans; proprietors having assembled in Dublin, pro- "but, with God's blessing, we will never quit posed to Lord Falkland, the lord-lieutenant, you while you have a head on your shoulto grant the king a voluntary assessment of ders." His policy on his arrival was to a hundred and twenty thousand pounds, treat Ireland as a conquered countrly, and on a guarantee of security in their rights to beat down opposition, from- whatever and properties. The proposal was accepted quarter it might arise, by the stern arm of by the king, who sent over the document power. His arbitrary conduct made no discontaining the required concessions, ratified tinction of persons. The Earl of Kildare by his signature, in order to their being con- having left the country without his permisfirmed by the ensuing parliament. When sion, for the purpose of laying a complaint the parliament which was to give the sanec- against his overbearing conduct before the tion of law to these favors had met, an in- king, was forced to make an abject submisformality in the writs for assembling was sion to the person against whom he comalleged as a reason for not having then con- plained. Lord Mountmorris, for hlaving firmed them; and as no new writs were used an unguarded expression, which could issued, nor any steps taken to convoke an- be distorted into a threat against the lordother parliament, the people, who had ad- lieutenant, was seized, tried by a court-marvanced their money on the security of this tial, and sentenced to death, and escaped promise, entertained strong doubts of the punishment only by the universal outcry king's sincerity. The recall of Lord Falk- raised against such a stretch of power. One land served to confirm these suspicions. Irish nobleman only had courage sufficient The lords-justices who were appointed on to oppose this conduct. Strafford, on the his departure executed the laws against re- meeting of parliament, had issued orders cusant Catholics with great severity. They that the members should lay aside their caused the celebrated place of penance in swords when they took their seats. The Loughderg, called St. Patrick's Purgatory, Earl of Ormond who had just come of age, to be dug up and desecrated; and on being on being stopped at the entrance of the resisted by a tumultuous mob in an endeavor House of Lords, and required by the usher to prevent the Carmelite friars of Dublin of the black rod to give up his sword, ansfrom publicly performing their religious wered, that if that officer must have his rites, they seized upon fifteen religious sword it should be through his body, and houses, and dispossessed the Catholics of passed on to his seat. On being summoned their college in Backlane, giving it to the before the counsel to answer for this daring Dublin University, which kept it open for insult on the viceregal authority, he defendsome time as a Protestant seminary. These ed himself by saying that he had received measures only augmented the spirit of dis- the investiture to his earldomper cincturam content, to repress which Charles sent over gladii, and was ordered by the writ of stunLord Wentworth, afterwards Earl of Straf- mons to attend parliament gladio cinctus. ford. This nobleman, from being one of The answer, as spirited as it was unexpetei,, the most active leaders of the popular party staggered Strafford. He felt that smcht a in the English parliament, became at once spirit in so young a man must either be the most violent assertor of the king's ar- crushed at once or otherwise directed. H. bitray measures. Equally proud and dar- had the prudence to adopt the latter course>; riL- 38 '594 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. and Ornmond, at the age of twenty-four, was and their bloody triumph pver his great admitted into the Irish privy council. The agent, a secret conspiracy was forming to imperious and harsh measures of the lord- rescue the country by force of arms from lieutenant had, however, the effect of putting its present oppressed state, and to restore down all opposition in parliament. Six sub- the property of it to those whom the late sidies, amounting to three hundred thousand changes had ejected. The deviser and mainpounds were granted, and no steps taken to spring of the plot was Roger Moore, a desecure to the people, by the sanction of par- scendant of the O'Mores, of Leix, who had lianlent, those graces which the king had been dispossessed in the reign of Mary. In pledged himself to grant, and for which conjunction with a son of the Earl of they had paid so highly. In some respects, Tyrone, who, on escaping to Spain, had obStrafford's government was laudable. He tained the command of a regiment in the reformed the army, so as to render it effi- Spanish service, he set about procuring the cient without being burdensome to the means to accomplish the daring measure. people; he encouraged the linen manufac- Returning to Ireland, he gained over several ture, using, at the same time, every means of the heads of the old Irish families. The to depress that of wool; he promoted a death of Tyrone checked, but did not prespirit of commerce, and guarded the coasts vent, his proceedings. Application was with great vigilance against the annoyance made to another branch of the family, Owen of pirates. Amongst the worst acts of his Roe O'Neill, then in the service of the king government, was his project to subvert all of France, from whom the conspirators retitles to estates in Connaught, in order to ceived assurances of military aid when matplant a new Protestant colony in that prov- ters should be ripe. The seizure of the ince. Taking with him a large body of castle of Dublin was to be the first 3vert;oldiers to overawe the juries, he held courts act, and the 5th of October was fixed on -f inquest to investigate titles. His meas- for the attempt. The timidity of some of ures were effectual in four counties. In the parties caused its postponement. Roger Galway, the jurors having presumed to give Moore, after having visited his friends in a verdict against the crown, were summoned Ulster, on whose exertions, owing to the before the court of the council chamber in severity with which they had been disposDublin, and the sheriff fined a thousand sessed in the late settlement of that province, pounds for returning an improper jury. The he placed most dependence, came up to exigencies of Charles's affairs induced him Dublin to superintend the attack, which was to call over' Strafford to England, where, now fixed on for the 23d of the same month. after some time, he was impeached by the The lords-justices, Sir William Parsons and hiouse of Commons. The principal charges Sir John Borlase, were till this moment unagainst him rested upon his conduct whilst aware of the conspiracy, and unprepared f6r in Ireland. Several articles were certainly resistance. On the evening of the 22d, in. groundless, others exaggerated, but more formation of its existence was given, through than sufficient remained to justify the sen- Owen Conolly, a Protestant, who had been tence which brought his head to the block, invited to join in it. Parsons paid little and fulfilled the ominous prediction of the attention to his statement, but Borlase took party he had deserted when in the zenith of the alarm, placed guards on the castle and his prosperity. principal avenues, and seized M'Mahon and Whilst general discontent in Ireland was Lord MI'Guire. Moore had sufficient notice fermenting through the duplicity of the of the discovery to make his escape. Dublin king, the arbitrary conduct of his officers, was thus saved; but the insurrection broke the suggesticus of his enemies in England, out with irresistible fury in the north, where -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 595 Sir Phelim O'Neill, one of the. Tyrone Lord Caulfield, who had been taken in family, a man of mean capacity but violent Charlemont, was murdered, with fifty others. passions, took the lead, by surprising the Prisoners, whilst removing from one place castles of Charlemont, IDungannon and of confinement to another, were attacked on Mountjoy. Tanderagee, and the border the road and massacred, or driven into the town of Newry, soon afterwards fell into nearest river. These excesses were not conthe hands of the insurgents. Fermanagh was fined to the one side only. The garrison of seized upon by a brother of Lord M'Guire, Carrickfergus fell upon the Catholic inhabitand Monaghan by the M'M'ahons. So well ants of the neighboring peninsula of Island organized was the conspiracy, that within Magee, and forced a number of them over eight days' time the Irish found themselves the rodks into the sea. Sir Charles Coote, masters of the counties of Tyrone, Mona- who was sent out from Dublin to oppose the ghan, Longford, Leitrim, Fermanagh, Cavan, insurgents, carried on a war of exterminaDonegal and Derry, together with some parts tion' against all suspected of favoring them. of Armagh and Down. That these atrocities did not stain the rebelIn the meantime the lords-justices were lion at its commencement, but grew out of engaged in taking measures for their own its progress, is evident from the fact, that security in Dublin. All strangers were or- no mention of a massacre is made in any of dered to quit the city. Parliament was pro- the proclamations issued by the lords-jusrogued. The sheriffs of the counties of the tices, even so late as the 23d of December, pale received orders to provide for the se- three months after its commencement; the curity of their respective districts. The protestation of the Irish parliament, which Catholic loids of the pale attended the coun- met on the 17th of November, is also silent sel, declaring their readiness to assist in the on the point; nor does any state paper emadefence of the country. The lords-justices, nating from the Irish government afford suspicious of their motives, yet unwilling to grounds fop the charge. The parliament, on irritate them by an expression of doubt, fur- assembling, sat but for two days. Its only nished a small supply of arms to those -most acts were a protestation against those who exposed to danger. After the first burst of had taken arms, and the appointment of a an explosion so general and so unexpected, committee to confer with their leaders. the progress of the insurgents failed to keep Alarmed at this act of concession, it was pace with their primary exertions. The prorogued by the lords-justices; and the conProtestants in Down took refuge in Carrick- ference was broken off in the most indignant fergus. In Fermanagh, Enniskillen set the manner by O'iMoore, when he found himself attempts of the insurgents at defiance, and and his friends stigmatized in it by the name Lord M'Guire's castle was taken by storm. of rebels. The lords-justices now proceeded Sir Phelim O'Neill was driven with disgrace to deprive these noblemen and gentlemen of and loss from Castlederg, was defeated in the pale of the arms furnished to them in Donegal, forced to retire from before Newry, the first paroxysm of terror. Exposed thus and again routed at Lisburn, then called undefended to the attacks of the insurgents Lisnegarvey, with such slaughter that the on the one hand, and to the suspicions of the number of the slain is said to have trebled government on the other, they held meetthat of the garrison. These reverses were ings with the leaders of the insurrection, attended with consequences truly dreadful. first at the hill of Crofty, and afterwards at The Irish, exasperated by defeat, carried on that of Tarah, in consequence of which they their hostilities without mercy. The inha- determined to embody themselves as a force bitants of Lurgan, who had surrendered on distinct from the Ulster Irish, under the cormterms, were seized, and the town plundered. mand of Lord Gormanstown and the Earl of 596 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Fingal, with the professed purpose of confin- The Earl of Ormond, who had the command ing their operations to self-defence. The of the army, received instructions not only te lords-justices were alarmed. They now sent kill all rebels and their adherents, but to burn to invite the discontented lords and gentry all the places where they had been harbor to Dublin, to confer with them on the state ed, and to destroy all the male inhabitants Df the country. These excused themselves capable of bearing arms. Nor were these on the plea that they would not venture merely denunciations, circulated for the purwithin a city under the control of Sir Charles pose of producing obedience through terror. Coote, whose sanguinary speeches at the Sir William Cole's regiment alone boasted, council board, and massacres throughout the that, besides killing two thousand five huncountry, had already rendered him peculiarly dred men in battle, they had starved and obnoxious. They also drew up an address famished, of the vulgar sort, whose goods to the king, complaining of the injurious they seized on, seven thousand. The Earl conduct of the lords-justices, by which they of Ormond was despatched into the county had been driven to the necessity of arming of Kildare to relieve and secure the castles themselves in their own defence; and they which still held out for the government. published a manifesto to the same purport, After executing his commission, he defeated for general circulation. The latter document at Kilrush a large body of the Irish under produced a decisive effect.' The insurrec- Lord Mountgarret; but beingunable, through tion, hitherto confined to Ulster and a small want of supplies, to follow up his advantage, portion of Leinster and Connaught, at once he was forced to content himself 1y thus became general. At the commencement of securing a safe retreat to Dublin. the year the authority of the lords-justices On the other side, the arrival cf Owen was confined to Dublin and Drogheda, the Roe O'Neill gave fresh vigor to the cause latter of which was in a state of siege. In of the Irish in Ulster. A Scotch force, Connaught, the town of Galway was retain- which had been sent thither under the comed in its allegiance through the influence of mand of Lord Leven, remained inactive. the Marquis of Clanricarde, the king's steady Lord Leven, after an empty display, quitted friend. In Munster, the cruelties of Sir the country, leaving the command to GenWarham St. Leger, president of the prov- eral Munroe, who, following the example of ince, which equalled those of Sir Charles his predecessor, remained quiet in his quarCoote in Leinster, drove even those hitherto ters, whilst the forces of O'Neill were daily well disposed into insurrection. augmenting, by the accession of numbers of The arrival of supplies of men from Eng- the natives, and by supplies of officers, milland produced a change, and encouraged the itary stores and money from the Continent. lords-justices to exert themselves to crush The insurgents now began to find themtheir enemies. The means adopted by them selves sufficiently powerful to give form and were those of extreme severity. The pris- regularity to their proceedings. A general oners of the lower orders brought into Dublin assembly of delegates from all the provinces,'were summarily executed by martial law; was convened at Kilkenny. Their first act those possessed of lands were tried by the was a declaration, in which, after professing regular course of law, in order to secure the their determination to adhere to their alleconfiscation of their property. Bills of in- giance to the king, they disclaimed the dictmrent for high treason were found against authority of the Irish government in Dublin, all the Catholic nobility and gentry in Meath, administered as it was by a malignant party Wicklow and Dublin, and against many in in conjunction with the king's enemies in LKildare. Several persons of imputed guilt England. They appointed for the execution were put to the torture to extort confessions. of their edicts subordinate councils in the __________________________________________________________________________________J HIST;OR'Y OF t[IHE WORLD. 597 provinces, from which there was to be an The great object of the cessation of hosappeal to the supreme council of the Catho- tilities was to procure from the king a perlics of Ireland, a permanent body, consisting manent settlement of the country. Both of twenty-four members, chosen by the gen- parties sent in their proposals. In these the eral assembly. Having thus organized their Catholics asked for freedom of religion, semcivil constitution, they provided for their inaries for the education of their children, a military operations by giving Owen Roe free parliament, from which all who had not O'Neill the command of their forces in Ul- property in Ireland should be excluded, and ster; General Preston, who had lately an amnesty for the past. The Protestants, brought a supply of arms and ammunition on the contrary, called for the strict execufrom France, in Leinster; Garret Barry tion of the penal laws, the total disarming in Munster, and Colonel Burke in Con- of the Catholics, the vesting of all estates naught. Lord - Castlehaven, who, on the; hitherto forfeited in the crown, and the disfirst breaking out of the war, had made a tribution of them when so vested amongst tender of his services to the government, English settlers exclusively. Charles gave but had been refused, having afterwards ap- no decisive answer to any of these proposals. peared in Dublin to justify himself from a He pleaded the difficulties of his situation, charge of treason, was thrown into prison, and referred them to Ormond, whom lie had whence he contrived to escape after a con- appointed chief governor instead of Parsons finement of twenty weeks, and was appoint- and Borlase, and had raised to the dignity ed to the command of the Leinster cavalry. of a marquis. Ormond procrastinated. The The good effects of system soon showed mean motives of avarice and personal agthemselves. Munroe was defeated in Ulster, grandizement are charged against him for and the united forces of Lords Muskerry his indecision in such an emergency., But and Castlehaven were successful in Munster. be the cause what it might, the opportunity Connaught was wholly in obedience to the for a pacific settlement was let slip, and lost confederates; and though Preston had al- for ever. lowed himself to be defeated near New The first eventful change was the deserRoss, Lord Ormond found himself too weak tion of the confederate party by Lord Inchito reap any decisive advantage from his vie- quin, who, on being refused the office of tory. Yet, notwithstanding these favorable president of Mfunster by the king, declared appearances, the leaders of the confederates, for the parliament, and became the bitter aware of the great superiority of their op- enemy of his former associates. Still, howponents, and not firmly united amongst thenl- ever, the confederates had the advantage in selves, were anxious to put an end to hostil- several minor encounters, for military operaities. But the English parliament obsti- tions were not wholly stoqpged by the armisnately refused to negotiate with those whom tice. At this period, whilst they refused to they styled rebels and-murderers. The Earl furnish the king with supplies either of -f Ormond at the same time undertook to men or money until their interests were continue the war on the part of the crown, more fully secured than by the temporary provided the lords-justices furnished him stipulations of a truce, and whilst Ormond, with a supply of ten thousand pounds. on the king's part, resisted every attempt at After much delay, a cessation of arms was a permanent peace, the pope's legate, Rinunacquiesced in by both the belligerent parties, cini, Archbishop of Fermo, arrived, and in for which the confederates agreed to ad- his master's name protested against any paci vance to the amount of thirty thousand fication which did not secure the public espounds for the king's service,:one half in -tablishment of his religion. Charles, pressed money, and the remainder in cattle. by the exigencies of his situation, and una 598 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ble to overcome Ormond's reluctance, em- information of the progress f a tr'caty at ployed another agent. He sent over the Paris between Charles and tlle )ope, insisted son of the Marquis of Worcester, Edward, on delay. In the mceantile, the king's af Lord Herbert, better known by the title of fairs became desperate; and Orlnond, whllen Earl of Glamorgan, to which he was soon it was now too late, consented to rclinquisl afterwards promoted, who, through his influ- his objections to the repeal of the penal laws, ence with the confederates, succeeded in and concluded a treaty with the confederates. persuading them to make a double treaty, But the want of confidence excited by the the one public, the other private; which lat- king's conduct caused delays in carrying the ter contained articles insisted on by the terms of the treaty into effect, which ended Catholics, but deemed to be such as, if gen- in the utter ruin of the royal cause. Rinunerally known, would increase the prejudice cini, still averse to a compromise which withagainst the royal cause in the minds of the held from the Catholic church the enjoyEnglish. The secret clauses were, a provis- ment of any of its former privileges, made ion that the members of each religious per- party with Owen Roe O'Neill, who, through suasion should pay their tithes to their own the aid of the nuncio's money, was enabled clergy, and that the churches should remain to undertake offensive operations, and dein the hands of their present possessors. feated Munroe at ZBenburb, a village on the Rinuncini, who, while on his way to Ire- Blackwater. Rinuncini, elated with his sucland, had obtained from the queen an assur- cess, entered Kilkenny, appointed a new conance of terms even more favorable than federate council, and imprisoned the mermthose of the private treaty, objected to both bers of the old one. Ormond, in despair, of them; he also insisted on the publication resigned the sword of state, and retired to the of the former. His wish was accomplished Continent; and, though he returned again by an accident. Sir Charles Coote, the armed with full power as lord-lieutenant, and second of the name, for the former had been though a new general assembly of the conkilled in a skirmish soon after the breaking federates, convoked at IKilkenny, had deout of the war, having defeated, near Sligo, clared themselves favorable to terms in a body of men commanded by the Arch- which both parties might be led to acquiesce, bishop of Tuam, found amongst the baggage and were violent in their protestations against of this prelate a copy of the secret articles. the stubborn resistance of the nuncio, the The document was immediately transmitted adoption of any decisive measure was postto the English parliament, which lost no poned, until all were aroused from their' time in publishing it throughout all parts of lethargy by the appalling news,of the dethe country. Charles at once denied its au- mand made by the parliamentary army in thenticity. IHe declared that Glamorgan had England to bring the king to trial. Then, exceeded his powers, and caused him to be indeed, the confederates agreed to the terms arrested on a charge of treason, and exam- proposed by Ormond. The leading points ined before the Irish privy council. His were, the free exercise of religion, and the duplicity gain'ed him but little credit even retaining of the churches then in possession at the time, and documents preserved in the of the Catholics until the king's pleasure public libraries of England have since fur- should be known. Twelve individuals ap. nished incontestible proofs of his insincerity. pointed by the general assembly, under the Glamorgan was soon liberated upon bail. name of the commissioners of trust, were The transaction destroyed all remaining con- made guardians of the treaty, and vested fidence -between the confederates and the with powers to levy soldiers, raise money king. Ormond refused to ratify the secret and perform all acts of supreme authority. articles. Riniuncini, also, who had private Thle treaty was signed on the 17th of Janu. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 59S ary, 1648. But it was then too late. Before that it dispersed in all directions, leaving the the news of its ratification could arrive in general so utterly deserted, that when he London, Charles had forfeited his life upon wrote to Jones respecting the prisoners who the scaffold. had fallen into his hands, this officer's taunt-'Previously to the death of the king, no ing reply was, that he did not know where leo:3 than five armies were maintained in Ire- to find his lordship in order to wait upon land, each acting for a different object. The him on the business. Marquis of Ormond commanded that of the Before the marquis could recover from king, for the purpose of restoring him to his the effect of this defeat, news was brought government. The parliamentary forces, un- him of the arrival of Oliver Cromwell'in der Colonel Jones, had possession of Dublin; Dublin, with a select and well-appointed and in the south he was supported for some army of ten thousand men. After a short time by a force under the Earl of Inchiquin. delay in that city to refresh his troops and General Preston commanded the troops of to regulate the civil affairs of the country, the confederate Catholics in Leinster. Owen Cromwell proceeded to besiege Drogheda, Roe O'Neill, who had attached himself to which Ormond, suspecting his intention, had the nuncio, and therefore was equally opposed provided with a good garrison, and abunto the king, the parliament, and the confed- dance of military stores. After having made erates, had the command of all Ulster, ex- a practical breach, the assault was given, but cept a small portion of its eastern extremity, the besiegers were twice repulsed. On the where Munroe was at the head of an army third attack, led on by Cromwell in person, which favored the Scotch. All these ele- his troops — forced their way into the town, ments of intestine commotion were again and the garrison were overpowered. In the thrown into action by the king's death. heat of action Cromwell put the whole garRinuncini, indeed, finding that this event, rison to the sword; and in this terrible sewhllich lie was charged with having hastened verity he took the surest method to hasten by his obstinacy and violence, had alienated the termination of what threatened to be a the whole of the Catholic population, quit- long and bloody conflict. The merciless but ted the country privately. Ormond then well-timed stroke broke the power of his adendeavored to gain over O'Neill, but failed; versaries,. and by their intimidation saved he afterwards made overtures to Colonel the country from the bloodshed of a proJones, with whom he was equally unsuccess- tracted struggle. From Drogheda Cromwell ful, his proposals being met with the retort proceeded southwards to'Wexford, which that his suspicious conduct had been the being well garrisoned and provided, was excause of exciting the apprehensions of the pected to make a long resistance, so as to king's insincerity, which prevented any of give time to Ormond to collect his forces the parties in Ireland from coalescing with from other quarters. But it was betrayed him sincerely, and thus led to his destruc- rby the treachery of the officer placed in comtion. Having at length, from his own re- mand of the castle, and, when taken, treated sources, collected an army sufficient to take with the same stern cruelty as that which the field, he invested Dublin, with the in- had before marked Cromwell's triumph at tention of reducing it by famine. But an Drogheda. advanced post at Baggotsrath having been The effect of these terrible examples of successfully assaulted by a sortie from the severity in paralyzing opposition, was ingarrison, which followed up its success by creased by the orders given by Cromwell tc an attack on the marquis's head-quarters at his troops to abstain from any wanton inju' Rathmines, the whole besieging ariny was- ries on the peaceable peasantry, and to pay seized with such an unaccountable panic them in fiull for all thei.r supplies; a system 600 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. directly contrary to all former practice, ac- terms highly honorable to its defenders, who, cording to which, the soldier, whether friend on marching out, were complimented by or foe, was ever the peasant's terror. Cromwell for their gallantry, and told that, The only hope for the royalist party now had it not been for the treachery of the rested in the cordial union of Ormond and town's people, he must have been obliged to O'Neill. Both were sensible that a junction raise the siege. of their forces was absolutely requisite to Clonmel still held out against the parliacounteract the movements of Cromwell. To mentary army. The garrison was commandeffect this object, O'Neill moved southwards ed by Hugh O'Neill, another branch of the with his army, but was seized on his march famnily which had signalized itself in the with a defluxion of the knees; a complaint wars of Ireland. The first assault was reattributed at the time to a pair of poisoned pelled with such slaughter that the infantry boots prepared for him by an agent of the r3fused to advance a second time, and Cromconfederates. Unwilling to retard the move- well was compelled to bring forward his own merits of the armies, he had himself con- favorite regiment of cavalry. These sucveyed in a litter, but sunk under the accu- ceeded in entering the breach, but met with mulated pressure of disease and fatigue, and an opposition so fierce and so unexpected, at died at Cloughouter Castle. a retrenchment thrown up within, that the The commissioners of trust were so much greater part of the storming'party lay dead alarmed at the treatment of Drogheda and or wounded on the spot, and the remainder Wexford, that they were with difficulty pre- evacuated the place. In the two assaults vented, by the remonstrances of Ormond, Cromwell lost two thousand of his best solfrom abandoning KIilkenny. The want of diers. Not daring to venture on a third, he confidence which he experienced, both from changed the siege into a blockade. The the leaders of the confederates, and the in- Marquis of Ormond, aware of the imporhabitants of several of the large towns in tance of the place, made every exertion for the south, tended much to embarrass him. its relief. Assisted by the Catholic Bishop The city of Waterford absolutely refused of Ross, he collected a numerous but tumuladmission to his troops, even at a time when tuary body of men in the western part of a passage through it was required to make a Cork. These were attacked and routed, and successful assault on the retiring army of the bishop taken. Ilis life was promised to Cromwell. This general commenced the himn, provided he would prevail on the garricampaign in 1650 by a movement on Kil- son of a neighboring fort, which greatly ankenny, whiclh was to have been betrayed into noyed the besiegers, to surrender. On gohis hands. But the plot being discovered, ing thither, he exhorted the garrison to and the traitor executed, he was forced to persevere in their defence, and, on his return lay regular siege to the place. It made a to the camp of Cromwell, was executed. very gallant defence. After a breach had O'Neill having defended the town as long as been effected, the besiegers were repulsed in his ammunition lasted, withdrew his troops two attempts, and Cromwell was preparing by night unobserved; and Cromwell, unato retire, when he received secret informa- ware of the movement, gave the people very tion that the town magistrates were anxious favorable conditions, to which he was the to surrender. A third assault was then more inclined, as the intelligence of Charles made, with as little success as the former; II. having taken refuge in Scotland, and the but Ireton having come up with a fresh sup- hostile indications from that quarter, renply of men, and the garrison having been dered his presence in England necessary to infornled that no assistance could be afforded his party. Immediately after the surrender them from with;ut, the town surrendered on of Clonmel, he proceeded to Youghal and HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 601 embarked for England, leaving the army in was Ireton himself. After his death Galway charge of his son-in-law, Ireton. surrendered to Ludlow, his successor. A All rational hope of successful resistance last desperate attempt at resistance was made to the parliament was now at an end. Or- in Connaught by Clanricarde, aided by Sir mond prepared to quit the kingdom. The Phclim O'Neill, who now again began to commissioners of trust for some time opposed make himself conspicuous. It was defeated, his intention, conscious of the confusion and Clanricarde fled to one of the islands which must arise from such a public avowal on the coast. Sir Phelim was taken prisoner, of his despondency. But with the Catholic and ultimately executed as a traitor. The clergy it was otherwise. They suspected nuncio's party sent ambassadors to offer the that he was secretly negotiating with Crom- crown of Ireland to the pope, the kings of well. His former conduct afforded plausible France and Spain, and the Duke of Lor grounds for such a suspicion; and during raine; but none of them would accept the the siege of Clomimel he had procured passes worthless bauble. Clanricarde still endeavfrom that general for himself and Lord In- ored to maintain a mountain war amidst the chiquin to go to England. A synod of the glens and wastes of western Connaught. It bishops, held at Jamestown, resolved upon was but the expiring effort of unbending sending a deputation to him, calling upon loyalty. At length a letter from Charles, him to quit the country, and transfer his recommending him to provide for his own powers to some trustworthy person, who en- safety, released him from the shackles of the joyed the confidence of the nation. A se- self-imposed bonds of loyalty. He applied cond resolution denounced excommunication to Fleetwood, Cromwell's deputy, for a pass against all who should hereafter adhere to to retire to England. It was granted, and hitn. Whilst the relics of those who pro- he submitted to the parliament on an assurfessed attachment to the royal cause were ance of not being called upon to performn wasting their strength and ruining their any act inconsistent with his duty to his sovprospects by these proceedings, Ireton was ereign. Shortly afterwards, a proclamation engaged in extending his authority by the from the English parliament announced the reduction of one place of strength after an- termination of what was called the rebelother. Ormond, as a last resource, convened lion in Ireland. a general assembly at Loughrea; but the The victors had now only to share the party of the clergy was too powerful. Find- spoil. The greater part of the nobility and ing all means ineffectual to induce them to gentry of Ireland, and of the army, had exrecall their hostile declaration, he embarked patriated themselves; the estates of the conin a fiigate provided for him by the Duke of federates were deserted. It remnained to apYork, transferring his powers as lord-lieu- portion them amongst the friends and foltenant to the Marquis of Clanricarde. An lowers of the parliament, in such a manner extraordinary negotiation was now commenc- as would best secure a zealous attachment to ed with the Duke of Lorraine, by which it the new order of things. The ordinance of was proposed, that on the advance of a large the English parliament to this effect decreed, sum of money, and a proportionate supply that all who had been concerned in the reof military sto'ecs,-he should be declared pro- bellion previously to the 10th of Novembel, tector of the royal cause, and receive some 1641, all Jesuits and priests, all who, not betowns as cautionary securities. But the rap- ing themselves in arms, had slain English id progress of Treton baffled all these pro- soldiers, and all who, being now in arms, did jects. Limerick was reduced, partly by the not lay them down within twenty-eight days effects of a pestilential disease, partly by should be excepted from pardon, The Mar treachery. Amnongst the victims ofthe plague quis of Ormond, the Earls of Inchiquin and 602 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Roscommon, and Bramhall, Protestant Bish- of the English parliament, by which those of I)erry, were also specially excepted. All who at the commencement of the war had persons who had borne a command against subscribed ~200 towards the reduction of the parliament were to be banished during Ireland were to have 1000 acres in Ulster; pleasure, to forfeit two thirds of their estates, those who had subscribed ~300, the sart o and to be assigned lands to the value of the number in Connaught; and those who hr.d remaining third wherever the parliament subscribed ~450 and ~600, a like quantity should appoint. All Catholics who had re- of land in Munster and Leinster. The holder sided in Ireland at any time during the war, of the lands thus granted was bound to pay and had not manifested their constant good a yearly quit-rent to the crown, of one penny will to the commonwealth of England, were an acre in Ulster, three halfpence in Conto forfeit one third of their estates. All others naught, two pence in Munster and three pence residing in Ireland, as before, who had not in Leinster. The soldiers who had served in been in arms for the parliament, or manifest- Ireland since the landing of Cromwell there ed their good will towards it when an op- in 1649, were entitled to a share of the lands portunity offered, were to forfeit one fifth. in lieu of their arrears, on the same terms as A high court of justice, somewhat of the na- those who had advanced money, and who ture of a court-martial, being composed of were distinguished by the name of advenparliamentary officers, who acted in the don- turers. Those who had served previously to ble capacity of judges and jurors, and whose that date were to look for payment to the decisions were not regulated by any settled residue of lands which might be over and rules of evidence, sat on the cases of delin- above after the former division had been quency. Yet, after the strictest scrutiny, the made; a kind of security which was found to number of those subjected to the penalties of be very deficient. In order the more effecthe first clause of the instructions was very tuallyto secure the new possessors in their prosmall. Lord Mayo in Connaught, and Colonel perties, the Catholics who should be found enBagnal in Munster, were condemned, as it titled to retain any part of their estates under was thought, unjustly. Lord Muskerry was the provisions of the act above specified, were saved by the evidence of the numerous Eng- to surrender such part if in any of the other lish settlers, who pressed forward to vouch provinces, and to oreceive an equivalent, or, as for the protection and security they enjoyed it was called, " to be reprized," by waste lands under his control. In Ulster, Sir Phelim in Connaught, which new allotments were asO'Neill was the only victim. Although of- signed in the parts of the province situated fered not only pardon, but restoration and at least a mile from the coast. No Catholic property, if lhe could produce substantial was, under any condition, to be suffered to proof that he had had a commission from remain in a town, or within a certain space Charles to commence the insurrection, he around it. ZBy the latter part of this providisclaimed the fact, and died maintaining sion, it was intended to cut off the Irish from the contrary. Of ethers, not quite two hun- any communication with foreigners, as by dred could be found who came within the the former the broad boundary of the Shanstrictness of the clause, so much had the ac- non separated them from any contact with counts of the atrocities committed at the the residents in other parts of the kingdom. breaking out of the insurrection been magni- Commissioners of delinquency sat at Athfled, or so completely had the actors in it lone, to decide upon the qualifications of been swept off by the desolation of the hos- the Roman Catholics; others, appointed to tilities that succeeded. arrange the details of settlement of those The disposal of forfeited lands was regu- transplanted to Connaug.ht, held their court lated according to the principles of an act at Loughrea. A third body of commissioners HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 603 met in Dublin, to receive and hear claims. on an extended scale for the improvement Under their direction a survey was made by of the country, which the short duration the celebrated Sir William Petty, of all the of his power prevented him from executing. forfeited lands, which, notwithstanding the Impressed with the necessity of diffusing lapse of time, and the state of the country when knowledge as the surest foundation for the executed, is found to be singularly correct in solid advancement of the people, he purchasits details. The confiscation comprehended ed the library of Archbishop Usher, in order by much the greater part of the surface of to bestow it on a second college which it was Ireland, and threw the property, and con- intended to found in Dublin. Amongst other sequently the influence of the country into plans fortheconsolidationof theinterests of the the hands of a new class of men. Private two countries, it was intended that Ireland, soldiers, or desperate adventurers, now be- instead of being governed by a domestic parcame the lords of extensive tracts, once enjoy- liament, should send representatives to that ed by the native families of ancient descent, or of England. The number fixed upon was by the Anglo-Irish nobility. It also produced thirty. But the death of Cromwell, and the another change, of less striking character resignation of his son Richard, put an end at first, but of overpowering influence on the to all these well intended projects. On the future destinies of the country. The land announcement of this latter event, the Engwas likely to be useless for want of cultiva- lish parliament, aware of Henry Cromwell's tors. The continuance of a warfare, in which abilities and popularity, and apprehensive of mercy was deemed a symptom of timidity or an attempt on his part to maintain himself of treachery, had swept away the peasantry in the government, sent over Sir Hardress in multitudes. Numbers had been trans- Waller to seize upon the castle of Dublin; p6rted as slaves to the plantations, many but the precaution was unnecessary. Cromhad emigrated as soldiers or'colonists. well retired without opposition, remaining The plan of peopling the wilds of Con- in privacy in his house in the Phcenix Park naught by transplanting Catholics was al- until he had provided himself with the most totally relinquished. Hands were means of removing to England, having adwanting on the new estates; the tenants ministered the government with so much were therefore retained, but they were treat- disinterestedness during a period in which he ed with all the jealous severity arising from had the means of amassing unlimited wealth, a consciousness of weakness, and an appre- that he could not at once defray the expenses hension that advantage would be taken of it. of his passage over. They experienced the harshness of slavery, The thoughts of the new settlers, who without the enjoyment of that protection were now transformed from needy advenwhich the selfishness of ownership in some turers and soldiers into landed proprietors, degree spreads over it. began to turn upon the means of securing The government of Ireland was intrusted the properties so unexpectedly acquired. The by Cromwell to his son Henry, who proved agitation consequent on the death of Cromnhimself worthy of the choice. He visited well, whose overruling master-mind had most parts of the island, so as to make him- hitherto kept all parties subservient to his self personally acquainted with its resources views, began to take a turn decidedly favolrand capabilities. He checked the frauds at- able to the restoration of royalty. The great tempted to be committed by the commission- leaders of the parliamentary party perceived ers in the disposal of the forfeited lands, re- this, and prepared to shape their course acpressed the violence of the soldiery, and af- cordingly. Lord Broghill, who had already forded the protection of the law to the ill- changed from a royalist to a republican, used peasantry. Hie had even devised plans was the first to retrace his steps. IHe wai S04 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. followed by Sir Charles Coote, the most san- the Catholics was strictly enforced. The guinary of the parliamentary leaders. The commoner sort were prohibited from quitting towns of Youghal, Bandon, and Kinsale,which their place of residence without permission. had been amongst the first to revolt to Crom- Assemblies of. the Catholic gentry were forwell, were now led by Lord Broghill to de- bidden. -A proclamation was issued for apclare for the king. Coote secured Galway prehending Irish rebels, and for assuring all and Athlone. The same party, after a short adventurers and soldiers in the quiet possesstruggle, seized upon Dublin Castle. Sir sion of their grants. HIardress Waller, who had taken possession At length the king's declaration, which of it for the parliament, was sent a prisoner was to form the basis of the new settlement to London; and Ludlow, who, upon. the of the landed property of the country, was alarm of the change of sentiment in the par- published. This document, after vesting all liamentary party in Ireland, had been sent the confiscated property in the king, conover to take the chief command, on arriving firmed the adventurers and soldiers in the in Dublin Bay, was prevented from landing, lands already granted to them. The officers and forced to return to England. A conven- in the king's service before 1649, distinguishtion was assembled in Dublin. The council ed by the name of " Forty-nine men," were of state in England ordered its dissolution. to receive their arrears in lands at the rate The order was set at defiance. The king's of twelve and sixpence in the pound, and an declaration at Breda being presented to the equal dividend of whatever should remain of convention, was accepted by acclamation, their security. Protestants whose estates and Charles was proclaimed with every de- had been given to adventurers were to be monstration of joy in all the great towns. restored, and the present holders "reprised," Thus, the restoration 6f the son in Ireland that is, given other lands of equal value. was effected by the same persons who had Innocent Papists were also to be restored, been mainly instrumental in bringing his and the holders reprised;: those restored to father to the block. property within corporate towns were to be The sudden change of public opinion gave reprised in the neighborhood, as no resiCharles irresistible influence in Ireland. All dent Catholics were to be permitted in those parties looked to him. Above all, the Ca- places. Such Catholics as had accepted lands tholics, whose attachment to his father had in Connaught were to continue bound by been the great cause of their sufferings, and that act. Those who had joined the king in of the ruin of their property; anticipated an his exile, and served under his banners, were immediate restoration of their estates. So to be restored when the present holders were sanguine were they, that many proceeded to reprised; such persons were called "Ensigntake forcible possession of them, and to eject men." Additional grants were made to Orthe new proprietors. The Protestants raised mond and Inchiquin, who had been restored -the cry of a new rebellion, employed agents by the English parliament. Monk, now Duke in London to resist their claims, and had in- of Albemarle, and some others, received dluence sufficient to obtain clauses in the act grants. The king's brother, James, Duke of indemnity, excluding from it all who had of York, had several of very great extent. at at any time aided the Irish, and prohibiting Thirty-six of the Irish nobility and gentry, the restoration, upon- any terms, of lands al- to be specially named by the king, were also ready disposed of by the parliament or con- - to be restored under the title of" Nominees." vention. Nor was it without the greatest Those who had any share in the trial and difficulty that an exception could be carried execution of the late king were specially ex. in favor of the Marquis of Ormond and other eluded from the benefit of this arrangement. Protestants. Every severe ordinance against Lands belonging to corporations were to be HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 60~ restored, and the possessors reprised. The of association. They also pl )cured an orqualifications which entitled a Roman Cath- der from the lords-justices to adjourn the olic to claim the benefit of the clause respect- law term, and close the courts of justice, in ing "innocent Papists," were so worded order to prevent the reversal of outlawries, as to render the chances of an acquittal al- or the ejectment of adventurers and soldiers most impossible. None were to be restored before their titles could be secured by statas such, who, at the time of the cessation ute. in 1643, had been of the royal party, or had The act of settlement, the next object of lived within the quarters of the confederates, parliamentary attention, was framed accordexcept the inhabitants of Cork and Youghal, ing to the spirit, and nearly according to who had been forcibly expelled from those the letter, of the declaration published by towns, and driven by the fanatics into the the king. The principal alterations were enemy's lines; who had acted with the con- respecting reprisals, and what was called federates before the peace of 1648, or had the doubling ordinance. The commissionadhered to the nuncio *or the papal power ers-of the court of claims had been guilty against the royal authority, or, when excom- of gross partiality respecting these. They municated for such adherence, had submitted rejected the claims of the nominees, and the and obtained absolution. Whoever derived ensign-men, on the plea that there were not his title from persons guilty of those crimes; lands sufficient to reprise the present posseswhoever claimed his estate on the articles of sors, a defalcation caused by the clandestine peace, thus acknowledging his concurrence disposal by themselves of these lands to in the rebellion; whoever had held corres- their own friends. Through the exertions pondence with the confederates, sat in their of the House of Lords, a clause was insertcouncils, or acted under their commission; ed for the revocation of these fraudulent whoever had employed agents to treat with grants. The doubling ordinance was still any foreign power to bring forces into Ire- more pregnant with injustice. The English land, or had been a tory, the name given to parliament having found that the sums subthe marauding parties which harassed the scribed by the original adventurers had fallen countlr; were also excepted. Few Roman short of the amount required to finish the Catholics could hope to escape being included war, and being in want of further supplies, in some one or other of those sweeping passed a law, thatwvhosoever advanced one clauses. fourth more than his original share, should The principal subjects which engaged the be entitled to as much land as if he had attention of the Irish parliament that met actually doubled his subscription; and that after the restoration, were the established if any adventurer refused to make such adchurch, and the settlement of property. vance on his original share, any other perOrmond, to whom the management of Irish son, on paying it, should reap the benefit of affairs was principally intrusted, contrived, the doubling clause, provided he repaid to by postponing the consideration of the ques- the adventurer the sum at first subscribed. tion of the lands, to secure the adoption of With great exertions, and by the determined the former. Although the House of Comn- interference of the Earl of Kildare, it was at mons was almost exclusively composed of length' determined that the adventurers should those who had a few years before been most receive lands for the money actually advanced zealous in pulling down the church and abol- by them, and no more. The Irish parliament, ishing the liturgy, it now not only readily however, could only frame the heads of a bill assented to the revival of both, but concurred to this effect, which was liable to be modified in censuring the solemn league and cove- by the king and privy council in England. tant, and in condemning their former oaths Thither, therefore, all parties interested selt 606 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. agents to defend their respective claims. of those who could clearly establish their London became the scene of controversy, innocence even before a c3urt cautiously and intrigue, cabal, and even violence. The carefully composed of Englishmen and ProtIrish called for the fulfilment of the articles estants, was inconveniently great, and ex of the peace of 1648. Ormnond, who hated cited the most serious alarm amongst the the Catholics even more than he did the other party, who felt that every acquittal regicides, persuaded the king that such ful- abstracted so much from the fund to which fimlent would be detrimental to his favorite they themselves had to look for a settlement. scheme of maintaining an English interest Out of a hundred and eighty-seven cases adin Ireland. Richard Talbot, afterwards judicated in the first three months, a hunLord Tyreonnel, the advcate of the Irish, dred and sixty-eight were pronounced innofinding reason and justices ineffectual, chal- cent, and but nineteen condemned. The lenged Ormond. The latter made his cornm- House of Commons called upon the lordplaint to the council; Talbot was committed lieutenant to make the qualifications more to the Tower, and detained there till he rigorous. The more violent of the old parmade an humble submission. The bill, liamentary soldiers laid a plan for a general with all its clauses, received the royal assent, insurrection. Ormond was steady. IHe and was sent back to Ireland, where it was put down the conspiracy, and executed a adopted by both houses of parliament. few of the ringleaders. He refused to make But the passing of the act was not suffi- any change as to the qualifications. But he cient to render it operative. Every one contrived to effect, by an evasion, what a rewas dissatisfied with it. Even the adventu- gard for consistency of character had made rers, whose interests were best guarded by him reject in public. Upwards of four it, exclaimed against it most loudly. They thousand cases had been entered, and, from considered the rejection of the doubling or- the number already decided, and the characlinance as the deprivation of so much of ter of the decisions, it was felt that by much their justly purchased property. The land the greater proportion of the Catholic progranted to the nominees, the number of prietors would be restored to their estates. whom had been increased by the king, was To prevent such an occurrence, the time of looked upon as so much cut off from the the sitting of the court was limited to a fixed common fund whence they were to be re- number of days, during which not more paid. The restoration of church property than one fourthl of the claims could by any was peculiarly galling to their religious pre- possibility be heard. It then closed, and judices. The Protestant officers felt that thus upwards of three thousand ancient and their security was greatly diminished by respectable Irish families were stripped of large grants lavishly made to some of the their fortunes, without even the form of a king's special favorites. The Catholics com- trial before a court specially constituted to plained that, so far from having justice done do them justice. The injured parties apto their services, their agents were not even plied to the king; but he refused to listen idmitted to plead their cause before the to them, and they were irremediably ruined. onuncil. Though their claim was rejected, however, Ormond, now elevated to the rank of a its justice was recognized by a concession, duke, was sent over as lord-lieutenant to and the lord-lieutenant wa;s permitted to secalm these effusions of anger, and to settle lect twenty out of the tl-ee thousand, to be in the most amicable manner the conflicting restored to their estates as objects of special interests of the parties. The first proceed- favor. ings were, those of the commissioners of in- To remedy, in some degree, the defects noceny, who soon f ound Lhat the number of the act of settlementI, a bill was brought HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 601 into parliameut, chiefly by the instrumen- the prohibition under the mask of benevotality of the Duke of Ormond, which made lence. The king endeavored to alleviate, a few alterations in some of its most ob- though he was too weak and too timid to noxious provisions. This is known by the prevent, this impolitic act of injustice. He name of the act of explanation. The two issued an act of state, permitting the Irish together form the tenure under which by to export to foreign countries all commodimuch the greater part of the landed proper- ties of their own growth and manufacture; ty of Ireland is held; they have therefore and the Duke of Ormond, on his part, en been quaintly, and with more regard to their couraged the woolen manufacture, for whic. binding force than their justice, styled the the country was peculiarly fitted, from its Magna Charta of the Protestants of Ireland. capability of rearing sheep, and its waterTo account for the Duke of Ormond's con- power for machinery. Re brought in forduct towards his former friends, to whom eigners acquainted with the processes of the during the war he owed so much, and his manufacture, established a board of trade in master every thing, and his sacrifice of their Dublin, and encouraged factories on the interests to the bitter enemies both of him- Suir. His attention was also directed to self and the king, it may be sufficient to the improvement of the linen manufacture. mention, that his estates, which before the But his laudable efforts were thwarted by breaking out of the civil war, had yielded him his enemies at court, who persuaded Charles but about ~7,000 per annum, now brought to recall him. Lord Robarts, who was aphim in a yearly income of upwards of pointed in his place, rendered himself so ~80,000, in addition to the pecuniary grants offensive to all parties, that he was soon remade him for losses during the disturbances. moved, and his place supplied by Lord The acts which ruined so many of the ad- Berkeley, who was also as speedily withherents to the royal cause secured him in the drawn, in consequence of his being active undisturbed enjoyment of this princely in- in procuring a commission of inquiry as to come. frauds practiced on the Catholics in the adNotwithstanding the apprehensions arising judication under the act of settlement. The from the still uncertain state of title, the government of Lord Essex, his successor, condition of the country began to improve was equally short-lived; and it was found with a rapidity alarming to the English, necessary to restore Ormond, as the only who were now suffering through a decline person sufficiently acquainted with the state of their domestic trade, which prejudiced of parties in Ireland to manage the country persons imputed in a great degree to the ex- without danger of a sudden explosion. cessive importation of Irish cattle. To pre- Shortly after his return to office, the Po. vent the supposed ill effects of this, acts pish plot occured. The devisers of this exe. were passed prohibiting the Irish from send- crable contrivance endeavored to involve ing cattle or provisions into England after the Irish in a share of the guilt. Charges the first of July, which exclusion was after- were made against Talbot, the Catholic Archwards extended to all periods of the year. bishop of Dublin, Lord Mountgarret, and So strong was the prejudice, so powerful the Colonel Peppard, as being principals in it. alarm, that when the Irish parliament, On investigation, the first of these imputed through a wish to alleviate the sufferings of conspirators was found to be laboring under the people of London after the great fire in a complication of disorders, beneath which that city in 1666, sent them a free gift of he soon afterwards sunk; the second was thirty thousand oxen, the only wealth of the bedridden through age; and the third was country at the time, the well-intended dona- entirely unknown. The Duke of Ormond, tion was rejected, as an attempt to evade most probably through a conviction of the -608 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. necessity of yielding something to popular overt act was made against Dublin College, clamour, issued two violent proclamations. by nominating a Catholic to the professorThe one required the relations of tories to ship of the Irish language, which was debe answerable for them, and also that the feated on the ground that no such professorpriests of parishes in which a robbery or ship existed. An attempt made to appoint murder had been committed should be trans- a Roman Catholic to a fellowship was frusported, unless the offender were delivered trated by the gross incapacity of the person up to justice within a fortnight; the other recommended. prohibited Catholics from entering Dublin The king's attempts against the Irish corCastle, or any fortified place, and caused all porations were more successful. In order fairs to be held without the walls of cities to carry into effect all his changes, the sancand corporate towns. But restraints, how- tion of an Irish parliament was necessary; ever rigorous, were not sufficient. The and to effect this, it was equally necessary to bigotry of the time called for a victim. secure a majority in the boroughs, in which Plunket, the Catholic Archbishop of Armagh, the Protestant interest had hitherto been alwas accused of being the instigator of a plot most exclusively predominant. Tyrconnel to raise seventy thousand men to overturn caused all the charters of these bodies to be the government. He was sent to London, seized into the king's hands, on the plea of tried there for a crime committed in Ireland, violation or non-performance of conditions, denied either time or means to bring over and granted new charters, so arranged as to witnesses, condemned as a traitor, and exe- throw the whole of the borough influence cuted at Tyburn, professing his innocence to into the hands of the Catholics. A few of the last. The only subsequent act of Charles's the corporate bodies still hold under these reign, of consequence enough to merit no- charters; but the great majority of them tice, was a second attempt to deprive Or- having been passed after the abdication, are mond of his power. And it proved success- considered as of no authority in the courts ful. Partly from a plea of his advanced age of law. and increasing infirmities, partly from a ne- On the landing of the Prince of Orange cessity avowed by the king of removing in Torbay, Tyrconnel received orders to from the office several of his friends, the send over four thousand men to England. sword was taken from him and assigned to So little prepared was he at the time to his relative, Lord Rochester. meet the exigency, that he found it necessary All the political arrangements consequent to withdraw the garrison from Londonderry on the accession of James II. indicated a lin order to make up the number. But he settled and systematic determination to dis- soon became sensible of his error. The turb, if not wholly to nullify, the provisions Protestants in the northern counties had alof the act of settlement. Talbot, after- ready been aroused to a movement of selfwards Earl of Tyrconnel, was placed over defence, in consequence of anl anonymous the army, which he immediately began to letter sent to Lord Mount-Alexander, warn-.ew -model, by cashiering and disbanding ing him of the intention of an immediate most of the Protestants, and bringing Catho- insurrection to extirpate them. Just at the lies into their places; and by disarming the time, a Roman Catholic regiment, lately militia, which consisted chiefly of Protest- raised by the Marquis of Antrim, had been ants, under the plea that they were suspect- ordered to Derry in room of the troops sent ed to have been connected with Monmnouth's to England. The appearance of the men rebellion. These apprehensions were still now approaching the town, no way tended further increased by the promotion of Tyr- to diminish the feelings of alarm already ex connel to the chief government. The first e(ted by the previous warning. The firs HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 609 division of the newly-arrived regiment was that had assembled after a lapse of twentywithin a few hundred paces of the town, six years of intestine commotion. Composed when several young men, said to be appren- as it was of a great majority of Protestants, tice boys, hurried armed to the gate, shut it testified little inclination to co-operate out the soldiers, hastened to the walls, point- with the king's wishes, in' adhering to the ed-the guns and threatened them with de- strict fulfilment of the articles of Limerick. struction if they attempted to force their en- The king evidently wished them to be maintrance. tained in the spirit as well as in the letter. This decided act of the people of Derry The feelings of the leading party in parliawas followed up by all the northern Protest- ment were sufficiently indicated in a sermon ants. The town of Enniskillen was secured preached by the Bishop of Meath before the in a similar manner, and armed. associations lords-justices, which inculcated the detestawere formed throughout every part of the ble doctrine that Protestants were not bound province to maintain the Protestant religion to keep peace with Papists. The first open and secure the dependency of Ireland. The breach that occurred between the governfirst act of these bodies, after providing them- ment and the IHouse of Commons was caused selves with the means of resistance, was to by the introduction of two money bills. Acapply to William. But he-had already open- cording to the system of Ireland under Poyed a treaty with Tyrconnel, to whom he sent ning's law, no. bill could be brought into parGeneral Hamilton, then prisoner with him, liament until it had received the approbation under a promise that if he failed in gaining of the king through the privy council. Acover Tyrconnel, he himself should return. cording to the principles of the British conHamilton's conduct on the occasion was in- stitution, all money bills should originate excusable. Instead of using arguments to with the House of Commons. The party op.. persuade Tyrconnel to submit, he encouraged posed to the king took their stand upon the himn to persevere in the cause of James, and latter ground. One of the two bills was reremained with him instead of redeeming his jected altogether, and the other suffered to parole, and proved his zeal in the cause he pass solely in consideration of the present had thus faithlessly adopted, by heading a exigency of affairs, and the pressing necessity body of troops in Ulster, by which the whole of raising a supply fbr the- king's service. province, with the exception of Derry and Lord Sidney, in retaliation, suddenly proEnniskillen, was brought again under its al- rogued the parliament, after reprehending legiance to its former king. the House of Commons sharply for what he The struggle in Ireland between the forces styled an undutiful and ungrateful invasion of James and William has been already de- of the royal prerogative. This act increased scribed in the history of England; we ac- the general discontent, as several measures cordingly pass on to the period after the sur- ofimportance then in progress were left unrender of the Stuart party. finished. By the treaty of surrender it was stipu- A new parliament, assembled in 1695 by lated that the Roman Catholics should enjoy the Lord-deputy Capel, opened with an asthe exercise of their religion, as during the surance from the throne, that the king was reign of Charles II.; to which was added a intent upon the'firm settlement of Ireland promise that the king would endeavor to upon a Protestant interest. Such a declaraprocure further security for triem on this tion was hailed with joy by the prevailing point, as soon as parliament should be assem- party. In order to-support the king in this bled. measure, a committee was appointed to conA parliament was convened shortly after sider what penal laws were in force. The the ratification of the treaty. It wasthe first following were found to be the principal] m.-39 610 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 1. An act subjecting all who maintained the where several of the Catholic peers still had supremacy of the church of Rome to the pen- seats, it was strenuously resisted; and when alties of a~prcmunire, and requiring the oath carried, a protest against it was entered on of supremacy as a qualification for every the journals by thirteen peers, six of whom office. 2. An act imposing fines on absence were bishops. This mutilated ratification of from the parish churches on Sunday. 3. An the treaty was followed up by three other act authorizing the chancellor to appoint a penal laws: 1, to prevent the intermarriages guardian to the child of a Catholic. 4. An of Protestants and Catholics; 2, to prevent act to prevent Catholics from being private Papists from being solicitors; and, 3, to pretutors without license from the bishop. HI-av- vent them from being gamekeepers. ing ascertained the actual state of restrictions Whilst parliament was thus employed on the Catholics, as they had existed pre- during the reign of William, in undoing the viously to the treaty of Limerick, the parlia- bonds of the treaty of Limerick, the court of ment proceeded, not to secure them in the claims appointed to investigate and dispose privileges guaranteed to them by that instru- of the lands forfeited by the adherents of ment, but to increase the number of penal- James was equally active in its invasion of alties and restrictions, contrary to its spirit their property. Amongst the chief sufferers and tenor. The following statutes, passed by by the decisions of this court was the Earl this parliament, formed the commencement of Cla ncarty. It appeared doubtful whether of the system of restrictive legislation now his noble estate shoruld be included amongst known by the name of the penal code, which, the forfeitures. The point was decided by a Whenl wound up to its acme of intolerant se- declaration of the grand jury of the county verity by the successive enactment of laws, of Cork, which resolved that its restoration each surpassing its predecessor in severity, would be prejudicial to the Protestant interwas described by Burke as the acme of re-. est. It was therefore sold, under a decree finement in political persecution. These acts of the court. A subsequent attemrpt made uere, 1, To deprive Catholics of the means in his favor in the reign of George II. was of educating their children, either at home not only equally unsuccessful, but all ator abroad, except under Protestant teachers, tempts at a repetition of it were crushed by and to prevent them from being guardians a vote of the hIouse of Commons, that any even to their own children;i 2, to disarm the lawyer who pleaded in his behalf should be Catholics; 3, to banish Catholic priests and deemled an enemy to his country. prelates. Having passed these acts in direct The annals of Ireland during the reign of violation of the treaty, they proceeded to Queen Anne are merely a record of the ex confirm those articles, or so much of them as ertions of the Irish parliament to rivet and might consist with the safety and welfare of extend the penal laws. By an act passed in the king's subjects in these kingdoms. The 1'703, the father of a Papist who conformed bill took care that the precautionary proviso to the established religion was incapacitated should not be a dead letter. It abrogated from disposing of his property by sale, moirtthe articles which provided for the security gage, or bequest; and a Papist was prohibiof the Catholics from disturbance on account ted from being guardian to his own child, of their religion, which confirmed them in who, on conforming, was to be taken from the possession of their estates and the exer- his parent, and given in charge to a Protestcise of their profession, which allowed them ant. Papists were rendered incapable of the use of arms, and which required the oath holding lands for more than thirty-one years; of allegiance only as a test of their loyalty. and if the profit rent of such land was found The bill passed the Iiouse of Commons with to exceed one-third of the actual rent, the little difficulty. [But in the House'of Lords, benefit of the lease was to be transferred to HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 611 the Protestant who made the discovery. support. Jointures were secured to conform They were also prevented from inheriting ing wives. Papists were forbidden to be asthe lands of their Protestant relatives, and sistants in schoo'a. Catholic priests who con their own lands were to be gavelled after formed were allowed a stipend of ~30 a year, death amongst their children. The most that of a Protestant curate being ~50; and extraordinary provision of this monstrous act rewards were offered for the discovery of was the reqciring the oath of abjuration, popish prelates, priests, and teachers, at the and the sacramental test, to be taken as a rate of ~50 each for the first of these classes, qualification for office and for voting at elec- ~20 for the second, and ~10 for the third. tions. The cause of its insertion is singular. A subsequent statute excluded Catholics The English government was at this time from acting as sheriffs, and from sitting on negotiating with the Emperor of Germany grand juries, and even proceeding as far as for the toleration of Protestantism throughn- to enact, that in trials arising out of statutes out his dominions. To press the enactment for strengthening the Protestant interest, the of severe laws against the Catholics at home plaintiff might set aside a juror on the ground at such a period, exhibited an inconsistency of his being a Papist. The example of the as absurd as it was iniquitous. An effort parliament was followed by the corporations. was tlierefore made to dissuade the Irish par- By-laws were enacted excluding Catholics liament from proceeding with the bill, but to from every profitable branch of trade. The no purpose. Knowing, therefore, that the result was, that all the Catholic gentry posmajority of the lower house consisted of Prot- sessed of the means of emigration quitted the estant dissenters, the clause requiring the country, as did all the merchants of respecttaking of the sacramental test was inserted ability carrying with them, to fructify inl by the English'council, in the hope that the other and in hostile countries, the property rigid Puritans would reject the whole bill which might have enriched that of their perrather than saddle themselves with the die- secutors. qualification. But they were mistaken. Big- The system was now nearly complete. The utry prevailed over self-interest; and the Catholics were excluded from every opening Puritans' of the day acquiesced in the passing to political power. They were not extermiof a law which deprived the conscientious nated, because the land would have been valmembers of their own persuasion of the right ueless to the new proprietors, without the of exercising the most valuable privileges of assistance of laborers sufficient to extract its freemen, rather than suffer their Catholic produce. The effects of the system soon becountrymen to participate in them. gan to appear. The soi of James II. made This act was followed up by resolutions an attempt to recover his father's dominions calling upon all the civil officers of the gov- in the beginning of the reign of George I. ernment to enforce its provisions'and de- The new proprietary took the alarm. On claring that the prosecuting and informing the first rumor of his intended project against against Papists was an honorabl3e service to Scotland, a number of Irish Catholic gentlethe government. But this law and these men were thrown into close confinement. resolutions were not deemed sufficient. In The government, however, ashamed of this 1709 another act was passed, imposing addi- unnecessary ebullition of terror, soon aftertional restrictions upon the Catholics, by wards cause them to be liberated; even which they were prohibited from holding an- without payment of the customnary fees. Tile nuities for life; requiring the father of a con- alarml was futile. The Irish had not the forming child to give in to the chancellor a means, nor even the inclination, to renew strict account of the value of his property, in the contest. Their spirit was broken by tile oi'der to apportion a due share thereofto his grlinding degradation of the restrictioir 612 HISTO1lY OF THE WORLJD. thrown around them. Yet, to make assur- subject only to a dissolution on the demise ance still surer, these restrictions were in- of the crown. Hence they were virtually creased by the addition of new clauses to.the unrestrained by popular control. On the penal code, mostly of minor importance, by other hand, as the lord-lieutenant came over one of which Papists were excluded from to Ireland but once in two years, to hold a voting in vestries for the assessment of money parliament for granting the supplies, tle for repairing or rebuilding parish churches. management of the country rested with the The state of the Catholics was now brought lords-justices nominated to hold the reins of down nearly to the lowest point of depres- government in his absence, who were selected sion. An address of congratulation to George from among the most powerful of the great II. on his accession, presented to the lord- Protestant families. Their influence, in queslieutenant by Lord Delvin, on their part, tions between the two countries, was therefore was suffered to remain unnoticed, except so often directed to thwart the measures of the far as to render so faint an effort an apol- English cabinet, particularly when these ogy for still further restraints. A bill was seemed to interfere with their own aggranbrought in for excluding Papists from voting dizement. The operation of the penal laws, at elections. By another, lawyers and at- whilst it enslaved the Catholics, pauperized torneys married, to Papists were prevented the country. The great mass of the populafrom practicing. Even converts could not tion was deprived by them of the main stimhold the office of justice of the peace if their ulus to industry, the hope of improving their wives and children continued to be recusant; condition by their own exertions. The great and persons plundered by privateers in the proprietors found their land becoming of less service of a popish nation were to be reim- value, from the neglect of agricultural imbursed by a levy on the goods of Roman provement. The supplies of the service of Catholics only. A vote of the Commons, government were therefore granted with a declaring any person who took legal steps for niggardly and reluctant spirit. The English the recovery of his tithes of dry cattle, coln- cabinet hoped to cut the knot that thus linkmonly called the tithe of agistment, to be an ed them to the Irish parliament. An atenemy to the country, threw the greater part tempt was made to obtain a vote for the supof the burden of maintaining the Protestant plies for twenty-one years. The Irish arisclergy from the rich proprietor, whose land tocracy immediately took the alarm. Howwas wholly under pasturage, upon the Roman ever acquiescent in the general tenor of their Catholic cotter, who was obliged to raise votes, they now rallied, and the insidious atsome grain on his little patch of.ground for tempt was rendered abortive by a majority the subsistence of his family. of one. Whilst the Irish parliament were thus vigi- The depression of the country, arising from lant in cutting off from the Catholics all the treatment of the Catholic part of the means of regaining political power, they were population, was endeavored to be remedied no less so in preventing any encroachment by the extension of education, the formation of the English government upon the rights of patriotic societies, and the execution of they themselves possessed. The relations of public works. To educate the Catholics, it these two latter parties towards each other was necessary they should first be converted, after the Revolution were peculiar. The because by the penal code domestic educamembers of the House of Commons held their tion according to the principles of their own seats, not, as in Great Britain, by septennial faith was prohibited. S hools were thereelection, but during the pleasure of the fore opened in which'the pupils were crown. Their tenure was therefore gener- taught the elements of literature and the ally regarded as tantamount to a life estate, useful arts, and were also clothed and fed at HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 613 the, public expense. Being established by hazardous at all times, was found, in periods letters patent from the crown, these obtain- of general agitation or impending warfare, ed the name of charter schools. Their pro- impracticable. The threatened invasion of fessed oFject was the diffusion of useful England by the young Pretender vjas the knowledge; but as their primary process crisis which led to a change of domestic was based upon Protestant instruction, and policy toward the Catholics. Ireland, as the as this, to be effective, required a total sev- weakest point of the empire, was looked uperance of the parental tie which linked the on as the most exposed. The Irish populaCatholic peasant to his family, the effort fail- tion was numero us and discontented. Their ed. The second element of national regen- deficiency in the means and the organization eration was attempted by the formation of a of war could be instantaneously supplied by society, in imitation of the Royal Society of the wealth of France, and by the long-proved London, under the name of the Physico-His- skill and valor of their countrymen, the Irish torical Society, for the improvement of agri- brigades in the French service. To ward off culture, husbandry, and the useful arts, which the apprehended danger, Lord Chesterfield afterwards merged into the Royal Dublin So- was sent over in the spirit of conciliation. ciety. The last-named element of improve- To the Catholics, worn down by the action mcnt, the execution of public works, gave of half a century of increasing oppression, rise to the measure of inland navigation. the slightest relaxation of the highly strained But none of these were effective to the ex- engine of op.pression became comparatively tent proposed by those who set them on foot. a blessing. An accidental circulnstance afThe great object was not merely to give forded the new governor an opportunity tc Protestantism the ascendency, but to eradi- evince the sincerity of his professions. Hithercate Catholicism; to realize, in fact, what to the Catholics had held their assemblages for was imagined by a fiction of law, when, in a religious worship in the most secluded and case where a Catholic came into a court of secret places. The rewards offered by the justice, he was gravely told that the law did laws for the detection of their priests, or of not recognize the existence of a Papist. those who attended their ceremonies, comEducation, whether of the primary rudi- pelled them to the strictest secrecy. The ments or of the higher departments of science, floor of a building in one of the confined gave knowledge, and knowledge revealed streets of Dublin, where mass was celebratthe extent and gloom of degradation. Use- ed, gave way, and caused the death or muful works required workmen, and thus cir- tilation of a number of the wretched beings, culated capital amongst the Catholic popula- congregated to worship their God at all tion, to which the undertakers were com- hazards, in the way in which they had been pelled to have recourse for the mechanical trained. Lord Chesterfield, with the tact parts of such undertakings. A state of so- which has immortalized him as a first-rate ciety so anomalous, in which universal lib- character in the annals of fashionable life, erty was the avowed principle, yet slavery, seized the opportunity of declaring openly unmitigated by the protection which sordid that he would not be a party to a system of interest extends to the preservation of indi- religious prevention, liable to the hazard of vidual property, was the practice, could not such results; and the meetings of Catholics but be most precarious. The ruling party, for the purpose of religious worship were aware of the danger of explosion, at length constantly winked at. Still, however, the found itself compelled to give vent to the un- spirit of the penal code remained unrestrictder-workings of the reaction against oppres- ed; and operative laws were passed dluring sion, by a partial change of system. That the government of this, the first of the tolerof ever-increasing compression, painful and ating lord-lieutenants, not only annulling all 614 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. marriages between Protestants and Catho- mons declared him an enemy to the country, lies, if celebrated by a Catholic priest, but and passed a vote for his prosecution. Iie also rendering the clergyman who performed evaded the coming storm only by retiring te the ceremony liable to capital punishment. the Continent. On a subsequent vacancy, The threatened storm from abroad blQw over. however, he was re-elected, and took his seat The invasion of the young Pretender forms as one of the representatives of the people, no part of Irish history. The Irish Catholic which he retained till his death. The Irish remained unmoved in his habits of passive parliament, arrogant where it felt secure in obedience. The Irish Protestant returned its own power, was tamely submissive under to his parliamentary controversies with the. circumstances wherein an assertion of its just ruling powers -of England. Where there ex- rights would have been truly creditable. A isted such a consciousness of overwhelming surplus revenue remained in the Irish exsuperiority on the one side, acting upon a chequer. The English council insistedcon the spirit of domineering independence, checked king's right to dispose of it at pleasure. The by an, internal conviction of weakness, the Irish Commons equally insisted on their abweakness of division, on the other, collisions solute control over the public purse, without between the English cabinet and the Irish any interference from other quarters. The ascendency party could not fail to be fie- bill acknowledging the necessity of the royal quent and acrimonious; meach less could consent to the appropriation of the surplus insuch collisions fail to throw to the surface come' was rejected by thle Commons. The some of those restless spirits which political English council cut the matter short. The convulsions have shaken from their orbits of money in dispute was drawn out of the ordinary movement. A contest between the treasury by a king's letter, and the Commons Irish privy council, which then exercised the passively acquiesced in the spoliation al:ld most important parts of the legislative func- insult. tions of government, and the corporation, In this state of torpid tranquillity,, ruffled stimulated Charles Lucas, a Dublin apothe- only by apprehensions of internal commotion, cary, to assert the rights of the latter. Though or by the. agitation of partisan quarrels beunsuccessful, he was not unrewarded. The tween the rival factions of court and country death of the two representatives for Dublin which divided the doiminant party, Ireland gave rise to a contested election, an event of continued to advance for nearly seventy years rare occurrence under the then'existing con- after the Revolution, until at length the elestitution of the Irish parliament. Lucas was ments of activity were roused by the reality electedl under the pledge of vindicating, in of an actual invasion. In the year 1759, a the House of Commons, the perfect inde- fleet was fitted out in the French ports, for pendence of the Irish legislature. This doc- the avowed purpose of landing a large arnatrine, first broached by Molyneaux shortly ment in Ireland. A small. squadron under after the Revolution, in atreatise called the 3I. Tllurot, supposed to be anl adv\anced see"Case of Ireland," was viewed with alarm tion of the main fleet, and intendled to cause by the English party in the House, and with a diversion of the defending forces, landed in jealousy by that of the Irish aristoclracy. By the north of Ireland, and took possession of the the one it was viewed as a severance of town and castle of Carrickfergus with little the connection of sovereignty and depen- opposition. After hlolding it a few days, the dence between the two countries; by the French commander,, checked by the appearother it was felt to sap the foundations of ance of the general and determined resistance their own domestic omnipotence. Passages whicll was gathering around him tlhrouFlh all'of libellous tendency were extracted from the northern counties, deemned it expedient, Lucas's publications. The House of Comn- instead of proceecling to thle assault of the HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 615 wealthy and unclefended town of Belfast, tempts were made to connect those insurreo which lay at but a few miles' distance, to re- tions of desperate misery with the political embark. Any further repetition of his pre- movements of France. ZRumol> were cirldatory incursions was prevented by the culated that the Whiteboys were encouraged destruction of his little armament in the by mnoney from that court, and that their chlannel, in an engagement, in which Thurot combination was the explosion of a plan for himself lost his life. restoring the Pretender., A parish priest of The alarm excited by the threatened inva- the name of Sheehy, who had made himself sion afforded an opportunity to the Catholics obnoxious to the gentry in his neighborhood to call the attention of the government to by his exertions to shield the peasantry from their slfferings. An address, framed by a their oppressions, was arrested on a charge aommnittee of their body, was presented to of treason; and, though acquitted of that the lord-lieutenant, making a tender of their crime after a patient and long investigation allegiance at this critical period. Its favor- by a jury in Dublin, he was, on his return able reception brought forward others of the home, again arraigned on a charge of mursame kind from every part of the country, der, universally known to be false, and exeand thus was the first impulse given to the cuted. The situation of the British govern. movement for the repeal of the penal code. ment in Ireland at this time was extremely Another opportunity of echoing the sPmti- irksome and invidious. In order to carry ments contained in these addresses presented on the public business smoothly, it became itself on the accession of the new. king, necessary to conciliate the great landed proGeorge III. It was eagerly seized on, and prietors, who, through their borough inflntihe address was received Nith favor equal to ence, had the control of the House of Conmthe former. The state of the country re- mOlns. They were to be gained over partly quired some vital change in its internal ad- by allowing them a large share in the disministration. The revenue was declining, posal of all places of trust and profit, and and the peasantry were every year becom- partly by indulging their enmity to the Cathing more destitute and discontented. The olics, who were still suspected of being cewretched suffere's, attributing their misery mented in a secret union for the recovery of to the exaction of tithes and the enclosure of their forfeited estates. The party which thus lands hitherto left open in commonage, band- virtually ruled the country by playing the ed themselves together in large bodies at British government and the Irish people niglht, and destroyed the new enclosures; against one another, was known by the name whenc.e they at first received the name of of the Undertakers. They had a double obLevellers, but were afterwards better known ject; the one to make the crown, as far as by that of Whiteboys, fiom their wearing Ireland was concerned, dependent on themwhite shirts over their clothes, to be known selves; and the other to check the spirit of to one another in their nocturnal expeditions. liberty in the people, and at the same time From the invasion of property they proceed- to throw on the government the odium of ed to the attack of persons obnoxious to the measures of which they themselves were them, particularly tithe proctors, treating the instigators. To break down this petty with wanton and barbarous cruelty those aristocracy, which had intruded itself bewho fell into their hands. The government, tween the prerogative of the crown and the inastead of probing the evil to the bottom rights of the people, the British1 cabinet rein order to effect a cure by the removal solved, in the early part of George III.'s of the cause of irritation, retaliated by a reign, that the lord-lieutenant, who had Beries of severe and arbitrary laws, known hitherto visited the country only oneo in by the name of the WVllitehoy Acts. At- two years fur the purpose of holding a pa,. 616 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. liament and passing the supplies, leaving The real cause of disaffection was the same the management of the country during the in both parts of the country. High rents, intervening period to two or three lords- and the rapacity of the agents of absentees, justices chosen from among the leaders of drove the people into insurrection. The asthe Undertakers, should reside permanently sembled multitudes here took the name of in Dublin, so as thus to be the immediate Hearts of Steel. For their suppression, the and ostensible organ of government patron- legislature passed anl act that offenders should age and influence. At the same time, to put be tried in counties different from that in a stop to the outcry against the mismanage- which the crime was committed. The exment of the public income, which was at- treme severity and injustice of the law tributed to the people's want of a sufficient counteracted its operation. Dublin juries, check over their representatives? the dura- disgusted at a measure so arbitrary and untion of parliaments, which hitherto had ter- constitutional, acquitted the prisoners, and minated only on the demise of the crown, the law was soon repealed. Emigration to was limited to eight years, so that, as the the American colonies was the consequence parliaments then sat only every second year, of the depressed state of the peasantry, and there should be four sessions between each of the severity with which they were treatdissolution. Lord Townshend, a nobleman ed. The war with those colonies, by closing of moderate political, but of great convivial this vent for the discharge of the popular endowments, was selected as the most fitting discontents, caused them to accumulate at person to efflect the change. He succeeded home. It also increased their amount by with much difficulty, some loss of character, the addition of other grievances arising out and great expenditure of the public money. of the change from peace to war. Amlerica But the people felt no benefit from the had been the great mart for Irish linens, change. The places and pensions, hitherto now the only thriving branch of the nabestowed on the dependents of the Under- tional manufactures; it was also the great takers, were now lavished with augmented market for Irish provisions. The war closed profusion on the creatures of the lord-lieu- the trade, and an embargo laid on provisions tenant. The disappointed borough holders in favor of some great English contractors of the old parliaments felt their power in put a stop to their export. The country was the House of Commons increased by the also deprived of its portion of the regular curtailing of the period of legislation. They troops, which the increasing emergency of threw themselves into the ranks of the op- the struggle with the revolted provinces position to thwart the measures of the gov- called away. The sufferings of the people ernment which they could no longer direct. were intense; and the alarm of danger was The parliament was the arena for, the strug- shortly afterwards increased by the wellgle between the two parties, and the real founded apprehension of an invasion from interests of the country were disregarded. France, now the avowed ally of the AmerThe severity of the Whiteboy Acts caused a icans. To allay the spirit of discontent temporary cessation of insubordination in which was rapidly pervading all ranks, two one part of the country, only to give vent measures were proposed, the one in England, to it in another. The disturbances in the the removal of the restrictions imposed there,;outh had been imputed to Catholic conspir- as unwisely as selfishly, on Irish commerce; acy, aided by foreign influence. A similar the other the relaxation of the penal code systematized sp'rit of outrage now displayed in Ireland. The commercial jealousy of the itself in Ulster, which was chiefly inhabited mercantile interest in England prevented by a Protestant population, that had already the former; the latter succeeded so far as to testified its loyalty during Thurot's invasion. allow Catholics to hold lands by lease for a HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 617 long term of years. This boon, though it bination to confine themselves to the use of might excite the hope of more extended lib- their own manufactures. The sudden check erality, could avail little toward relieving to industry thus produced in England caused the pressure of immediate distress. Want the supporters cf the measure to reflect on at home and danger from abroad, stared the its expediency; and the military display country every year more fully in the face. could not fail to attract their respect. The landed and commercial interests called The people of Ireland now began to expect on the government for protection. The Earl from their volunteer associations what, ac of Buckinghamshire, then lord-lieutenant, a cording to the principles of the constitution, man of moderate abilities, returned for an- should only be looked for from the legislature. swer that the government had none to give. These bodies were not backward in meetThe people, urged on by the exigency of the ing such expectations. Assemblages of volcrisis, resolved to arm themselves. Volunteer unteer corps in Dublin and elsewhere passed associations were not hitherto wholly un- resolutions that the king, lords, and commons known in the country. The military spirit of Ireland alone were competent to make of the nation had shown itself on many pre- laws to bind the people of Ireland. The poceding occasions, in the readiness with which litical feeling thus excited increased the numnumerous bodies of men, assuming a self- ber of military associations; and, whilst in formed and self-taught military organization, the parliament the old system of corrupt ullited together on occasions of local or tem- influence carried all before it by numerical porary danger. The invasion of Thurot gave majorities, the volunteers of Ulster, in the rise to some in the north, the outrages of the consciousness of their strength, held a meetWhiteboys led to others in the southern coun- ing at Dungannon, declarative of the necesties. But such instances were temporary and sity of a thorough reform of the state of the local. The impulse now given to the public representation, and of a combined exertion of spirit, by the desponding reply of the govern- the whole volunteer force of Ireland to proment to the appeal for protection, was uni- cure it. The effervescence of patriotism was versal and permanent. The organization increased by the unsettled state of the adcommenced in Belfast, to which the lord-lieu- ministration in England; Lord North had tenant's answer had been more specially di- resigned, and the death of Lord Rockingham rected. The constituted authorities had told put a permature end to his short-lived adthem they were not to look to them for pro- ministration. The result as to Ireland was tection, but to themselves. They took the the dissolution of the parliament, against hint, and formed several companies of self- which the feelings of the nation were so armed, self-disciplined, and self-officered sol- highly excited. A new parliament was about diers. The surrounding towns followed the to meet; and at the same time a meeting of example; and the government, acting in the delegates from all the volunteer corps in Irespirit of its suggestion, supplied these new land was to assemble in Dublin, to urge on raised levies with arms. The flame of mili- the favorite measure of parliamentary reform. tary ardor spread with unexpected rapidity At this time several individuals had raised through all parts, and the number of well- themselves to the highest pinnacle in the disciplined corps soon became so great and scale of patriotism. The most remarkable so formidable as to dispel all thought of in- was the Earl of Charlemont, who, after spendvasion on the one side, and all apprehension ing his youth amidst the elegancies of Italian of it on the other. The same spirit caused a refinement, devoted his maturer years to the re-action against the monopolizing restric- service of his country at home. Next to tions of the British legislature. The people him were Grattan and Flood, both memnbers of Ireland entered into a very general corn- of parlia:nent, both eager to establish the in. 6i- HlI-ISTORY OF THE WORlLD. dependence of their common country on sure violent means was dangerous. The vol un grounds, yet fatally adverse to each other as teer body was numerous. It counted upto the foundation on which it was to be laid; wards of 100,000 men, e mbracing tLe greater thle former considering a simple repeal of all part of the wealth and respectability of the English laws interfering with Irish rights as country, and its ranks, its numbers and disa sufficient disavowal of the assertion of cipline were yearly increasingg. The consesupremacy, the latter requiring an open and quences of a hostile collision with such a explicit disclamation~ on the point. Grattan body, particularly at the close of an ansucwas successful, and the country voted him cessful war, commenced with the avowed de~50,000. The breach between the rival termination of crushing the spirit of iclepatriots was irremediable. Grattan remained pendence, in the American colonies, were at home to continue the struggle for secur- fiaunght with great hazard. An attempt was ing the newly gained rights of his country. therefore made to break up the strength of Flood soon afterwardls retired to England, this body by internal divisions. The Cathowhere a seat in the British legislature flat- lie question effected t]lis. The volunteers tered him with a more enlarged sphere for were almost exclusively Protestants. The the display of his powers. But he failed, extension of their rights to a portion of the and was no longer named as a patriot or population, so long held in a state of passive Statesman. degradation, was viewed by many of them The meeting of the new parliament and with a jealous eye. They looked upon every of the volunteer convention took place simul- new concession to the Catholics as so much taneously. The first and only act of any abstracted from themselves. Still, however, consequence adopted by the latter, was a re- the Catholic cause was gainingI ground. solution as to the necessity of a reform in The extension of a free trade to Ireland parliament; which having been immediately had afforded the means of accumulating- proafterwards introduced by Mlir. Flood into the perty. It was eagerly seized on by the Hlouse of Commons, was there rejected by a Catholic merchants and traders. The lately larg'e majority; and the convention, partly conceded permission to hold land on longI through an apprehension among many of its leases gave the holder of such property a members, of dangers from a collision between fixed position and weight in the country. two representative bodies, both emanating New laws, framed in the spirit of the increasfrom the same source, and both claiming to be I ing liberality of tile age, extended their rights. the constitutional organs of their constituents, They were permitted to purchase, hold, and and partly through a manceuvre of some of dispose of land, by will or othewise, as freely its leaders, quietly adjourned, and never after- as Protestants. The penal acts prohibiting wards assembled. the celebrating or hearing of mass, keeping Assemblages of large bodies of armed men, horses above the value of five pounds each, unconnected with and beyond the control instructing their own children, or acting as of the government, could not fail to alarm teachers, were repealed; as were those taxing the ruling powers. The union of these them for the losses sustained from privateers, bodies into a deliberative meetillg, for the obliging thern to pay Protestant wvatchmen, avowed purpose of influencing the legislature, excluding them fronom residence in particulam was still more alarming. The first effort of towns, and some other petty and irritating the volunteers to attain this position had restrictions. Still they were ifar from being been baffled. The meeting of delegates was on a political equality with their Protestant dissolved; but it might, and there was every countrymen; and at the very tile that the reason to suppose that it would, be re-as- severity of tle code was ths relaxecl as to sembled. To prevent such a recurrence by property, new laws were passed still flrther HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 619 contracting their political rights. By one of measures for effecting a union of the parliathese they were debarred from admission into ments of both countries, similar to that which the Inns of Court; by another the English took place in Scotland at the commenceact of William III. exhluding them fiom sit- iment of the century. The preva-ence of opting in parliament, was formally enacted in position to the wishes of tle English cabiIreland. The passing of it attracted but lit- inet was as transient as it had been sudden. tle notice, as the act of William had been Tie members who voted against the minishitherto passively acquiesced in by the Catho- try on the regency question were again found lie body. in their places on all ministerial questions, Whilst the government -was successfully with the exception of those whose rebellion busied in sowing the seeds of disunion had been too gross and daring to admit of aimongst thle volunteers, it paid little atten- pardon; and the parliamentary manacement tion to conciliate the people by economy or of the country began to subside again into good management. The reckless system of its former state of torpidity. lavish and profligate expenditure introduced But the caln was not to be of long duraby Lord Townshendcl to break down the mo- tion. A new element of convulsion was at nopoly of the Undertaklers, was persevered work. The French revolution broke out in in to secure majorities in the HIouse of Com- the same year in which the king's insanity mons. A feeble effort made by the Duke had caused such excitation. For some timle of Buckingham to iretrench and restore order it produced but little effect on the popullar to the finances only led to Iris recall. Yet movements in Ireland. The Protestants, init was soon found that a government resting deed, began to call more loudly for reform, on majorities thus purchased depended on a and tile Catholics to press more openly for very frail security. The mental derange- admittance into the pale of the constitution, ment of the kinug in 1789 showed the futility Both were disregarded. The government of such reliance. The English cabinet wished'felt itself strong in its majorities, and in the to restrict the Prince of Wales in the dis- plenitude of its means for securing them. charge of the regal powers intrusted to him The question of reform was disregarded; as regent. The Irish privy council was pre- that of Catholic relief was nlot only scouted pared to follow the'example. But the oppo- with markie contumely, but, during tle ensition in parliament, anxious to extend their suing recess in 1792, every exertion was own influence by gaining over the heir- made on the part of government to draw apparent, who bad till then always made forth from tile grand juries of the several professions of great liberality of political counties the strongest resolutions against any opinion, resolved to grant.hllim the regency further concessions. Yet the very next year of Ireland, with no restrictions beyond those a bill was introduced into parliament by the imposed by the constitution on the sovereign government, for extending the elective franhimself. An address to this effect, voted by elhise to the Catholics, wllich was passed by )both houses of Parliament, in opposition to a majority nearly equal to that which had tlhe lord-lieutenant, was forwarded to Lon- refused to take their claims into consideration don. The sudden and unexpected recovelry in the last session. Bills for amending the of the king prevented its effect. But the representation, and for disqualifying placeBritish minister, having now so fully be- men from sitting in the House of'Commlons, fore him a:warning of the consequences were also introduced. The promises of rethat might result firom si, nilar collisions of form thus held out induced the minority to the two legislatures upon future questions, acquiesce in several coercive measulres, parseemed fully determiIled to seize on eversy ticularly one against the hIoldcing of con'enopportunity of preventing it, by takingn tions by delegation. Enactnlents of the ]atb 620 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ter character having been secured, that of of profit and influence, and remonstrated ef reform was allowed to languish, and, next fectually against their own dismission and year, was rejected by an overwhelming min- the breaking up of the old system, and Earl isterial majority. The French war, in which Fitzwilliam was suddenly recalled. Earl England was now involved, had been the Camden, who succeeded him as lord-lieutencause of this sudden burst of concession; ant, recurred to the former systemn of pabut when the means of carrying it on, and tronage and coercion. The United Irishmen of checking by severity. any efforts to excite now looked not to a reform, but to a separadiscontent at home, had been assured, the tion from Great Britain, and the establishmask was thrown off, and the management ment of an independent republic in alliance of affairs carried on with increased profligacy with that of France, as the only means of of expenditure, and disregard of public opin- securing the independence of their country. ion. The advocates of reform, despairing A well-arranged system of secret confederaof any change of measures from parliament, cy was spread over the greater part of the endeavored to carry the question of reform kingdom, headed by an executive in the by a pressure from without, through the capital, the members of which, though wholly agency of voluntary associations. They unknown, except to the few individuals in formed a Whig Club, which afterwards was immediate communication with themselves, superseded by that of the United Irishmen. issued orders for enlisting, combining, and One of the leading features of both societies, arming their adherents, which were zealously especially of the latter, was the advocacy of and implicitly obeyed. The northern and the Catholic question, as it now appeared midland counties had for some time been evident that the question of reform was hope- disturbed by the fierce and deadly contenless, without the previous admission of the tions of the peasantry of the two opposite Catholic body to their rights of freemen. religious creeds; the Catholics took the nalle The government, after some further perse- of Defenders, the Protestants that of Orverance in measures of harshness and re- angemen. As the struggle grew more desstraint, heightened by the increased violence perate, the attraction of party extended to of the leaders of the people, the principal the higher classes, and the former of these of whom, Wolf Tone, Hamilton Rowan, and predial disturbers merged into the great mass James -Napper Tandy, were forced to expa- of United Irishmen, whilst the latter, contriate themselves, changed at once to a sys- solidated by the infusion of a superior spirit tem of conciliation. In assurance of the of wealth and intelligence, formed a conrsincerity of the change of sentiment, Earl pact, well-organized, and resolute body, un. Fitzwilliam, a nobleman possessed of large der the original name of Orangemen, deterestates in Ireland, and a steady advocate of mined to maintain to the utmost their own liberal measures, was sent over as lord-lieu- monopoly of power, and the entire exclusion tenant. He commenced his government by of the Roman Catholics, who formed the arrangements for bringing in a bill for the great mass of the population, from any partotal repeal of the penal statutes, and by the ticipation of it. The increasing hostility of removal from office of the inferior agents of both parties showed itself by acts of auggolvernlment, who, by their long continuance mented atrocity on both sides. The Defenin place, and the manner in which their mu- ders' means of aggression were nocturnal tual interests were connected, virtually pos- plunder, house-burnings, and murders. The sessed the supreme power. The latter of other party, backed by the sanction of the these efforts caused the lord-lieutenant's re- government, had recourse to the force of rmoval. The family of the Beresfords, which statutes of increased rigor, and, where these had for many yearspossessed the chief places failed, to the agency of military violence HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 621 beyond the law. In the year 1796 the or- persons, and bodies of soldiery were allowed ganization of the united system on the one to live at free quarters in suspected districts. side, and on the other the increased severi- The relaxation of discipline and consequent ties of the Orangemen, supported by the outrages arising from these practices causeci government, and directed exclusively against General Abercromby, who came over to take the Catholic peasantry, compelled the leaders the command of the army at this juncture, of the people to press upon the French gov- to declare, in general orders to the troops, ernment the necessity of an immediate in- that " the army was in a state of licentious vasion. In consequence of their repeated ness which rendered it formidable to every and urgent applications, aided by the exer- one but the enemy." The anouncement was tions of Wolf Tone, who, since his departure as unpalatable as it was harsh. The general from Ireland, had devoted himself to this was recalled. General Lake was sent in his object, a large armament was equipped in place. By his commands the soldiery exerthe western ports of France, for the avowed cised an almost uncontrolled authority, in purpose of invading Ireland. The command which they were sanctioned by instructions of it was intrusted to Hoche, then considered from the government, empowering the army as the first officer of the time. Taking ad- to use force at the discretion of the officers vantage of a storm which drove the block- against the people. At the same time the ading squadron of England off the coast, a strength of the United Irish Association was large fleet sailed fiom Brest under his com- considerably impaired by the arrest or flight mand in the middle of December; but the of the executive, caused by the treachery of same violence of weather which afforded it some of their own body. This circumstance, the opportunity of eluding the vigilance of however, produced no despondency. O)n the British navy dispersed it when at sea, the contrary, it led to increased exertion. A insomuch that but a part of the armament new executive was formed, and a resolution arrived on the coast of Ireland. Having adopted to press forward the insurrection lain for some time in Bantry Bay undiscov- without waiting for French assistance. A ered by the enemy, waiting the arrival of second act of treachery baffled this effort. the general, who had embarked in a frigate, Twelve of the leading members of the Uniand finding the further continuance on the ted Irishmen were seized, with their papers, station every day more precarious, it departed, whilst in committee. A third act of treachcontrary to the pressing remonstrances of ery led to the disclosure of the details of the Wolf Tone, and returned to Brest, whither plans. Captain Armstrong, -of the iking's the remainder of the fleet soon afterwards county militia, entered the association for arrived, with the loss of a few ships. A the purpose of betraying its leaders. By second expedition from the Dutch coast was his information two barristers of the name equally unsuccessful. The possibility of an of Sheares, brothers, were arrested; and invasion being thus demonstrated, and the shortly afterwards, Lord Edward Fitzgerald, probability of its ultimate success, if effected a brother of the Duke of Leinster, to whom. on a great scale, being apprehended in the the chief command of the insurrection had present excited state of the public mind, the been intrusted, was seized in his place of government had recourse to still stronger concealment in Dublin, and carried to prison, measures to put down the spirit of insurrec- where he soon after died either of his wounds tin. The habeas corpus act was suspended, or from his treatment whilst there. Notdomiciliary visits throughout the country withstanding these checks, the insurrection parts were frequent, meetings of the people exploded at the time arranged by its leaders. were dispersed by violence, torture Iwas in- On the evening of the 23d of May, the tlicted to tforce confession from suspected United Irishmen assembled in large bodie.s 622 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. in the neighborhood of Dublin and the ad- them the hair and skin. In the spirit of joining counties. The warnings previously fiendish mockery, they cut ridges in the hair given to government were sufficient to pro- of others, in the form of a cross, and filling vide against the intended attack upon the up the furrow with gunpowder, set fire to it. capital. The parties collected in its neigh- On the first breaking out of the rebellion, a borhood were easily dispersed, with the loss number of suspected persons, some of them only of a few lives. Unfortunately the same respectable farmers, who had been confined vigilance did not extend to the more distant in a racklet-court at Hacketstown, were delib. parts. The signal for commencing opera- erately lhot, without even the foirm of trial, tions on the side of the insurgents was to be on the removal of the troops from that place, the non-arrival of the mail-coachles at their lest they should join the rebel camps. A respective places of destination. The north- similar massacre was perpetrated at Dunlaerm and western mail coaches were stopped. vin. The insurgents of Kildare, finding The town of Naas was attacked, but, owing themselves defeated in almost every assault to an anonymous warning, the garrison was upon the king's troops, came forward to surprepared, and the assault was repelled. Un- render on promise of pardon. Many laid successful attacks were also made on Carlow, down their arms, and were permitted to disHacketstown, and Mionasterevan. A large perse in safety. But a large body of thlem, body which had assembled on the hill of assembled for the same purpose, was unsex Tarahwas routed with much slaughter. The pectedly attacked by a detachment of the operations of the army were seconded by the military, who had not been made acquainted most violent acts on the part of the govern- with the arrangement, and cut to pieces. ment. Several of the leaders who had been The system of torture was carried by the previously seized were tried and executed. soldiery into the county of Wexford, which Numbers arrested on suspicion were brought had hitherto remained quiet. Here the into places prepared for the purpose, and there surgents were more successful. After cuttied up and flogged, to extort confession. ting to pieces a detachment of cavalry from The principal places in Dublin for these in- Dublin, and another of infantry and artillery quisitorial executions'were the Royal. Ex- from Duncannon Fort, and taking Enniscorchange; the Old Custom-Ilouse, the Prevot thy by storm, they seized. on the town of Barrack, and a riding house belonging to a W\exford, whichl had been evacuated on the cavalry corps commanded by one, of the first alarm by the military. Having estabBeresford family. The atrocities practiced lished themselves here, and at Vinegar Hill, in the capital under the sanction of the gov- an eminence near Enniscorthy, they remainernment were improved upon in the country ed comparatively quiet, being chiefly oceuparts, where the military, to whom full li- pied in putting to death prisoners charged cense was permitted, by putting the country with having been active in the cruelties under martial law, not only adopted the practiced upon the insurgents. Their first same method of extorting confession, but serious defeat was at New Ross, from which used others of more refinled agony to elicit they were repulsed after a sanguinary condiscoveries or to gratify revenge. In some test of ten hours. In revenge for this defeat, cases they hanged up their victim, and let a party of the fugitives set fire to a barn at him down again just before life was ex- Scullabogue, in which upwards of a h rndred tinct; thus repeating at pleasure tile suffer- of their prisoners were confined, all of whomn ings of strangulation. On the heads of oth- were either burned, or piked in attempting 2rs they applied caps lined with heated pitclh, to escape from tile flames. The same imlwhich, whlen fastened on, and allowed to pulse of salnguinary despair caused the insurcool, were a iddenly torn off. carwrving with gents in WVexford to put their prisoners to HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 625 death, by pildking them on the bridge, and General Lake was posted to oppose him. flinging their bodies into the sea; a process This force was taken by surprise, and routed of cruelty continued for several days, not- almost without firing a shot. The French withstanding the active interference and re- then proceeded to Coolooney, where they monstrances of several of their own clergy. received a temporary check from a party of At length, however, their main position at the Irish militia, which made a gallant stand Vinegar Hill was invested by a large military against superior numbers; and thence proforce, and stormed after a short resistance. ceeded, followed by General Lake, into the Wexford soon afterwards fell into the hands county of Longford. Having arrived at the of the royal troops, having surrendered with- village of Ballynamuek, the Frennch cornout resistance, on conditions which were im- mander, finding himself surrounded by an mediately violated. The leaders of the in- overwhelming majority of force, collected surrection who had not fallen in the field from all parts by Lord Cornwallis, surrenderwere executed by court-martial, and the in- ed at discretion, leaving his Irish auxiliaries surrection in this and the neighboring county to the mercy of the enemy. No quarters of Wicklow totally suppressed. was given to these. A second attempt at inThe news of the first successes of the in- vasion, equally feeble and futile, was made surgents in Wexford caused a rising in the the following month. A small sqnadron counties of Antrim and Down, which had appeared off the northern coast, filled with remained passive on the first breaking out troops intended for disembarkation; but it of the insurrection in Kildare. But it was was routed by a superior English fleet, with speedily put down after a battle in the town the loss of one line-of-battle ship and six of Antrim, and another at Ballynahinch, in frigates, in which were some of the expatriatIoth of which the insurgents, who displayed ed Irish who were embarked in this despermuch courage, but no military skill, were ate expedition. Amongst these was Wolfe totally defeated. The marauding parties, who Tone, who, on being brought prisoner to still harassed the country after the dispersion Dublin, anticipated the sentence of a courtof the main bodies, were ultimately broken martial by an act of suicide. up by the prudent and merciful conduct of The British government of that day has Lord Cornwallis. This nobleman, who sue- been accused of fomenting the rebellion of ceeded Earl Camden as lord-lieutenant, not 1798 for the purpose of bringing about a only put an instant stop to the system of legislative union between Irela an and Great torture and extermination which had been Britain. There is no foundation for the adopted and perseveringly acted on by his charge, but doubtless the government took predecessor, but issued an amnesty, to all advantage of the explosion of the insurrecwho submitted and returned to their dwel- tion of 1798 to hasten on the progress of a lings. This merciful policy had its full ef- necessary measure, the adoption of which feet; and the country, after being convulsed was only a question of time. The union of for two months by the deadly struggles of both countries had been proposed and dethe contending parties, entertained the hope bated without result in 1782, the year of soof being restored to tranquillity,when the pro- called constitutional independence and final spect was suddenly overcast. Towards the adjustment; three years after which, Mr. close of summer, a small French squadron Foster, the chancellor of the Irish exchequer, landed a force of about twelve hundred men said in the Irish parliament, " Things cannot at Killala, in the west of Ireland. Humbert, remain as they are; commercial jealousy is the general, being joined by a number of the roused, and it will increase with two ncleinhabitants pressed on to Castlebar, where a pendent legislatures. Without a united inforce:f from five to six thousand men under terest in commerce, in a commercial empire, 624 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. political union will receive many shocks, and tion, and other advantages which they had separation of interest must threaten separa- little hope of obtaining from' the Irish partion of connection, which every honest Irish- liament. The government being resolved on man must shudder to look on as a possible the measure, found it necessary to prevent event." Mr. Fox stated in the British House or disperse various public meetings of its of Commons that from the period of 1782 violent opponents, and to make use of all the there had been growing sources of dissatis- influence at their command to overcome the faction and discontent in Ireland, and that reluctance of the majority of the Irish House its condition in 1797 was one at which no of Commons. Confiding in the success of man could look without the greatest alarm. his arrangements, Lord Castlereagh, the The rebellion of 1798 alarmed all reason- Irish minister, revived the question early in able persons, and the dispute which had oc- 1800; and on the final division, which took curred in 1789 between the two parliaments place on the 6th of February in that year, of Great Britain and Ireland respecting the 158 members voted for the Union, and 115 powers to be granted to the Prince of Wales against it. The, principle being admitted, as regent, clearly demonstrated that there and the details having been settled by the was no security in the existing arrangement. British parliament during the past session, The project of 1782 was revived, and a legis- no further difficulty was experienced. At lative union of Great Britain and Ireland the close of the year the two separate parliarecommended in the lord-lieutenant's speech ments of Great Britain and Ireland were at the opening of parliament in January,1799. dissolved, and a proclamation issued for the After a discussion in the Lower House on assembling of an imperial parliament in the address, which occupied twenty-two hours, January, 1801. a resolution approving the principle was car- In 1793, eight years previous to the Union, ried by a majority of one. After a subse- Mr. Grattan stated that, of 300 members of quent debate, the opinion of the House having the Irish House of Commons, 200 were the been declared against it by a majority of five, nominees of private individuals, from 40 to 50 the paragraph in favor of the Union was ex- were returned by constituencies of not more punged from the address to the throne. For than ten persons each; several boroughs had a time the question remained in an unsettled not more than one resident elector, and that state. Mr. Pitt, in his speech of the 31st of out of 300 members thus returned, 104 were January, 1799, said, "I wish that the ques- placemen and pensioners. At, the Union tion of the Union should be stated distinctly, compensation was awarded to the proprietors temperately, and fully; that it should be left of 83 boroughs, an act having been previously to the unprejudiced, the dispassionate, the passed hv which the Irish parliament voted sober judgment of the Irish parliament. I ~1,400,oo0 for the "losses sustained from the wish that those whose interests are involved Union by the cities, towns, and boroughs, in in the measure should have time for its con- Ireland, and to make compensation to persideration. I wish that time should be given sons for loss or reduction of emolument of to the landed, to the monied interest, that office by the Union." they should look at it in all its bearings- The act of the Union did not at once prothat they should coolly examine and sift the duce'the results promised by its advocates. popular arguments by which it has been op- It either tranquillized the country, or aided posed; and that then they should give their the consolidation of its resources. The Protfinal judgment." The great body of the estants, who constituted the aristocracy, people were induced to give the measure a found their influence diminished by it. The tacit though reluctant assent, from a pro- Catholics soon discovered the hopelessness mise held out to them of Catholic emancipa- of the expectation of being thereby admitted HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 625 to the rights of freemen. When the ques- lives. Emmett, on finding the failure of his tion of their emancipation was about to be scheme, escaped to the neighboring mounmade an object of discussion, it was now for tains, where he was soon afterwards taken, the first time publicly announced that the brought to trial, and executed. A similar king had insuperable objections to the mea- attempt at insurrection was arranged in the sure. The consequence was a change of north of Ireland by an associate of Emmett, ministry, which was followed up by legisla- named Russell, but discovered before the tive measures of great severity towards Ire- time fixed for its explosion. Measures of land, founded on the suspected existence of prevention were adopted, and its leader, bea spirit of disaffection there. Martial law ing soon afterwards taken in his place of was re-enacted, and the acts for suspension concealment in Dublin, was also executed. of the habeas corpus, and for preventing se- The only permanent consequence of these ditious meetings, were revived. These mea- foolish plans of rebellion was the revival of sures of prospective severity did not prevent statutes of extreme severity, which by placthe mischiefs apprehended. In 1803, less ing the people beyond the protection of the than three years after the passing of the Act usual course of law, served to foster in the of Union, an insurrection, devised by Robert mind the seed of discontent and disaffecEmmoett, the younger brother of a barrister tion, which it was the professed object of of the same name who had expatriated him- such legislation to extinguish. self in consequence of the leading part he The agitation of the feelings of mutual irhad taken in the proceedings of the United ritation between the two great parties in Irishmen, broke out in the city of Dublin. Ireland, arising from the late insurrection, Its explosion was so-sudden and unexpected, had not sufficiently subsided to admit of the that no suspicions, at least none strong enough most distant hope that the Catholic claims to lead to the adoption of measures of pre- would receive the slightest attention in parcaution, were entertained by the govern- liament till 1805. Even then, so powerful meit. Soon after sunset on the 23d of July, was the party adverse to the entertainment Emmett, who had returned to Ireland, in of the question, that motions for a connmittee ignorance of the altered state of public feel- on the petitions of the Catholics presented ing, issued, at the head of a number of his in that year were rejected in both Houses by followers, armed chiefly with pikes, from a overwhelming majorities. Even a bill, which depot established by him in an obscure street asked no more than to put Roman Catholic in the west of Dublin, and after cutting officers in the army on the same footing in down some of the military who were proceed- the English as they were in the Irish service. ing individually to their several quarters, brought in by the then ministry, led to a dismoved towards the Castle, the main object solution, both of the administration and of of attack, when his followers were delayed the parliament, in consequence of the king's by the approach of Lord Kilwarden's car- aversion to it. For several years afterwards riage. This excellent and popular nobleman, the question was periodically mooted in one who had been chief-justice of the king's bench or both houses of parliament, and uniformly during the late troublous times, was coming rejected, though on each subsequent occasion nto IDublin as a place of security, in conse- by a diminished majority. quence of a rumor of a rising having reached The Catholic committee, which had sat him in his villa, a few miles from town. On under various names and forms from time to being recognized, he was immediately assail- time since its original institution in 1756, ed, and mortally wounded. The arrival of having, in 1811, proposed to assemble by two small picquets immediately dispersed the delegation in Dublin, steps were taken by collected multitude, with the loss of a few the government to put it down, as contrary In. —40 626 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. to the provisions of the convention act, which of anything savoring of delegation, a strict prohibited such assemblages; but, in conse- adherence to the letter of any law that had quence of the acquittal of one of the mem- been or might be enacted in order to stifle bers by a Dublin jury, no further proceed- the expression of the sentiments of tile Cathings were taken, and the increased activity olics, and, above all, the admission of the of the association recalled the Orange lodges great body of the people into it. This last into existence, and led to frequent collisions element of its constitution was finally secured among the people. In 1817 public opinion and firmly grafted into it, after a continued had advanced in favor of the Catholic claims and precarious struggle for existence, by a so far as to admit of the question of seceri- pecuniary contribution, which O'Connell deties being a topic of discussion. The chief nominated " the Catholic rent." Every Cathpoint now was the exertion of a royal veto olic was called upon to subscribe at least one in the nomination of the Roman Catholic penny per month to defray the expenses of hierarchy, but the claim was fortunately af- the association, and thereby became a memterwards abandoned. ber of it. These expenses were far from inIn 1821 George IV. visited Ireland during considerable. They were applied partly to the vice-royalty of Earl Talbot. The king protect poor Catholics from the petty perselanded at IHowth on the 12th of August, and cutions of intolerant magistrates and landafter a stay of nearly three weeks, during lords, partly to meet the general expenditure which all was loyalty and gaiety, his majesty of the association, whose communications embarked at Dunleary, afterwards called with all parts of the country could not othKingstown, on the third of September, and erwise be effectively carried on, and partly Daniel O'Connell, at the head of a Catholic for the gratuitous circulation, thi'oughout deputation, presented the king with'a crown every part, of a newspaper, containing a deof laurel. tail of all the proceedings of the association. In 1823 tile Catholic question began to The dissolution of Mr. Canning's ministry assume a new and more imposing form. Its by the unexpected death of its leader, and change of character was owing to Daniel the formation of the Wellington administraO'Connell, then a practicing barrister, who, tion, gave a character of increased energy to after having signalized himself on his first the struggle for Catholic emancipation. The entrance into political life by an eloquent duke was universally believed to be decidprotest against the extinction of the parlia- edly and irreclaimably adverse to concession ment of Ireland, had been subsequently an on this subject; and one of the first mensactive and most influential actor in all the ures taken by the Catholics on his accession proceedings of the Catholic body. Deplor- to power, was the adoption of pledges, to be ing, along with his friend and coadjutor, in given by every candidate at an election, to political action, Mr. Shiel, the state of torpid oppose the new government. They were depression into which the question had de- intended for the next general election, but clined, he suggested the re-vival of a central Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald having accepted a seat body to advocate and manage their cause, in the cabinet, a vacancy occurred in the planned its details, and commenced its or- representation of the county Clare, and 0'ganization. The first meeting of this body, Connell was elected, declaring that he would so soon, under the name of the Catholic As- take his seat and vote. The agitation had sociation, to be the acknowledged organ of now arrived at that point when it could no the public sentiment of the greater part of longer be resisted with safety, and the Cathtle population of Ireland, commenced in a. olic claims, which ought to have been admieeting of three individuals. Its distin- mitted immediately after the Union, were guisling characteristics were the exclusion gro sted in 1829. %r\ HISTORY OF-THE WORLD. 627 The chief opponents of the Union were ported by tithes received from the farmers, lie Orange party in Ireland, who had been, who were almost universally Roman Cathoand hoped to remain, in the ascendant; the lies, the amount payable being ascertained Roman Catholics generally acquiesced in by tithe proctors, who walked over the fields the arrangement, feeling that it would break and valued the crops for that purpose. In up, or at least diminish, the power of the 1823 compositions for tithe were authorized Protestant aristocracy. The first public at- by statutable enactment, but few had taken tempt to put in question the repeal of the advantage of the provisions of the act, and legislative Union between Great Britain and during the Reform Bill agitation the Roman Ireland was made by the High Tory corpor- Catholics pressed forward the anti-tithe moveation of Dublin, in 1810; the subject was ment. In 1830, Earl Grey, who had sucafterwards debated in the House of Com- ceeded the Duke of Wellington, having mons, in 1822; and two years later Lord promised a bill in parliament for the settleCloncurry recommended the Catholics to join ment of the tithe question, the resistance to the Protestants on the Repeal question. The further payment of tithe became general great leader of the Roman Catholic, or na- until 1832, when Lord Stanley introduced tional party having been re-elected for the the Tithe Composition Bill. The Church county of Clare, after the passing of the Re- Temporalities Act, which originally containlief Act, took his seat in the House of Com- ed the famous Appropriatiotn Cclazse, remons, and surprised his opponents, who had duced the number of bishoprics, and transsupposed him to possess only the talents of ferred the revenues of the suppressed sees to a vulgar demagogue, by exhibiting his ca- the Board of Ecclesiastical Commissioners; pacity to cope with the best parliamentary and in 1838 compositions for tithe were orators. To keep alive the spirit and activ- abolished, fixed payments, or rent charges it,y of his followers, and coerce the govern- (consisting of three-fourths of the amount ment into granting measures of amelioration, of the former composition), to be paid by O'Connell proclaimed, in the first year of the landlords, being substituted. his admission to a seat in parliament, that a When parliamentary reform took place in repeal of the legislative Union was the only 1832, Ireland acquired the privilege of sendmeans of obtaining justice for Ireland, and ing five additional members to the Imperial systematically maintained the position which Parliament, the qualification for voters in from first to last he had no serious thought the counties of cities and towns was. raised, of realizing.: The Repeal Association fol- and the franchise in other respects assimilowed the Catholic Association, and, in con- lated to that of the counties in which the junction with the anti-tithe agitation, this rights of the 40s. freeholders had been taken new element of discord raised a storm so away by. the Catholic Emancipation Act. potent that it was with difficulty O'Connell In the next year a commission was appointed could keep it within bounds, and the govern- to inquire into the state of the municipal mnent was compelled to obtain additional corporations of Ireland. The abolition of powers by means of the Coercion Bill, which the penal laws, and the establishment of the passed the House of Commons, and was en- right of Catholics to sit in Parliament had forced by the Marquis of Anglesey, then not procured their admission into offices unlord-lieutenant of Ireland. der the municipal corporations, all of which With a population approaching 8,000,000 were exclusively under the control of Protin numnber, of which little more than 10 estants; butthe many abuses and restrictions per cent. were members of the Established which were found to exist in those bodies Church, every parish in Ireland was provided were remedied, or removed, by the Muni with a clergyman of that persuasion, sup- cipal Reform Act of 1840. 628 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. In 1836 the police system, originated in and establish the "Loyal National Repeal 1814 by Sir Robert Peel, when chief secre- Association." The ministry of Sir Robert tary for Ireland, was perfected by the con- Peel succeeded that of Lord Melbourne in solidation of the law and complete establish- 1841, and the Repeal Association was re-orment of the efficient constabulary force, ganized. The year 1843, denominated the which, disseminated in small bodies through- Repeal year, was remarkable for what were out the country, is the theme of general ad- known as monster meetings, commencing at miration for its efficiency and intelligence. Trim in the month of March, and ending at Second in importance only to the estab- Mullaghmast on the 1st of October. Anlishment of police for the security of order other meeting was to have been held on and property, is the foundation.of a system Sunday, the 8th of October, at Clontarf, but of national education, which was laid in the government took measures by proclama1833, and supported by grants of public tion and otherwise to prevent the assemblage money, for the education of the poor with- of the people. O'Connell, upon understandout distinction of religious creed. The sys- ing the determination of the government, tem has so grown in extent and utility, that successfully used his authority to keep his it must greatly contribute during the next followers away, and no monster ]meetings half-century to the rapid spread of civiliza- were afterwards attempted. tion throughout the country. In January, 1844, the state prosecutions Notwithstanding the nnmerous institutions against the agitator and his colleagues con1for the relief of the poor, and the extent of mencedl, and resulted in the condemnation private benevolence, the amount of pauper- of the accused, who were sentenced to a ism existing in Ireland had become such that short term of imprisonment. They were it was necessary. for the sake of policy as confined to Richmond bridewell, but on apwell as of humanity, to provide, by legisla- peal to the House of Lords, the judgment of tive enactment,' for the support of the aged, the Irish Court of Queen's Bench was reimpotent, and infirm poor. A commission versed, and their prison doors opened. appointed in 1836 to inquire into their con- The Repeal question was one in which dition, recommended that relief should be O'Connell had little hope, and his followers given only to the impotent; and in 1.838 an had much faith. The events of the last few act was passed authorizing relief under strict years, when O'Connell had been carried belimitations, but was gradually extended in yond his judgment, had rendered him somethe course of time, until, in 1847, the right what tinmid and doubtful of the result. He of the destitute poor to relief was established never again prosecuted the cause with the in consequence of the famine which had re- same vigor as heretofore. The people besulted from the continued failure of the po- came indifferent to him, his health failed, rato crop. and famine desolated the land. Early in After the return of Lord Melbourne as 1847 O'Connell left Ireland for the last time, premier in 1835, the government maintained and, after a gradual decay. died at Genoa of for some time a good understanding with disease of the brain. O'Connell, who established the Precursor Previous to the decease o! O'Connell the Society to obtain "equality with England influence of the young Ireland party had inunder the Union;" but the continued oppo- creased among the masses of the people, and sition of the House of Lords to the Muni- in 1846 they folnmed a separate body, under cipal Reform Bill for Ireland, and the recall the title of the' Irish Confederation." On of the Marquis of Normandy from the lord- the breaking out of the French revolution, lientenaney in 1839, induced O'Connell to early in 1848, the confederation transgressed infuse new vigor into the repeal movement, all the bounds of moderation, sent a depu _ _ _ _ _ _'__ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _._ _ _ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 629 tation to the Provisional Government of derived from the fact that Robert Emmett France, requesting aid on behalf of the "op- before his execution desired that no monupressed nationality of Ireland," and organ- ment might be erected to his memory till ized plans of insurrection. The government Ireland should be free from British thraldom. allowed the rebellion, if such it could be This title, therefore, implied a threat against called, to attain its full proportions, when, the dominions of Great Britain. The name after much excitement, it was terminated by of Fenian was afterward adopted, as it is thle arrest of Mr. Smith O'Brien, who had said from Fin McCoul, one of the legendary incautiously appeared at the head of a small heroes of the early Irish history. It was body of insurgents at Ballingarry, in the not, however, till 1859, that the organization county of Tipperary. Mr. Smith O'Brien fully developed itself and assumed the regualnd others were tried for high treason, and lar form that made it appear so formidable. found guilty, but the sentence of death was In the United States the systemn became most conmmutedto transportaltion for life. In 1856, perfect. There the lowest detail consisted such llof the convicts as had not broken their of a Local Circle of not less than sixty parole received their freedom from the gov- members, which had the privilege of sendernmel t. ing a delegate to the Fenian Congress Various legislative measures for the ame- whenever it was held. Above these Local lioration of the condition of Ireland were Circles were the State Centres, and at the passed during the following years. In 1849 head of all was the Head Centre, corresa court was established for the sale of en- peonding to the office of president. This cumbered estates. Queen Victoria made her Head Centre after the re-organization of the first visit to Ireland in the same year, and brotherhood, was elected by the Annual Feagain appeared in the country at the opening nian Congress. The first of these assemblies of the great exhibition of Irish industrial was held in Chicago, in 1863, and a second products, in 1853. The Roman Catholic in Cincinnati in 1865. At these meetings College of Maynooth was established by a the organization of the society was openly grant from the government in 1854, and ex- discussed, and its object, the liberation of cited considerable agitation by the Protes- Ireland, boldly avowed. After a subsequent tant opposition raised against it. The ques- congress, held in the same year as thle last tion of " Tenant Right " and other grievances mentioned, public offices were opened by the also created considerable disturbance in the officers of the Brotherhood in iNew York, minds of the people, but they were either and bonds were issued in the name of the settled in a constitutional manner by parlia- Republic of Ireland. ment, or else suffered to die away at the The proceedings of the Fenian 13rothertime, to be again revived whenever a suita- hood were necessarily conducted in a far ble opportunity for action should arrive. different manner in Ireland and the British The course of Irish government proceeded Colonies. There the greatest secrecy was in this way without any particular event to required, and a mystery was thrown over mark its administration until the organiza- their movements, which served not a little tion known as the Fenian Brotherhood came to increase the anxiety of the English govinto notice in 1865. ernment. This showed itself in increased This organization, consisting of natives of severity of administration. During the year Ireland, extended through the United States, a large military force was sent into Ireland, the British Provinces of North America and and the police greatly increased. In some Ireland. It had its origin about 1857, in a counties martial law was declared, and many society known as the Emmett Monument As. arrests were made. One of the persons arso(iation. The signification of this name is rested proved to be James Stephens, the G630 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. Head Centre, not only of the Uhited States, throughout the island; the proprietors of esbut of the whole Brotherhood; but, notwith- tates could not live in safety on their own standing the vigilance of his keepers, this land, and order was maintained only by the important captive managed in some mysteri- strong exertion of superior power. To ameous way to slip out of prison and elude all liorate this deplorable condition, and reform efforts for his recapture. The operations of some of the abuses which had always marked the Brotherhood in the following years were the course of British administration in the chiefly confined to expeditions in America sister isle, various measures were proposed against the Canadian frontier. An attempt, in parliament. One of the most important in 1867, to excite a general uprising in Tip- of these, the Abolition of the Established perary county failed. In England there was Church in Ireland, was at last carried after an affray with the police at Manchester, and much opposition; and it is to be hoped that several Fenians were convicted and executed England's sense of justice may not rest satisfor the murder of the constables. fled with this tardy and partial act of reparThe state of Ireland now demanded the ation towards one of the most oppressed and serious attention of the English government; misgoverned peoples whose sufferling3 fill the disaffection and discontent were spread darkest pages of history. HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 631 AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA. A USTRATIASIA includes the semi-con- some of the most important, we shall pass on tinental mass of land hitherto known to the great Republic of the New World. as New Hollald, and the Islands of New Zealand,:New Caledonia, New Hebrides, The natives of Australasia are for the maQueen Charlotte's Islands, Solomon's Arcli- jor part, of a negro character; and nowhere pelago, New Britain, New Ireland, New is human nature found in a more depraved Hanover, Admiralty Islands, and Papua or state. An enormous head, flat countenance, New Guinea. and long slender extremities, mark their AMidway between the two continents, and physical conformation, together with an linking the two hemispheres together, stand acuteness of sight and hearing. Capta n the great islands of the Southern Pacific, and Cook's description of this race has been verithe smaller and more numerous clusters that fled by every succeeding observer. "The form the vast archipelago of Polynesia. skin," says he, "is the color of wood soot, These semi-continents are for the most part or what is usually called chocolate color. situated in the most favored latitudes of the Their features are far from disagreeable: 4obe, and enjoy the richest blessings of their noses are not flat, nor are their lips nature in their soil and climate. But fitted thick; their teeth are white and even, as they are to sustain the highest civilization and their hair naturally long and black; it of mian, they have until within a very few is, however, cropped short." It seems thlat years been entirely in the hands of the most a decidedly inferior variety of the human barbarous races, and at the present day race is found in Australasia, and has spread few have got beyond that period, common to itself to a considerable distance north and all new countries, when the coming of a more east among the islands of Polynesia and the powerful people is as yet only a source of easternarchipelago. The Australasian is puny corruption and evil. Their place in history and weak compared with the African negro; thus bears little relation to their future import- and his intellectual attainments are quite on ance tc the world; and with a brief notice of as low a scale as his physical powers. NEW HOLLAND. T HE Portuguese and Spaniards appear mander of an outward-bound vessel from to have visited this region in the six- Holland to India; and in the year 1801 thelre teenth century, but it was the Dutch who first was found, by some of the navigators by made it known to Europe. In 1605 they whom that coast was visited, a plate of tin, coasted it along the western shore as far as with an inscription and dates, in which it 13" 45' of south latitude; the farthest point was mentioned that it had been left by him. of land in their map being called Cape Keer In 1618, another part of the coast was Weer, or Turn-again. In 1616 the west discovered by Zeachen, whogave it the nanle roasts were discovered by Dirk lartog, corn- of Arllheim and I)ieman; though a different 632 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. part froIn what afterwards received the name the Supply armed tender, Lieutenant I{. L. of Van Diemen's Land from Tasman. In Ball; three storeships, the Golden Grove, 1619. Jan Van Edels gave his name to a Fishburn, and Borrowdale, for carrying prosouthern part of N':w Holland; and another visions and stores for two years; and lastly, part received the name of Leuwen's Land. six transports; these were to carry the conPeter Van Nuytz gave his name, in 1(;27, to victs, with a detachment of marines in each, the coast that communicates with Leuwen; proportioned to the nature of the service. and another part bore the name of De Witt's On the arrival of Governor Philip at the staLand. In 1628, Peter Carpenter, a Dutch- tion, he hoisted his flag on board the Sirius, man, discovered the great Gulf of Carpen- as commodore of the squadron. On the 13th taria. In 1687, Dampier, an Englishman, of May they weighed anchor. The nu.nber sailed from Timor and coasted the Western of convicts was 778, of which 558 were men. part of New Holland. In 1699, he left Eng- On the 3d of January, 1788, the Supply arm land, with a design to explore this country, ed tender came within sight of New Holas the Dutch suppresed whatever discoveries land; but the winds becoming variable, and had been made by them. He sailed along a strong current impeding their course, prethe western coast of it, from 15 to 28 degrees -vented them from reaching Botany Bay beof latitude. lie then returned to Timor; fore the 18th day of the same month. from whence he sailed again; examined the Governor Philip had no sooner landed than isles of Papua; coasted New Guinea; dis- he set about an examination of the country covered the passage that bears his name, surrounding Botany Bay, which had been so and also New Britain; aiid sailed back to strongly recommended by Captain Cook as the Timor along New Guinea. This is the same most eligible place for a settlement. HIe Dampier who, between the years 1683 and found that neither the bay, nor the land about 1691, sailed round the world, by changing it, appeared favorable for a colony; being in his ships. Notwithstanding the attempts of some places entirely swampy; in others, quite all these navigators, the eastern part of this destitute of water. The governor, finding vast country was totally unknown till Captain the difficulties that he had to surmount, deter. Cook' made his voyages, and, by fully ex- mined to examine the lands further on, and ploring that part of the coast, gave his country accordingly went with several officers, in'three title to the possession of it; which it accord- boats, to Port Jackson, about three leagues ingly took under the name of lN*ew South distantfrom Botany Bay. HIere they had the Wales, in 1787. satisfaction to find one of the finest harbors Captain Cook having given a favorable illn the world, where a thousand sail of the account of this island, an act was passed in line might ride in perfect safety. *A cove parliament, in 1779, under the auspices of which he called Sydney Cove,; in honor of Judge Blackstone, Lord Auckland, and 1Mr. Lord Sydney, and the country around it, he Howard, to establish a colony in it where the destined for the settlement: orders were therecriminals condemned to be transported should fore immediately given for the removal of the be sent to pass their time of servitude. Some fleet to Port Jackson. difficulties, however, prevented its being put The convicts, and others, destined to rehito execution till December, 1786, when or- main in New South Wales, reached Port ders where issued, by the king in council, Jackson on the 25th of January. No time for makting a settlemen' in New Holland. was lost in beginning to clear the ground for The squadron appointed ror putting the de- an encampment, storehouses, etc. The work sign in exee4tion, assembled at the 3Mother- however, went on but slowly, partly owing bank on thte 16th of May, 1787. It consisted I'to the natural difficulties they had to oncounDf the Sirius frigate, Captal 1 John Hunter; ter, and partly owing to the habitual indo HISTORY OF THIE WORLD. 633 lence of the convicts, as well as to a want of length, whose bases are from 10 to 30 leagues carpenters, only twelve convicts, being of from the sea. Until of late years all attempts that trade, several of whom were sick, and to pass this natural barrier have been unsucno more than sixteen could be hired from all cessful. It has, however, at last been overthe ships. But on the 7th of February a come; and instead of the sandy deserts or regular form of government was established in the inland seas with which conjecture had the colony. occupied the interior, the discovery of beauThe scurvy soon began to ragfe with vio- tiful meadows, watered by considerable rivers lence; so that, by the beginning of May, and by chains of ponds, has given to the coltwo hundred people were rendered incapa- onists new prospects of extension and riches. ble of work; and no more than eight or ten The coasts towards the south are in general acres of barley, or wheat, had been sown, elevated and covered with lofty trees. Tobesides what individuals had sown for them- wards the north they are lower, bordered selves. The natives now began to show a with mangrove swamps, and lined with a hostile disposition, which they had not hith- labyrinth of islets and coral reefs. The Blue erto done, and several convicts, who had Mountains, which rise behind the seat of the strolled into the woods, were murdered. All colony are a mixture of primitive and secondpossible inquiry was made after the natives ary rocks. who had been guilty of the murder, but with- Only the south-east part, with comparaout effect. tively small sections in the west and south, Cook's survev of the east coast did more and an inconsiderable tract in the north near for Australian discovery than the united la- Port Essington, have been thoroughly exbors of all who preceded him; nor should plored. Some useful expeditions have been it be forgotten that Captain Bligh, after the conducted by 3Mr. Eyre, Governor Grey, Dr. mutiny of the Bounty, in 1789, though in an Leichardt, and Sir T. Mitchell; but much of open boat, and devoid of almost every neces- the interior is still unknown, and some feasary, carried on a series of observations that tures of its best known regions can only be added munch to the information before ob- sketched. The following are the present tained. By this time, however, many Eng- settlements; with the date of their establishlish colonists had arrived, and home and mlent:-The British settlement of New South colonial expeditions were actively set on foot. Wales, of which Sydney is the capital, was But the greatest discoverers, towards the end made in 1778. Western Australia, or Swan of the last century, were Bass and Flinders. River, in 1829; South Australia, of which In 1798 they sailed through the strait between Adelade is the capital, in 1834. Australia Van Diemrnc's land (now called Tasmania) Felix, or Port Philip, chief town Melbourne, and New Holland; these two being marked established in 1837, is a dependency of new in Cook's chart as continuous, and the fact of South Wales. North Australia was colonized their being otherwise not having before been in 1838. Australind, on the western coast, proved. Further discoveries have since been about eighlty miles south of Swan River was made; but it is to Cook and Flinders that established in 1841. we are indebted for the most valuable infor- The government, after passing through the imation. usual phases, is now by a recent act of parliaTlhe eastern coast, or New South WVales, ment expanded in all the settlements into a commences at Cape Yorlk, in 10~ 30' S. lat., constitution. and terminates at Wilson's promontory in The wealth of Australia consistsmainly in Bass's strait inl 390 0, including an extentof its flocks, which produce the finest wool in 700 leagues. A chllain of mountains appears the world; and pasture is so abundant that to rmn parallelto this'coast, tlr~uglh its whliole sheep may be reared by all who'take th tbi4 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. trouble to attend to them. The fisheries too, downwards, appears to possess on either hand:though heretofore neglected, seem to hold abundant supplies of the glittering treasure. out strong inducements to industry, and coal The discoveries to which we I ave been reand other minerals necessary to the prosper- ferring, as well as others that sh)rtly ensued, ity of man are found in abundance. The an- were made in localities within the limits of imal and vegetable productions of the island the New South Wales territory. But it was are the very opposites of those to be found in soon ascertained that the auriferolus deposits Europe. Yet the soil is so good, and the cli- of the Australian soil were not limited to mate so salubrious, that whatever plants or that colony. Gold fields that surpassed those living creatures the settlers import thrive and of New South Wales in the richness of yield multiply. The wretched natives are fast dis- were found to exist in the neighboring provappearing. It appears that they are little inces of Victoria, and in places more accapable of improvement, and that intermar- cessible from the maritime districts. Early riages between them and the whites seldom in the month of September, gold was found prove productive. For many years Australia at a place called Ballarat, forty miles distant had been a favorite land of emigration for from Geelong (or Port Philip), and within a the British population; but an extraordinary few days after at MIount Alexander, seventy impetus has been given to emigration thither miles distant from ]Melbourne. The latter loby the recent discovery of the gold beds, cality has proved by far the richest of the Auswhich must greatly influence the future tralian gold fields hitherto worked, and has character of Australian industry and the attracted by much the greater number of diglocal distribution of its inhabitants. We sub- gers. The workings at Ballaret and Mount join a briefaccount of this interesting discov- Alexander rapidly proved so successful as ery. completely to throw into shade the diggings On the 2d of May, 1851, the citizens of that had already been commenced at AnderSydney were startled with the announcement son's Creek, and at other places nearer Melthat gold had been discovered in a native bourne. Within a year from the date of the state within the colonial territory. Mr. IIar- first announcement, gold to a value exceedgreaves, a resident of Brisbane Water, who ing fbur milions sterling had been shipped had recently returned from California, struclk to England from the Australian colonies; and with the similarity of the geological forma- upwards of thirty thousand diggers were eation, felt persuaded that there must be gold gerly employed in the search after the prein several districts of the colony, and on insti- cious metal in a single locality of the widely tuting a search his expectations were realized. extended gold fields belonging to these porThe locality in which the first discovery of tions of the southern hemisplhere. gold was made by Mr. Hargreaves was in It is impossible to predict what consethe neighborhood of Summerhill Creek, thirty quences may result from this important dismiles'from Bathurst (or about 140 from Syd- covery, but a glance at what has been done ney). A spot on the banks of Summerhill during the last twenty years may serve to Creek soon acquired and has retained, the indicate the future progress of the country. attractive name of Ophir. But the Ophir Within this short period the map of New diggings were shortly surpassed in amount of Holland has gradually been filled up; the produce by those of Turon, a river which bays and headlands of the sea-board have flows into the right bank of the Macquarie. been successfully settled; river after river LMeroo creek, further northward, another of has received enterprising cultivators on its the sites of auriferous wealth, belongs to the banks; steam navigation has united the bfis. basin of the same river, the whole valley of tling points of 2,000 miles of coast, whilst ain which, from the neighborhood of Bathurst average of 200 miles a ong that coast has HISTORY OF THE WOR:LD. 635 been subdued to- pasturage or the plough. was also appointed to enquire into the validThe marts of trade have been supplied with ity of all claims to land, etc. wool, tallow, horns, hides, ornamental and The highest hopes were entertained rehard woods, trenails and copper; so that specting the issues of this adventure, and England, the emporium of trade, is both cloth- the New Zealand company enjoyed a large ed, adorned, and fortified with the produoe share of the public favor. It undertook to of this once despised territory. transplant English society ill all its ramifications to the further side of the globe; and sent out in the same expedition judges, a bishop, clergy, persons who by purchase had NTEW ZEALAND, a group of islands become landed proprietors, artisans, peasants, in the South Pacific Ocean, was dis- medical men, and printers. But either becovered by Tasman, in 1642. He traversed cause due precautions were not taken in the eastern coast, from latitude 340 to 430 the selection of colonists, or that the colonsouth, and entered a strait; but being at- ists themselves went out with exaggerated tacked by the natives soon after he came to ideas of the advantages secured to them, anchor, in the place to which he gave the the result fell short of general expectation. name of Murderer's Bay, he did not go on Quarrels between the settlers and the natives shore. Ile called the country Staten Land, broke out, and the system of local governin honor of the States-general; though it meut, when put to the test, was found not has been generally distinguished, in maps to fulfil the purposes for which it had been and charts, by the name of New Zea- concocted. The grievances of the natives hand. at length stimulated them into a formidable In 1770, it was circumnavigated by Cap- insurrecti.on, under their chief, HIeki; but tain Cook, who found it to consist of two since its suppression in 1848, tranquillity large islands, the coasts of which were indent- was undisturbed till the commencement of ed with deep bays, affording excellent shelter the Maori war, in 1863. for shipping. Fromn that period the coasts In spite of all hindrances, however, sociwere occasionally visited by whalers, and ety has by degrees widened its basis in New some communication was held with the na- Zealand. The first body of emigrants, who tives; but until 1815, when a.missionary arrived there in 1830, founded the settlestation was established there, no permanent ments of Wellington and Nelson on opposettlement appears to have been made by site shores of Cook's straits. They have any people. At the general peace the right been followed by different swarms at differof Great Britain to these islands was recog- ent times, two of which make religious prinnized; but no constituted authority was ciples, and the right in civil affairs of selfplaced over New Zealand till 1833, when a governmient, the basis of their social organisub-governor from New South Wales was zation. At a place called Otago, about 400 sent to reside there. Meantime the shores miles from WVellington, a settlement of and become infested by marauding traders Scotchmen, members of the Free Church of and adventurers of the worst class, who at- Scotland, has strulek root. And further tempted to obtain from the natives large north, at Canterbury, the Church of Engtracts of land by most fraudulent means. land has set up her standard under the ausIn order to remedy this evil as far as possi- pices of the Canterbury association, of which ble, and to put a stop to such practices in the AreLbishop of Canterburv is ex oficio future, New Zealand was, in 1840, constitut- president. In 1852 New Zealand receivedfrom ed a colony dependent on New South Wdales, the British government a constitution mood and a governor appointed; a commission eled on' tlhat of the Australian settlements. 636 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. POL~Y~ZNESIA. group, as abounding with everything necessary to human subsistence, and presenting HIIS name, as we have already observed, at the same time a pleasant and delightful is given by modern geographers to va- appearance, where hill and valley, rich verrious groups of islands in the gre-A Pacific dure, and spreading trees formed a happy inOcean, lying east of the Asiatic Islands and termixture. Subsequent navigators, howAustralia, and on both sides of the equator; ever, found the island to have been deserted, rtretching through an extent of about 5,100 and become an uninhabitable wilderness. miles from north to south, and 3,600 from The natives of the Ladrones are tall, robust, east to west. Everything bespeaks their and active, managing their canoes with adsubmarine creation, and in many there are mirable adroitness. Guajan is the largest positive evidences of volcanic agency. They island in the group, and the population conare sometimes divided into Northern and sists of settlers from Mexico and the PhilipSouthern Polynesia, and classed in the fol- pine Islands. lowing groups:-Pelew Islands; Carolines; Ladrones; Sandwich Islands; Friendly Isl- THE FRIENDLY ISLANDS are a group or clusands; Gallapagos; Admiralty Isles; New ter of islands said to be upwards of one hunIreland; New Britain; and New Hanover; dred in number, in the Southern Pacific Solomon's Islands; New HIebrides and New Ocean. They received their name fr'om tile Caledonia; Queen Charlotte's Islands; Nav- celebrated Captain James Cook, in the year igators' Islands; Society Islands; Marquesas; 1773, in consideration of the fi'iendship which Pitcairn Island, &c. Of these we shall only appeared to subsist among the inhabitants, mention a few, as they can hardly be said to and from their courteous behaviour to strancome within the scope of a work professedly gers. The chief islands are Anamooka, historical. Tongataboo, Lefooga, and Eooa. Abel Jansen Tasman, an eminent Dutch navigator, THE LADRONES are a cluster of islands be- first touched here in 1643, and gave names longing to Spain, lying in the North Pacific to the principal islands. Captain Cook laOcean, between the 12th and 21st degrees boriously explored the whole cluster, which of north latitude, and about the 145th degree ble found to consist of upwards of sixty. of east longitude. They were discovered The three islands which Tasman saw he by Magellan, who gave them the name of named Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and MiddleLcadrone islzands, or the Islands of Thieves, burg. Tongataboo is the residence of the from the thievish, disposition of the inhabi- sovereign and the chiefs. These islands are tu'.nts. At the time of this discovery the na- fertile, and in general highly cultivated. tives were totally ignorant of any other Eooa is described as a beautiful spot: the country than their own, and, as it is said, land, rising generally to a considerableheight', were actually unacquainted with the element presents the eye with an extensive view. of fire, till Magellan, provoked by their re- Captain Cook and some of his officers walked peated thefts, burned one of their villages. up to the highest point of the island. " While At the latter end of the 17th century they I was surveying this beautiful prospect," obtained the name of the Marianne Islands, says the captain, "I could not help flatterfiom the Queen of Spain, Mary Ann of Aus- ing myself with the pleasing idea, that some tria; mother of Charles II., at whose expense future navigator may, from the same station, missionaries were sent thither to p )pagate behold these meadows stocked wi;h,.attle, the Christian faith. brought to these islands by the ships of EngCommodore Anson visited the Ladrones land; and that the completion of this single in 1742, and describes Tirrian, one of the benevolent purpose, independent:f all otll HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 637 er considerations, would sufficiently mark to The are called by the natives,'Owhy posterity, that our voyages had not been hee, Mowee, Ranai, Morotoi, Taboorowa useless to the general interests of humanity." Woakoo, Atooi, Neeheeheow, Orehowa, Of the nature of their government no Morotinne, and Takoora; all inhabited, exmore is known than the general outline. cept the two last. They were discovered The power of the king is umnlimited, and the by Captain Cook in 1777 and 1778. lives and property of the subjects are at his Goats and European seeds were ] Wt by disposal; and instances enough were seen to the English at their departure the first time; prove that the lower order of people have but the possession of the goats soon ga we rise no property, nor safety for their persons, but to a contest between two districts, in which at the will of the chiefs to whom they re- the breed was entirely destroyed. The inspectively belong. habitants are undoubtedly of the same race as those that'possess the islands south of the THE SOCIETY ISLANDs, in the Pacific Ocean, equator; and in their persons and manner apare eight in number; viz., Otaheite, Hua- proach nearer to the New Zealanders than heine, Ulitea, Otaha, Bolabola, Mlaurowa, to their less distant neighbors, either of the Toobaee, and Tabooyamanoo. They are sit- Society or Friendly islands. Tattooing the uated between the latitude of 16~ 10' and body is practiced by the whole of them. 16~ 55a' south, and between the longitude of As these islands are not united under one 150~ 57' and 1520 west. The people, relig- government, wars are frequent among them. ion, language, customs and manners, soil and The same system of subordination prevails productions, are nearly the same as at Ota- here as at the other islands, the same absolheite, of which we shall speak. ute authority on the part of the chiefs, and Otaheite was discovered by Captain Wal- the same unresisting submission on the part lis, in 1767, who called it King George the of the people. The government is monarchThird's Island. 13ugainville, a French cir- ical and hereditary. cumnavigator, next arrived at it in 1768, and Owhyhee, the easternmost and largest of staid ten days. Captain Cook, in the En- these islands, was.discovered by Captain Cook deavor, next visited it in 1769, in company on the 30th of November, 1778, on his re. with Mr. Banks (afterwards Sir Joseph turn from his voyage northward. IHaving ]Banks), Dr. Solander, and other learned circumnavigated the island, and anchored in men, to observe the transit of Venus, and a bay, called Karakakooa, he found great staid three months; and it w-as visited by alteration in the conduct of the natives. and Captain Cook in his two succeeding voyages; a general disposition to theft; and it appearsince whicl time the Spaniards and other ed evident that the common people were Europeans have called there. It consists of encouraged by their chiefs, who shared the two peninsulas, great part of which is cov- booty with them. Still, however, no hostilered with woods, consisting of bread-fruit ities were commenced. The greatest hontrees, palms, cocoa-nuts, and all tropical veg- ors were paid to the commander; and on etation. The people of this and the neigh- his going ashore he was received with cereboring islands are the most honest and civ- monies little short of adoration. A vast ilized of any of the Pacific Ocean; but it quantity of hogs, and other provisions, were appears certain that the inhabitants have de- procured for the ships; and on the 4th of generated rather than improved since Cook's February, 1799, they left the island, not withtime. out most magnificent piesents from the chiefs, and such as they had never received in any THE SX'DWICH ISLANDS, in the North Paci- part of the world. Unluckily, they encounfie Ocean, consist of eleven in number. tered a storm on the 6th and 7th of the same 938 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. month during which the Resolution sprung olution, was dispatched to the western part the head of her fore-mast in such a manner of the bay on the same service. Captain that they were obliged to return to IKaraka- Cook now formed the resolution of going in kooa bay to have it repaired. On the 13th person to'seize the king himself in his capone of the natives being detected in stealing ital of Kavorah: with this view he left the the tongs from the armorer's forge in the ship about seven o'clock on the morning of Discovery, was dismissed with a pretty severe Sunday, tile 14th of February, attended by flogging: this had but little effect; for, in the lieutenant of marines, a sergeant, a corthe afternoon of the same day, another hav- poral, and seven privates. The crew of the' ing snatched up the tongs and a chisel, jump- pinnace, under the command of Mr. Robed overboard with them, and swam for the erts, were also armed; and as they rowed shore, and having got on board a canoe es- ashore, the captain ordered the launch to caped. These tools were soon after returned leave her station at the opposite point of the through the means of Pareah, a chief. But bay, in order to assist his own boat. HavCaptain Cook was not satisfied with the re- ing landed with the marines at the upper covery of the stolen goods only; he insisted end of the town, the Indians flocked round upon having the thief, or the canoe which him, and prostrated themselves before him. carried him, by way of reprisal. As the The king's sons waited on the captain' as soon offlicer was preparing to launch the canoe as he sent for them, and by their means he into the water, he was interrupted by Pareab, was introduced to the king, who readily conwho insisted that it was his property and he sented to go on board; but in a little time slould not take it away. This brought oni the natives began to arm, themselves with hostilities. The Indians attacked the sailors long spears, clubs and daggers. Au old priest with stones, and soon drove them to their now appeared with a cocoa-nut in his hand, boats. They then began to break in pieces which he held out as a present to Captain the pinnace after having taken every thing Cook, singing all the while, with a view tc out of her that was loose. Before the Eng- divert the attention of the Captain and his lish reached the ship, Pareah overtook them people from observing the motions of the Inin a canoe, and delivered the midshipman's dians, who were now everywhere putting on cap, which had been taken from him in the their thick mats which they use as defen. scuffle. IIe joined noses with him in token sive armour. Captain Cook beginning to of friendship; and desired to know whether think his situation dangerous, ordered the Captain Cook would kill him on account of lieutenant of marines to march towards the what had happened. Tiley assured him he shore, as he himself did, having all the while would not; and made signs of reconciliation hold of the king's hand, who very readily on their part. On this he left them, and accompanied him, attended by his wife, two paddled over to the town of Kavorah, and sons, and several chiefs. The Indians made that was the last time he was seen by the a lane for them to pass; and the distance English. they had to go was only about fifty or sixty Next day it was found that the large cut- yards, while the boats lay at no more than ter of the Discovery had been carried off in five or six yards from the land. Thel king's the night time; on which Captain Cook or- youngest son, Keowa, went on board the dered the launch, and small cutter, to go pinnace without hesitation; and Tarraboo, under the command of the second lieutenant the king, was about to follow, when his wife and to lie off the east point of the bay, in or- threw her arms about his neck, and with "he der to intercept all the canoes that might assistance of two chiefs foreed him to sit attempt to get out, and if necessary, to fire down. The captain finding that he co.ild upon them. The third lieutenant of the Res- not take the king along with hin without a HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 639 great deal of bloodshed, was on the point of threats and negotiation, some parts were giving orders for his people to re-embark, procured, by which means the navigators when one of the Indians threw a stone at were enabled to perform the last offices to him. This insult was returned by the cap- their much-respected Commander. These tain, who had a double-barrelled gun, by a being put into a coffin, and the service read discharge of small shot from one of the bar- over them, were committed to the deep, rel. This had little effect, as the man had with the usual honors, on the 21st of Feba thick mat before him; and as he now ruary, 1779. brandished his spear, the captain knocked The Sandwich Islands, although the last imhim down with his musket. The king's son portant discovery in the Pacific, have, in constill remained in the pinnace; and the sequence of their geographical position, been detention of him would have been a great more frequently visited by Europeans, and check upon the Indians; but M1r. Roberts, have advanced in civilization more rapidly, who had the command of the pinnace, set than any of the other islands,. presenting, at him on shore, at his request, soon after the the present time, a degree of improvement first fire. Another Indian being observed unsurpassed, if equalled, during a correspondby the captain to be brandishing his spear at ing period in any other part of the world. him, le fired at him, but missing, killed one The first movement in this direction was close by his side.; upon which the sergeant, made by the chief who governed the large observing that he had missed the man he had island of H-Iawaii, after the death of the king aimed at, received orders to fire also, which who ruled at the time of Captain Cook's visit. he did, and killed him on the spot. Captain This prince, Tamehamaha, the founder of a Cook now called to the people in the boats new dynasty, and sometimes compared to to come nearer, to receive the marines. This Peter the Great, was a chief of quick pereporder was obeyed by Mr. RCoberts; but the tion and great force of character. The lieutenant who commanded the launch, in- Sandwich islanders are necessarily a nautical stead of coming nearer, put off to a greater people, and their king was one of the first to distance, and by his conduct deprived the perceive the immense superiority of Eurocaptain of the only chance he had for, his pean vessels over the native canoes. When life. Captain Cook was now observed Captain Vancouver visited these islands in making for the pinnace. An Indian was 1792, the king being desirous of having a seen to follow him, who struck him on the vessel of European construction, this able back of the head with a club. The captain navigator laid down the keel of one, which staggered a few paces, and then fell on his was speedily finished. Ten or twelve years hand and one knee, and dropped his musket. after this, when 1MVr Turnbull visited the Before he could recover himself, another In- islands, the king had a naval force of twenty dian stabbed him with a dagger in the neck, vessels or upwards,'of from twenty-five to and he fell into the water; when a sa- fifty tons, which traded amongst the islands. age struck him with a club, which probably To these he subsequently added others, purput an end to his life. They hauled his body chased at enormous prices from foreigners on the rocks, and used it in the most barbar- visiting the islands. Bent not only on thle ous manner. The chief who first struck improvement of his own island, but the subhim with the club was named Karinmana jugation of others, the king encouraged a Raha; and he wh,! stabbed him with the warlike spirit in the people, introduced Endagger was called N'ooah. ropean arms among his soldiers, and by means Owing to the barbarous disposition of the of his infant navy, and the superior weapons Indians, it was found impossible to recover of his troops, conquered, though not-without Captain Cook's body: however by dint of great destruction of life, one island after an 640 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. other until he became undisputed sovereign chiefly Americans, who have become Hawaiof the whole group. He also encouraged ian subjects. trade with foreigners, and derived from Since their independence has been secure. its profits a large increase of his revenue, the progress of the people has been uninteras well as the means of consolidating his rupted; and the resources of the island have power. been greatly augmented by the discovery of The introduction of letters, the reception gold in California, which, lying within a of the Christian faith, and the guarantee thus short distance, has increased the trade, opened afforded for the security of commerce, con- important markets for produce, and raised stituted an era which may be regarded as the the value of labor throughout the islands. turning-point in the history of this people. The material prosperity of the people is From that time they have continued steadily remarkable. IHouses are built in European to advance in intelligence, resources, civil- forms and of durable materials; good roads ization, and religion. Their progress has been connect the different parts of several of the at times painfully interrupted by mleans of islands; a large portion of the inhabitants the misrepresentations of the representatives, are well clothed and are possessors of money, of foreign governments, and the conduct of or herds, or plantations; and numbers of forforeign officers. On one occasion an English eigners, chiefly Americans and English, have officer went so far as to take possession of the settled in the islands either for purposes. island, and establish a commission for its of commerce or as permanent residents. Of government; and French officers abrogated these there are about 500 at Honolulu in the laws, dictated treaties, and by force of Oahu, and perhaps an equal number in arms established the Roman Catholic reli- other islands. Improved and productive gion in the country. The act of the English agriculture, introduced by foreigners, has officer was disallowed by his superior as soon been adopted by the natives; and besides as known; but these acts of violence led to a the ordinary indigenous productions, wheat representation on the part of the native sov- and other grain is raised and converted into ereign to the governments of England, France, flour. Horned cattle are numerous. ExtenBelgium, and America, and by these powers sive plantations of coffee and sugar yield a the independence of the Sandwich Islands good return for the capital invested, and rewas guaranteed in the year 1844. ward the skill and labor employed. A sort The Hawaiian government has since been re- of national agricultural society exists; and gularly organized; its several departments are the government has encouraged agriculture, efficiently administered, and its laws obeyed especially the culture of sugar-cane, by the throughout the islands. Most of the principal award of premiums or the remission of taxes offices of government are filled by foreigners, to the most successful native cultivators.