1x 7'v I I -.. THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN. BY GEORGE COMBE. ESQ. ESSAYS ON DECISION OF CHARACTER, &a. BY JOHN FOSTER, ESQ. PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP, AND ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. BY ROBERT MACNISH, ESQ. INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE UPON SOCIETY, &c. BY MADAME DE STAEL. A TREATISE ON SELF-KNOWLEDGE. BY JOHN MASON, A. AM. HARTFORD: PUBLISHED BY SILAS ANDRUS & SON. 1850. THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. BY GEORGE COMBE, Vain is the ridicule with which one sees some persons will divert themselves, upon finding lesser pains considered as instances of divine punishment. There is no possibility of answering or evading the general thing here intended, without denying all final causes. —Butler's Analogy. "ALEXANDRIAN EDITION." HARTFORD: PUBLISHED BY SILAS ANDRUS & SON. 1850. PREFACE TO, THE -EDINBURGH EDITION. Tins Essay would not have been presented to the But, although my purpose is practical, a theory of public, had I not believed that it contains views of the Mind forms an essential element in the execution of constitution, condition, and- prospects of Man, which the plan. Without it, no comparison can be instituted deserve attention; bu't these, I trust, are not ushered between the natural constitution of man and external forth with any thing approaching to a presumptuous objects. Phrenology appears to me to be the clearest, spirit. I lay no claim to originality of conception. most complete, and best supported system of Human My first notion of the natural laws were derived from Nature, which has hitherto been taught; and I have an unpublished manuscript of Dr SPURZHEIM, with the assumed it as the basis of this Essay. But the practiperusal of which I wa-s honoured some years ago; and cal value of the views now to be unfolded does not all my inquiries and meditations since have impressed depend on Phrenology. This theory of Mind itself is me more and more with a conviction of their impor- valuable, only in so far as it is a just exposition of what tance. The materials employed lie open to all. Taken previously existed in human nature. We are physical, separately, I would hardly say that a new truth has organic, and moral beings, acting under the sanction been presented in the following work. The parts have of general laws, let the merits of Phrenology be what all been admitted and employed again and again, by they may. Individuals will, under the impulse of pas writers on morals, from SOCRATES down to the present sion, or by the direction of intellect, hope, fear, wonday. In this respect, there is nothing new under the der, perceive, and act, whether the degree in which sun. The only novelty in this Essay respects the rela- they habitually do so, be ascertainable on phrenological tions which acknowledged truths hold to each other. principles or not. In so far, therefore, as this Essay Physical laws of nature, affecting our physical condi- treats of the known qualities of Man, it may be instruction, as well as regulating the whole material system tive even to those who contemn Phrenology as unof the universe, are universally acknowledged, and founded; while it can prove useful to no one, if it constitute the elements of natural philosophy and che- shall depart from the true elements of mental philosoInical science. Physiologists, medical practitioners, phy, bywhatever system these may be expounded. and all who take medical aid, admit the existence of I have endeavoured to avoid all religious controversy. organic laws; and the science of government, legisla-'The object of Moral Philosophy,' says Mr STEWART, tion,. education, indeed our whole train of conduct'is to ascertain the general rules of a wise and virtuous through life, proceed upon the admission of laws in conduct in life, in so far as these rules may be discomorals. Accordingly, the laws of nature have formed vered by the unassisted light of nature; that is by an an interesting subject of inquiry to philosophers of all examination of the principles of the human constituages; but, so far as I am aware, no author has hitherto tion, and of the circumstances in which man is placed.' attempted to point out, in a combined and systematic By following this method of inquiry, Dr HUTCHESON, form, the, relations between these laws and the constitu-: Dr ADAM SMITH, Dr REID, Mr STEWART, and Dr tion of Man; which must, nevertheless, be done, be- THoMAs BROWN, have, in succession, produced highly fore our knowledge of them can be beneficially applied. interesting and instructive works on Moral Science; The great object of the following Essay is to exhibit and the present Essay is a humble attempt to pursue these relations, with a view to the improvement of edu- the same plan, with the aid of the new lights afforded cation, and the regulation of individual conduct. by phrenology. * Outlines of Moral Philosophy, p. 1. EDINBURGH, 9th June, 1828 ESSAY ON THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN, AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. CHAPTER I. combined with the portion denoted by 2120 of that inON NATURAL LAWS. strument, it rises into vapour or steam. Here water and heat are. the substances,-the freezing and rising A STATEMENT of the evidence of a great intelligent in vapour are the appearances or phenomena presented First Cause is given in the'Phrenological Journal,' by them; and when we say that these take place acand in the' System of Phrenology.' I hold this exist- cording to a Law of Nature, we mean only that these ence as capable of demonstration. By NATURE, I mean modes of action appear, to our intellects, to be estabthe workmanship of this great Being, such as it is re- lished in the very constitution of the. water and heat, vealed to our minds by our senses and faculties. and in their natural relationship to each other; and that In natural science, three subjects of inquiry may be the processes of freezing and rising in vapour are their distinguished. 1st. What exists. 2dly. What is the constant appearances, when combined in these proporpurpose or design of what exists; and, 3dly. Why was tions, other conditions being the same. what exists designed for such uses as it evidently The ideas chiefly to be kept in view are, 1st. That subserves. For example,-It is a matter of fact that all substances and beings have received a definite natuarctic regions and torrid zones exist,-that a certain ral constitution; 2dly. That every mode of action, kind of moss is most abundant in Lapland in mid-win- which is said to take place according to a natural law, ter,-that the rein-deer feeds on it, and enjoys high is inherent in the constitution of the substance, or health and vigor in situations where most other animals being, that acts; and, 3dly. That the mode of action would die; farther, it is a matter of fact that camels exist described is universal and invariable, wherever and in Africa; that they have broad hoofs, and stomachs whenever the substances, or beings, are found in the fitted to retain water for a length of time, and that they same condition. For example, water, at the level of flourish amid arid tracts of sand, where the rein-deer the sea, freezes and boils, at the same temperature, in would not live for a day. All this falls under the in- China and in France, in Peru and in England; and quiry, What exists? But in contemplating the fore- there is no exception to the regularity with which it going facts, it is impossible not to infer that one object exhibits these appearances, when all its conditions are of the Lapland moss is to feed the rein-deer, and one the same: For coeteris paribus is a condition which perpurpose of the deer is to assist man: and that, in like vades all departments of science, phrenology included. manner, broad feet have been given to the camel to If water be carried to the top of a mountain 20,000 enable it to walk on sand, and a retentive stomach to feet high, it boils at a lower temperature than 2120, fit it for arid places in which water is not found except but this again depends on its relationship to the air, at wide intervals. These are inquiries into the use or and takes place also according to fixed and invariable purpose of what exists. In like manner, we may in- principles. The air exerts a great pressure on the waquire, What purpose do sandy deserts and desolate ter. At the level of the sea the pressure is nearly the heaths subserve in the economy of nature? In short, same in all quarters of the globe, and in that situation an inquiry into the use or purpose of any object that the freezing points and boiling points correspond all exists, is merely an examination of its relations to other over the world; but on the top of a high mountain the objects and beings, and of the modes in which it affects pressure is much less, and the vapour not being held them; and this is quite a legitimate exercise of the down by so great a power of resistance, rises at a lower human intellect. But, 3dly, we may ask, why were degree of heat than 212~. But this change of appearthe physical elements of nature created such as they ances does not indicate a change in the constitution of are 2 Why were summer, autumn, spring, and winter the water and the heat, but only a variation of the cirintroduced. Why were animals formed of organized cumstances in which they are placed; and hence it is matter? These are inquiries why what exists was not correct to say, that water boiling on the tops of made such as it is, or into the will of the Deity in crea- high mountains, at a lower temperature than 2120, is tion. Now, man's perceptive faculties are adequate to an exception to the general law of nature: there never the first inquiry, and his reflective faculties to the are exceptions to the laws of nature; for the Creator second; but it may well be doubted whether he has is too wise and too powerful to make imperfect or inpowers suited to the third. My investigations are con- consistent arrangements. The error is in the human fined to the first and second, and I do not discuss the mind inferring the law to be, that water boils at 2120 third. in all altitudes; when the real law is only that it boils A law, in the common acceptation, denotes a rule of at that temperature, at the level of the sea, in all counaction; its existence indicates an established and con- tries; and that it boils at a lower temperature, the stant mode, or process, according to which phenomena higher it is carried, because there the pressure of the take place; and this is the sense in which I shall use atmosphere is diminished. it, when treating of physical substances and beings. Intelligent beings exist, and are capable of modify. For example, water and heat are substances; and wa- ing their actions. By means of their faculties, the ter presents different appearances, and manifests cer- laws impressed by the Creator on physical substances tain qualities, according to the altitude of its situation, become known to them; and, when perceived, constiand the degree of heat with which it is combined. tute laws to them, by which to regulate their conduct. When at the level of the sea, and combined with that For example, it is a physical law, that boiling water portion of heat indicated by 32~0 of Fahrchheit's destroys the muscular and nervous systems of man. ~termometer, it freezes or becomes solid; when This is the result purely of the constitution of the 4 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. body, and the relation between it and heat; and man to elucidate all these laws: countless years may cannot alter or suspend that law. But whenever the elapse before they shall be discovered; but we may human intellect perceives the, relation, and the conse- investigate some of the most familiar and striking of quences of violating it, the mind is prompted to avoid them. Those that most readily present themselves infringement, in order to shun the torture attached by bear reference to the great classes into which the obthe Creator to the decomposition of the human body jects around us may be divided, namely, Physical, Orby heat. ganic, and Intelligent. I shall therefore confine my Similar views have long been taught by philosophers self to the physical laws, the organic laws, and the and divines. Bishop BUTLER, in particular, says: - laws which characterise intelligent beings.'An Author of Nature. being supposed, it is not so 1st. The Physical Laws embrace all the phenomena much a deduction of reason as a matter of experience, of mere matter; a heavy body, for instance, wnen unthat we are thus under his government, in the same supported, falls to the ground with a certain acceleratsense as we are under the government of civil magis- ing force, in proportion to the distance which it falls, trates. Because the annexing pleasure to some ac- and its own density; and this motion is said to take tions, and pain to others, in our power to do or forbear, place according to the law of gravitation. An acid and giving notice of this appointment beforehand to applied to a vegetable blue colour, converts it into red, those whom it concerns, is the proper formal notion of and this is said to take place according to a chemical government. Whether the pleasure or pain which law. thus follows upon our behaviour, be owing to the 2dly. Organized substances and beings stand higher Author of Nature's acting upon us every moment in the scale of creation, and have properties peculiar which we feel it, or to his having at once contrived to themselves. They act, and are acted upon, in conand executed his own part in the plan of the world, formity with their constitution, and are therefore said makes no alteration as to the matter before us. For, to be subject to a peculiar set of laws, termed the Orif civil magistrates could make the sanctions of their ganic. The distinguishing characteristic of this class laws take place, without interposing at all, after they of objects, is, that the individuals of them derive their had passed them, without a trial, and the formalities existence from other organized beings, are nourished of an execution; if they were able to make their laws by food, and go through a regular process of growth execute themselves, or every offender to execute them and decay. Vegetables and Animals are the two great upon himself, we should be just in the same sense un- subdivisions of it. The organic laws are different from der their government then as we are now; but in a the merely physical. A stone, for example, does not much higher degree and more perfect manner. Vain spring from a parent stone; it does not take food from is the ridicule with which one sees some persons will its parent, the earth, or air; it does not increase in divert themselves, upon finding LESSER PAINS CONSID- vigor for a time, and then decay and suffer dissolution, ERED AS INSTANCES OF DIVINE PUNISHMENT. THERE all which processes characterize vegetables and aniIS NO POSSIBILITY OF ANSWERING OR EVADING the ge- mals. The organic laws are superior to the merevly neral thing here intended, WITHOUT DENYING ALL FINAL physical. For example, a living man, or animal, may CAUSES. For, final causes being admitted, the plea- be placed in an oven, along with the carcass of a dead sures and pains now mentioned must be admitted too, animal, and remain exposed to a heat, which will comas instances of them. And if they are, if GoD annexes pletely bake the dead flesh, and yet come out alive, delight to some actions, with an apparent design to in- and not seriously injured. The dead flesh is mere duce us to act so and so, then he not only dispenses physical matter, and its decomposition by the heat inhappiness and misery, but also rewards and punishes stantly commences; but the living animal is able, by actions. If, for example, the pain which we feel upon its organic qualities, to counteract and resist to a cerdoing what tends to the destruction of oer bodies, sup- tain extent, that influence. The expression Organic pose upon too near approaches to fire, or upon wound- Laws, therefore, indicates that every phenomenon coning ourselves, be appointed by the Author of Nature to nected with the production, health, growth, decay, and prevent our doing what thus tends to our destruction; death of vegetables and animals, takes place with unthis is ALTOGETHER AS MUCH AN INSTANCE OF HIS deviating regularity, whenever circumstances are the PUNISHING OUR ACTIONS, and consequently of our being same. Animals are the chief objects of my present under his government, as declaring, by a voice from observations. Heaven, that, if we acted so, he would inflict such pain 3dly. Intelligent beings stand still higher in the scale upon us, and inflict it whether it be greater or less.' * than merely organized matter, and embrace all animals If, then, the reader keep in view that GOD is the that have distinct consciousness, from the lowest of creator; that Nature, in the general sense, means the the inferior creatures up to man. The great divisions world which he has made; and, in a more limited of this class are into Intelligent and Animal-and into sense, the particular constitution which he has bestow- Intelligent and Moral creatures. The dog, horse, and ed on any special object, of which we may be treating, elephant, for instance, belong to the first class, because and that a Law of Nature means the established mode they possess some degree of intelligence, and certain in which that constitution acts, and the obligation animal propensities, but no moral feelings; man bethereby imposed on intelligent beings to attend to it, he longs to the second, because he possesses all the three will be in no danger of misunderstanding my meaning. These various faculties have received a definite consti Every natural object has received a definite consti- tution from the Creator, and stand in determinate rela tution, in -,rtue of which it acts in a particular way. tionship to external objects: for example, a healthy There must, therefore, be as many natural laws, as palate cannot feel wormwood sweet, nor sugar bitter there are distinct.modes of action of substances and a healthy eye cannot see a rod partly plunged in water beings, viewed by themselves. But substances and straight, because the water so modifies the rays of beings stand in certain relations to each other, and mo- light, as to give to the stick the appearance of being dify each other's action in an established and definite crooked; a healthy Benevolence cannot feel gratified manner, according to that relationship; altitude, for with murder, nor a healthy Conscientiousness with instance, modifies the effect of heat upon water. fraud. As, therefore, the mental faculties have reThere must, therefore, be also as many laws of nature, ceived a precise constitution, have been placed in fixed as there are relations between different substances and and definite relations to external objects, and act regubeings. larly, we speak of their acting according to rules or It is impossible, in the present state of knowledge, laws, and call these the Moral and Intellectual Laws. + Butlers Works, Vol. I, p. 44. Similar observations by In short, the expression' laws of nature,' when proother authors will be found in the Appendix, No. I. perly used, signifies the rules of action impressed on CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 5 objects and beings by their natural constitution. Thus, ganic laws, and who continued to obey these laws when we say, that by the physical law, a ship sinks throughout, being, in consequence of this obedience, when a plank starts from her side, we mean, that, by visited with pain and disease; and there are no the constitution of the ship, and the water, and the re- instances of men who were born with constitutions at lation subsisting between them, the ship sinks when variance with the organic laws, and who lived in hathe plank starts. bitual disobedience to them, enjoying that sound health Several iml: )rtant principles strike us very early in and vigour of body, that are the rewards of obedience. attending to the natural laws, viz. 1st. Their indepen- 4. The natural laws are in harmony with the whole dtence of each other; 2dly. Obedience to each of them constitution of man, the moral and intellectual powers is attended with its own reward, and disobedience with being supreme. For example, if ships had sunk when its own punishment; 3dly. They are universal, un- they were in accordance with the physical law, this bending, and invariable in their operation; 4thly. They would have outraged the perceptions of Causality, and tre in harmony with the constitution of man. offended Benevolence and Justice; but as they float: 1. The independence of the natural laws may be the physical is, in this instance, in harmony with the illustrated thus;-A ship floats because a part of it moral and intellectual law. If men who rioted in being immersed, displaces a weight of water equal to drunkenness and debauchery, had thereby established its whole weight, leaving the remaining part above the health and increased their happiness, this, again, would fluid. A ship, therefore, will float on the surface of have been in discord with our intellectual and moral the water as long as these physical conditions are ob- perceptions; but the opposite result is in harmony served; no matter although the men in it should in- with them. fringe other natural laws; as, for example, although It will be subsequently shown, that our moral sentithey should rob, murder, blaspheme, and commit every ments desire universal happiness. If the physical and species of debauchery; and it will sink whenever the organic laws are constituted in harmony with them, it physical conditions are subverted, however strictly the ought to follow that the natural laws, when obeyed, crew and passengers may obey the other laws here ad- conduce to the happiness of moral and intelligent beverted to. In like manner, a man who swallows poi- ings, who are called on to observe them; and that the son, which destroys the stomach or intestines, will die, evil consequences or punishments resulting from disojust because an organic law has been infringed, and bedience, are calculated to enforce stricter attention and because it is independent of others, although the man obedience to the laws, that these beings may escape from should have taken the drug by mistake, or been the the miseries of infringement, and return to the advantages most pious and charitable individual on earth. Or, of observance. For example, according to this view, thirdly, a man may cheat, lie, steal, tyrannise, and in when a ship sinks, in consequence of a plank starting, short break a great variety of the moral laws, and the punishment ought to impress upon the spectators nevertheless be fat and rubicund, if he sedulously ob- the absolute necessity of having every plank secure serve the organic laws of temperance -and exercise, and strong before going to sea again, a condition indiswhich determine the condition of the body; while, on pensable to their safety. When sickness and pain folthe other hand, an individual who neglects these, may low a debauch, they serve to urge a more scrupulous pine in disease, and be racked with torturing pains, al- obedience to the organic laws, that the individual may though at the very moment, he may be devoting his escape death, which is the inevitable consequence of mind to the highest duties of humanity. too great and continued disobedience to these laws, 2. Obedience to each law is attended with its own and enjoy health, which is the reward of opposite conreward, and disobedience with its own punishment. duct. When discontent, irritation, hatred, and other Thus the mariners who preserve their ship in accord- mental annoyances, arise out of infringement of the ance with the physical laws, reap the reward of sailing moral law, this punishment is calculated to induce the in safety; and those who permit its departure from offender to return to obedience, that he may enjoy the them, are punished by the ship sinking. Those who rewards attached to it. obey the moral law, enjoy the intense internal delights When the transgression of any natural law is excesthat spring from active moral faculties; they render sive, and so great that return to obedience is impossithemselves, moreover, objects of affection and esteem ble, one purpose of death, which then ensues, may be to moral and intelligent beings, who, in consequence, to deliver the individual from a continuation of the confer on them many other gratifications. Those who punishment which could then do him no good. Thus, disobey that law, are tormented with insatiable desires, when, from infringement of a physical law, a ship sinks which, from the nature of things, cannot be gratified; at sea, and leaves men immersed in water, without the they are punished by the perpetual craving of whatever possibility of reaching land, their continued existence portion of moral sentiment they possess, for higher en- in that state would be one of cruel and protracted sufjoyments, which are never attained; and they are ob- fering; and it is advantageous to them to have their jects of dislike and malevolence to other beings in the mortal life extinguished at once by drowning, thereby same condition as themselves, who inflict on them the withdrawing them from further agony. In like manevils dictated by their own provoked propensities. ner, if a man in the vigour of life, so far infringe any Those who obey the organic laws, reap the reward of organic law as to destroy the function of a vital organ, health and vigour of body, and buoyancy of mind; the heart, for instance, or the lungs, or the brain, it is those who break them are punished by sickness, fee- better for him to have his life cut short, and his pain bleness, and languor. put an end to, than to have it protracted under all the 3. The natural laws are universal, invariable, and tortures of an organic existence without lungs, without unbending. When the physical laws are subverted in a heart, or without a brain, if such a state were possiChina or Kamschatka, there is no instance of a ship ble, which, for this wise reason, it is not. floating there more than in England; and when they I do not intend to predicate any thing concerning the are observed, there is no instance of a vessel sinking perfectibility of man by obedience to the laws of nature. in any one of these countries more than in another. The system of sublunary creation, so far as we perThere is no example of men, in any country, enjoying ceive it, does not appear to be one of optimism; yet the mild and generous internal joys, and the outward benevolent design, in its constitution, is undeniable. esteem and love that attend obedience to the moral PALEY says,'Nothing remains but the first supposilaw, while they give themselves up to the dominion of tion, that GoD, when he created the human species, brutal propensities. There is no example, in any lati- wished them happiness, and made for them the provitude or longitude, or in any age, of men who entered sions which he has made, with that view and for that tile with a constitution in perfect harmony with the or- purpose. The same argument may be proposed in 6 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. different terms: Contrivance proves design; and the ing, is, because the- natural laws are too much overpredominant tendency of the contrivance indicates the looked, and very rarely considered as having any reladisposition of the designer. The world abounds with tion to practical conduct. contrivances; and ALL THE CONTRIVANCES Connected with this subject, it is proper to state, which we are acquainted with, are directed to beneficial that I do not maintain-that the world is arranged on the purposes.' PALEY'S Mor. Phil. Edinb. 1816, p. 51. principle of Benevolence exclusively: my idba is, that My object is to discover as many of the contrivances it is constituted in harmony with the whole faculties of the Creator, for effecting beneficial purposes, as of man; the moral sentiments and intellect holding possible; and to point out in what manner, by accom- the supremacy. What is meant:by creation being conmodating our conduct to these contrivances, we may stituted in harmony with the whole faculties of man, lessen our misery and increase our happiness. is this. Suppose that we should see two men holding I do not intend to teach that the natural laws, dis- a third in a chair, and a fourth drawing a tooth from cernible by unassisted reason, are sufficient for the his head:-While we contemplated this bare act, and salvation of man without revelation. Human interests knew nothing of the intention with which it was done, regard this world and the next. To enjoy this world, and of the consequences that would follow, we would I humbly maintain, that man must discover and obey set it down as purely cruel; and say, that, although it the natural laws; for example, to ensure health to off- might be in harmony with Destructiveness, it could not spring, the parents must be healthy, and the children be so with Benevolence. But, when we were told after birth must be treated in conformity to the organic that the individual in the chair was a patient, the opelaws; to fit them for usefulness in society, they must rator a dentist, the two men his assistants, and that be instructed in their own constitution,-in that of ex- the object of all the parties was to deliver the first from ternal objects and beings, and taught to act rationally violent torture, we would then perceive that Destrucin reference to these. Revelation does not commu- tiveness had been used as a means to accomplish a benicate complete or scientific information concerning nevolent purpose; or, in other words, that it had acted the best mode of pursuing even our legitimate tempo- under the supremacy of moral sentiment and intellect, ral interests, probably because faculties have been and we would approve of the transaction. If the given to man to discover arts, sciences, and the natu- world were created on the principle of Benevolence ral laws, and to adapt his conduct to them. The phy- exclusively, no doubt the toothach could not exist; sical, moral, and intellectual nature of man, is itself but, as pain does exist, Destructiveness has been given open to investigation by our natural faculties; and nu- to place men in harmony with it, when used for a bemerous practical duties resulting from our constitution nevolent end. are discoverable, which are not treated of in detail in To apply this illustration to the works of providence; the inspired volume; the mode of preserving health, I humbly suggest it as probable, that if we knew thofor example; of pursuing with success a temporal call- roughly the design and whole consequences of such ing; of discovering the qualities of men with whom institutions of the Creator, as are attended with pain, we mean to associate our interests; and many others. death, and disease, for example, we should find that My object, I repeat, is to investigate the natural con- Destructiveness was used as a means, under the guistltution of the human body and mind, their relations dance of Benevolence and Justice, to arrive at an end to external objects and beings in this world, and the in harmony with the moral sentiments and intellect; courses of action that, in consequence, appear to be in short, that no institution of the Creator has pure beneficial or hurtful. evil, or destructiveness alone, for its object. In judgMan's spiritual interests belong to the sphere of re- ing of the divine institutions, the moral sentiments and velation and I distinctly declare, that I do not teach, intellect embrace the results of them to the race, while ihat obedience to the natural laws is sufficient for sal- the propensities regard only the individual; and as the vation in a future state. Revelation prescribes certain former are the higher powers, their dictates are of surequisites for salvation, which may be divided into two preme authority in such questions. Farther, when the classes; first, faith or belief; and, secondly, the per- operations of these institutions: are sufficiently underBrmance of certain practical duties, not as meritorious stood, they will be acknowledged to be, beneficial for of salvation, but as the native result of that faith, and the individual also; although, when partially viewed. tBe necessary evidence of its sincerity. The natural this may not at first appear to be the case. saws form no guide as to faith; but so far as I can per- The opposite of this doctrine, viz. that there are inceive their dictates and those of revelation coincide stitutions of the Creator which have suffering for their in all matters relating to practical duties in temporal exclusive object, is clearly untenable; for this would affairs. be ascribing malevolence to the Deity. As, however It may be asked, whether mere knowledge of the na- the existence of pain is undeniable, it is equally impostural laws is sufficient to insure observance of them sible to believe that the worldis arranged on the principle Certainly not. Mere knowledge of music does not en- of Benevolence exclusively; and, with great submisable one to play on an instrument, nor of anatomy sion, the view now presented reconciles the existence to perform skilfully a surgical operation. Practical of Pain with that of Benevolence in a natural way, and training, and the aid of every motive that can interest the harmony of it with the constitution of the human the feelings, are necessary to lead individuals to obey mind, renders its soundness probable. the natural laws. Religion, in particular, may furnish motives highly conducive to this obedience. But, it must never be forgotten, that although mere knowledge is not all-sufficient, it is a primary and indispensable re- OF THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN, AND ITS RELATIONS TO quisite to regular observance; and that it is as impos- EXTERNAL OBJECTS. sible, effectually and systematically to obey the natural Let us, then, consider the Constitution of Man, and laws without knowing them, as it is to infringe them the natural laws to which he is subjected, and endeawith impunity, although from ignorance of their exis- your to discover how far the external world is arranged tence. Some persons are of opinion that Christianity with wisdom and benevolence, in regard to him. alone suffices, not only for man's salvation, which I do Bishop Butler, in the Preface to his Sermons, says,' It is not dispute, but'for his guidance in all practical vir- from considering the relations which the several appePues, without knowledge of, or obedience to, the laws tites and passions in the inward frame have to each of nature; but from this notion I respectfully dissent. other, and, above all, the SUPREMACY of reflection o0 It appears to me, that one reason why vice and misery, conscience, that we get the idea of the system or conin this world, do not diminish in proportion to preach- stitution of human nature. And from the idea itself; CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 7 it will as fully appear, that this our nature, i. e. con- the mode in which the investigation might be conducted. stitution, is adapted to virtue as from the idea of a watch By the law of gravitation, heavy bodies always tend it appears, that its nature, i. e. constitution or system toward the centre of the earth. Some of the advanis adapted to measure time. tages of this law are, that objects remain at rest when' Mankind has various instincts and principles of ac- properly supported, so that men know where to find tion as brute creatures have; some leading most directly them when they are wanted for use; walls, when erectand immediately to the good of the community, and ed of sufficient thickness and perfectly perpendicular, some most directly to private good. stand firm and secure, so as to constitute edifices for'Man has several, which brutes have not; particu- the accommodation of man. Water descends from the larly reflection or conscience, an approbation of some clouds, from the roofs of houses, from streets and fields, principles or actions, and disapprobation of others.' and precipitates itself down the channels of rivers, turns' Brutes obey their instincts or principles of action, mill-wheels in its course, and sets in motion the most according to certain rules; suppose, the constitution stupendous and useful machinery; ships move steadiof their body, and the objects around them.' ly through the water with part of their hulls immersed,' The generality of mankind also obey their instincts and part rising moderately above it, their masts and and principles, all of them, those propensities we call sails towering in the air to catch the inconstant breeze; good, as well as the bad, according to the same rules, and men are enabled to descend from heights, to penenamely, the constitution of their body, and the exter- trate by mines below the surface of the ground, and by nal circumstances which they are in.' diving-bells beneath that of the ocean.' Brutes, in acting according to the rules before men- To place man in harmony with this law, the Creator tioned, their bodily constitution and circumstances, act has bestowed on him bones, muscles, and nerves, consuitably to their whole nature. structed on the most perfect principles of mechanical sci-' Mankind also, in acting thus, would act suitably to ence, which enable him to preserve his equilibrium, and their whole nature, if no more were to be said of man's to adapt his movements to its influence; also intellecnature than what has been now said; if that, as it is a tual faculties, calculated to perceive the existence of true, were also a complete, adequate account of our the law, its modes of operation, the relation between nature. it and himself, the beneficial consequences of observing' But that is not a complete account of nature. Some- this relation, and the painful results of infringing it. what farther must be brought in to give us an adequate Finally, when a person falls over a precipice, and is notion of it; namely, that one of those principles of maimed or killed; when a ship springs aleak and sinks; action, conscience, or reflection, compared with the rest, or when a reservoir pond breaks down its banks and as they all stand together in the nature of man, plainly ravages a valley, we ought to trace the evil back to its bears upon it marks of authority over all the rest, and cause, which will uniformly resolve itself into infringeclaims the absolute direction of them all, to allow or for- ment of a natural law, and then endeavour to discover bid their gratification;-a disapprobation on reflection whether this infringement could or could not have been being in itself a principle manifestly superior to a mere prevented, by a due exercise of the physical and menpropension. And the conclusion is, that to allow no tal powers bestowed by the Creator on man. more to this superior principle or part of our nature, By pursuing this course, we shall arrive at sound than to other parts; to let it govern and guide only conclusions concerning the adaptation of the human occasionally, in common with the rest, as its turn hap- mind and body to the physical laws of creation. The pens to come, from the temper and circumstances one subject, as I have said, is too extensive to be here prohappens to be in; this is not to act conformably to the secuted in detail, and I am incompetent, besides, to do constitution of mana: neither can any human creature be itjustice; but the more minutely any one inquires, the ~aid to act conformably to his constitution of nature, more firm will be his conviction, that in these relations unless he allows to that superior principle the absolute admirable provision is made by the Creator for human authority which is due to it.'- Butler's Works, vol.i. happiness, and that the evils which arise from neglect Preface. The following Essay is founded on the prin- of them, are attributable, toa great extent, to man's ciples here suggested. not adequately applying his powers to the promotion of SECT. I.-MAN CONSIDERED AS A PHYSICAL BEING. his own enjoyment. The human body consists of bones, muscles, nerves SECT. II.-MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ORGANIZED BEING. bloodvessels, besides organs of nutrition, of respiration, Man is an organized being, and subject to the organic and of thought. These parts are all composed of phy- laws. An organized being is one which derives its exsical elements, and to a certain extent, are subjected to istence from a previously existing organized being, the physical laws of creation. By the laws of gravita- which subsists on food, which grows, attains maturity, tion, the body falls to the ground when unsupported, and decays, and dies. The first law, then, that must be is liable to be injured, like any frangible substance; by obeyed, to render an organized being perfect in its kind, a chemical law, excessive cold freezes, and excessive is that the germ, from which it springs, shall be comheat dissipates, its fluids; and life, in either case is ex- plete in all its parts, and sound in its whole constitutinguished. tion. If we sow an acorn, in which some vital part has To discover the real effect of the physical laws of been destroyed altogether, the seedling plant, and the nature on human happiness, we would require to un- full grown oak, if it ever attain to maturity, will be dederstand, 1st. The physical laws themselves, as ficient in the lineaments which were wanting in the revealed by mathematics, natural philosophy, natural'embryo root; if we sow an acorn entire in its parts, but history, and their subordinate branches; 2dly. The only half ripened or damaged, by damp or other causes anatomical and physiological constitution of the hu- in its whole texture, the seedling oak will be feeble, man body; 3dly. The adaptation of the former to the and will probably die early. A similar law holds in re-!atter. These expositions are necessary, to ascertain gard to man. A second organic law is, that the orthe extent to which it is possible for man to place him- ganized being, the moment it is ushered into life, and self in accordance with the physical laws so as to reap so long as it continues to live, must be supplied with advantage from them, and also to determine how far food, light, air, and other physical aliment requisite for the sufferings which he endures, fall to be ascribed to its support, in due quantity, and of the kind best suited their inevitable operation and how far to his ignorance to its particular constitution. Obedience to this law is and infringement of them. To treat of these views in rewarded with a vigorous and healthy development of detail, would require separate volumes, and I therefore its powers; and in animals, with a pleasing consciousconfine myself to a single instance as an illustration of Less of existence and aptitude for the performance of 8 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. their natural functions; disobedience to it is punished much greater than in milder latitudes) a delightful with feebleness, stinted growth, general imperfection, vigour and buoyancy of mind and body were enjoyed, or death. A third organic law,'applicable to man, is, that rendered life highly agreeable. Now, in beautiful that he shall duly exercise his organs, this condition be- harmony with these wants of the human frame, these ing an indispensable requisite to health. The reward of regions abound, during summer, in countless herds of obedience to this law, is enjoyment in the very act of deer, in rabbits, partridges, ducks, in short, in game of exercising the functions, pleasing consciousness of ex- every description, and fish; and the flesh of these dried, istence, and the acquisition of numberless gratifications constitutes delicious, food in winter, when the earth is and advantages, of which labour, or the exercise of wrapped in one wide-spread covering of snow. our powers, is the procuring means: disobedience is In Scotland, the climate is moist and cold, the punished with derangement and sluggishness of the greater part of the surface is mountainous, but adfunctions, with general uneasiness or positive pain, and mirably adapted for raising sheep and cattle, while a with the denial of gratification to numerous faculties. certain portion consists of fertile plains, fitted for fariDirecting our attention to the constitution of the hu- naceous food. If the same law holds in this country, man body, we perceive that the power of reproduction the diet of the people should consist of animal and is bestowed on man, and also intellect, to enable him to farinaceous food, the former decidedly predominating. discover and obey the conditions necessary for the trans- As we proceed to warmer latitudes, we find tne soil mission of a healthy organic frame to his descendants; and temperature of France less congenial to sheep and that digestive organs are given to him for his nutrition, cattle, but more favourable to corn and wine; and the and innumerable vegetable and animal productions are Frenchman inherits a native elasticity of body and placed around him, in wise relationship to these organs. mind, that enables him to flourish in vigour on less of Without attempting to expound minutely the organic animal food, than would be requisite to preserve the Scotstructure of man, or to trace in detail its adaptation to tish Highlander in a like gay and alert condition, in the rehis external condition, I shall offer some, observations cesses of his mountains. The plains of Hindostan are too in support of the proposition, that the due exercise of hot for the sheep and ox, but produce rice and vegetathe osseous, muscular, and nervous systems, under the ble spices in prodigious abundance, and the native is guidance of intellect and moral sentiment, and in ac- healthy, vigorous and active, when supplied with rice cordance with the physical laws, contributes to human and curry, and becomes sick, when obliged to live upon enjoyment; and, that neglect of this exercise, or an animal diet. He, also, is supplied with less muscular abuse of it, by carrying it to excess, or by conducting energy from this species of food, and his soil and cliit in opposition to the moral, intellectual, or physical mate require far less laborious exertion than those of laws, is punished with pain. Britain, Germany, or Russia. The earth is endowed with the capability of producing So far, then, the external world appears to be wisely an ample supply for all our wants, provided we expend and benevolently adapted to the organic system of man, muscular and nervous energy in its cultivation; while, that is, to his nutrition, and to the developement and in most climates, it refuses to produce if we withhold exercise of his corporeal organs; and the natural law this labour and leave it waste. Farther, the Creator appears to be, that all, if they desire to enjoy the pleahas presented us with timber, metal, wool, and count- sures attending sound and vigorous muscular and nerless materials, which, by means of muscular power, vous systems, must expend in labour the energy which may be converted into clothing, and all the luxuries of the Creator has infused into these organs. A wide life. The fertility of the earth, and the demands of the choice is left open to man, as to the mode in which he body for food and clothing, are so benevolently adapted shall exercise his nervous and muscular systems. The to each other, that with rational restraint on population, labourer, for example, digs the ground, and the squire a few hour's labour each day from every individual ca- engages in the chase. The penalty of neglecting this pable of labour, would suffice to furnish all with every law is debility, bodily and mental, lassitude, imperfect commodity that could really add to enjoyment. digestion, disturbed sleep, bad health, and, if carried to In the tropical regions of the globe, for example, a certain length, death. The penalty for over-exerting where'a high atmospheric temperature diminishes the these systems is exhaustion, mental incapacity, the dequantum of muscular energy, the fertility and produc- sire of strong artificial stimulants, such as ardent spirits, tiveness of the soil are increased in a like proportion, so general insensibility, and grossness of feeling and perthat less labour suffices. Less labour, also, is required ception, with disease and shortened life. Society has to provide habitations and raiment. In the colder lati- not recognised this law, and in consequence, the higher tudes, muscular energy is greatly increased, and there orders despise labour, and suffer the first penalty; while much higher demands are made upon it. The earth is the lower orders are oppressed with toil, and undergo more sterile, the rude winds require firmer fabrics to re- the second. The penalties serve to provide motives sist their violence, and the piercing frosts require a for obedience to the law, and wherever it is recognised, thicker covering to the body. and the consequences are discovered to be inevitable, Farther, the food afforded by the soil in each climate men will no longer shun labour as painful and ignois admirably adapted to the maintenance of the organic minious, but resort to it as a source of pleasure, as constitution in health, and to the supply of the muscu- well as to avoid the pains inflicted on those who neglar energy requisite for the particular wants of the situ- lect it. ation. In the Arctio Regions no farinaceous food ripens; but on putting tile question to Dr Richardson, SECT. III. MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ANIMAL MORALhow he, accustomed to the bread and vegetables of the AND INTELLECTUALaBEING. temperate regions, was able to endure the pure animal In the third place, man is an animal-moral —and diet, which formed his only support on his expedition to intellectual being. To discover the adaptation of these the shores of the Polar Sea along with Captain Frank- parts of his nature to his external circumstances, we lin, he replied, that the effects of the extreme dry cold to must first know what are his various animal, moral, and which they were exposed, living, as they did, constantly intellectual powers themselves. Phrenology gives us in the open air, was to produce a desire for the most a view of them, drawn from observation; and as I have stimulating food they could obtain; that bread in such verified the inductions of that science, so as to satisfy a climate was not only not desired, but comparatively myself that it is the most complete and correct exposiimpotent, as an article of diet; that pure animal food, tion of the Nature of Man which has yet been given, I and the fatter the better, was the' only sustenance that adopt its classification of facuces as the basis of the maintained the tone of the corporeal system, but that subsequent observations. According to Phrenology, when it was abundant (and the quantity required was then, the Human Faculties are the following: CONS'rTTUTION OF MAN. 9 Order I. FEELINGS. 16. IDEALITY.-Uses: Love of the beautiful and splen. Genus I. PROPENSITIES-Common to Man with did, the desire of excellence, poetic feeling.the Lower Animals. Abuses: Extravagance and absurd enthusiasm, 1. AMATIVENESS; Produces sexual love. preference of the showy and glaring to the solid. n TvENEs Love of offspri and useful, a tendency to dwell in the regions of 2. PALosROesNITIaENESS.- Uses: Love of offspring. fancy, and to neglect the duties of life. -Abuses: Pampering and spoiling children. WONDER. — Uses: The desire of novelty, admiration 3. CONCENTRATIVENESS.- Uses: It gives the desire of the new, the unexpected, the grand, and extrafor permanence in place, and for permanence of of th e new, the unexpected, the grand, and extraemotions and ideas in the mind. -Abuses: Aver- tonishment-Note. Veneration, Hope, and Wonsion to move abroad; morbid dwelling on inter- der, combined, give the tendency to religion; their nal emotions and ideas, to the neglect of external abusesr, combineduce superstition athe tendency to religion; their abuses produce superstition and belief in false impressions. miracles, in prodigies, magic, ghosts, and all su4. ADHESIVENESS. —Uses: Attachment,; friendship, pernatural absurdities. and society result from it.-Abuses: Clanship for: It gives origin to the improper objects, attachment to worthless individu- sentiment of justice, or respect for ights of als. It is generally large in women. sentiment of justice, or respect for the rights of 5. COMBATIVENESS Use Courage to meet danger, n. others, openness to conviction, the love of truth. 5. CoMBATIvENEss. —Uses: Courage to meet danger, Abuses: Scrupulous adherence to noxious princito overcome difficulties, and to resist attacks.- Abuses: Scrupulous adherence to noxious princi~Abuses:ov ocntntonadenenyo ples when ignorantly embraced, excessive refineAbuses: Love of contention, and tendency to ment in the views -of duty and obligation, excess ~~~provoke and assault. ~in remorse, or self-condemnation. 6. DESTRUCTIVENESS.-Uses: Desire to destroy nox6. DEsTP~ucTivENEss-Uses: Desire to destroy nox- 18. FIRMNESs.-Uses: Determination, perseverance, ious objects, and to kill for food. It is very di-. FIRMNESS.-U: Determination, perseverance, cernible in carnivorous animals. -Abuses: Cruel- steadiness of purpose. —Abuses: Stubbornness, infatuation, tenacity in evil. ty, desire to torment, tendency to passion, rage, harshness and severity in speech and writing. Order II. INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES. 7. CONSTRUCTIVENESS.-Uses: Desire to build and Genus I. EXTERNAL SENSES. construct works of art.-Abuses: Construction of engines to injure or destroy, and fabrication of ob- Uses: To bing man ito comjects to deceive mankind. FEELING or TOUCH. munication with external objects, 8. AcQUISITIVENESS.-Uses: Desire to possess, and TASTE. and to enable him to enjoy them. tendency to accumulate articles of utility, to pro- SMELL. Abuses: Excessive indulgence vide against want.-Abuses: Inordinate desire for HEARING. in the pleasures arising from the property; selfishness; avarice. LIGHT. senses, to the extent of impair9. SECRETIVENESS. — Uses: Tendencyto restrainwith- ing the organs and debilitating in the mind the various emotions and ideas that the mind. involuntarily present themselves, until the judg- Genus II. INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES-whiIch ment has approved of giving them utterance; it perceive existence. also aids the artist and the actor in giving expres- 19. INDIVIDUALITy-Takes cognizance of existence sion; and is an ingredient in prudence.-Abuses: and simple facts. Cunning, deceit, duplicity, lying, and, joined with EVENTUALITY —Takes cognizance of occurrences Acquisitiveness, theft. and events. Genus II. SENTIMENTS. 20. FoRM-Renders man observant of form. 21. SIzE —Renders man observant of dimensions, and I. Sentiments common to Man with the Lower Animals 21. SIZERenders man observant of dimensions, and aids perspective. 10. SELF-ESTEEM. — Uses: Self-interest, love of inde- 22. WEIGHT —Communicates the perception of momenpendence, personal dignity.-Abuses: Pride, dis- tum, weight, resistance, and aids equilibrium. dain, overweening conceit, excessive selfishness, 23. COLOURING —Gives perception of colours. love of dominion. Genus III. INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES11. LOVE, OF APPROBATI'ON.-Uses: Desire of the es- which perceive the relations of external objects. teem of others, love of praise, desire of fame or-Gives the idea of space and relative glory.-Abuses; Vanity, ambition, thirst for praise the idea of space and relative independent of praiseworthiness. position. 12. CAUTIOUSNESs.-Uses: It gives origin to the sen-25. ORDER-Communicates the love of physical artiment of fear, the desire to shun danger, to cir- rangement. cuspection; and it is an ingredient in prudence. 20. TIME-Gives rise to the perception of duration. -Abcumspecessive timidity, poltroon; adiispuden. 27. NUMBER-Gives a turn for arithmetic and algebra -Abuses: Excessive timidity, poltroonery, u4n- 28. TNE-The sense of Melody arises frm it founded apprehensions, despondency, melancholy. 2. NGUAGThe sense of Melody arises ngom it. 13. BENEVOLENCE. —Uses: Desire of the happiness of E-Gives a facility in acquiring a knowothers, universal charity, mildness of disposition, ledge of arbitrary signs to express thoughts-a and a lively sympathy with the enjoyment of all felicity in the use of them-and a power of inventanimated beings. —Abuses: Profusion, injurious ing them. indulgence of the appetites and fancies of others, Genus IV. REFLECTING FACULTIES-which prodigality, facility of temper. compare, judge, and discriminate. II. Sentiments proper to Man. 30. CoMPARIsoN-Gives the power of discovering ana. 14. VENERATION.-Uses: Tendency to worship, adore, logies and resemblances. venerate, or respect whatever is great and good; 31. CAUSALITY-To trace the dependencies of phenogives origin to the religious sentiment.-Abuses: mena, and the relation of cause and effect. Senseless respect for unworthy objects consecra- 32. WT —Gives the feeling and the ludicrous. ted by time or situation, love of antiquated cus- 33. IMITATION-TO copy the manners, gestures, and toms, abject subserviency to persons in authority, actions of others, and nature generally. superstition. The first glance at these faculties suffices to show, 15. HoPE.-Uses: Tendency to expect and to look for- that they are not all equal in excellence and elevation; ward to the future with confidende and reliance; that some are common to man with the lower animals; it cherishes faith.-Abuses: Credulity, absurd ex- and others peculiar to man. In comparing the human pectations of felicity not founded on reason. mind, therefore, with its external condition, it becomes 10 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. an object of primary importance to discover the rela- springing from Philoprogenitiveness, when acting alone, tive subordination of these different orders of powers. is the same in kind as that of the miser for his gold; If the Animal Faculties are naturally or necessarily su- an intense interest in the object, for the sake of the preme, then external nature, if it be wisely constituted, gratification it affords to his own mind, without regard may be expected to bear direct reference, in its arrange- for the object on its own account. This truth is recogments, to this supremacy. If the Moral and Intellec- nized by Sir Walter Scott. He says,' Elspat's ardent, tual Faculties hold the ascendancy, then the constitu-: though selfish afection for her son, incapable of being tion of external nature may be expected to be in har- qualified by a regard for the true interests of the unformony with them, when predominant. Let us attend to tunate object of her attachment, resembled the instinctthese questions. ive fondness of the animal race for their offspring; and, SECT. IV.-THE FACULTIES OF MAN COMPARED WITH diving little farther into futurity than one of the inferior EAICH OTHER; OR THE SUPREMAhCY OF THE MORAL creatures, she only plt that to be separated from Hamish, was to die.'* SENTIMENTS IAND INTELLECT. In man, this faculty generally acts along with BeneAccording to the phrenological theory of human na- volence, and a disinterested desire of the happiness of ture, the faculties are divided into Propensities common the child mingles along with, and elevates the mere into man with the lower animals, Sentiments proper to stinct of, Philoprogenitiveness; but the sources of these man, and intellect. Every faculty stands in a definite two affections are different, their degrees vary in differrelation to certain external objects;-when it is inter- ent persons, and their ends also are dissimilar. nally active it desires these objects;-when they are The same observation applies to the affection propresented to it they excite it to activity, and delight it ceeding from Adhesiveness. When this faculty acts with agreeable sensations. Human happiness and alone, it desires, for its own satisfaction, a friend to misery are resolvable into the gratification or denial of love; but, if Benevolence do not act along with it, it gratification of one or more of our active faculties, be- cares nothing for the happiness of that friend, except in fore described, of the external senses, and the feelings so far as his welfare may be necessary to its own graticonnected with our bodily frame. The faculties, in fication. The horse feels melancholy when his comthemselves, are mere instincts; the moral sentiments panion is removed; but the feeling appears to be one and intellect are higher instincts than the animal pro- of unneasiness at the absence of an object which grapensities. Every faculty is good in itself, but all are tified his Adhesiveness. His companion may have been liable to abuse. Their manifestations are right only led to a richer pasture, and introduced to more agreewhen directed by enlightened intellect and moral senti- able society; yet this does not assuage the distress ment. In maintaining the supremacy of the moral sen- suffered by him at his removal; his tranquillity, in short, timents and intellect, I do not consider them sufficient is restored only by time causing the activity of Adheto direct conduct by their mere instinctive suggestions. siveness to subside, or by the substitution of another To fit them to discharge this important duty, they must object on which it may exert itself. In human nature, be illuminated by knowledge of science and of moral the effect of the faculty, when acting singly, is the and of religious duty; but whenever their dictates, same; and this accounts for the fact of the almost total thus enlightened, oppose the solicitations of the propen- indifference of many persons -who were really attached, sities, the latter must yield; otherwise, by the constitu- by Adhesiveness, to each other, when one fals into tion of external nature, evil will inevitably ensue. This misfortune, and becomes a disagreeable object to the is what I mean by nature'being constituted inharmony: Self-esteem and Love of Approbation of the other. with the supremacy' of the moral sentiments and intel- Suppose two persons, elevated in rank, and possessed lect. Let us consider-the faculties themselves.: of affluence, to have such Adhesiveness, Self-esteem, The first three propensities, Amativeness,'Philopro- and Love of Approbation large, with Benevolence and genitiveness, and Adhesiveness, or the group of the Conscientiousness moderate, it is obvious that, while domestic affections, desire a conjugal partner, offspring,'both!are in prosperity, they may really like each other's and friends; the obtaining of these affords them de- society, and feel a reciprocal -attachment, because there 3ight,-the removal of them occasions pain. But to will be mutual sympathy in their Adhesiveness, and the'render an. individual happy, the whole faculties must be Self-esteem and Love of Approbation of each will be gratified harmoniously, or at least the gratification of gratified by the rank and circumstances of his friend; one or more must not offend any of the others. For but imagine one of them to fall into misfortune, and to example, suppose the group of the domestic affections cease to be an object gratifying to Self-esteem and to be highly interested in an individual, and strongly to Love of Approbation; suppose that he becomes a poor desire to form an alliance with him, but that the person friend instead of a rich and influential one, the harmony so loved is improvident and immoral, and altogether an between their selfish faculties will be broken, and then object which the faculties of Self-esteem, Love of Ap- Adhesiveness in the one who remains rich will transfer probation, Benevolence, Veneration, Conscientiousness, its affection to another individual who may gratify it, and Intellect, if left dispassionately to survey his qua- and also supply agreeable sensations to Self-esteem and lities, could not approve of; then, if an alliance be Love of Approbation,-to a genteel friend, in short, formed with him, under the ungovernable impulses of who will look well in the eye of the world. the former faculties, bitter days of repentance must ne- Much of this conduct occurs in society, and the cessarily follow, when these begin to languish, and the whining complaint is very ancient, that the storms of latter faculties receive offence from his qualities. If, adversity disperse friends just as the winter winds strip on the other hand, the domestic affections are guided leaves from the forest that gaily adorned it in the sunby intellect to an object pleasing to the latter powers, shine of summer; and many moral sentence are pointthese, themselves will be gratified, they will double the ed, and episodes finely turned, on the selfishness and delights afforded by the former faculties, and render the corruption of poor human nature. But such friendenjoyment permanent. ships were attachments founded on the lower feelings, The great distinction between the animal faculties which, by their constitution, are selfish, and the deserand the powers proper to man, is, that the object of the tion complained of is the fair and legitimate result of former is the preservation of the individual himself, or the principles on which both parties acted during the his family; while the latter have the welfare of others, gay hours of prosperity. If we look at the head of and our duties to God, as their ends. Even the do- Sheridan, we shall perceive large Adhesiveness, Selfmestic affections, amiable and respectable as they un- esteem, and Love of Approbation, with deficient redoubtedly are when combined with the moral feelings, flecting organs, and moderate Conscientiousness. He have self as their object. The love of children, * Chronicles of the Canongate, vo!. i. p. 281. CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 11 has large Individuality, Comparison, Secretiveness, and prove of, and which we see to be really wrong, BeneImitation, which gave him talents for observation and volence and Conscientiousness would prompt us to lay display. When these earned him a brilliant reputation, before our friend the very head and front of his offendhe was surrounded by friends, and he himself probably ing, and conjure him to forsake his error, and publicly felt attachment in return. But his deficient morality make amends:-Love of Approbation, on the other prevented him from loving his friends with a true, dis- hand, would either render us averse to speak to him on interested, and honest regard; he abused their kind- the subject, lest he should be offended, or prompt us to ness, and,. as he sunk into poverty and wretchedness, extenuate his fault, and represent it as either positively and ceased to be an honour to them, or to excite their no error at all, or as extremely trivial. If we analyze Love of Approbation, they almost all deserted him. the motive which prompts to this course, we shall find But the whole connexion was founded on selfish prin- that it is not love of our friend, or consideration for his ciples; Sheridan honoured them, and they flattered welfare, but fear lest, by our presenting to him disaSheridan; and the abandonment was the natural con- greeable truths, he should feel offended at us, and desequence of the cessation of gratification to their sel- prive us of the gratification afforded to our Love of fish feelings. I shall by-and-by point out the sources Approbation by his good opinion: in short, the motive of a loftier and a purer friendship, and its effects. is purely selfish. To proceed with the propensities: Combativeness Another illustration occurs. A manufacturer in a and Destructiveness, also are in their nature purely country town, having acquired a considerable fortune selfish. If aggression is committed against us, Com- by trade, applied part of it in building a princely manbativeness draws the sword and repels the attack; De- sion, which he furnished in the richest and most expenstructiveness inflicts vengeance for the offence; both sive style of fashion. He asked his customers, near feelings are obviously the very opposite of benevolent. and distant, to visit him when calling on business, and I do not say, that, in themselves, they are despicable led them into a dining-room or drawing-room that absoor sinful; on the contrary, they are necessary, and, lutely dazzled them with its magnificence. This exwhen legitimately employed, highly useful; but still cited their wonder and curiosity, which was precisely self is the object of their supreme regard. the effect he desired; he then led them over his whole The next organ is Acquisitiveness, and self is emi- apartments, and displayed before them his grandeur and nently its object. It desires blindly to possess, is taste. In doing so, he imagined that he was conferpleased with accumulating, and suffers great uneasiness ring a high pleasure on them, and filling their minds in being deprived of its objects. It is highly useful, with an intense admiration of his greatness; but the like all the other faculties, for even Benevolence cannot real effect was very different. The motive of his congive away until Acquisitiveness has acquired. There duct was not love of them, or regard for their happiare friendships, particularly among mercantile men, ness or welfare; it was not Benevolence to others that founded on Adhesiveness and Acquisitiveness, just as prompted him to build the palace; it was not Venerain fashionable life they are founded on Adhesiveness tion, nor was it Conscientiousness. The fabric sprung and Love of Approbation. Two individuals fall into from Self-esteem and Love of Approbation combined, a course of dealing, by which each reaps profit by no doubt, with considerable Intellect and Ideality. In transactions with the other: this leads to intimacy, and leading his humble brethren in trade through the Adhesiveness probably mingles its influence, and pro- princely halls, over the costly carpets, and amidst the duces a feeling of actual attachment. The moment, gilding, burnishing, and rich array, that every where met however, that the Acquisitiveness of the one suffers the their eyes,he exulted in the consciousness of his own least inroad from that of the other, and their interests importance, and asked for their admiration, not as an clash, they are apt, if no higher principle unite them, expression of respect for any real benefits conferred to become bitter enemies. It is probable that, while upon them, but as the much relished food of his own these fashionable and commercial friendships last, the selfish vanity. parties may profess great recriprocal esteem and regard, Let us attend, in the next place, to the effect of this and that, when a rupture takes place, the'one who is display on those to whom it was addressed. To gain depressed, or disobliged, may recall these expressions their esteem or affection, it was necessary to manifest and charge them as hypocritical; but they really were towards them real Benevolence, real regard, and imparnot so: each probably felt from Adhesiveness and gra- tial justice; in short, to cause another individual to tified Love of Approbation something which he coloured love us, we must make him the object of the moral senover, and perhaps believed to be disinterested friend- timents, which have his good and happiness for their ship; but if each would honestly probe his own con- end. Here, however, these were not the inspiring moscience, he would be obliged to acknowledge that the tives of the conduct, and the want of them would be whole basis of the connexion was selfish; and hence, instinctively felt. The customers, who possessed the that the result is just what every man ought to expect, least shrewdness, would ascribe the whole exhibition to who places his reliance for happiness chiefly on the the vanity of the owner, and they would either pity or lower propensities. hate him; if their own moral sentiments predominated, Secretiveness is also selfish in its nature; for it sup- they would pity; if their Self-esteem and Love of Appresses feelings that might injure us with other in- probation were paramount, these would be offended at dividuals, and desires to find out secrets that may en- his assumed superiority, and would rouse Destructive. able its possessor to guard self against hostile plots or ness to hate him. It would only be the silliest and the designs. In itself it does not desire, in any respect, vainestwhowouldbe at all gratified; and their satisfaction the benefit of others. would arise from the feeling, that they could now reSelf-esteem is, in its very essence and name, sel- turn to their own circle, and boast how great a friend fish; it is the love of ourselves, and the esteem of our- they had, and in how grand a style they had been enterselves par excellence. tained,-this display being a direct gratification of their Love of Approbation, although many think otherwise, own Self-esteem and Love of Approbation, by their is also in itself a purely selfish feeling. Its real de- identifying themselves with him. Even this pleasure sire is applause to ourselves, to be esteemed ourselves, could be reaped only where the admirer was so humble and if it prompt us to do services, or to say agreeable in rank as to entertain no idea of rivalship, and so things to others, it is not from love of them, but purely limited in intellect and sentiments as not to perceive for the sake of obtaining self-gratification. the worthlessness of the qualities by which he was capSuppose, for example, we are acquainted With a per- tivated. son who has committed an error in some public duty, In like manner, when persons, even of more sense who has done or said something that the public disap- than the manufacturer here alluded to, give entertain, 12 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. ments to their friends, they sometimes fail in their ob- sciousness of its being bestowed upon us, ought to ject from the same cause. They wish to show off them- bring home to our minds an intense conviction that the selves as their leading motive, much more than to con- Author of the universe is at once wise and just. fer real happiness upon their acquaintances; and, by Intellect is universal in its application. It may bethe irreversible law of human nature, this must fail in come the handmaid of any of the faculties; it niay deexciting good-will and pleasure in the minds of' those to vise a plan to murder or to bless, to steal or to bestow, whom it is addressed, because it disagreeably affects to rear up or to destroy; but, as its proper use is to their Self-esteem and Love of Approbation. In short, observe the different objects of creation, to mark their to be really successful in gratifying our friends, we relations, and direct the propensities and sentiments to must keep our own selfish faculties in due subordina- their proper and legitimate enjoyments, it has a boundtion, and pour out copious streams of real kindness less sphere of activity, and, when properly exercised from the higher sentiments, animated and elevated by and applied, is a source of high and inexhaustible deintellect; and all who have experienced the heart-felt light. joy and satisfaction attending an entertainment con- Keeping in view the great difference now pointed ducted on this principle, will never quarrel with the out between the animal and properly human faculties, homeliness of the fare, or feel uneasy about the ab- the reader will perceive that three consequences follow sence of fashion in the service. from the constitution of these powers: First, All the Cautiousness is the next faculty, and is a sentiment faculties, when in excess, are insatiable, and, from the instituted to protect self fromr danger, and has clearly a constitution of the world, never can be satisfied. They regard to individual safety as its primary object. indeed may be soon satisfied on any particular occasion. This terminates the list of the feelings common to Food will soon fill the stomach; indulgence will speedman with the lower animals,* and which, as we have ily assuage Amativeness; success in a speculation will seen, have self preservation as their leading objects. render Acquisitiveness quiescent for the moment: a triThey are given for the protection and advantage of umph will satisfy for the time Self-esteem and Love of our animal nature, and, when duly regulated, are highly Approbation; a long concert will fatigue Tune; and too useful, and also respectable, viewed with reference to long a discourse afflict Casuality. But after repose they that end; but they are sources of innumerable evils will all renew their solicitations. They must all therewhen allowed to usurp the ascendancy over the moral fore be regulated; anrid, in particular, the lower profaculties, and to become the leading springs of our so- pensities, from having self as their primary objects, and cial intercourse. being blind to consequences, do not set limits to their I proceed to notice the moral sentiments which con- own indulgence; and hence lead to misery to the institute the proper human faculties, and to point out dividual, and injury to society, when allowed to exceed their objects and relations. the limits prescribed by the superior sentiments and Benevolence has no reference to self. It desires intellect. purely and disinterestedly the happiness of its objects; As this circumstance attending the propensities is of it loves for the sake of the person beloved; if he be great practical importance, I shall make a few obserwell, and the sunbeams of prosperity shine warmly vations in elucidation of it. The births and lives of around him, it exults and delights in his felicity. It children depend upon circumstances, over which unendesires a diffusion of joy, and renders the feet swift lightened men have but a limited control; and hence and the arm strong in the cause of charity and love. an individual, whose supreme happiness springs from Veneration also has no reference to self. It looks the gratification of Philoprogenitiveness will, by the up with a pure and elevated emotion to the being to mere predominance of that propensity, be led to neglec' whom it is directed, whether God or our fellow-men, or infringe the natural laws, on which the lives and weland delights in the contemplation of their venerable' fare of children depend, and which can be observes and admirable qualities. It desires to find out excel- only by active moral and intellectual faculties. Henct lence, and to dwell and feed upon it, and renders self he will be in constant danger of anguish and disappoint lowly, humble, and submissive. ment, by the removal of his children, or by their undu. Hope spreads its gay wing in the boundless regions tiful conduct and immoral behaviour. Besides, Philoof futurity. It desires good, and expects it to come; progenitiveness, acting along with Self-esteem and Love' it incites us to aim at a good which we can live with- of Approbation, would, in each parent, desire that his out;' its influence is soft, soothing, and happy; but children should possess the highest rank, the greatest self is not its direct or particular object. wealth, and be distinguished for the most splendid talIdeality delights in perfection from the pure pleasure ents. Now the highest, the greatest, the most splenof contemplating it. So far as it is concerned, the pic- did of any qualities, necessarily imply the existence of ture, the statue, the landscape, or the mansion, on inferior degrees, and are not attainable except by one. which it abides with intensest rapture, will be as pleas- The animal faculties, therefore, must be restrained in ing, although the property of another, as if all its own. their desires, and directed to their objects by the human It is a spring that is touched by the beautiful wherever faculties, by the sentiments of Conscientiousness, Beit exists; and hence its means of enjoyment are as un- nevolence, Veneration, and Intellect, otherwise they bounded as the universe is extensive. will inevitably lead to disappointment. In like manner, Wonder seeks the new and the striking, and is de- Acquisitiveness desires wealth, and, as nature affords lighted with change but there is no desire of appro- only a certain number of quarters of grain annually, a priation to self in its longings. certain portion of cattle, of fruit, of flax, and other artiConscientiousness stands in the midway between self cles, from which food, clothing, and wealth, are manuand other individuals. It is a regulator of our animal factured; and as this quantity, divided equally among feelings. and points out the limit which they must not all the members of a state, would afford but a moderpass. It desires to do to another as we would have ate portion to each, it is self-evident that, if all desire another to do to us, and thus is a guardian of the wel- to acquire and possess a large amount, ninety-nine out fare of our fellow men, while it sanctions and supports of the hundred must be disappointed. This disappointour personal feelings within the bounds of a due mo- ment, from the very constitution of nature, is inevitable deration. It is a noble feeling; and the mere con- to the greater number; and when individuals form * Benevolence is stated in the works on Phrenology as com- schemes of aggrandisement, originating from desires mon to man with the lower animals - but in them it appears to communicated by the animal faculties alone, they would prodllte rt-,l.; passive rleerless arm good rlatule, itharc rtutll do wvell to keep this law of nature in view. When we desjre tbreach other's happiness. Is the human race this last is ns its proper function; and,viewed in this light, I here treat of it as around, we see how few make rich; how few sucexclusively a human faculty. ceed in accomplishing all their lofty anticipations for the CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 13 advancement of their children; how few attain the lightened intellect, have a boundless scope for gratifisummit of ambition, compared with the multitudes who cation; their least indulgence is delightful, and their fall short. Love of Approbation and Self-esteem when highest activity is bliss; they cause no repentance, unregulated, desire the highest station of ambition; leave no void, but render life a scene at once of peacebut, as these faculties exist in all men, and only one ful tranquillity and sustained felicity; and, what is of can be greatest, they will prompt one man to defeat the much importance, conduct proceeding from their dicgratification of snother. All this arises, not from error tates carries in itstrain the highest gratification to the and imperfection in the institution of the Creator but animal propensities themselves, of which the latter are from blindness in men to their own nature, to the na- susceptible. At the same time, it must be observed, ture of external objects, and to the relations establish- that the sentiments err, and lead also to evil, when not ed between these: in short, blindness to the principles regulated by enlightened intellect; that intellect in its of the divine administration of the world. turn must give due weight to the existence and desires Secondly. The animal propensities being inferior of both the propensities and sentiments, as elements in in their nature to the human faculties, their gratifica- the human constitution, before it can arrive at sound tions when not approved of by the latter, leave a painful conclusions regarding conduct; and that rational acfeeling of discontent and dissatisfaction in the mind, tions and true happiness flow from the gratification of occasioned by the secret disclamation of their exces- all the faculties in harmony with each other; the sensive action by the higher feelings. Suppose, for example timents and intellect bearing the directing sway. a young person to set out in life, with the idea that the This proposition may be shortly illustrated. Imagreat object of existence is to acquire wealth, to rear gine an individual to commence life, with the thorough and provide for a family, and to attain honor and dis- conviction that the higher sentiments are the superior tinction among men; all these desires spring from the powers, and that they ought to be the sources of his acpropensities alone. Imagine him to rise early and sit tions, the first effect would be to cause him to look up late, to put forth all the energies of a powerful mind habitually outward on other men and on his Creator, in buying, selling, and making rich; and that he is suc- instead of looking inward on himself as the object of cessful; it is obvious, that, in prompting to this course his highest and chief regard. Benevolence would shed of action, Benevolence, Veneration, and Conscientious- on his mind the conviction, that there are other human ness, had no share; and that, in pursuing it, they have beings as dear to the Creator as he, as much entitled not received direct and intended gratification; they to enjoyment as he, and that his duty is to seek no would have anxiously and wearily watched the animal gratification to himself which is to injure them; but, faculties, longing for the hour when they were to say on the contrary, to act so as to confer on them, by his Enough; their whole occupation, in the mean time, daily exertions, all the services in his power. Venebeing to restrain them from such gross extravagances ration would give a strong feeling of reliance on the as would have defeated their own ends. In the domes- power and wisdom of God, that such conduct would tic circle, again, a spouse and children would gratify conduce to the highest gratification of all his faculties; Philoprogenitiveness and Adhesiveness, and their ad- it would add also an habitual respect for his fellow vancement would please Self-esteem and Love of Ap- men, as beings deserving his regard, and whose reaprobation; but here also the moral sentiments would sonable wishes he was bound to yield a willing and act the part of mere spectators and sentinels to impose sincere obedience. Lastly, Conscientiousness would restraints; they would receive no direct enjoyment, and prompt him to apply the scales of rigid justice to his would not be recognised as the fountain of the conduct. animal desires, and to curb and restrain each so as to In the pursuit of honor, suppose an office of dignity prevent the slightest infraction on what is due to his and power, or high rank in society, the mainsprings of fellow men. exertion would still be Self-esteem and Love of Appro- Let us trace, then, the operation of these principles bation, and the moral sentiments would be compelled to in ordinary life. Suppose a friendship formed by such wait in tiresome vacuity, without having their energies an individual; his firs't and fundamental principle is called directly into play, so as to give them full scope Benevolence, which inspires with a sincere, pure, and in their legitimate sphere. disinterested regard for his friend; he desires his wellSuppose, then, this individual to have reached the fare for his friend's sake; next Veneration reinforces evening of life, and to look back on the pleasures and this love by the secret and grateful acknowledgment, pains of his past existence, he must feel that there has which it makes to Heaven for the joys conferred upon been vanity and vexation of spirit,-the want of a satis- the mind'by this pure emotion, and also by the habitual fying portion; and for this sufficient reason, that the deference which it inspires towards our friend himself, highest of his faculties have been all along scarcely em- rendering us ready to yield where compliance is becomployed. In estimating, also, the real affection and es- ing, and curbing our selfish feelings when these would teem of mankind which he has gained, he will find it to intrude by interested or arrogant pretensions on his be small or great in exact proportion to the degree in enjoyment; and thirdly, Conscientiousness, ever on the which he has manifested, in his habitual conduct, the watch proclaims the duty of making no unjust demands lower or the higher faculties. If society tas seen him on the Benevolence of our friend, but of limiting our selfish in his pursuit of wealth, selfish in his domestic whole intercourse with him on an interchange of kindaffections, selfish in his ambition; although he may have ness, good offices, and reciprocal affection. Intellect, gratified all these feelings without positive encroach- acting along with these principles, would point out, as ment on the rights of others, they will still look coldly an indispensable requisite to such an attachment, that on him, they will feel no glow of affection towards him. the friend himself should be so far under the influence no elevated respect, no sincere admiration; he will see of the sentiments, as to be able, in some. degree, to and feel this, and complain bitterly that all is vanity and meet them; for, if he were immoral, selfish, vainly vexation of spirit. But the fault has been his own; ambitious, or, in short, under the habitual influence of love, esteem, and sincere respect, arise, by the Crea- the propensities, the sentiments could not love and retor's laws, not from contemplating the manifestations spect him; they might pity him as unfortunate, but of plodding, selfish faculties, but only from the display love him they could not, because this is impossible by of Benevolence, Veneration, and Justice, as the motives the very laws of their constitution. and end of our conduct; and the individual supposed LTet us now attend to the degree in which such a aas reaped the natural and legitimate produce of the friendship would gratify the lower propensities. In the soil which he cultivated, and eaten the fruit which he first place, how would Adhesiveness exult and rejoice has reared. in such an attachment!It would be overpowered with Thirdly. The higher feelings, when directed by en- delight, because, if the intellect were convinced that 14 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. the friend habitually acknowledged the supremacy of each other, and discovered the supremacy of the moral the higher sentiments, Adhesiveness might pour forth sentiments and intellect, I proceed to comparo his faall its ardour, and cling to its object with the clos- culties with external objects, in order to discover what est bonds of affection. The friend would not en- provision has been made for their gratification. croach on us for evil, because his Benevolence and 1. AMATIVENESS is a feeling obviously necessary to the Justice would oppose this; he would not lay aside re- continuance of the species; and one which, prostraint, and break through the bounds of affection by un- perly regulated, is not offensive to reason;*-oppodue familiarity, because Veneration would forbid this; he site sexes exist to provide for its gratification.* would not injure us in our name, person, or reputation, 2. PHILoPROGENITIVENESS is given, and offspring exist. because Conscientiousness, Veneration, and Benevo- 3. CONCENTRATIVENESS is conferred,-and the other lence, all combined, would prevent such conduct. faculties are its objects. Here then Adhesiveness, freed from the fear of evil, 4. ADHESIVENESS is given,-and country and friends from the fear of deceit, from the fear of dishonour, be- exist. cause a friend who should habitually act thus, could 5. COMBATIVENESS is bestowed,-and physical and not possibly fall into dishonour, would be at liberty to moral obstacles exist, requiring courage to meet take its deepest draught of affectionate attachment; it and subdue them. would receive a gratification which it is impossible it 6. DESTRUCTIVENESS is given,-and man is constituted could attain, while acting in combination with the pure- with a carnivorous stomach, and animals to be ly selfish faculties. What delight, too, would such a killed and eaten exist. Besides, the whole combifriendship afford to Self-esteem and Love of Approba- nations of creation are in a state of decay and retion! There would be an internal approval of ourselves, novation. In the animal kingdom almost every that would legitimately gratify Self-esteem: because it species of creatures is the prey of some other; would arise from a survey of pure motives, and just and and the faculty of Destructiveness places the hubenevolent actions. Love of Approbation also, would man mind in harmony with this order of creation. be gratified in the highest degree; for every act of af- Destruction makes way for renovation, and the act fection, every expression of esteem, from such a friend, of renovation furnishes occasion for the activity of would be so purified by Benevolence, Veneration, and our powers; and activity is pleasure. That deConscientiousness, that it would form the legitimate struction is a natural institution is unquestionable. food on which Love of Approbation might feast and be Not only has nature taught the spider to construct satisfied; it would fear no hollowness beneath, no tat- a web for the purpose of ensnaring flies, that it tling in absence; no secret smoothing over for the sake may devour them, and constituted beasts of prey of mere effect, no envyings, and no jealousies. In with carnivorous teeth, but she has formed even short, friendship founded on the higher sentiments, as plants, such as the Drosera, to catch and kill flies, the ruling motives, would delight the mind with glad- and use them for food. Destructiveness serves ness and sunshine, and gratify all the faculties, animal, also to give weight to indignation, a most importmoral, and intellectual, in harmony with each other. ant defensive as well as vindicatory purpose. It By this illustration, the reader will understand more is a check upon undue encroachment, and tends to clearly what I mean by the harmony of the faculties. constrain mankind to pay regard to the rights and The fashionable and commercial friendships of which I feelings of each other. When properly regulated. spoke, gratified the propensities of Adhesiveness, Love it is an able assistant io justice. of Approbation, Self-esteem, and Acquisitiveness, but 7. CONSTRUCTIVENESS is given,-and materials for conleft out, as fundamental principles, all the higher senti- structing artificial habitations, raiment, ships, and mnents: —there was, therefore, a want of harmony in various other fabrics that add to the enjoyment of these instances, an absence of full satisfaction, an un- life, have been provided to give it scope. certainty and changeableness, which gave rise to only a 8. ACQUISITIVENESS is bestowed,-and property exists mixed and imperfect enjoyment while the friendship capable of being collected, preserved, and applied lasted, and to a feeling of painful disappointment, and to use. of vanity and vexation, when a rupture occurred. The 9. SECRETIVENESS is given,-and our faculties possess error, in such cases, consists in founding attachment on internal activity requiring to be restrained, until fit the lower faculties, seeing they, by themselves, are not occasions and legitimate objects present themselves calculated to form a stable basis of affection, instead of for their gratification; which restraint is rendered building it on them and the higher sentiments, which af- not only possible but agreeable, by the propensity ford a foundation for real, lasting, and satisfactory friend- in question. While we suppress and confine one ship. In complaining of the vanity and vexation of at- feeling within the limits of our own consciousness, tachments springing from the lower faculties exclusively, we exercise and gratify another in the very act of we are like men who should try to build a pyramid on doing so. its smaller end, and then, lament the hardness of their 10. SELF-ESTEEM is given,-and we have an individual fate, and speak of the unkindness of Providence, when existence and individual interests, as its objects. it fell. A similar analysis of all other pleasures found- 11. LOVE OF APPROBATION is bestowed, —and we are ed on the animal propensities chiefly, would give simi- surrounded by our fellow men, whose good opinlar results. In short, happiness must be viewed by ion is the object of its desire. men as connected inseparably with the exercise of the 12. CAUTIOUSNESS is given, and it is admirably adaptthree great classes of faculties, the moral sentiments ed to the nature of the external world. The huand intellect exercising the directing and controlling man body is combustible, is liable to be destroyed sway, before it can be permanently attained. by violence, to suffer injury from extreme wet and SECT. V.- THE FACULTIES OF MAN COMPARED WITH winds, &c; and it is necessary for us to be habituEXTERNAL OBJECTS. ally watchful to avoid these sources of calamity. Accordingly, Cautiousness is bestowed on usas Having considered man as a physical being, and ever watchful sentinel, constantly whispeang briefly adverted to the adaptation of his constitution to an ever watchful sentnel, constantly whlsperig' Take care.' There is ample scope for the legitlthe physical laws of creation; having viewed him as ane and pleasureable exercise of all our faculti beigndtaceth reltions of is orgc mate and pleasureable exercise of all our faculties, organised being, and traced the relations of his organic without running into these evils, provided we know structure to his external circumstances; having taken enourh and are w a rapid survey of his faculties, as an animal, moral, and intellectual being,-with their uses and the forms of * The nature and sphere of activity ofthe phrenological faculties is explained at length in the'System uf Phrenology,' to their abuse —and having contrasted these faculties with which I beg to refer, Here I can only indicate general ideas. CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 15 Cautiousness is not overwhelmed with inevitable ther, its activity disposes us to yield obedience to terrors. It serves merely as awarder to excite us the Creator's laws, the object of which is our to beware of sudden and unexpected danger; it own happiness; and hence its exercise is in the keeps the other faculties at their post, by furnish- highest degree provided for. Revelation unfolds ing a stimulous to them to observe and trace con- the character and intentions of God where reason sequences, that safety may be insured; and, when cannot penetrate, but its doctrines do not fall withthese other faculties do their duty in proper form, in the limits prescribed to this Essay. the impulses of Cautiousness are not painful, but HOPE is given,-and our understanding, by discovering the reverse: they communicate a feeling of inter- the laws of nature, is enabled to penetrate into nal security and satisfaction, expressed by the the future. This sentiment, then, is gratified by m9tto Semper paratus; and hence this faculty ap- the absolute reliance which Causality warrants us pears equally benevolent in its design, as the others to place on the stability and wisdom of the Divine which we have contemplated. arrangements; its legitimate exercise, in reference Here, then, we perceive a beautiful provision made to this life, is to give us a vivifying faith, that while for supporting the activity of, and affording legitimate we suffer evil, we are undergoing a chastisement gratification to, the lower propensities. These powers for having neglected the institutions of the Creator, the object of which punishment is to force us are conferred on us clearly to support our animal na- tor, he obect of which punishment is to force us ture, and to place us in harmony with the external ob- back nto the right path. R evelation presents jects of creation. So far from their being injurious orertainty of a life to come; and directs all our faculties in points of Faith. base in themselves, they possess the dignity of utility, all our faculties in points of Faith. IDEALTv is bestowed, —and not only is external nature and the estimable quality of being sources of high enjoyment, when legitimately indulged. The phrenolo- invested with the most exquisite loveliness, but a joyment, when legitimately indulged. The phrenologist, therefore, would never seek to extirpate, nor to capacity for moral and intellectual refinement is weaken them too much. He desires only to see their given to us, by which we may rise in the scale of weaken them too much. He desires only to see their excesses controlled, and their exercise directed in ac- excellence, and at every step of our progress reap cordance with the great institutions and designs of the nj Creator. e stant desire is for' something more excellent still:. The next class of faculties is that of the moral sen- in its own immediate impulses it I delightful, and timents proper to man. These are the following: its call.ties respond to BENEVOLENCE is given,-and sentient and entelligent WONDER prompts to admiration, and desires something beings are created, whose happiness we are able to new. When we contemplate man endowed with increase, thereby affording it its scope and delight. intellect to discover a Deity and to comprehend his It is an error to imagine, that creatures in misery works, we cannot doubt of Wonder being proviare the only objects of benevolence, and that it has ded with objects for its intensest exercise; and no function but the excitement of pity. It is a when we view him placed in a world where all old,wide-spreading fountain of generous feeling, desi- things are constantly passing away, and a system ring for its gratification not only the removal of of renovation is incessantly proceeding, we see at pain, but the maintenance and augmentation of once how vast a provision is made forthe gratificapositive enjoymelnt; and the happier it can ren- tion of his desire of novelty, and how admirably it is der its objects, the more complete are its satisfac- calculated to impel his other faculties to activity. tion and delight. Its exercise, like that of all the CONSCIENTIOUSNESS exists,-and it is necessary to other faculties, is a source of great pleasure to the prove that all the divine institutions are founded individual himself; and nothing can be conceived in justice, to afford it full satisfaction. This is a more admirably adapted for affording it scope, than point which many regard as involved in much obthe system of creation exhibited on earth. From scurity: I shall endeavour in this Essay to lift the the nature of the human faculties, each individual, veil, for to me justice appears to flow through every without injuring himself, has it in his power to divine institution. confer prodigious benefits, or, in other words, to One difficulty in regard to Conscientiousness, long appour forth the most copious streams of benevo- peared inexplicable; it was, how to reconcile with lence on others, by legitimately gratifying their Benevolence the institution by which this faculAdhesiveness, Constructiveness, Acquisitiveness, ty visits us with remorse, after offences are acLove of Approbation, Self-Esteem, Cautiousness, tually committed, instead of arresting our hands Veneration, Hope, Ideality, Conscientiousness, by an irresistible veto before them, so as to save and their Knowing and Reflecting Faculties. us from from the perpetration altogether. The VENERATION.-The legitimate object of this faculty is problem is solved by the principle,' That happithe Divine Being; and I assume here, that Phre- ness consists in the activity of our faculties, and nology enables us to demonstrate the existence of that the arrangement of punishment after the ofGOD. The very essay in which I am now engaged, fence is far more conducive to activity than the is an attempt at an exposition of some of his at- opposite. For example, if we desired to enjoy tributes, as manifested in this world. If we shall the highest gratification of Locality, Form, Cofind contrivance, wisdom, and benevolence in his louring, Ideality, and Wonder, in exploring a new works, unchangeableness, and no shadow of turn- country, replete with the most exquisite beauties ing in his laws; perfect harmony in each depart- of scenery, and most captivating natural producment of creation, and shall discover that the evils tions, and if we found among these, precipices that which afflict us are much less the direct objects of gratified Ideality in the highest degree, but which his arrangements than the consequences of igno- endangered life when we advanced so near as to rant neglect of institutions calculated for our en- fall over them, and neglected the law of gravitation, joyment,-then we shall acknowledge in the Divine whether would it be most bountiful for Providence Being an object whom we may love with our whole to send an invisible attendant with us, who, whensoul, reverence with the deepest emotions of ve- ever we were about to approach the brink, should inneration, and on whom Hope and Conscientious- terpose a barrier, and fairly cut short our advance, ness may repose with a perfect and unhesitating without requiring us to bestow one thought upon reliance. The exercise of this sentiment is in it- the subject, and without our knowing when to exself a great positive enjoyment, when the object pect it and when not,-or to leave all open, but to is in harmony with all our other faculties. Fur- confer on us, as he has done, eyes fitted to see thze B 16 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. precipice, faculties to comprehend the law of gra- IMITATION is bestowed,-and every where man is stuvitation, Cautiousness to make us fear the infringe- rounded by beings and objects whose actions and ment of it, and then to leave us to enjoy the scene appearances it may benefit him to copy. in perfect safety if we used these powers, but to fall over and suffer pain by bruises and death if we SEcr. VI.-ON THE SOURCES OF HUMAN HAPPINESS, AND neglected to exercise them? It is obvious that THE CONDITIONS REQUISITE FOR MAINTAINING IT. the latter arrangement would give far more scope Having now given a rapid sketch of the Constituto our various powers; and if active faculties are tion of Man, and its relations to external objects, we the sources of pleasure, as will be shown in the are prepared to inquire into the sources of his happiness, next section, then it would contribute more to our and the conditions requisite for maintaining it. enjoyment than the other. Now, Conscientious- The first and most obvious circumstance which atness punishing after the fact, is analogous. in the tracts attention, is, that all enjoyment must necessarily moral world, to this arrangement in the physical. arise from activity of the various systems of which the If Intellect, Benevolence, Veneration, and Con- human constitution is composed. The bones, muscles, scientiousness, do their parts, they will give dis- nerves, digestive and respiratory organs, furnish pleasing tinct intimations of disapprobation before commis- sensations, directly or indirectly, when exercised in sion of the offence, just as Cautiousness will give conformity with their nature; and the external senses, intimations of danger at sight of the cliff; but if and internal faculties, when excited, supply the whole these are disregarded, and we fall over the moral remaining perceptions and emotions, which, when comprecipice, remorse follows as the punishment, just bined, constitute life and rational existence. If these as pain is the chastisement for tumbling over the were habitually buried in sleep, or constitutionally in physical brink. The object of both institutions is, active, life, to all purposes of enjoyment, might has well to permit and encourage the most vigorous and be extinct; for existence would be reduced to mere veunrestrained exercise of our faculties, in accord- getation, without Consciousness. ance with the physical, moral, and intellectual laws If, then, Wisdom and Benevolence have been el - of nature, and to punish us only when we trans- ployed in constituting Man, we may expect the arrangegress these limits. ments of creation, in regard to him, to be calculated as FIRMNESS is bestowed,-and the other faculties of the a leading object to excite his various powers, corporeal mind are its objects. It supports and maintains and mental, to activity. This, accordingly, appears to their activity, and gives determination to our pur- me to be the case; and the fact may be illustrated by poses. a few examples. A certain portion of nervous and The next Class of Faculties is the Intellectual. muscular energy is infused by nature into the human The provisions in external nature for the gratification body every twenty-four hours, and it is delightful to do the Senses of Hearing, Seeing, Smelling, Taste, expend this vigour. To provide for its expenditure, and Touch or Feeling, are so obvious that it is unne- the stomach has been constituted so as to require regucessary to enlarge upon them. larly returning supplies of food, which can be obtained INDIVIDUALITY and EVEN\1TUALITY, or the powers of only by nervous and muscular exertion; the body has observing things EvtNTUALITY, and the ocur sof a been created destitute of covering, yet standing in need that exist, and occurrences, are f protection from the elements of Heaven; but this given, and' all the truths which Natural Philoso- of p given, and'all the truths which Natural Philoso- can be easily provided by moderate expenditure of corphy teaches, depend upon matter of fact, and that porealstrength. It is delightful to repair exhausted is learned by observation and experiment, and never nervous nd muscular energy by wholesome aliment; nervous and muscular energy by wholesome aliment; could be discovered by reasoning at all.' Here, and the digestive organs have been so constituted, as then, is ample scope for the exercise of these to perform their functions by successive stages, and to afford us frequent opportunities of enjoying the pleaand the sciences of Ge- sure of eating. In these arrangements, the design of! ometry, Arithmetic, Al- supporting the various systems of the body in activity, I gebra, Geography, Che- for the enjoyment of the individual, is abundantly obvimistry, Botany, Mineral- ous. A late writer justly remarks, that'a person of FORM, ogy, Zoology, Anatomy, feeble texture and indolent habits has the bone smooth, SIZE, and various others, exist, thin, and light; but nature, solicitous for our safety, in WEIHT are bestowed as the fields of their ex- a manner which we could not anticipate, combines with LOCALITY, areI bestow ercise. The first three the powerful muscular frame a dense and perfect texORDER, sciences are almost the ture of bone, where every spine and tubercle is comNUMBER, entire products of these pletely developed.'' As the structure of the parts is faculties; the others re- originally perfected by the action of the vessels, the suit chiefly from them, function or operation of the part is made the stimulus when applied on external to those vessels. The cuticle on the hand wears away objects. like a glove; but the pressure stimulates the living and these, aided by Con- surface to force successive layers of skin under that I, structiveness, Form, Local- which is wearing, or, as anatomists call it, desquamatTIEOOURING,are iven ty Idealityandotherfacul ing; by which they mean, that the cuticle does not TUNE, Sculpture, Poetry, and the Directing our attention to the Mind, we discover that other fine arts. Individuality, and the other Perceptive Faculties, desire, as their means of enjoyment, to know existence, LAivNGUAGE is given, —and our faculties inspire us with and to become acquainted with the qualities of es ternal lively emotions and ideas, which we desir o - objects; while the Reflecting Faculties desire to know their dependences and relations. "There is some(and these faculties, aided by In- thing,' says an eloquent writer,' positively agreeable to 1 I dividuality, Form, Size, Weight, all men, to all, at least, whose nature is not most groCOMPaRTSON, I I and others already enumerated, veiling anti base, in gaining knowledge for its own CAUSALITY, exist,{ find ample gratification in Natu- sake. When you see any thing for the first time, you WIT, ] [ ral Philosophy, in Moral, Politi- at once derive some gratification from the sight being ) I cal and Intellectual Science, and new; your attention is awakened, you desire to know J their different branches. more about it. If it is a piece of workmanship, as an CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 17 instrument, a machine of any kind, you wish to know ing desires originated in Ambition and Self-esteem; how it is made; how it works-; and what use it is of. and the past did not stimulate these powers, or mainIf It is an animal, you desire to know where it comes tain them in constant activity. In like manner, no from; how it lives; what are its dispositions, and, ge- musician, artist, poet, or philosopher, would reckon nerally, its nature and habits. This desire is felt, too, himself happy, however extensive his attainments, if without at all considering that the machine or the ani- informed, Now you must stop, and live upon the past; mal may ever be of the least use to yourself practically; and the reason is still the same. New ideas, and new for, in all probability, you may never see them again. emotions, best excite and maintain in activity the faculBut you feel a curiosity to learn all about them, bc- ties of the mind, and activity is essential to enjoyment. cause they are new and unknown to you. You, accord- If these views be correct, the consequences of imbuingly make inquiries; you feel a gratification in getting ing the mind with intuitive knowledge, would not have answers to your questions, that is, in receiving informa- been unquestionably beneficial. The limits of our action, and in knowing more,-in being better informed quirements would have been reached; our first step than you were before. If you ever happen again to would have been our last; every object would have see the same instrument or animal you find it agree- become old and familiar; Hope would have had no obable to recollect having seen it before and to think ject of expectation; Cautiousness no object of fear; that you know something about it. If you see another Wonder no gratification in novelty; monotony, insipiinstrument or animal, in some respects like, but differ- dity, and mental satiety, would apparently have been ing in other particulars, you find it pleasing to compare the lot of man. them together, and to note in what they agree, and in According to the view now advanced, creation, in what they differ. Now, all this kind of gratification is its present form, is more wisely and benevolently adapted of a pure and disinterested nature, and has no refer- to our constitution than if intuitive instruction had been ence to any of the common purposes of life; yet it is showered on the mind at birth. By the actual arrangea pleasure-an enjoyment. You are nothing the richer ment, numerous noble faculties are bestowed; their for it; you do not gratify your palate, or any other bo- objects are presented to them; these objects are natudily appetite; and yet it is so pleasing that you would rally endowed with qualities fitted to benefit and do give something out of your pocket to obtain it, and light us, when their uses and proper applications are would forego some bodily enjoyment for its sake. The discovered, and to injure and punish us for our ignopleasure derived from science is exactly of the like na- rance, when their properties are misunderstood or misture, or rather it is the very same.'* This is a correct applied; but we are left to find out all these qualities and forcible exposition of the pleasures attending the and relations by the exercise of the faculties themactive exercise of our intellectual faculties. selves. In this manner, provision is made for ceaseless Supposing the human faculties to have received their activity of the mental powers, and this constitutes the present constitution, two arrangements may be fancied greatest delight. Wheat, for instance, is produced by as instituted for the gratification of these powers. 1st. the earth, and admirably adapted to the nutrition of the Infusing into them at birth intuitive knowledge of every body; but it may be rendered more grateful to the orobject which they are fitted ever to comprehend; or, gan of taste, more salubrious to the stomach, and more 2dly. Constituting them only as capacities for gaining stimulating to the nervous and muscular systems, by knowledge by exercise and application, and surround- being stripped of its external skin, ground into flour, ing them with objects bearing such relations towards and baked by fire into bread. Now, the Creator obvithem, that when observed and attended to, they shall ously pre-arranged all these relations, when he endowed afford them high gratification; and, when unobserved wheat with its properties, and the human body with its and neglected, they shall occasion them uneasiness and qualities and functions. In withholding congenial and pain; and the question occurs, Which mode would be intuitive knowledge of these qualities and mutual relamost conducive to enjoyment. The general opinion tions, but in bestowing faculties of Individuality, Form, will be in favor of the first; but the second appears Colouring, Weight, Constructiveness, &c, fitted to to me to be preferable. If the first mleal we had find them out; in rendering the exercise of these faculeaten had for ever prevented the recurrence of hunger, ties agreeable; and in leaving man, in this condition, it is obvious that all the pleasures of satisfying a to proceed for himself,-he appears to me to have cothealthy appetite would have been then at an end; so ferred on him the highest boon. The earth produces that this apparent bounty would have greatly abridged also hemlock and foxglove; and, by the organic law, our enjoyment. In like manner, if, our faculties being those substances, if taken in certain moderate quanticonstituted as at present, intuitive knowledge had been ties, remove diseases; if in excess, they occasion communicated to us, so that, when an hour old, we death: but, again, man's observing faculties are fitted, should have been thoroughly acquainted with every when applied under the guidance of Cautiousness and object, quality, and relation that we could ever compre- Reflection, to make this discovery; and he is left to hend, allprovision for the sustained activity of many of make it in this way, or suffer the consequences of our faculties would have been done away with. When neglect. wealth is acquired, the miser's pleasure in it is dimin- Farther, water, when elevated in temperature, beished. He grasps after more with increasing avidity. comes steam; and steam expands with prodigious He is supposed irrational in doing so; but he obeys power; this power, confined by muscular energy, exthe instinct of his nature. What he possesses no longer erted on metal, and directed by intellect, is capable of satisfies Acquisitiveness; it is like food in the stomach, being converted into the steam-engine, the most effiwhich gave pleasure in eating, and would give pain cient, yvet humble servant of man. All this was clearly were it withdrawn, but which, when there, is attended pre-arranged by the Creator; and man's faculties were with little positive sensation. The Miser's pleasure adapted to it; but still we see him left to observe and arises from the active state of Acquisitiveness, and discover the qualities and relations of water for himself. only the pursuit and obtaining of new treasure can main- This duty, however, must be acknowledged as benevotain this state. The same law is exemplified in the lently imposed, the moment we discover that the Creacase of Love of Approbation. The gratification which tor has made the very exercise of the faculties pleasurait affords depends upon its active state, and hence the ble, and arranged external qualities and relations so necessity for new incense and higher mounting in the beneficially, that, when known, they carry a double rescale of ambition, is constantly experienced by its vic- ward in adding by their positive influence to human tlms. NAPOLEON, in exile, said,' Let us live upon the gratification. past:' but he found this impossible; his predominat- The Knowing Faculties, as we have seen, observe *'Objects, Advantages, and Pleasures of Science, page 1. the mere external qualities of bodies, and their simpler 15~ 18 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. relations. The Reflecting FacuIties observe relations continues, would be the exact parallel of gorging the also; but of a higher order. The former, for example, bee with honey in midsummner, when its energies are at discover that the soil is clay or gravel; that it is tough their height. WVvhen the bee has completed its store, or friable; that it is wet, and that excess of water im- winter benumbs its powers, which resume their vigour pedes vegetation; that in one season the crop is large,'only when its stock is exhausted, and spring returns to and in the next deficient. The reflecting faculties take afford them scope. No torpor resembling that of wincognizance of the causes of these phenomena. They ter seals up the faculties of the human race; but their discover the means by which wet soil may be rendered ceaseless activity is amply provided for. First, The dry; clay may be pulverized; light soil may be invigo- laws of nature, compared with the mind of any mndirated; and all of them made more productive; also the vidual, are of boundless extent, so that every one may relationship of particular soils to particular kinds of learn something new to the end of the longest life. grain. The inhabitants of a country who exert their Secondly, By the actual constitution of man, he must knowing faculties in observing the qualities of their make use of his acquirements habitually, otherwise he soil, their reflecting faculties in discovering its capa- will lose them. Thirdly, Every individual of the race bilities and relations to water, lime, manures, and the is born in utter ignorance, and starts from zero in the various species of grain, and who put forth their mus- scale of knowledge, so that he has the laws to learn for cular and nervous energies in accordance with the dic- himself. tates of these powers, receive a rich reward in a cli- These circumstances remove the apparent inconmate improved in salubrity, in an abundant supply of sistency. If man had possessed intuitive knowledge of food, besides much positive enjoyment attending the all nature, he could have had no scope for exercising exercise of the powers themselves. Those communi- his faculties in acquiring knowledge, in preserving it, ties, on the other hand, who neglect to use their mental or in communicating' it. The infant would have been faculties and muscular and nervous energies, are pun- as wise as the most revered.sage, and forgetfulness ished by ague, fever, rheumnatism, and a variety of painful would have been necessarily excluded. affections, arising from damp air; are stinted in food; Those who object to these views, imagine that after and, in wet seasons, are brought to the very brink of the human race las acquired knowledge of all the natustarvation by total failure of their crops. This punish- ral laws, if such a result be possible, they will be in the ment is a benevolent admonition from the Creator, that same condition as if they had been created with intuitive they are neglecting a great duty, and omitting to enjoy knowledge; but this does not follow. Although the a great pleasure; and it will cease as soon as they have race should acquire the knowledge supposed, it is riot fairly redeemed the blessings lost by their negligence, an inevitable consequence that each individual will neand obeyed the laws of their being. cessarily enjoy it all; which, however, would follow The winds and waves appear, at first sight, to pre- from intuition. The entire soil of Britain belongs to sent insurmountable obstacles to man leaving the island the landed proprietors as a class; but each does not or continent on which he happens to be born, and to possess it all; and hence every one has scope for addhis holding intercourse with his fellows in distant ing to his territories; with this advantage, however, inm climes: But, by observing the relations of water to tim-'favour of knowledge, that the acquisitions of one do not ber, he is able to construct a ship; by observing the impoverish another. Farther, although the race should influence of the wind on a physical body placed in a have learned all the natural laws: their children would fluid medium, he discovers the use of sails; and, finally, not intuitively inherit their ideas, and hence the activity by the application of his faculties, he has found out the of every one, as he appears on the stage, would be proexpansive quality of steam, and traced its relations un- vided for; whereas, by intuition, every child would be til he has produced a machine that enables. him almost as wise as his grandfather, and parental protection, to set the roaring tempest at defiance, and to sail filial piety, and all the delights that spring from differstraight to the stormy north, although its loudest and its ence in knowledge between youth and age, would be fiercest blasts oppose. In these instances, we perceive excluded. 3d, Using of acquirements, is, by the acexternal nature admirably adapted to support the men- tual state of man, essential to the preservation as well tal faculties in habitual activity, and to reward us for as the enjoyment of them. By intuition all knowledge the exercise of them. would be habitually present to the mind without effort It is objected to this argument, that it involves an or consideration. On the whole, therefore, it appears inconsistency. Ignorance, it is said, of the natural that man's nature being what it is, the arrangement by laws, is necessary to happiness, in order that the facul- which he is endowed with powers to acquire knowledge, ties may obtain exercise in discovering them; —never- but left to find it out for himself, is both wise and betheless, happiness is impossible till these laws shall nevolent. have been discovered and obeyed. Here, then, it is It has been asked,' But is there no pleasure in scisaid, ignorance is represented as at once essential to, ence but that of discovery? Is there none in using andincompatiblewith enjoyment. The sameobjection, the knowledge we have attained? Is there no pleahowever, applies to the case of the bee. Gathering sure in playing at chess after we know the moves Iin honey is necessary to its enjoyment; yet it cannot sub- answer, I observe, that if we know beforehand all the sist and be happy till it has gathered honey, and there- moves that our antagonist intends to make and all our fore that act is both essential to, and incompatible with own, which must be the case if we know everything its gratification. The fallacy lies in losing sight of the by intuition, we shall have no pleasure. The pleasure natural constitution both of the bee and of man. While really consists in discovering the intentions of our anthe bee possesses instinctive tendencies to roam about tagonist, and in calculating the effects of our own the fields and flowery meadows, and to exert its ener- play; a certain degree of ignorance of both of which gies in labour, it is obviously beneficial to it to be fur- is indispensable to gratification. In like manner, it is nished with motives and opportunities for doing so; agreeable first to discover the natural laws, and then to and so it is with man to obtain scope for his bodily and study' the moves' that we ought to make, in consemental powers. Now, gathering knowledge is to the quence of knowing them. So much, then, for the mind of man what gathering honey is to the bee. Ap- sources of human happiness. parently with the view of effectually prompting the bee In the second place, To reap enjoyment in the greatto seek this pleasure, honey is made essential to its est quantity, and to maintain it most permanently, the subsistence. In like manner, and probably with a simi- faculties must be gratified harmoniously: In other lar design, knowledge is made indispensable to human words, if, among the various powers, the supremacy enjoyment. Communicating intuitive knowledge of belongs to the moral sentiments, then the aim of our the natural laws to man, while his present constitution habi.tal conduct must be the attainment of objects CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 19 suited to gratify them. For example, in pursuing formity of nature. He inferred, that, as the same Crewealth or fame as the leading object of existence, full ator made the refracting bodies which he was able to gratification is not afforded to Benevolence, Venera- consume, and the diamond, and proceeded by uniform tion, and Conscientiousness, and, consequently, com- laws, the diamond would, in all probability, be found to plete satisfaction cannot be enjoyed; whereas, by seek- be combustible, and that the reason of its resisting his ing knowledge, and dedicating life to the welfare of power, was ignorance on his part of the proper way to mankind, and obedience to God, in our several voca- produce its conflagration. A century afterwards, che.tions, these faculties will be gratified, and wealth, mists made the diamond blaze with as much vivacity as fame, health, and other advantages, wil flow in their Sir Isaac Newton had done a wax candle. Let us protrain, so that the whole mind will rejoice, and its de- ceed, then, on an analogous principle. If the intention lights will remain permanent as long as the conduct of our Creator was, that we should enjoy existence contirnlies to be in accordance with the supremacy of while in this world, then He knew what was necessary the moral powers and the laws of external creation. to enable us to do so; and He will not be found to 7?hirdly, To place human happiness on a secure have failed in conferring on us powers fitted to accombasis, the laws of external creation themselves must plish His design, provided we do our duty in developaccord with the dictates of the moral sentiments, and ing and applying them. The great motive to exertion intellect must be fitted to discover the nature and re- is the conviction, that increased knowledge will furnish lations of both, and to direct the conduct in coinci- us with increased means of doing good,-with new dence with them. proofs of benevolence and wisdom in the Great ArchiMuch has been written about the extent of human tect of the Universe. ignorance; but we should discriminate between abso- The hunman race may be regarded as only in the belute incapacity to know, and mere want of information ginning of its existence. The art of printing is an inarising from not having used this capacity to its full ex- vention comparatively but of yesterday, and no imatent. In regard to the first, or our capacity to know, gination can yet conceive the effects which it is desit appears probable that, in this world, we shall never tined to produce. Phrenology was wanting to give it know the essence, beginning, or end of things; be- full efficacy, especially in moral science, in which little cause these are points which eve have no faculties cal- progress has been made for centuries. Now that this culated to reach: But the same Creator who made the desideratum is supplied, may we not hope that the external world constituted our faculties, and if we have march of improvement will proceed in a rapidly accelesufficient data for inferring that His intention is, that rating ratio? we shall enjoy existence here while preparing for the SECT. VII.-APPLIcATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS TO ulterior ends of our being; and if it be true that we can THE PRACTICAL ARANGEMENTS OF LIFE. be happy here only by becoming acquainted with the'qualities and modes of action of our own minds and bho- If a system of living and occupation were to Ae dies,with the qualities and modes of action of external framed for human beings, founded on the exposition of objects, and with the relations establishedbetween them; their nature, which I have now given, it would be somein short, by becoming thoroughly conversant with those thing like this. natural laws, which, when observed, are pre-arranged 1st. So many hours a day would require to be dedito contribute to our enjoyment, and which, when vio- cated by every individual in health, to the exercise of lated, visit us with suffering, we may safely conclude his nervous and muscular systems, in labour calculated that our mental capacities are wisely adapted to the at- to give scope to these functions. The reward of obeytainment of these objects, whenever we shall do our ing this requisite of his nature would be health, and a own duty in bringing them to their highest condition of joyous animal existence; the punishment of neglect is perfection, and in applying them in the best manner. disease, low spirits, and death. If we advert for a moment to what we already know, 2dly. So many hours a day should be spent in the we shall see that this conclusion is supported by high sedulous employment of the knowing and reflecting probabilities. Before the mariner's compass and astro- faculties; in studying the qualities of external objects, nomy were discovered, nothing would seeIn more ut- and their relations;' also the nature of all animated be terly beyond the reach of the human faculties than tra- ings, and their relations; not with the view of accuversing the enormous Atlantic or Pacific Oceans; but mulating mere abstract and barren knowledge, but of the moment these discoveries were made, how simple enjoying the positive pleasure of mental activity, and did this feat appear, and how completely within the of turning every discovery to account, as a means of scope of human ability! But it became so, not by any increasing happiness, or alleviating misery. The leadaddition to man's mental capacities, nor by any change ing object should always be to find out the relationship in the physical world; but by the easy process of ap- of every object to our own nature, organic, animal, plying Individuality, and the other knowing faculties, moral, and intellectual, and to keep that relationship to observe, Causality to reflect, and Constructiveness habitually in mind, so as to render our acquirements dito build; in short, to perform their natural functions. rectly gratifying to our various faculties. The reward Who that, forty years ago, regarded the small-pox as of this conduct would be an incalculably great increase a scourge, devastating Europe, Asia, Africa, and Ame- of pleasure, in the very act of acquiring knowledge of rica, would not have despaired of the hullan faculties the real properties of external objects, together with a ever discovering an antidote against it? and yet we great accessien of power in reaping ulterior advantages, have lived to see this end accomplished by a simple ex- and in avoiding disagreeable affections. ercise of individuality and Reflection, in observing the 3dlMy. So many hours a day ought to be devoted to effects of, and applying vaccine innoculation. Nothing the cultivation and gratification of our moral sentlappears more completely beyond the reach of the human ments; that is to say, in exercising these in harmony intellect, than the cause of volcanoes and earthquakes; with intellect, and especially in acquiring the habit of and yet some approach towards its discovery has re- admiring, loving, and yielding obedience to the Creator cently been made.* and his institutions. This last object is of vast importSir Isaac Newton observed, that all bodies which ance. Intellect is barren of practical fruit, however refracted the rays of light were combustible, except rich it may be in knowledge, until it is fiied and promptone, the diamond, which he found to possess this qua- ed to act by moral sentiment. In my view, knowledge lity, but which he was not able, by any powers he pos- by itself is comparatively worthless and impotent comsessed, to burn. He did not conclude, however, from pared with what it becomes when vivified by elevated this, that the diamond was an exception to the uni- emotions. It is not enough that Intellect is informed; r Vide Cordier, in Edin. New Phil. Journ. No. VIII, p. 2,3. I the moral faculties must simultaneously co-operate; 20 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. yielding obedience to the precepts which the intellect tertainments were provided; but the people soon tired recognises to be true. One way of cultivating the of these. They had not corresponding moral and in sentiments would be for men to meet and act together, tellectual instruction. The novelty excited them, but on the fixed principles which I am now endeavouring there was nothing substantial behind. In common to unfold, and to exercise on each other in mutual in- society, very little either of rational instruction or struction, and in united adoration of the great and glo- amusement is provided. The neglect of innocent amuserious Creator, the several faculties of Benevolence, ment is a great error. Veneration, Hope, Ideality, Wonder, and Justice. The If there be truth in these views, they will afford anreward of acting in this manner would be a communi- swers to two important questions, that have puzzled cation of direct and intense pleasure to each other: for philosophers in regard to the progress of human improveI refer to every individual who has ever had the good ment. The first is, Why should man have existed so fortune to pass a day or an hour with a really benevo- long, and made so small an advance in the road to haplent, pious, honest, and intellectual man, whose soul piness.-* If I am right in the fundamental proposition, swelled with adoration of his Creator, whose intellect that activity in the faculties is synonymous with enjoywas replenished with knowledge of his works, and whose ment of existence,-it follows that it would have been whole mind was instinct with sympathy for human hap- less wise and benevolent towards man, constituted as piness, whether such a day did not afford him the most he is, to have communicated to him intuitively perfect pure, elevated, and lasting gratification he ever enjoyed. knowledge, thereby leaving his mental powers with Such an exercise, besides, would invigorate the whole diminished motives to activity, than to bestow on him moral and intellectual powers, and fit them to discover faculties endowed with high susceptibility of action, and and obey the divine institutions. to surround him with scenes, objects, circumstances, Phrenology is highly conducive to this enjoyment of and relations, calculated to maintain them in ceaseless our moral and intellectual nature. No faculty is bad, excitement; although this latter arrangement necesbut, on the contrary each, when properly gratified, is a sarily subjects him to suffering while ignorant, and renfountain of pleasure; in short, man possesses no feeling, ders his first ascent in the scale of improvement difficult of the legitimate exercise of which an elightened and and slow. It is interesting to observe, that, according ingenuous mind need be ashamed. A party of thorough to this view, although the first pair of the human race practical phrenologists, therefore, meets in the perfect had been created with powerful and well balanced faculknowledge of each other's qualities; they respect these ties, but of the same nature as at present; if they were as the gifts of the Creator, and their great object is to not also intuitively inspired with knowledge of the whole derive the utmost pleasure from their legitimate use, creation, and its relations, their first movements as inand to avoid every approximation to abuse of them. dividuals would have been retrograde: that is, as indiThe distinctions of country and temperament are bro- viduals, they would, through pure want of information, ken down by unity of principle; the chilling restraints have infringed many natural laws, and suffered evil; of Cautiousness, Self-esteem, Secretiveness, and Love while, as parts of the race, they would have been deof Approbation, which stand as barriers of eternal ice cidedly advancing: for every pang they suffered would between human beings in the ordinary intercourse of have led them to a new step in knowledge, and promptsociety, are gently removed; the directing sway is ed them to advance towards a much higher condition committed to Benevolence, Veneration, Conscientious- than that which they at first occupied. According to the ness, and Intellect; and then the higher principles of hypothesis now presented, not only is man really benfitthe mind operate with a delightful vivacity unknown ed by the arrangement which leaves him to discover the to persons unacquainted with the qualities of human natural laws for himself, although, during the period of nature. his ignorance, he suffers much evil from unacquaintance Intellect also ought to be regularly exercised in arts, with them; but his progress towards knowledge and science, philosophy, and observation. happiness must from the very extent of his experience, I have said nothing of dedicating hours to the direct be actually greater than can at present be conceived. gratification of the animal powers * not that they should Its extent will become more obvious, and his experience itself more valuable, after he has obtained a view of the not be exercised, but that full scope for their activity itself more valuable, after he has obtained a view of the will be included in the employments already mentioned. real theory of his constitution. He will find that past miseries havek at least exhausted countless errors, and In muscular exercises, Combativeness, Destructiveness miseries how to avoid thousands of paths,that lead C he will know how to avoid thousands of paths that lead Constructiveness, Acquisitiveness, Self-esteem, and to pain; in short, he will then discover that errors in Love of Approbation, may all be gratified. In contend- to pain; in short, he willthen discover that errors in ing with and surmounting physical and moral difficul- conduct resemble errors in philosophy, in this, that they ties, Combativeness and Destructiveness obtain vent * give additional importance and practicability to truth, i oaa mechnanical employment, requiring the by the demonstration which they afford of the evils atin working at a mechanical employment, requiring the tending departures from its dictates. The grand sourexertion of strength, these two faculties, and also Con- ding departures fro its dictates. he grand sourstructiveness and Acquisitiveness, will be exercised,ces of human suffering at present arise from bodily disease and mental distress, and, in the next chapter these in emulation who shall accomplish most good, Self-es- ease and mental distress, and, the next chapter these teem and Love of Approbation will obtain scope. In will be traced to infringement, through ignorance or otherwise, of physical, organic, moral, or intellectual the exercise of the moral faculties, several of these, and otherwise, of physical, organic, moral, or intellectual others of the animal propensities, are employed; Am- laws, which, when exounded appear in themselves ativeness, Philoprogenitiveness, and Adhesiveness, for calculated to promote the happiness of the race. It example acting under the guidance of Benevolence, may be supposed that, according to this view, as know-, olence ledge accumulates, enjoyment will decrease; but amVeneration, Conscientiousness, Ideality and Intellect receive direct enjoyment in the domestic circle. From ple provision is made against this event, by withholding propere direction also, and frot the superior delicacy intuition from each generation as it appears on the stage; proper direction also, and from the superior delicacy each successive age must acquire knowledge for itself; and refinement imparted to them by the higher powers, each successive age must acquire knowledge for itself they do not infringe the moral law, and leave no sting provided ideas are new, and suited tothe faculties, or repentance in the mind. the pleasure of acquiring them from instructors, is only Finally a certain portion of time would require to be second to that of discovering them for ourselves; and, dedicated to taking of food asid sleep. probably countless ages may elapse before all the facts All systems hitherto practised have been deficient ill and relations of nature shall have been explored, and providing for one or more of these branches of enjoy- the possibility of discovery exhausted. If the universe be infinite, knowledge can never be complete. ment. In the community at Orbiston, formed on Mr. OWEN's principles, music, dancing, and theatrical en- * In offering a solution of this problem, I do not inquire why OwN's principles, music, dancing, and theatrical en- man has received his present constitution. CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 21 The second question is, Has man really advanced i I cover any of them, in their natural condition, killed or happiness, in proportion to his increase in knowledge. mutilated by accidents referable to gravitation. Where We are apt to entertain erroneous notions of the plea- their mode of life exposes them to extraordinary danger sures enjoyed by past ages. Fabulists have represent- from this law, they are provided with additional securied them as peaceful, innocent and gay; but if we look ties. The monkey, which climbs trees, enjoys great:narrowly at the condition of the savage and barbarian muscular energy in itslegs, claws, and tail, far surpassing, of the present day, and recollect that these are the states in proportion to its gravitating tendency, or its bulk of all individuals previous to the acquisition of know- and weight, what is bestowed on the legs and arms of ledge, we shall not much or long regret the pretended man; so that, by means of them, it springs from branch diminution of enjoyment by civilization. Phrenology to branch, in nearly complete security against the law renders the superiority of the latter condition certain, in question. The goat, which browses oh the brinks by showing it to be a law of nature, that, until the in- of precipices, has received a hoof and legs, that give tellect is extensively informed, and the moral senti- precision and stability to its steps. Birds, which are ments assiduously exercised, the animal propensities destined to sleep on branches of trees, are provided bear the predominant sway; and that wherever they with a muscle passing over the joints of each leg, and are supreme, misery is an inevitable concomitant. In- stretching down to the foot, which, being pressed by deed, the answer to the objection that happiness has their weight, produces a proportionate contraction of not increased with knowledge, appears to me to be their claws, so as to make them cling the faster, the found in the fact, that until phrenology was discovered, greater their liability to fall. The fly, which walks and the nature of man was not scientifically known; and in sleeps on perpendicular walls, and the ceilings of rooms, consequence, that not one of his institutions, civil or has a hollow in its foot, from which it expels the air, domestic, was correctly founded on the principle of the and the pressure of the atmosphere on the outside of supremacy of the moral sentiments, or in accordance the foot holds it fast to the object on which the inside with the other laws of his constitution. Owing to the is placed. The sea-horse, which is destined to climb same cause, also, much of his knowledge has necessa- up the sides of ice-hills, is provided with a similar apparily remained partial, and inapplicable to use'; but after ratus. The camel, whose native region is the sandy this science shall have been appreciated and applied, deserts of the torrid zone, has broad-spreading hoofs clouds of darkness, accumulated through long ages that to support it on the loose soil. Fishes are furnished are past, may be expected to roll away, as if touched with air bladders, by dilating and contracting of which by the rays of the meridian sun, and with them many they can accommodate themselves with perfect preciof the miseries that attend total ignorance or imperfect sion to the law of gravitation. information.* In these instances, the lower animals, under the sole guidance of their instincts, appear to be placed admiraCHAPTER III. bly in harmony with gravitation, and guaranteed against its infringement. Is man, then, less an object of love TO WHAT EXTENT ARE THE MISERIES OF MATNKIND vwith the Creator? Is he alone left exposed to the evils REFERABLE TO INFRINGEMENTS OF THE LAWS OF that spring inevitably from its neglect'l His means of protection are different, but when understood and apIn the present chapter, I propose to inquire into some plied, they will probably be found not.less complete. of the evils that have afflicted the human race; also Man, as well as the lower animals, has received bones, whether they have proceeded from abuses of institutions muscles, nerves, an instinct of equilibriumn,- and orbenevolent and wise in themselves, and calculated, gans of Cautiousness; but not in equal perfection, in when observed, to promote the happiness of man, or proportion to his figure, size, and weight, with those from a defective or vicious constitution of nature, which bestowed on them: —The difference, however, is far he can neither remedy nor improve. more than compensated by other organs, particularly SECT. I. CALAMITIES ARISING FROM INFRINGEMENTS those of Constructiveness and Reflection, in which he OF THE PHYSICAL LAWS. greatly surpasses them. Keeping in view that the cxThe proper way of viewing the Creator's institutions, ternal world, in regard to man, is arranged on the prinis to look, first, to their uses, and to the advantages ciple of supremacy in moral sentiments and intellect, that flow froim observance of them; and, secondly, to we shall probably find, that the calamities suffered by their abuses, and the evils consequent thereon. t him from the law of gravitation, are referable to preIn Chapter II, sddominance of the aninal propensities, or to neglect of by the laer of gravitation, are enumerated and I may proper exercise of his intellectual powers. For examhere advert to the evils originating from that law, when ple, when coaches break down, shs sink, men fall human conduct is in opposition to it. For example, from ladders, &c, how generally may the cause be men are liable to fall from horses, carriages, stairs, precipices, roofs, chimneys, ladders, masts, or slip in the which a predominating Acquisitiveness alone prevented street, &c. by which accidents life is frequently alto- from being repaired; or when men fall from houses, gether extinguished, or rendered miserable from lame- scaflblds, or slip on the streets, &c, how frequently ness and pain; and the question arises, Is human nature provided with any means of protection against orgies, impaired by preceding debaucheries; in other these evils, at all equal to their frequency and extent.words, by predominance of the animal faculties, which, Thee loser animals are equally subject to then is lawt for the time, diminished their natural means of accomand the Creator has bestowed on them external senses, modating themselves to the law from which they suffIr. nerves, muscles, bones, an instinctive sense of equili- Or, again, the slater, in using a ladder, assists himself brium, the sense of danger, or cautiousness, and other by Constructiveness and Reflection; but, in walking faculties, to place them in accordance with it. These along the ridge of a house, or standing on a chimney, appear to afford sufficient protection to animals placed he takes no aid from these faculties; he trusts to the in all ordinary circumstances; for we very rarely dis- instinctive power of equilibrium, in which he is inferior to the lower animals, and, in so doing, clearly * Readers who are strangers to phrenology, and the evidence violates the law of his nature, that requires him to use on which it rests, may regard the observations in the text as extravagant and enthusiastic; but I respectfully remind them, that. reflection, where instinct is deficient. Causality and while they judge in comparative ignorance it has been my endear Constructiveness could invent means by which, if ho your to subject it to the severest scrutiny. Having found its slipped from a roof or chimney, his fall might be arproofs irrefragable; and being convinced of its importance, I so. licit their indulgence in speaking of it as it appears to my own mind. * Vide Essay on Weight, Phren. Journ. vol. ii. p. 412. 22 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. end to a girdle round his body, and the other end fas- intellect, man may absolutely guarantee himself against tened by a hook and eye to the roof, might leave him at all accidents; but only that the more ignorant and careliberty to move about, and break his fall, in case he less he is, the more he will suffer, and the more intelslipped. How frequently, too, do these accidents hap- ligent and vigilant, the less; and that I can perceive pen, after disturbance of the faculties and corporeal no limits to this rule. The law of most civilized counfunctions by intoxication? tries recognizes this principle, and subjects owners of The objection will probably occur, that in the gross ships, coaches, and other vehicles, in damages arising condition in which the mental powers exist, the great from gross infringements of the physical laws. It is body of mankind are incapable of exerting habitually unquestionable that the enforcement of this liability has that degree of moral and intellectual energy, which is increased security in travelling in no trifling degree. indispensable to observance of the natural laws; and that, therefore, they are, in point of fact) less fortunate SECT. II.-ON THE EVILS THAT BEFALL MANKIND, FROM than the lower animals. I admit, that, at present, this INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. representation is to a considerable extent just: but nowhere do I perceive the human powers exercised and An organised being, I have said, is one which deinstructed, in a degree at all approaching to their limits. rives its existence from a previously existing organised Let any person recollect of how much greater capacity being, which subsists on food, grows, attains maturity, for enjoyment and security from danger he has been decays and dies. Whatever the ultimate object of the conscious, at a particular time, when his whole mind Creator in constituting organised beings, may be, it was filled with, and excited by, some mighty interest, will scarcely be denied, that part of his design is, that not only allied to, but founded in, morality and intellect, they should enjoy their existence here; and, if so, every than in that languid condition which accompanies the particular part of their systems will be found conduabsence of elevated and ennobling motives, and he may cive in its intention to this end. The first law, then, form some idea of what man is capable of reaching that must be obeyed, to render an organised being perwhen his powers shall have been cultivated to the ex- fect in its kind, is, that the germ from which it springs tent of their capacity. At the present moment, no shall be complete in all its parts, and sound in its whole class of society is systematically instructed in the con- constitution; the second is, that the moment it is stitution of their own minds and bodies, in the relations ushered into life, and as long as it continues to live, it of thes9 to external objects, in the nature of these ob- shall be supplied with food, light air, and every physical jects, in the natural supremacy of the moral sentiments, aliment necessary for its support: and the third law is, in the principle that activity ill the faculties is the only that it shall duly exercise its functions. When all source of pleasure, and that the higher the powers, the these laws are obeyed, the being should enjoy pleasure more intense the delight; and, if such views be to the from its organised frame, if its Creator is benevolent; mind, what light is to the eyes, air to the lungs, and and its constitution should be so adapted to its circumfood to the stomach, there is no wonder that a mass of stances, as to admit of obedience to them, if its Creainert mentality, if I may use such a word, should every- tor is wise and powerful. Is there, then, no such phewhere exist around us, and that countless evils should nomenon on earth, as a human being existing in full spring from its continuance in this condition. If active possession of organic vigour, from birth till advanced m6ral and intellectual faculties are the natural fountains age when the organised system is fairly worn out? of enjoyment, and the external world is created with Numberless examples of this kind have occurred, and reference to this state; it is as obvious that misery they show no demonstration, that the corporeal frame must result from animal supremacy and intellectual tor- of man is so constituted, as to admit the possibility of pidity, as that flame, which is constituted to burn only his enjoying organic health and vigour, during the whole when supplied with oxygen, must inevitably become ex- period of a long life. In the life of Captain COOK it is tinct, when exposed to carbonic acid gas. Finally, if mentioned, that'one circumstance peculiarly worthy of the arrangement by which man is left to discover and notice is, the perfect and uninterrupted health of the obey the laws of his own nature, and of the physical inhabitants of New Zealand. In all the visits made to world, be more conducive to activity, than intuitive their towns, where old and young, men and women, knowledge, the calamities now contemplated appear to crowded about our voyagers, they never observed a be instituted to force him to his duty; and his, duty, single person who appeared to have any bodily comwhen understood, will constitute his delight. plaint; nor among the numbers that were seen naked, While, therefore, we lament the fate of individual was once perceived the slightest eruption upon the skin, victims to the law of gravitation, we cannot condemn or least mark which indicated that such an eruption that law itself. If it were suspended, to save men from had formerly existed. Another proof of the health of the effects of negligence, not only would the proud cre- these people is the facility with which the wounds they ations of human skill totter to their base, and the hu- at any time receive are healed. In the man who had man body rise from the earth, and hang midway in the been shot with the musket ball through the fleshy part air, but our highest enjoyments would be terminated, of his arm, the wound seemed to be so well digested, and our faculties become positively useless, by being and in so fair a way of being perfectly healed, that if deprived of their field of exertion. Causality, for in- Mr CoOI had not known that no application had been stance, teaches that similar causes will always, cceteris made to it, he declared that he should certainly have paribus, produce similar effects; and, if the physical inquired, with a very interested curiosity, after the vullaws were suspended or varied, to accommodate man's nerary herbs and surgical art of the country. An adnegligence or folly, it is obvious that this faculty would ditional evidence of human nature's being untainted be without an object, and that no definite course of ac- with disease in New Zealand, is the great number of tion could be entered upon with confidence in the re- old men with whom it abounds. Many of them, by the sult. If, then, this view of the constitution of nature loss of their hair and teeth, appeared to be very ancient, were kept steadily in view, the occurrence of one acci- and yet none of them were decrepit. Although they dent of this kind would suggest to Reflection means to were not equal to the young in muscular strength, they prevent others. did not come in the least behind them with regard to Similar illustrations and commentaries might be given, cheerfulness and vivacity. WMater, as far as our naviin regard to the other physical laws to which man is gators could discover, is the universal and only liquor subject; but the object of the present Essay bbing oftheNewZealanders. It is greatly to be wished that merely to evolve principles, I confine myself to gra.vita- their happiness in this respect mray never be destroyed tion, as the most obvious and best understood. by such a connexion with the European nations, as I do not mean to say, that, by the mere exercise of I shall introduce that fondness for spirituous liquors which CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 23 hath been so fatal to the Indians of North America.'- of the human constitution is anatomy and physiology. Kippis' Life of Captain Cook, Dublin, 1788, p. 100. Before we can be acquainted with its relations to exNow, as a natural law never admits of an exception; ternal objects, we must learn the existence and qualifor example, as no man ever sees without eyes, or di- ties of these objects, (unfolded by chemistry, natural gests without a stomach, we are e titled to say, that the history, and natural philosophy), and compare them best condition in which an organized being has ever with the constitution of the body. When we have been found, is fairly within the capabilities of the race. fulfilled these conditions, we shall be better able A human being, vigorous and healthy from the cradle to discover the laws which the Creator has instito the grave, could no more exist, unless the natural tuted in regard to our organic system. It will be said, constitution of his organs permitted it, of design, than however, that such studies are impracticable to the vision could exist without eyes. Health and vigour great bulk of mankind, and, besides, do not appear cannot result from infringement of the organic laws; much to benefit those who pursue them. They are for then pain and disease would be the objects of these impracticable only while mankind prefer founding their laws, and beneficence, wisdom, and power, could never public and private institutions on the basis of the probe ascribed to the Creator, who had established them. pensities, instead of that of the sentiments. I have Let us hold, then, that the organised system of man, in mentioned, that exercise of the nervous and muscular itself-admits of the possibility of health, vigour, and systems is required of all the race by the Creator's fiat, organic enjoyment, during the full period of life; and that if all, who are capable, would obey this law, a moproceed to inquire into the causes why these advan- derate extent of exertion, agreeable and salubrious in tages are not universal. itself, would suffice to supply our wants, and to surOne organic law, is, that the germ of the infant being round us with every beneficial luxury; and that a must be complete in all its parts, and perfectly sound large portion of unemployed time would remain. The in its condition, as an indispensable requisite to its vig- Creator has bestowed on us Knowing Faculties, fitted orous development, and full enjoyment of existence. to explore the facts of these sciences, Reflecting FaIf the corn that is sown is weak, wasted, and damaged, culties to trace their relations, and Moral Sentiments the plants that spring from it will be feeble, and liable calculated to feel interest in such investigations, and to speedy decay. The same law holds in the animal to lead us to reverence and obey the laws which they kingdom; and I would ask, has it hitherto been observ- unfold; and, finally he has made this occupation, when ed by man? It is notorious that it has not. Indeed, entered upon with a view of tracing His power and its existence has been either altogether unknown, or wisdom in the subjects of our studies, and of obeying in a very high degree disregarded by human beings. His institutions, the most delightful and invigorating The feeble, the sickly, the exhausted with age, and the of all vocations. In place, then, of such a course of incompletely developed, through extreme youth, marry, education being impracticable, every arrangement of and, without the least compunction regarding the or- the Creator appears to be prepared in direct anticipaganization which they shall transmit to their offspring, tion of its actual accomplishment. send into the world miserable beings, the very rudi- The second objection, that those who study these ments of whose existence are tainted with disease. If sciences are not more healthy and happy, as organized we trace such conduct to its source, we shall find it to beings, than those who neglect them, admits also of an originate either in animal propensity, intellectual igno- easy answer. Parts of these sciences are taught to a rance, or more frequently in both. The inspiring mo- few individuals, whose, main design in studying them tives are generally merely sensual appetite, avarice, or is to apply them as means of acquiring wealth and ambition, operating in the absence of all just concep- fame; but they have nowhere been taught as connected tions of the impending evils. The punishment of this parts of a great system of natural arrangements, fraught offence is debility and pain, transmitted to the children, with the highest influences on human enjoyment; and and reflected back in anxiety and sorrow on the pa- in no instance have the intellect and sentiments been rents. Still the great point to be kept in view, is, that systematically directed to the natural laws, as the grand these miseries are not legitimate consequences of ob- fountains of happiness and misery to the race, and trainservance of the organic laws, but the direct chastise- ed to observe and obey them as the Creator's institument of their i'lfringenment. These laws are unbend- ticns. ing, and admit of no exception; they must be fulfilled, A third organic law, is, that all our functions shall or the penalties of disobedience will follow. On this be duly exercised; and is this law observed by mansubject profound ignorance reigns in society. From k-ild. Many persons are able, from experience, to atsuch observations as I have been able to make, I am test the severity of the punishment that follows from convinced that the union of certain temperaments and ineglecting to exercise the nervous and muscular syscombinations of mental organs in the parents, are temns, in the lassitude, indigestion, irritability, debility, highly conducive to health, talent, and morality in the and general uneasiness that attend a sedentary and inoffspring, and rice versa, and that these conditions may active life. But the penalties that attach to neglect of be discovered and taught with far greater certainty, exercising the brain are much less known, and therefacility, and advantage, than is generally imagined. It fore I shall notice them more at length. How often will be time enough to conclude that men are naturally have we heard the question asked, What is the use of incapable of obedience to the organic laws, after their education'! The answer might be illustrated by exintellects have been instructed, their moral sentiments plainingr to the inquirer the nature and objects of the trained to the observance of the Creator's natural insti- various organs of the body, such as the limbs, lungs, tutions. as at once their duty, their interest, and a eyes, and then asking him if he could perceive any adgrand source of their happiness; and they have conti- vantage to a being so constituted, in obtaining access nued to rebel. to earth, air, and light. I-e would, at once, declare, A second organic law regards nutriment, which must that they were obviously of the very highest utility to be supplied of a suitable kind, and in due quantity. him, for they were the only conceivable objects, by This law requires also free air, light, cleanliness, and means of which these organs could obtain scope for acattention to every physical arrangement by which the tion, which action we suppose him to know to be pleafunctions of the body may be favored or impaired. sure. To those, then, who know the constitution of Have mankimnd, then, obeyed or neglected this insti- the intellectual and moral powers of man, I need only tution? I need scarcely answer the question. To be say, that the objects introduced to the mind by educaable to obey institutions, we must first know them. tion, bear the same relation to them that the phys.cal Before we can know the organic constitution of our elements of nature bear to the nerves and mlit'cles; body, we must study that constitution, and the study they afford them scope for action, and yield them de* 24 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. light. The meaning which is commonly attached to the entirely to have lost sight of all prudence and caution.' ord use in such cases, is how much money, influence,' In the mean time, our temerity, which chiefly proor consideration, will education bring; these being the ceeded from hurry and ignorance, was considered by inly objects of strong desire with which uncultivated the Hottentots as a proof of spirit and intrepidity hardminds are acquainted; and they do not perceive in ly to be equalled. what way education can greatly gratify such propensi- It' is part of the same law that the more agreeable ties. But the moment the mind is opened to the per- the mental stimulus, the more benign is the nervous ception of its constitution and to the natural laws, the influence transmitted to the body. great advantage of moral and intellectual cultivation, If we imagine a man or woman, who has received as a means of exercising the faculties, and of directing from nature a large and tolerably active brain, but who the conduct in obedience to these laws, becomes appa- has not enjoyed the advantages of a scientific or extenrent. sive education, so as to feel an interest in moral and But there is an additional benefit arising from heal- intellectual pursuits for their own sake, and who, from thy activity of brain, which is little known. The brain possessing wealth sufficient to remove the necessity for is the fountain of nervous energy to the whole body, labor, is engaged in no profession, we shall find a perand different modifications of that energy appear to fect victim to infringement of the natural laws. The take place, according to the mode in which the facul- individual ignorant of these laws, will, in all probability, ties and organs are affected. For example, when mis- neglect nervous and muscular exercises, and suffer the fortune and disgrace impend over us, the organs of miseries arising from impeded circulation and impaired Cautiousness, Self-esteem, Love of Approbation, &c. digestion; in entire want of every object on which the are painfully excited; and then they transmit an im- energy of his brain might be expended, its stimulating paired or a positively noxious nervous influence to the influence on the body will be withheld, and the effects of heart, stomach, intestines, and thence to the rest of the muscular inactivity tenfold aggravated; all the functions body; the pulse becomes feeble and irregular, digestion will, in consequence, become enfeebled; lassitude, unis deranged, and the whole corporeal frame wastes. easiness, anxiety, and a thousand evils, will arise, and When, on the other hand, the cerebral organs are agree- life, in short, will become a mere endurance of punishably affected, a benign and vivifying nervous influence ment for infringement of institutions, calculated, in thempervades the frame, and all the functions of the body selves to promote happiness and afford delight, when are performed with more pleasure and completeness. known and obeyed. This fate frequently overtakes Now, it is a law, that the quantum of nervous energy uneducated females, whose early days have been occuincreases with the number of cerebral organs roused to pied with business, or the cares of a family, but which activity. In the retreat of the French from Moscow, occupations have ceased before old age had diminished for example, when no enemy was near, the soldiers be- corporeal vigour; it, overtakes men also, who, uneducame depressed in courage, and enfeebled in body, they cated, retire from active business in the prime of life. nearly sunk to the earth through exhaustion and cold; In some instances, these evils accumulate to such a debut no sooner did the fire of the Russian guns sound gree that the brain itself gives way, its functions bein their ears, or the gleam of theirbayonets flash in their come deranged, and insanity is the result. eyes, than new life seemed to pervade them. They It is worthy of remark, that the more elevated the wielded powerfully the arms, which a few moments be- objects of our study, the higher in the scale are the fore, they could scarcely carry or trail on the ground. mental organs which are exercised, and the higher the No sooner, however, was the enemy repulsed, than their organs the more pure and intense is the pleasure; and feebleness returned. The theory of this is, that the hence, a vivacious and regularly supported excitement approach of the combat called into activity a variety of of the moral sentiments and intellect, is, by the organic additional faculties; these sent new energy through law, highly favourable to health and corporeal vigour. every nerve, and while their vivacity was maintained In the fact of a living animal being able to retain life by the external stimulus, they rendered the soldiers in an oven that will bake dead flesh, we see an illustrastrong beyond their merely physical condition. Many tion of the organic law rising above the purely physical: persons have probably experienced the operation of the and, in the circumstance of the moral and intellectual same principle. When sitting feeble and listless by organs transmitting the most favorable nervous influence the fire, we have heard of an accident having occurred to the whole bodily system, we have an example of the to some beloved friend, who required our instantaneous moral and intellectual law rising higher than the mere aid, or an unexpected visiter has arrived, in whom our organic. affections were bound up, in an instant our lassitude No person after having his intellect and sentiments was gone, and we moved with an alertness and anima- imbued with a perception of, and belief in, the natural tion that seemed surprising to ourselves. The cause laws, as now explained, can possibly desire idleness, as was the same; these events roused Adhesiveness, Be- a source of pleasure; nor can he possibly regard musnevolence, Love of Approbation, Intellect, and a variety cular exertion and mental activity, Tvhen not carried to of faculties, which were previously dormant, and their excess, as any thing else than enjoyments kindly vouchinfluence invigorated the limbs. Dr Sparmann, in his safed to him by the benevolence of the Creator. The Voyage to the Cape, mentions, that'there was now notion that moderate labour and mental exertion are again a great scarcity of meat in the wagon; for which evils, can originate only from ignorance, or from viewreason my Hottentots began to grumble, and reminded ing the effects of over-exhaustion as the result of the me that we ought not to waste so much of our time in natural law, and not as the punishment for infringement looking' after insects and plants, but give a better look of it. out after the game. At the same time, they pointed to If, then, we sedulously inquire, in each particular ina neighbouring dale overrun with wood, at the upper stance, into the cause of the sickness, pain, premature edge of which, at the distance of about a mile and a death, and general derangement of the corporeal frame quarter from the spot where we then were, they had seen of man, which we see around us, and endeavour to disseveral buffaloes. Accordingly, we went thither; but cover whether it has originated in obedience to the though our fatigue was lessened by our Hottentots car- physical and organic laws, or sprung from an infringerying our guns for us up a hill, yet we were quite out ment of them, we shall be able to form some estimate of breath, and overcome by the sun, before we got up how far bodily suffering is justly attributable to imperto it. Yet, what even now appears to me a matter of fections of nature, and how far to our own ignorance wonder is, that as soon as we got a glimpse of the game, and neglect of divine institutions. all this languor left us in an instant. In fact, we each The foregoing principles being of much practical imof us strove to fire before the other, so that we seemed portance, may, with propriety, be elucidated by a few CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 25 cases of actual occurrence. Two or three centuries coal mines, arise from neglecting to keep the lamps in ago, various cities in Europe were depopulated by the perfect condition. plague, and, in particular, London was visited by an It is needless to multiply examples in support of the awful mortality from this cause, in the reign of Charles proposition, that the organized system of man, in itself, the Second. The people of that age attributed this admits of a healthy existence from infancy to old age, scourge to the inscrutable decrees of Providence, and provided its germ has been healthy, and its subsequent some to the magnitude of the nation's moral iniquities. condition has been uniformly in harmony with the phyAccording to the views now presented, it must have sical and organic laws; but it has been objected, that arisen from infringement of the organic laws, and been although the human faculties may perhaps be adequate intended to enforce stricter obedience to them in future. to discover these laws, and to record them in books, According to this view, there was nothing inscrutable yet they are totally incapable of retaining them in the in its causes or objects, which, when clearly analysed, memory, and of formally applying them in every act of appear to have had no direct reference to the moral life. If, it is said, we could not move a step without condition of the people: I say direct reference to the calculating and adjusting the body to the law of gravimoral condition of the people, because it would be easy tation, and could never eat a meal without a formal reto show, that the physical, organic, and all the other hearsal of the organic laws, life would become oppressnatural laws, are connected indirectly, and constituted ed by the pedantry of knowledge, and rendered miserin harmony, with the moral law: and that infringement able by petty observances and trivial details. The anof the one often leads to disobedience to another, and swer to this is, that all our faculties are adapted by the brings a double punishment on the offender. But, in Creator to the external world, and act instinctively the mean time, I observe that the facts recorded in his- when their objects are placed in the proper light before tory exactly correspond with the theory now propound- them. For example, in walking on a foot-path in the ed. The streets of London were excessively narrow, country during day, we are not conscious, in adjusting the habits of the people dirty, and no adequate provision our steps to the inequalities of the surface, of being was made for removing the filth unavoidably produced overburdened by mental calculation. In fact, we perby a dense population. The great fire in that city, form this adjustment with so little trouble, that we are which happened soon after the pestilence, afforded an not aware of having made any particular mental or opportunity of remedying in some degree, the narrow- muscular effort. But, on returning at night, when we. ness of the streets; and habits of increasing cleanli- cannot see, we stumble, and discover, for the first time, ness abated the filth; these changes brought the people how important a duty our faculties had been performing into a closer obedience to the organic laws, and no during day, without ourhaving adverted to their labours. plague has since returned. Again, till very lately, Now, the simple medium of light is sufficient to bring thousands of children died yearly of the small-pox, clearly before our eyes the inequalities of ground; but but, in our day, vaccine inoculation saves ninety-nine to make the mind equally familiar with the nature or out of a hundred, who, under the old system, would the countless objects, and their relations, which abound have died. The theory of its operation is not known, in external nature, an intellectual light is necessary, but we may rest assured, that it places the system more which can be struck out only by exercising and applyin accordance with the organic laws, than in the cases ing the knowing and reflecting faculties; but the mowhere death ensued. A gentleman, who died about ment that light is obtained, and the qualities and relaten years ago at an advanced period of life, told me, tionships in question are perceived by its means, the that, six miles west from Edinburgh, the country was faculties, so long as the light lasts, will act instinctively so unhealthy in his youth, that every spring the farm- in adapting our conduct to the nature of the objects, ers and their servants were seized with fever and ague, just as in accommodating our movements to the unequal and required regularly to undergo bleeding, and a course surface of the ground. It is no more necessary for us of medicine, to prevent attacks, or restore them from to go through a course of physical, botanical, and chemtheir effects. At the time, these visitations were be- ical reasoning, before we are able to abstain from eating lieved to be sent by Providence, and to be inherent in hemlock, after its properties are known, than it is to go the constitution of things; after, however, said my in- through q course of mathematical demonstration, before formant, an improved system of agriculture and drain-. lifting the one foot higher than the other, in ascending ing was established, and vast pools of stagnant water a stair. At present, physical and political science, moformerly left between the ridges of the field were re- rals and religion, are not taught as parts of one connectmoved, dunghills carried to a distance from the houses, ed system; nor are the relations between them and and the houses themselves made more spacious and the constitution of man pointed out to the world. In commodious, every symptom of ague and marsh-fever consequence, theoretical knowledge and practice are disappeared from the district, and it became highly sa- often widely separated. Some of the advantages of the lubrious. In other words, as soon as the gross in- scientific education now recommended would be the fringement of the organic laws was abated by a more following: active exertion of the muscular and intellectual powers In the 1st place, the physical and organic laws, when of man, the punishment ceased. In like manner, how truly discovered, appear to the mind as institutions of many calamities occurred in coal-pits, in consequeince the Creator, wise and salutary in themselves, unbendof infringement of a physical law, viz. by introducing ing in their operation, and universal in their application. lighted candles and lamps into places filled with hydro- They interest our intellectual faculties, and strongly gen gas, that had emanated from seams of coal, and impress our sentiments. The necessity of obeying which exploded, scorched, and suffocated the men and them, comes upon us with all the authority of a mananimals within its reach, until Sir Humphrey Davy dis- date of God. While we confine ourselves to a mere covered that the Creator had established such a relation recommendation to beware of damp, to observe temperbetwixt flame, wire-gauze, and hydrogen gas, that by ance, or to take exercise, without explaining the princisurrounding the flame with gauze, its power of explod- ple, the injunction carries only the weight due to the ing hydrogen was counteracted. By the simple appli- authority of the individual who gives it, and is addrescation of a covering of wire-gauze, put over and sed to only two or three faculties, Veneration and around the flame, it is prevented from igniting gas be- Cautiousness, for instance, or Self-love in him who reyond it, and colliers are now able to carry, with safety, ceives it. But if we are made acquainted with the elelighted lamps into places highly impregnated with in- ments of the physical world, and with those of our orflammable air. I have been informed, that the acci- ganised system,-with the uses of the different parts of dents from explosion, which still occasionally occur in the latter, and the conditions necessary to their healthy 26 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. action,-with the causes of their derangement, and the passengers, and the officers of the ship, that he would pains consequent thereon: and if the obligation to at- inevitably induce fever by this proceeding: but he was tend to these conditions be enforced on our moral sen- utterly ignorant of the physical and organic laws; his timents and intellect; then the motives to observe the intellect had been trained to regard only wealth and physical and organic laws, as well as the power of doing' present pleasure as objects of real importance; t could so, will be prodigiously increased. Before we can dance perceive no necessary connexion between exposure to well, we must not only know the motions, but our mus- the mild and grateful sea breeze of a warm climate and cles must be trained to execute them. In like manner, fever, and he obstinately refused to quit his position. to enable us to act on precepts, we must not only com- The consequence was, that he was,rapidly taken ill, and prehend their meaning but our intellects and sentiments lived just one day after arriving at St Domingo. Knowmust be disciplined into actual performance. Now, the ledge of chemistry and physiology would have enabled very act of acquiring connected scientific information him, in an instant, to understand that the sea air, in concerning the natural world, its qualities, and their re- warm climates, holds a prodigious quantity of water in lations, is to the intellect and sentiments what practical solution, and that damp and heat, operating together on dancing is to the muscles, it invigorates them; and, the human organs, tend to derange their healthy action, as obedience to the natural laws must spring from them, and ultimately to destroy them entirely: and if his senexercise renders it more easy and delightful. timents had been deeply imbued with a feeling of the 2. It is only by being taught the principle on which indispensable duty of yielding obedience to the instituconsequences depend, that we see the invariableness of tions of the Creator, he would have'actually enjoyed, the results of the physical and organic laws; acquire not only a greater desire, but a greater power of supconfidence in, and respect for the laws themselves; porting the temporary inconvenience of the heated and fairly endeavour to accommodate our conduct to cabin, and might, by possibility, have escaped death. their operation. Dr Johnson defines'principle' to be Captain Murray, R. N. mentioned to Dr A. Combe,'fundamental truth; original postulate; first position that, in his opinion, most of the bad effects of the clifrom which others are deduced;' and in these senses I mate of the West Indies might be avoided by care and use the word. The human faculties are instinctively attention to clothing; and so satisfied was he on this active, and desire gratification; but Intellect itself must point, that he had petitioned to be sent there in preferhave fixed data, on which to reason, otherwise it is it- ence to the North American station, and had no reason self a mere impulse. The man in whom Constructive- to regret the change. The measures whichhe adopted, ness and Weight are powerful, will naturally betake and their effects, are detailed in the following interesthimself to constructing machinery; but, if he be igno- ing and instructive letter: rant of the principles of mechanical science, he will not'Assynt, April 22, 1827 direct his efforts to as important ends, and attain them'MY DEAR SIR, as successfully, as if his intellect were stored with'I should have written to you before this, had I not these. Principles are deduced from the laws of nature. been anxious to refer to some memorandums, which I A man may make music by the instinctive impulses of could not do before my return home from Coul. I atTime and Tune; but there are immutable laws of har- tribute the great good health enjoyed by the crew of mony; and, if ignorant of these, he will not perform so his Majesty's ship Valorous, when on the West India invariably, correctly, and in good taste, as if he knew station, during the period I had the honour of comthem. In every art and science, there are principles manding her, to the following causes. 1st, To the referable solely to the constitution of nature, but these keeping the ship perfectly dry and clean; 2dly, To admit of countless applications. A musician may pro- habituating the men to the wearing of flannel next the duce gay, grave, solemn, or ludicrous tunes, all good of skin; 3dly, To the precaution I adopted, of giving their kind, by following the laws of harmony; but he each man a proportion of his allowance of cocoa before will never produce one good piece by violating them. he left the ship in the morning, either for the purpose While the inhabitants west of Edinburgh allowed the of watering, or any other duty he might be sent upon; stagnant pools to deface their fields, some seasons and, 4thly, Tothe cheerfulness of the crew. would be more healthy than others; and, while the'The Valorous sailed from Plymouth on the 24th cause of the disease was unsuspected, this would con- December, 1823, having just returned from the coast of firm them in the notion that health and sickness were Labrador and Newfoundland, where she had been dispensed by an overruling Providence, on inscrutable stationed two years, the crew, including officers, principles, which they could not comprehend; but the amounting to 150 men. I had ordered the purser to moment the cause was known, it would be found that draw two pairs of flannel drawers, and two shirts extra the most healthy seasons were those that were cold for each man, as soon as I knew that our destination and dry, and the most sickly those. that were warm and was the West Indies; and, on our sailing, I issued two moist; and they would then perceive, that the superior of each to every man and boy in the ship, making the salubrity of one year, and unwholesomeness of another, officers of each division responsible for the men of their were clearly referable to one principle, and would be respective divisions wearing these flannels during the both more strongly prompted, and rendered morally day and night; and, at the regular morning nine and intellectually more capable of applying the remedy. o'clock musters, I inspected the crew personally; for If some intelligent friend had merely told them to drain you can hardly conceive the difficulty I have had in their fields, and remove their dung-hills, they would forcing some of the men to use flannel at first; alnot probably have done it; but whenever their intel- though I never yet knew one who did not, from choice, lects were enlightened, and their sentiments roused, to adhere to it, when once fairly adopted. The only preappreciate the advantages of adopting, and disadvantages caution after this, was to see that, in bad weather, the af neglecting, the improvement, it became easy. watch, when relieved, did not turn in in their wet The truth of these views may be still farther illus- clothes, which the young hands were apt to do, if not trated by examples. A young gentleman of Glasgow, looked after; and their flannels were shifted every whom I knew, went out, as a merchant to North Ame- Sunday. -rica. Business required him to sail from New York' Whenever fresh beef and vegetables could be proto St Domingo. The weather was hot, and he, being cured at the contract price, they were always issued in very sick, found the confinement below deck, in bed, preference to salt provision. Lime juice was issued as he said, intolerable; that is, this confinement was, whenever the men had been fourteen days on ship's for the moment, more painful than the course which he provisions; and the crew took their meals on the main adopted, of laying himself down at full length on the deck, except in very bad weather. deck, in the open air. He was warned by his fellow'The quarter and main decks were scrubbed with CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 27 sand and water, and wet holy stones, every morning at as he was, he should button up his coat closer about his daylight. The lower deck, cock-pit, and store-rooms body, wrap a handkerchief about his neck, and continue were scrubbed every day after breakfast, with dry holy walking, at a quick pace, round the summit, in the full stones and hot sand, until quite white, the sand being blaze of the sun. That the other, ignorant of these carefully swept up, and thrown overboard. The pump- laws, should eagerly run to the base of a projecting cliff; well was also swabbed out dry, and then scrubbed with stretch himself at full length on the turf, under its reholy stones and hot sand; and here, as well as in every freshing shade; open his vest to the grateful breeze part of the ship which was liable to damp, Brodiestoves and, in short, give himself up entirely to the present were constantly used, until every appearance of hu- luxuries of coolness and repose;-the former, by wardmidity vanished. The lower deck and cock-pit were ing off the rapid chill of the cool mountain air, would washed once every week in dry weather; but Brodie- descend with health unimpaired; while the latter would stoves were constantly kept burning in them, until carry with him, to a certainty, the seeds of rheumatism, they were quite dry again. consumption, or fever, from permitting perspiration to'The hammocks were piped up, and in the nettings, be instantaneously checked, and the surface of the body from 7 A. M. until dusk, when the men of each watch to be cooled with an injurious rapidity. I have put these took down their hammocks alternately, by which cases hypothetically, because, although I have seen and means, only one-half of the hammocks being down at experienced the benefits of the former method, I have a time, the tween decks were not so crowded, and the not directly observed the opposite. No season, howwatch relieved was sure of turning into a dry bed on ever, passes in the Highlands, in which some tragedy going below. The bedding was aired every week, of the latter description does not occur; and, from the once at least. The men were not permitted to go on minutest information that I have been able to obtain, shore in the heat of the sun, or where there was a pro- the causes have been such as are here described. bability of their getting spirituous liquors; but all I shall conclude these examples by a case which is hands were indulged with a run on shore, when out of illustrative of the points under consideration, and which reach of such temptation. I have had too good an opportunity of observing in all' I was employed on the coast of Caraccas, the West its stages. India Islands, and Gulf of Mexico; and, in course of An individual in whom it was my duty as well as service, I visited Trinidad, Margarita, Cocha, Cumana, pleasure, to be greatly interested, had resolved on carNueva Barcelona, Laguira, Porto Cabello, and Mara- rying Mr Owen's views into practical effect, and got an caibo, on the coast of Caraccas; all the West India establishment set agoing on his principles, at Orbiston, Islands, from Tobago to Cuba, both inclusive; as also, in Lanarkshire. The labour and anxiety which he un Caragao and Aruba, and several of those places repeat- derwent at the commencement of the undertaking, edly; also to Vera Cruz and Tampico, in the Gulf of gradually impaired an excellent constitution; and, with Mexico, which you will admit must have given a trial out perceiving the change, he, by way of setting an exto the constitutions of my men, after two years amongst ample of industry, took to digging with the spade, and the icebergs of the Labrador, without an intervening actually worked for fourteen days at this occupation, sur:,mer between that icy coast and the coast of Carac- although previously unaccustomed to labour. This cas; yet I arrived in England on June 24th, without produced hmrnoptysis. Being unable now for bodily having buried a single man or officer belonging to the exertion, he gave up his whole time to directing and ship, or indeed having a single man on the sick list; instructing the people, about 250 in number, and for from which I am satisfied that a dry ship will always be two or three weeks spoke the whole day, the effusion a healthy one in any climate. When in command of from his lungs continuing. Nature rapidly sunk under the Recruit, of 18 guns, in the year 1809, Iwas sent this irrational treatment; and at last he came to Edinto VeraCruz, whereI found the - 46, the - burgh for medical advice. *When the structure and 42, the ~ 18, and ~ gun-brig; we were uses of his lungs were explained to him, and when it joined by the ~ 36, and the - 18. During was pointed out that his treatment of them had been the period we remained at anchor (from 8 to 10 weeks,) oqually injudicious as if he had thrown lime or dust into the three frigates, lost from 30 to 50 men each, the his eyes, after inflammation, he was struck with the brigs 16 to 18, the most of her crew, with two extent and consequences of his own ignorance, and different commanders; yet the Recruit, although moored exclaimed, How greatly he would have been benefitted in the middle of the squadron, and constant intercourse if one month of the five years which he had been forced held with the other ships, did not lose a man, and had to spend in a vain attempt at acquiring a mastery over none sick. Now, as some of these ships had been as the Latin tongue, had been dedicated to conveying to long in the West Indies as the Recruit, we cannot at- him information concerning the structure of his body, tribute her singularly healthy state to seasoning, nor and the causes which preserve and impair its functions. can I to superior cleanliness, because even the breeches He had departed too widely from the organic laws to of the carronades, and all the pins, were polished bright admit of an easy return; he was seized with inflammain both ~ and ~, which was not the case tion of the lungs, and with great difficulty got through with the Recruit. Perhaps her healthy state may be that attack; but it impaired his constitution so grievousattributed to cheerfulness in the men; to my never al- ly, that he died, after a lingering illness of eleven months. lowing them to go on shore in the morning, on an empty He acknowledged, however, even in his severest pain, stomach; to the use of dry sand and holy-stone for the that he suffered under a just law. The lungs, he saw, ship; to never working them in the sun; perhaps to were of the first-rate importance to life, and their proper accident. Were I asked my opinion, I would say that treatment was provided for by this tremendous punishI firmly believe that cheerfulness contributes more to ment, inflicted for neglecting the conditions requisite keep a ship's company healthy, than any precaution that to their health. Had he given them rest, and returned can be adopted; and that, with this attainment, com- to obedience to the organic law, at the first intimation bined with the precautions I have mentioned, I should of departure from it, the door stood wide open and ready sail for the WVest Indies, with as little anxiety as I to receive him; but, in utter ignorance, he persevered would for any other station. My Valorous fellows were for weeks in direct opposition to these conditions, till as cheerful a set as I ever saw collected together.' the fearful result ensued. Suppose that two gentlemen were to ascend one of This last case affords a striking illustration of the inthe Scottish mountains, in a hot surnmmner day, and to ar- dependence of the different institutions of the Creator, rive, at the-top, bathed in perspiration, and exhausted and of the necessity of obeying all of them, as the only with fatigue. That one of them knew intimately the condition of safety and enjoyment. The individual physical and organic laws, and that, all hot and wearied here alluded to, was deeply engaged in a most benevo 28 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. lent and disinterested experiment for promoting the who imagine themselves absolved from all obligation to welfare of his fellow creatures; and superficial ob- study and obey the natural laws of Heaven, as anservers would say that this was just an example of the nounced in the general arrangement of the universe. inscrutable decrees of Providence, which visited him Phrenology will put it in the power of mankind to mitiwith sickness, and ultimately with death, in the very gate these evils, when they choose to adopt its dictates midst of his most virtuous exertions. But the institu- as a practical rule of conduct. tions of the Creator are wiser than the imaginations of The justice and benevolence of rendering the indisuch men. The first principle on which existence on viduals themselves unhappy who neglect this great inearth, and all its advantages depend, is obedience to stitution of the Creator, become more striking when in the physical and organic laws. The benevolent Owen- the next place, we consider the effects, by the organic ite neglected these, in his zeal to obey the moral law; law, of such conduct on the children of these ill-assortand, if it were possible to dispense with the one, by ed unions. obeying the other, the whole theatre of man's existence Physiologists, in general, are agreed, that a vigorous would speedily become deranged, and involved in inex- and healthy constitution of body in the parents, complicable disorder.' municates existence, in the most perfect state, to the Having traced bodily sufferings, in the case of indi- offspring,* and many observers of mankind, as well as viduals, to neglect of, or opposition to, the organic medical authors, have remarked, also the transmission, laws, by their progenitors or by themselves, I next ad- by hereditary descent, of mental talents and disposivert to another set of calamities, that may be called so- tions. cial miseries, and which obviously spring from the same Dr KING, in speaking of the fatality which attended causes; but of which latter fact complete evidence was the House of Stewart, says,' If I were to ascribe their not possessed until Phrenology was discovered. And, calamities to another cause (than an evil fate,) or enfirst, in regard to evils of a domestic nature:-One fer- deavour to account for them by any natural means, I tile source of unhappiness arises from persons uniting should think they were chiefly owing to a certain obin marriage whose tempers, talents, and dispositions do stinacy of temper, which appears to have been heredinot harmonize. If it be true that natural talents and tary and inherent in all the Stuarts, except Charles II.' dispositions are connected by the Creator with particu- It is well known that the caste of the Brahmins is lar configurations of brain, then it is obviously one of the highest in point of intelligence as well as rank of His institutions that, in forming a compact for life, all the castes in Hindostan; and it is mentioned by the these should be attended to.* If we imagine an indi- missionaries as an ascertained fact, that their children vidual endowed with the splendid cerebral development are naturally more acute, intelligent, and docile, than the of RAPHAEL,'under a mere animal impulse, uniting children of the inferior castes, age and other circumhimself for life with a female, possessing a brain like stances being equal. that of MARY MACINNES,t which by no possibility, Dr GREGORY, in treating of the temperaments in his could sympathise with his, this proceeding would be as Conspectus Medicinew Theoreticee, says,' Hujusmodi direct an obstacle to happiness, as if a man were to sur- varietates non corporis modo, verum et animi quoque, round himself with ice to remove sensations of cold. plerumque congenital, nonnun quam hnreditarim, obserUntil Phrenology was discovered, no natural index to vantur. Hoc modo'parentes stape in proles revimental qualities, that could be practically relied on, viscunt; certe parentibus liberi similes sunt, non vulwas possessed, and each individual was left to his own tum modo et corporis formam, sed animi indolem, et sagacity in directing his conduct; but the natural law virtutes, et vitia. Imperiosa gens Claudia diu Romae never bended one iota to accommodate itself to that floruit, impigra, ferox, superba; eadem illachrymabilem state of ignorance. The Creator having bestowed on Tiberium, tristissimum tyrennum, produxit; tandem mankind faculties fitted to discover Phrenology, having in immanem Caligulam, et Claudium, et Agrippinam, constituted them so that their greatest enjoyment ipsumque demum Neronem, post sexcentos annos, deshould consist in activity, framed his institutions in situra.'t-Cap. i. sect. 16. such a way as to confer happiness when they were dis-, Phrenology reveals the principle on which these covered, and observed, and to carry punishment when phenomena take place. Mental talents and disposiunknown and infringed, as an arrangement at once be- tions are determined by the size and constitution of the nevolent and wise for the race. If it be the fact, that brain. The brain is a portion of our organised system, natural talents and dispositions are indicated by cere- and as such is subject to the organic laws, by one of bral development; and if an individual, after this truth which its qualities are transmitted by hereditary descent. reaches his mind, shall form a connexion fitted to occa- This law, however faint or obscure it may appear in insion him sorrow, it is obvious that he must do so from dividual cases, becomes absolutely undeniable in naone of two causes, either from contempt of the effects tions. When we place the collection of Hindoo, Chaof development of brain, and a secret belief that he may rib, Negro, New Holland, North American, and Euroevade its consequences, which is just contempt of an pean skulls, possessed by the Phrenological Society, organic law, and disbelief in its consequences; or, se- in juxtaposition, we perceive a national form and comcondly, from the predominance of avarice, or some ani- bination of organs in each actually obtruding itself upon mal or other feeling precluding his yielding obedience our notice, and corresponding with the mental characto what he sees to be an institution of the Creator. In ters of the respective tribes; the cerebral developeither case, he must abide the consequences; and al- ment of one tribe is seen to differ as widely from that though these may be grievous, they cannot be com- of another, as the European mind does from that of the plained of as unjust. In the play of the Gamester, New Hollander. Here, then, each Hlindoo, Chinese, Mrs Beverly is represented as a most excellent wife, New Hollander, Negro, and Charib, obviously inherits acting habitually under the guidance of the moral senti- from his parents a certain general type of head; and so ments and intellect; but she is married to a being who, does each European. If, then, the general forms and while he adores her, reduces her to beggary and misery. proportions are thus so palpably transmitted, can we His sister utters an exclamation to this effect:-7Vhy did just Heaven unite such an angel to so heartless a Very young hens lay small eggs; but a breeder of fowls ting! The parallel of this case occurs too often in will never set these to be hatched, because the animals pro. thing. The parallel of this case occurs too often in duced be feeble and imperfectly developed. They select the real life; only it is not'just Heaven' that makes such largest and freshest eggs, and endeavour to rear the healthiest matches, but ignorant and thoughtless human beings, stock possible. / t Parents frequeotly live again in their offspring- Ic is quite ~ See Appendix, Note 2. certain that children resemble their parents,,ot only in counte. t Cases of these heads are sold in the shops, and will be found nance and the form of their body, but also in their mental dispo. hi many Phrenological Collections. skions, in their virtues and vices, &c. CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 29 doubt that the individual varieties follow the same rule, the foxhound, or other breed of dog, for the sake of immodified slightly by causes peculiar to the parents of proving his speed. This mixed and factitious race, of the individual? Tile differences of national character course, naturally partakes less of the true pointer chaare equally conspicuous as those of national brains, and racter; that is to say, is less disposed to stop, or at it is surprising how permanently both endure. It is least he makes a shorter stop at game. The factitious observed by an author in the Edinburgh Review, that pointer is, however, disciplined, in this country, into' the Vicentine district is, as every one knows, and has staunchness; and, what is most singular, THIS QUALIbeen for ages, an intergral part of the Venetian domi- uy IS, IN A GREAT DEGREE INHERITED BY HIS PUPPY, nions, professing the same religion, and governed by who, may be seen earnestly standing at swallows or the same laws, as the other continental provinces of pigeons in a farm-yard. For intuition, though it leads Venice; yet the English character is not more different the offspring to exercise his parents' faculties, does not from the French, than that of the Vicentine from the instruct him how to direct them. The preference of his Paduan; while the contrast between the Vicentine and master afterwards guides him in his selection, and teachhis other neighbours, the Veronese, is hardly less re- es him what game is better worth pursuit. On the markable.' —No. lxxxiv. p. 459. other hand, the pointer of pure Spanish race, unless he If, then, form, size, and constitution of brain, are happen to be well broke himself, which in the south of transmitted from parents to children, if these. determine Europe seldom happens, produces a race which are all natural mental talents and dispositions, which in their but unteachable, according to our notions of a pointer's turn exercise the greatest influence over the happi- business. They will make a stop at their game, as ness of individuals through the whole of life, it be- natural instinct prompts them, but seem incapable of comes extremely important to discover according to being drilled into the habits of the animal, which eduwhat laws this transmission takes place. Three prin- cation has formed in this country, and has rendered as ciples present themselves to our consideration, at the I have said, in some degree, capable of transmitting his first aspect of the question. Either, in the first place, acquirements to his descendants. the constitution and qualities of brain, which the pa-' Acquired habits are hereditary in other animals berents themselves inherit at birth, are transmitted abso- sides dogs. English sheep, probably from the greater lutely, so that the children, sex following sex, are exact richness of our pastures, feed very much together; copies, without variation or modification, of the one pa- while Scotch sheep are obliged to extend and scatter rent or the other; or, secondly, the natural and inherent themselves over their hills, for the better discovery of qualities of the father and mother combine, and are food. Yet the English sheep, on being transferred to transmitted in a modified form to the offspring; or, Scotland, keep their old habit of feeding in a mass, thirdly, the qualities of the children are determined though so little adapted to their new country; so do jointly by the constitution of the stock, and by the fa- their descendants; and the English sheep is not thoculties which predominate in power and activity in the roughly naturalized into the necessities of his place till parents, at the particular time when the organic exist- the third generation. The same thing may be observence of each child commences. ed as to the nature of his food, that is observed in his Experience shows that the first cannot be the law; mode of seeking it. When turnips were introduced for, as often mentioned, a real law of nature admits of from England into Scotland, it was only the third geneno exceptions, and it is well established, that the minds ration which heartily adopted this diet, the first having of children are not exact copies, without variation or been starved into an acquiescence in it.' modification, of those of the parents, sex following sex. In these instances, long continued impressions on Neither can the second be the law, because it is equal- the parents appear to have at last effected change of disly certain that the minds of children, although some- position in the offspring. times, are not always, in talents and disposition, per-' We have seen,' says an author whom I have alfect modifications of those of the father and mother. ready quoted,' how wonderfully the bee works-acIf this law prevailed, no child would be a copy of the cording to rules discovered by man thousands of years father, none a copy of the mother, nor of any collateral after the insect had followed them with perfect accurelation, but each would be invariably a compound of racy. The same little animal seems to be acquainted the two parents, and all the children would be exactly with principles of which we are still ignorant. We alike, sex only excepted. Experience shows, that this can, by crossing, vary the forms of cattle with ascannot be the law. What then, does experience say tonishing nicety; but we have no means of altering to the third idea, that the mental character of each child the nature of an animal, once born, by means of treatis determined by the particular qualities of the stock, ment and feeding. This power, however, is undenicombined with those which predominate in the parents, ably possessed by the bees. When the queen-bee is when its existence commenced. lost, by death or otherwise, they choose a grub from I have already adverted to the influence of the stock, among those who are born for workers; they make and shall now illustrate that of the condition of the pa- three cells into one, and placing the grub there, they rents, when existence is communicated. build a tube round it; they afterwards build another A strong illustration, in the case of the lower ani- cell, of a pyramidal form, into which the grub grows: mals, appeared in the Edinburgh Review, No. lxxxiv. they feed it with peculiar food, and tend it with extreme p. 457. care. It becomes, when transformed from the worm'Every one conversant with beasts,' says the review- to the fly, not a worker, but a queen-bee.' —Objects, er,'knows, that not only their natural, but that many Advantages, and Pleasures of Science, p. 33. It is of their acquired qualities, are transmitted by the parents difficult to conceive that man will ever possess such t to their offspring. Perhaps the most curious example power as this last. of the latter fact may be found in the pointer. Man, however, as an organized being, is subject te' This animal is endowed with the natural instinct of laws similar to those which govern the organization of winding game, and stealing upon his prey, which he the lower animals. Dr Pritchard, in his Researches into surprises, having first made a short pause, in order to the Physical History of Mankind, has brought forward launch himself upon it with more security of success. a variety of interesting facts and opinions on this subThis sort of semicolon in his proceedings, man converts ject of transmission of hereditary qualities in the human into a full stop, and teaches him to be as much pleased race. He says,' Children resemble, in feature and at seeing the bird or beast drop by the shooter's gun, as constitution, both parents, but, I think, more generally at taking it himself. The staunchest dog of this kind, the father. In the breeding of horses and oxen, great and of the original pointer, is of Spanish origin, and importance is attached, by experienced propagators, to our own, is derived from this race, crossed with that of the male. In sheep, it is commonly observed that -30 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. black rams beget black lambs. In the human species, adds,' It has been remarked, I do not know with what also, the complexion chiefly follows that of the father; truth, that half breeds show more personal courage and I-believe it to be a general fact, that the offspring of than the pure breeds.' Captain Basil Hall, and other a black father and white mother is much darker than the writers on South America, mention that the oTfspring progeny of a white father and a black mother.'-Vol. of native American and Spanish parents, constitute ii, p. 551. These facts appear to me to be referable to the most active, vigorous, and powerful portion of the both causes. The stock must have had some influence, inhabitants of these countries; and many of them rose but the mother, in all these cases, is not impressed by to high commands during the revolutionary war. So her own colour, because she does not look on herself; much is this the case in Hindostan, that several writers while the father's complexion must strikingly attract her have already pointed to the mixed race there, as obviattention, and may, in this way, give the darker tinge ously destined to become the future sovereigns of Into the offspring.* dia. These individuals inherit from the native parent Dr Pritchard states the result of his investigations a certain adaptation to the climate, and from the Euto be, First, That the organization of the offspring is ropean parent a higher development of brain, the two always modelled according to the type of the original combined constituting their superiority. structure of the parent; and Secondly,' That changes, Another example of the same law occurs in Persia. produced by external causes in the appearance or con- In that country, it is said that the custom has existed stitution of the individual are temporary; and, in gene- for ages among the nobles, of purchasing beautiful feral, acquired characters are transient; they terminate male Circassian captives, and forming alliances with with the individual, and have no influence on the pro- them as wives. It is ascertained that the Circassian geny.'-Vol. ii, p. 536. He supports the first of these form of brain stands comparatively high in the developpropositions by a variety of facts occurring' in the por- ment of the moral and intellectual organs.* And it is cupine family,'' in the hereditary nature of cor- mentioned by some travellers, that the race of nobles plexion,' and,' in the growth of supernumerary fingers in Persia is the most gifted in natural qualities, bodily or toes, and corresponding deficiencies.'' Maupertuis and mental, of any class of that people; a fact diahas mentioned this phenomenon; he assures us, that metrically opposite to that which takes place in Spain, there were two families in Germany, who have been and other European countries. where the nobles interdistinguished for several generations by six fingers on marry constantly with each other, and set the organic each hand, and the same number of toes on each foot,' laws altogether at defiance. &c. He admits, at the same time, that the second The degeneracy and even idiocy of some of the noproposition is of more difficult proof, and that an ble and royal families of Spain and Portugal, from maropinion contrary to it' has been maintained by some rying nieces, and other near relations, is well known; writers, and a variety of singular facts have been re- and defective brains, in all these cases are observed. lated in support of it.' But many of these relations, The father of NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, says Sir as he justly observes, are obviously fables. WALTER SCOTT,' is stated to have possessed a very In regard to the foregoing propositions, I would ob- handsome person, a talent for eloquence, and a vivacity serve, that a manifest distinction exists between trans- of intellect which he transmitted to his son.'' It was mission of monstrosities, or mutilations, which consti- in the middle of civil discord, fights, and skirmishes, tute additions to, or abstractions from, the natural linea- that CHARLES BONAPARTE mtaTied LETITIA RAMOments of the body, and transmission of a nlere tendency LINI, one of the most beautiful young women of the in particular organs to a greater or less development island, and possessed of a great deal of firmness of chaof their natural functions. This last appears to me to acter. She partook of the dangers of her husband be influenced by the state of the parents, at the time during the years of civil war, and is said to have accomwhen existence is communicated to the offspring. On panied him on horseback on some military expeditions this point Dr Pritchard says,' The opinion which form- or perhaps hasty flights, shortly before her being deliverly prevailed, and which has been entertained by some ered of the future Emperor.'-Lisfe of NAPOLEON Bo modern writers, among whom is Dr Darwin, that at the NAPARTE, vol. iii, p. 6. period when organization commences in the ovum, that The murder of DAVID RIzzIo was perpetrated by is, at or soon after the time of conceptions the structure armed nobles, with many circumstances of violence of the foetus is capable of undergoing modification from and terror, in the presence of Mary, Queen of Scotimpressions on the mind or senses of the parent, does land, shortly before the birth of her son, afterwards not appear altogether so improbable. It is contradicted, James the First of England. The constitutional liaat least, by no fact, in physiology. It is an opinion of bility of this monarch to emotions of fear, is recorded very ancient prevalence, and may be traced to so re- as a characteristic of his mind; and it has even been mote a period, that its rise cannot be attributed to the mentioned that he started involuntarily at the sight of speculations of philosophers, and it is difficult to ac- a drawn sword. Queen Mary was not deficient in count for the origin of such a persuasion, unless we courage, and the Stuarts, both before and after James ascribe it to facts which happened to be observed,' the First, were distinguished for this quality; so that p. 556. he was a marked exception to the dispositions of his A striking and undeniable proof of the effect on the family. Napoleon and James form striking contrasts character and dispositions of children, produced by the and it may be remarked that the mind of Napoleon's form of brain transmitted to them by hereditary de- mother appears to have risen to the danger to which she scent, is to be found in the progeny of marriages be- was exposed, and braved it; while the circumstances tween Europeans, whose brains possess a favourable in which Queen Mary was placed, were calculated to development of the moral and intellectual organs, and inspire her with fear alone. Hindoos, and native Americans, whose brains are infe- Farther evidence of the same law may still be menrior. All authors agree, and report the circumstance tioned. Esquirol, the celebrated French medical as singularly striking, that the children of such unions writer, in adverting to the causes of madness, mentions are decidedly superior in mental qualities to the native, that many children whose existence dated from periods while they are still inferior to the European parent. when the horrors of the French Revolution were at Captain Franklin says, that the half-bred American In- their height, turned out subsequently to be weak, nervdians' are upon the whole a good looking people; and, * In Mr W. Alian's picture of the Circassian Captives, the where the experiments have been made, have shown form of the head is said to be a copy from nature, taken by that much expertness in learning, and willingness to be taught, artist, when he visited the country. It is engraved by Mr James they have, however, been sadly neglected,' p. 86. He Stewart with great beauty and fideiity, and may be consulted as an example of the superiority of Circassian development of the * Black hens lay dark.coloured eggs. brain. CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 31 ous, and irritable in mind, extremely susceptible of im- a noble prospect would this law open up of the possipressions, and liable, by the least extraordinary excite- bility of man ultimately becoming capable of placing ment, to be thrown into absolute insanity. Again, in a himself more fully in accordance with the Divine insticase which fell under my observation,the father of a family tutions, than he has hitherto been able to accomplish; was sick, had a partial recovery, but relapsed, declined, and, in consequence, of reaping numberless enjoyments and in two months died. Seven months after his death, a that appear destined for him by his Creator, and avoidson was born, of the full age; and the origin of whose ing thousands of miseries that now render his life a seexistence was referable to the period of the partial re- ries of calamities. The views here expounded also covery. At that time, and during the subsequent two harmonize with the second principle of this Essay, months, the faculties of the mother were in the highest namely, That, as activity in the faculties is the fountain state of excitement, in ministering to her husband, to of enjoyment, the whole constitution of nature is dewhom she was greatly attached; and, after his death, signedly framed to call on them for ceaseless exertion. the same excitement continued to operate, for she was What scope for observation, reflection, the exercise of then loaded with the charge of a numerous family, but moral sentiments, and regulating of animal impulse, not depressed; for her circumstances were comforta- does not this picture of nature present! ble. The child is now more than ten years old; and, I cordially agree, however, with Dr Pritchard, that while his constitution is the most delicate, his develop- this subject is still involved in very great obscurity. ment of the mental organs, and the natural activity of' We know not,' says he,'by what means any of the these, is decidedly the greatest of the family. Another facts we remark are effected; and the utmost we can illustration of the same law is found in the fact, that, hope to attain, is, by tracing the connexion of circumwhen two parties marry very young, the eldest of their stances, to learn from what combinations of them we children generally inherits a less favorable development may expect to witness particular results,' —Vol. ii, p. of the moral and intellectual organs, than those pro- 542. But much of the darkness may be traced to the duced in more mature age,-which is in exact corres- past ignorance of mankind concerning the functions of pondence with the doctrine, that the animal faculties the brain. If we consider that it has all along been the in men, in general, are most vigorous in early life,, asd most important organ of our system; that, from its ofwill thenbe most readily transmitted to offspring. In- fice, mental impressions must almnost necessarily have deed, it appears difficult to account for the wide varie- exercised a powerful influence over the development ties in the form of the brain in children of the same fa- of its parts, and that the relative size of these determily, unless on the principle, that the organs which mines the predominance of particular talents and dispredominate in activity and vigor in the parents, at the positions; but, nevertheless, that all past observations time when existence is communicated, determine the have been conducted without the knowledge of these tendency of corresponding organs to develop them- principles; it will not appear marvellous that merely selves largely in the children. If this is really the law confusion and contradiction have existed in the results of nature, as there is great reason for believing, then drawn. At the present moment, accordingly, almost parents, in whom combativeness and destructiveness all that phrenologists can pretend to accomplish, is, to are in habitual activity, will transmit these organs, in point out the mighty void; to offer an exposition of its a state of high development and excitement, to their causes; and to state such inferences as their own very children; and those in whom the moral and intellectual limited observations have hitherto enabled them to deorgans exist in supreme vigour, will transmit these in duce. Far from pretending to be in possession of cergreatest perfection. tain and complete knowledge on this subject, I am inThis view is in harmony with the fact that children dined to think, that, although every conjecture now generally, although not universally, resemble the parents hazarded were true, several centuries of observation will in their mental qualities; because the largest organs probably be required to render the principles completely being naturally the most active, the general and habitual practical. At present we have almost no information state of the parents will be strongly marked by those concerning the effects, on the children, of different which predominate in size in their own brains; and on temperanrents, of different combinations in the cerethe principle of predominance in activity and energy bral organs, of differences of age, &c. in the parents. causing the transmission of similar qualities to the It is astonishing, however, to what extent mere pecuoffspring, the children will, in this way, very generally niary interests excite men to investigate and observe resemble the parents. But they will not always do so; the Natural Laws, and how small an influence moral because, even Mary Macinnes, in whom the moral and and rational considerations exert in leading them to do intellectual organs were extremely deficient, might have so. Before a common insurance company will underbeen exposed to external influences which, for the time take the risk of paying ~100, on the death of an indibeing, might have excited them to unwonted vivacity; vidual, they require the following questions to be anand, according to the rule, as now explained, a child, swered by credible and intelligent witnesses: dating its existence from that period, might have in-'1. How long have you known Mr A B. herited a higher organization of brain than her own.' 2. Has he had the gout? Or, a person with a very excellent moral development,'3. Has he had a spitting of blood, asthma, consumpmight, by some particular occurrence, have his animal tion, or other pulmonary complaint? propensities roused to unwonted vigour, and his moral'4 Do you consider him at all predisposed to any of sentiments thrown, for the time, into the shade; and these complaints. any offspring connected with that condition, would' 5. Has he been afflicted with fits, or mental derangeprove inferior to himself in the development of the moral ment organs, and greatly surpass him in the size of those of' 6. Do you think his constitution perfectly good, in the propensities. the common acceptation of the tern? I do not present these views as ascertained phreno-' 7. ANre his habits in every respect strictly regular logical science, but as inferences strongly supported by and temperate? facts, and consistent with known phenomena. If we'8. Is he at present in good health? suppose them to be true, they will greatly strengthen'9. Is there any thing in his form, habits of living, the motives for preserving the habitual supremacy of or business, which you are of opinion may shortenl his the moral sentiments and intellect, when, by doing so, life? improved moral and intellectual capacities may be con-' 10. What complaints are his family most subiect ferred on offspring. If it be true that this lower world, to? so far as man is concerned, is framed to harmonize with' 11. Are you aware of any reason why an insurance the supremacy of the higher faculties of the mind, what might not with safety be effected on his life I' C 32 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. A man and woman about to marry, have in the gene- Now, if his children should take up exactly the same ral case, the health and happiness of five or more hu- development as himself, this would be transmission of man beings depending on their attention to considera- imperfections, which is the very point objected to; or, tion, essentially the same as the foregoing, and yet if he were to take up a development fixed by nature, how much less scrupulous are they than the mere spec- and not at all referable to that of the parent; this would ulators in money. render the whole race stationary in their first condition, There is no moral difficulty in admitting and admir- without the possibility of improvement in their capaciing the wisdom and benevolence of the institution, by ties, which also we have seen would be an evil greatly which good qualities are transmitted from parents to to be deprecated. children; but it is frequently held as unjust to the lat- 3dly. The bad development might be supposed to ter, that they should inherit parental deficiencies, and transmillt, by hereditary descent, a good development; so be made to suffer for sins which they did not cornm- but this would set at naught the supremacy of justice mit. In solving this difficulty, I must again refer to and benevolence; it would render the consequences of the supremacy of the moral sentiments, as the theory contempt for, and violation of the divine laws, and of of the constitution of the world. The animal propen- obedience to them, in this particular, precisely alike. sities are all selfish, and regard only the immediate and The debauchee, the cheat, the murderer, and the apparent interest of the individual; while the higher robber, would according to this view, be able to sentiments delight in that which communicates the look upon the prospects of their prosperity, with the greatest quantity of enjoyment to the greatest number. same confidence in their welfare and happiness, as the Now, let us suppose the law of hereditary descent to pious and intelligent Christian, who had sought to be abrogated altogether, that is to say, that each indi- know God and to obey his institutions during his whole vidual of the race at birth were endowed with fixed life. Certainly no individual, in whom the hiaher sennatural qualities, without the slightest reference to timents prevail, will for amoment regard this imagined what his parents had been, or done;-this form of con- change as any improvement on the Creator's arrangestitution would obviously cut off every possibility of mnlnts. What a host of motives to moral and religious improvement ien.te race. Every phrenologyistknows, conduct would at once be withdrawn, were such a that the New Hollanders, Charibs, and other savage spectacle of divine government exhibited to the mind. tribes, are distinguished by great deficiencies in the In proportion as the brain is improved, the aptitude of moral and intellectual organs.* If, however, it be true, man for discovering and obeying the natural laws will that considerable development of intellectual organs be increased. For example, it appears to me that the nais indispensable to the comprehension of science, and tive American savages, and native New Hollanders, the practice of virtue, it would, on the present suppo- cannot, with their present brains, adopt European civisition, be impossible to raise the New Hollanders, as a lization. The reader will find in the Phrenological people, one step higher in capacity for intelligence and Collections specimens of their skulls, and, on compavirtue than they now are. WVe might cultivate each goe- ring them with those of Europeans, he will observe neration up to the limit of its powers, but there the lm- that in the former, the organs of reflecting intellect, provement, anda low one it would be, would stop; for the Ideality, Conscientiousness, and Benevolence, are next generation, being produced with brains equally defi- greatly inferior in size to the same organs in the latter. cient in the moral and intellectual regions, no principle of If, by obeying the organic laws, the moral and intellecincreasing amelioration would exist. The same re- tual organs of these savages could be considerably enmarks are applicable to every tribe of mankind. If we larged, they would desire civilization, and would adopt assume modern Europeans as the standard, then, if the it when offered. If this view be well founded, all means law of hereditary descent were abrogated, every defi- used for their cultivation, which are not calculated at ciency that at this moment is attributable to imperfect the same time to improve their cerebral organization, or disproportionate development of brain, would be ir- will be limited in their effects by the narrow capacities remediable, and continue as long as the race existed. attending their present development. In youth, all the Each generation might be cultivated till the summit organs of the body are more susceptible of modificalevel of its capacities was attained, but there each suc- tion than in advanced age; and hence the effects of edceeding generation would remain. When we contrast ucation on the young may arise from the greater suswith this prospect the very opposite effects flowing ceptibility of the brain to impressions at that period than from the law of hereditary transmission of qualities in later. an increasing ratio, the whole advantages are at once 4thly. It may be supposed that human happiness perceived to be on the side of the latter constitution. would have been more completely secured, by endowAccording to this rule, the children of the individuals ing all individuals at birth with that degree of developwho have obeyed the organic, the moral, and the intel- ment of the mnural and intellectual organs, which would lectual laws, would start from the highest level of their have best fitted them for discovering and obeying the parents, not only in acquired knowledge, but in conse- Creator's institutions, and by preventing all aberrations quence of that very obedience, they would inherit an from this standard; just as the lower animals appear enlarged development of the moral and intellectual or- t6 have received instincts and capacities, adjusted with gans, and thereby enjoy an increasing capability of dis- the most perfect wisdom to their conditions. Two recovering and obeying the Creator's institutions. This marks occur on this supposition. First; We are not improvement, will, no doubt, have its limits; but it competent at present to judge correctly how fr the may probably extend to that point at which man will development actually bestowed on the human race, be capable of placing himself in harmony with the natu- is, or is not, wisely adapted to their circumstances; ral laws. The effort necessary too maintain himself for there may, by possibility, be departments in the there, will still provide for the activity of his faculties. great system of human society, exactly suited to all ex2dly, We may suppose the law of hereditary descent isting forms of brain, not imperfect through disease, to be limited to the transmission of good, and abrogated if our knowledge were sufficient to discover them. The as to the transmission of bad qualities; and it may be want of a natural index to the mental dispositions and thought that this arrangement would be more benevo- capacities of individuals, and of a philosophical theory lent and just. There are objections to this view, how- of the constitution of society, has hitherto precluded ever, which do not occur at once to the mind. We see the possibility of arriving at sound conclusions on this as matter of fact, that a vicious and debased parent is question. It appears to me probable, that while there actually defective in the moral and intellectual organs. may be great room for improvement in the talents and * This fact is demonstrated by specimens in most Phrenolo. dispositions of vast numbers of individuals, the impergical Collections. fections of the race in general may not be so great, as CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 33 we, in our present state of ignorance of the aptitudes I to be simply that, in general, only one parent is defect of particular persons for particular situations, are prone tive. If the father, for instance, be blind or deaf, the moto infer. But, secondly, on the principle that activity in ther is generally free from that imperfection, and her the faculties is the fountain of enjoyment, it may be con- influence naturally extends to, and modifies the result sidered whether additional motives to the exercise of in, the progeny. the moral and intellectual powers, and consequently, If the law of hereditary transmission of mental quagreater happiness, are not conferred by leaving men, lities be, as now explained, dependent on the organs in within certain limits, to regulate the talents and ten- highest excitement in the parents, it will account for dencies of their descendants, than by endowing each the varieties, along with the general resemblance, that individual with the best qualities, independently of the occur in children of the same marriage. It will account conduct of his parents. also for the circumstance of genius being sometimes On the whole, therefore, there seems reason for con- transmitted and sometimes not. Unless both parentsposcluding, that the actual institution, by which both good sess the developments and temperament of genius, the law and bad qualities* are transmitted, is fraught with would not certainly transmit these qualities to the chilhigher advantages to the race, than the abrogation of dren; and even althoughboth did possess these endowthe law of transmission altogether; or than the sup- ments, they would be transmitted only on conditionofthe posed change of it, by which bad men would trans- parents obeying the organic laws, one of which forbids that mit good qualities to their children. The actual law, excessive exertion of the mental and corporeal functions, when viewed by the moral sentiments and intellect, which exhausts and debilitates the system; an error both in its.principles and consequences, appears bene- almost universally committed by persons endowed with, ficial and expedient. When an individual sufferer, high original talent, under the present condition of ignotherefore, complains of its operation, he regards it rance of the natural laws, and' erroneous fashions and through the animal faculties alone; his self-love is institutions of society. The supposed law would be annoyed and he carries his thought no farther. He disproved by cases of weak, imbecile, and vicious chilnever stretches his mind forward to the consequences dren, being born to parents whose own constitution and to mankind at large, if the law which grieves him were habits had been in the highest accordance with the orreversed. The animal faculties regard nothing beyond ganic, moral, and intellectual laws; but no such cases their own immediate and apparent interest, and they do have hitherto come under my observation. not even discern it correctly; for no arrangement that Farther; after birth, it is quite certain that the organs is beneficial for the race can be injurious to individuals, most active in the parents have a decided tendency to if its operations in regard to them wvere distinctly trac- cause and increase in the size of corresponding organs ed. The abrogation of the rule, therefore, under which in the children, by habitually exciting and exercising they colnplain, would, we may be certain, bring ten them, which favors their growth. According to this thousand times greater evils, even upon themselves, law, habitual severity, chiding, and imperious conduct, than its continuance. proceeding frbm over-active Self-esteem and DestrucOn the other handl, an individual siflerer under a he- tiveness in the parents, rouse these faculties in the chilreditary pain, in whom the moral and intellectual facul- dren, produce hatred and resistance, and increase the ties predominate, who should see the prinlciple and activity of the same organs, while those of the moral consequences of the institution of hereditary descent, sentiments and intellect are left in a state of apathy. as now explained, would not murmur at them as un- Rules, however, are best taught by examples; and just; he would bow with submission, to an institu- I shall, therefore, proceed to mention some facts that tion, which he perceived to be fraught with blessings have fallen under my own notice, or been communito the race, when it was known and observed, and the cated to me from authentic sources, illustrative of the very practice of this reverential acquiescence would be practical consequences of infringing the law of herediso delightful, that it would diminish, in a great degree, tary descent. the severity of the evil. Besides, he would see the A man, aged about fifty, possessed a brain, in which door of mercy standing widely open, and inviting his the animal, moral and knowing intellectual organs were return; he would perceive that every step which he all strong, but the reflecting weak. He was pious, but made in his own person towards exact obedience to destitute of education; he married an unhealthy young the Creator's institutions, would remove by so much woman, deficient in moral development, but of considerthe organic penalty transmitted through his parents' able force of character; and several children were born. transgressions, and that his posterity would reap the The father and mother were far from being happy; and full benefits of his more dutiful observance. when the children attained to eighteen or twenty years It may be objected to the law of hereditary transmis- of age, they were adepts in every species of immorality sion of organic qualities, that the children of a blind and and profligacy; they picked their father's pockets, stole lame fatherhavesound eyes and limbs: But, in the 1st his goods, and got them sold back to him, by accomplace, these defects are generally the result of accident plices, for money, which was spent in betting and cock or disease, occurring either during pregnancy, or poste- fighting, drinking, and low debauchery. The father rior to birth, and seldom or never the operation of ila- was heavily grieved; but knowing only two resources, ture; and, consequently, the original physical princi- he beat the children severely as long as he was able, ples remaining entire in the constitution, the bodily im- and prayed for them ~ his own words were, that' if perfections are not transmitted to the progeny. 2dly. after that, it pleased the Lord to make vessels of wrath Where the defects are congenite or constitutional, it of thern, the Lord's will must just be done.' I menfrequentlyhappens that they are transmitted through tion this last observation, not in jest, but in great successive generations. This is exemplified in deaf- seriousness. It was impossible not to pity the unhapness, in blindness, and even in the possession of super- py father; yet, who that sees the institutions of the numerary fingers or toes. The reason why such pecu- Creator to be in themselves wise, but in this instance liarities are not transmitted to all the progeny, appears to have been directly violated, will not acknowledge that the bitter panllgs of the poor old man were the con* In using the popular expressions' good qualities, and' bad sequences of his own itnoraice and that it was an qualities,' I do not mean to insinuate, that any of the tendencies bestowed on man are essentially bad in themselves. Destrue- erroneous view of the divine administration, which led tiveness and Acquisitiveness, for example, are, when properly him to overlook his own mistakes, and to attribute tdirected, unquestionably good; lbut they become the sources of the Almighty the purpose of making vessels of wrath ot evil. lwhe their organts are too lcnre, in proportion to those of vt he tioral seortimeens a - Itol.e. BE T biqoallities, therefore his children, as the only explanat on which he could the mnoral sentiments and intBllect. ty bad quaities, therefore, I alw;lys mean either disease, or unfavorab!e proportions among give of their wickel dispositions. W-ho that sees the the differet organs. cause of his misery must hot lament that his piety should No. 16. 34 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. not have been enlightened by philosophy, and directed the breed of animals. It is contrived, that the dust to obedience, in the first instance, to the organic insti- shall be shed by the male blossom before the female is tutions of the Creator, as one of the prescribed condi- ready to be affected by it, so that the impregnation tions, without observance of which he had no title to ex- must be performed by the dust of some other plant, pect a blessing upon his offspring. and in this way the breed be crossed.'-Objects 4.c, of In another instance, a man, in whom the animal or- Science, p. 33. gans, particularly those of Combativeness and Destruc- On the same principle, it is found highly advantageous tiveness, were very large, but with a pretty fair moral in agriculture not to sow grain of the same stock in and intellectual development, married, against her in- -constant succession on the same soil. In individual clination, a young woman, fashionable and showily edu- instances, if the soil and plants are both possessed of cated, but with a very decided deficiency and Conscien- great vigour and the highest qualities, the same kind of tiousness. They soonbecameunhappy and evenblows grain may be reaped in succession twice or thrice, with were said to have passed between them, although they less perceptible deterioration than where these elements belonged to the middle rank of life. The mother, in of reproduction are feeble and imperfect; and the same this case, employed the children to deceive and plunder thing appears in the animal kingdom. If the first indithe father, and, latterly, spent the produce in drink. viduals connected in near relationship, who unite in The sons inherited the deficient morality of the mother, marriage, are uncommonly robust, and possess very and the ill temper, of the father. The family fireside favorably developed brains, their offspring may not be became a theatre of war, and, before the sons attained so much deteriorated below the common standard of majority, the father was glad to get them removed from the country as to attract particular attention, and the his house, as the only means by which he could feel law of nature is, in this instance, supposed not to hold; even his life in safety from their violence; for they but it does hold, for to a law of nature there never is had by that time retaliated the blows with which he had an exception. The offspring are uniformly inferior to visited them in their younger years; and he stated that what they would have been, if the parents had united he actually considered his life to be in danger from his with strangers in blood of equal vigour and cerebral deown offspring. velopment. Whenever there is any remarkable defiIn another family, the mother possesses an excellent ciency in parents who are related in blood, these apdevelopment of the moral and intellectual organs, while, pear in the most marked and aggravated forms in the in the father, the animal organs predominate in great offspring. This fact is so well known, and so easily excess. She has been the unhappy victim of ceaseless ascertained, that I forbear to enlarge upon it. So misfortune, originating from the misconduct of her much for miseries arising from neglect of the organic husband. Some of the children have inherited the fa- laws in forming the domestic compact. ther's brain, and some the mother's; and of the sons I proceed to advert to those evils which arise from whose heads resembled the father's, several have died overlooking the operation of the same laws in ordinary through mere debauchery and profligacy under thirty relations of society. years of age; whereas, those who resemble the mother How many little annoyances arise from the misconare alive and little contaminated, even amidst all the duct of servants and dependants in various departments disadvantages of evil example. of life; how many losses, and sometimes ruin, arise On the other hand, I am not acquainted with a sin- from dishonesty and knavery in confidential clerks, partgle instance in which the moral and intellectual organs ners, and agents. A mercantile house of great reputapredominated in size, in both father and mother, and tion, in London, was ruined and became bankrupt, by whose external circumstances also permitted their gene- a clerk having embezzled a prodigious extent of funds, ral activity, in which the whole children did not partake and absconded to America; another company in of a moral and intellectual character, differing slightly Edinburgh, was talked of about a year ago, which had in degrees of excellence one from another, but all pre- sustained a great loss by a similar piece of dishonesty; senting the decided predominance of the human over a company in Paisley was ruined by one of the partners the animal faculties. having collected the funds, and eloped with them to the There are well-known examples of the children of United States; and lately, several bankers, and other religious and moral fathers exhibiting dispositions of a persons, suffered severely in Edinburgh, by the conduct very inferior description; but' in all of these instances of an individual, some time connected with the public that I have been able to observe, there has been a large press. If it be true, then, that the mental qualities and development of the animal organs in the one parent, dispositions of individuals are indicated and influenced which was just.controlled, but not much more, by the by the development of their brains, and that their acmoral and intellectual powers; and in the other parent, tual conduct is the result of this development, opethe moral organs did not appear to be in large propor- rated upon by their external circumstances, including tion. The unfortunate child inherited the large animal in this latter every moral and intellectual influence development of the one, with the defective moral de- coming from without, is it not obvious, that one and all velopment of the other; and, in this way, was infe- of the evils here enumerated flowed from infringement rior to both. The way to satisfy one's self on this of the natural institutions, that is to say, from havihg point, is to examine the heads of the parents. In all placed human beings decidedly deficient in moral or such cases, a large base of the brain, which is the re- intellectual qualities in situations where these were region of the animal propensities, will very probably be quired in a higher degree than they possessed them? found in one or other of them. If any man were to go to sea in a paper boat, which Another organic law of the animal kingdom deserves the very fluidity of the element would dissolve, no one attention; viz. that by which marriages betwixt blood would be surprised at his being drowned: and, in like relations tend decidedly to the deterioration of the phy- manner, if the Creator has constituted the brain so as sical and mental qualities of the offspring. In Spain to exert a great influence on the mental dispositions, kings marry their nieces, and, in this country, first and and if, nevertheless, men are pleased to treat this fact second cousins marry without scruple; although every with neglect and contempt, and to place individuals, philosophical physiologist will declare that this is in naturally deficient in the moral organs, in situations direct opposition to the institutions of nature. This where a great degree of these sentiments is required, law holds also in the vegetable kingdom.'A provi- they have no cause to be surprised if they suffer the sion, of a very simple kind, is, in some cases, made penalties of their own misconduct, in being plundered to prevent the male and female blossoms of the same and defrauded. plant from breeding together, this being found to hurt Although I can state, from experience, that it is posthe breed of vegetables, just as breeding in and in does sible, by the aid of Phrenology, to select individualg CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 35 whose moral and intellectual qualities may be relied on; ing forth in awful endless majesty, without variation in vet the extremely limited extent of our practical know- leaf or bough;-with the vernal bloom of the meadows ledge in this respect falls to be confessed. To be able changing gracefully into the vigour of summer, and the to judge accurately what combination of natural talents maturity of autumn;-with the rose, first simply and and dispositions in an individual will best fit him for delicately budding, next fresh and lovely in its blow any given employment, we require to have seen a va- and then rich and luxuriant in its perfect condition. In riety of combinations tried in that particular department, short, when we advert to the law of death, as instiand to have noted their effects. It is impossible, at tuted in the vegetable organized kingdom, and as releast for me, to anticipate with unerring certainty, what lated to our own faculties of Ideality, Wonder, &c, these effects will be: but I have ever found nature con- which desire and delight in the very changes which stant and after once discovering, by experience, an death introduces, we without hesitation exclaim, that all assortment of qualities suited to a particular duty, I is wisely, admirably, and wonderfully made. Turning have found no subsequent exception to the rule. Cases again, to the animal kingdom, the same fundamental in which the predominance of particular regions of the principle prevails. Death removes the old, the worn brain as the moral and intellectual, is very decided, out, and decaying, and, in their place, the organic law present fewest difficulties; although, even in them, the introduces the young, the gay, and the vigorous, to very deficiency of animal organs may sometimes inca- tread the stage with increased agility and delight. pacitate an individual for important stations; but where This transfer of existence may readily be granted to the three classes of organs, the animal, moral, and in- be beneficial to the young; but, at first sight, it appears tellectual, are nearly in oequilibrio, the most opposite the opposite of benevolent to the old. To have lived results may ensue by external circumstances exciting at all, is felt as giving a right to continue to live: and the one or the other to decided predominance in activity. the question arises, how can the institution of death, Having now adverted to calamities by external vio- as the result of the organic laws, be reconciled with lence,-to bad health,-unhappiness in the domestic Benevolence and Justice l circle, arising from ill-advised unions, and viciously dis- In treating of the supremacy of the sentiments, I posed children,-to the evils of placing individuals, as pointed out, that the grand distinction between them servants, clerks, partners, public instructers, &c, in sit- and the propensities, consist in this, that the former are uations to which they are not suited, by their natural disinterested, generous, and fond of the general food, qualities, and traced all of them to infringements or and the latter altogether selfish in their desires. It is neglect of the physical or organic laws, I proceed to obvious, that death, as an institution of the Creator, advert to the last, and what is reckoned the greatest of must affect these two classes of faculties in the most all calamities, DEATH, and which itself is obviously a different manner. The propensities, being confined in part of the organic law. Baron Cuvier, after stating their gratification to self, and having no reference to that the world we inhabit was at first fluid, and that the welfare of any other creature, a being endowed only highly crystalline rocks were deposited before animal'with them and reflecting intellect, and enabled, by the or vegetable life began, has demonstrated, that then latter, to discover death and its consequences, would came the lowest orders of zoophytes and of vegetables, regard it as the most appalling of visitations, and would -next fishes and reptiles,-and trees in vast forests, see in it only utter extinction of all enjoyment. The giving origin to our present beds of coal, then quadru- lower animals, then, whose whole being is composed peds and birds, and shells and plants, resembling those of the inferior propensities, and several knowing facul of the present era, but all of which, as species, have ties, would see death, if they could at all anticipate it, utterly perished from the earth; next came alluvial only in this light. So tremendously fearful would it rocks, containing bones of mammoths, &c, and last of appear to them, as the extinguisher of every pleasure all came man. (Cuvier's Preface to his Ossemens Fos- which they had ever felt or could conceive, that we may siles, and papers by Dr Fleming in Chalmer's Journal.) safely predicate, that the bare.prospect of it would renThis shows that destruction of vegetable and animal der their lives wretched, and that nothing could comlife were institutions of nature before man became an pensate the agonies of terror, with which an habitual inhabitant of the globe. It is beyond the compass of consciousness of it would inspir6 them. But, by dephilosophy to explain why the world was so constituted. priving them of reflecting organs, the Creator has I therefore make no inquiry why death was instituted, kindly and effectually preserved them from the influence and refer, of course, only to the dissolution of organized of this evil. He has thereby rendered them completely bodies, and not at all to the state of the soul or mind blind to its existence. There is not the least reason after its separation from the body. These belong to to believe, that any one of the lower animals, while in Revelation. health and vigour, has the slightest conception that it Let us view the dissolution of the body abstractedly is a mortal creature, any more than a tree has that it from personal considerations, as a mere natural ar- will die. In consequence, it lives in as full enjoyment rangement. Death, then, appears to be a result of the of the present, as if it were assured of every agreeconstitution of all organized beings; for the very de- able sensation being eternal. Death always takes the finition of the genus, is, that the individuals grow, at- individual by surprise, whether it comes in the form of tain maturity, decay, and die. The human imagination violence, suppressing life in youth, or of slow decay by cannot conceive how the former part of this series of age; therefore, it really operates in their case as a movements could exist without the latter, as long as transference of existence from one being to another, space is necessary to corporeal existence. If all the without consciousnesss of the loss in the one which vegetable and animal productions of nature, from crea- dies. Let us, however, trace the operations of death, tion downwards, had grown, attained maturity, and in regard to the lower animals, a little more in detail. there remained, this world would not have been capa- It will not be disputed, that the world is calculated ble of containing one thousandth part of them; so that, to contain and support only a definite number of living on this earth, decaying and dying appear indispensably creatures, that the lower animals have received from necessary to admit of reproduction and growth. View- nature powers of reproduction far beyond what is need abstractedly, then, organized beings live as long as cessary to supply the waste of life by natural decay, health and vigour continue; but they are subjected to and that they do not possess intellect sufficient to rea process of decay, which impairs gradually all their strain their numbers within the limits of their means of functions, and at last terminates in their dissolution. subsistence. Here, therefore, is an institution in which Now, in the vegetable world, the effect of this law, is, destruction of life, to a great extent, is necessarily imto surround us with young forests, in place of the mo- plied. Philosophy cannot tell why death was insti notony of everlasting stately full grown woods, stand- tuted at first, but, according to the views maintained in O6 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. this Essay, we should expect to find it connected with, X while driving them to the slaughter, and who puts them to and regulated by, benevolence and justice; that is to death in the way supposed to be the most conducive to say, that it should not be inflicted for the sole purpose the gratification of his Acquisitiveness, such as bleedof extinguishing the life of individuals, to their damage, ing them to death, by successive stages, prolonged for without any other result; but that the general system days, to whiten their flesh,-the animal faculties of Deunder which it takes place should be, on the whole, structiveness, Acquisitiveness, Self-esteem, &c. prefavourable to the enjoyment of the race; and this ac- dominate so decidedly in activity, over the moral and cordingly is the fact. Violent death, and the devour- intellectual powers, that he is necessarily excluded ing of one animal by another, are not purely benevolent from all the enjoyments attendant on the supremacy of because pure benevolence would never inflictpain; but the human faculties; he besides, goes into society unthey are instances of destruction guided by benevo- der the influence of the same base combination, and lence; that is, wherever death proceeds under the in- suffers at every hand animal retaliation, so that he does stitutions of nature, it is accompanied with enjoyment not escape with impunity for his outrages against the or beneficial consequences to one set of animals or ano- moral law. Here, then, we can perceive nothing ther. Herbivorous animals are exceedingly prolific, malevolent in the institution of death, in so far as reyet the supply of vegetable food is limited. Hence, gards the lower animals. A pang certainly does atafter multiplying for a few years, extensive starvation, tend it; but while Destructiveness must be recognizthe most painful and lingering of all deaths, and the ed in the pain, Benevolence is equally perceptible ill most detrimental to the race, would inevitably ensue; its effects. but carnivorous animals have been instituted who kill I mentioned formerly, that the organic law rises and eat them; and by this means not only do carnivo- above the physical, and the moral and intellectual law rous animals reap the pleasures of life, but the numbers above the organic; and the present occasion affords an of the herbivorous are restrained within such limits, that additional illustration of this fact. Under the physical the individuals among them enjoy existence while they law, no remedial process is instituted to arrest, or relive. The destroyers, again, are limited in their turn: store, against the consequences of infringement. If a The moment they become too numerous, and carry mirror falls, and is smashed, by the physical law it re their devastations too far their food fails them, and, in mains ever after in fragments; if a ship sinks, it lies their conflicts for the supplies that remain, they ex- still at the bottom of the ocean, chained down by the tinguish each other, or die of starvation. Nature seems law of gravitation. Under the organic law, on the averse from inflicting death extensively by starvation, other hand, a distinct remedial process is established. probably because it impairs the constitution long before If a tree is blown over, every root that remains in the it extinguishes life, and has the tendency to produce ground will double its exertions to preserve life; if a degeneracy in the race. It may be remarked, also, branch is lopped oil; new branches will shoot out in its speculatively, that herbivorous animals must have ex- place; if a leg in an animal is broken, the bone will isted in considerable numbers before the carnivorous reunite; if a muscle is severed, it will grow together; began to exercise their functions; for many of the if an artery is obliterated, the neighbouring arteries will former must die, that one of the latter may live; if a enlarge their dimensions, and perform its functions. single sheep and a single tiger had been placed to- The Creator, however, not to encourage animals to gether at first, the tiger would have eaten up the sheep abuse this benevolent institution, has established pain at a few meals, and died itself of starvation, in a brief as an attendant on infringement of the organic law, and space afterwards. In natural decay, the organs are made them suffer for the violation of it, even while he worn out by mere age, and the animal sinks into gra- restores them. It is under this law that death has redual insensibility, unconscious that dissolution awaits ceived its organic pangs. Instant death is not attended it. Further, the wolf, the tiger, the lion, and other with pain of any perceptible duration; and it is only beasts of prey, instituted by the Creator as instruments when a lingering death occurs in youth and middle age, of violent death, are provided, in addition to Destruc- that the suffering is severe; dissolution, however, does tiveness, with large organs of Cautiousness and Se- not occur at these periods as a direct and intentional recretiveness, that prompt them to steal upon their suit of the organic laws, but as the consequence of invictims with the unexpected suddenness of a mandate fringement of them under the fair and legitimate operaof annihilation, and they are impelled also to inflict tion of these laws, the individual whose constitution death in the most instantaneous and least painful me- was at first sound, and whose life has been in accordthod; the tiger and lion spring from their covert with ance with their dictates, lives till old age fairly wears the rapidity of the thunderbolt, and one blow of their out his organized frame, and then the pang of expiratremendous paws, inflicted at the junction of the head tion is little perceptible.* The pains of premature with the neck, produces instantaneous death. The death, then, are the punishments of infringement of the eagle is taught to strike its sharp beak into the spine of'organic law, and the object of that chastisement prothe birds which it devours, and their agony endures bably is to impress upon us the necessity of obeying scarcely for an instant. It has been objected, that the them that we may live, and to prevent our abusing the cat plays with the unhappy mouse, and prolongs its tor- remedial process inherent to a great extent in our contures; but the cat that does so, is the pampered and stitution. well fed inhabitant of a kitchen; the cat of nature is Let us now view death as an institution appointed too eager to devour, to indulge in such luxurious gra- to man. If it be true, that the organic constitution of tifications of Destructiveness and Secretiveness. It man, when sound in its elements, and preserved in ackills in a moment, and eats. Here, then, is actually a * The following table is copied from an interesting article by regularly organized process for withdrawing individuals Mr William Fraser, on the History and Constitution of Benefit or Friendly Societies, published in the Edinburgh New Philosoof destruction, and thereby making way fore a succes- phical Journal for October, 1827, and is deduced from Returns of destruction, and thereby making way for a succes- by Friendly Societies in Scotland for various years, from 1750 to sion of other occupants. 1821. It shows how much sickness is dependant on age. Man is not so merciful towards the lower creatures: Average Sickness for each Individual. but he might be so. Suppose the sheep in the hands of Age. Weeks and Weeks. Days. Hours Proportion o man, were to be guillotined, and not maltreated before its Decimals. sick membeis execution, the creature would never know that it had 20-30 0.3916 0 4 1 in 137.89.eased to live. And, by the law which I hav6 already ex- 30-40 0.6865 0 4 19 1" 75.74 *lained, man does not with impunity add one unnecessa- 40-50 1.0273 1 0 4 1 50.61 ry pang to the death of the lower animals. In the brutal 50-70 1.63883067 10 1 6 27.6'utcherwho inflicts torments on calves,sheep,and cattle, Above 70 16.5417 16 3 19 1" 3.14 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 37 eordance with the organic laws, is fairly calculated to us with more pain and agony, even in advanced life, endure in health fiom infancy to old age, and that death than might be its legitimate accompaniment, if we when it occurs during the early or middle periods of life, placed ourselves in accordance with these; so that we is the consequence of departures from the physical and or- are not now in a condition to ascertain the natural ganic laws, it follows, that, even in premature death, abe- quantum of pain necessarily attendant on death. Judgnevolent principle is discernible. Although the remedial ing fromn analogy, we may conclude, that the close of a process restores animals from moderate injuries, yet long life, founded at first, and afterwards spent, in acthe very nature ofthe organic law must place a limit to cordance with the Creator's laws, would not be accolnit. If life had been preserved, and health restored, panied with great organic suffering, but that an insenafter the brain had been blown to atoms, by a bomb sible decay would steal upon the senses. Be this, shell, as effectually as a leg that is broken, and a fin- however, as it may, I observe, in the next place, that as ger that is cut are healed, this would have been an the Creator has bestowed on man animal faculties that actual abrogation of the organic law; and all the curbs fear death, and reason that carries home to him the which that law imposes on the lower propensities, and conviction that he must die, it is an interesting inquiry, all the incitements which the observance of it affords Whether he has provided any natural means of relief, to the higher sentiments, and intellect, would have been from the consequences of this combination of terrors t lost. The limit, then, is this; that any departure from He has bestowed moral sentiments on man, and arthe law against which restoration is permitted, shall be ranged the whole of his existence on the principles of moderate in extent, and shall not involve, to a great their supremacy; and these, when duly cultivated and degree, any organ essential to life, such as the brain, enlightened, are calculated to withdraw from him the the lungs, the stomach, or intestines. The very main- terrors of death, in the same manner as unconscioustenance of the law, with all its advantages, requires ness of its existence saves the lower animals from its that restoration from grievous derangement of these horrors. organs should not be permitted. When vwe reflect on In regard to the lower animals killed by violence, if the hereditary transmission of qualities to children, we reason sees, on the one hand, a momentary pang in clearly perceive benevolence to the race in the institu- parting with life, it perceives the continued existence tion, which cuts short the life of an individual in whose and enjoyment of beasts of prey, as an advantage atperson essential organs are so deeply diseased by de- tending it on the other, so that every animal that is departures from the organic law, as to be beyond the li- voured ministers to the continued life of another. mits of the remedial process; for the extension of the The process is still one of a transfer of existence. punishment of his errors over an innumerable posterity In regard to man, again, the moral sentiments and is thereby prevented. In premature death, then, we intellect perceive, see two objects accomplished; first; the individual 1st. That Amatlveness, Philoprogenitiveness, and sufferer is withdrawn from agonies which could serve Adhesiveness, are provided with direct objects of gratino beneficial end to himself; he has transgressed the fication, in consequence of the institution of death. If limits of recovery, and prolonged life'would be pro- the same individuals had lived here for ever, there would tracted misery; secondly; the race is guaranteed from have been no field for the enjoyment that flows from the future transmissions of his disease by hereditary the domestic union, and the rearing of offspring. The descent. very institution of these propensities prove, that proThe disciple of Mr Owen, formerly alluded to, who ducing and rearing young, form part of the design of had grievously transgressed the organic law, and slffer- creation; and the successive production of young aped a punishment of equal intensity, observed, when in pears necessarily to imply removal of the old. the midst of his agony,-' Philosophers have urged the 2dly. All the other faculties would have been limited institution of death, as an argument against divine in their gratifications. Conceive, for a moment, how goodness, but not one of them could experience, for much exercise is afforded to our intellectual and moral five minutes, the pain which I now endure, without powers, in acquiring knowledge, communicating it to looking upon it as a most merciful arrangement. I the young, and in providing for their enjoyments; also, have departed from the natural institutions, and suffer what a delightful exercise of the higher sentiments is the punishment; but, in death, I see only the Creator's implied in the intercourse between the aged and the benevolent hand, stretched out to terminate my ago- young; all which pleasures would have been unknown, nies, when they cease to serve any beneficial end.' On if there had been no young in existence, which there this principle, the death of a feeble and sickly child is could not have been, without a succession of individuals. an act of mercy to it. It withdraws a being, in whose 3dly. Constituted as man is, the succession of indiperson the organic laws have been violated, from use- vidual withdraws beings whose physical and mental less suffering; cutting short, thereby, also, the trans- constitutions have run their course, and become immission of its imperfections to posterity. If, then, the paired in sensibility, and substitutes, in their place, fresh organic institutions which inflict pain and disease as and vigorous minds and bodies, far better adapted for punishments for transgressing them, are founded in be- the enjoyment of creation. nevolence and wisdom; and, if death, in the early and 4thly. If I am right in the position, that the organic middle periods of life, is an arrangement for withdraw- laws transmit, in an increasing ratio, the qualities most ing the transgressor from farther suffering, after return,acti]ve in the parents to their offspring, the law of sucto obedience is impossible, and protecting the race from cession provides for a far higher degree of improvethe consequences of his errors, it also is in itself wise ment in the race than could ever have been reached by and benevolent. the permanency of a single generation. This, then, leaves us only death in old age as a natu- Let us inquire, then, how the moral sentiments are ral and unavoidable institution of the Creator. It will affected by death in old age, as a natural institution. not be denied, that, if old persons, wvhen their powers Benevolence, glowing with a disinterested desire for of enjoyment are fairly exhausted, and their cup of the diffusion and boundless increase of enjoyment, utpleasure full, could be removed from this world, as we ters no complaint against death in old age, as a transhave supposed the lower animals to be, in an instant, ference of existence from a being impaired in its capaand without pain or consciousness, to make way for a city for usefulness and pleasure, to one fresh and vigorfresh and vigorous offspring, about to run the career ous in all its powers, and fitted to carry forward, to a which the old have terminated, there would be no lack higher point of improvement, every beneficial measure of benevolence and justice in the arrangement. At previously beuril. Conscientiousness, if thoroughly present, while we live in habitual ignorance and neglect enlightened, perceives no infrisrgement of justice in a of the organic institutions, death probably comes upon guest, satiated with enjoymnent, being called on to re 38 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. tire from the banquet, to permit a stranger with a keener to the physical and organic laws. It is interesting to and more youthful appetite to partake; and Veneration, observe, that there is already some evidence of this prowhen instructed by intellect that this is the institution cess being actually in progress. About seventy years of the Creator, and made acquainted with its objects, ago, tables of the average duration of life, in England,'bows in humble acquiescence to the law. Now, if were compiled for the use of the Life Insurance Com, these powers have acquired, in any individual, that com- panies; and from them it appears, that the average of plete supremacy which they are clearly intended to life was then twenty-eight years; that is, 1,000 persons hold, he will be placed by them as much above the ter- being born, and the years which each of them lived ror of death, as a natural institution, as the lower ani- being added together, and divided by 1,000, gave mals are, by being ignorant of its existence. And un- twenty-eight to each. By recent tables, it appears that less the case were so, man would, by the very know- the average is now thirty-two years to each; that is to ledge of death, be rendered, during his whole life, more say, by superior morality, cleanliness, knowledge, and miserable than they. general obedience to the Creator's institutions, fewer In these observations, I have said nothing of the individuals now perish in infancy, youth, and middle prospects of a future existence as a palliative of the age, than did seventy years ago. Some persons have evils of dissolution, because I was bound to regard said, that the difference arises from errors in compiling death, in the first instance, as the result of the organic the old tables, and that the superior habits of the people law, and to treat of it as such. But no one who con- are not the cause. It is probable, however, that there siders that the prospects of a life to come, are directly may be a portion of truth in both views. There may addressed to Veneration, Hope, Benevolence, and In- be some errors in the old tables, but it is quite natural tellect, can fail to perceive that this consolation also is that increasing knowledge and stricter obedience to the clearly founded on the principle, that supremacy in the organic laws, should diminish the number of premature sentiments is intended by the Creator to protect man deaths. If this idea be correct, the average duration of from its terrors. life should go on increasing; and our successors, two The true view of death, then, as a natural institu- centuries hence, may probably attain to an average of tion,-is, that it is an essential part of the very system forty years, and then ascribe to errors in our tables our of organization; that birth, growing, and arriving at low average of thirty-two.* maturity, as completely imply decay and death in old SECT. III.-CALAMITIES ARISING FROM INFRINGEMENT age, as morning and noon imply evening and night, as OF THE MORAL LAW. spring and summer imply harvest, or as the source of a river implies a termination of it. Besides, organized 7e come now to consider the Moral Law, which beings are constituted by the Creator to be the food of is proclaimed by the higher sentiments and intellect actother organized beings, so that some must die that ing harmoniously, and holding the animal propensities others may live. Man, for instance, cannot live on in subjcction. In surveying the moral and religious stones, or earth, or water, which are not organized, but codes of different nations, and the moral and religious on vegetable and animal substances; so that death is as opinions of different philosophers, every reflecting mind much, and as essentially, an inherent part of organiza- must have been struck with their diversity. Phrenotion as life itself. If vegetables, animals, and men, logy, by demonstrating the differences of combination had been destined for a duration like that of the moun- their faculties, enables us to account for these varietains,-instead of creating a primitive pair of each, ties of sentiment. The code of morality framed by a and endowing these with extensive powers of repro- legislator, in whom Destructiveness, Secretiveness, duction, so as to usher into existence young beings'to Acquisitiveness, and Self-esteem were large, and Congrow up to maturity by insensible degrees, we may scientiousness, Ben ce, and Veneration small presume, from analogy, that the Creator wo~ld have would be very different from one instituted by another furnished the world with its definite compliment of lawgiver, in whom this combination was reversed. In living beings, perfect at first in all their parts and func- like manner, a system of religion, founded by an indiLions, and that these would have remained, like hills, vidual, in whom Destructiveness, Wonder, and Cauwithout diminution, and withoul t increase. tiousness were very large and Veneration, Benevolence, To prevent, then, all chance of being misapprehend- and Conscientiousness deficient, would present views ed, I repeat, that I do not at all allude to the state of of the Supreme Being widely dissimilar to those which the soul or mind, after death, but merely to the disso- would be promulgated by a person in whom the last lution of organized bodies; that, according to the three faculties and intellect decidedly predominated. soundest views which I am able to obtain of the natural Phrenology shows, that the particular code of morality law, pain and death in youth and middle age, in the and religion, which is most completely in harmony with the whole faculties of the individual, will necessarily human species; are consequences of departure from the Creator's laws; while death in old age, by insensible appear to him to be the best, while he refers only to decay, is an essential and apparently indispensable part the dictates of his individual mind, as the standard of of the system of organized existence; that this ar- right and wrong. But if we are able to show, that the rangement admits of the succession of individuals, whole scheme of external creation is arranged in substituting the young and vigorous for the feeble and harmony with certain prilciples, in preference to others, decayed; that it is directly the means by which organ- so that enjoyment flows upon the individual from withized beings live, and indirectly the means by which out, when his conduct is in conformity with them, and Amativeness, Philoprogenitiveness, and a variety of that evil overtakes him when he departs from them, we other faculties obtain gratification; that it admits shall then obviously prove, that the former is the moof the race ascending to a great extent in the scale of rality and religion established by the Creator; andthat improvement, both in their organic and mental qualities; individual men who support different codes, must that the moral senti!nents, when supreme in activity, necessarily be deluded by imperfections in their own and enlightened by intellect, so as to perceive its minds. That constitution of mind, also, may be properceiv itse nounced to be the best, which harmonizes most design and consequences, are calculated to place manll louced to be the best, in harmony with it; while religion'addresses its con- completely with the morality and religion establishsolation to the same faculties, and completes what rea- ed by the Creator's arrangements. In this view, moson leaves undone. rality becomes a science, and departures from its dicIf the views now unfolded be correct, death, in old * While the above paragraph was in the press, an interesting age, will never be abolished, as long as man continues article on tle Dinlilisl oTrtality in England,' appeared in an organized being; but pain and premature death will tthe Scotsman newslpaper; of 16th April, 1828. It coincides with thll e views o tte text; and, as it proceeds on scientific data, it is constantly decrease, in the exact ratio of his obedience printed in the Appndie. No. 1II. CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 39 tates may be demonstrated as practical follies, injuri- satisfaction; Veneration would flag in its devotions, ous to the real interest and happiness of the individual, and Conscientiousness would suggest endless surmises just as errors in logic are capable of refutation to the of disorder and injustice in a scheme of creation, under understanding. Before we can be in a condition to which such evils occurred, and were left without a reperceive this, it is obvious that we must know, first, medy; the full tide of moral, religious, and intellectual The nature of man, physical, animal, moral and intel- enjoyment could not possibly flow, until views, more in lectual; secondly, The relations of the different parts accordance with the constitution and desires of the of that nature to each other; and, Thirdly, the relation- moral faculties were obtained. The same evil afflicts ship of the whole to God and external objects. The mankind still to a prodigious extent. How is it possipresent Essay is an attempt, (a very feeble and imper- ble for the Hindoo, Mussulman, Chinese, or the native fect one indeed,) to arrive, by the aid of phrenology, at American, while they continue to worship deities, whose a demonstration of morality as a science. The interests qualities outrage Benevolence, Veneration, and Condealt with in the investigation are so elevating, and the scientiousness,-and remain in profound ignorance of effort itself so delightful, that the attempt carries its almost all the Creator's natural institutions, in conseown reward, however unsuccessful in its results. quence of infringing which they suffer punishment withAssuming, then, that, among the faculties of the out ceasing, to form even a conception of the gratifimind, the higher sentiments and intellect hold the na- cations which the moral and intellectual nature of man tural supremacy, I shall endeavour to show, that obe- is calculated to enjoy, when exercised in harmony with dience to the dictates of these powers is rewarded with the Creator's real character and institutions This pleasing emotions in the mental faculties themselves, operation of the moral is not the less real, because and with the most beneficial external consequences; many do not recognise it. Sight is not a less excelwhereas disobedience is followed by deprivation of these lent gift to those who see, because some men born emotions, by painful feelings within the mind, and great blind have no conception of the extent of pleasure and external evil. advantage from which the want of it cuts them off. First. Obedience is attended by pleasing emotions in The qualities manifested by the Creator may be inthe faculties. It is scarcely necessary to dwell on the ferred from the works of creation; but it is obvious, circumstance, that every propensity, sentiment, and in- that, to arrive at the soundest views, we would require tellectual faculty, when gratified in harmony with all to know his institutions thoroughly. To a grossly igthe rest, is a fountain of pleasure. How many exqui- norant people, who suffer hardly from transgression of site thrills of joy arise from Philoprogenitiveness, Ad- his laws, the Deity will appear infinitely more severe hesiveness, Acquisitiveness, Constructiveness, Love of and mysterious than to an enlightened nation who know Approbation, and Self-esteem, when gratified in accord- them, avoid the penalties of infringement, and trace the ance with the moral sentiments; who that has ever principles of his government through many parts of his poured forth the aspirations of Hope, Ideality, Wonder, works. The character of the Divine Being, under the and Veneration, directed to an object in whom Intel- natural system, will thus go on rising in exact proporlect and Conscientiousness also rejoiced, has not expe- tion as his works shall be understood. The low and rienced the deep delight of such an exercise Or, miserable conceptions of God formed by the vulgar who is a stranger to the grateful pleasures attending an Greeks and Romans, were the reflections of their own active Benevolence. Turning to the intellect, again, ignorance of natural, moral, and political science. The what pleasures are afforded by the scenery of nature, discovery and improvement of phrenology must necesby painting, poetry, and music, to those who possess sarily have a great effect on natural religion. Before the combination of faculties related to these studies? phrenology was known, the moral and intellectual conAnd how rich a feast does not philosophy yield to those stitution of man was unascertained;-in consequence, who possess high reflecting organs, combined with Con- the relations of external nature towards it could not be centrativeness and Conscientiousness. The reader is competently judged of; and, while these were involved requested, therefore, to keep steadily in view, that these in obscurity, many of the ways of Providence must exquisite rewards are attached by the Creator to the have appeared mysterious and severe, which in themactive exercise of our faculties, in accordance with the selves are quite the reverse. Again, as bodily suffermoral law; and that one punishment, clear, obvious, ing and mental perplexity would bear a proportion to and undeniable, inflicted on those who neglect or in- this ignorance, the character of God would appear to fringe the law, is deprivation of these pleasures. This the natural eye in that condition, much more unfavorais a consideration very little attended to; because man- ble than it will do after these clouds of darkness shall kind, in general, live in such habitual neglect of the have passed away. moral law, that they have, to a very partial extent, ex- Some persons, in their great concernment about a perienced its rewards, and do not know the enjoyment future life, are liable to overlook the practical direction they are deprived of by its infringement. Before its of the mind in the present. When we consider the full measure can be judged of, the mind must be in- nature and objects of the mental faculties, we perceive structed in its own constitution, in that of external ob- that a great number of them have the most obvious and jects, and in the relationship established between it and undeniable reference to this life; for example, Amativethem, and between it and the Creator. Until a tolera- ness, Philoprogenitiveness, Combativeness, Destrucbly distinct perception of these truths is obtained, the tiveness, Acquisitiveness, Secretiveness, Cautiousness, faculties cannot enjoy repose, nor act in full vigour or Self-esteem, and Love of Approbation, with Size, harmony: while, for example, our forefathers regarded Form, Colour, Weight, Tune, Wit, and probably other the marsh fevers, to which they were subjected, from- faculties, stand in such evident relationship to this pardeficient draining of their fields, and the outrages on ticular world, with its moral and physical arrangements, person and property, attendant on the wars waged by that if they were not capable of legitimate application. the English against the Scots, or by one feudal lord here, it would be difficult to assign a reason for their against another, even on their own soil, not as punish- being bestowed on us. We possess also Benevolence, ments for particular infringements of the organic and Veneration, Hope, Ideality, Wonder, Conscientiousmoral laws, to be removed by obedience to these laws, ness, and Reflecting Intellect, all of which appear to but as inscrutable dispensations of God's providence, be particularly adapted to a higher sphere. But the which it behooved them meekly to endure, but not to important consideration is, that here on earth these two avert,-so long as such notions were entertained, the sets of faculties are combined; and on the same prinfull enjoyment which the moral and intellectual facul- ciple that led Sir Isaac Newton to infer the combustities were fairly calculated by the Creator to afford, could bility of the diamond, I am disposed to expect that the not be experienced. Benevolence would pine in dis- external world, when its constitution and relations shall 40 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. be sufficiently understood, will be found to be in har- physician. The lawyer and physician, whose whole mony with all our faculties, and of course that the cha- spirits breathe a disinterested desire to consult, as a racter of the Deity, as unfolded by the works of crea- paramount object, the best interests of their clients and tion, will more and more gratify our moral and intel- patients, not only obtain the direct reward of gratifying lectual powers, in proportion as knowledge advances. their own moral faculties, which is no slight enjoyment, The structure of the eye is admirably adapted to the but they reap a positive gratification to their Self-eslaws of light; that of the ear to the laws of sound; teem and Love of Approbation, in a high and well-founthat of the muscles to the laws of gravitation; and it ded reputation, and to their Acquisitiveness, in increaswould be strange if our mental constitution was not ing emolument, not grudgingly paid, but willingly offeras wisely adapted to the general order of the external ed, from minds that feel the worth of the services be*world. stowed. This principle, then, is universal, and admits of no There are three conditions required by the moral and exception, TChat inactivity and want of power, in every intellectual law, which must all be observed to ensure faculty, is attended with deprivation of the pleasures at- its rewards; 1st. The department of industry selected tendant on its vivacious exercise. He who is so defi- must bereally useful to human beings: Benevolence cient in Tune that he cannot distinguish melody, is cut demands this; 2dly. The quantum of labor bestowed off from a vast source of gratification enjoyed by him must bear a just proportion to the natural demand for who possesses that organ vigorous and highly cultivated; the commodity produced: Intellect requires this; and, and the same principle holds in the case of every other 3dly. In our social connesions, we must imperatively organ and faculty. Criminals and profligates of every attend to the organic law, that different individuals posdescription, therefore, from the very constitution of sess different developments of the brain, and in conse human nature, are excluded from great enjoyments at- quence different natural talents and dispositions, and tending virtue; and this is the first natural punishment we must rely on each only to the extent warranted by to which they are inevitably liable. Persons also, who his natural endowment. are ignorant of the constitutions of their own minds, If, then, an individual has received, at birth, a sound and the relations between external objects, not only organic constitution, and favourably developed brain, suffer many direct evils on this account; but, through, and if he live in accordance with the physical, the orthe consequent inactivity of their faculties, are besides, ganic, the moral, and intellectual laws, it appears to me deprived of many exalted enjoyments. The works of that, in the constitution of the world, he has received an creation,, andthe character of the Deity, are the legiti- assurance from the Creator, of provision for his animal mate objects of our highest powers; and hence he who wants, and a high enjoyment in the legitimate exercise is blind to their qualities loses nearly the whole benefit of his various mental [,owers. of his moral and intellectual existence. If there is any I have already obsc: ved, that, before we can obey the one to whom these gratifications are unknown, or ap- Creator's institutions, we must know them, and that the pear trivial, he must either, to a very considerable de- science which teaches the physical laws, is natural gree, be still under the dominion of the animal propensi- philosophy; that the organic laws belong to the depart ties, or his views of the Creator's character and institu- ment of anatomy and physiology; and I now add, that tions, must not be in harmony with the natural dic- it is the business of the political economist to unfold tates of the moral sentiments and intellect. the kinds of industry that are really necessary to the But in the second place, as the world is arranged welfare of mankind, and the degrees of labour that will on the principle of the supremacy of the moral senti- meet with a just reward. The leading object of politiments and intellect, observance of the moral law is at- cal economy, as a science, is to increase enjoyment, by tended with external advantages, and infringement of directing the application of industry. To attain this end it with positive evil consequences; and, from this con- however, it is obviously necessary that the nature of stitution, arises the second natural punishment of jnis- man,-the constitution of the physical world, —and the conduct. relations between these, should be known. Hitherto, Let us trace the advantages of obedience.-In the the knowledge of the first of these elementary parts has domestic circle; if we preserve habitually Benevolence, been very deficient, and, in consequence, the whole suConscientiousness, Veneration, and Intellect supreme, perstructure has been weak and unproductive, in comit is quite undeniable, that we shall raise the moral and parison of what it may become, when founded on a intellectual faculties of children, servants, and assist- more perfect basis. Political economists have never ants, to love us, and to yield us willing service, obe- dreamt, that the world is arranged on the principle of dience, and aid. Our commands will then be reason- supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect; and, able, mild, and easily executed, and the commerce will consequently, that, to render man happy, his leading be that of love. With our equals, again, in society, pursuits must be such as will exercise and gratify these what would we not, give for a friend in whom we were powers, and that his life will necessarily be miserable, perfectly convinced of the supremacy of the sentiments: if devoted entirely to the production of wealth. They what love, confidence, and delight, would we not repose have proceeded on the notion, that the accumulation of in him? To a merchant, physician, lawyer, magis- wealth is the summum bonunt; but all history teaches, trate, or an individual in any public employment, how in- that national happiness does not increase in pro)portion valuable would be the habitual suprenmacy of the sen- to national riches; and until they shall perceive and timents? The Creator has given different talents to teach, that intelligence and morality are the foundation different individuals, and limited our powers, so that of all lasting prosperity, they will never interest the we execute any work best by'confining our attention to great body of mankind, nor give a valuable direction to one department of labour,-an arrangement which their efforts. amounts to a direct institution of separate trades and pro- If the views contained in the present Essay be sound. fessions. Under the natural laws, then, the manufac- it will become a leading object with future masters in turer may pursueohis calling with the entire approbation that science, to demonstrate the necessity of civilized of all the moral sentiments, for he is dedicating his man limiting his physical, and increasing his moral and talents to supply the wants of his fellow men; and how intellectual occupations, as the only means of saving much more successfil will he not be, if his every wish is himself from ceaseless punishment under the natural accompanied by the desire to act benevolently and hon- laws. estly towards those ewho are to consunme and pay for the The idea of men, in general, being taught natural products of his labour 1 He cannot gratify his Acquisi- philosophy, anatomy, and physiology, political economy, tivenesshalf so successfully by any other method. The and the other sciences that expound the natural laws, salne remark applies to the merchant, the lawyer, and has bee-! sneered at, as utterly absurd and ridiculous. CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 41 But I would ask, in what occupations are human be- sea without insuring them, or leave them uninsured in ings so urgently engaged, that they have no leiasu1re to! their own warehouses; they ask pecuniary accommobestow on the study of the Creator's laws'! A course dation from other merchants to enable them to carry on of natural philosophy would occupy sixty or seventy I their undue speculations, and become security for them hours in the delivery; a course of anatomy and physi- in return, and both fall in consequence of blindly folology the same.; and a course of phrenology can be de- lowing Acquisitiveness to extremities; or they live in livered pretty fully in forty hours! These, twice or splendor and extravagance, far beyond the extent of the thrice repeated, would serve to initiate the student so natural return of their capital and talents. In every that he could afterwards advance in the same paths, by one of these instances, the calamity is obviously the the aid of observation and books. Is life, then, so consequence of infringement of the moral and intellecbrief, and are our hours so urgently occupied by higher tual law. The lawyer, medical practitioner, or probaand more important duties, that we cannot afford those tioner in the church, who is disappointed in his reward, pittances of time to learn the laws that regulate our will be found erroneously to have placed himlself in a existence.! No. The only difficulty is in obtaining profession, for which his natural talents and disposithe desire for the knowledge; in seeing the necessity tions did not fit him, or to have pursued his vocation and advantage of it, and then time will not be wanting. under the guidance chiefly of the lower propeinsities, No idea can be more preposterous, than that of human preferring selfishness to honorable regard for the inbeings having no time to study and obey the natural terests of his employers. Want of success in these institutions. These laws punish so severely, when ne- professions, appears to me to be owing, in a high degree, glected; that they cause the offender to lose tenfold to three causes; first, The brain being too small, or more time in undergoing his chastisement, than would constitutionally lymphatic, so that the mind does not be requisite to obey them. A gentleman extensively act with sufficient energy to make ag impression; seengaged in business, whose nervous and digestive sys- condly, some particular organs indispensably requisite tems had been impaired by neglect.of the organic to success, being very deficient, as Language, or Causalaws, was desired to walk in the open air at least one lity, in a lawyer, the first rendering him incapable of hour a-day; to repose from all exertion, bodily and ready utterance, and the second destitute of that intuimental, for one fulj hour after breakfast, and another tive sagacity, which sees at a glance the bearing of the full hour after dinner, because the brain cannot expend facts and principles founded on by his adversary, so as its energy in thinking and in aiding digestion at the to estimate the just inferences that follow, and to point same time; and to practise moderation in diet; which them out. A lawyer, who is weak in this power, aplast he regularly observed; but he laughed at the very pears to his client like a pilot who does not know the idea of his having three hours a-day to spare for atten- shoals and the rocks. His deficiency is perceived tion to his health. The reply was, that the organic whenever difficulty presents itself, and he is pronounced laws admit of no exception, and that he must either unsafe to take charge of great interests; he is then obey them, or take the consequences; but that the passed by, and suffers the responsibility of an errotime lost by the punishment would be double or treble neous choice of profession; or, thirdly, Predominance that requisite for obedience; and, accordingly, the fact of the animal and selfish faculties. The client and the was so. Instead of his attending an appointment, it is patient discriminate instinctively between the cold, quite usual for him to send a note, perhaps, at two in pithless, but pretending manner of Acquisitiveness and the afternoon, in these terms: —' I was so distressed Love of Approbation, and the unpretending, genuine with headache last night, that I never closed my eyes, warmth of Benevolence, Veneration, and Conscienand to-day I am still incapable of being out of bed.' tiousness; and they discover very speedily that the inOn other occasions, he is out of bed, but apologizes tellect inspired by the latter sees more clearly, and mafor incapacity to attend to business, on account of an nages more successfully, their interests, than when intolerable pain in the region of the stomach. In short, animated only by the former; the victim of selfishness if the hours lost in these painful sufferings were added either never rises, or silnks, wondering why his merits together, and distributed over the days when he is able are neglected. for duty, he would find them far outnumber those which In all these instances, the failure of the merchant, would suffice for obedience to the organic laws, and and the bad success of the lawyer, &c. are the consewith this difference in the results; by neglect he loses quences of having infringed the natural laws; so that both his hours and his enjoyment; whereas, by obedi- the evil they suffer is the punishment for having failed ence, he would be rewarded by aptitude for business, in a great duty, not only to society; but to themselves. and a pleasing consciousness of existence. The greatest difficulties, however, present themWe shall understand the operation of the moral and selves, in tracing the operation of the moral and intelintellectual laws, however, more completely, by attend- lectual laws, in the wide field of social life. An indiing to the evils which arise from neglect of them. vidual may be made to comprehend how, if he commits As to INDIVIDUALS. At present, the almost unifer- an error, he should suffer a particular punishment; but sal persuasion of civilized man, is, that happiness con- when calamity overtakes whole classes of the commusists in the possession of wealth, power, and external nity, each person absolves himself from all share of the splendor; objects related to the animal faculties and blame, and regards himself as simply the victim of geintellect much more than to the moral sentiments. In neral but inscrutable visitation. Let us, then, examine consequence, each individual sets out in the pursuit of briefly the Social Law. these as the chief business of his le; and, in the ardour In regarding the human faculties, we perceive that of the chase, he recognizes no limitations on the means numberless gratifications spring from the social state. which he may employ, except those imposed by the The muscles of a single individual could not rear the municipal law. He does not perceive or acknowledge habitations, build the ships, forge the anchors,' conthe existence of natural laws, determining not only the struct the machinery, or, in short, produce the countsources of his happiness, but the steps by which it may less enjoyments that every where surround us, in consebe attained. From this moral and intellectual blind- quence of men being constituted, so as instinctively to ness, merchants and manufacturers, in numberless in- combine their powers and skill, to obtain a common stances, hasten to be rich beyond the course of nature; end. Here, then, are prodigious advantages resulting that is to say, they engage in enterprises far exceeding directly from' the social law; but, in the next place, the extent of their capital, or capacity; they place their social intercourse is the means of affording direct gratiproperty in the hands of debtors, whose natural talents fication to a variety of our mental faculties. If we live and morality are so low, that they ought never to have in solitude, the propensities of Amativeness, Philoprobeen trusted with a shilling; they send their goods to genitiveness, Adhesiveness, Love of Approbation, the 42 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. sentiments of Benevolence, Veneration, Conscientious- It is said that this is the innocent suffering for or along ness, Wonder, Language, and the reflecting faculties, with the guilty; but it is not so. It is an example of a would be deprived, some of them absolutely, and others person seeking to obtain the advantages of the social of them nearly, of all opportunities of gratification. law, without conceiving himself bound to obey the conThe social law, then, is the source of the highest de- ditions required by it; the first of which is, that those lignts 3f our nature, and its institution indicates the individuals, of whose services he avails himself, shall greatest benevolence and wisdom towards us, in the observe the moral and intellectual laws. Creator. P Let us now advert to the calamities which overtake Still, however, this law does not suspend or subvert whole classes of men, or COMMUNITIES, under the sothe laws instituted for man as an individual. If we cial law, trace their origin, and see how far they are atimagine an individual to go to sea for his own gratifica- tributable to infringement of the Creator's laws. tion in a ship, the natural laws require that his intellec- If I am right in representing the whole faculties of tual faculties shall be instructed in navigation, also in man as intended by the Creator to be gratified, and the the nature of the coasts and seas which he traverses; moral sentiments and intellect, as the higher and dithat he shall know and avoid the shoals, currents, and recting powers, with which all natural institutions are eddies; that he shall trim his canvass in proportion to in harmony; it follows, that if large communities of the gale; and that his animal faculties shall be so much men, in their systematic conduct, habitually seek the under subjection to his moral sentiments, that he shall gratification of the inferior propensities, and allow not abandon himself to drunkenness, sloth, or any ani- either no part, or too small and inadequate a part, of mal indulgence, when the natural laws, require him to their time to the regular employment of the higher be watchful at his duty. If he obey the natural laws, powers, they will act in direct opposition to the natural he will be safe as an individual; and if he disobey institutions; and will, of course, suffer the punishment them he will be drowned.* Now, if a crew, and pas- in sorrow and dissapointment. Now, to confine oursengers desire to avail themselves of the social law, that selves to our own country, it is certain that, until is, to combine their powers and activity under one lea- within these few years, the labouring population of der or chief, by doing which they may sail in a large Britain were not taught that it was any part of their ship, have ample stores of provisions, divide their la- duty, as rational creatures, to restrain their propensities, bour, enjoy each other's society, &c.; and if at the so as not to multiply their numbers beyond the demand same time they fulfil the moral and intellectual laws, for their labours, and the supply of food for their offby placing, in the situation of captain, an individual spring; and up to the present hour this most obvious fully qualified for that duty, they will enjoy the reward and important doctrine is not admitted by one in a in sailing safely, and in comfort; if they disregard these thousand, and not acted upon as a practical principle laws, and place an individual in charge of the ship, by one in ten thousand of those whose happiness or whose intellectual faculties are weak, whose animal misery depends on observance of it. The doctrine of propensities are strong, whose moral sentiments are in Malthus, that' population cannot go on perpetually inabeyance, and who, in consequence, habitually neglects creasing, without pressing on the limits of the means of the natural laws, then they will suffer the penalty in subsistence, and that a check of some kind or other being wrecked. must, sooner or latter, be opposed to it,' just amounts I know it will be objected that the crew and pas- to this,-that ihe means of subsistence are not sussengers do not appoint the captain; but, in every case, ceptible of such rapid and unlimited increase as popuexcept impressment in the British navy, they may go lation, and in consequence that the Amative propensity in, or stay out, of a particular ship, as they discover must be restrained by reason, otherwise it will be the captain to possess the natural qualities or not. This, checked by misery. This principle is in accordance at present, I am aware, ninety-nine individuals out of the with the views of human nature maintained in this nundred never inquire into; but so do ninety-nine out Essay, and applies to all the faculties; thus Philoproof the hundred neglect many of the other natural laws, genitiveness, when indulged in opposition to reason, and suffer the penalty, because their moral and intellec- leads to spoiling children, which is followed directly tual faculties have never yet been instructed in their by misery both to them and their parents. Acquisitiveexistence and effects, or trained to observe and obey ness, when uncontrolled by reason, leads to avarice or them. But they have the power from nature of obey- theft, and these again carry suffering in their train. ing them, if properly taught and trained; and, besides, I But so far from attending to such views, the lives or give this merely as an illustration of the mbde of ope- the inhabitants of Britain generally are devoted to the ration of the social law. acquisition of wealth, of power and distinction, or of Another example may be given. By employing ser- animal pleasure; in other words, the great object of the vants, the labours of life are rendered less burdensome labouring classes, is to live and gratify the inferior proto the master; but he must employ individuals who pensities; of the mercantile and manufacturing populaknow the moral law, and who possess the desire to act tion, to gratify Acquisitiveness and Self-esteem; of the under it; otherwise, as a punishment for neglecting more intelligent class of gentlemen, to gratify Selfthis requisite, he may be robbed, cheated, or murdered esteem and Love of Approbation, in political, literary in bed. Phrenology presents the means of observing or philosophical eminence; and of another portion, to this law, in a degree quite unattainable without it, by gratify Love of Approbation, by supremacy in fashion; the facility which it affords of discovering the natural and these gratifications are sought by means not in actalents and dispositions of individuals. cordance with the #ictates of the higher sentiments, By entering into copartnerships, merchants, and but by the joint aid of the intellect and propensities. other persons in business, may extend their employ- If the supremacy of moral sentiment and intellect be ment, and gain advantages beyond those they could the natural law, then, as often observed, every circumreap, if labouring as individuals. But, by the natural stance connected with human life must be in harmony law, each must take care that his partner knows, and is with it; that is to say, first, After rational restraint on inclined to obey, the moral and intellectual law, as the population, and with the proper use of machinery, such only condition on which the Creator will permit him moderate labour as will leave ample time for the syssecurely to reap the advantages of the social compact. tematic exercise of the higher powers, will suffice to If a partner in China is deficient in intellect And moral provide for human wants: and, secondly, If this exersentiments, another in London may be utterly ruined. cise be neglected, and the time which ought to be dedicated to it be employed in labour to gratify the pro* I waive at present the question of storms, which he could not pensities, direct evil foresee, as these fall under the head of ignorance of natural laws, which may be subsequently discovered appears to me to be exactly the result. CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 43 By means of machinery, and the aids derived from misapplied industry could go to ruin. These observa. science, the ground can be cultivated, and every ima- tions are strikingly illustrated by the following official ginable necessary and luxury produced in ample abun- report, copied from the public newspapers: dance, by a moderate expenditure of labour by any popu-' State of the Unemployed Operatives, resident in Edinburgh, lation not in itself superabundant. If men were to who are supplied with work by a Committee, constituted lbr stop whenever they had reached this point, and dedi- that purpose, according to a list made up on Wednesday, the cate the residue of each day to moral and intellectual 14th March, 1827. cate the residue of each day to moral and intellectual c The number of unemployed operatives who have been repursuits the consequence would be, ready and steady mitted by the Committee for work, up to the 14th of because not overstocked, markets. Labour, pursued March, are 1481 till it provided abundance, but not redundant fsuperfuity,' And the number of cases they have rejected, after havisuperuty, ing been particularly investigated, for being bad chawould meet with a certain and just reward: and would racters, giving in false statements, or being only a short yield also, a vast increase of happiness; for no joy time out of work, &c. &c. are 446 equals that which springs from the moral sentiments Making together, ]927 and intellect excited by the contemplation, pursuit, and'Besides those, several hundred have been rejected by the observance, of the Creator's institutions. Farther, Committee, as, from the applicants's own statements, they were morality would be improved; for men being happy, not considered as cases entitled to receive relief, and were not, therefore, remitted for investigation. would cease to be vicious; and, lastly, There would'The wages allowed is is. per week, with a peck of meal be improvement in the organic, moral, and intellectual to those who have families. Some youths are only allowed 3s. capabilities of the race; for the active moral and intel- wage' The particular occupations of those sent to work are as follectual organs in the parents would increase the volume lows:-242 masons, 634 labourers, 66 joiners, 19 plasterers, 7'6 of these in their offspring; so that each generation sawyers, 19 slaters, 45 smiths, 40 painters, 36 tailors, 55 shoe Mwould start not only with,greater stores of acquired makers, 20 gardeners, 229 various trades. Total 1481.' knowledge than their predecessors possessed, but with Edinburgh is not a manufacturing city, and if so much higher natural capabilities of turning these to account. misery existed in it in proportion to its population, what Before merchants and manufacturers can be expect- must have been the condition of Glasgow, Manchester, ed to act in this manner, a great change must be ef- and other manufacturing towns?fected in their sentiments and perceptions; but so was Here, then, the Creator's laws show themselves para striking revolution effected in their ideas and prac- amount, even when men set themselves systematically tices of the tenantry west of Edinburgh, when they to infringe them. He intended the human race, under removed the stagnant pools between each ridge of the moral law, not to pursue Acquisitiveness cxcesland, and banished ague from their district. If any sively, but to labour only a certain and a moderate porreader will compare the state of Scotland during the tion of their lives; and although they do their utmost thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, correctly to defeat this intention, they cannot succeed; they are and spiritedly represented in Sir Walter Scott's Tales constrained to remain idle as many days and hours, of a Grandfather, with its present condition, in regard while their surplus produce is consuming, as would to knowledge, morality, religion, and the comparative have served for the due exercise of their moral and inascendency of the rational over the animal part of our tellectual faculties and the preservation of their health, nature, he will perceive so great an improvement in if they had dedicated them regularly to these ends from later times, that the commencement of the millennium day to day, as time passed over their heads. But their itself, in five or six hundred vears hence, would scarce punishment proceeds: the extreme exhaustion of nerbe a greater advance beyond the present, than the vous and muscular energy, with the absence of all moral present is over the past. If the laws of the Creator be and intellectual excitement, create the excessive cravreally what are here represented, and- if they. were ing for the stimulus of ardent spirits which distinguishes once taught as elementary truths to every class of -tthe he labotring population of the present age; this calls community, and the sentiment of Veneration called in.into predominant activity the organs of the Animal Proto enforce obedience to them, a set of new motives pensities, these descend to the children by the law aland principles would be brought into play, calculated ready explained; increased crime, and a deteriorating to accelerate the change; especially if it were seen, population, are the results: and a moral and intellectual what, in the next place, I proceed to show, that the incapacity for arresting the evils, becomes greater with consequences of neglecting these iaws are the most the lapse of every generation. serious visitations of suffering that can well be According to the principles of the present Essay, imagined. The laboursng population of Britain is taxed what are called by commercialmen' times of prosperity,' with exertion for ten, twelve, and some even fourteen are seasons of the greatest infringement of the natural hours a day, exhausting their muscular and nervous laws, and precursors of great calamities. Tinmes are energy, so as utterly to incapacitate them, and leaving, not reckoned prosperous, unless all the industrious besides, no leisure; for moral and intellectual pursuits. population is employed during the whole day, hours of The consequence of this is, that all markets are over- eating and sleeping only excepted, in the production of stocked with produce; prices first fall ruinously low; wealth. This is a dedication of their whole lives to the operatives are then thrown idle, and left in destitu- the service of the propensities, and must necessarily tion of the necessaries of life, until the surplus pro- terminate in punishment, if the world is constituted on duce of their formerly excessive labours, and perhaps the principle of supremacy of the higher powers. something more, are consumed; after this takes place, This truth has already been illustrated more than prices rise too high in consequence of the supply fal- once in the history of commerce. The following is a ling rather below the demand; the labourers resume resent example. their toil, on their former system of excessive exertion; By the combination laws, workmen were punishable they again overstock the imarket, and again are thrown for uniting to obtain a rise of wages, when an extraoridle, and suffer dreadful misery. dinary demand occurred for their labour. These laws In 1825-6-7 we witnessed this operation of the natu- being obviously unjust, were at length repealed. In ral laws: large bodies of starving and unemployed la- summer and autumn 1825, however, commercial men bourers were then supported on charity. How many conceived themselves to have reached the highest point hours did they not stand idle, and how much of exces- of prosperity, and the demand for labour was unlimited. sive toil would not these hours have relieved, if distri- The operatives availed themselves of the opportunity to buted over the periods when they were overworked better their condition formed extensive combinations; The results of that excessive exertion were, seen in the and because their demands were not complied with, form of untenanted houses, of shapeless piles of goods * In the Appendix, No. IV, several interesting documents are decaying inwarehouses, in short, in every formin which given, in further elucidation of these principles. 44 CONST'ITUTION OF MAN. struck work, and continued idle for months in success gree. It is one,'lot of the least, of the punishments sion. The master manufacturers clamoured against that overtake the middling classes for neglect of these the new law, and complained that the country would be laws, that they. do not, as a permanent condition of ruined, if combinations were not again declared illegal, mind, feel secure and internally at peace with themand suppressed by force. According to the principles selves. When the excitement of business has subsided, of this Essay, the just law must from the first have vacuity and craving are felt within. These proceed been the mvost beneficial for all parties affected by it; from the moral and intellectual faculties calling aloud and the result amply confirmed this idea. Subsequent for exercise; but, through ignorance of their own naevents proved that the extraordinary denmand for la- ture, fashionable amusements, or intoxicating liquors, bourers in 1825 was entirely factitious, fostered, by an are resorted to, and, with these, a vain attempt is made overwhelming issue of bank paper, much of which ulti- to fill up the void of life. I know that this class mately turned out to be worthless; in sh.ort, that, dur- ardently desires a change that would remove the mising the combinations, the master manufact-rers were eries described, and will zealousiy co-operate in the engaged in an extensive system of speculative over-pro- diffusing of knowledge, by which means alone it can be duction, and that the combinations of the v-orklnien pre- introduced. sented a nzatural check to this erroneous procedelin-. i The responsibility which overtakes the higher classes The ruin that overtook the masters in 1826 acLose fromni is equally obvious. If they do not engage in some actheir having accumulated, under the influence of en- tive pursuits, so as to give scope to their energies, they bridled Acquisitiveness, vast stores of comrnmodities suffer the evils of ennui, morbid irritability, and exceswhich were not required 1by society; and to have coin- sive relaxation of the functions of mind and body, which pelled labourers, by force, to manufacture more at their carry in their train more suffering than is entailed even bidding, would obviously have been to aggravate the on the operatives by excessive labour. If they pursue evil. It is a well known fact, accordingly, that those ambition in the senate or in the field, or in literature or masters whose operatives most resolutely refused to work, philosophy, their real success is in exact proportion to and who, on this account clamoured loudest against the approach which they make to observance of the suthe law, were the greatest gainers in the end. Their premacy of the sentiments and intellect. Franklin, stock of goods were sold out at high prices dlrwing the Washington, and Bolivar, may be contrasted with Shespeculative period; and when the revulsion came, in- ridan, aid Bonaparte, as illustrations. Sheridan and stead of being ruined by the fall of property, they were Napoleon did not, systematically, pursue objects sancprepared, with their capitals at command, to avail them- tioned by the higher sentiments and intellect as the end selves of the depreciation, to nake new and highly pro- of their exertions; and no person, who is a judge of fitable investments. Here again, therefore, we per- humanemotions, can read theirlives, and consider what ceive the law of justice vindicating itself and benefiting must have passed within their minds, without coming to by its operation even those in!dividuals who blindly de- the conclusion, that, even in their most brilliant monounced it as injurious to their interests. A practical ments of external prosperity, the canker was gnawing faith in the doctrine that the world is arranged by the within, and that there was no moral relish of the present Creator, in harmony with the moral sentiments and in- or reliance on the future; but a mingled tumult of illntellect, would be of unspeakable advantage both to ferior propensities and intellect, carrying with it an habirulers and subjects; for they would then be able to tual feeling of unsatisfied desires. pursue with greater confidence the course dictated by Let us now consider the effect of the moral law on moral rectitude, convinced that the result wouldprove NATIONAL prosperity. beneficial, even although, when they took the first step, If the Creator has constituted the world in harmony they could not distinctly perceive by what means. with the dictates of the higher sentiments, the highest In the whole system of education and treatment of prosperity of each particular nation should be thoroughthe labouring population, the laws of the Creator such ly compatible with that of every other; that is to say, as I have now endeavoured to expound them, are ne- England, by sedulously cultivating her own soil, purglected, and their moral and intellectual cultivation is suing her own courses of industry, founding her interscarcelv known. The Schools of Art, and' the Library nal institutions and her external relations on the princiof Useful Knowledge,' are laudable attempts at a better ples of Benevolence, Veneration, and Justice, which order of things; and I hail with joy their increase; but imply abstinence from wars of aggression, from conthey too much exclude the science of human nature, quest, and from all selfish designs of commercial moand in consequence, will long remain comparatively nopoly, would be in the highest condition of prosperity barren. From indications which already appear, how- and enjoyment that nature would admit of; and every ever, I think it probable that the labouring, classes will step that she deviated from these principles, would carry ere long recognise Phrenology, and the natural laws, as an inevitable punishment along with it. The same deeply interesting to themselves; and whenever their statement might be made relative to France and every minds shall be opened to rational views of their own other nation. According to this principle, also, the coltstitution as men, and their condition as menlbers Creator should have conferred on each nation some peof society, I -venture to predict that they will devote culiar advantages of soil, climate, situation, or genius, themselves to improvement, with a zeal and earnest- which would enable it to carry on amicable intercourse ness that in a few generations will change the aspect of with its fellow states, in a beneficial exchange of the their class. products peculiar to each; so that the higher one rose The consequences of the present system of departing in morality, intelligence, and riches, it ought to become from the moral law, on the middle orders of the commu- so much the more estimable and valuable as a Ileighnity, are in accordance with its effects on the lower. bour to all the surrounding states. This is so obviousUncertain gains, continual fluctuations in fortune, ab- ly the real constitution of nature, that proof of it is sence of all reliance on moral and intellectual principles superfluous. in their pursuits, a gambling spirit, an insatiable ap- England, however, as a nation, has set this law at petite for wealth, alternately extravagant joys of exces- absolute defiance. She has led the way in taking the sive prosperity and bitter miseries of disappointed am- propensities as her guides, in founding her laws and inbition, render the whole lives of inerchants vanity and stitutions on them, and in following them out in her vexation of spirit. Nothing is more essential to human practical conduct. England invented restrictions on happiness than fixed principles of action, on which we trade, and carried them to the greatest height; she concan rely for our present safety and future welfare; and quered colonies, and ruled them in the full spirit of the Creator's laws when seen and followed, afford this selfishness; she encouraged lotteries, and fostered the support and delight to our faculties in the highest de- slave trade, carried paper money and the most avaricious CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 45 spirit of manufacturing and speculating in commerce to due. Every trader who was liable to excise or custom their highest pitch; defended corruption in Parliament, duties, evaded the one-half of them, and felt no disdistributed churches and seats on the bench of justice, grace in doing so. A gentleman, who was subject to on principles purely selfish; all in direct opposition to 1 the excise laws fifty years ago, described to me the the supremacy of the moral law. If the world had condition of his trade at that time. The excise oflibeen created in harmony with predominance of the ani- cers, he said, regarded it as an understood matter, mal faculties, England should have been a most felici- that at least one-half of the goods manufactured were tous nation; but as the reverse is the case, we should to be smuggled without being charged with duty'; but expect a severe national responsibility to flow from then, said he,'they made us pay a moral and pecuthese departures from the divine institutions; and grie- niary penalty that was at once galling and debasing. vous accordingly has been, and, I fear, will be, the We required to ask them to our table at all meals, and punishment. place them at the head of it in our holiday parties; The principle which regulates national responsibility when they fell into debt, we were obliged to help them is, that the precise combination of faculties which leads out of it; when they moved from one house to another, to the national transgression, carries in its train the our servants and carts were in requisition to perform punishment. Nations are under the moral and intel- this office; and, by way of keeping up discipline upon lectual law, as well as individuals. A carter who half us, and also to make a show of duty, they chose every starves his horse, and unmercifully beats it, to supply, now and then to step in and detect us in a fraud, and by the stimulous of pain, the vigour that nature intend- get us fined; if we submitted quietly, they told us that ed to flow from abundance of food, may be supposed they would make us amends, by winking at another to practise this barbarity with impunity in this world, if fraud; and generally did so; but if our indignation he evade the eye of Mr Martin, and that of the police; rendered passive obedience impossible, and we spoke but this is not the case. The hand of Providence our mind of their character and conduct, they enforced reaches him by a direct punishment: He fails in his the law on us, while they relaxed it on our neighbours; object, for blows cannot supply the vigour which, by and these being rivals in trade, undersold us in the the constitution of the horse, flows only from sufficien- market, carried away our customers, and ruined our cy of wholesome food. In his conduct he manifests business. Nor did the bondage end here. We could an excessive Combativeness and Destructiveness, with not smuggle without the aid of our servants; and as deficient Benevolence, Veneration, Justice, and Intel- they could, on occasion of any offence given to themlect, and he cannot reverse this character, by merely selves, carry information to the head quarters of excise, averting his eyes and his hand from the horse. He we were slaves to them also, and were obliged tamely carries these dispositions into the bosom of his family, to submit to a degree of drunkenness and insolence, and into the company of his associates, and a variety that appears to me now perfectly intolerable. Farther; of evil consequences ensue. The delights that spring this evasion and oppression did us no good; for all the from active moral sentiments and intellectual powers trade were alike, and we just sold our goods so much are necessarily unklnown to him; and the difference be- cheaper the more duty'we evaded; so that our individtween these pleasures, and the sensations attendant on ual success did not depend upon superior skill and suhis moral and intellectual condition, are as great-as be- perior morality, in making an excellent article at a motween the external splendour of a king and the naked derate price, but upon superior capacity for fraud, meanpoverty of a beggar. It is true that he has never felt ness, sycophancy, and every possible baseness. Our the enjoyment, anml does not know the extent of his lives were any thing but enviable, Conscience, alloss; but still the difference exists; we see it, and though greatly blunted by practices that were universal, know that, as a direct consequence of this state of mind, and viewed as inevitable, still whispered that they were he is excluded fiom a very great and exalted pleasure. wrong; our sentiments of self-respect very frequently Farther; his active animal faculties rouse the Comn- revolted at the insults to which we were exposed, and bativeness, Destructiveness, Self-esteem, Secretiveness, there was a constant feeling of insecurity fromn the and Cautiofisness, of his wife, children, and associates, great extent to which we were dependent upon wretches against him, and they inflict on him animal punishment. whom we internally despised. When the government He, no doubt, goes on to eat, drink, blaspheme, and took a higher tone, and more principle and greater abuse his horse, day after day, apparently as if Provi- strictness in the collection of the duties were enforced, dence approved of his conduct; but he neither feels, we thought ourselves ruined; but the reverse has been nor can any one who attends to his condition believe the case. The duties, no doubt, are now excessively him to feel, happy; he is uneasy, discontented, and burdensome from their amount; but that is their least disliked,-all which sensations are his punishment, and evil. If it was possible to collect them from every it is fairly owing to his own grossness and ignorance trader with perfect equality, our independence would that he does not connect it with his offence. Let us be complete, and our competition would be confined to apply these remarks to nations. England, for instance, superiority in morality and skill. Matters are much under the impulses of an excessively strong Acquisi- nearer this point now than they were fifty years ago; tiveness, Self-esteem, and Destructiveness, for a long but still they would admit of considerable improvetime protected the slave trade. Now, according to the ment.' The same individual mentioned,that, in his.youth, law which I am explaining, during the periods of great- now seventy years ago, the civil liberty of the people est sin in this respect, the same combination of facul- of Scotland was held by a weak tenure. He knew inties ought t.o be found working most vigorously in her stances of soldiers being sent in times of war, to the other institutions, and producing punishment for that farm-houses, to carry off, by force, young men for the offence. There ought to be found in these periods a army; and as this was against the law, they were acgeneral spirit of domineering and rapacity in her public cused of some imaginary offence, such as a trespass, or men, rendering them little mindful of the welfare of the an assault, which was proved by false witnesses, and people; injustice and harshness in her taxations and the magistrate, perfectly aware of the farce, and its obpublic laws; and a spirit of aggression and hostility ject, threatened the victim with transportation to the towards other nations, provoking retaliation of her in- colonies, as a felon, if he would not enlist; which he, sults. And, accordingly, I have been informed, as a of course, unprotected and overwhelmed by power and matter of fact, that, while these measures of injustice injustice, was compelled to consent to. were publicly patronised by the government, its ser- If the same minute representation were given of vants vied with each other in injustice towards it, and other departments of private life, during the time of the that its subjects dedicated their talents and enterprise greatest immoralities on the part of the government, we towards corrupting its officers, and cheating it of its would find that this paltering with conscience and cha 46 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. racter in the national proceedings, tended to keep down I under the suggestions of Combativeness, Destructivethe morality of the people, and fostered in them a rapa- ness, Acquisitiveness, and Self-esteem. Did not our cious and gambling spirit, to which many of the evils ancestors, therefore, impede their own prosperity and that have since overtaken us have owed their orgin. happiness, by engaging in these contests. and have But we may take a more extensive view of the sub- any consequences of them reached us, except the burject of national responsibility. den of paying nearly thirty millions of taxes annually; In the American war England desired to gratify her as the price of the gratification of their propensities? Acquisitiveness and Self-esteem, in opposition to Be- Would a statesman, who believed in the doctrine of this nevolence and Justice, at the expense of the transat- Essay, have recommended these wars as essential to lantic colonies. This roused the animal resentment of national prosperity? If the twentieth part of the sums the latter, and the lower faculties of the two nations had been spent in objects recognised by the moral Sen-:ame into collision; that is to say, they made war on timents, for example, in instituting seminaries of cdueach other; England to support a dominion in direct cation, penitentiaries, making roads, canals, public grahostility to the principles which regulate the moral go- naries, &c. &c. how different would have been the prevernment of the world, in the expectation of becoming sent condition of the country! rich and powerful by success in that enterprise; the After the American followed the French revolutionAmericans, to assert the supremacy of the higher senti- ary war. Opinions are at present more divided upon ments, and to become free and independent. Accord- this subject; but my view of it, offered with the greatng to the principles which I am now unfolding, the est deference, is the following. When the French greatest misfortune that could have befallen England Revolution broke out, the domestic institutions of Engwould have been success, and the greatest advantage, land were, to a considerable extent, founded and adfailure in her attempt; and the result is now acknowl- ministered on principles in opposition to the supremacy edged to be in exact accordance with these views. If of the sentiments. A clamour was raised by the naEngland had subdued the colonies in the American tion for reform of abuses. If my leading principle is war, every one must see to what an extent her;Self- sound, every departure from the moral law in nations, esteem, Acquisitiveness and Destructiveness would as well as in individuals, carries its punishment with it have been let loose upon them; this, in the first place, from the first hour of its commencement,.till its final would have roused their animal faculties, and led them cessation; and if Britain's institutions were then, to to give her all the annoyance in their power, and the any extent corrupt and defective, she could not too fleets and armies requisite to repress this spirit would speedily have abandoned them, and adopted purer and have far counterbalanced, in expense, all the profits loftier arrangements. Her government, however, clung she. could have wrung out of the colonists, by extortion to the suggestions of the propensities, and resisted and oppression. In the second place, the very exer- every innovation. To divert the national mind from clse of these animal faculties by herself, in opposition causing a revolution at home, they embarked in a war to the moral sentinients, would have rendered her go- abroad; and, for a period of twenty-three years, let vernment at home an exact parallel of that of the loose the propensities on France with headlong fury, carter in his own family. The same malevolent prin- and a fearful perseverance. France, no doubt, threatciples would have overflowed on her own subjects, the ened the different nations of Europe with the most viogovernment would have felt uneasy, the people re- lent interference with their governments; a menace bellious, discontented, and unhappy, and the moral law wholly unjustifiable, and that called for resistance. But would have been amply vindicated by the suffering the rulers of that country were preparing their own dewhich would have every where abounded. The conse- struction, in exact proportion to their departures from quences of her failure have been exactly the reverse. the moral law; and a statesman, who knew and had America has sprung up into a great and moral nation, confidence in the constitution of the world, as now exand actually contributes ten times more to the wealth plained, could have listened to the storm in complete of Britain, standing as she now does, in her natural composure, prepared to repel actual aggression, and relation to this country, than she ever could have done, left the exploding of French infatuation to the Ruler of as a discontented and oppressed colony. This advan- the Universe, in unhesitating reliance on the efficacy tage is reaped without any loss, anxiety, or expense; of his laws. But England preferred a war of aggresit flows from the divine institutions, and both nations sion. If this conduct was in accordance with the senprofit by and rejoice under it. The moral and intellec- timents, we should now, like America, be reaping the tual rivalry of America, instead of prolonging the pre- reward of our obedience to the moral law, and plenty dominance of the propensities in Britain, tends strongly and rejoicing should flow down our streets like a to excite the moral sentiments in her people and govern- stream. But mark the contrast. This island exhibits ment; and every day that we live, we are reaping the the spectacle of millions of men, toiled to the extremity benefits of this improvement in wiser institutions, de- of human endurance, for a pittance scarcely sufficient liverance from endless abuses, and a higher and purer to sustain life; weavers labouring for fourteen or sixspirit pervading every department of the executive ad- teen hours a day for eight pence, and frequently nministration of the country. Britain, however, did not unable to procure work, even on these terms; other escape the penalty of her attempt at the infringement of artisans exhausted almost to death by laborious drudgethe moral laws. The pages of her history, during the ry, who, if better recompensed, seek compensation and American war, are dark with suffering and gloom, and enjoyment in the grossest sensual debauchery, drunkat this day we groan under the debt and difficulties enness, and gluttony; master-traders and manufactuthen partly incurred. rers anxiously labouring for wealth, now gay in the If the world be constituted on the principles of the fond hope that all their expectations will be realised, supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect, the then sunk in deep despair by the breath of ruin having method of one nation seeking riches and power, by passed over them; landholders and tenants now reapconquering, devastating, or obstructing the prosperity ing unmeasured returns from their properties, then of other states, must be essentially feutile. Being in pining in penury, amidst an overflow of every species opposition to the moral constitutionof creation, it must of produce; the government cramped by an overoccasion misery while in progress, and can lead to no whelming debt and the prevalence of ignorance and result except the impoverishment and mortification of selfishness on every side, so that it is impossible for it the people who pursue it. The national debt of Bri- to follow with a bold step the most obvious dictates of tain has been contracted chiefly in wars, originating in reason and justice, owing to the countless prejudices commercial jealousy and thirst of conquest; in short, and inaginary interests which every where obstruct CONSTITUTION OF MAN'. 47 the path of improvement. This resembles much more In surveying ths present aspect of Europe, we perpunishment for transgression, than reward for obedience ceive astonishing improvements achieved in physical to the divine institutions. science. How much is implied in the mere names of If every man in Britain will turn his attention in- the steam-engine, power-looms, rail-roads, steam-boats, ward, and reckon the pangs of disappointment which canals, and gas-lights; and yet of how much misery he has felt at the subversion of his own most darling are several of these inventions at present the direct schemes, by unexpected turns of public events, or the sources, in consequence of being almost exclusively deep inroads on his happiness which such calamities, dedicated to the gratification of the propensities. The overtaking his dearest relations and friends, have oc- leading purpose to which the steam-engine in almost casioned to him; the numberless little enjoyments in all its forms of application is devoted, is the accumuladomestic life, which he is forced to deny himself, by tion of wealth, or the gratification of Acquisitiveness the taxation with which they are loaded; the obstruc- and Self-esteem; and few have proposed, by its means, tions to the fair exercise of his industry and talents to lessen the hours of toil to the lower orders of sopresented by stamps, licenses, excise laws, custom- ciety, so as to afford them opportunity and leisure for nouse duties et hoc genus omne; he will discover the the cultivation of their moral and intellectual faculties, extent of responsibility attached by the Creator to na- and thereby to enable them to render a more perfect tional transgressions. From my own observation, I obedience to the Creator's institutions. Physical has would say, that the miseries inflicted upon individuals far outstripped moral science; and, it appears to me, and families, by fiscal prosecutions, founded on excise that, unless the light of Phrenology open the eyes of laws, stamp laws, post-office laws, &c. all originating mankind to the real constitution of the world, and at in the necessity of providing for the national debt, are length induce them to modify their conduct, in harmony equal to those arising from some of the most extensive with the laws of the Creator, their future physical disnatural calamities. It is true, that few persons are pro- coveries will tend only to deepen their wretchedness. secuted without having offended; but the evil consists Intellect, acting as the ministering servant of the proin presenting men with enormous temptations to in- pensities, will lead them only farther astray. The fringe mere financial regulations not always in accord- science of man's whole nature, animal, moral, and inance with natural morality, and then inflicting ruinous tellectual, was never more required to guide him than penalties for transgression. Men have hitherto ex- at present, when he seems to wield a giant's power, pected the punishment of their offences in the thunder- but in the application of it to display the ignorant selbolt, or the yawning earthquake; and believed, that be- fishness, wilfulness, and absurdity of an overgrown cause the sea did not swallow them up, or the mountain child. History has not yielded,.and.cannot yield, half fall upon them and crush them to atoms, Heaven was her fruits, until mankind shall bd possessed of a true taking no cognizance of their sins; while, in point of theory of their own nature. fact, an omnipotent, an all-just, and an all-wise GOD, ECT. IV.-MORAL ADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT. had arranged before they erred, an ample retribution in the very consequences of their transgressions. It is by After the intellect and moral sentiments have been looking to the principles in the mind, from which trans-brought to recognize the principles of the Divine adgressions flow, and attending to their whole operations ministration, so much wisdom, benevolence, and jusand results, that we discover the real theory of the di- tice, are discernible in the natural laws, that our whole vine government. When men shall be instructed in nature is meliorated in undergoing the punishments the laws of creation, they will discriminate more accu- annexed to them. Punishment endured by one indirately than heretofore between natural and factitious vidual also serves to warn others against transgression. evils, and become less tolerant of the latter. These facts afford another proof that a grand object of The Spaniards, under the influence of Acquisitive- the arrangement of creation is the improvement of the ness, Self-esteem, Love of Approbation, and a blind moral and intellectual nature ofman. So strikingly Veneration, conquered South America, inflicted upon conspicuous, indeed, is the meliorating influence of sufits wretched inhabitants the most atrocious cruelties, fering, that many persons have supposed this to be the and continued to weigh, for three hundred years, like primary object for which it is sent; a notion which, a moral incubus, upon that quarter of the globe, with great deference, appears to me to be unfounded in The responsibility now shows itself. By the laws of principle, and dangerous in practice. If evils and misthe Creator, nations require to obey the moral law to fortunes are mere mercies of Providence, it follows that be happy; that is, to cultivate the arts of peace, to be Tricked out of all his royalty by art, industrious, upright, intelligent, pious, and humane. That stript him bare, and broke his honest heart, The reward of such conduct is individual happiness, Died by the sentence of a shaven priest, and national greatness glory. There shall then be For scorning what they taught him to detest. and national greatness and glory. There shall then be How dark the veil, that intercepts the blaze none to make them afraid. The Spaniards disobeyed Of Heaven's mysterious purposes and ways; all these laws in the conquest of America, they looked od stood not, thouh he seemed to stand alof to rapine and foreign gold, and not to industry, for And at this hour the conqueror feelsthe proof: The wreath he won drew down an instant curse, wealth; this fostered avarice and pride in the govern- The fretting plague is in the public purse, ment, baseness in the nobles, indolence, ignorance, The cankered spoil corrodes the pining state, and mental depravity in the people; led them to Starved by that indolence their minds create. imagine happiness to consist, not in the exercise of the Oh! could their ancient Incas rise again, moral and intellectual powers, but in the gratification How would they take tp Israel's taunting strain I of all the inferior feelinigs to the outrage of the higher. Art thoe too fallen, Iberia? Do we see The robber and the murd'rer weak as we? Intellectual cultivation was utterly neglected, the sen- Thou that hast wasted Earth, and dared despise timents ran astray into the regions of bigotry and su- Alike the wrath and mercy of the skies, perstition, and the propensities acquired a fearful Thy pomp is in the grave, thyglory laid Low in the pits thine avarice has made. ascendency. These causes made them the prey of We come with joy from our eternal rest, internal discord and foreign invaders; and Spain, at To see th' oppressor in his turn oppressed. this moment, suffers an awful responsibility.* Art thou the god, the thunder of whose hand Rolled over all our desolated land, * Cowper recognises these principles of divine government Shook principalities and kingdoms down, as to nations, and has embodied them in the following powerful And made the mountains tremble at his frown? Verses: The sword shall light upon his boasted powers, The hand that slew till it could slay no more, And waste them, as the sword has wasted ours. Was glued to the sword.hilt with Indian gore,'Tis thus Omnipotence his law fiilfls, Their prince, as justly seated on his throne And Vengeance executes what Justice wills. Ad vain imperial Philip on his own, Cowper's Poemsi;-Charity p. 1Nl D 48 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. a headache consequent on a debauch, is not intended portionally severe, that the Creator must have had to prevent a repetition of drunkenness, so much as to some other and more important object in view in apprepare the debauchee for'the invisible world;' and pointing them, than to serve as mere motives to phythat shipwreck in a crazy vessel is not designed to ren- sical observance; and that that object must be to influder the merchant more cautious, but to. lead him to ence the mind of the sufferer, and to draw his attention heaven. to concerns of higher import. It is however undeniable, that in innumerable in- In answer, I remark, that the human body is liable to stances pain and sorrow are the direct consequenrces of destruction by severe injuries; and that the degree of our own misconduct; at the same time it is obviously suffering, in general, bears a just proportion to the danbenevolent in the Deity to render it beneficial directly ger connected with the transgression. Thus, a slight as a warning against future transgression, and indirectly surfeit is attended only with headache or general uneaas a means of purifying the mind; nevertheless, if we siness, because it does not endanger life: a fall on any shall imagine that in some instances it is dispensed as muscular part of the body is followed either with no a direct punishment for particular transgressions, and pain, or only a slight indisposition, for the reason that in others, only on account of sin in general, and with it is not seriously injurious to life; but when a leg or the view of meliorating the spirit of the sufferer, we arm is broken, the pain is intensely severe, because the shall ascribe inconsistency to the Creator, and expose bones of these limbs stand high in the scale of utility to ourselves to the danger of attributing our own afflic- man. The human body is so framed that it may fall tions to his favour, and those of others, to his wrath; nine times, and suffer little damage, but the tenth time thus fostering in our minds self-conceit and uncharita- a limb may be broken, which Will entail a painful chasbleness. Individuals who entertain the belief that bad tisement. By this arrangement the mind is kept alive health, worldly ruin, and sinister accidents, befalling to danger to such an extent, as to ensure general safety, them, are not punishments for infringement of the laws while at the same time it is not overwhelmed with terof nature, but particular manifestations of the love of ror by punishments too severe and too frequently re the Creator toward themselves, make slight inquiry peated. In particular states of the body, a slight wound into the natural causes of their miseries, and bestow may be followed by inflammation and death; but these few efforts to remove them. In consequence, the are not the results simply of the wound, but the consochastisements endured by them, neither correct their quences of a previous derangement of health, occasioned own conduct, nor deter others from committing similar by departures from the organic laws. transgressions. Some religious sects, who espouse On the whole, therefore, no adequate reason appears these notions, literally act upon them, and refuse to for regarding the consequences of physical accidents in inoculate with the cow-pox to escape contagion, or any other light than as direct punishments for infringetake other means of avoiding natural calamities. Re- ment of the natural laws, and indirectly as a means of garding these as dispensations of Providence, sent to accomplishing moral and religious improvement. prepare them for a future world, they conceive that the more of them the better. Farther; these ideas, be- CHAPTER IV. sides being repugnant to the common sense of mankind, are at variance with the principle that the world ON THE COiBINED OPERATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS. is arranged so as to favour virtue and discountenance Having now unfolded several of the natural laws, vice; because favouring virtue means obviously that and their effects, and having also attempted to show the favoured virtuous will positively enjoy more happi- that each is inflexible and independent in itself, and reness, and, negatively, suffer fewer misfortunes than the quires absolute obedience, so that a man who shall nevicious. The view, then, now advocated, appears less glect the physical law will suffer the physical punlishexceptionable, viz. that punishment serves a double ment, although he may be very attentive to the moral purpose, directly to warn us against transgression; and law; that one who infringes the organic law will suffer indirectly, when rightly apprehended, to subdue our organic punishment, although he may obey the physical lower propensities, and purify and vivify our moral and law; and that a person who violates the moral law will intellectual powers. suffer the moral punishment, although he should obBishop Butler coincides in this interpretation of na- serve the other two; I proceed to show the mutual retural calamities.' Now,' says he,' in the present state, lationship between these laws, and to adduce some inall which we enjoy, and A GREAT PART OF WHAT WE stances of their joint operation. SUFFER, is put in our power.* For pleasure and pain The great fires in EdinburCh, in November, 1824, are the consequences of our actions; and we are endued when the Parliament Square and a part of the High by the Author of our nature with capacities of foresee- Street, were consumed, will serve as one example. ing these consequences.''I know not that we have That calamity may be viewed in the following light:any one kind or degree of enjoyment, but by the means The Creator constituted the countries of England and of our own actions. And, by prudence and care, we Scotland, and the English and Scottish nations, with may, for the most part, pass our days in tolerable ease such qualities and relationships, that the individuals of and quiet; or, on the contrary, we may, by rashness, both kingdoms would be most happy in acting towards ungoverned passion, wilfulness, or even by negligence, each other, and pursuing their separate vocations, unmake ourselves as miserable as ever we please. And der the supremacy of the moral sentiments. We have many do please to make themselves extremely misera- lived to see this practised, and to reap the rewards of ble; i. e. they do what they knew beforehand will ren- it. But the ancestors of the two nations did not beder them so. They follow those ways, the fruit of lieve in this constitution of the world, and they prewhich they knew, by instruction, example, experience, ferred acting on the principles of the propensities; that will be disgrace, and poverty, and sickness, and un- is to say, they waged furious wars, and committed timely death. This every one observes to.be the gen- wasting devastations, on each other's properties and eral course of things, though it is to be allowed, we lives. This was clearly a violent infringement of the cannot find by experience, that all our sufferings are moral law; and it is obvious from history that the two owing to our own follies.'-Analogy, p. 40. In accord- nations were equally ferocious, and delighted reciproance with this last remark, I have treated of hereditary cally in. each other's calamities. One effect of it was diseases; and evils resulting from convulsions of phy- to render personal safety an object of paramount imporsical nature may be added to the same class. tance. The hill on which the Old Town of Edinburgh It/has been objected that physical punishments, such is built, was naturally surrounded by marshes, and preas the breaking of an arm by a fall, are often so dispro- sented a perpendicular front, to the west, capable of * These words are printed in Italics in the original. being crowned with a castle. It was appropriated with CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 49 avidity, and the metropolis of Scotland founded there, the very same law of gravitation which made them topobviously and undeniably under the inspiration purely ple to the foundation when it was infringed; that man. of the animal faculties. It was fenced round, and ram- kind enjoy all the benefits which result from the comparts built to exclude the fierce warriors who then in- bustibirity of timber as fuel, by the very same law which habited the south of the Tweed; and also to protect the renders it a devouring element, when unduly ignited; inhabitants from the feudal banditti who infested their that, by the same moral law, which, when infringed, own soil. The space within the walls, however, was leads to the necessity of ramparts, fortifications, crowded limited and narrow; the attractions to the spot were lanes, and extravagantly high houses, we enjoy, now numerous, and to make the most of it, our ancestors that we observe it better, that security of property and erected the enormous masses of high, confused, and life which distinguishes modern Scotland from ancient crowded buildings which now compose the High Street Caledonia. of this city, and the wynds or alleys, on its two sides. This instance affords a striking illustration of the These abodes, moreover, were constructed, to a great manner in which the physical and organic laws are conextent, of timber, for not only the joists and floors, but stituted in harmony with, and in subserviency to, the the partitions between the rooms, were of massive wood. moral law. We see clearly that the leading cause of Our ancestors did all this in the perfect knowledge of the construction of such erections as the houses of the the physical law, that wood ignited by fire is not only Old Town of Edinburgh (with the deprivation of free consumed itself, but envelopes in inevitable destruction air. and liability to combustion that attend them,) arose every combustibleobject withinitsinfluence. Farther; from the excessive predominance of Combativeness, their successors, even when the necessity had ceased, Destructiveness, Self-esteem and Acquisitiveness, in persevered in the original error, and in the perfect our ancestors; and although the ancient personages knowledge that every year added to the age of such who erected these monuments of animal supremacy, fabrics, increased, their liability to burn, they allowed had no conception that, in doing so, they were laying them to be occupied not only as shops filled with paper, the foundations of a severe punishment on themselves spirits, and other highly combustible materials, but in- and their posterity; yet, when we compare the comtroduced gas-lights, and let off the upper floors for forts and advantages that would have accompanied brothels, introducing thereby into the heart of this maga- dwellings constructed under the inspiration of Benevozine of conflagration, the most reckless and immoral of lence, Ideality, and enlightened Intellect, with the conmankind. The consummation was the tremendous taminating, debasing, and dangerous effects of their fires of November, 1824, the one originating in a whis- workmanship, we perceive most clearly that they actukey-cellar, and the other in a garret brothel, which con- ally were the instruments of chastising their own transsumed the whole Parliament Square and a part of the gressions, and of transmitting that chastisement to their High Street, destroying property to the extent of many posterity, so long as the animal supremacy shall be thousands of pounds, and spreading misery and ruin prolonged. Another example may be given. over a considerable portion of the population of Edin- Men, by uniting under one leader, may, in virtue of burgh. Wonder, consternation, and awe were forcibly the social law, acquire prodigious advantages to themexcited at the vastness of this calamity; and in the ser- selves, which singly they could not obtain; and I stated, mons that were preached, and the dissertations that that the condition under which the benefits of that law were written upon it, much was said of the inscrutable were permitted, was, that the leader should know and ways of Providence, that sent such visitations upon the obey the natural laws that were conducive to success; people, enveloping the innocent and the guilty in one if he neglected these, then the same principle which common sentence of destruction. gave the social body the benefit of his observing them, According to the exposition of the ways of Provi- involved them in the punishment of his infringement; dence which I have ventured to give, there was nothing and that this was just, because, under the natural law, wonderful, nothing vengeful, nothing arbitrary, in the the leader must necessarily be chosen by the social whole occurrence. The surprising thing was, that it body, and they were responsible for not attending to his did not take place generations before. The necessity natural qualities. Some illustrations of the consefor these fabrics originated in gross violation of the quences of neglect of this law may be stated, in which moral law; they were constructed in high contempt of the mixed operation of the physical and moral laws will the physical law; and, latterly, the moral law was set appear. at defiance, by placing in them inhabitants abandoned During the French war, a squadron of English mento the worst habits of recklessness and intoxication. of-war was sent to the Baltic with military stores, and, The Creator had bestowed on men faculties to perceive in returning home up Channel, they were beset, for two all this, and to avoid it, whenever they chose to exert or three days, by a thick fog. It was about the middle them; and the destruction that ensued was the punish- of December, and no correct information was possessed ment of following the propensities, in preference to the of their exact situation. Some of the commanders dictates of intellect and morality. The object of the proposed lying-to all night, and proceeding only during destruction, as a natural event, was to lead men to day, to avoid running ashore unawares. The commoavoid repetition of the offences: but the principles of dore was exceedingly attached to his wife and family, the divine government are not yet comprehended; Ac- and stated his determination to pass Christmas with quisitiveness whispers that more money may be made them in England, if possible, and ordered the ships to of houses consisting of five or six floors, under one sail straight on their voyage. The very same night they roof, than of only two; and erections, the very counter- all struck on a sand-bank off the coast of Holland; two parts of the former, are now rearing their heads on the ships of the line were dashed to pieces, and every soul spot where the others stood, and, sopner or later, they on board perished. The third ship drew less water, also will be overtaken by the natural laws, which never was forced over the bank by the waves, was stranded on slumber or sleep. the beach, the crew saved, but led to a captivity of The true method of arriving at a sound view of ca- many years' duration. Now, these vessels were lamities of every kind, is to direct our attention, in the destroyed under the physical law; but this calamity first instance, to the law of nature, from the operation owed its origin to the predominance of the animal over of which they have originated; then to find out the the moral and intellectual faculties in the commodore. uses and advantages of that law, when observed; and The gratification which he sought to obtain was indivito discover whether the evils under consideration have dual and selfish; and, if his Benevolence, Veneration, arisen from violation of it. In the present instance, Conscientiousness, and Int6llect, had been as alert and we ought never to lose sight of the fact, that the houses carried as forcibly home to his mind the operation of the in question stood erect, and the furniture in safety, by physical laws, and the welfare of the men under his 16~ 50 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. charge; nay, if these faculties had been sufficiently and other stores, in every part but that allotted to the alive to see the danger to which he exposed his own ship's company's mess-tables; and even my cabin life, and the happiness of his own wife and children, had a quantity of things stowed away in it.' —p. -he never could have followed the precipitate course 21.'It may be proper to mention, that the Fury which consigned himself, and so many brave men, to a and Hecla, which were enabled to stow three years' watery grave, within a few hours after his resolution provisions, were each exactly double the size of the was formed. Griper, and the Griper carried two years' and a half s Very lately the Ogle Castle East Indiamen was offer- provisions, —pp 22, 23. ed a pilot coming up Channel, but the captain refused Arrived in the Polar Seas, they were visited by a assistance, professing his own skill to be sufficient. In storm, of which Captain Lyon gives the following dea few hours the ship ran aground on a sand-bank, and scription: We soon, however, came to fifteen fathoms, every human being perished in the waves. This also and I kept right away, but had then only ten; when, being arose from the physical law, but the unfavourable oper- unable to see far around us, and observing, from the ation of it sprung from Self-esteem, pretending to know- whiteness of the water, that we were on a bank, I edge which the intellect did not possess; and, as it is rounded to at 7 A. m., and tried to bring up with the only by the latter that obedience can be yielded to the starboard anchor, and seventy fathoms chain, but the physical laws, the destruction of the ship was indirectly stiff breeze and heavy sea caused this to part in half an the consequence of infringement of the moral and in- hour, and we again made sail to the north-eastward: tellectual laws. but finding that we came suddenly to seven fathoms An old sailor, whom I lately met on the Queensferry and that the ship could not possibly work out again, as passage, told me, that he had been nearly fifty years at she would not face the sea, or keep steerage-way on sea, and once was in a fifty gun ship in the West Indies. her, I most reluctantly brought her up with three bowThe captain, he said, was a'fine man;' he knew the ers and a stream in succession, yet not before we had climate, and foresaw a hurricane coming, by its natural shoaled to five and a half. This was between 8 and 9 signs; and, on one occasion, in particular, he struck the A. M., the ship pitching bows under, and a tremendous topmasts, lowered the yards, lashed the guns, made sea running. At noon, the starboard-bower anchor each man supply himself with food for thirty-six hours, parted, but the others held. and scarcely was this done when the hurricane came;'As there was every reason to fear the falling of the the ship lay for four hours on her beam-ends in the tide, which we knew to be from twelve to fifteen feet water; but all was prepared; the men were kept in on this coast, and in that case the total destruction of vigour during the storm, and fit for every exertion; the the ship, I caused the long-boat to be hoisted out, and ship at. last righted, suffered little damage, and proceed- with the four smaller ones to be stored to a certain exed on her voyage. The fleet which she convoved was tent, with arms and provisions. The officers drew lots dispersed, and a great number of the ships foundered. for their respective boats, and the ship's company were Here we see the supremacy of the moral and intellectual stationed to them. The long-boat having been filled full faculties, and discover to what a surprising extent they of stores, which could not be put below, it became represent a guarantee, even against the fury of the phy- quisite to throw them overboard, as there was no room sical elements in their highest state of agitation. for them on our very small and crowded decks, over One of the most instructive illustrations of the con- uhich heavy seas were constantly sweeping. In making tiexion between the different natural laws is presented these preparations for taking to the boats, it was evlm Captain Lyon's brief narrative of an unsuccessful at- dent to all, that the long-boat was the only one that had tempt to reach Repulse Bay, in his Majesty's ship Gri- the slightest chance of living under the lee of the ship, ver, in the year 1824. should she be wrecked, but every officer and mandrew Captain Lyon mentions, that he sailed in the Griper his lot with the greatest composure, though two of our on 13th June, 1824, in company with his Majesty's boats would have swamped the instant they were lowsurveying vessel Snap, as a store-tender. The Griper ered. Yet, such was the noble feeling of those around was 180 tons burden, and'drew 16 feet 1 inch abaft, me, that it was evident, that, had I ordered the boats:and 15 feet 10 inches forward.'-p. 2. On the 26th, in question to be manned, their crews would have en-' he' was sorry to observe that the Griper, from her great tered them without a murmur. In the afternoon, on depth and sharpness forward, pitched very deeply.'-p. the weather clearing a little, we discovered a low 3. She sailed so ill, that' in a stiff breeze and with beach all around astern of us, on which the surf was studding-sails set, he was unable to get above four running to an awful height, and it appeared evident knots an hour out of'her, and she was twice whirled that no human powers could save us. At 3 P. M. the round in an eddy in the Pentland Frith, from which she tide had fallen to twenty-two feet, (only six feet more could not escape.' —p. 6. On the 3d July,' beingnow than we drew,) and the ship, having been lifted by a fairly at sea, I caused the Snap to take us in tow, tremendous sea, struck with great violence the length oj which I had declined doing as we passed up the east her keel. This we naturally conceived was the forecoast of England, although our little companion had runner of her total wreck, and we stood in readiness much difficulty in keeping under sufficiently low sail to take the boats, and endeavour to hang under her lee. for us, and by noon we had passed the Stack Back.' She continued to strike with sufficient force to lave' The Snap was of the greatest assistance, the Griper burst any less fortified vessel, at intervals of a few:ainfrequently towing at the rate of five knots, in cases fites, whenever an unusual heavy sea passed us. And, where she would not have gone three.' —p. 10.'On the as the water was so shallow, these might almost be forenoon of the 16th, the Snap came and took us in called breakers rather than waves, for each in passing tow; but at noon on the 17th, strong breezes and a burst with great force over our gangways, and as every heavy swell obliged us again to cast off. We scudded sea' topped,' our decks were continually, and frewhile able, but our depth on the water caused us to ship quently deeply, flooded. All hands took a little reso many heavy seas, that I most reluctantly brought to freshment, for some had scarcely been below for twenty under storm stay-sails. This was rendered exceeding four hours, and I had not been in bed for three nights. mortifying, by observing that our companion was per- Although few, or none of us, had any idea that we feetly dry, and not affected by the sea.' p. 13.' When should survive the gale, we did not think that our comour stores were all on board, we foundournarrow decks forts should be entirely neglected, and an order was completely crowded by them. The gang-ways, fore- therefore given to the men to put on their best and castle, and abaft the mizen-mast, were filled with casks warmest clothing, to enable them to support life as hamwers, whale-lines, and stream-cables, while on our long as possible. Every man, therefore, brought his straitened lower decks we were obliged to place casks bag on deck, and dressed himself; and in the fine CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 51 athletic forms which stood before me, I did not see one was little reason to expect that the other anchors would muscle quiver, nor the slightest sign of alarm. The hold long; or, if they did, we pitched so deeply, and officers each secured some useful instrument about lifted so great a body of water each time that it was them, for the purposes of observation, although it was feared the windlass and forecastle would be torn up, or acknowledged by all that not the slightest hope re- she must go down at her anchors; although the ports mained. And now that every thing in our power had were knocked out, and a considerable portion of the been done, I called all hands aft, and to a merciful God bulwark cut away, she could scarcely discharge one sea offered prayers for our preservation. I thanked every before shipping another, and the decks were frequently one for their excellent conduct, and cautioned them, as flooded to an alarming depth. we should, in all probability, soon appear before our'At six A. M., all farther doubts on this particular Maker, to enter his presence as men resigned to their account were at an end; for, having received two fate. We then all sat down in groups, and, sheltered overwhelming seas, both the other cables went at the from the wash of the sea, by whatever we could find, same moment, and we were left helpless, without anmany of us endeavoured to obtain a little sleep. Never, chors, or any means of saving ourselves, should the perhaps, was witnessed a finer scene than on the deck shore, as we had every reason to expect, be close of my little ship, when all the hope of life had left us. astern. And here, again, I had the happiness of witNoble as the character of the British sailor is always nessing the same tranquillity as was shown on the 1st allowed to be in cases of danger; yet I did not believe of September. There was no outcry that cables were it to be possible, that, amongst forty-one persons, not gone; but my friend Mr. Manico, with Mr. Carr the one repining word should have been uttered. The offi- gunner, came aft as soon as they recovered their legs, cers sat about, wherever thev could find a shelter from and, in the lowest whisper, informed me that the cathe sea, and the men lay down conversing with each bles had all parted. The ship, in trending to the wind, other with the most perfect calmness. Each was at lay quite down on her broadside, and as it then became peace with his neighbour and all the world, and I am evident that nothing held her, and that she was quite firmly persuaded that the resignation which was then helpless, each man instinctively took his station; while shown to the will of the Almighty, was the means of the seamen at the leads, having secured themselves as obtaining his mercy. At about 6 P. M., the rudder, well as was in their power, repeated their soundings, which had already received some very heavy blows, on which our preservation depended, with as much rose, and broke up the after-lockers, and this was the composure as if we had been entering a friendly port. last severe shock that the ship received. We found Here, again, that Almighty power, which had before so by the well that she made no water, and by dark she mercifully preserved us, granted us his protection.'struck no more. God was merciful to us, and the tide, p. 100. almost miraculously fell no lower. At dark heavy rain Nothing can he more interesting and moving than fell, but was borne in patience, for it beat down the this narrative; it displays a great predominance of the gale, and brought with it a light air from the northward. moral sentiments and intellect,but sadly unenlightened At 9 P. M., the water had deepened to five fathoms. as to the natural laws. I quoted, in Captain Lyon's The ship kept off the ground all night, and our ex- own words, his description of the Griper, loaded to hausted crew obtained some broken rest.'-p. 76. such excess that she drew sixteen feet water; that she In humble gratitude for his deliverance, he called the was incapable of sailing; that she was whirled round place' The Bay of God's mercy,' and' offered up thanks in an eddy in the Pentland Frith; that seas broke over and praises to God, for the mercy he had shown to us.' her that did not wet the deck of the little Snap, not half On 12th September, they had another gale of wind, her size. Captain Lyon knew all this; and also the with cutting showers of sleet, and a heavy sea.' At roughness of the climate to which he was steering; such a time as this,' says Captain Lyon' we had fresh and, with these outrages of the physical law -staring cause to deplore the extreme dullness of the Griper's him in the face, he proceeded on his voyage, without sailing; for though almost any other vessel would have addressing, so far as we perceive, one remonstrance to worked off this lea-shore, we made little or no progress the Lords of the Admiralty on the subject of this inon a iwind, but remained actually pitching, forecastle fringement of every principle of common prudence. under, with scarcely steerage-way, to preserve which I My opinion is, that Captain Lyon was not blind to the was ultimately obliged to keep her nearly two points off errors committed in his equipment, or to their probable the wind.' —p. 98. consequences; but that his powerful sentiment of VeAnother storm overtook them, which is described as neration, combined with Cautiousness and Love of Apfollows;-' Never shall I forget the dreariness of this probation, (misdirected in this instance), deprived him most anxious night. Our ship pitched at such a rate of courage to complain to the Admiralty, through fear that it was not possible to stand, even below; while on of giving offence: or that, if he did complain, they deck we were unable to move, without holding by ropes, have prevented him from stating the facts in his narrawhich were stretched from side to side. The drift tive. To the tempestuous north he sailed; and his snow flew in such sharp heavy flakes, that we could greatest dangers were clearly referable to the very innot look to windward, and it froze on deck to above fringements of the physical laws which he describes. a foot in depth. The sea made incessant breaches When the tide ebbed, his ship reached to within six quite fore and aft the ship, and the temporary warmth feet of the bottom, and, in the hollow of every wave, it gave while it washed over us, was most painfully struck with great violence: but she was loaded at least checked, by its almost immediately freezing on our four feet too deeply, by his own account; so that, if clothes. To these discomforts were added, the horri- he had done his own duty, she would have had four ble uncertainty as to whether the cables would hold feet of additional water, or ten feet in all, between her until daylight, and the conviction also, that if they fail- and the bottom, even in the hollow of the wave,-a ed us, we should be instantly dashed to pieces; the matter of the very last importance, in such a critical wind blowing directly to the quarter in which we knew condition. Indeed, with four feet more water, she the shore must lie.. Again, should they continue to would not have struck. Besides, if less loaded, she hold us, we feared, by the ship's complaining so much would have struck less violently. Again,.when pressforward, that the bitts would be tornup, or that she would ed upon a lea- shore, her incapability of sailing was a settle downi at her anchors, overpowered by some of most obvious cause of danger; in short, if Providence the tremendous seas which burst over her. At dawn is to be regarded as the cause of these calamities, there on the 13th, thirty minutes after four A. M., we found is no impropriety which man can commit, which may that the best bower cable had parted; and, as the gale not, on the same principles, be charged against the now blew with terrific violence from the north, there Creator. 52 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. - But the moral law again shines forth in delightful I duce happiness to man; and that the punishments have splendour, in the conduct of Captain Lyon and his crew, the sole object in view of forcing him back to this enwhen in the most forlorn condition. Piety, resignation, joyment, we cannot, under the supremacy of the sentiand manly resolution, then animated them to the no- ments and intellect, fail to bow in humility before them, blest effobrts. On the principle, that the power of ac- as at once wise, just, and beneficent. commodating the conduct to the natural laws, depends on the activity of the sentiments and intellect, and that the more numerous the faculties that are excited, the greater is the energy communicated to the whole sys- The question has frequently been asked, What is the tem, I would say, that, while Captain Lyon's sufferings practical use of Phrenology, even supposing it to be were, in a great degree, brought on by his infringe- true. A few observations will enable us to answer ments of the physical laws, his escape was, in a great this inquiry; and, at the same time to present a brief measure, promoted by his obedience to the moral summary of the doctrine of the preceding Essay. law; and that Providence, in the whole occurrences, Prior to the age of Galileo, the earth and sun preproceeded on-the broad and general principle, which sented to the eye phenomena exactly similar to those sends advantage uniformly as the reward of obedience, which they now exhibit; but their motions appeared in and evil as the punishment of infringement, of every a very different light to the understanding. particular law of creation. Before the age of Newton, the revolutions of the That storms and tempests have been instituted for planets were known as matter of fact; but the undersome benevolent end, may, perhaps, be acknowledged, standing was ignorant of the principle of their motions. when their causes and effects are fully known, which Previous to the dawn of modern chemistry, many of at present is not the case. But, even amidst all our the qualities of physical substances were ascertained ignorance of these, it is surprising how small a portion by observation, but their ultimate principles and relaof evil they would occasion, if men obeyed the laws tions were not understood. which are actually ascertained. How many ships perish Knowledge may be rendered beneficial in two ways. from being sent to sea in an old worn out condition, and either by rendering the substance discovered directly ill equipped, through mere Acquisitiveness; and how subservient to human enjoyment; or, where this is immany more, from captains and crews being chosen who possible, by modifying human conduct in harmony with axe greatly deficient in knowledge, intelligence, and its qualities. While knowledge of any department of morality, in consequence of which they infringe the nature remains imperfect and empirical, the unknown physical laws. We ought to look to all these matters, qualities of the objects belonging to it, may render our before complaining of storms as natural institutions. efforts either to apply or to accord with those which are The last example of the mixed operation of the natu- known, altogether abortive. Hence it is only after ulral laws which I shall notice, is that which followed timate principles have been discovered, their relations from the mercantle distresses of 1825-6. I have traced ascertained, and this knowledge has been systematised. the origin of that visitation to excessive activity of Ac- that science can attain its full character of utility. The quisitiveness, and a general ascendancy of the animal merits of Galileo and Newton consist in having renderand selfish faculties over the moral and intellectual ed this service to astronomy. powers. The punishments of these offences were mani- Before the appearance of Drs Gall and Spurzheinm. fold. The excesses infringed the moral law, and the mankind were practically acquainted with the feelings chastisement for this was deprivation of the tranquil, and intellectual operations of their own minds; and steady enjoyment that flows only from the sentiments, anatomists, knew the appearances of the brain. But with severe suffering in the ruin of fortune and blasting the science of Mind was very much in the same state of hope. These disappointments produced mental an- as that of the heavenly bodies prior to Galileo and guish and depression; which occasioned unhealthy ac- Newton. This remark is borne out by the following tion in the brain. The action of the brain being dis- considerations; turbed, a morbid nervous influence was transmitted to First. No unanimity prevailed among philosophers the whole corporeal system; bodily disease was super- concerning the elementary feelings and intellectual added to mental sorrow, and, in some instances, the powers of man. Individuals, deficient in Conscientiunhappy sufferers committed suicide to escape from ousness, for instance denied that the sentiment of justhese aggravated evils. Under the organic law, the tice was a primitive mental quality of mind. Others, children produced in this period of mental depression, deficient in Veneration, asserted that man was not nabodily distress, and organic derangement, will inherit turally prone to worship, and ascribed religion to the weak bodies, with feeble and irritable minds, a heredi- invention of priests. tary chastisement of their father's transgressions. Secondly. The extent to which the primitive faIn the instances now given, we discover the various culties differ in relative strength, was matter of dispute, laws acting in perfect harmony, and in subordination or of vague conjecture; and there was no agreement to the moral and intellectual. If our ancestors had not whether many actual attainments were the gifts of naforsaken the supremacy of the moral sentiments, such ture, or the results of mere cultivation. fabrics at the houses in the Old Town of Edinburgh - Thirdly. Different modes of the same feeling were never would have been built; and if the modern pro- often mistaken for different feelings; and modes of acprietors had returned to that law, and kept profligate tion of all the intellectual faculties were mistaken for and drunken inhabitants out of them, the conflagration faculties themselves. might still have been avoided. In the' case of the ships, Fourthly. The brain, confessedly the most imporwe saw that wherever intellect and sentiment had been tant organ of the body, and that with which the nerves relaxed, and animal motives permitted to assume the of the senses, of motion, and of feeling directly comsupremacy, evil had speedily followed; and that where municate, had no ascertained functions. Mankind the higher powers were called forth, safety had been ob- were ignorant of its uses, and of its influence on the tained. And, finally, in the case of the merchants and mental faculties. They indeed still dispute that its manufacturers, we traced their calamities directly to different parts are the organs of different mental placing Acquisitiveness and Ambition above Intellect powers, and that the vigour of manifestation bears a and sentiment. proportion, cceteris paribus, to the size of the organ. Formidable and appaling, then as these punishments If, in physics, imperfect and empirical knowledge renare, yet, when we attend to the laws under which they ders the unknown qualities of bodies liable to frustrate occur, and perceive that the object and legitimate ope- the efforts of man to apply or to accommodate his conration of every one of them, when observed, is to pro- duct to their known qualities; and if only a com CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 53 plete and systematic exhibition of ultimate principles, vantage. But, until the nature of man, and the relationand their relations, can confer on science its full cha- ship between it and the external world, shall be scientifiracter of utility,-the same doctrine applies with equal cally ascertained, and systematically expounded, it will or greater force to the philosophy of man. For example, be impossible to support morality by the powerful dePOLITICS embrace forms of government, and the re- monstration of interest, as here supposed, coinciding lations between different states. All government is with it. The tendency in most men to view expediendesigned to combine the efforts of individuals, and to cy as not always coincident with justice affords a strikregulate their conduct when united. To arrive at the ing proof of the limited knowledge of the constitution best means of accomplishing this end, systematic know- of man and the external world still prevalent in society. ledge of the nature of man seems highly important. A The diversities of doctrine in religion also obviously despotism, for example, may restrain some abuses of owe their origin to ignorance of the primitive faculties the lower propensities, but it assuredly impedes the ex- and their relations. The faculties differ in relative ercise of reflection, and others of the highest and no- strength in different individuals, and each person is blest powers. A form of government can be suited to most alive to objects and views connected with the the nature of man only when it is calculated to permit powers predominant in himself. Hence, in reading the the legitimate use and to restrain the abuses, of all his Scriptures, one is convinced that they establish Calvinmental feelings and capacities; and how can such a ism; another, possessing a different combination -of government be devised, while these principles, with faculties, discovers in them Lutheranism; and a third their spheres of action, and external relations, are im- is satisfied that Socinianism is the only true interpretaperfectly ascertained. Again; all relations between tion. These individuals have, in general, no distinct different states must also be in accordance with the na-'conception that the views which strike them most forciture of man, to prove permanently beneficial; and the bly, appear in a different light to minds differently conquestion recurs, How are these to be framed while that stituted. A correct interpretation of revelation must nature is matter of conjecture. Napoleon disbelieved harmonize with the dictates of the moral sentiments in a sentiment of justice as an innate quality of mind; and intellect holding the animal propensities in suband, in his relations with other states, relied on fear ordination. It may legitimately go beyond what they and interest as the grand motives of conduct: but that unaided, could reach; but it cannot contradict them sentiment existed; and combined with other faculties because this would be setting the revelation of the which he outraged, prompted Europe to hurl him from bible in opposition to the inherent dictates of the faculhis throne. If Napoleon had comprehended the princi- ties constituted by the Creator, which cannot be admitples of human nature, and their relations, as forcibly ted; as the Deity is too powerful and wise to be inconand clearly as the principles of mathematics, in which sistent. But mankind will never be induced to bow to he excelled, his understanding would have greatly mo- such interpretations, while each takes his individual dified his conduct, and Europe would have escaped mind as a standard of human nature in general, and prodigious calamities. conceives that his own impressions are synonymous LEGISLATION, civil and criminal, is intended to regu- with absolute truth. The establishment of the nalate and direct the human faculties in their efforts at ture of man, therefore on a scientific basis, and in a gratification; and, to be useful, laws must accord with systematic form, must aid the cause both of morality the constitution of these faculties. But how can sa- and religion. lutary laws be enacted, while the subject to be gov- The PROFESSIONS, PURSUITS, AMUSEMENTS, and erned, or human nature, is not accurately understood? HOURS OF EXERTION of individnals, ought also to bear The inconsistency and intricacy of the laws even in reference to their physical and mental constitution; enlightened nations, have afforded themes for the sati- but hitherto no guiding principle has been possessed rist in every age; and how could the case be other- to regulate practice in these important particulars,wise 3 Legislators provided rules for directing the another evidence that the science of man has been un qualities of human nature, which they conceived them- known. selves to know; but either error in their conceptions, But we require only to attend to the scenes daily or the effects of other qualities unknown or unattended presenting themselves in society, to obtain irresistible to, defeated their intentions. The law, for example, demonstration of the consequences resulting from the punishing heresy with burning, was addressed by our want of a true theory of human nature, and its relations. ancestors to Cautiousness, Self-love, and other inferior Every preceptor in schools, every professor in colleges, feelings; but Intellect, Veneration, Conscientiousness, every author, editor, and pamphleteer, every member of and Firmness, were omitted in their estimate of hu- Parliament, counsellor, and judge, has a set of notions man principles of action; and these set their law at de- of his own, which in his mind hold the place of a system fiance. of the philosophy of man; and although he may not There are many laws still in the statute book, equal- have methodised his ideas, or even acknowledged them ly at variance with the nature of man. to himself as a theory, yet they constitute a standard to EDUCATION is intended to enlighten the intellect and him by which he practically judges of all questions in moral sentiments, and train them to vigour. But how morals, politics, and religion; he advocates whatever can this be successfully accomplished, when the facul- views coincide with them, and condemns all that differ ties and sentiments themselves, the laws to which they from them, with an unhesitating dogmatism as the most are subjected, and their relations to external objects, pertinacious theorist on earth. Each also despises the are unascertained. Accordingly, the theories and prac- notions of his fellows, in so far as they differ from bis tices observed m education are innumerable and con- own. In short, the human faculties too generally opertradictory, which could not happen if men knew the ate simply as instincts, exhibiting all the confliction and constitution of the object which they were training. uncertainty of mere feeling, unenlighted by perception MORALS and RELIGION, also, cannot assume a sys- of their own nature and objects. Hence public meatematic and demonstrable character, until the element- sures in general, whether relating to education, religion, ary qualities of mind, and their relations shall be ascer- trade, manufactures, the poor, criminal law, or to any tained. other of the dearest interests of society, instead of It is presumalble that the Deity, in creating the moral being treated as branches of one general system of ecopowers and the external world, really adapted the one nomy, and adjusted each on scientific principles in harto the other; so that individuals and nations, in pursu- mony with all the rest, are supported or opposed on ing morality, must, in every instance, be promoting narrow and empirical grounds, and often call forth dirtheir best interests, and, in departing from it, must be plays of ignorance, prejudice, selfishness, intolerance, sacrificing them to passion or to illusory notions of ad- and bigotry, that greatly obstruct the progress of irn 54 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. provement. Indeed, unanimity, even among sensible ral arrangements; and that education will be valuable and virtuous men, will be impossible, so long as no in the exact degree in which it communicates such instandard of mental philosophy is admitted to guide in- formation, and trains the faculties to act upon it. Read. dividual feelings and perceptions. But the state of ing, writing, and accounts, which make up the instructhings now described could not exist if education em- tion enjoyed by the lower orders, are merely means of braced a true system of human nature and its relations. acquiring knowledge, but do not constitute it. Greek, If, then, phrenology be true, it will, when matured, Latin, and mathematics, which are added in the educasupply the deficiencies now pointed out. tion of the middle classes, are still only means of obBut, here, another question naturally presents itself, taining information; so that, with the exception of a How are the views now expounded, supposing them to few who pursue physical science, society dedicates very contain some portion of truth, to be rendered practical? little attention to the study of the natural laws. In folIn answer I remark, that the institutions and manners lowing out the views now discussed, therefore, each of society indicate the state of mind of the influential individual, according as he becomes acquainted with classes at the time when they prevail. The trial and the natural laws, ought to obey them, and to commuburning of old women as witches, point out clearly nicate his experience of their operations to others; the predominance of Destructiveness and Wonder over avoiding at the same time all attempts at subverting, Intellect and Benevolence in those who were guilty of by violence, established institutions, or outraging pubsuch cruel absurdities. The practices of wager of lic sentiment by intemperate discussions. The docbattle, and ordeal by fire and water, indicate Combat- trine now unfolded, if true, authorises us to predicate iveness, Destructiveness, and Veneration, to have been that the most successful method of meliorating the coningreat activity in those who permitted them, combin- dition of mankind, will be that which appeals most died with much intellectual ignorance of the natural con- rectly to their moral sentiments and intellect; and, I stitution of the world. In like manner, the enormous may add from experience and observation, that, in prosums willingly expended in war, and the small sums portion as any individual becomes acquainted with the grudgingly paid for public improvements; the intense real constitution of the human mind, will his conviction energy displayed in the pursuit of wealth; and the ge- of the efficacy of this method increase. neral apathy evinced in the search after knowledge and The next step ought to be to teach those laws to. the virtue unequivocally proclaim activity of Combativeness young.* Their minds,. not being preo-occupied by preDestructiveness, Acquisitiveness, Self-esteem and Love judices, will recognise them as congenial to their conof Approbation; with comparatively moderate vivacity stitution; the first generation that has embraced them of Benevolence and Intellect in the present generation. from infancy will proceed to modify the institutions of Before, therefore, the practices of mankind can be alter- society into accordance with their dictates; and in the ed, the state of their minds must be changed. No prac- course of ages they may at length be acknowledged as tical error canbe greater than that of establishing institu- practically useful. All true theories have ultimately tions greatly in advance of the mental condition of the been adopted and influenced practice; and I see no people. The rational method is first to instruct the in- reason to fear that the present will prove an exception. tellect, then to interest the sentiments, and, last of all, The failure of all previous systems is the natural conto form arrangements in harmony with, and resting on, sequence of their being unfounded; if this one shall these as their basis. resemble them, it will deserve, and assuredly will meet The views developed in the preceding chapters, if with, a similar fate. A perception of the importance founded in nature, may be expected to lead, ultimately, of the natural laws will lead to their observance, and to considerable changes in many of the customs and this will be attended with an improved development of pursuits of society;,but to accomplish this effect, the brain, thereby increasing the desire and capacity for principles themselves must first be ascertained to be obedience. true; then they must be sedulously taught; and when Finally. If it De true that the Natural Laws must the public mind has been thoroughly prepared, then only be obeyed as a preliminary condition to happiness in ought important practical alterations to be proposed. this world, and if virtue and happiness be inseparably It appears to me that a long series of years will be ne- allied, the religious instructors of mankind may probacessary to bring even civilized nations into a condition bly discover in the general and prevalent ignorance of systematically to obey the natural laws. these laws, one reason of the limited success which has The preceding chapters may be regarded, in one hitherto attended their own efforts at improving the sense, as an introduction to an Essay on Education. condition of mankind; and they may perhaps perceive If the views unfolded in them be in general sound, it it to be not inconsistent with their sacred office, to inwill follow that education has scarcely yet commenced. struct men in the natural institutions of the Creator, If the Creator has bestowed on the body, on the mind, in addition to his revealed will, and to recommend obeand on external nature, determinate constitutions, and dience to both. They exercise so vast an influence arranged these so as to act on each other, and to pro- over the best members of society, that their counteduce happiness or misery to man, according to certain nance may hasten, or their opposition retard, by a cendefinite principles, and if this action goes on invariably, tury, the practical adoption of the natural laws, as guider inflexibly, and irresistibly, whether men attend to it or of human conduct. not, it is obvious that the very basis of useful know- * Some observations on education will be found in the Phreno iedge must consist in an acquaintance with these natu- logical Journal, vol. iv, p. 407. APPENDIX. NOTE I. NATURAL LAWS.-Text, p. 3. cease to be. When he put that matter into motion, he In the text it is mentioned, that many philosophers established certain laws of motion, to which all movehave treated of the Laws of Nature. The following able bodies must conform.'-' If we farther advance are examples: from mere inactive matter to vegetable and animal life, Mr Stewart says,'To examine the economy of na- WE SHALL FIND THEM STILL GOVERNED BY LAWS; ture in the phenomena of the lower animals, and to more numerous, indeed, but equally fixed and invariacompare their instincts with the physical circumstances ble. The whole progress of plants, from the seed to of their external situation, forms one of the finest spe- the root, and from thence to the seed again; —the meculations of Natural History; and yet it is a specula- thod of animal nutrition, digestion, secretion, and all tion to which the attention of the natural historian has other branches of vital economy;-are not left to chance, seldom been directed. Not only Buffon, but Ray and or the will of the creature itself, but are performed in a Derham have passed it over slightly; nor, indeed, do I wondrous involuntary manner, and guided by unerring know of any one who has made it the object of a par- rules laid down by the great Creator. This, then, is ticular consideration but Lord Kames, in a short Ap- the general signification of a law, a rule of action dicpendix to one of his Sketches.-Elements of the Phi- tated by some superior being; and in those creatures losophy of the Human Mind, vol. iii, p. 368. that have neither power to think, nor the will, such laws Mr Stewart also uses the following words:-' Num- must be invariably obeyed, so long as the creature itberless examples show that nature has done no more self subsists; for its existence depends on that obefor man than was necessary for his preservation, leav- dience. —Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of ing him to make many acquisitions for himself, which England, vol. i, sect. 2. she has imparted immediately to the brutes.'The word law,' says Mr Erskine,'is frequently'My own idea is, as I have said on a different occa- made use of, both by divines and philosophers, in a sion, that both instinct and experience are here con- large acceptation, to express the settled method of God's cerned, and that the share which belongs to each in providence, by which he preserves the order of the MAproducing the result, can be ascertained by an appeal TERIAL WORLD in such a manner, that nothing in it to facts alone.'-Vol. iii, ch. 338. may deviate from that uniform course which he has apMontesquieu introduces his Spirit of Laws by the pointed for it. And as brute matter is merely passive, following observations:-' Laws, in their most general without the least degree of choice upon its part, these signification, are the necessary relations derived from laws are INVIOLABLY OBSERVED in the material creathe nature of things. In this sense, all beings have tion, every part of which continues to act, immutably, their laws; the Deity has his laws; the material world according to the rules that were from the beginning its laws; the intelligences superior to man have their prescribed to it by infinite wisdom. Thus philosophers laws; the beasts their laws; man his laws. have given the appellation of law to that motion which' Those who assert that a blind fatality produced the incessantly pervades and agitates the universe, and is various effects we behold in this world, are guilty of a ever changing the form and substance of things, disvery great absurdity: for can any thing be more ab- solving some, and raising others, as from their ashes, surd than to pretend that a blind fatality could be pro- to fill up the void: Yet so, that amidst all the fluctuaductive of intelligent beings? tions by which particular tthings are affected, the unm-' There is, then, a primitive reason; and laws are verse is still preserved without diminution. Thus also the relations which subsist between it and different they speak of the laws of fluids, of gravitation, &c. beings, and the relations of these beings among them- and the word is used, in this sense, in several passages selves. of the sacred writings; in the book of Job, and in' God is related to the universe as creator and pre- Proverbs viii, 29, where God is said to have given his server; the laws by which he has created all things are law to the seas that they should not pass his commandthose by which he preserves them. He acts according ment.'-Erskine's Institutes of the Law of Scotland, to these rules, because he knows them:* he knows them book i, tit. i, sect. 1. because he has made them; and he made them because Discussions about the Laws of Nature, rather than they are relative to his wisdom and power, &c. inquiries into them, were common in France, during' Man, as a physical being, is, like other bodies, go- the Revolution, and having become associated in imaverned by invariable laws.'-Spirit of Laws, b. i, c. i. gination, with the crimes and horrors of that period, Justice Blackstone observes, that'Law, in its most they continue to be regarded by some individuals, as general and comprehensive sense, signifies a rule of'inconsistent with religion and morality. A coincidence action; and is applied indiscriminately to all kinds of between the views maintained in the preceding Essay, action, whether animate or inanimate, rational or irra- and a passage in Volney, has been pointed out to me as tional. Thus we say, the laws of motion, of gravita- an objection to the whole doctrine. Volney's words tion, of optics, or mechanics, as well as the laws of are the following:-' It is a law of nature, that water nature and of nations. Thus, when the Supreme Being flows from an upper to a lower situation; that it seeks formed the universe, and created matter out of nothing, its level; that it is heavier than air; that all bodies tend he impressed certain principles upon that matter, from towards the earth; that flame rises towards the sky; which it can never depart, and without which it would that it destroys the organization of vegetables and ani 36 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. mals; that air is essential to the life of certain animals; system, was involved in the deepest obscurity. The that, in certain cases, water suffocates and kills them; brain, the most important organ of the body, had no that certain juices of plants, and certain minerals, at- ascertained functions. Before the introduction of this tack their organs, and destroy their life;-and the same science, therefore, men were rather impressed with the of a variety of facts. unspeakable importance of a knowledge of the laws of'Now, since these facts,'and many similar ones, are nature, than acquainted with the laws themselves; and.onstant, regular, and immutable, they become so many even the knowedge of the external world actually pos~eal and positive commands, to which man is bound to sessed, could not, in many instances, be rendered.onform, under the express penalty of punishment at- available, on account of its relationship to the qualities tached to their infraction, or well-being connected with of man being unascertained, and unascertainable, so their observance. So that if a man were to pretend to long as these qualities themselves were unknown. see clearly in the dark, or is regardless of the progress of the seasons, or the action of the elements; if he pretends to exist under water, without drowning; to NOTE II. handle fire without burning himself; to deprive himself of air without suffocating; or to drink poison with- ORGANIC LAwS.Text, p. 21. out destroying himself; he receives for each infraction It is a very common error, not only among philosoosf the law of nature, a corporal punishment propor- phers, but among practical men, to imagine that the;ioned to his transgression. If, on the contrary, he ob- feelings of the mind are communicated to it through servos these laws, and founds his practice on the pre- the medium of the intellect; and, in particular, that if wise and regular relation which they bear to him, he no indelicate objects reach the eyes, or expressions preserves his existence, and renders it as happy as it is penetrate the ears, perfect purity will necessarily reign capable of being rendered; and since all these laws, within the soul; and, carrying this mistake into pracconsidered in relation to the human species, have in tice, they are prone to object to all discussion of the view only one common end, that of their preservation subjects treated of under the' Organic Laws,' in works and their happiness; whence it has been agreed to as- designed for general use. But their principle of reasemble together the different ideas, and express them by soning is fallacious, and the practical result has been a single word, and call them collectively by the name highly detrimental to society. The feelings have exof the "Law of Nature."-VoLNEY's Law of Na- istence and activity distinct from the intellect; they ture, 3d edit. pp. 21, 24. spur it on to obtain their own gratification; and it may I feel no embarrassment by this coincidence; but re- become either their slave or guide, according as it is mark, first, That various authors, quoted in the text enlightened concerning their constitution and objects, and in this note, advocated the importance of the laws and the laws of nature to which they are subjected. of nature, long before the French Revolution was heard The most profound philosophers have inculcated this of; secondly, That the existence of the laws of nature doctrine; and, by phrenological observation, it is deis as obvious to the understanding, as the existence monstrably established. The organs of the feelings of the external world, and of the human mind and body are distinct from those of the intellectual faculties; themselves to the senses; thirdly, That these laws, they are larger; and, as each faculty, cceteris paribus, being inherent in creation, must have proceeded from acts with a power proportionate to the size of its organ, the Deity; fourthly, That if the Deity is powerful, the feelings are obviously the active or impelling powers. just, ard benevolent,. they must harmonize with the The cerebellum, or organ of Amativeness, is the largest constitution of man; and, lastly, That if the laws of of the whole mental organs; and, being endowed with nature have been instituted by the Deity, and been natural activity, it fills the mind spontaneously with framed in wise, benevolent, and just relationship to emotions and suggestions which may be directed, conthe human constitution, they must at all times form the trolled, and resisted, in outward manifestation, by intelhighest and most important subjects of human investi- lect and moral sentiment, but which cannot be pregation, and remain altogether unaffected by the er- vented from arising, nor eradicated after they exist. rors, follies, and crimes of those who endeavour to ex- The whole question, therefore, resolves itself into this, pound them; just as religion continues holy, venerable, Whether it is most beneficial to enlighten and direct and uncontaminated, notwithstanding the hypocrisy, that feeling, or (under the influence of an error in phlwickedness, and inconsistency of individuals professing losophy, and false delicacy founded on it,) to permit it themselves her interpreters and friends. to riot in all the fierceness of a blind animal instinct, Tihat the views of the natural laws themselves, ad- withdrawn from the eye of reason, but not thereby devocated in this Essay, are diametrically opposite to the prived of its vehemence and importunity. The former practical conduct of the French revolutionary ruffians, course appears to me to be the only one consistent with requires no demonstration. My fundamental principle reason and morality; and I have adopted it in reliance is, that man can enjoy happiness on earth only by on the good sense of my readers, that they will at once placing his habitual conduct under the supremacy of discriminate between practical instruction concerning the moral sentiments, and intellect, and that this is the this feeling, addressed to the intellect, and lascivious law of his nature. No doctrine can be more opposed representations addressed to the mere propensity itself; than this to fraud, robbery, blasphemy, and murder. with the latter of which the enemies of all improvement It may be urged, that all past speculations about the may attempt to confound my observatlons. Every laws of nature have proved more imposing than useful; function of the mind and body is instituted by the Creand that while the laws themselves afford materials for ator; all maybe abused; and it is impossible regularly elevated declamation on the part of philosophers, they to avoid abuse of them, except by being instructed in form no secure guides even to the learned, and much their nature, objects, and relations. This instruction less to the illiterate, in practical conduct. In answer, ought to be addressed exclusively to the intellect; and, I would respectfully repeat what has frequently been when it is so, it is science of the most beneficial deurged in the text, that, before we can discover the laws scription. The propriety, nay necessity, of acting on of nature, applicable to man, we must know, first, The this principle, becomes more and more apparent, when constitution of man himself; secondly, The constitu- it is considered that the discussions of the text suggest tion of external nature; and, thirdly, We must com- only intellectual ideas to individuals in whom the feelpare the two. But, previous to the discovery of Phre- ing in question is naturally weak, and that such minds nology, the mental constitution of man was a matter of perceive no indelicacy in knowledge which is calcuvague conjecture, and endless debate; and the con- lated to be useful; while, on the other hand, persons nexion between his mental powers and his organized in whom the feeling is naturally strong, are precisely CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 57 those who stand in need of direction, and to whom, of Breeding of Live Stock. M. Charles Girou de Buzaall others, instruction is the most necessary. reingues proposed, at a meeting of the AgricultUral Fortified by these observations, I venture to record Society of S6verac, on the 3d of July, 1826, to divide some additional facts communicated by persons on a flock of sheep into two equal parts, so that a greater whose accuracy reliance may be placed. number of males or females, at the choice of the proA gentleman, who has paid much attention to the prietor, should be produced from each of them. Two rearing of horses, informed me, that the male race- of the members of the Society offered their flocks to horse, when excited, but noexhausted, by running, become the subjects of his experiments, andthe results has been found by experience,;ito be in the most favour- have now been communicated, which are in accordance able condition for transmitting swiftness and vivacity with the author's expectations. to his offspring. Another gentleman stated, that he'The first experiment was conducted in the following was himself present when the pale gray colour of a manner: He recommended very young rams to be male horse was objected to; that the groom thereupon put to the flock of ewes, from which the proprietor presented before the eyes of the male another female wished the greater number of females in their offspring; from the stable, of a very particular, but pleasing, va- and, also, that during the season when the rams were riety of colours, asserting, that the latter would deter- with the ewes, they should have more abundant pasmine the complexion of the offspring; and that in point ture than the other; while, to the flock from which the of fact it did so. The experiment was tried in the case proprietor wished to obtain male lambs chiefly, he recomof a second female, and the result was so completely mended him to put strong and vigorous rams four or the same, that the two young horses, in point of colour, five years old. The following tabular view contains could scarcely be distinguished, although their spots the result of this experiment. were extremely uncommon. The account of Laban m and the peeled rods laid before the cattle to produce - spotted calves, is an example of the same kind.., *; Portal mentions the hereditary descent of blindness k u and deafness. His words are:'Morgagni has seen d e three sisters dumb "d'origine.' Other authors alsocq o cite examples, and I have seen like cases myself.' In C h c ~ a note, he adds,' I have seen three children out of four f'.. * of the same family blind from birth by amaurosis, or X.. gutta serena.'-Portal, Mlemoires sur Plusieurs Mala- P ].. O dies, tome iii, p. 193. Paris, 1808. X C In the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. I, there Cd _ are several valuable articles illustrative of the Organic r Had > H. 2 0 Laws in the inferior animals. I select the following bn t 5 examples: E - & a X'Every one knows that the hen of ally bird will lay In f = eggs although no male be permitted to come near her; q c and that those eggs are only wanting in the vital prin- 0 T.4. ciple which the impregnation of the male conveys to ~. 0 them. Here, then, we see the female able to make an o' I, ~ I egg,. with yolk and white, shell and every part, just as r = it ought to be, so that we might, at the first glance,... o.. suppose that here, at all events, the female has the rFI m X greatest influence. But see the change which the male 0.0 produces. Put a Bantam cock to a large sized hen N o and she will instantly lay a small egg; the chick will [M H 0. be short, in the leg, have feathers to the foot, and put $ 1 X on the appearance of the cock; so that it is a frequent a H. a complaint where Bantams are kept, that they make the ~ _. H 4 Hi 5 hens lay small eggs, and spoil the breed. Reverse the case; put a large dung-hill cock to Bantam hens, and The second experiment is thus related by the auinstantly they will lay larger eggs, and the chicks will thor: be good-sized birds, and the Bantam will have nearly'During the summer of 1826, M. Cournudjouls kept, disappeared. Here, then, are a number of facts known upon a very dry pasture, belonging to the village of to every one, or at least open to be known by every Bez, a flok of 106 ewes, of which 84 belonged to one, clearly proving the influence of the male in some of October, and 22 to his fl ok into two sections, of animals; and as I hold it to be an axiom that nature of October, he divided his flock into two sections, of animals;-and as I hold it to be an axiom that nature never acts by contraries, never outrages the law clearly 42 heads each, the one composed of the strongest fixed in one species, by adopting the opposite course ewes, from four to five years old; the other of the in another,-therefore, as in the case of an equilateral weakest beasts under four or above five years old. triangle on the length of one side being given we can The first was destined to produce a greater number of ngiven we can females than the second. After it was marked with with certainty demonstrate that of the remaining; so, females tha the second. After it was marked with having found these laws to exist in one race of animals, pitch in my presence, it was taken to much better paswe are entitled to assume that every species is subeted to the self-same rulesmale lambs, about six months old, and of good promise. fact the same relation to each other as the radii of a The second remained upon the pasture of Bez, and fcircle.' smreainteahohrathraiof was served by two strong rams, more than three years circle.' old.'A Method of obtaining a greater number of One Sex,' The ewes belonging to the shepherds, which I shall at the option of the Proprietor, in the Breeding of consider as forming a third section, and which are in Live Stock.-Extracted from the Quarterly Journal general stronger and better fed than those of the masof Agriculture, No. I, p. 63. ter, because their owners are not always particular in'In the Annales de l'Agriculture Frangaise, vols. 37, preventing them from trespassing on the cultivated and 38, some very interestirng experiments are record- lands, which are not enclosed, were mixed with those ed, which have lately been made in France, on the I or the second flock. The result was that the 53-8 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. Males. Females. contains a large proportion of young persons, among First section gave,.15 25 whom the proportional mortality is low, and a small The second,..26 14 proportion of the old who die off rapidly. A communiThe third,.10 12 ty in which the births are numerous, is like a regiment -- -- receiving a vast number of a young and healthy recruits In the First section there were Two and in which, of course, as a whole, the annual deaths Twin Births,.. 0 4 will be few compared with those in another regiment In the Second and Third there were chiefly filled with veter ns, though among the persons also Two....... 3 1 at any particular age, stch as 20, 40, or 50, the mortal-' Besides these very decisive experiments, M. Girou ity will be as great in the one regiment as the other. relates some others, made with horses and cattle, in It may thus happen, that the annual mortality among which his success in producing a greater number of one 1000 persons in Ohio maybe considerably less than in sex rather than another also appears. The general France, while the Expectation of Life, or the chance law, as far as we are able to detect it, seems to be, that, which an individual has to reach to a certain age, may when animals are in good condition, plentifully suppli- be no greater in the former country than in the latter ed with food, and kept from breeding as fast as they and hence we see that a diminution in the rate of mormight do, they are most likely to produce females. Or, tality is not a certain proof of an increase in the value in other words, when a race of animals is in circum life, or an improvement in the condition of the stances favourable for its increase, nature produces the people. greatest number of that sex which in animals that do But the effect produced by an increased number of not pair, is most efficient for increasing the numbers of births is less than might be imagined, owving to the very the race: But, if they are in a bad climate, or on stint- great mortality among infants in the first year of their ed pasture, or, if they have already given birth to a nu- age. Not having time for the calculations necessary merous offspring, then nature, setting limits to the in- to get at the precise result, which are pretty complex, crease of the race, produces more males than females. we avail ourselves of some statements given by Mr. Yet, perhaps, it may be premature to attempt to deduce Mile in his work on Annuities. Taking the Swedish any law fronm experiments which have not yet been suf- tables as a basis, and supposing the law of mortality to ficiently extended. M. Girou is disposed to ascribe remain the same for each period of life, he has comparmuch of the effect to the age of the ram, independent ed the proportional number of deaths iia a population of the condition of the ewe.' which is stationary, and in one which increases 15 per cent. in 20 years. The result is, that when the mortality in the stationary society is one in 36. 13, that in NOTE III. the progressive society is one in 37. 33, a difference equal to 3 1-3 per cent. Now, the population of EngDEATH.-Text, p. 35. land and Wales increased 34.3 per cent. in the 20 years The decreasing Mortality of England is strikingly ending in 1821, but in the interval from 1811 to 1821. supported by the following extract from the Scotsman the rate was equivalent to 39 1-4 per cent, upon 20 of 16th April 1828. It is well known that this paper years; and the apparent diminution of mortality arising is edited by Mr Charles Maclaren, a gentlemen whose from this circumstance must of course have been about extensive information, and scrupulous regard to accu- 8 1-2 per cent. We are assuming, however, that the racy and truth, stamp the highest value on his state- population was absolutely stationary at 180, which was ments of facts: and whose profound and comprehensive not the case. According to Mr Milnes (p. 437,) the intellect warrants a well-grounded reliance on his phi- average annual increase in the five years ending 1784, losophical conclusions. was 1 in 155; in the ten years ending 1821, according' DIMINISHED MORTALITY IN ENGLAND. The dimi- to the census, it was 1 in 60. Deducting, then, the nution of the annual mortality in England amidst an proportional part corresponding to the former, which is alleged increase of crime, misery, and pauperism, is an 3 1-4 there remains 5 1-4. If Mr Milne's tables, thereextraordinary and startling fact, which merits a more fore, are correct, we may infer that the progressive careful investigation than it has received. We have state of the population causes a diminution of 5 1-4 per not time to go deeply into the subject: but we shall cent. in the annual mortality-a diminution which is offer a remark or two on the question, how the apparent only apparent, because it arises entirely from the great annual mortality is affected by the introduction of the proportion of births, and is not accompanied with any cow-pox, and the stationary or progressive state of the real increase in the value of human life. population. In 1780, according to Mr Rickman, the'A much greater change-not apparent but realannual deaths were 1 in 40, or one-fortieth part of the was produced by the introduction of the vaccination in population died every year; in 1821, the proportion 1798. It wascomputed, that, in 1795, when the popu was I in 58. It follows, that, out of any given number of lation of the British Isles was 15, 000,000, the deaths persons, 1000 or 10,000 scarcely more than two deaths produced by the small-pox amounted to 36,000, or take place now for three that took place in 1780, or the nearly 11 per cent. of the whole animal mortality. (See mortality has diminished 45 per cent. The parochial article Vaccination in the Supplement to Encylopedia registers of burials in England, from which this state- Brittanica, p. 713.) Now, since not more than one case ment is derived, are known to be incorrect, but as they in 330 terminates fatally under the cow-pox system, continue to be kept without alteration in the same way, either directly by the primary infection, or from the the errors for one year, are justly conceived to balance other disease supervening: the whole of the young those of another, and they thus afford comparative re- persons destroyed by the small-pox might be considered sults upon which considerable reliance may be placed. as saved were vaccination universal, and alwa-,Ts properA community is made up of persons of many various ly performed. This is not precisely the case, but one ages among whom the law of mortality is very different. or one and a-half per cent. will cover the deficiencies Thus, according to the Swedish tables, the deaths and we may therefore conclude, that vaccination has among children from the moment of birth up to 10 years diminished the annual mortality fully nine per cent. )f age, are 1 in 22 per annum; from 10 to 20, the After we had arrived at this conclusion by the process 4eaths are only 1 in 185. Among the old again, mortali- described, we found it confirmed by the authority of Mr ty is of course great. From 70 to 80, the deaths are 1 Milne, who estimates in a note to one of his tables, that in 9; from 80 to 90, they are 1 in 4. Now a commu- the mortality of 1 in 40, would be diminished to 1 in43 nity like that of New York or Ohio, where marriages -5, by exterminating the small-pox. Now, this is are made early and the births are numerous, necessarily almost precisely 9 per cent. CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 59'We stated, that the diminution of the annual mor- may not be legitimately drawn from phenomena collect. tality between 1780 and 1821 was 45 per cent., accord- ed fromthe whole period of corporeal existence. ing to Mr Rickman. If we deduct this from 9 per cent. for the effect of vaccination, and 5 per cent. as only apparent, resulting from the increasing proportion of births-31 per cent. remains, which, we apprehend, can INFRINGEMENT OF THE MORAL LAWs.-Text, p. 44. only be accounted for by an improvement in the habits, The deterioration of the operative classes of Britain morals, and physical condition of the people. Inde- which I attribute to excessive labour, joined with great pendently, flthen, of the two causes alluded to, the value alternations of high and low wages, and occasionally of human life since 1780, has increased in a ratio which with absolute idleness and want, is illustrated by the would diminish the annual mortality from 1 in 40 to 1 following extracts:in 52 1-2,-a fact which is indisputably of great impor-'UNEMPLOYED WrEAVERS IN LANARKSHIRE. On tance, and worth volumes of declamation in illustrating Saturday last, a meeting of weavers' delegates from the the true situation of the labouring classes. We have various districts in this neighbourhood, was held in the founded our conclusion on data derived entirely from usual place. The object of the meeting was to receive English returns; but there is no doubt that it applies from the several districts an account of the number of equally to Scotland. It is consoling to find, from this weavers out of employment, which statement it was very unexceptionable species of evidence, that though intended to lay before the Lord Provost and Magisthere is much privation and suffering in the country, the trates. The following are the returns given in:-Ansituation of the people has been, on the whole, progres- derston contains 708 looms, of which 386 are idle. sively improving during the last forty years. But how Baillieston-toll contains 150 looms, of these 98 are much greater would the advance have been, had they empty. The district of North Bridgeton contains, in been less taxed, and better treated? and how much whole, between 400 and 500 looms. The returns are room is there still for future melioration, by spreading only from about one half of this district, which coninstruction, amending our laws, lessening the temp- tains 150 empty looms. For the centre and south dis, tations to crime, and improving the means of correction tricts of Bridgeton, the accounts are incomplete. In and reform. In the mean time it ought to be some en- the former 180 and in the latter 60 empty looms were couragement to philanthropy to learn that it has not taken up. In Charleston there are 132 idle. In to struggle against invincible obstacles, and that even Cowcaddens, of 300 looms, 120 are idle. In Clyde,Bell, when the prospect was least cheering to the eye, its ef- and Tobago Streets,of about 500 looms, there are 74 idle; forts were silently benefitting society.' and 100 working webs which cannot average 7d. a-day. It has been mentioned to me, that the late Dr Mon- In Drygate, there are 105 idle; In Drygate-toll 73; in rto, in his anatomical lectures, stated, that, as far as he Duke Street 18. In Gorbals,containing 365 looms, there could observe, the human body as a machine, was per- are 223 idle. In Havannah, out of 130 looms, there fe t.-that it bore within itself no marks by which we are 48 idle. In the district of Keppoch-hill, of 70 could possibly predicate its decay,-that it was appa- weavers, there are 20 idle. The district of King rently calculated to go on for ever,-and that we learn- Street is divided into ten wards; returns are only given ed only by experience that it would not do so; and in from four, which contain 70 empty looms. In Polsome persons have conceived this to be an authority lockshaws, containing about 800 looms,there are 216 idle. against the doctrine maintained in Chap. III, Sect. 2, In Rutherglen there are 167 idle. In Springbank, of that death is apparently inherent in organization. In an- 141 weavers, there are 58 unemployed; and in Strathswer, I beg to observe, that if we were to look at the bungo, containing 104 looms, there are 28 idle, 25 sun only for one moment of time, say at noon, no cir- of whom are married men. Parkhead, Camlachie, and cumstance, in its appearance would indicate that it had some other extensive districts, have not yet given in their ever risen, or that it would ever set; but, if we had returns. The delegates, before separating, appointed traced its progress from the horizon to the meridian, a general meeting to be held in the Green this day, and down again till the long shadows of evening pre- to decide upon an address to the Magistrates, requestvailed, we should have ample grounds for inferring, ing them to endeavour to procure employment for the that, if the same causes that had produced these idlehands.'-Glasgow Chronicle,Tuesday,March,1826. changes continued to operate, it would undoubtedly at'SHEEP TRADE. The late commercial crisis, like length disappear. In the same way, if we were to con- a death-blow, has paralysed the whole activity of the fine our observations on the human body to a mere country, and left scarcely a single branch of its trade point of time, it is certain that, from the appearances of and industry unscathed. It was at first fondly hoped that moment, we could not infer that it had grown up, that the storm would pass without such remote disby gradual increase, or that it would decay; but this is tricts as our own having much reason to complain of its the case only, because our faculties are not fitted to visitation; but nothing, as the present instance proves, penetrate into the essential nature and dependences of is more certain than that the distresses of the commerthings. Any man, who had seen the body decrease in cial, must also in all cases be more or less felt by the old age, could, without hesitation, predicate, that, if the agricultural classes of the community. The demand same causes which had produced that effect went on for wool has now so far ceased as to operate most inoperating, dissolution would at last inevitably occur; juriously upon the price of sheep, which cannot presentand if his Causality were well developed, he would not ly be sold but at a very considerable loss to the farhesitate to say that a cause of the decrease and disso- mer. In the latter part, or "back season," as it is lution must exist, although he could not tell by examin- called, of 1824, black-faced ewes-their example applies ing the body what it was. By analysing alcohol, no equally to the other kinds-were bought in for winterperson could predicate, independently of experience, ing at from 8s. to' 12s. a head; and in the spring of that it would produce intoxication; and nevertheless, 1825, immediately before lambing-time, these were disthere must be a cause in the constitution of the alcohol, posed of in the English markets at so great a profit, that in that of the body, and in the relationship between every farmer who could at all enter into the speculathem, why it produces this effect. The notion, there- tion, bought up at the end of the ensuing harvest, as fore, of Dr Monro, does not prove that death is not an much of that description of stock as his quantity of essential law of organization, but only that the human keep would reasonably permit. The number of sheep faculties are not able, by dissection, to discover that over those of the preceding year, which were bought the cause of it is inherent in the bodily constitution it- up for this purpose, may be judged of from the fact, 8elf. It does not follow however, that this inference that the highest inlay price of 1824 was the lowest of 60 CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 1825-the rate for the latter year being, for black-faced found work again, but at very low wages. They were ewes, from 12. to 18. But the present crisis came, labouring from twelve to fourteen hours a-day, and — the manufacturers of England were obliged to re- gaining from 4s. to 5s. 6d. per week.' trench at meals in the article of mutton,-the demand'POOR RATES, 28th March, 1828.-A document of on the part of the butchers consequently ceased; and great importance, though of a description by no means now those sheep which were purchased at so extrava- cheering, has been presented to the House of Comgant a rate, are necessarily sold, upon an average, at a mons,-the annual Abstract of the Returns of the Poor loss of 2s. a-head upon the inlay price, without at all Rates levied and expended, with comparisons, showing estimating the expense of keep. We know one ex- their increase or diminution. The accounts show the tensive moorland farmer, who calculates upon losing expenditure of the year ending 25th March, 1827, comtwo hundred pounds in the present year from this pared with the previous year. The total sum levied in cause alone, besides a vast loss which he must also all the counties of England and Wales, in the last year, sustain in consequence of the reduced price of wool. was ~7,489,694; the sum expended for the relief of This cessation of demand in England was unfortunate- the poor, ~6,179,877. The increase in that year ly not fully ascertained until several droves of lambing throughout the whole of England and Wales, is nine ewes had been despatched to that quarter; and the per cent; nine per cent. in one year on the whole sum embarrassment of those who are placed in this predica- expended. It is true that this is in part to be accounted ment is the more afflicting, as their knowledge has for by the temporary distress of the manufacturing disbeen acquired too late to allow of their availing them- tricts. (In Lancaster, the increase was forty-seven, in selves of the House of Muir, and other northern mar- the West Riding of York, thirty-one per cent;) but kets.' —Dumfries Courier, March, 1826. we are sorry to find, that in only three counties of Eng-' Detaies upon the Subject of Weavers' Wages, from land was there any the most trifling diminution. In the last Report of emigration extracted from the Scots- Berks two, Hampshire five, Suffolk four per cent. The man Neuwspaper, of 10th November, 1827. poor rates in England, therefore, amount to nearly dou-'Joseph Foster a weaver, and one of the deputies of ble the whole landed rental of Scotland.' an emigration society in Glasgow, states that the la-' Extract from the Lord-Advocate's Speech in the House bour is all paid by the piece; the hours of working of Commons, 11th March, 1828, on the additional are various, sometimes eighteen or nineteen out of Circuit Court of Glasgow. twenty-four, and even all night once or twice a-week;'The Lord-Advocate, in rising to move for leave to and that the wages made by such labour, after deduct- bring in a bill to " authorize an additional Court of Jusing the necessary expenses, will not amount to more ticiary to be held at Glasgoiw, and to facilitate criminal than from 4s. 6d. to 7s. per week, some kinds of work, trial in Scotland," said he did not anticipate any oppopaying better than others. When he commenced work- sition to the motion. A great deal had been said of ing as a weaver, from 1800 to 1805, the same amount the progress of crime in this country, but he wv-as sorry of labour that now yields 4s. 6d. to 5s. would have yield- to say crime in Scotland had kept pace with that ined 20s. There are about 11,000 hand-looms going in crease. A return had been made of the number of Glasgow and its suburbs, some of which are worked by criminal commitments in each year, so far back as the' boys and girls, and he estimates the average net earn- year 1805. In that year the number of criminal comings of each hand-weaverat 5s 6d. The principlesub- mitments for all Scotland amounted only to 85. In sistence of the weavers is oatmeal and potatoes, with 1809 it had risen to between 200 and 300; in 1819occasionally some salt herring, 20, it had increased to 400; and by the last return, it.' Major Thomas Moodie, who had made careful in- appeared, that, in 1827, 661 persons had been commitqulries into the state of the poor at Manchester, states, ted for trial. He was inclined to think, that the great inthat the calico and other light plain work at Bolton and crease of crime, particularly in the west of Scotland, Blackburn, yields the weaver from 4s. to 5s. per week, was attributable, in no small degree, to the number of by fourteen hours of daily labour. In the power-loom Irish who daily and weekly arrived there. He did not work, one man attends two looms, and earns from 7s. 6d. mean to say that the Irish themselves were in the habit to 14s. per week, according to the fineness of the work. of committing more crime than their neighbours; but He understood that during the last ten years, weavers' he was of opinion, that their numbers tended to reduce wages had fallen on an average about 15s. per week. the price of labour, and that an increase of crime was'Mr Thomas Hunton, manufacturer, Carlisle, states, the consequence. Another cause was the great disrethat there are in Carlisle and its neighbourhood about gard manifested by parents for the moral education of 5500 families, or from 18,000 to 20,000 persons dlepen- their children. Formerly the people of Scotland were dent on weaving. They are all hand-weavers, and are remarkable for the paternal care which they took of now in a very depressed state, in consequence of the their offspring. That had ceased in many instances to increase of power-loom and factory weaving* in Man- be the case. Not only were parents found who did not chester and elsewhere. Taking fifteen of his men, he pay attention to the welfare of their children, but who finds that five of them, who are employed on the best were actually parties to their criminal pursuits, and parwork, had earned 5s. 6d. per week for the preceding ticipated in the fruits of their unlawful proceedings. month deducting the necessary expenses of loom-rent, When crime was thus on the increase, it was necessary candles, tackling, &c.; the next five, who are upon to take measures for its speedy punishment. The great work of the second quality, earned 3s. 11d.; and the city of Glasgow, which contained 150,000 inhabitants, third five earned 3s. 7 1-2per week. They work from and to which his proposed measure was meant chiefly fourteen to sixteen hours a-day, and live chiefly on po- to apply, stood greatly in need of some additional juristatoes, butter-milk, and herrings. diction. This would appear evident, when it was con-'MrW. H. Hyett, Secretary to the Charity Com- sidered that the court which met there for the trial of mittee in London, gives a detailed statement, to show, capital offences, had also to act in the districts of Renthat in the Hundredof Blackburn, comprising a popula- frew, Lanark, and Dunbarton. In 1812, the whole tion of 150,000 persons, 90,000 were out of employ- number of criminals tried in Glasgow was only 31; in ment in 1826! In April last, when he gave his evidence 1820, it was 83; in 1823, it was 85; and in 1827, 211. before the Committee, these persons had generally -The learned lord concluded by moving for leave to * In what is called factory weaving, an improved species of bring in a bill to authorize an additional circuit court of hand-loom is employed, in which the dressing and preparation to be held ofthe web is effected by machinery, and the weaver merely sits and drives the shuttle. nal trial in Scotland.' THE END. CONTENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN, CHAPTER I. ON NATURAL LAWS,........... CHAPTER II. OF THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN, AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS.... 6 SECT. I. Man considered as a Physical Being,. 7 II. Man considered as an Organized Being,...... III. Man considered as an Animal —Moral- and Intellectual Being, 8 IV. The Faculties of Man compared with each other; or the supremacy of the Moral Senmentsand Intellect,... 10 V. The Faculties of Man compared with External Objects,.14 VI. On the sources of Human Happiness, and the conditions requisite for maintaining it, 16 VII. Application of the Natural Laws to the practical arrangements of Life,... 19 CHAPTER III. TO WHAT EXTENT ARE THE MISERIES OF MANKIND REFERABLE TO INFRINGEMENTS OF THE LAWS OF NATURE,........... 21 SECT. I. Calamities arising from infringements of the Physical Laws,.... 21 II. On the Evils that befall Mankind from the infringement of the Organic Laws, 22 III. Calamities arising from infringement of the Moral Law,. 38 IV. Moral advantages of Punishment,.. 47 CHAPTER IV. ON THE COMBINED OPERATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS,. 48 CONCLUSION,..52 APPENDIX. NOTE I. Natural Laws,.65 II. Organic Laws,...... 56 III. Death-Decreasing Mortality, 58 IV Moral Law, 59 ESSAYS IN A SERIES OF LETTERS, ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS: ON A MAN'S TWRITING MEMOIRS OF HIMSELF. ON DECISION OF CHARACTER. ON THE APPLICATION OF THE EPITHET ROMANTIC. ON SOME OF THE CAUSES BY WHICH EVANGELICAL RELIGION HAS BEEN RENDERED LESS ACCEPTABLE TO PERSONS OF CULTIVATED TASTE. BY JOHN FOSTER, AnThOR OF'GLORY OF THE AGE,' &o. HARTFORD: PUBLISHED BY SILAS ANDRUS & SON. 1850. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. PERHAPS it will be thought that pieces written so effort under the same conditions under which the other much in the manner of set compositions as the follow- asserts their inefficacy; and that, therefore, there is ing, should not have been denominated Letters; it may, no real contrariety between the principles of the two therefore, be proper to say, that they are so called be- essays. From the evidence of history and familiar cause they were actually addressed to a friend. They experience we know that under certain conditions, and were written, however, with the intention to print them, within certain limits, (very contracted ones indeed,) an if, when they were finished, the writer could persuade enlightened and resolute human spirit has great power, himself that they deserved it; and the character of this greatness being relative, of course, to the measures authors is too well known for any one to be surprised of things within a small sphere; while it is equally that he could persuade himself of this. obvious that this enlightened and resolute spirit, disreWhen he began these letters, his intention was to garding these conditions, and attempting to extend its confine himself within such limits, that essays on twelve agency over a much wider sphere, shall find its power or fifteen subjects might have been comprised in a vo- baffled and annihilated, till it draws back again within lume. But he soon found that an interesting subject tne contracted boundary. Now the great power of the could not be so fully unfolded as he wished, in such a human mind within the narrow limit may be distinctly narrow space. It appeared to him that many things illustrated at one time, and its impotence beyond that which would be excluded, as much belonged to the limit, at another; but the assemblage of sentiments purpose of the essay as those which would be intro_ and exemplifications most adapted to illustrate, and duced. without any very material exaggeration, that power alone, will form apparently so strong a contrast with It will not seem a very'natural manner of commenc- e will form apparently so strong a contrast with It will not seem a ver natural manner of commenc- the assemblage of thoughts and facts proper for illus. ing a course of letters to a friend to enter formally on g that imbecil per a subject, in the first sentence. In excuse for this ab-tr that ity alone, that on a superficial vew ruptness it may be mentioned, that an introductory let- the two representations may appear contradictory. And ter went before that which appears first in the series; the author appeals to the experience of such thinking men as are accustomed to commit their thoughts to but as it was written in the presumption that a consid- men as are accustomed to commit their thoughts to erable variety of subjects would be treated in the com- iting, whether they have not sometimes, on compapass of a moderate number of letters, it is omitted, as ring the pages in which they had endeavoured to place being less adapted to precede what is executed in a one truth in. the strongest light, with those in which nianner so different from the design. they have endeavoured a strong but yet not extravagant exhibition of another, felt a momentary difficulty to reWhen writing which has occupied a considerable concile them, even while satisfied of the substantial length, and has been interrupted by considerable inter- justness of both. The whole doctrine on any extenvals, of time, which is also on very different subjects, sive moral subject necessarily includes two viewswhich and was, perhaps, meditated under the influence of dif-may be considered as its extremes; and if these are ferent circumstances, is at last all read over in one strongly stated quite apart from their relations to each short space, this immediate succession and close com- other, both the representations may be perfectly true, parison make the writer sensible of some things of and yet may require, in order to the readers perceiving which he was not aware in the slow separate stages of their consistency, a recollection of many intermediate his progress. On thus bringing the following essays ideas. under one review, the writer perceives some reason to In the fourth essay, it was not intended to take a apprehend that the spirit of the third may appear so comprehensive or systematic view of the causes condifferent from that of the second as to give an impres- tributing to prevent the candid attention and the cordial sion of something like inconsistency. The secoind may admission due to evangelical religion, but simply to se seem to represent that a man may effect almost every lect a very few which had particularly attracted the authing; the third, that he can effect scarcely any thing. thor's observation. One or two more would have been The writer, however, persuades himself that the one specified and slightly illustrated, if that the essay had does not assort the efficacy of human resolutioe and not been alreadytoo long. and ~.,~....~...~.,,.,.. ESSAY I. ON A MAN'S WRITING MEMOIRS OF HIMSELF LETTER I. Necessarily a very large portion of what has occupied the successive years of life was of a kind to be utterly lffectonate Interest with which we revert to our past. Life- useless for a history of it; because it was merely for It deserves a brief Record for our own use-Very few the accommodation of the time. Perhaps in the space things to be noted of the Multitude that have occurred- of forty years, millions of sentences are proper to be Direction and Use of such a Review as toould be required uttered, and many thousands of affairs requisite to be for writing a Memoir-Importance of our past Lije con- transacted, or ot journeys to be performed, which it sidered as the Beginning of an endless Duration of Exis- wouldberidiculous to record. They are a kind of matence-General Deficiency of Self-Observation-Oblivion terial for the common expenditure and of the of the greatest number of our past Feelings- Occasional teral for the common expendture and waste of the Glimpses of vivid Recollection-Associations with Things day. And yet it is often by a detail of this subordiand Places-The different' and unknown Associations of nate economy of life, that the works of fiction, the nardifferent Persons with the same Places. ratives of age, the journals of travellers, and even grave biographical accounts, are made so unreasonably long. MY DEAR FRIEND, As well might a chronicle of the coats that a man has EVERY one knows with what interest it is natural to worn, with the colour and date of each, be called his retrace the course of our own lives. The past states life, for any important uses of relating its history. As and periods of a man's being are retained in a connex- well might a man, of whom I inquire the dimensions, ion with the present by that principle of self-love, which the internal divisions, and the use, of some remarkable is unwilling to relinquish its hold on what has once building, begin to tell me how much wood was embeen his. Though he cannot but'be sensible of how ployed in the scaffolding, where the mortar was prepared, little consequence his life can have been in the crea- or how often it rained while the work was proceeding. tion, compared with many other trains of events, yet he But, in a deliberate review of all that we can rehas felt it more important to himself than all other member of past life, it will be possible to select a certrains together; and you will very rarely find him tain proportion which may with the most propriety be tired of narrating again the litle history, or at least deemed the history of the man. What I am recomthe favorite parts of the little history, of himself. mending is, to follow the order of time, and reduce To turn this partiality to some account, I recollect your recollections, from the earliest period to the preshaving proposed to two or three of my friends that ent, into as simple a statement and explanation as you they should write, each principally however for his can, of your feelings, opinions, and habits, and of the own use, memoirs of their own lives, endeavouring principal circumstances through each stage that have not so much to enumerate the mere facts and events influenced them, till they have become at last what of life, as to discriminate the successive states' of the they now are. mind, and the progress of character. It is in this Whatever tendencies nature may justly be deemed progress that we acknowledge the chief importance of to have imparted in the first instance, you would problife to consist: but even as supplying a constant series ably find the greater part of the moral constitution of of interests to the passions, and separately from every your being composed of the contributions of many years consideration of moral and intellectual discipline, we and events, consolidated by degrees into what we call have all accounted our life an inestimable possession, character; and by investigating the progress of the acwhich it deserved incessant cares and labours to retain, cumulation, you would be assisted to judge more and which continues in most cases to be still held with clearly how far the materials are valuable, the mixture anxious attachment. What has been the object of so congruous, and the whole conformation worthy to remuch partiality, and has been delighted and painted by main unaltered. With respect to any friend that so many emotions, might claim, even if the highest in- greatly interests us, we have always a curiosity to obterest were out of the question, that a short memorial tain an accurate account of the past train of his life and should be retained by him who has possessed it, has feelings; and though there may be several reasons for seen it all to this moment depart, and can never recal it. such a wish, it partly springs from a consciousness how To write memoirs of many years, as twenty, thirty, much this retrospective knowledge would assist to deor forty, seems, at the first glance, a ponderous task. cide or confirm our estimate of that friend; but our To reap the products of so many acres of earth indeed estimate of ourselves is of more serious consequence. might, to one person, be an undertaking of mighty toil. The elapsed periods of life acquire importance too But the materials of any value that all past life can from the prospect of its continuance. The smallest supply to a recording pen, would be reduced by a dis- thing becomes respectable, when regarded as the comcerning selection to a very small and modest amount. mencement of what has advanced, or is advancing, Would as much as one page of moderate size be into magnificence. The first rude settlement of Romdeemed by any man's self importance to be due, on an ulus would have been an insignificant circumstance, average, to each of the days that he has lived. No and might justly have sunk into oblivion, if Rome had man would judge more than dune in ten thousand of all not at length commanded the world. The little rill, his thoughts, sayings, and actions, worthy to be men- near the source of one of the great American rivers, is tioned, if memory were capable of recalling then. an interesting object to the traveller, who is apprised, No. 17. 4 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. as he steps across it, or walks a few miles along its early youth it is almost inevitable for it to be thus lost bank, that this is the stream which runs so far, and to itself even amidst its own feelings, and the external which gradually swells into so immense a flood. So, objects of attention; but it seems a contemptible thing, while I anticipate the endless progress of life, and won- and certainly is a criminal and dangerous thing, for a der through what unknown scenes it is to take its man in mature life to allow himself this thoughtless course, its past years lose that character of vanity escape from self-examination. which would seem to belong to a train of fleeting per- We have not only neglected to observe what our ishing moments, and I see them assuming the dignity feelings indicated, but have also in a very great degree of a commencing eternity. In them I have begun to ceased to remember what they were. We may justly be that conscious existence which I am to be through wonder how our minds could. pass away successively infinite duration: and I feel a strange emotion of curi- from so many scenes and moments which seemed to us osity about this little life, in which I am setting out on important, each in its time, and retain so light an imsuch a progress; I cannot be content without an accu- pression, that we have now nothing to tell about what rate sketch of the windings thus far of a stream which once excited our utmost emotion. As to my own mind, is to bear me on forever. I try to imagine how it will I perceive that it is becoming uncertain of the exact be to recohect, at a far distant point of my era, what I nature of many feelings of considerable interest, even was when here; and wish, if it were possible, to re- of comparatively recent date; of course, the rememtain, as I advance, the whole course of my existence brance of what was felt in early life is exceedingly within the scope of clear reflection; to fix in my mind faint. I have just been observing several children of so strong an idea of what I have been in this original eight or ten years old, in all the active vivacity which period of my time, that I shall possess this idea in ages enjoys the plentitude of the moment without' looking too remote for calculation. before or after;' and while observing, I attempted, but The review becomes still more important, when I without success, to recollect what I was at that age. learn the influence which this first part of the progress I can indeed remember the principal events of the pewill have on the happiness or misery of the next. riod, and the actions and projects to which my feelings One of the greatest difficulties in the way of execut- impelled me; but the feelings themselves, in their own ing the proposed task will have been caused by the ex- pure juvenility, cannot be revived, so as to be described treme deficiency of that self-observation, which, to any and placed in comparison with those of maturity. extent, is no common employment either of youth or What is become of all those vernal fancies which had any later age. Men realize their existence in the sur- so much power to touch the heart? What a number of rounding objects that act upon them, and from the in- sentiments have lived and revelled in the soul that are terests of self, rather than in that very self, that inte- now irrevocably gone! They died, like the singing rior being that is thus acted upon. So that this being birds of that time, which now sing no more. itself, with its thoughts and feelings, as distinct from The life that we then had, now seems almost as if it the objects of those thoughts and feelings, but rarely could not have been our own. When we go back to it occupies its own deep and patient attention. Men car- in thought, and endeavour to recal the interests which ry their minds as they carry their watches, content to animate it, they will not come. We are like a man be ignorant of the mechanism of their movements, and returning, after the absence of many years, to visit the satisfied with attending to the little exterior circle of embowered cottage where he passed the morning of his things, to which the passions, like indexes, are point- life, and finding only a relic of its ruins. ing. It is surprising to see how little self-knowledge a But many of the Ifopensities which still continue, person not watchfully observant of himself may have probably originated then: and our not being able to gained, in the whole course of an active, or even an in- explore them up to those remote sources renders a comquisitive life. He may have lived almost an age, and plete investigation of our moral and intellectual charactraversed a continent, minutely examining its curiosi- ters forever impossible. How little, in those years, we ties, and interpreting the half-obliterated characters on were aware, when we met with the incident, or heard its monuments, unconscious the while of a process ope- the conversation, or saw the spectacle or felt the emorating on his own mind, to impress or to erase charac- tion, which were the first causes of some of the chief teristics of much more importance to him than all the permanent tendencies of future life, how much and figured brass or marble that Europe contains. After how vainly we might, long afterward, wish to ascertain having explored many a cavern or dark ruinous ave-'the originof those tendencies. But if we cannot absonue, he may have left undetected a darker recess in his lutely reach their origin, it will however be interesting character. He may have conversed with many people, to trace them back through all the circumstances which in different languages, on numberless subjects; but, have increased their strength. having neglected those conversations with himself by In some occasional states of the mind, we can look which his whole moral being should have been kept back much more clearly, and to a much greater discontinually disclosed to his view, he is better qualified tance, than at other times. I would advise to seize perhaps to describe the intrigues of a foreign court, or those short intervals of illumination which sometimes the progress of a foreign trade; to represent the man- occur without our knowing the cause, and in which the ners of the Italians, or the Turks; to narrate the pro- genuine aspect of some remote event, or long-forgotceedings of the Jesuits, or the adventures of the Gyp- ten image, is recovered with extreme distinctness by sies; than to write the history of his own mind. vivid spontaneous glimpses of thought such as no effort If we had practised habitual self-observation, we could havs commarded; as the sombre features and could not have failed to make important discoveries. minute objects of a distant ridge of hills become strikThere have been thousands of feelings, each of ingly visible in the strong gleams of light which tranwhich, if' strongly seized upon, and made the subject siently fall on them. An instance of this kind occurred of reflection, would have shown us what ou* character to me but a few hours since, while reading what had no was, and what it was likely to become. There have perceptible connexion with a circumstance of my early been numerous incidents, which operated on us as youth, which probably I have not recollected for many tests, and so fully brought out our prevalent quality, years, and which had no unusual interest at the time that another person, who should have been discrimi- that it happened. That circumstance came suddenly nately observing us, would instantly have formed a de- to my mind with a clearness of representation which I cided estimate. But unfortunately the mind is gener- was not able to retain for the length of an hour, ahd ally too nrach occupied by the feeling or the incident which I could not by the strongest effort at this instant'tself, to have the slightest care or consciousness that renew. I seemed almost to see the walls and windows any thing could be learnt, or is disclosed. In very of a particular room, with four or five persons in it, FOSTER'S ESSAYS wrho were so perfectly restored to my imagination, that will be worth while to inquire how far, and in what I could recognise not only the features, but even the manner. momentary expressions of their countenances, and then Few persons can look back to the early period wher tones of their voices. they were most directly the subjects of instruction, According to different states of the mind too, retro- without a regret for themselves, (which may be extendsDect appears longer or shorter. It may happen that ed to the human race,) that the result of instruction, some memorable circumstance of very early life shall excepting that which leads to evil, bears so small a be so powerfully recalled, as to contract the wide in- proportion to its compass and repetition. Yet some tervening space, by banishing from. the view, a little good consequences will follow the diligent inculcation while, all the series of intermediate remembrances; of truth and precept on the youthful mind; and our but when this one object of memory retires again to consciousness of possessing certain advantages derived its remoteness and indifference, and all the others re- from it will be a partial consolation in the review that: sume their proper places and distances, the retrospect will comprise so many proofs of its comparative ineffiappears long. cacy. You can recollect perhaps, the instructions to Places and things which have an association with any which you feel yourself permanently the most indebted, of the events or feelings of past life, will greatly assist and some of those which produced the greatest effect the recollection of them. A man of strong associa- at the time, those which surprised, delighted, or mortitions finds memoirs of himself already written on the fled you. You can remember the facility or difficulty places where he has conversed with happiness or mise- of understanding, the facility or difficulty of believing, rv. If an old man wished to animate for a moment the and the practical inferences which you drew from prinlanguid and faded ideas which he retains of his youth, ciples, on the strength of your own reason, and somen he might walk with his crutch across the green, where times in variance with those made by your instructers he once played with companions who are now probably You can remember what views of truth and duty were laid to repose in another spot not far off. An aged most frequently and cogently presented, what passions saint may meet again some of the affecting ideas of his were appealed to, what arguments were employed, and early piety, in the place where he first thought it happy which had the greatest influence. Perhaps your preto pray. A walk in a meadow, the sight of a bank of sent idea of the most convincing and persuasive mode flowers, perhaps even of some one flower, a landscape of instruction, may be derived from your early experiwith the tints of autumn, the descent into a valley, the ence of the manner of those persons with whose opin.l brow of a mountain, the house where a friend has been ions you felt it the most easy and delightful to harmomet, or has resided, or has died, have often produced a nize, who gave you the most agreeable consciousness much more lively recollection of our past feelings, and of your faculties expanding to the light, like morning; of the objects and events which caused them, than the flowers, and who, assuming the least of dictation, ex-, most perfect description could have done; and we have erted the greatest degree of power. You can recollect lingered a considerable time for the pensive luxury of the submissiveness with which your mind yielded to inthus resuming the departed state. structions as from an oracle, or the hardihood with But there are many to whom local associations pre- which you dared to examine and oppose them. You sen; images which they fervently wish they could for- can remember how far they became, as to your own get; images which haunt the places where crimes had conduct, an internal authority of reason and conscience, been perpetrated, and which seemed to approach and when you were not under the inspection of those who glare on the criminal as he hastily passes by, especially inculcated them; and what classes of persons or things if in the evening or in the night. No local associa- around you they induced you to dislike or approve. tiolis are so impressive as those of guilt. It may here And you can perhaps imperfectly trace the manner and, be observed, that as each one has his own separate re- the particulars in which they sometimes aided, or somemembrances, giving to some places an aspect and a sig- times counteracted, those other influences which have nificance which he alone can perceive, there must be a far stronger efficacy on the character than instruction an unknown number of pleasing, or mournful, or dread- can boast. ful associations, spread over the scenes inhabited or vi- Most persons, I presume, can recollect some few; sited by men. We pass without any awakened con- sentimentsor conversations which made so deep an imsciousness by the bridge, or the wood, or the house, pression, perhaps in some instances they can scarcely where there is something to excite the most painful or tell whv, that they have been thousands of times recallfrightful ideas in the next man that shall come that way, ed, while all the rest have been forgotten; or they can or possibly the companion that walks along with us. advert to some striking incident, coming in aid of inHow much there is in a thousand spots of the earth, struction, or being of itself a forcible instruction, which that is invisible and silent to all but the conscious indi- they seem even now to see as clearly as when it hap-'vidual! pened, and of which they will retain a perfect idea to I hear a voice you cannot hear; the end of life. The most remarkable circumstances of I see a hand you cannot see. this kind deserve to be recorded in the supposed memoirs. In some instances, to recollect the instructions of a former period, will be to recollect too the excelLETTER II. lence, the affection, and the death, of the persons who gave them. Amidst the sadness of such a remembrance, it will be a consolation that they are not entirelylost to All past Life an Educcation-Discipline and influencefrom- it will be consolation that they are not entielylos to direct Instructiozt-Cosmpanio~nship-b.ooks-Scenes of us. WVise monitions, when they return onus with this iature-andothe Stateof Society. melancholy charm, have more pathetic cogency than when they were first uttered by the voice of a living We may regard our past life as a continued though friend. It will be an interesting occupation of the Irregular course of education; and the discipline has pensive hour, to recount the advantages which we have consisted of instruction, companionship, reading, and received from the beings who have left the world, and the diversified influence of the world. The young to reinforce our virtues from the dust of those who first, mind eagerly came forward to meet the operation of taught them. some or all of these modes of discipline, though with- In our review, we shall find that the companions of out the possibility of a thought concerning the import- our childhood, and of each succeeding period, have had ant process under which it was beginning to pass. In a great influence on our characters. A creature so some certain degree we have been influenced by each conformable as man, and at the same time so capable 9f these parts of the great system of education; it of being moulded into partial dissimilarity by social aie 6 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. tipathies, cannot have conversed with his fellow beings made the earliest and the strongest impression. It is thousands of hours, walked with them thousands of pleasing at a more advanced period to look again into miles, undertaken with them numberless enterprises, the early favourites; though the mature person may smaller and greater, and had every passion, by turns, wonder how some of them had once power to absorb awakened in their company, without being immensely his passions, make him retire into a lonely wood in order affected by all this association. A large share, indeed, to read unmolested, repel the approaches of sleep, or of the social interest may have been of so common a infect it, when it came, with visions. A capital part kind, and with persons of so common an order, that the of the proposed task would be to recollect the books effect on the character has been too little peculiar to be that have been read with the greatest interest, the pestrikingly perceptible during the progress. We were riods when they were read, the succession of them, the not sensible of it) till we came to some of those circum- partiality which any of them inspired to a particular stances and changes in life, which make us aware of mode of life, to a study, to a system, of opinions or to a the state of our minds by the manner in which new ob- class of human characters; to note the counteraction jects are acceptable or repulsive to them. On removing of later ones (where we have been sensible of it) to the into a new circle of society, for instance, we could per- effect produced by the former; and then to endeavour ceive, by the number of things in which we found our- to estimate the whole and ultimate influence. selves uncongenial with the new acquaintance, the mo- Considering the multitude of facts, sentiments, and dification which our sentiments had received in the pre- characters, which have been contemplated by a person ceding social intercourse. But in some instances we who has read much, the effect, one should think, must have been sensible, in a very short time, of a powerful have been very great. Still, however, it is probable force operating on our opinions, tastes and habits, and that a very small number of books will have the prethrowing them into a new order. This effect is inevi- eminence in our mental history. Perhaps your memory table, if a young susceptible mind happens to become fa- will promptly recur to six or ten that have contributed miliarly acquainted with a person in whom a strongly more to your present habits of feeling and thought than individual cast of character is sustained and dignified all the rest together. And here it maybe observed, by uncommon mental resources; and it may he found that when a few books of the same kind have pleased that, generally, the greatest measure of effect has been us emphatically, they too often form an almost exclusive produced by the influence of a very small number of taste, which is carried through all future reading, and persons; often of one only, whose extended and in- is pleased only with books of that kind. teresting mind had more power to surround and assimi- It might be supposed that the scenes of nature, an late a young, ingenuous being, then the collective in- amazing assemblage of phenomena if their effect were fluence of a multitude of the persons, whose characters not lost through familiarity, would have a powerful inwere moulded in the manufactory of custom, and sent fluence on all opening minds, and transfuse into the inforth like images of clay of kindred shape and varnish ternal economy of ideas and sentiment something of a from a pottery. I am supposing, all along, that the character and a colour correspondent to the beauty, person who writes memoirs of himself, is conscious of vicissitude, and grandeur, which continually press on something more peculiar than a mere dull resemblance the senses. On minds of genius they often have this of that ordinary form of character for which it would effect; and Beattie's Minstrel may be as just as it is a seem hardly worth while to have been a man. As to captivating description of the feelings of such a spirit. the crowd of those who are faithfully stamped, like bank But on the greatest number this influence operates notes, with the same marks, with the difference only of feebly; you will not see the process in children, nor being worth more guineas or fewer, they are mere par- the result in mature persons. The charms of nature tides of a glass, mere pieces and bits of the great vul- are objects only of sight and hearing, not of sensibility gar or the small; they need not write their history, it and imagination. And even the sight and hearing do may be found in the newspaper chronicle, or the gos- not receive impressions sufficiently distinct or forcible sip's or the sexton's narrative. for clear recollection; it is not, therefore, strange that It is obvious, in what I have suggested respecting these impressions seldom go so much deeper than the the research through past life, that all the persons who senses as to awaken pensiveness or enthusiasm, and fill are recalled to the mind, as having had an influence on the mind with an interior permanent scenery of beautius, must stand before it in judgment. It is impossible ful images at its own command. This defect of fancy to examine our moral and intellectual growth without and sensibility is unfortunate amidst a creation infinitely forming an estimate, as we proceed, of those who re- rich with grand and beautiful objects, which imparting tarded, advanced, or perverted it. Our dearest rela- something more than images to a irmind adapted and tives and friends cannot be' exempted. There will be habituated to converse with nature, inspire an exquisite to some instances the necessity of blaming where we sentiment that seems like the emanation of a spirit re wish to give entire praise; though perhaps some wor- siding in them. It is unfortunate. I have thought with thy motives and generous feelings may, at the same in these few minutes, while looking out on one of tht time, be discovered in the conduct where they had hard- most enchanting nights of the most interesting seasoe, ly been perceived or allowed before. But, at any rate, of the year, and hearing, the voices of a company of it is important that in no instance the judgment be dup- persons, to*yhom I can perceive that this soft and soed into delusive estimates, amidst the examination, and lemn shade over the earth, the calm sky, the beautiful so as to deprave the principles of the examination, by stripes of clouds, the stars, and the waning moon just which we mean to bring ourselves to rigorous justice. risen, are things not in the least more interesting than For if any indulgent partiality, or mistaken idea of that the walls, ceilings, and candle-light of a room. I feel no duty which requires a kind and candid feeling to ac- vanity in this instance; for probably a thousand aspects company the clearest discernment of defects, may be of night, not less striking than this, have appeared bepermitted to beguile our judgment out of the decisions fore my eyes and departed, not only without awakening of jutsice in favour of others, self-love, a still more in- emotion, but almost without attracting notice. dulgent and partial feeling, will not fail to, practise the If minds in general are not made to be strongly affected same beguilement in favour of ourselves. But indeed by the phenomena of the earth and heavens, they are it would seem impossible, besides being absurd, to apply however all subject to be powerfully influenced by the one set of principles to judge of ourselves, and another appearances and character of the /hl unan world. I supto'j'sdge of those with whom we have associated. pose a child in Switzerland, growinig up to a man, would Every person of tolerable education has been con- have acquired incomparably more of the cast of his siderably influenced by the. books he has read; and re- mind from the events, manners, and actions of the next members with a kind of gratitude several of those that village, though its inhabitants were but his occasional FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 7 companions, than from all the mountain scenes, the ration of this new cause in one certain manner, (since cataracts, and every circumstance of beauty or sublimity every one would not have been affected in the same in nature around him. We are all true to our species, manner,) yet the feelings have been thrown into an orand very soon feel its importance to us, (though be- der so different, that you seemed to have acquired a nevolence be not the basis of the interest,) far beyond new moral being. The difference has been not merely the importance of any thing we see besides. You may in their temporary energy, but also in their direction. have observed how instantly even children will turn In the state thus suddenly formed, some of the dispositheir attention away from any of the more ample aspects tions of which you had been conscious before, seemed of nature, however rare or striking, if human objects to be lost, while others, that previously had little present themselves to viewin any active manner. This strength, were grown into an imperious prevalence; leaning to our kind' brings each individual not only or even a new one appeared to have been originated.* under the influence attending direct companionship While this state continues, a man is another character; with a few, but under the operation of numberless in- and if the moral tendency thus excited or created could fluences, from all the moral diversities of which he is a be prolonged through the sequel of his life, the differspectator in the living world,-a complicated, though ence might be such, that it would be by means only of often insensible tyranny, of which every fashion, folly, his person that he would be recognized for the same, and vice, may exercise its part. while an observer who should not know the cause, Some persons would be able, in the review of life, would be perplexed and surprised at the change. Now to recollect very strong and influential impressions this permanence of the new moral direction might be made, in almost the first years of it, by some of the effected, if the impression which causes it were so infacts which they witnessed in surrounding society. But tensely powerful as to haunt himn ever after; or if he whether the operation on us of the plastic power of the were subjected to a long succession of impressions of community began with impressions of extraordinary the same tendency, without any opposite or strongly force or not, it has been prolonged throlgh the whole different ones intervening to break the process. course of our acquaintance with mankind. It is no lit- You have witnessed perhaps a scene of injustice and tie effect for the living world to have had on us, that oppression, and have'retired with an indig eation which very many of our present opinions are owing to what has tempted you to imprecate vengeance. Now supwe have seen and experienced in it. That thinking posing that the hateful image of this scene were to be which has involuntarily been kept in exercise upon it, revived in your mind for a long time, as often as any however remiss and desultory, could not fail to result iniquitous circumstance in society presents itself to your in a number of settled notions, which may be said to notice, and that you had an entire persuasion that your be shaped upon its facts and practices. We could not feeling was the pure indignation of virtue: or, supbe in sight of it, and in intercourse with it, without the posing that you were repeatedly to witness similar in-formation of opinions adjusted to what we found in it; stances, without emotion becoming languid by familiand thus far it has been the creator of our mental arity with them, the consequence might be that you economy. But its operation has not stopped here. It would acquire the spirit of Draco or M1inos. will not confine itself to occupying the understanding, It is easy to imagine the impression of a few atrocious and yield to be a mere subject for judgments to be facts on a mind of ardent passions converting a humane formed upon; but all the while that its judge is direct- horror of cruelty into the vindictive fanaticism of AMonting upon it the exercise of his opinion, it is re-actively bar the Buccaneer;t and I have known instances of a throwing on him various moral influences and infections. similar effect, in a fainter degree. A person of gentler sensibility, by accidentally witnessing a sceine of distress of which none of the circumstances caused dis-. LETTER III. 1 gust toward the sufferers, or indignation against others as the cause of the sorrow, having once tasted the pleaYery powerful Impressions sometimes from particular Facts, sure of soothing'woes which perhaps death alone canr tending to form discriminated Characters-Yet very few remove, might be led to seek other instances of disstrongly discriminated and individual Characters found- tress, acquire both an aptitude and a partiality for the Most Persons belolg to general classes of Characnter-Iln- friendly office, and become a pensive philanthropist. mese Number and Diversity of Impressions, of indefinitely The extreme disgust, excited by some extravagance of various tenldency. which the moral Being has undergone in the course of Life —Might be expected that such a Cf- ostentatious wealth, or some excess of dissipated frivo sion of Influences would not permit the Fornmation of any lity, and awaked again at every succeeding and inferior settled Character-That such a Character is, nevertheless, instance of the same kind, with a much stronger averacquired and maintained, is owing to some one leadisng De- sion than vwould have been excited in these inferior intermination, given by whatever mneanss, to the 1Mind, gene- stances, if the disgusted feeling did not run into the rally in early Life-CommoL self-deceptive Belief that we vestiges of the first indelible impression, may produce have maintained moral Rectitude and the Exercise of sound cynic or a iser, a recluse ora philosoer. Reason under thle Impressiaims that havte been farmuszg oura cynic or a miser, a recluse or a philosopher. Nuin Charaucters. berless other illustrations might be brought to show how much the characters of human beings, entering on A person, capable of being deeply interested, and life, with such unwarned carelessness of heart, are at who is accustomed to reflect on his feelings, will have the mercy of the incalculable influences which may observed in himself this subljection to the influences of strike them from any point of the surrounding world. what has been presented to him in society; and will It is true that, notwithstanding so man. influences acknowledge that in one or a few instanCes they have acting on men, and some of theis apparently of a seemed, at the time, of sufficient force to go far toward kind and of a force to produce in their subjects a striking new-moulding the whole habit of the mind. Recollect peculiarity, comparatively few characters determinately sour own experience. After witnessiung some remark- narked from all around them are found to arise. In able transaction, or some new and strange department a large company of persons whose disposof life and manners, or some striking disclosure of tions and pusuits are substantially alike, we.ca1mot character, or after listening to some extraordinary con- doubt that several of them have met with cilcumstancesS versation, or impressive recital of facts, you have been of which the natural tendency must have been to give conscious that what you have heard or seen has given your mind some one strong determination, of a nature the character of those whom they now so iCch resemresulting from the quality of that which has made the * So great an effect, however, as this last, is perhaps rarely impression. Though the dispositions already existing e-perienced fioneve- the unit iowerfulcauses, except i early must no doubt have been prepared to receive the ope- f See Abbe e ayn-:ls History of the Indies 8 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. ble. And why does the influence of such circumstances sence is the same, and might defy an universe to exfail to produce such a resultS Partly, because the in- tinguish, absorb, or change it; its modification, its fluences that are of a more peculiar and specific opera- condition, and habits, will show where it has been and tion are overborne and lost in that wide general influ- what it has undergone. You may descry on it the ence which accumulates and conforms each individual marks and colours of many of the things by which, in to the crowd; and partly, because even were there no passing, it has been touched or arrested. such geleral influence to steal away the impressions of Consider the number of meetings with acquaintance, a more peculiar tendency, few minds are of so fixed friends, or strangers; the number of conversations you and faithful a consistence as to retain, in continued effi- have held or heard; the number of exhibitions of good cacy, impressions of a kind which the common course or evil, virtue or vice; the number of occasions on of life is not adapted to reinforce, nor prevailing exam- which you have been disgusted or pleased, moved to adpie to confirm. The mind of the greater proportion of miration or to abhorrence; the number of times that you human beings, if attempted to be wrought into any have contemplated the town, the rural cottage, or verboldly specific form, proves like a half-fluid substance, dant fields; the number of volumes that you have read; in which angles, or circles, or any other figures, may be the times that you have looked over the present state olf cut, but which recovers, while you are looking, its former the world, or gone by means of history into past ages; state, and closes them up; or like a quantity of dust, the number of comparisons of yourself with other perwhich may be raised into momentary reluctant shapes, sons, alive or dead, and comparisons of them with one but which is relapsing even amidst the operation to- another; the number of solitary musings, of solemnl ward its undefined mass. contemplations of night, of the successive subjects of But if characters marked with strong individual pe- thought, and of animated sentiments that have been culiarity are somewhat rare, such as bear some con- kindled and extinguished. Add all the hours and caussiderably prominent generic distinction are very nume- es of sorrow that you have known. Through this rous; the decidedly avaricious for instance, the devoted lengthened, and, if the number could be told, stupend — slaves of fashion, and the eager aspirers to power, in ous multiplicity of things, you have advancedwhile all however confined a sphere, the little Alexanders of a their heterogeneous myriads have darted influence upon mole-hill, quite as ambitious, in their way, as the great you, each one of them have some definable tendency. Alexander of a world. It is observable here, how A traveller round the globe would not meet a greater much more obviously the unworthy distinctions of hu- variety of seasons, prospects, and winds, than you might man character are presented to the thoughts than those have recorded of the circumstances affecting the proof contrary quality. And it is a melancholy illustration gress of your character, in your moral journey. You of the final basis of character, that is, human nature it- could not wish to have drawn to yourself the agency self, that both the distinctions which designate a bad of a vaster diversity of causes; you could not wish, on. class, and those which constitute a bad individual pe- the supposition that you had gained advantage from all culiarity, are attained with far the greatest frequency these, to wear the spoils of a greater number of regions. and facility. While, however, I have the most entire The formation of the character from so many materials conviction of this mighty inclination to evil, which is reminds one of that mighty appropriating attraction, the grand cause of all the diversified forms of evil, and which, on the hypotheses that the resurrection should while, at the same time, I cannot divest myself of the re-assemble the same particles which composed the vulgar belief of a great native difference between dif- body before, must draw them from dust, and trees, and ferent men, in the original modification of those princi- animals, from ocean, and winds. ples which are to be unfolded by the progress of time It would scarcely be expected that a being whidch into intellectual powers and moral dispositions; I yet should be conducted through such anarchy of discicannot but perceive that the immediate causes of the pline, in which the endless crowd of influential powers greater portion of the prominent actual character of seem waiting each to take away what the last had given, human beings are to be found in those moral elements should be permitted to acquire, or to retain, any settled through which they pass. And if one might be par- form of qualities at all. The more probable result doned for putting in words, so fanciful an idea as that would be, either several qualities disagreeing with one of its being possible for a man to live back again to his another, or a blank neutrality. And in fact, a great infancy, through all the scenes of his life, and to give number of nearly such neutralities are found every back from his mind and character, at each time and where; persons, who, unless their sharing of the genecircumstance, as he re-passed it, exactly that which he ral properties of human nature, a littlg modified by the took from it, when he was there before, it would be insignificant distinction of some large class, can be calmost curious to see the fragments and exuvila of the led character, have no character. It is therefore somemoral man lying here and there along the retrograde what strange, if you, and if other individuals have come path, and to find what he was in the beginning of this forth with moral features of a strongly marked and train of modifications and acquisitions. Nor can it be consistently combined cast, from the infinity of misdoubted that any man, though his original tendencies cellaneous impressions. If the process has been so (which possibly have been brought under a series of complex, how comes the result to be so simple. How events calculated to favoelr their development) were has it happened that the collective effect of these num ever so defined, might, by oeing led through a different merous and jarring operations on your mind, is that train, opposite to those native tendencies, have been which only a few of these operations would have seemnow an extremely different man from what he is, even ed adapted to produce, and quite different from that the measure of his intellectual cultivation being the same. which many others of them would naturally have pro Here a person even of your age, might pause, and duced, and do actually produce, in many other perlook back with great interest on the world of cir- sons? Here you will perceive that some one capital cumstances through which life has been drawn. Con- determination must long since have been by some in means sider what thousands of situations, appearances, imci- established in:your mind, and that, during your progress, dents, persons, you have been present to, each in its this grand determilation has kept you susceptible oi sorunerlt. Thn roeviewr will present to you something the effect of some influences, and fortified against many like a chaos, with all the moral, anti all other ele me-lts, others. Now, what was the preiaiillo deterlinatio. confounded together ~ and yol may reflect till you bc- whence did it come, how did it acclrIire its powe)' gin almost to wonlder how an individlual retains evenI the'as it an oniini.l itendency and insispire.-ssibie impulse same essence through all the di-versities vicissitudes, anid of yoar nature'! or the result of your earli-est iinprescounteractions of influence, that operate on it' dtliu-ln ics sions; or of' so e oin, class of lI-prmssioOils iepe:ated progress throt.gbh the Colfusione. But thoush tile es- oftene1 than a.'.y or.her ~ oT of o?. s:lale iln)(ip.; ioil of' FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 9 extreme force'? What was it, and whence did it judgment, it be called upon to perform its part in esticome'? This is the great secret in the history of cha- mating the quality and actual effect of the modifying inracter; for, it is scarcely necessary to observe, that as fluences, it has to perform this judicial work with just soon as the mind is under the power of a predominant that degree of rectitude which it can have acquired and. tendency, the difficulty of growing into the maturity of maintained under the operation of those very influences. that form of character, which this tendency promotes or In acting the judge, it is itself in subjection to the efcreates, is substantially over. Because, when a de- feet of those impressiqas of which its office wastohave termining principle is become predominant, it not only previously decided whether they should not be strenu — produces a partial insensibility to all impressions, that ously repelled. Thus its opinions will unconsciously would counteract it, but also continually augments its be perverted; like the answers of the ancient oracles, own ascendancy, by means of a faculty or fatality of dictated for the imaginary god by beings of a very terfinding out every thing, and attracting and meeting restrial sort, though the sly intervention could not be every impression, that is adapted to coalesce with it percived. It is quite avulgar observation, how pleased and strengthen it; like the instinct of animals, which a man may be with the formation of his own character, instantly selects from the greatest variety of substances though you laugh at the gravity of his persuasion, that those which are fit for their nutriment. Let a man his tastes, preferences, and qualities have on the whole have some leading and decided propensity, and it will grown up under the sacred and faithful guardianship of be surprising to see how many more things he will find, judgment, while in fact his judgment has accepted and how many more events will happen, than any one every bribe that has been offered to betray him. could have imagined, of a nature to reinforce it. And sometimes even circumlstances which seemed of an entirely counteractive order, are strangely seduced by this predominant principle into an operation that LETTER IV. confirms it; just in the same manner as polemics most self-complacently avow their opinions to be kost of the Influences under which the Characters of Mei most self-complacently avow their opinions tbe aefirming, unfavourable to Wisdom, Virtue, and Hapmore firmly established by all that the opponent has piness —Proof of this, if a Nnumber of Perssos, suppose a objected. Hundred, were to give a clear Account of the Circuni. It would be easy to enlarge without end on the influ- stances that have most affected the state of their Minds-a ences of the surrounding world in forming the charac- feto Examples-a Mlisanthropist-a lazy prejudiced ter of each individual and no one would deny that to T7hinzker-a masn fancying himself a Genius-a Projector a considerable extent such a representation is true. But -asi Antiquarian in Excess-a petty Tyrant. vet a man may be unwilling to allow that he has been You will agree with me, that in a comprehensive quite so servilely passive as he would probably find that view of the influences which have formed, and are he has been, if it were possible for him to make a com- forming, the characters of men, we shall find, religion plete examination. He may be disposed to think that excepted, but little cause to felicitate our species. his reason has been an independent power, has kept Make the supposition that any assortment of persons, a strict watch, and passed a right judgment on his me- of sufficient number to comprise the most remarkable ral progress, has met the circumstances of the external distinctions of character, should write memoirs of world on terms of examination and authority, and has themselves so clear and perfect as to explain, to your permitted only such impressions to be received, or at discernment at least, if not to their own consciousness, least only such consequences to follow from them, as is the entire process by which their minds have attained wisely approved. But I would tell him, that he has their present state, recounting all the most impressive been a very extraordinary man, if the greater part of his circumstances. If they were to read these memoirs to time has not been spent entirely without a thought of you in succession, and if your benevolence could so reflecting what impressions were made on him, and long be maintained in full exercise, and your rules for what was their tendency; and even without a con- estimating lost nothing of their determinate principle sciousness that the effect of any impressions was of im- in their application to such a confusion of subjects, you portance to his moral habits. He may be assured that would often, during the disclosure, regret to observe he has been subjected to many gentle gradual process- how many things may be the causes of irretrievable es, and has met many critical occasions, on which, and mischief. Why is the path of life, you would say, so on the consequences of which to himself, he exercised haunted as if with evil spirits of every diversity of noxno attention or opinion. And again, it is unfortunately ious agency, some of which may patiently accompany, true, that even should attention be awake, and opinions or others of which may suddenly cross, the unfortunate be formed, the faculty which forms them is very servile wanderer. And you would regret to observe into to the other parts of the human constitution. If it how many forms of intellectual and moral perversion could be extrinsic to the man, a kind of domestic Py- the human mind readily yields itself to be modified. thia, or an attendant genius, like the demon of Socrates As one of the number concluded the account of hillnit might then be a dignified regulator of the influences self, your observation would be, I perceive, with coinwhich are acting on his character to decide what should passion, the process under which you have become (a not affect him, what should affect him, and in what misanthropist. If your juvenile ingenuous ardour had manner; though even then, its disapproving dictates not been chilled on your entrance into society, where would often be inefficacious against the powerful im- your most favourite sentiments were not at all comprcpressions which create an impulse in the mind, and the hended by some, and by others deemed wise and prorepetition of them which confirms that impulse into a per enough, perhaps for the people of the millennium; habit. But the case is, that this faculty, though mock- if you had not felt the mortification of relatives being ed with imperial names, being condemned to dwell in uncougienial, of persons whom you were anxious to the mind in the company of far more active powers than render happy being indifferent to your kindness, or of itself, and earlierex ercised, becomes humbly obsequious apparent friendships proving treacherous or transitory; to therm. The passions easily beguile this majestic if you had not mnet with such striking instances of reason, or judgment, into neglect, or bribe it into ac- hopeless stupidity in the vulgar, or of vain self-inpolquiescence, or repress it into silence, while they receive tance in the learned, or of the coarse or supercilious arrothe irnpressions, and while they acquire from those im- gance of the persons whose manners were alwaysreocipressions that determinate direction which will consti- lated by the consideration of the numlber of guineas by tute the character. If, after thus much is done during which they were better than you; if yourm nortificationll the wealmness, or without the notice, or without the had not given you akeen faculty ofperceivinl the all perle-e-c, or under the connivance or corruption of the vading selfishness of mankind, while, in addition, you had 10 FOS'rER'S ESSAYS. perhaps a peculiar opportunity to observe the apparatus gifted (if they were not merely eccentric) men. This of systematic villany, by which combinations of men was to you the proof and recognition of fraternity; and are able to armn their selfishness to oppress or ravage it has since been the chief question that has interested the world, you might even now perhaps have been the you with each acquaintance and in each company, persuasive instructer of beings, concerning whom you whether they too could perceive what you were so are wondering why they should have been made in the happy to have discovered, yet so anxious that the acform of rationals; you might have conciliated to your- knowledgment of others should confirm; your own perself and to goodness where you repel and are repelled; suasion, however, became as pertinacious as ivy climbyou might have been the apostle and pattern of benev- ing a wall. It was almost of course'to attend to neolence, instead of the grim solitaire. Yet not that the cessary pursuits with reluctant irregularity, though sufworld should bear all the blame. Frail and changeable fering by the consequences of neglecting them, and to in virtue, you might perhaps have been good under a feel indignant that genius should be reproached for the series of auspicious circumstances; but the glory had disregard of these ordinary duties to which it ought been to be victoriously good against malignant ones. never to have been subjected. Moses lost none of his generous concern for a people, During a projector's story of life and misfortunes, on whom you would have invoked the waters of Noah you might regret that he should ever have heard of or the fires of Sodom to return; and that Greater than Harrison's time-piece, the perpetual motion, or the Moses, who endured from men such a matchless ex- Greek-fire. cess of injustice, while for their sake alone he sojourn- After an antiqnarian's history, you might be allowed ed and suffered on earth, yvas not alienated to live a to congratulate yourself on not having fallen under the misanthropist, nor to die one. spell which confines a human soul to inhabit, like a A second sketch might exhibit external circumstan- spider in one of the corners, a dusty room, consecrated ces not producing any effect more serious than an in- with religious solemnity to old coins, rusty knives, tellectual stagnation. When it was concluded, your illuminated mass books, swords and spurs of forgotten recollection might be,-If I did not know that mental kings, and slippers of their queens; with perhaps a freedom is a dangerous thing in situations where the Roman helmet, the acquisition of which was the first possessor would feel it a singular attainment; and if I cause of the collection and of the passion, elevated imdid not prefer even the quiescence of unexamining be- perially over the relics of kings and queens and the lief, when tolerably right in the most material points, whole museum, as the eagle once waved over the to the indifference or scepticism which feels no assu- kingdoms and the world. And you might be inclined rance or no Importance in any belief, or to the weak to say, I wish that helmet had been a pan for charcoal,,presumption that darts inte -he newest and most daring or had been put on tile head of one of the quiet equesopinmohs as therefore true —I should deplore that your trian warriors in the I'ower, or had aided the hauntings life was destined to preserve its sedate course so en- and rattlings of the ohost of Sir Godfrey in the baron's tirely unanimated by the intellectual novelties of the castle where he was murdered, or had been worn by age, the agitations of ever-moving opinion; and under Don Quixote instead of the barber's bason, or had the habitual and exclusive influence of one individual, been the cauldron of Macbeth's witches, been in any worthy perhaps, and in certain degree sensible, but of other shape, place, or use, rather than dug up an antiunenlarged views, whom you have been taught and ac- quity, in a luckless hour, in a bank near your garden. customed to regard as the comprehensive repository I compassionate you,-would, in a very benevolent of all the truth requisite for you to know, and from hour, be again your language to the wealthy unfeeling whom you have derived, as some of your chief acquisi- tyrant of a family and a neighbourhood, who seeks, in tions, an assurance of the labour of inquiry being the overawed timidity and unretaliated injuries of the needless and a superstitious horror of innovation, unfortunate beings within his power, —the gratification without even knowing what points are threatened by it. that should have been sought in their happiness. UnAt the end of another's disclosure, you would say, less you had brought into the world some extraordinary How unfortunate, that you could not believe there refractoriness to the influence of evil, the process that might be respectable and valuable men, that were not you have undergone could not easily fail of being effiborn to be wits or poets. And how unfortunate were cacious. If your parents idolized their own importthose first evenings that you were privileged to listen ance in their son so much, that they never opposed to a company of men who could say more fine things your inclinations themselves, nor permitted it to be in an hour than their biographers will be able, without done by any subject to their authority; if the humble a little panegyric fiction, to record them to have done companion, sometimes summoned to the honlour of in the whole space of life. It was then you discovered amusing you, bore your caprices and insolence with that you tbo were of the progeny of Apollo, and that the meekness without which he had lost his enviable you had been niquitously transferred at your nativity privilege; if you could despoil the garden of some into the hands of ignorant foster-parents, who had en- harmless, dependent neighbour of the carefully reared deavored to degrade and confine you to the sphere of flowers, and torment his little dog or cat, without his regular employments and sober satisfactions. But, daring to punish you or to appeal to your infatuated you would' tower up to the region of your sire.' You parents; if aged men addressed you in a submissive saw what wonderful things might be found to be said tone, and with the appellation of'Sir,' and their aged on all subjects; you found it not so very difficult your- wives uttered their wonder at your condescension, and self to say different things from other people; and ev- pushed their grandchildren away from around the fire ery thing that was not common dulness, was therefore for your sake, if you happened, though with the strut of pointed, every thing that was not sense by any vulgear pertness, and your hat on your head, to enter one of rule, was therefore sublime. You adopted a certain their cottages, perhaps to express your contempt of the vastitude of phrase, mistaking extravagance of expres- homely dwelling, furniture, and fare; if, in maturer sion for greatness of thought. You set yourself to life, you associated with vile persons, who would foredogmatize on books, and the abilities of men, but es- go the contest of equality, to be your allies in trampling pecially on their prejudices; and perhaps to demolish, on inferiors; and if, both then and since, you have with the air of an exploit, some of the trite observa- been suffered to deem your wealth the compendium or tions and maxims current in society. You awakened equivalent of every ability, and every good quality-it and surprised your imagination, by imposing on it a would indeed be immensely strange if you had not bestrange new tax of colours and metaphors; a tax re- come, in due time, the miscreant, who may thank the luctantly and uncouthly paid, but perhaps in some power of the laws in civilized society, that he is not asone instance so luckily, as to gain the applause of these saulted with clubs and stones; to whom one could cor FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 11 dially wish the opportunity and the consequences of of disastrous influences must have lighted on your seattempting his tyranny among some such people as lected soul; you have been struck by that energy of those submissive sons of nature in the forests of North evil which acted upon the spirits of IPharaoh and EpiAmerica; and whose dependents and domestic rela- phanes. But give your own description of what you tives may be almost forgiven when they shall one day have met with in a world which has been deemned to rejoice at his funeral. present in every part the indications of a Deity. Tell of the mysterious voices which have spoken to you from the deeps of the creation, falsifying the expressions marked on its face. Tell of the new ideas, which, LETTER V. like meteors passing over the solitary wanderer, gave An Atheist-Slight Sketch of the Process by which ea Mani you the first glimpses of truth while benighted in the common belief of the Divine existence. Describe in the humbler Order of Abilities and Attainments may common belief of the Divine existence. Dcribe become one. the whole train of causes that have operated to create and consolidate that state of mind, which you carry I will imagine only one case more, on which you forward to the great experiment of futurity uncder a difwould emphatically express your compassion, though ferent kind of hazard from all other classes of nmen. for one of the most daring beings in the creation, a con- It would be found, however, that those circumstances, temner of God, who explodes his laws by denying his by which even a man who had been presented fiom hlis existence. infancy with the ideas of religion, could be elated into If you were so unacquainted with mankind, that this a contempt of its great object, were far fiom beino excharacter might be announced to you as a rare or sin- traordinary. They might have been met by any man, gular phenomenon, your conjectures, till you saw and whose mind had been cultivated and exercised( enlough heard the man, at the nature and the extent of the dis- to feel interested about holding any systems of opinioll' cipline through which he must have advanced, would at all, whose pride had been gratified in the consciousbe led toward something extraordinary. And you ness of having the liberty of selecting and changing might think that the term of that discipline must have opinions, and whose habitual assent to the principles of been very long; since a quick train of impressions, a religion, had neither the firmness resulting fiom decishort series of mental gradations, within the little space sive arguments, nor the warmth of pious aflection.` of a few months and years, would not seem enough to Such a person had only, in the first place, to conne into have matured such an awful heroism. Surely the intimate acquaintance with a man, who had the art of creature that thus lifts his voice, and defies all invisi- alluding to a sacred subject in a manner which, without ble power within the possibilities of infinity, challeng- appearing like intentional contempt, divested it of its ing whatever unknown being may hear him, and may solemnity; and who had possessed himself of a few appropriate that title of Almighty which is pronounced acute observations or plausible maxims, not explicitly in scorn, to evince his existence, if he will, by his ven- hostile to revealed religion, but which, when opportlunageance, was not as yesterday a little child that would ly brought into view in connexion with some points of tremble and cry at the approach of a diminutive reptile. it, tended to throw a slight degree of doubt on their But indeed it is heroism no longer, i-f he knzows that truth and authority. Especially if either or both of there is no God. The wonder then turns on the great these men had any decided moral tendencies and palrprocess, by which a man could grow to the immense suits of a kind which Christianity condemned. the friend intelligence that can know that there is no God. What of intellectual and moral freedom was assiduonus to inages and what lights are requisite for THIS attainment! sinuate, that, according to the principles of reason and This intelligence involves the very attributes of Divini- nature at least, it would be difficult to prove the wls-. ty, while a God is denied. For unless this man is om- dom or the necessity of some of those dictates of reltnipresent, unless he is at this moment in every place in gion, which must, however, be admitted, be revered, the universe, he cannot know but there may be in some because divine. Let the mind have once acquired a place manifestations of a Deity, by which even he feeling, as if the sacred system might in some points would'be overpowered. If he does not know absolutely be invalidated, and the involuntary inference would be every agent in the universe, the one that he does not rapidly extended to other parts, and to the whole. Nor know may be God. If he is not himself the chief agent in the universe, and does not know what is so, that * It will be obvious that I am describing the progress of one of the humbler order of aliens from all religion, and not that by which is so may be God. If he is not in absolute posses- of the order of aliens from all reon, andee tha by which the great philosophic leaders have ascended the dreary sion of all the propositions that constitute universal eminence, where they look with so much complacency up to a truth, the one which he wants may be, that there is a vacant heaven, and down to the gulf of annihilation. Their God. If he cannot with certainty assign the cause of progress undoubtedly is much more systematic and deliberate, and accompanied often by a laborious speculation, which though all that he perceives to exist, that cause may be a God. in ever so perverted a train, the mind is easily persuaded to If he does not know every thing that has been done in identify, because it is laborious, with the search alter truth and the immeasurable ages that are past, some things may the love of it. While however it is in a persevering train of thought, and not by the hasty movements of a more vulgar mind, have been done by a God. Thus, unless he knows all that they pursue their deviation fromn some of the principles of rethings, that is, precludes another Deity by being one ligion into a final aWndonlment of it all, they are very greatly himself, he cannot know that the Being whose exist- mistaken, if they' A5se themselves that the moral causes which hcontribute to guide'anld animate their progress are all of a sublime order; and if they could be fully revealed to their own that he does not exist, else he deserves equal contempt view, they might perhaps be severely mortified to find what vuland compassion for the temerity with which he firmly gar motives, while they were despising vulgar men, have ruled their intellectual career. Pride, which idolizes self, which reavows his rejection and acts accordingly. And yet a volts at every thing that comes in the form of dictates, and ex. lman of ordinary age and intelligence may present him- ults to find that there is a possibility of controverting whether self to you with the avowal of being thus distinguished any dictates come from a greater than mortal source repug from the crowd; and if he would describe the manner nance as well to the severe and sublime morality of the laws re. puted of divine appointment, as to the feeling of accountablein whichl he has attained this eminence, you would feelness to an all-powerful Authority, that wvill not leave moral laws a melancholy interest in contemplating that process of to be enforced solely by their own sanctions; contempt of infewhich the result is so Iportentous. rior men; the attraction of a few brilliant examples; the fashJfiOh te result is so potentous.. ion of a class; the ambition of showing what ability can do, and If you did not know that there are more than a few what boldness can dare-if such things as these, after all, such examples, you would say, in viewing this result, I have excited and directed the efforts of a philosophic spirit, the should hope this is the consequence of some malignant unbelieving philosopher must be content to acknowledge p]leninterventi)n. so occasional that ages may pass away be- my of companions and rivals among little men, who are quite as capable of being actuated by these elevated principles as himfore it return among men; some neculiar conjunction self. 12 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. was it long probably before this new instructer plainly not his providence that supported an infinite charge of avowed his own entire emancipation from a popular pre- dependent beings; his empire of justice no longer judice, to which he was kindly sorry to find a sensibtle spread over the universe; nor had even that universe young man still in captivity. But he had no doubt that sprung from his all-creating power. Yet when you the deductions of enlightened reason would success- saw the intellectual course brought to this signal confully appeal to every liberal mind. And accordingly, clusion, though aware of the force of each preceding after perhaps a few months of frequent intercourse, with and predisposing circumstance, you might nevertheless the addition of two or three books, and the ready aid be somewhat struck with the suddenness of the final deof all the recollected vices of pretended Christians and cision, and might be curious to know what kind of argupretended Christian churches, the whole venerable mag- ment and eloquence could so quickly finish the work. nificence of Revelation was annihilated. Its illumina- You would examine those pages with the expectation tions respecting the Divinity, its miracles, its Messiah, probably of something more powerful than subtlety atits authority of moral legislation, its regions of immor- tenuated into inanity, and in that invisible and impaltality and retribution, the sublime virtues and devotion pable state, mistaken by the reader, and willingly adof its prophets, apostles, and martyrs, together with the mitted by the perverted writer, for profundity of reareasonings of so many accomplished advocates, and the soninig; than attempts to destroy the certainty, or precredibility of history itself, were vanished all away; elude the application, of some of those great familiar while the convert, exulting in his disenchantment, felt principles which must be taken as the basis of human a strange pleasure to behold nothing but a dreary train reasoning, or it can have no basis; than suppositions of impostures and credulity stretching over those past which attribute the order of the universe to such causes ages which lately were gilded with so divine a vision, as it would be felt ridiculous to pronounce adequate to and the thickest Egyptian shades fallen on that total produce the most trifling piece of mechanism; than vast futurity which the spirit of inspiration had partial- mystical jargon which, under the name of nature, aliy and very solemnly illuminated. ternately exalts almost into the properties of a god, and Nothing tempts the mind so powerfully on, as to reduces far below those of a man, some imaginary and have successfully begun to demolish what has been undefineable agent or agency, which performs the mos' deemed to be most sacred. The soldiers of Caesar amazing works without power, and displays the most probably had never felt themselves so brave, as after amazing wisdom without intelligence; than a zealous they had cut down theMassilian grove; nor the Philis- preference of that part of every great dilemma which tines, as when the ark of the God of Israel was among merely confounds and sinks the mind, to that which their spoils: the mind is proud of its triumphs in pro- elevates while it overwhelms; it than a constant endeaportion to the reputed greatness of what it has over- your to degrade as far as possible every thing that is come. And many examples would seem to indicate, sublime in our speculations and feelings, or than monthat the first proud triumphs over religious faith involve strous parallels between religion and mythology. You some fatality of advancing, however formidable the would be still more unprepared to expect on so solemn mass of arguments which may obstruct the progress, a subject the occasional wit, or affectation of wit, which to farther victories. But perhaps the intellectual diffi- would seem rather prematurely expressive of exultation culty of the progress might be less than a zealous be- that the grand Foe is retiring. liever would be apt to imagine. As the ideas which A feeling of complete certainty would hardly be thlus give the greatest distinctness to our conception of a rapidly attained; but a slight degree of remaining Divine Being are imparted by revelation, and rest on doubt, and consequent apprehension, would not prevent its authority, the rejection of that revelation would in this disciple of darkness from accepting the invitation a great measure banish those ideas, and destroy that to pledge himself to the cause in some associated band, distinctness. We have but to advert to pure heathen- where profaneness and vice would consolidate impious ism, to perceive what a faint conception of this Being opinions without the aid of augmented conviction; and could be formed by the strongest intellect in the ab- where the fraternity, having been elated by the spirit of sence of revelation; and after the rejection of it, the social daring to say, What is the Almighty that woe mind would naturally be carried very far back toward should serve him 3 the individuals might acquire each a. that darkness, so that some of the attributes of the firmer boldness to exclaim, Who is the Lord that I Deity would immediately become, as they were with should obey his voice? Thus easy it is, my friend, for the heathens, subjects of doubtful conjecture and hope- a man to meet that train of influences which may soless speculation. But from this state of thought it is duce him to live an infidel, though it may betray him to perhaps no vast transition to that, in which his being die a terrified believer; that train of which the infatuaalso shall begin to appear a subject of doubt; since tion, while it promises him the impunity of non-existthe reality of a being is with difficulty apprehended, in ence, and degrades him to desire it, impels him to fill proportion as its attributes are undefinable. And when the measure of his iniquity, till the divine wrath come the mind is brought into doubt, we know it easily ad- upon him to the uttermost. vances to disbelief, if to the smallest plausibility of arguments be added any powerful moral cau.se for wishing such a conclusion. In the present case there migrht be a very powerful cause, besides that pride of victory LETTER VI. which I have just noticed. The progress in guilt, which generally follows a rejection of revelation, makes The Influence of Religion counteracted by almost all other Init still more and more desirable that no object should fluences-Pensive Rcfletions on the imperfect Malifestation remain to be feared. It was not strange, therefore, if of the Supreme Being-on the ineficacy of the Belief of this man read with avidity, or even strange if he read such a Being-on the Straneness of that Inefcacy-and.-0.-'.-.- s ~. on the Debasement and Infelicity consequenlt on it —Ha)pwith something which his wishes completed into con- piness of a devout Man. viction, a few of the writers, who have attempted the last achievement of presumptuous man. After inspect- In recounting so many influences that operate on ing these pages a while, he raised his eyes, and the man, it is grievous to observe that the incomparably Great Spirit was gone. Mighty transformation of all noblest of all, religion, is counteracted with a fatal sucthings! The luminaries of heaven no longer shone cess by a perpetual conspiracy of almost all the rest, with his splendour; the adorned earth no longer looked aided by the intrinsic predisposition of our nature, fair with his beauty; the darkness of night had ceased which yields itself without such consenting facility to to be rendered solemn by his majesty; life and thought every impression tending to estrange it still farther from were not an effect of his all-pervading energy; it was God. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 13 It,is a cause for wonder and sorrow, to see millions feel a distressing emotion at each recital of a life in of rational creatures growing into their permanent ha- which religion had no share; and you would be tempted bits, under the conforming efficacy of every thing which to wish that some spirit from the other world, possessed they ought to resist, and receiving no part of those ha- of eloquence that might threaten to alarm the slumbers bits from inimpressions& of the Supreme Object. They of the dead, would throw himself in the way of this one are content that a narrow scene of a diminutive world, mortal, and this one more, to protest, in sentences of with its atoms and evils, should usurp and deprave and lightning and thunder, against the infatuation that can finish their education for immortality, while the Infinite at once acknowledge there is a God, and be content to Spirit is here, whose transforming companionship would forego every connexion with him, but that of danger. exalt them into his sons, and, in defiance of a thousand You would wish they should rather be assailed by the malignant forces attempting to stamp on them an op-' terror of the Lord,' than retain the satisfaction of careposite image, lead them into eternity in his likeness. Oh lessness till the day of his mercy be past. why is it so possible that this greatest inhabitant of But you will not need such-enlargement of compreevery place where men are living, should be the last hension, in order to compassionate the situation of perwhose society they seek, or of whose being constantly sons who, with reason sound to think, and hearts not near them they feel the importance. Why is it possi- strangers to feeling, have advanced far into life, perble to be surrounded with the intelligent Reality, which haps near to its close, without having fet the influence exists wherever we are, with attributes that are infinite, of religion. If there is such a Being as we mean by and not feel, respecting all other things which may be the term God, the ordinary intelligence of a serious attempting to press on our minds and affect their cha- mind will be quite enough to see that it must be a racter, as if they retained with difficulty their shadows melancholy thing to pass through life, and quit it, just of existence, and were continually on the point of vanish- as if there were not. And sometimes it will appear as ing into nothing T Why is this stupendous Intelligence so strange as it is melancholy: especially to a person who retired and silent, while present, over all the scenes of the has been pious from his youth. He would be inclined earth, and in all the scenes of the earth, and in all the to say, to a person who has nearly finished an irrelipaths and abodes of men? Why does he keep his glory gious life, WThat would have been justly thought of invisible behind the shades and visions of the material you, if you could have been the greatest part of your world? Why does not this latent glory sometimes beam time in the society of the wisest and best man on forth with such a manifestation as could never be for- earth, (were it possible to have ascertained that indigotten, nor ever be remembered without an emotion of vidual,) and have acquired no degree of conformity; religious fear? And why, in contempt of all that he has much more, if you could all the while, have acquired displayed to excite either fear or love, is it still possi- progressively the meanness, prejudices, follies, and ole for a rational creature so to live, that it must finally vices, of the lowest society, with which you might have come to an interview with him in a character completed been exposed at intervals to mingle? You might have by the full assemblage of those acquisitions, which have been asked how this was possible. But then through separately been disapproved by him through every stage what defect or infatuation of mind have you been able, of the accumulation? Why is it possible for feeble crea- during so many years spent in the presence of a God, tures to maintain their little dependent beings fortified to continue even to this hour as clear of all marks and and invincible in sin, amidst the presence of divine traces of any divine influences having operated on you, purity? Why does not the thought of such a Being as if the Deity were but a poetical fiction, or an idol in strike through the mind with such intense antipathy to some temple of Asia?-Evidently, as the immediate evil, as to blast with death every active principle that is cause, through want of thought concerning him. beginning to pervert it, and render gradual additions of And why did you not think of him? Did a most depravity, growing into the solidity of habit, as impos- solemn thought of him never once penetrate your soul, sible as for perishable materials to be raised into struc- while admitting the proposition that there is such a tures amidst the fires of the last day? How is it possi- Being? If it never did, what is reason, what is mind, ble to forget the solicitude, which should accompany what is man? If it did once, how could its effects stop the consciousness that such a Being is continually dart- there. How could a deep thought, on so singular and ing upon us the beams of observant thought, (if we may momentous a subject, fail to impose on the mind a perapply such a term to Omniscience;) that we are ex- manent necessity of frequently re-calling it; as some posed to the piercing inspection, compared to which the awful or magnificent spectacle will haunt you with a concentrated attention of all the beings in the universe long recurrence of its image, even if the spectacle itself besides, would be but as the powerless gaze of an in- were seen no more? fant? Why is faith, that faculty of spiritual apprehen- Why did you not think of him? How could you sion. so absent, or so incomparably more slow and reluc- estimate so meanly your mind with all its capacities, as tant to receive a just perception of the grandest of its to feel no regret that an endless series of trifles should objects, than the senses are adapted to receive the im- seize, and occupy as their right, all your thoughts, and. pressions of theirs? While there is a Spirit pervading deny them both the liberty and the ambition of going the universe with an infinite energy of being, why have on to the greatest Object? How, while called to the the few particles of dust which encloses our spirits the contemplations which absorb the spirits of Heaven, power to intercept all sensible communication with could you be so patient of the task of counting the flies it, and to place them as in a vacuity, where the sacred of a summer's day 1 Essence had been precluded or extinguished? Why did you not think of Him? You knew yourThe reverential submission, with which you ought to self to be in the hands of some Being from whose power contemplate the mystery of omnipotent benevolence you could not be withdrawn; was it not an equal deforbearing to exert the agency, which could assume an fect of curiosity and prudence to indulge a careless coninstantaneous ascendency in every mind over the causes fidence that sought no acquaintance with his nature of depravation and ruin, will not avert your compassion and his dispositions, nor ever anxiously inquired what from the unhappy persons who are practically'without conduct should be observed toward him, and what exGod in the world.' And if, by some vast enlargement pectations might be entertained from him? You would of thought, you could comprehend the whole measure have been alarmed to have felt yourself in the power of and depth of disaster contained in this exclusion, (an a mysterious stranger, of your own feeble species; but exclusion under which, to the view of a serious mind, let the stranger be omnipotent, and you cared no more. the, resources and magnificence of the creation would Why did you not think of Him One would deem sink into a mass of dust and ashes, and all the causes that the thought of him must, to a serious mind, come of joy and hope into disgust and despair,) you would second to almost every thought. The thought of vir 14 F6STER'S ESSAYS. tue would suggest the thought of both a lawgiver and a life, as will inspire exultation in the retrospect of this rewarder; the thought of crime, of an avenger; the introductory period, in which the mind began to conthought of sorrow, of a consoler; the thought of an in- verse with the God of eternity 1 scrutable mystery, of an intelligence that understands On the other hand, it would be interesting to record, it; the thought of that ever-moving activity which pre- or to hear, the history of a character which has received vails in the system of the universe, of a supreme agent; its form, and reached its maturity, under the strongest the thought of the human family, of a great father; the operations of religion. We do not know that there is thought of all being not necessary and self-existent, of a more beneficent or a more direct mode of the divine a creator; the thought of life, of a preserver; and the agency in any part of the creation than that which thought of death, of an uncontrollable disposer. By'apprehends' a man, as apostolic language expresses it, what dexterity, therefore, of irreligious caution, did you amidst the unthinking crowd, and leads him into seriavoid precisely every track where the idea of him would ous reflection, into elevated devotion, into progressive have met you, or elude that idea if it came And what virtue, and finally into a nobler life after death. When must sound reason pronounce of a mind which, in the he has long been commanded by this influence, he will train of millions of thoughts, has wandered to all things be happy to look back to its first operations,whether they under the sun, to all the permanent objects or vanish- were mingled in early life almost insensibly with his ing appearances in the creation, but never fixed its feelings, or came on him with mighty force at some thought on the Supreme Reality; never approached, particular time, and in connexion with some assignable like Moses,' to see this great sight?' and memorable circumstance, which was apparently If it were a thing which we might be allowed to ina- the instrumental cause. He will trace all the progress gine, that the lDivine BeingI were to manifest himself of this his better life, with grateful acknowledgment in some striking manner to the senses, as by some re- to the sacred power which has advanced him to a decisplendent appearance at the midnight hour, or by re- siveness of religious habit that seems to stamp eternity kindling on an elevated mountain the long extinguished on his character. In the greater majority of things, fires of Sinai, and uttering voices from those fires; habit is a greater plague than ever afflicted Egypt; in would he not compel from you an attention which you religious character, it is a grand felicity. The devout now refuse Yes, you will say, he would then seize man exults in the indications of his being fixed and the mind with irresistible force, and religion would be- irretrievable. He feels this confirmed habit as the come its most absolute sentiment; but he only presents grasp of the hand of God, which will never let him go. himself to faith. Well, and is it a worthy reason for From this advanced state he looks with firmness and disregarding him, that you only believe him to be pre- joy on futurity, and says, I carry the eternal mark upon sent and infinitely glorious? Is it the office of faith to me that I belong to God; I am free of the universe; veil or annihilate its object? Cannot you reflect, that and I am ready to go to any world to which he shall the grandest representation of a spiritual and divine please to transmit me, certain that every where, in Being to the senses would be-ar not only no proportion height or depth, he will acknowledge me for ever. to his glory, but no relation to his nature; and could be adapted only to an inferior dispensation of religion, and to a people who, with the exception of a most extremely small number of men, had been totally untaught LETTER VII. to carry their thoughts beyond the objects of sense l Are you not aware, that such a representation would Self-knowledge being supposed the principal Object in writing the Memoir, the train of exterior Fortunes and Acconsiderably tend to restrict you in your contemplation tions will claim buthe train ofe Notieor Fortune it- d Ac to a defined image, and therefore a most inadequate intended for the avmusement of the Public, the Writer and subordiate idea of the divine Being? While the would do well to fill it rather with Incident and Action idea admitted by faith, though less immediately striking, -Yet the mere mental History of some Afen would be is capable of an illimitable expansion, by the addition interesting to reflecting Readers-of a Man, for examof all that progressive thought can accumulate, under ple, of a speculative Disposition, who has passed through the continual certainty that all is still infinitely short of many Changes of Opinion-Influences that woary Opinlthe reality? ion-Effects of Time and Experience on the Notions and Feelings cherished in Early i~fe —Feelinqs of a On the review of a character thus grown, in the ex- sensible old an on viewing a Picture of his own Mind elusion of the religious influences, to the mature and drawn by himself wvhen he swas young-Failure of excelperhaps ultimate state, the sentiment of pious benevo- lent Designs; Disappoint.ment of sanguine Hopes-Delence would be, I regard you as an object of great com- gree of Explicitness required in the Record-Conscience passion: unless there can be no felicity in friendship -Impudence and canting false Pretences of many flriwith the Almighty, unless there be no glory in being ters of " Confessions"-Rosseau. assimilated to his excellence, unless there be no eter- The preceding letters have attempted to exhibit only nal rewards for his devoted servants, unless there be general -views of the influences by which a reflective no danger in meeting him, at length, after a life man may perleive the moral condition of his mind to estranged equally from his love and his fear. I de- have been determined. plore, at every period and crisis in the review of your In descending into more particular illustrations, there life, that religion was not there. If religion had been would have been no end of enumerating the local cirthere, your youthful animation would neither have been cumstances, the relationships of life, the professions dissipated in the frivolity which, in the morning of the and employments, and the accidental events, which short day of life, fairly and formally sets aside all se- may have affected the character. A person who feels rious business for that day, nor would have sprung for- any interest in reviewing what has formed thus far his ward into the emulation of vice, or the bravery of pro- education for futurity, may carry his own examination. faneness. If religion had been there, that one despica- into the most distinct particularity.-A few miscellaneble companion, and that other malignant one, would ous observations will conclude the essay. not have seduced you into their society, or would not You will have observed that I have said comparahave retained you to share their degradation. And if tively little of that which forms the exterior, and in religion had accompanied the subsequent progress of general account the main substance, of the history of a your life, it would have elevated.you to rank, at this man's life-the train of his fortunes and actions. If hour, with those saints who will soon be added to' the an adventurer or a soldier writes memoirs of himself spirits of the just.' Instead of which, what are you for the information or amusement of the public, he may now, and what are your expectations from that world, do well to keep his narrative alive by a constant crowdwhere piety alone can hope to find such a sequel of ed course of facts; for the greater part of his readers FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 15 will excuse him the trouble of investigating, and he party to which his first or his second intellectual conmight occasionally feel it a convenience to be excused version may assign him, will receive him gladly. But from disclosing, if he had investigated, the history and he will be deemed to have abdicated the dignity of merits of his internal principles. Nor can this ingenu- reason, when it is found that he can adopt no prinousness be any part of his duty, any more than it is ciples but to betray them; and it will be perhaps justthat of a fiddler at a ball, so long as he tells all that ly suspected that there is something extremely infirm probably he professes to tell, that is, where he has been, in the structure of that mind, whatever vigor may mark what he has witnessed, and the more reputable portion' some of its operiations, to which a series of very difof what he has done. Let him go on with his lively ferent, and sometimes contrasted theories, can appear anecdotes, or his legends of the marvellous, or his ga- in succession demonstratively true, and which imitates zettes of marches, stratagems and skirmishes, and there sincerely the perverseness which Petruchio only afis no obligation for him to turn either penitent or phi- fected, declaring that which was yesterday, to a cerlosopher on our hands. But I am supposing a man to tainty, the sun, to be to-day, as certainly, the moon. retrace himself through his past life, in order to ac- It would be curious to observe in a man who should quire a deep self-knowledge, and to record the investi- make such an exhibition of the course of his mind, the gation for his own instruction. Through such a retro- sly deceit of self-love. While he despises the system spective examination, the exterior life will hold but the which he has rejected, he does not deem it to imply so. second place in attention, as being the imperfect off- great a want of sense in him once to have embraced spring of that internal state, which it is the primary and it, as in the rest, who were then or are now its discimore difficult object. to review. From an effectual in- ples and advocates. No, in him it was no debility of quisition into this inner man, the investigator may pro- reason, it was at the utmost but a merge of it; and ceed outward, to the course of his actions; of which probably he is prepared to explain to you that such pehe will thus have become qualified to form a much culiar circumstances, as might warp even a very strong juster estimate, than he could by any exercise of judg- and liberal mind, attended his consideration of the subment upon them regarded merely as exterior facts. ject, and misled him to admit the belief of what others No doubt that sometimes also, in a contrary process, prove themselves fools by believing. the judgment will be directed upon the dispositions and Another thing apparent in a record of changed opinprinciples within by a consideration of the actions with- ions would be what I have noticed before, that there is out, which will serve as a partial explication of the scarcely any such thing in the world as simple convicinterior character. Still it is that interior character, tion. It would be amusing to observe how reason. whether displayed in actions or not, which forms the had, in one instance, been overruled into acquiescence leading object of inquiry. The chief circumstances by the admiration of a celebrated name, or in another, of his practical life will, however, require to be noted, into opposition by the envy of it; how most oppor. both for the purpose of so much illustration as they tunely reason discovered the truth just at the time that will afford of the state of his mind, and because they interests could be essentially served by avowing it; mark the points, and distinguish the stages of his pro- how easily the impartial examiner could be induced to gress. adopt some part of another man's opinions, after that Though in memoirs intended for publication, a large other had zealously, approved some favourite, especially share of incident and action would generally be neces- if unpopular, part of his; as the Pharisees almost besary, yet there are some men whose mental history came partial even to Christ, at the moment that he alone might be very interesting to reflective readers; as, defended one of their doctrines against the Sadducees. for instance,that of a thinking man, remarkable for a num- It would be curious to see how a respectful estimate of ber of complete changes of his speculative system. From a man's character and talents might be changed, in observing the usual tenacity of views once deliberately consequence of some personal inattention experienced adopted in mature life, we regard as a curious phenom- from him, into depreciating invective against him or his enom the man whose mind has been a kind of cara- intellectual performances, and yet the railer, though vansera of opinions, entertained awhile, and then sent actuated solely by petty revenge, account himself, all on pilgrimage; a man who has admired and dismissed the while, the model of equity and sound judgment. systems with the same facility with which John Buncle It might be seen how the patronage of power could found, adored, married, and interred, his succession of elevate miserable prejudices into revered wisdom, wives, each one being, for the time, not only better while poor old Experience was mocked with thanks for than all that went before, but the best in the creation. her instruction: and how the vicinity or society of the You admire the versatile aptitude of a mind, sliding rich, and, as they are termed, great, could perhaps into successive forms of belief in this intellectual me- transmute a soul that seemed to be of the stern contempsychosis by which it animates so many new bodies sistence of the early Roman republic, into the gentlest of doctrines in their turn. And as none of those dying wax on which Corruption could wish to imprint the pangs which hurt you in a tale of India, attend the de- venerable creed,' The right divine of kings to govern sertion of each of these speculative forms which the wrong,' with the pious and loyal inference of the flasoul has awhile inhabited, you are extremely amused grant iniquity of expelling Tarquin. I am supposing by the number of transitions, and eagerly ask what is to the observer to perceive all these accommodating dexbe the next; for you never deem the present state of terities of reason; for it were probably absurd to exsuch a man's views to be for permanence, unless perhaps pect that any mind should itself be able, in its review, when he has terminated his course of believing every to detect all its own obliquities, after having been so thing, in ultimately believing nothing. Even then, un- long beguiled, like the mariners in a story which I less he is very old, or feels more pride in being a scep- remember to have read, who followed ihe direction of tic, the conqueror of all systems, than he ever felt in be- their compass, infallibly right as they could i ave no Ing the champion of one, even then, it is very possible doubt, till they arrived at an enemy's port, vd lme they he may spring up again, like a vapour of fire from a were seized and made slaves. It happened that the bog, and glimmer through new mazes, or retrace his wicked captain, in order to betray the ship, had concourse through half of those which he trod before. cealed a large loadstone at a little distance on one side You will observe, that'no respect attaches to this of the needle. Proteus of opinion, after his changes have been mul- On the notion s cnd expectations of one stage of life, I tiplied; as no party expect him to remain with them, suppose all reflecting men look back with a kind of connor deem him much of an acquisition if he should. tempt, though it may be often with a mingling wish One, or perhaps two, considerable changes, will be re- that some of its enthusiasm of feeling could be recovgarded as signs of a liberal inquirer, and therefore the ered,-I mean the period between childhood and ma 16 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. turity. They will allow that their reason was then quent to which the Christian virtues have had a less feeble, and they are prompted to exclaim, What fools generous growth, this is a circumstance still more we have been-while they recollect how sincerely they worthy to be strongly marked. No doubt it will be entertained and advanced the most ridiculous specula- with a reluctant hand that a man marks either of these tions on the interests of life, and the questions of truth; circumstances; for he could not reflect without regret, how regretfully astonished they were to find the ma- that many children may have grown into mavtrity and ture sense of some of those around them so completely great talent, and many unformed or defective characters wrong; yet in other instances what veneration they into established excellence, since the period when he felt for authorities for which they have since lost all ceased to become abler or better. Pope, for instance, their respect; what a fantastic importance they attach- at the age of fifty, would have been incomparably more ed to some most trivial things;* what complaints mortified than, as Johnson says, his readers are, at the against their fate were uttered on account of disap- fact, if he had perceived it, that he could not then pointments which they have since recollected with write materially better than he had written at the age gaiety or self-congratulation; what happiness of Elysi- of twenty. And the consciousness of having passed um they expected from sources which would soon many years without any moral-and religious progress, have failed to impart even common satisfaction; and ought to be not merely the regret for an infelicity, but how certain they were that the feelings and opinions the remorse of guilt; since, though natural causes must then predominant would continue through life. somewhere have circumscribed and fixed the extent of If a reflective aged man were to find at the bottom the intellectual power, an incessant advancement in the of an old chest, where it had lain forgotten fifty years, nobler distinctions has still continued to be possible, a record which he had written of himself when he was and will be possible, till the evening of rational life. young, simply and vividly describing his whole heart The instruction resulting from a clear estimate of what and pursuits, reciting verbatim many recent passages has been effected or not in this capital concern, is the of the language sincerely uttered to his favourite com- chief advantage to be derived from recording the stages panions; would he not read it with more wonder than of life, comparing one part with another, and bringing almost any other writing could at his age inspire 1 His the whole into a comparison with the standard of perconsciousness would be strangely confused in the fection, and the illustrious human examples which have attempt to verify his identity with such a being. He approached that standard the nearest. In forming this would feel the young man, thus introduced to him, sep- estimate, we shall keep in view the vast series of advanarated by so wide a distance of character as to render tages and monitions, which has run parallel to the train all congenial communion impossible. At every sen- of years; and it will be inevitable to recollect, sometence he might repeat, Foolish youth! I have no sym- times with mortification bordering on anguish, the sanpathy with your feelings, I can hold no converse with guine calculations of improvement of the best kind, your understanding. Thus you see that in the course which at various periods the mind was delighted to make of a long life a man may be several moral persons, so for other given future periods, should life be protracted various from one another, that if you could find a real till then, and promised itself most certainly to realize individual that should nearly exemplify the character in by the time of their arrival. the mortification will be one of these stages, and another that should exemplify still more grievous, if there was at those past seasons it in the next, and so on to the last, and then bring something more hopeful than mere confident presumpthese several persons together into one society, which tions, if there were actual favourable omens, which par — would thus be a representation of the successive states tly justified while they raised, in ourselves and others, of one man, they would feel themselves a most hete- anticipations that have mournfully failed. My dear frien' rogeneous party, would oppose and probably despise it is very melancholy that EVIL must be so palpable, so one another, and soon separate, not caring if they were hatefully conspicuous, to an enlightened conscience it, never to meet again. The dissimilarity in mind be- every retrospect of a human life. tween the two extremes, the youth of seventeen and If the supposed memoirs are to be carried forward as the sage of seventy, might perhaps be little less than life advances, each period being recorded as soon as it that in countenance; and as the one of these contrasts has elapsed, they should not be composed by small daimight be contemplated by an old man, if he had a true ly or weekly accumulations, (though this practice may or portrait for which he sat in the bloom of life, and should another ground have its value,) but at certain considerhold it beside a mirror in which he looks at his present able intervals, as at the end of each year, or any other countenance, the other would be powerfully felt if he measure of time that is ample enough for some definhad such a genuine and detailed memoir as I have sup- able alteration to have taken place in the character o: posed.t Might it not be worth while for a self-observ- attainments. ant person in early life, to preserve for the inspection of It is needless to say that the style should be as simthe old man, if he should live so long, such a men- ple as possible-unless indeed the writer accounts the tal likeness of the young one l If it be not drawn theme worthy of being bedecked with brilliants and near the time, it can never be drawn with sufficient ac- flowers. If he idolizes his own image so much as to curacy. think it deserves to be enshrined in a frame of gold, why If this sketch of life were not written till a very ma- let him enshrine it. ture or an advanced period of it, a somewhat interesting Should it be asked what degree of explicitness ought point would be, to distinguish the periods during which to prevail through this review, in reference to those parthe mind made its greatest progress in the enlargement ticulars on which conscience has fixed the deepest mark of its faculties, and the time when they appeared to of condemnation; I answer, that if a man writes it exhave reached and acknowledged their insuperable limits. clusively for his own use, he ought to signify both the And if there have been vernal seasons, if I may so ex- nature of the delinquency and the measure of it, so far press it, of goodness also, periods separated off from at least as to secure to his mind a most defined recolthe latter course of life by some point of time, subse- lection of the facts, and of the verdict pronounced by conscience before its emotions were quelled by time. * I recollect a youth of some acquirements, who earnestly Such honest distinctness is necessary, because this wished the time might one day arrive, when his name should befor reflection adorned with the addition of D. D. which he deemed one of the sublimest of human distinctions. to dwell upon; because this is the part which self-love f Since a character, antd a set of opinions, once formed, not is most willing to diminish and memory to dismiss unfrequently continue substantially through life, perhaps the because he may be certain that mere general terms or moral and intellectual difference between the stages, is not quite allusions of censure will but little aid the cultivation of as great as the physical. Some people have in fact but three or his humility; a because this license of saying fbur stages in the whole of life.ing FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 17 much about himself in the character of a biographer who are likewise human and have had their deviations, may become only a temptation to the indulgence of va- on terms of mutual ingenuous acknowledgment. In nity, and a protection from the shame of it, unless he this confidential communication, each will learn to becan maintain the feeling in earnest that it is really at hold the other's transgressions fully' as much in that a confessional, and a severe one, that he is giving his light in which they certainly are infelicities to be conli account.' miserated, as in that in which thev are also faults o0 But perhaps he wishes to hold this record open to vices to be condemned; while both will earnestly enan intimate relative or friend; perhaps even thinks it deavour to improve by their remembered errors. The might supply some interest and some lessons to his apostle seems to encourage such a confidence, where children. And what then? Why then it is perhaps he says,' Confess your faults one to another, and pray too probable that though he could readily confess some one for another.' of his faults, there may have been certain states of his But I shall find myselt danger of becoming ridicu. mmind, and certain circumstances in his conduct, which lous amidst these scruplh.bout an entire ingenuoushe cannot easily persuade himself to present to such ness to a confidential fries.-'or two, while I glance into inspection. Such a difficulty of being quite ingenuous the literary world, and observe the number of historians is in every instance a cause for deep regret. Should of their own lives, who magnanimously throw the cornnot a man tremble to feel himself involved in a difficulty plete cargo, both of their vanities and their vices, before of confiding to.an equal and a mortal, what has been the whole public. Men who can gaily laugh at them.. all observed by the Supreme Witness and Judge? selves for ever having even pretended to goodness; And the consideration of the large proportion of men men who can tell of having sought consolation for the constituting such instances, throws a melancholy hue sorrows of bereaved tenderness, in the recesses of de. over the general human character. It has several bauchery; men whose language betrays that they deem times in writing this essay occurred to me what stran- a spirited course of profligate adventures a much nogers men may be to one another, whether as to the in- bler thing than the stupidity of vulgar virtues, and who fluences which have determined their characters, or seem to claim the sentiments with which we regard an as to the less obvious parts of their conduct. What unfortunate hero, for the disasters into which these adstrangers too we may be, with persons who have any venturers led them; venal partisans, whose talents power and caution of concealment, to the principles would hardly have been bought, if their venom had not which are at this moment prevailing in the heart. Each made up the deficiency; profane travelling coxcombs; mind has an interior apartment of its own, into which players, and the makers of immoral plays-all these none but himself and the Divinity can enter. In this can narrate the course of a contaminated life with the retired place, the passions mingle and fluctuate in un- most ingenuous effrontery. Even courtezans, grieved known agitations. Here all the fantastic and all the at the excess of modesty with which the age is afflicttragic shapes of imagination have a haunt, where they ed, have endeavored to diminish the evil, by presenting can neither be invaded nor descried. Here the sur- themnselves before the public, in their narratives, in a rounding human beings, while quite unconscious of it, manner very analogous to that in which the Lady Goare made the subjects of deliberate thought, and many diva is said to have consented, from a most generous of the designs respecting them revolved in silence. inducement, to pass through the city of Coventry. Here projects, convictions, vows, are confusedly scat- They can gravely relate, perhaps, with intermingled tered, and the records of past life are laid. Here in paragraphs and verses of plaintive sensibility, ( a kind solitary state, sits Conscience, surrounded by her own of weeds in which sentiment without principle apes thunders, which sometimes sleep, and sometimes roar, and mocks mourning virtue,) the whole nauseous detail while the world does not know. The secrets of this of their transitions from proprietor to proprietor. They apartment, could they have been even but very partially can tell of the precautions for meeting some' illustrious brought forth, might have been fatal to that eulogy and personage,' accomplished in depravity even in his early splendour with which many a piece of biography has youth, with the proper adjustment of time and circumbeen exhibited by a partial and ignorant friend. If, stances to save him the scandal of such a meeting; the in a man's own account of himself, written on the sup- hour when they crossed the river in a boat; the arposition of being seen by any other person, the sub- rangements about money; the kindness of the personstance of the secrets of this apartment is brought forth, age at one time, his contemptuous neglect at another; he throws open the last asylum of his character, where and every thing else that can turn the compassion with it is well if there be nothing found that will distress which we deplore their first misfortunes and errors, into and irritate his most intimate friend, who may thus be- detestation of the effrontery which can even take to come the ally of his conscience to condemn, without itself a merit in proclaiming the commencement, sequel, the leniency which even conscience acquires from self- and all, to the wide world. love. And if it is not brought forth, where is the in- With regard to all the classes of self-describers who tegrity or value of the history; and what ingenuous thus think the publication of their vices necessary to man could bear to give a delusive assurance of his be- crown their fame, one should wish there were some ing, or having been, so much more worthy of applause public special mark and brand of emphatical reprobaor affection than conscience all the while pronounces? tion, to reward this tribute to public morals. Men It is obvious then that 4 man whose sentiments and de- that court the pillory for the pleasure of it, ought to resigns, or the undisclosed parts of whose conduct, have ceive the honour of it too, in all those contumelious sabeen stained with deep delinquency, must keep his re- lutations which suit the merits of vice grown proud of cord most sacred to himself; unless he feels such an its impudence. Those that'glory in their shame' unsupportable longing to relieve his heart by confiding should like other distinguished personages,' pay a tax its painful consciousness, that he can be content to hold for being eminent.' Yet I own the public itself is to the regard of his friend on the strength of his penitence be consulted in this case; for if the public welcomes and recovered virtue. As to the rest, whose memory such productions, it shows there are readers who feel of the past is sullied by shades if not by stains, they themselves akin to the writers, and it would be hard to must either in the same manner retain this delineation deprive congenial souls of the luxury of their approprifor solitary use, or limit themselves in writing it, to a ate sympathies. If such is the taste, it proves that a deliberate and strong expression of the measure of con- considerable portion of the public deserves just that scious culpabilities, and their effect in the general cha- kind of respect for its virtue, which is very significantly racter, with a certain reserve and indefiniteness of ex- implied in this confidence of its favour. planation that shall equally avoid particularity and mys- One is indignant at the cant pretence and title of tery; or else, they must consent to meet their friends, Confessions, sometimes adopted by these narrators of F IS FOS'TER'S ESSAYS. heir own disgrace; as if it were to be believed that Rousseau has given a memorable example of this penitence and humility would ever excite men to call voluntary humiliation. And he has honestly assigned thousands to witness anunnecessary disclosure of what the degree of contrition which accompanied the selfoppresses them with grief and shame. If they would inflicted penance, in the declaration, that this document, be mortified that only a few readers should think it with all its dishonours, shall be presented in his justifiworth their while to see them thusperforming the work cation before the Eternal Judge. If we could, in any of self-degradation, like the fetid heroes of the Dunciad case, pardon the kind of ingenuousness which he has dis-:n a ditch,.is it because they would gladly incur the played, it would certainly be in the disclosure of a mind so contempt and disgust of multitudes in order to serve wonderfully singular as his.* We are almost willing the cause of virtue? No, this title of Confessions is to have such a being preserved, to all the unsightly miDoUly a nominal deference to morality, necessary indeed nutae and anomalies of its form, to be placed, as an to be paid, because mankind never forget to insist, that unique, in the moral museum of the world. thae name of virtue shall be devoutly respected, even Rousseau's impious reference to the Divine Judge,,-hi!e vice obtains from them that practical favour on leads me to suggest, as I conclude, the consideration,,vhich these writers place their reliance for toleration or that the'history of each man's life, though it should not;.pplause. be written by himself or by any mortal hand, is thus far This slight homage being duly rendered and oc- unerringly recorded, will one day be finished in truth, caslonally repeated, tney trust m the character of the and one other day yet to come will be brought to a final community that they shall not meet this kind of con- estimate. A mind accustomed to grave reflections is damnation, and they have no desire for the kind of pity sometimes led involuntarily into a curiosity of awful which would strictly belong to criminals; nor is it any conjecture, which asks, What are those very words part of their penitence, to wish that society may be- which I should read this night, if, as to Belshazzar, a come better by the odious repellency of their example. hand of prophetic shade were sent to write before me They are glad the age continues such, that even they the identical sentences in which that final estimate will:may have claims to be praised; and honour of some be declared?kind, and from some quarter, is the object to which they aspire, and the consequence which they promise them- be* There is indeed one case in which this kind of honesty would aspire, and the consequence which they promise them- be so singularly useful to mankind, that it would deeerve almost selves. Let them once be convinced, that they make to be canonized into a virtue. If statesmen, including ministers, uich exhibitions under the absolute condition of sub- popular leaders, ambassadors, &c. would publish before they go jecting themselves irredeemably to opprobrium, as in in the triumph of virtue to the' last audit,' or leave to be published after they are gone, each frank exposition of motives, caiiletus the persons infected with a rage for destroying bals, and manceuvres, it would give dignity to that blind adorathemselves were by a solemn decree assured of being tion of power and rank in which mankind have always superexposed, after the perpetration of the deed, in naked stitiously lived, by supplying just reasons for that adoration. It suicides will be heard of would also give a new aspect to history; and perhaps might ignominy-and these literary suicides will be heard of tend to a happy exorcism of that evil spirit which has never al. no more. lowed nations to remain at peace. ESSAY II. ON DECISION OF CHARACTER. LETTER I. the sport of diverse and casual impulses. It is a po, and disgraceful thing, not to be able to reply, wit Examples of the Distress and Humiliation incident to an ir- some degree of certainty, to the simple questions, resolute Mind-Such a Mind cannot be said to belong toe s W w itself —Manner,in which a Man of decisive Spirit delibe- Whatwill you be? What will you do? rates and vasses into Action —Caesar —Such a Spritpre- A little acquaintance with mankind will supply numvents the Fretting away, in harassing Alterations of [Iill berless illustrations of the importance of this character. of the animated Feelings required for sustaining the Vi- You will often see a person anxiously hesitating a long gour oftAction-Averts impertinent Interference-Acquires, time between different, or opposite determinations, if free from Harshness of Manner, an undisputed though impatient of the pain of such a state, and and beneficial Ascendancy over Associates-Its last Re- ashamed of its debility. A faint impulse of preference source inflexible Pertinacity-Instance in a Man on a alternates toward the one, and toward the other; and Jury. the mind, while thus held in a trembling balance, is MY DEAR FRIEND, vexed that it cannot get some new thought, or feeling, We have several times talked of this bold quality, and or motive, that it has not more sense, more resolution, acknowledged its great importance. Without it, a hu- more of any thing that would save it from envying even man being, with powers at best but feeble, and surroun- the decisive instinct of brutes. It wishes that any cirded by innumerable things tending to perplex, to divert, cumstance might happen, or anly person might appear, or to oppress, their operations, is indeed a pitiable atom that could deliver it from the miserable suspense. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 19 In many instances, when a determination is adopted failing part of his nature which puts him so far below it is frustrated by this indecision. A man, for example, his own conceptions, and below the examples which he resolves to make a journey to-morrow, which he is not is admiring; and this feeling assists him to resolve, under an absolute necessity to make, but the induce- that he will undertake this enterprise, that he certainly ments appear, this evening, so strong, that he does not will, though the Alps or the Ocean lie between him and think it possible he can hesitate in the morning. In the the object. Again his ardour slackens; distrustful of morning, however, these inducements have unaccount- himself, he wishes to know how the design would apably lost much of their force. Like the sun that is pear to other minds; and when he speaks of it to his rising at the same time, they appear dim through a associates, one of them wonders, another laughs, and mist; and the sky lowers, or he fancies that it lowers; another frowns. His pride attempts, while with them, recollections of toils and fatigues ill repaid in past ex- a manful defence; but his mind is gradually descend-.peditions rise and pass into anticipations; and he ing toward their level, he becomes ashamed to enterlingers, uncertain, till an advanced hour determines tain a visionary project, which therefore, like a rejected the question for him, by the certainty that it is now too friend, desists from intruding on him or following him, late to go. and he subsides, at last, into what he labours to believe, Perhaps a man has conclusive reasons for wishing to a man too rational for the schemes of ill-calculating remove to another place of residence. But when he is enthusiasm. And it were strange if the effort to make going to take the first actual step towards executing his out this favourable estimate of himself did not succeed, purpose, he is met by a new train of ideas, presenting while it is so much more pleasant to attribute one's the possible, and magnifying the unquestionable, disad- defect of enterprise to wisdom, which on maturer vantages and uncertainties of a new situation; awaken- thought disapproves of it, than to imbecility which ing the natural reluctance to quit a place to which habit shrinks from it. has accommodated his feelings, and which has grown A person of undecisive character wonders how all warm to him, if I niay so express it, by his having been the embarassments in the world happened to meet exin it so long; giving new strength to his affection for actly in his way, to place him just in that one situation the friends whom he must leave, and so detaining him for which he is peculiarly unadapted, and in which he still lingering, long after his serious judgment may have is also willing to think no other man could have acted dictated to him to be gone. with such facility or confidence. Incapable of setting A man may think of some desirable alteration in his up a firm purpose on the basis of things as they are, he plan of life; perhaps in the arrangements of his family, is often employed in vain speculations on some different or in the mode of his intercourse with society.-Would supposable state of things, which would have saved it be a good thing? He thinks it would be a good him from all this perplexity and irresolution. He thinks thing. It certainly would be a very good thing. He what a determined course he could have pursued, if wishes it were done. He will attempt it almost imme- his talents, his health, his age, had been different; if diately. The following day, he doubts whether it would he had been acquainted with some one pprson sooner; be quite prudent. Many things are to be considered. if his friends were, in this or the other point, different May there not be in the change some evils of which he from what they are; or if fortune had showered her is not aware? Is this a proper time? What will the favours on him. And he gives himself as much license people say?-And thus, though he does not formally to complain, as if all these advantages had been among renounce his purpose, he shrinks out of it, with a wish the rights of his nativity, but refused, by a malignant that he could be fully satisfied of the propriety of re- or capricious fate, to his life. Thus he is occupied nouncing it. Perhaps he wishes that the thought had -instead of catching with a vigilant eye, and seizing never occurred to him, since it has diminished his self- with a strong hand, all the possibilities of his actual complacency, without promoting his virtue. But the situation. next day, his conviction of the wisdom and advantage of A man without decision can never be said to belong such a reform comes again with great force. Then, Is to himself; since, if he dared to assert that he did, the it so practicable as I was at first willing to imagine? puny force of some cause, about as powerful, you Why not 1 Other men have done much greater things; would have supposed, as a spider, nlay make a capture a resolute mind is omnipotent; difficulty is a stimulus of the hapless boaster the very next moment, and triand a triumph to a strong spirit;' the joys of conquest umphantly exhibit the futility of the determinations by are the joys of man.' What need I care about people's which he was to have proved the independence of opinion. It shall be done. He makes the first at- his understanding and his will. He belongs to whattempt. But some unexpected obstacle presents itself; ever can seize him; and innumerable things do actually he feels the awkwardness of attempting an unacustom- verify their claim on him, and arrest him as he tries to ed manner of acting; the questions or the ridicule of go along; as twigs and chips, floating near the edge of his friends disconcert him; his ardour abates and ex- a river, are intercepted by every weed, and whirled in pires. He again begins to question, whether it be wise, every little eddy. Having concluded on a design, he whether it be necessary, whether it be possible; and at may pledge himself to accomplish it,-if the hundred last, surrenders his purpose, to be perhaps resumed when diversities of feeling which may come within the week, the same feelings return, and to be in the same manner will let him. As his character precludes all foresight again relinquished. I of his conduct, he may sit and wonder what form and While animated by some magnanimous sentiments direction his views and actions are destined to take towhich he has heard or read, or while musing on some morrow; as a farmer has often to acknowledge the next great example, a man may conceive the design, and day's proceedings are at the disposal of its winds and partly sketch the plan, of a generous enterprise; and clouds. his imagination revels in the felicity that would follow, to This man's opinions and determinations always deothers and to himself, from its accomplishment. The pend very much on other human beings; and what splenlid representation always centres in himself as the chance for consistency and stability, while the persons hero that is to realize it. with whom he may converse, or transact, are so various. Yet a certain consciousness in his mind doubtfilly This very evening, he may talk with a man whose senasks, Is this any thing more than a dream; or am I timents will melt away the present form and outline of really destined to achieve such an enterprise? Des- his purposes, however firm and defined he.may have tined!-and why are not this conviction of its excellence, fancied them to be. A succession of persons whose this conscious duty of performing the noblest, things faculties were stronger than his own, might, in spite of that-are possible, and this passionate ardour, enough to his irresolute reaction, take him and dispose of him as secure that I shall effect it I He feels indignant at that they pleased. An infirm character practically confesses 17: 20 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. itself made for subjection, and the man so constituted One signal advantage possessed by a mind of this passes, like a slave, from owner to owner. Sonletimes character is, that its passions are not wasted. The whole indeed it happens, that a person of this sort falls into measure of passion of which any mind, with important the train, and under the permanent ascendancy of some transactions before it, is capable, is not more than one stronger character, which thus becomes through enough to supply interest and energy to its practical life the oracle and guide, and gives the inferior a steady exertions; and therefore as little as possible of this sawill and plan. This, when the leading character is vir- cred fire should be extended in a way that does not augtuous, is a fortunate relief to the feeling, and an advan- ment the force of action. But nothing can less contageous point gained to the utility, of the subordinate tribute to vigour of action, than protracted anxious appended mind. fluctuation, intermixed with resblutions decided and reIt is inevitable that the regulation of every man's voked, while yet nothing causes a greater expense of plan must greatly depend on the course of events which feeling. The heart is fretted and exhausted by being come in an order not to be foreseen or prevented. But subjected to an alternation of contrary excitements, with in accommodating the plans of conduct to the train of the ultimate mortifying consciousness of their contrievents, the difference between two men may be no less buting to no end. The long-wavering deliberation, than that, in the one instance, the man is subservient whether to perform some bold action of difficult virtue, to the events, and in the other, the events are made sub- has often cost more to feeling than the action itself, or servient to the man. Some men seem to have been a series of such actions, would have cost; with the' taken along by a succession of events, and, as it were, great disadvantage too of being relieved by none of that handed forward in quiet passiveness from one to ano- invigoration, which, to the man in action, would have ther; without any determined principle in their own sprung from the spirit of the action itself, and have recharacters, by which they could constrain those events to novated the ardour which' it was expending. A perserve a design formed antecedently to them, or apparent- son of decisive character, by consuming as little passion ly in defiance of them. The events seized them as a neu- as possible in dubious musings and abortive resolutions, tral material, not they the events. Others, advancing can secure its utmost value and use, by throwing it all through life, with an internal invincible determination of into effective operation. mind, have seemed to make the t6ain of circumstances, Another advantage of this character, is, that it exwhatever they were, conduce as much to their chief de- empts from a great deal of interference and persecution, sign as if they had taken place on purpose. It is wonder- to which an irresolute man is subjected. Weakness, ful how even the apparent casualtiesof life seem to bow in every form, tempts arrogance; and a man may be to a spirit that will not bow to them, and yield to assist allowed to wish for a kind of character with which stua design, after having in vain attempted to frustrate it. pidity and impertinence may not make so free. When You may have seen such examples, though they are com- a firm decisive spirit is recognised, it is curious to see paratively not numerous. You may have seen a man of how the space clears around a man, and leaves him this strong character in a state of indecision concerning room and freedom. This disposition to interrogate, some affair, inwhich it was requisite for him to determine, dictate, or banter, preserves a respectful and politic because it was requisite for him to act. But, in this case, distance, judging it not unwise to keep the peace with a his manner would assure you that he would not remain person of so much energy. A conviction that he unlong undecided; you would wonder if you found him derstands and that he wills with extraordinary force,-sistill at a loss the next day. If he explained his thoughts, lences the conceit that intended to perplex or instruct you would perceive that their clear process, evidently him, and intimidates the malice that was disposed to at each effort approaching nearer to the result, must attack him. There is a feeling, as in respect to Fate, certainly reach it ere long. The deliberation of such a that the decrees of so inflexible a spirit must be right, mind is a very different thing from the fluctuation of the or that, at least, they will be accomplished. other. To know how to obtain a determination, is one But not only will he secure the freedom of acting for of the first symptoms of a rationally decisive character. himself, he will obtain also by degrees the coincidence When the decision was formed, and the purpose fix- of those in whose company he is to transact the busied, yol would feel an entire assurance that something ness of life. If the manners of such a man are free would absolutely be done. It is characterestic of such from arrogance, and he can qualify his firmness with a a mind, to think for effect; and the pleasure of escap- moderate degree of insinuation; and if his measures ing from temporary doubt gives an additional impulse have partly lost the appearance of being the dictates of to the force with which it is carried into action. Such his will, under the wider and softer sanctions of some a man will not re-examine his conclusions with endless experience that they are reasonable; both competition repetition, and he will not be delayed long by consult- and fear will be laid to sleep, and his will may acquire ing other persons, after he has ceased to consult him- an unresisted ascendency over many who will be self. HIe cannot bear to sit still among unexecuted pleased to fall into the mechanism of a system, which decisions and unattempted projects. We wait to hear they find makes them more successful apd happy than of his achievements, and are confident we shall not wait they could have been amidst the anxiety of adjusting long. The possibility of the means may not be obvious plans and expedients of their own, and the conso to us, but we know that every thing will be attempted, quences of often adjusting them ill. I have known seand that such a mind is like a river, which, in whatever veral parents, both fathers and mothers, whose managemanner it is obstructed, will make its way somewhere. ment of their families has answered this description; It must have cost Caesar many anxious hours of deli- and has displayed a striking example of the facile com~eration, before he decided to pass the Rubicon; but it placency with which a number of persons, of different Is probable he suffered but few to elapse after his deci- ages and dispositions, will yield to the decisions of a sion, before he did pass it. And any one of his friends, firm mind, acting on an equitable and enlightened who should have been apprised of this determination, system. and understood his character, would have smiled con- The last resource of this character, is, hard inflexible temptuously to hear it insinuated that though Caesar pertinacity, on which it may be allowed to rest its had resolved, Caesar would not dare; or that though strength, after finding it can be effectual in none of its he might cross the Rubicon, whose opposite bank pre- milder forms. Iremember admiring an instance of this sented to him no hostile legions, he might come to kind,. ih a firm, sagacious and very estimable old man, other rivers, which he would not cross; or that either whom I well knew, and who is now dead. Being on a rivers, or any other obstacle, would deter him from pro- jury, in a trial of life and death, he was completely sasecuting the determination from this ominous com- tisfied of the innocence of the prisoner; the other menceinent to its very last consequence. eleven were of the opposite opinion. But he was re FOSTER'S ESSAYS, 21 solved the man should not be condemned; and as the ganization on disposition. Compare, for instance, a first effort for preventing it, very properly made appli- lion with the common beasts of our fields, many of them cation to the minds of his associates, spending several composed of a larger bulk of animated substance. hours in labouring to convince them. But he found he What a v'ast superiority of courage, impetuous movemade no impression, while he was exhausting the ment, and determined action; andwe attribute this difstrength which was to be reserved for another mode ference to some great dissimilarity of modification in of operation. He then calmly told them, it should now the composition of the animated material. Now it is be a trial who could endure confinement and famine the probable that a difference somewhat analogous subsists longest, and they might be quite assured he would between some human bodies and others, and that this sooner die than release them at the expense of the is no small part of the cause of the striking inequalities prisoner's life. In this situation they spent about twen- in respect to decisive character. A very decisive man ty-four hours; when at length all acceded to his ver- has probably more of the physical quality of a lion in diet of acquittal. his composition than other men. It is not necessary to amplify on the indispensable im- It is observable that women in general have less inportance of this quality, in order to the. acconmplishment flexibility of character than men; and though many of any thing eminently good. We instantly see, that moral influences contribute to this difference, the prinevery path to signal excellence is so obstructed and be- cipal cause may probably be something less firm in the set, that none but a spirit so qualified can pass. But it corporeal texture. Now that physical quality, whatever is time to examine what are the elements which com- it is, from the existence of a smaller measure of which pose the character. in the constitution of the frame, women have less firmness than men, may be possessed by one man more than by men in general, in a greater degree of difference than that by which men in general exceed women. If there have been found some resolute spirits powerrief Inquiry into the Constituents of this commanding Qua- fully asserting themselves in feeble vehicles, it is so lity-Corporeal Constitution-Possibility, nevertheless, of much the better; since this would authorize a hope, a firm. AI)ind in a feeble Body-Confidence in a Man's that if all the other grand requisites can be combined, own Judgment-This is an uncommon Distinction-Pic- they may form a strong character, in spite of the counture of a Alan who wants it-This Confidence distinguish- teraction of an unadapted constitution. And on the ed from Obstinacy-Partly founded on Experience- other hand, no constitutional hardness will form the -Takes a hih Tone oj' Independence in devising Schemes true character, without those grand principles; though -D-istressing Dile~mmas, it may produce that false and contemptible kind of dePerhaps the best mode would be to bring into our. cision which we term obstinacy; a stubbornness of thoughts in succession, the most remarkable examples temper, which can assign no reasons but mere will, for of this character that we have known in real life, or a constancy which acts in the nature of dead weight that we have read of in history or even in fiction, and rather than of strength; resembling less the re-action attentively to observe, in their conversations, manners, of a powerful spring, than the gravitation of a big stone. and actions, what principles appear to produce, or to The first prominent mental characteristic of the perconstitute, this commanding distinction. You will easi- son whom I describe, is, a complete confidence in his ly pursue this investigation yourself. I lately made a own judgment. It will perhaps be said, that this is partial attempt. and shall offer you a number of sug- not so uncommon a qualification. I however think it gestions. is uncommon. It is indeed obvious enough, that alAs a previous observation, it is beyond all doubt that most all men have a flattering estimate of their own very much depends on the constitution of the body. It understanding, and that so long as this understanding would be for physiologists to explain, if it were expli- has no harder task than to form opinions which are not cable, the manner in which corporeal organization af- to be tried in action, they have a most self-cornplacent fects the mind; I only assume it as a fact, that there assurance of being right. This assurance extends to is in the material construction of some persons, much the judgments which they pass on the proceedings of more than of others, some quality which augments, if others. But let them be brought into the necessity of it does not create, both the stability of their resolution, adopting actual measures in an untried proceeding, and the energy of their active tendencies. There is where, unassisted by any previous example or practice, something that, like the ligatures which one class of they are reduced to depend on the resources of pure the Olympic combatants bound on their, hands and judgment alone, and you will see, in many cases, this wrists, braces round, if I may so describe it, and com- confidence of opinion vanish away. The mind seems presses the powers of the mind, giving them a steady, all at once placed in a misty vacuity, where it reaches forcible spring and re-action, which they would pre- round on all sides, but can find nothing to take hold of. sently lose if they could be transferred into a constitu- Or if not lost in vacuity, it is overwhelmed by confution of soft, yielding, treacherous debility. The action sion; and feels as if its faculties were annihilated as of strong character seems to demand something firm in soon as it begins to think of schemes and calculations its corporeal basis, as massive engines require, for their among the possibilities, chances, and hazards, which weight and for their working, to be fixed on a solid overspread a wide, untrodden field; and this conscious foundation. Accordingly I believe it would be found, imbecility becomes severe distress, when it is believed that a majority of the persons most remarkable for de- that consequences, of serious or unknown good or evil, cisive character, have possessed great constitutional are depending on the decisions which are to be formed firmness. I do not mean an exemption from disease amidst so much uncertainty. The thought painfully and pain, nor any certain measure of mechanical strength, recurs at each step and turn, I may be right, but it is but a tone of vigour, the opposite to lassitude, and more probable I am wrong. It is like the case of a adapted to great exertion and endurance. This is rustic walking in London, who, having no certain diclearly evinced in respect to many of them, by the pro- rection through the vast confusion of streets to the digious labours and deprivations which they have borne place where he wishes to be, advances, and hesitates, in prosecuting their designs. The physical nature has and turns, and inquires, and becomes, at each corner, seemed a proud ally of the moral one, and with a hard- still more inextricably perplexed. A man in this situness that would never shrink, has sustained the energy *'Why does not the man call a hackney-coach?' a gay that could never remit. reader, I am aware, will say of a person so bemazed in a great vie f the disparities between the different races town. So he might, certainly; and the gay reader and I have A view of the disparities between the different races only to deplore that there is no parallel convtnience for the as. of animals inferior to mlan, will show the effect of or- sistance of perplexed understandings. 22 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. ation feels he shall be very unfortunate if he cannot ac- so that a man may be rich in the benefits of experience, complish more than he can understand. Is not this and therefore may have all the decision of judgment lefrequently, when brought to the practical test, the state gitimately founded on that accomplishment, long before of a mind not much disposed, in general, to undervalue he is old. This experimental knowledge he will be its own judgment? able to apply in a direct and immediate manner, and In cases where judgment is not so completely be- without refining it into general principles, to some sitwildered, you will yet perceive a great practical dis- nations of affairs, so as to anticipate the consequences trust of it. A man has perhaps advanced a considera- of certain actions in those situations as confidently and ble way toward a decision, but then lingers at a small rationally as the kind of fruit to be produced by a given distance from it, till necessity, with a stronger hand kind of tree. Thus far the facts of his experience will than conviction, impels him upon it. He cannot see serve him as precedents. At the next step, he will be the whole length of the question, and suspects the part able to apply this knowledge, now converted into genbeyond his sight to be the most important, because it is eral principles, to a multitude of cases bearing but a beyond. He fears that certain possible consequences, partial resemblance to any thing he has actually witif they should follow, would cause him to reproach him- lessed. And then, in looking forward to the possible self for his present determination. He wonders how occurrence of altogether new combinations of circumthis or the other person would have acted in the same stances, he can trust to the resources which he is percircumstances; eagerly catches at any thing like a re- suaded his intellect will opento him, or is humbly conspectable precedent; and looks anxiously round to fident, if he is a devout man, that the Supreme Intelliknow what each person thinks on the subject; while gence will not suffer to be wanting to him, when the the various and opposite opinions to which he listens, occasion arrives. In proportion as his views include, perhaps only serve to confound his perception of the at all events, more certainties than those of other men, track of thought by which he had hoped to reach his he is less fearful of contingencies. And if, in the conclusion. Even when that conclusion is obtained, course of executing his design, unexpected disastrous there are not many minds that might not be brought a events should befal, but which are not owing to any few degrees back into dubious hesitation, by a man of thing wrong in the plan and principles of that design, respected understanding saying, in a confident tone, but to foreign causes; it will be characteristic of a Your plan is injudicious; your selection is unfortunate; strong mind to attribute these events discriminately to the event will disappoint you. their own causes, and not to the plan, which, therefore, It cannot be supposed that I am maintaining such instead of being disliked and relinquished, will be still an absurdity as that a man's complete reliance on his as much approved as before, and the man will proceed own judgment is necessarily a proof of that judgment calmly to the sequel of it without any change of arbeing correct and strong. Intense stupidity may be in rangement;-unless indeed the-se sinister events should this point the rival of clear-sighted wisdom. I had be such as to alter the whole state of things to which once some knowledge of a person, whom no mortal, the plan was correctly adapted, and so to create a nenot even Cromwell, could have excelled in the article cessity on this account for an entirely new one to be of confidence in his judgment, and consequent inflexi- formed. bility of conduct; while at the same time his succes- Without absolutely despising the understandings of sive schemes were ill-judged to a degree that made his other men, he will perceive their dimensions compared disappointments ridiculous rather than pitiable. He with his own, which will preserve its independence was not an example of that simple obstinacy which I through every communication and encounter. It is have mentioned before; for he considered his measures, however a part of this very independence, that he will and did not want for reasons which satisfied himself hold himself at liberty to alter his opinion, if the inbeyond a doubt of their being most judicious. This formation which may be communicated to him, shall confidence of opinion may be possessed by a person in give sufficient reason. And as no one is so sensible whom it will be contemptible or mischievous; but its of the importance of a complete acquaintance with a proper place is in a very different character, and with- subject as the man who is always endeavouring to think out!it there canl be no dignified actors in human affairs. conclusively, he will listen with the utmost attention If: after observing how foolish this confidence appears to the information, which may be received sometimes as a feature in a weak character, it be inquired what it from persons for whose judgment he has no great reis in a justly decisive -person's manner of thinking, spect. The information which they may afford to him which authorizes him in this firm assurance that his is not at all the less valuable for the circumstance, that view of the concerns before him is comprehensive and his practical inferences from it may be quite different accurate; he may, in answer, justify his confidence from theirs. Counsel will in general have only so upon such grounds as these: that he is conscious that much weight with him as it supplies knowledge which objects are presented to his mind with an exceedingly may assist his judgment; he will yield nothing to it as distinct and perspicuous aspect, not like the shapes of authority; but he may hear it with more candor and moon-light, or like Ossian's ghosts, dim forms of uncir- good temper, from being conscious of this independcumscribed shade; that he sees the different parts of ence of his judgment, than the man who is afraid lest the subject in an arranged order, not in dispersed frag- the first person that begins to persuade him, should ments; that in each deliberation the main object keeps confound his determination. He feels it entirely a work its clear pre-enminence, and he perceives the bearings of his own to deliberate and to resolve, amidst all the which the subordinate and conducive ones have on it; advice which may be attempting to control him. If, that perhaps several dissimilar trains of thought lead with an assurance of his intellect being of the highest him to the same conclusion; and that he finds his order, he also holds a commanding station, he will feel judgment does not vary according to the moods of his it gratuitous to consult with any one, excepting merely feelings. to receive statements of facts. This appears to be exIt may be presumned that a high degree of this cha- emplified in the manr, who has lately shown the nations racter is not attained without a considerable measure of Europe how large a portion of the world may, when of that kind of certainty, with respect to the relations Heaven permits, be at the mercy of the solitary workof things, which can be acquired only from experience ings of an individual mind. and observation; though an extreme vigilance in the The strongest trial of this determined style of judg exercise of observation, and a strong and strongly ex- ment is in those cases of urgency where something erted power of generalizing on experience, may have must immediately be done, and where the consequences made a comparatively short time enough to supply a of deciding right or wrong are of great importance; as large share of the wisdom derivable from these sources; in the office of a medical man in treating a patient FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 23 whose situation, while it renders some hazardous means the tenacity of my fate, of the accomplishment:of indispensable, also renders it extremly doubtful which which, the frustration of my purpose may indeed hbe ought to be selected. A still stronger illustration is doomed as a part, but is doomed so only through cala-. the case of a general, who is compelled, in the very in- mity or death. stant, to make dispositions on which the event of a This display of systematic energy seems to indice;:cte battle, the lives of thousands of his men, or perhaps a constitution of mind in which the passions are con.ialmost the fate of a nation, may depend. He may even mensurate with the intellectual part, and at the samreo be reduced to an alternative which appears equally time hold an inseparable correspondence with it, like. dreadful on both sides. Such a dilemma is described the faithful sympathy of the tides with the phases:;;A in Denon's account of one of the sanguinary conflicts the moon. There is such all equality and connexioll. between the French and Mamelukes, as having for a that subjects of the decisions of judgment become pro.i while held General Desaix, though a very decisive com- portionally and of course the objects of passion. WhclT mander, in a state of anguish. the judgment decides with a very strong preference, that same strength of preference, actuating also the pa'ssions, devotes them with energy to the object, so lon1e, as it is thus approved; and this will produce such a ce:LETTER III. duct as I have described. WVhen therefore a firm, selfconfiding, and unaltering judgment fails to make a de-.Energy of Feeling as necessary as Confidence of Opinion —c, nd unaltering judgment fails to make a Conduct that results from. their Combination-Effect and cisive character, it is evident either that the passions in VTalue of a Ruling Passion-Great Decision of Character that mind are too languid to be capable of a strong and invests even wicked Beings with something which we are unremitting excitement, which defect makes an inmd,: tempted to admire-Satan-Zanga-A Spanish Assassin lent or irresolute man; or that they perversely sore-Remarkable Example of this Quality in a Man7 who was times coincide with judgment and sometimes clash a Prodigal and became poor, but turned Miser and became with it which makes an inconsistent or versatile naw issionaries. There is no man so irresolute as not to act with deThis indispensable basis, confidence of opinion, is termination In many single cases, where the motive is however not eL.ough to constitute the character in powerful and simple, and where there is no need of pla question. For many persons, who have been conscious and perseverance; but this gives no claim to the term: and proud of a much stronger grasp of thought than character, which expresses the habitual tenour of a ordinary men, and have held the most decided opinions man's active being. The character may be displayed on important things to be done, have vet exhibited, in in the successive unconnected undertakings, which are the listlessness or inconstancy of their actions, a con- each of limited extent, and end with the attainment Uf trast and a disgrace to the operations of their under- their particular objects. But it is seen to the greatest. standings. For want of some cogent feeling impelling advantage in those grand schemes of action, which haxe them to carry every internal decision into action, they no necessary point of conclusion, which continue ore have been still left where they were; and a dignified through successive years, and extend even to that dark judgment has been seen in the hapless plight of having period when the agent himself is withdrawn from human no effective forces to execute its decrees. sight. It is evident then, (and I perceive I have partly an- I have repeatedly remarked to you in conversation, ticipated this article in the first letter,) that another es- the effect of what has been called a Ruling PassioI:. sential principle of the character is, a total incapability WVhen its object is noble, and an enlightened uindci of surrendering to indifference or delay the serious de- standing directs its movements, it appears to me a great terminations of the mind. A strenuous will must ac- felicity; but whether its object be noble or ilot it inl company the conclusions of thought, and constantly fallibly creates, where it exists in great force, that at incite the utmost efforts for their practical accomplish- tive, ardent constancy, which I describe as a capital ment. The intellect must be invested, if I may so feature of the decisive character. The Subject of sucl describe it, with a glowing atmosphere of passion, under a commanding passion wonders, if indeed he were at the influence of which, the cold dictates of reason take leisure to wonder, at the persons who pretend tq attachA fire, and spring into active powers. importance to an object which they make none'but the Revert once more in your thoughts to the persons most languid efforts to secure. The utmost powers most remarkably distinguished by this decision. You the man are constrained into the service of the fav-curl will perceive, that instead of allowing themselves to sit ite Cause by this passion, which sweeps away, s t down delighted after the labour of successful thinking, advances, all the trivial objections and little opposi'g as if they had completed some great thing, they regard motives, and seems almost to open a way through iray this labour but as a circiumstance of preparation, and possibilities. The spirit comes on him in the mornhinV the conclusions resulting from it as of no more value, as soon as lie recovers his consciousness, and coi'rtill applied to the greater labour which is to follow, than mands and impels him through the day, with a pov-e the entombed lamps of the Rosicrucians. They are not from which he could not emancipate himself if }~e disposed to be content in a region of mere ideas, would. When the force of habit is added, the deter-: while they ought to be advancing into the field of cor- mination beeomes invincible, and seems to assumr. responding realities; they retire to that region some- rank with the great laws of nature, making it nearlv ase times, as ambitious adventurers anciently went to Del- certain that such a man will persist in his course as tt'at phi, to consult, but not to reside. You will therefore in the morning the sun will rise. find them almost uniformly in determined pursuit of A persisting, untameable efficacy of soul gives a s:some object, on which they fix a keen and steady look, ductive and pernicious dignity even to a character aned a and which they never lose sight of, while they follow course which every moral principle forbids us to approve. it through the confused multitude of other things. Often in the narrations of history and fiction, an agesr. A person actuated by such a spirit, seems by his man- of the most dreadful designs compels a sentimenti of ner to say,' Do you think that I would not disdain to deep respect for the unconquerable mind displayed int adopt a purpose which I would not devote my utmost their execution. While we shudder at his activity, we force to effect; or that having thus devoted my exer- say with regret, mingled with an admiration which bontions, I will intermit or withdraw them, through indo- ders on partiality, What a noble being this would hPve lence, debility, or caprice; or that I will surrender my been, if goodness had been his destiny! The partial' object to any interference except the uncontrollable is evinced in the very selection of terms, by which wtew dispensations of Providence? No, I am linked to my show that we are tempted to refer his atrocity rlt crr determination with iron bands; it clings to me with to his destiny than to his choice. I wonder whetrotr 24 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. n emotion like this, has not been experienced by each have always recollected this as a signal instance, though reader of Paradise Lost, relative to the Leader of the in an unfortunate and ignoble direction, of decisive chainfernal spirits; a proof, if such were the fact, that a racter, and of the extraordinary effect which, according very serious error has been committed by the greatest to general laws, belongs to the strongest form of such a poet. In some of the high examples of ambition, we character. almost revere the force of mind which impelled them But not less decision has been displayed by men forward through the longest series of action, superior to of virtue. In this distinction no man ever exceeded, doubt and fluctuation, and disdainful of ease, of plea- for instance, or ever will exceed, the late illustrious sures, of opposition, and of danger. We bow to the Howard. ambitious spirit which reached the true sublime in the The energy of his determination was so great, that reply of PoInpey to his friends, who dissuaded him from if, instead of being habitual, it had been shown only for hazarding his life on a tempestuous sea in order to be a short time on particular occasions, it would have apat Rome on an important occasion;'It is necessary for peared a vehement impetuosity; but by being uninterme to go; it is not necessary for me to live.' mitted, it had an equability of manner which scarcely apRevenge has produced wonderful examples of this peared to exceed the tone of a calm constancy, it was so unremitting constancy to a purpose. Zanga is a well totally the reverse of any thing like turbulence or agitasupported illustration. And you may have read a real tion. It was the calmness of an intensity kept uniform instance of a Spaniard, who, being injured by another by the nature of the human mind forbidding it to be more, inhabitant of the same town, resolved to destroy him: and by the character of the individual forbidding it to be the other was apprised of this, and removed with the less. The habitual passion of his mind was a measure utmost secrecy, as he thought, to another town at a of feeling almost equal to the temporary extremes and considerable distance, where however he had not been paroxysms of common minds: as a great. river, in its more than a day or two, before he found that his enemy customary state, is equal to a small or moderate one when was arrived there. He removed in the same manner to swollen to a torrent. several parts of the kingdom, remote from each other; The moment of finishing his plans in deliberation, and but in every place quickly perceived that his deadly commencing them in action, was the same. I wonder pursuer was near him. At last he went to South Am- what must have been the amount of that bribe, in emoluerica, where he had enjoyed his security but a very short ment or pleasure that would have detained him a week time, before his unrelenting enemy came up with him, inactive after their final adjustment. The law which and accomplished his purpose. carries water down a declivity, was not more unconquerYou may recollect the mention, in one of our con- able and invariable than the determination of his feelings versations, of a young man who wasted, in two or three toward the main object The importance of this object years, a large patrimony in profligate revels with a num- held his faculties in a state of excitement which was too ber of worthless associates who called themselves his rigid to be affected by lighter interests, and on which friends, and who, when his last means were exhausted, therefore the beauties of nature and of art had no power. treated him of course with neglect or contempt. Re- He had no leisure feeling which he could spare to be duced to absolute want, he one day went out of the diverted among the innumerable varieties of the extenhouse with an intention to put an end to his life; but sive scene which he traversed; all his subordinate feelwandering a while almost unconsciously, he came to ings lost their separate existence and operation, by fallthe brow of an eminence which overlooked what were ing into the grand one. There have not been wanting lately his estates. Here he sat down, and remained trivial minds, to mark this as a fault in his character. fixed in thought a number of hours, at the end of which But the mere men of taste ought to be silent respecting he sprang from the ground with a vehement, exulting such a man as Howard; he is above their sphere of emotion. He had formed his resolution, which was, judgment. The invisible spirits, who fulfil their comnthat all these estates should be his again; he had form- mission of philanthrophy among mortals, do not care ed his plan too, which he instantly began to execute. about pictures, statues, and sumptuous buildings; and HIe walked hastily forward, determined to seize the no more did he, when the time in which he must have very first opportunity, of however humble a kind, to gain inspected and admired them, would have been taken any money, though it wore'ever so despicable a trifle, from the work to which he had consecrated his life. The and resolved absolutely not to spend, if he could help curiosity which he might feel, was reduced to wait till the it, a farthing of whatever he might obtain. The first hour should arrive, when its gratification should be prething that drew his attention was a heap of coals shot sented by conscience, which kept a scrupulous charge out of carts on the pavement before a house. He of- of all his time, as the most sacred duty of that hour. If fered himself to shovel or wheel them into the place he was still at every hour, when it came, fated to feel where they were to be laid, and was employed. He the attractions of the fine arts but the second claim, they received a few pence for the labour; and then, in pur- might be sure of their revenge; for no other man will suance of the saving part of his plan, requested some ever visit Rome under such a despotic consciousness small gratuity of meat and drink, which was given him. of duty, as to refuse himself time for surveying the He then looked out for the next thing that. might chance magnificence of its ruins. Such a sin against taste is to offer; and went, with indefatigable industry, through very far beyond the reach of common saintship to coma succession of servile employments in different places, mit. It implied an inconceivable severity of conviction, of longer and shorter duration, still scrupulously avoid- that he had one thing to do, and that he who would do ing, as far as possible, the expense of a penny. He some great thing in this short life, must apply himselt promptly seized every opportunity which could advance to the work with such a concentration of his forces, as, his design without regarding the meanness of occupa- to idle spectators who live only to amuse themselves, tion or appearance. By this method he had gained after looks like insanity. a considerable time, money enough to purchase in or- His attention was so strongly and tenaciously fixed der to sell again. a few cattle, of which he had taken on his object, that even at the greatest distance, as the pains to understand the value. Hie speedily but cau- Egyptian pyramids to travellers, it appeared to him tiously turned his first gains into second advantages; with a luminous distinctness as if it had been nigh, and retained without a single deviation his extreme parsi- beguiled the toilsome length of labour and enterprise mony; and thus advanced by degrees into larger trans- by which he was to reach it. It was so. conspicuous actions and incipient wealth. I did not hear, or have before him, that not a step deviated from the direction, forgotten, the continued course of his life; but thte final and every movement and every day was an approximaresult was, that he more than recovered his lost posses- tion. As his method referred every thing he did and sions, and died an inveterate miser, worth 60,000. I hought to the end, and as his exertion did not relax for FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 25 a moment, he made the trial, so seldom made, what is *al, and often singular, he may expect some serious the utmost effect which may be granted to the last trials of courage. For one thing, he may be encounpossible efforts of a human agent: and therefore what tered by the strongest disapprobation of many of his he did not accomplish, he might conclude to be placed connexions, and the censure of the greater part of the beyond the sphere of mortal activity, and calmly leave society where he is known. In this case, it is not a to the immediate disposal of Providence. man of common spirit that can show himself just as at Unless the eternal happiness of mankind be an insig- other tknes, and meet their anger in the same undisnificant concern, and the passion to promote it an inglo- turbed manner as he would meet some ordinary inclerious distinction, I may cite George Whitefield as a mency of the weather; that can without harshness or noble instance of this attribute of the decisive charac- violence, continue to effect every moment some part ter, this intense necessity of action. The great of his design, coolly replying to each ungracious look Cause which was so languid a thing in the hands of and indignant voice, I am sorry to oppose you: I am many of its advocates, assumed in his administrations not unfriendly to you, while thus persisting in what exan unmitigable urgency. cites your displeasure; it would please me to have Many of the Christian missionaries among the hea- your approbation and concurrence, and I think I should thens, such as Brainerd, Elliot, and Schwartz, have have them if you would seriously consider my reasons; displayed memorable examples of this dedication of but meanwhile, I am superior to opinion, I am not to their whole being to their office, this abjuration of all be intimidated by reproaches, nor would your. favour the quiescent feelings. and applause be any reward for the sacrifice of my obThis would be the proper place for introducing (if I ject. As you can do without my approbation, I can did not hesitate to introduce in any connexion with certainly do without yours; it is enough that I can apmere human instances) the example of Him who said, prove myself, it is enough that I can appeal to the last'I must be about my Father's business. My meat and authority in the creation. Amuse yourselves, as you drink is to do the will of Him that sent me, and to finish may, by continuing to censure or to rail; I must conhis work. I have a baptism to be baptized with, and tinue to act. how am I straitened till it be accomplished.' The attack of contempt and ridicule is perhaps a still greater trial of couaage. It is felt by all to be an admirable thing, when it can in no degree be ascribed to the hardness of either stupidity or confirmed depravity, LETTER IV. to sustain for a considerable time, or in numerous instances, the looks of scorn, or an unrestrained shower Courage a chief Constituent of the Character —Effect of this of taunts and eers, with a perfect composure, which in encountering Censure and Ridicule-Almagro, Pizarro, and De LuquZes-Defiance of Danger-Luther-Daniel- shall immediately after, or even at the time, proceed on Another indispensable Requisite to Decision is the full the business that provokes all this ridicule. This in-.Agreemcnt of all the Powers of the Mind-Lady Mac- vincibility of temper will often make even the scoffers beth-Richard III-Cromwell-A Father who had the themselves tired of the sport; they begin to feel that opportunity of saving one of two Sons ffrom Death. against such a man it is a poor sort of hostility to laugh. After the illustrations on the last article, it will seem There is nothing that people are more mortified to but a very slight transition when I proceed to specify spend in vain than their scorn. Till, however, a man Courage, as an essential part of the decisive character. becomes a veteran, he must reckon on sometimes meetAn intelligent man, adventurous only in thought, may ing this trial; and I instantly know-if I hear him anxsketch the most excellent scheme, and after duly ad- iously reply, to an important suggestion of any measure miring it, and himself as its author, may be reduced to to be adopted, But will they not laugh at me?-I know say, What a noble spirit that would be which should that he is not the person whom this essay attempts to dare to realize this! A noble spirit! Is it I? And describe. A man of the right kind would say, They his heart may answer in the negative, while he glances will smile, they will laugh, will they 1 Much good may a mortified thought of inquiry round to recollect persons it do them. I have something else to do than to trouwho would venture what hedares not, andalmost hopes ble myself about their mirth. I do not care if the not to find them. Or if by extreme effort he has whole neighbourhood were to laugh in a chorus. I brought himself to a resolution.of braving the difficulty, should indeed be sorry to see or hear such a numhe is compelled to execrate the timid lingerings that. ber of fools, but pleased enough to find that they did still keep him back from the trial. A man endowed not consider me as one of their stamp. The good to with the complete character, might say, with a sober result from my project will not be less, because vain consciousness as remote from the spirit of bravado as and shallow minds that cannot anderstand it, are diit is from timidity, Thus, and thus, is my conviction verted at it and at me. What should 1 think of my and my determination; now for the phantoms of fear; pursuits, if every trivial, thoughtless being could comlet me look them in the face; they will find I am,'not prehend or would applaud them; and of myself, if my made of trembling materials:' I dare do all that may courage needed levity and ignorance for their allies, become a man.' I shall firmly confront. every thing or could shrink at their sneers. that threatens me in the prosecuting of my purpose, I remember, that on reading the account of the proand I am prepared to meet the consequences of it when ject of conquering Peru, formed by Almagro, Pizarro, it is accomplished. I should despise a being, though and De Luques, while abhorring the principle and the it were myself, whose agency could be held enslaved design of the men, I could not help admiring the hardiby the gloomy shapes of imagination, by the haunt- hood of mind, which made them regardless of scorn. ing recollections of a dream, by the whistling or the These three individuals, before they had obtained any howling 9f winds, by the shriek of owls, by the shades associates, or arms, or soldiers, or a complete knowof midnight, or by the threats and frowns of man. I ledge of the power of the kingdom they were to conshould be indignant to feel that, in the commencement quer, celebrated a solemn mass in one of the great of an adventure, I could think of nothing but the deep churches, as a pledge and a commencement of the enpit.by the side of the way where I must walk, into terprise, amidst the astonishment and contempt exwhich I mayv slide, the mad animal which it is not im- pressed by a multitude of people for what was'deemed possible theat I may meet, or the assassin who may lurk a monstrous project. They however proceeded through in a thicket of yonder wood. And I disdain to compro- the service, and afterwards to their respective departmise the interests that rouse me to action, for the pri- ments of preparation, with an apparently entire insenvilege of a disgraceful security. sibility to all this triumphant scorn; and thus gave the As the conduct of a decisive man is always individ- first proof of possessing that invincible firmness with 26 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. which they afterwards prosecuted their design, till they passions are opposite to each other, they will utterly attained a success, the destructive process and many distract any mind, whatever might be the force of its of the results of which humanity will for ever deplore. faculties when acting without embarrassment. The Milton's Abdiel is a noble illustration of the courage one passion may be somewhat stronger than the other, that defies scorn. and therefore just prevail barely enqough to give a feeBut in some of the situations where decision of cha- ble impulse to the conduct of the man; but no powerracter is to be evinced, a man will be threatened by ful impulse can be given, till the disparity of these two evils of a darker aspect than disapprobation or contempt. rivals becomes greater, in consequence of the gradual He may apprehend serious sufferings; and very often, weight of habit, or the reinforcement supplied by some to dare as far as conscience or a great cause required, new impressions, being added to the preponderating has been to dare to die. In almost all plans of great passion. The disparity must be no less than an absoenterprise, a man must systematically dismiss, at the lute predominance of the one and subjection of the entrance, every wish to stipulate for safety with his other, before the prevailing passion will have at liberty destiny. He voluntarily treads within the precincts of from the intestine conflict any large measure of its force danger; and though it is possible that he may escape, to throw activity into the system of conduct. If. for he ought to be prepared with the fortitude of a self- instance, a man feels at once the love of fame which is devoted victim. This is the inevitable condition on to be gained only by arduous exertions, and an equal which heroes, travellers or missionaries among savage degree of the love of pleasure which precludes those nations, and reformers on a grand scale, must corn- exertions; if he is eager to show off in splendour, and mence their career. Either they must allay their fire yet anxious to save money; if he has the curiosity of of enterprise, or they must hold themselves in readiness adventure, and yet that solicitude for his safety, which to be exploded by it from the world. forbids him to climb a precipice, descend into a cavern, The last decisive energy of a rational courage, which or explore a dangerous wild; if he has the stern will confides in the Supreme Power, is very sublime. It of a tyrant, and yet the relentings of a man; if he has makes a man, who intrepidly dares every thing that the ambition which would subdue his fellow-mortals, can oppose or attack him within the whole sphere of counteracted by the humanity which would not hurt mortality; who would retain his purpose unshaken them; we can easily anticipate the irresolute, contraamidst the ruins of the world; who will still press to- dictory tenour of his actions. Especially if conscience, ward his object while death is impending over him. that great troubler of the human breast, loudly declares It was in the true elevation of this character that Lu- against a man's wishes or projects, it will be a fatal ther, when cited to appear at the Diet of Worms, under enemy to decision, till it either reclaim the delinquent a very questionable assurance of safety from high au- passions, or be debauched or murdered by them. thority, said to his friends, who conjured him not to go, Lady Macbetlh may be cited as a harmonious characand justly brought the example of John Huss, who, in ter, though the epithet seems strangely applied. She a similar situation, and with the same pledge of pro- had capacity, ambition, and courage; and she willed tection, had notwithstanding been burnt alive,'I am the death of the king. Macbeth had still more capacicalled in the name of God to go, and I would go, though ty, ambition, and courage; and he also willed the murI were certain to meet as many devils in Worms as der of the king. But he had, besides, humanity, gethere are tiles on the houses.' nerosity, conscience, and some measure of what forms A reader of the Bible will not forget Daniel, braving the power of conscience, the fear of a Superior Being. mn calm devotion the decree which virtually consigned Consequently, when the dreadful moment approached, him to the den of lions; or Shadrach, Meshach and he felt an insupportable conflict between these opposite Abed-nego, saying to the tyrant,'We are not careful principles, and when it was arrived, his utmost courage to answer thee in this matter,' when the furnace was in began to fail. The worst part of his nature fell prossighit. trate under the power of the better; the angel of goodThe combination of these several essential principles ness arrested the demon that grasped the dagger; and constitutes that state of mind which is the grand re- would have taken that dagger away, if the pure demoquisite to decision of character, and perhaps its most niac firmness of his wife, who had none of these counstriking distinction, that is, the full agreement of the teracting principles, had not shamed and hardened him mind with itself, the co-operation of all its powers and to the deed. all its dispositions. The poet's delineation of Richard III, gives a dread-'What an unfortunate task it would be for a charioteer, ful specimen of this indivisibility of mental impulse. who had harnessed a set of horses however strong, if After his determination was fixed, his whole mind with he could not make them draw together; if, while one the compactest fidelity supported him in prosecuting it of them would go forward, another was restive, another Securely privileged from all interference of doubt that struggled backward, another started aside. If even could linger, or humanity that could soften, or timidity one of the four were unmanageably perverse, while the that could shrink, he advanced with a grim, concentratthree were obedient, an aged beggar with his crutch ed constancy through scene after scene of atrocity, still might leave Phaeton behind. So in a human being, fulfilling his vow to' cut his way through with a bloody unless the chief forces act consentaneously, there can axe.' He did not waver while he pursued his object, be no inflexible vigour, either of will or of execution. nor relent when he seized it. One dissentient principle in the mind not only deducts Cromwell, (whom I mention as a parallel, not to so much from the strength and mass of its agency, but Richard's depravity, but to his inflexible vigour) lost his counteracts and embarrasses all the rest. If the judg- mental consistency in the latter end of a career distinment holds in low estimation that which yet the pas- guished by as much decision as the world ever saw. It sions incline a man to pursue, his pursuit will be irregu- appears that the wish to be a king, at last arose in a lar and inconstant, though it may have occasional fits mind which had execrated royalty, and battled it from of animation, when those passions happen to be highly the land. As far as he really had any republican prinstimulated. If there is an opposition between judg- ciples and partialities, this new desire must have ment and habit, though the man will probably continue been a very uncomplacent associate for them, and must to act mainly under the direction of habit in spite of have produced a schism in the breast where all the his opinions, yet sometimes the intrusiqn of those strong forces of thought and passion had acted till then opinions will have for the moment an effect like that of in concord. The new form of ambition became just Prospero's wand on the limbs of Ferdinand; and to be predominant enough to carry him, by slow degrees, alternately impelled by habit, and checked by opinion, through the embarrassment and the shame of this inconwill be a state of vexatious debility. If two principal' gruity, into an irresolute determination to assume the FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 27 crown; so irresolute, that he was reduced again to a portance either to their opinions or to their regard. His mortifying indecision by the remonstrances of some manner, when they differ from him, or complain, will be of his friends, which he could have slighted, and by an in danger of giving the impression of careless inattenapprehension of the public disapprobation, which he tion, and sometimes of disdain. could have braved, if some of the principles of his own When he can accomplish a design in his own permind had not shrunk or revolted from the design. son alone, he may separate himself to the work with When at last the motives for relinquishing this design the cold self-inclosed individuality on which no one has prevailed, it was by so small a degree of predominance, any hold, which seems to recognize no kindred being that his reluctant refusal of tihe offered crown was the in the world, which takes little account of good wishes voice only of half his soul. and kind concern, any more than it cares for opposiNot only two distinct counteracting passions, but one tion; which seeks neither aid nor sympathy, and which passion interested for two objects, both equally desira- seems to say, I do not want any of you, and I am glad ble, but of which the man must be sacrificed, may an- that I do not; leave me alone to succeed or die. This nibilate in that instance the possibility of determined has a very repellent effect on the friends who wished to conduct. I recollect reading in an old divine, a story feel themselves of some importance, in some way or from an older historian, applicable to this remark. A other, to a person whom they are constrained to respect. father went to the agents of a tyrant, to endeavour to When assistance is indispensable to his undertakings, redeem his two sons, military men, who with some his mode of signifying it will seem rather to command other captives of war were condemned to die. He the co-operation, than to invite it. offered, as a ransom, to surrender his own life and a In consultation, his manner will indicate that when large sum of money. The tyrant's agents who had. he is equally with the rest in possession of the circumthem in charge, informed him that this equivalent would stances of the case, he does not at all expect to hear any be accepted for one of his sons, and for one only, be- opinions that shall correct his own; but is satisfied that cause they should be accountable for the execution of either his present conception of the subject is the just two persons; he might therefore choose which he one, or that his own mind must originate that which would redeem. Anxious to save even one of them shall be so. This striking difference will be apparent thus at the expense of his own life, he yet was unable between him and his associates, that their manner of to decide which would die, by choosing the other to receiving his opinions is that of agreement or dissent; live, and remained in the agony of this dilemma so his manner of receiving theirs is that of sanction or relong that they were both irreversibly ordered for exe- jection. He has the tone of authoritatively deciding cution. on what they say, but never of submitting to decision of what himself says. Their coincidence with his views does not give him a firmer assurance of his being LETTER V. right, nor their dissent any other impression than that of their incapacity to judge. If his feeling took the Formidable Power of Mischief which this high Quality gives distinct form of a reflection, it would be, Mine is the to bad 3Men.-Care required to prevent its renderehending and devising, and I am M-en unconcilialing and overbearing-Independence and here to rule this company, and not to consult them; I over-ruling Manner in CosultatioA —Lord Chatham — Decision of Character not incompatible with Sensibility and want their docility and not their arguments; I am come, mild Manners —But probably the Majority of the most not to seek their co-operation in thinking, but to detereminent E amples of it deficient in the kinder Af'ections- mine their concurrence in executing what is already King of Prussia-Situations in which it may be an abso- thought for them. Of course, many suggestions and lute Duty to act in Opposition to the Promotings of those reasons which appear important to those from whom A4ffections. they come, will be disposed of by him witk. a transient It were absurd to suppose that any human being can attention, or a light facility, that will seem very disreattain a state of mind capable of acting in all instances spectful to persons who possibly hesitate to admit that invariably with the full power of determination; but it he is a demi-god, and that they are but idiots. Lord is obvious that many have possessed a habitual and Chatham, in going out of the House of Commons, just very commanding measure of it; and I think the pre- as one of the speakers against him concluded his ceding remarks have taken account of its chief char- speech by emphatically urging what he perhaps rightly acteristics and constituent principles. A number of thought the unanswerable question,' Where can we additional observations remain. find means to support such a war?' turned round a The slightest view of human affairs shows what fatal moment, and gaily replied,' Gentle Shepherd, tell me and ample mischief may be caused by men of this cha- where.' racter, when misled or wicked. You have but to re- Even the assenting convictions, and practical comcollect the conquerors, despots, bigots, unjust conspira- pliances, yielded by degrees to this decisive man, may tors, and single villains of every class, who have blast- be somewhat undervalued; as they will appear to him ed society by the relentless vigour which could act con- no more than simply coming, and that perhaps very sistently and heroically wrong. Till therefore the vir- slowly, to a right apprehension; whereas himself untue of mankind be greater, there is reason to be pleased derstood and decided justly from the first, and has been that so few of them are endowed with extraordinary right all this while. decision. He will be in danger of extending but little tolerance When this character is dignified by wisdom and to the prejudices, hesitation, and timidity, of those with principle, great care is yet required in the possessors of whom he has to act. He will say to himself, I wish it to prevent it from becoming unamiable. As it in- there were any thing like manhood among the beings volves much practical assertion of superiority over other called men; and that they could have the sense and human beings, the manner ought to be as mild and con- spirit not to let themselves be hampered by so many ciliating as possible; else pride will feel provoked, af- silly notions and childish fears. Why cannot they either fection hurt, and weakness oppressed. But this man- determine with some promptitude, or let me, that can, ner is not the one which will be most natural to such a do it for them? Am'I to wait till debility become man; aither it will be that of sternness, reserve, and strong, and folly wise? If full scope be allowed to incoimpliance. He will have the appearance of keep- these tendencies, they will make even a man of eleva ed ing himself always at a distance from social equality; virtue a tyrant, who, in the consciousness of the right and his friends will feel as if their friendsihp were con- intention, and the assurance of the wise contrivance, tinually sliding into subserviency; while his intimate of his designs, will hold himself justified in being reeonnexions wtill think he does not attach the due im- gardless of every thing but the accomplishment of them. 28 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. He will forget all respect for the feelings and liberties have yielded sometimes to some species of love, as a of beings who are to be regarded as but a subordinate mode of amusing their passions for an interval, till machinery, to be actuated, or to be thrown aside when greater engagements have summoned them into their not actuated, by the spring of his commanding spirit. proper element; when they have shown how little the I have before asserted that this strong character may sentiment ever belonged to the heart, by the ease with be exhibited' with a mildenss of manner, and that, gene- which they could relinquish the temporary favourite. rally, it will thus best secure its efficacy. But this In other cases, where there have not been the selfish mildness must often be at the cost of great effort; and inducements, which this passion supplies, to the exhihow much considerate policy or benevolent forbearance bition of something like softness, and where they have it will require, for a man to exert his utmost vigour in been left to the pure sympathies of humanity alone, no the very task, as it will appear to him at the time, of rock on the face of the earth could be harder. cramping that vigour! Lycurgus appears to have been The celebrated King of Prussia occurs to me, as a a high example of mild patience in the firm prosecution capital instance of the decisive character; and there of designs which were to be effected among a perverse occurs to me,'at the same time, one of the anecdotes multitude. of his life.* Intending to make, in the night' an imIt is probable that the men most distinguished for portant movement in his camp, which was in sight of decision, have not, in general, possessed a large share the enemy, he gave orders that by eight o'clock all the of tenderness; and it is easy to imagine that the laws lights in the camp should be put out, on pain of death. of our nature will with great difficulty allow the combi- The moment that the time was past, he walked out nation of the refined sensibilities with a hardy, never- himself to see whether all were dark. He found a shrinking, never-yielding constancy. Is it not almost light in the tent of a Captain Zietern, which he entered of the essence of this constancy to be free from even just as the officer was folding up a letter. Zietern the perception of such impressions as cause a mind, knew him, and instantly fell on his knees to entreat his weak through susceptibility, to relax or waver; just as mercy. The king asked to whom he had been writing; the skin of the elephant, or the armour of the rhinoce- he said it was a letter to his wife, which he had retained res, would be but indistinctly sensible to the applica- the candle these few mninutes beyond the time in order tion of a force by which a small animal, with a skin of to finish. The king coolly ordered him to rise, and thin and delicate texture, would be pierced or lacerated write one line more, which he should dictate. This to death? No doubt, this firmness consists partly in line was to inform his wife, without any explanation, overcoming feelings, but it may consist partly too in that by such an hour the next day, he should be a dead not having them. To be tremblingly alive to gentle man. The letter was then sealed, and despatched asit impressions, and yet to be able to preserve, when the had been intended; and, the next day, the Captain prosecution of a design requires it, an immoveable was executed. I say nothing of the justice of the heart, amidst the most imperious causes of subduing punishment itself; but this cool barbarity to the affecemotion, is perhaps not an impossible constitution of tion both of the officer and his wife, was enough to mind, but it must be the rarest endowment of humanity. brand the character indelibly. It proved how little the If you take a view of the first rank of decisive men, decisive hero and pretended philosopher was susceptiyou will observe that their faculties have been too much ble of such an affection, or capable of sympathizing bent to arduous effort, their souls have been kept in too with its pains. military an attitude, they have been begirt with too At the same time, it is proper to observe, that the much iron, for the melting movements of the heart. case may easily occur, in which a man must be resolute Their whole being appears too much arrogated and oc- to act in a manner which may make him appear to want cupied by the spirit of severe design, compelling them the finer feelings. He must do what he knows will to work systematically toward some defined end, to be cause pain to persons who will feel it severely. He may sufficientlb at ease for the indolent conlplacency, the be obliged to resist affectionate wishes, expostulations, soft lassitude, of gentle affections, which love to sur- entreaties, and tears. Take this same instance. If the render themselves to the present felicities, forgetful of wife of Zietern had come to supplicate for him, not all' enterprises of great pith and moment.' The man only the remission of the punishment of death, but an seems rigorously intent still on his own affairs, as he exemption front any other severe punishment, which walks, or regales, or mingles with domestic society; was perhaps justly due to the violation of such an and appears to despise all the feelings that will not take order, on so important an occasion, it had then probably rank with the grave labours and decisions of intellect, been the duty and the virtue of the commander to deny or coalesce with the unremitting passion which is his the most interesting suppliant, and to resist the most paspring of action: he values not feelings which he can- thetic appeals which could have been made to his feelings. not employ either as weapons or as engines. He loves to be actuated by a passion so strong as to compel into exercise the utmost force of his being, and fix him in a tone, compared with which, the gentle affections, if he LETTER VI. had felt them, would be accounted tameness, and their had fet auses, insipiwould be accounted tameness, and theirity. Circumstances tending to consolidate this Character —Oppoexciting causes, insipidity. sition-Desertion —Mariu-s-Satin-Charles de MoorYet we cannot willingly allow that tenderness is to- Success has the same Tendency-Cresar-Habit of Assotally incompatible with the most impregnable infiexi- ciating with Inferiors-Voluntary means of forming or bility; nor can we help believing that such men as confirming this Character-The Acquisition of perfect Timoleon, Alfred, and Gustavus Adolphus, must have Knowledge in the Department in which we are to act-The been very fascinating domestic associates, whenever Cultivation of a connected and Conclusive Manner oj the urgency of their affairs would allow them to with- reasoning-The resolute commencement of Action in a draw from the interests of statesmen and warriors, to choM ann er to commit ourselves irretrievably-Leyard-Th choice of a dignified Order of Concerns-The Approbation indulge the affections of men: most fascinating, for, of Conzscience-Yet melancholy to consider ihoU, many of with a relative or friend who had any right perceptions, the most distinguished Possessors of the Quality. have been all the value of their stronger character would be recog- wicked. nized in the gentler one; the man whom nothing could subdue, would exalt the quality of the tenderness which VmAROUs assignable circumstances may contribute softened him to recline. much to confirm the character in question. I shall.just But it were much easier to enumerate a long train of ancient and modern names of men, who have had the * The authenticity of this anecdote, which I read in some tri.:decision without the softness. Perhaps indeed they fling fugitive publication many years since, has been questioned. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 29 And first opposition. The passions which inspirit for nothing but fire. If he is capable of grand concepmen to resistance, and sustain them in it, such as tion and enterprise, he may, like Spartacus, make a anger, indignation, and resentment, are evidently far daring attempt against the whole social order of the state stronger than those which have reference to friendly where he has been oppressed. If he has great humanobjects; and if any of these strong passions are fre- ity and principle, he may become one of the noblest of quently excited by opposition, they infuse a certain mankind, and display a generous virtue to which society quality into the general temperament of the mind which had,no claim, and which it is not worthy to reward, if remains after the immediate excitement is past. They it should at last become inclined. No, he will say, cortinually strengthen the principle of re-action; they give your rewards to another; as it has been no part of put the mind, in the habitual array of defence and self- my object to gain them, they are not necessary to my assertion, and often give it the aspect and the posture satisfaction. I have done good, without expecting your of a gladiator, when there appears no confronting com- gratitude, and without caring for your approbation. If batant. When these passions are felt by the man whom conscience and my Creator had not been more ausplI describe, it is probable that each excitement is follow- cious than you, none of these virtues would ever have ed by a greater increase of this principle of re-action than opened to the day. When I ought to have been an obin other men, because this result is so congenial with ject of your compassion, I might have perished; now, his naturally resolute disposition. Let him be opposed when vou find I can serve your interests, you will affect then, through the whole course of an extended design, to acknowledge me and reward me; I will not accept or in the general tenour of his actions; and this constant your rewards.-In either case, virtuous or wicked, the opposition would render him the service of an ally by man who has been compelled to do without assistance, corroborating his inflexibility. An irresolute mind in- will spurn interference. deed might be quelled and subjugated by a formidable Common life would supply illustrations of the effect kind of opposition; but the strong wind which blows out of desertion. Some of the most resolute men have bea taper, augments apowerful fire, if there is fuel enough come such, partly from being left friendless in early life. to an indefinite intensity. The case has also sometimes happened., that a wife and I believe you will find in fact that many of the indi- mother, remarkable perhaps for gentleness and acquiesviduals most eminently decisive in conduct, have made cence before, has been compelled, after the death of their way through opposition and contest; in which her husband on whom she depended, and when she has they have acquired both a prompt acuteness of faculty, met with nothing but neglect or unkindness from relatives and an inflexibility of temper, which even strong minds and those who had been deemed friends, to adopt a plan could never have attained in the tame security of facile, of her own, and has executed it with a resolution which friendly coincidence. Very often, however, it is grant- has astonished even herself. ed the firmness matured by such discipline is accom- One regrets that the signal examples, real or fictipanied, in a man of virtue, with a Catonic severity, and tious, that most readily present themselves, are still of in a mere man of the world, with an unhumanized, re- the depraved order. I fancy myself to see Marius sitpulsive hardness. tine on the ruins of Carthage, where no arch or column Descrtion is another cause which may conduce to that remained unshaken amidst the desolation, could consolidate this character. A kind, mutually reclining presenlt a stronger Image of a firmness beyond the dependence, is certainly the happiest state of human power of calamitous events to subdue. The rigid conbeings; but this necessarily prevents the development stancv which had before distinguished his character, of some great individual powers which would be forced would be aggravated by his finding himself thus an into action by a state of desertion. I lately happened outcast from all human society; and he would proudly to notice, with some surprise, an ivy, which being pre- shake off every sentiment that had ever for an instant vented from attaching itself to the rock beyond a cer- checked his designs by reminding him of social obligatainpoint, had shot off into a bold, elastic stem, with an tions. The lonely individual was placed in the alterair of as much independence as any branch of oak in the native of becoming the victim or the antagonist of the vicinity. So a human being, thrown, whether by cruel- power of the empire. While, with a spirit capable of ty, justice, or accident, from all social support and confronting that power, he resolved, amidst those ruins, kindness, if he has any vigour of spirit, and is not in on a great experiment, he would enjoy a kind of sullen the bodily debility of either childhood or age, will in- luxury in surveying the dreary situation, and recollectstantly begin to act for himself with a resolution which ing the circumstances of his expulsion; since they will appear like a new faculty. And the most absolute would seem to him to sanction an unlimited vengeance; inflexibility is likely to characterize the resolution of to present what had been his country as the pure legitan individual who is obliged to deliberate without con- imate prize for desperate achievement; and to give him sultation, and execute without assistance. He will dis- a proud consequence in being reduced to maintain dain to concede to beings that have rejected him, or to singly a quarrel against the bulk of mankind. He forego a single particle of his designs or advantages, for would exult that nis desolate condition gave him a proof the sake of the opinions or the will of all the world. of his possessing a mind which no misfortunes could reHimself, his pursuits, and hisiinterests, are emphatically press or intimidate, and that it kindled an animosity inhis own.' The world is not his friend, nor the world's tense enough to force that mind from firm endurance law,' and therefore he becomes regardless of every into impetuous action. He would feel as if hebecame thing but its power, of which his policy carefully stronger for enterprise, in proportion as he became takes the measure, in order to ascertain his own means more inexorable; and the sentiment with which he of action and impunity, as set against the world's means quitted his solitude would be, Rome expelled her paof annoyance, prevention, and retaliation. triot, let her receive her evil genius. If this person has but little humanity or principle, he The decision of Satan, in Paradise Lost, is reprewill become a misanthrope, or perhaps a villain, that sented as consolidated by his reflections on his hopewill resemble a solitary wild beast of the night, which less banishment from heaven, which oppress him with makes prey of every thing it can overpower, and cares sadness for a moment, but he soon resumes his invincible spirit, and utters thie impious but subl me senPossibly enough it might be one of the many but half true stories timent, which could not fail to go abroad concerning a man who made, What matter where, if I he still the same.' in his day, so great a figure. But as it does not at all misrepresent the general character of his mind, since there are many You remember how this effect of desertion is repreincontrovertible facts proving against him as a great degree of de. sented in Charles de AMoor. His father's supposed cruel liberate cruelty as this anecdote would charge on him, the warIt of means to prove this one fact does not seem to impose anyreer of cessity for omlting the illustration. atrocious enterprise, in which, notwithstanding the most &9' FOSTER'S ESSAYS. interesting emotions of humanity and tenderness, he practically evinced, at the age of maturity, to want the persisted with heroic determination till he considered stamina of this character, can, by any process, acquire his destiny as accomplished. it. Indeed such a person cannot have sufficient force Success tends considerably to reinforce this charac- of will to make the complete experiment. If there is ter. It is true that a marn possessing it in a high de- the unconquerable will that would persist to seize all gree will not lose it by occasional failure; for if the possible means, and apply them in order to attain such failure was caused by something entirely beyond the an end, it would prove the existence already of a high reach of all human knowledge and ability, he will re- degree of the character sought; and if there is not this member that fortitude is the virtue required in meeting will, how then is the supposed attainment possible? unfavourable events which in no sense depended OIl Yet though it is improbable that a very irresolute him; if by something which might have been known man can ever become a habitually decisive one, it should and prevented, he will feel that even the experience of be observed, that since there are many degrees of defailure completes his competence, by admonishing his termined character, and since the essential principles prudence, and enlarging his understanding. But as all of it, partially existing in those degrees, cannot be supschemes and measures of action have reference to some posed subject to an absolute and ultimate limitation, end, and if wise, are correctly adapted to attain that like the dimension of the bodily stature, it might be end, continual failure would show something essen- possible to apply a discipline which should advance a tially wrong in a man's system, and either destroy his man from the first degree to the second, and from that confidence, or prove it to be mere absurdity or ~tstina- to the third, and how much farther-it will be well worth cy. On the contrary, when a man has ascertained by his trying, after he shall have made this first progress. experiment the justness of his calculations and the ex- I have but a very imperfect conception of the discipline tent of his powers, when he has measured his force but will suggest a hint or two. with various persons, when he has braved and conquer- And in the first place, the indispensable necessity of ed difficulty, and partly seized the prize, he will ad- a clear and comprehensive knowledge of the concerns vance with increasing assurance to the trials which still before us, seems too obvious for remark; and yet no await him. man has been sufficiently sensible of it, till he has been In some men whose lives have been spent in con- placed in circumstances which forced him to act before stant perils, continued success has produced a confi- he had time, or after he had made ineffectual efforts, to dence beyond its rational effect, by inspiring a persua- obtain the needful information. The pain of having sion that the common laws of human affairs were, in brought things to an unfortunate issue, is hardly greater their case, superseded by the decrees of a peculiar des- than that of proceeding in the conscious ignorance tiny, securing them from almost the possibility of dis- which continually threatens such an issue. While thus aster; and this superstitious feeling, though it has dis- proceeding without plan or guide, because he positively placed the unconquerable resolution from its rational cannot be permitted to remain in inaction, a man looks basis, has yet often produced the most wonderful ef round for information as eagerly as a benighted wanfects. This persuasion dictated Caesar's expression to derer would for the light of a human dwelling. He the mariner who was terrified at the storm and billows, perhaps labours to recal what he thinks he once heard' What art thou afraid of 2 Thy vessel carries Cwesar.' or read in relation to a similar situation, without dreamThis idea had some influence among the intrepid men ing at the time he heard or read it, that such instruction in the time of the English Commonwealth. could ever be of importance to him; and is distressed The wilfulness of an obstinate person is sometimes to find that he cannot accurately recollect it. He fortified by some single instance of remarkable sue- would give a considerable sum, if some particular book cess in his undertakings, which is promptly recalled in could be brought to him at the instant; or a certain every case where his decisions are questioned or op- document which he believes to be in existence; or the posed, as a proof that he must in this instance too be detail of a process, the terms of a prescription, or the right; especially if that one success happened contrary model of an implement. He thinks how many people to your predictions. know, without its being of any present use to them, I shall only add, and without illustration, that the exactly what could be of such important service to him, habit of associating with inferiors, among whom a man if he could know it. In some cases, a line, a sentence, a can always, and therefore does always, take the lead, monosyllable of affirming or denying, or a momentary is very conducive to a subordinate kind of decision of sight of an object, would be inexpressibly valuable and character. You may see this exemplifiedany day in an welcome. And he resolves that if he can once happily ignorant country'squire among his vassals; especially escape from the present difficulty, he will apply himself if he wears the superadded majesty of Justice of the day and night to obtain knowledge, rather than.be so Peace. involved and harassed again. It might even be of serIn viewing the characters and actions of the men vice to have been occasionally forced to act under the who have possessed the supreme degree of the quality disadvantage of conscious ignorance, if the affair was which I have attempted to describe, one cannot but wish not very important, nor the consequence very injurious, it were possible to know how much of this astonishing as an effectual lesson on the necessity of knowledge superiority was created by the circumstances in which in order to decision either of plan or execution. It is they were placed; but it seems inevitable to believe indeed an extreme case that will compel a considerate that there was some vast difference from ordinary men man to act without knowledge; yet he may often be in the very structure of the mind. In observing lately necessitated to proceed to action, when he is sensible a man who appeared too vacant almost to think of a his information does not extend to the whole of the purpose, too indifferent to resolve upon it, and too concern in which he is going to commit himself. And sluggish to execute it if he had resolved, I was dis- in this case, he will feel no little uneasiness, while tinctly struck with the idea of the difference between transacting that part of it in which his knowledge is him and Marius, of whom I happened to have been competent, when he looks forward to the point where thinking; and I felt it utterly beyond my power to be- that knowledge terminates; unless he is conscious of lieve that any circumstances on earth, though ever so a very prompt faculty of catching information at the perfectly combined and adapted, would have produced moment that he wants it for use; as Indians set out in this man, if placed under their fullest influence from on a long journey with but a small stock of provision his childhood, any resemblance (beyond perhaps a di- because they are certain that their bows or guns will minutive kind of revenge and cruelty) of the formida- procure it by the way. It is one of the nicest points ble Roman. of wisdom to decide how much less than complete It is needless to discuss whether a person, who is knowledge in any question of practical interest, will FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 31 warrant a man to venture on an undertaking, in the pre- stance, will, if habitual, greatly contribute to form a sumption that the deficiency will be supplied in time to decisive character. prevent either perplexity or disaster. Not only should thinking be thus reduced by a rigid A thousand familiar instances show the effect of per- discipline, to a train, in which all the parts at once defect knowledge on determination. An artizan may be pend upon and support one another, but also this train said to be decisive as to the mode of working a piece should be followed dn to a full conclusion. It should of iron or wood, because he is certain of the proper be held as an absolute law, that the question must be process and the effect. A man perfectly acquainted disposed of before it is let alone. The mind may carry with the intricate paths of a district, takes the right one on this accurate process to some length, and then stop without a moment's hesitation; while a stranger who through indolence, or divert through levity; but it can has only some very vague information, is lost in per- never possess that rational confidence in its opinions plexity. It is easy to imagine what a number of cir- which is requisite to the character in question, till it is cumstances may occur ill the course of a life or even of conscious of acquiring them from trains of reasoning a year, in which a man cannot thus readily determine, which are followed on to their result. The habit of and thus, confidently proceed, without an extent and an thinking thus completely is indispensable to the characexactness of knowledge which few persons have appli- ter in general; and in any particular instance, it is cation enough to acquire. found that short pieces of trains of reasoning, though In connexion with the necessity of knowledge, I correct as far as they go, are inadequate to qualify a would suggest the importance of cultivating, with the man for the immediate concern. They are besides of utmost industry, a conclusive manner of reasoning. In little value for the assistance of future thinking; bethe first place. let the general course of thinking be rea- cause from being left thus incomplete, they are but soning; for it should be remembered that this name slightly retained by the mind, and soon sink away; in does not belong to a series of thoughts and fancies the same manner as walls left unfinished speedily which follow one another without deduction or depen- moulder. dence, and which can therefore no more bring a sub- After these remarks, I should take occasion to, object to a proper issue, than a number of separate links serve, that a vigorous exercise of thought may somewill answer the mechanical purpose of a chain. The times for a while seem to increase the difficulty of conclusion which terminates such a-series, does not de- decision, by discovering a great number of unthoughtserve the name of result, since it has little more than a of reasons for a measure and against it, so that even a casual connexion with what went before; the conclu- discriminating mind may, during a short space, find itsion might as well have taken place in an earlier point self in the state of the magnetic needle under the equaof the train, or have been deferred till that train had tor. But no case in the wo'rld can really have this perbeen extended much farther. Instead of having been fect equality of opposite reasons; nor will it long apbusily employed in this kind of thinking, for perhaps pear to have it, in the estimate of a clear and strongly many hours, a mall might as well have been sleeping exerted intellect, which after some time will ascertain, all the time; since the single thought which is now though the difference is small, which side of the questo determine his conduct, might have happened to be tion has twenty, and which has but nineteen. the first thought that occurred to him on awaking. It Another thing that would powerfully assist toward only happens to occur to him now; it does not follow complete decision, both in the particular instance, and from what he has been thinking all these hours; at in the general spirit of the character, is for a man to least he cannot prove that some other thought might place himself in a situation like that in which Caesar not just as properly have come in its place, at the end placed his soldiers, when he burnt the ships which of this long series. It is easy to see how feeble that brought them to land. If his judgment is really dedetermination is likely to be, which is formed on so cided, let him commit himself irretrievably by doing narrow a ground as the last accidental idea that comes something which shall compel him to do more, which into the mind, or on so loose a ground as this crude un- shall necessitate him to do all. If a man resolves as a combined assemblage of ideas. Indeed it is difficult general intention to be a philanthropist, I would say to to form a determination at all on such slight ground. him, Form some actual plan of philanthropy, and begin A man delays, and waits for some more satisfactory the execution of it to-morrow, (perhaps I should say thought to occur to him; and perhaps he has not wait- to-day,) so explicitly, that you cannot relinquish it ed long, before an idea arises in his mind of a quite without becoming despicable even in your own estimacontrary tendency to the last. As this additional idea tion. If a man would be a hero, let him, if it is possiis not, more than that which preceded- it, the result of ble to find a good cause in arms, go instantly to the any process of reasoning, nor brings with it any argu- camp. If a man would be a traveller through distant ments, it is likely to give place soon to another, and countries, let him actually prepare to set off. Let him still another; and they are all in succession of equal not still dwell, in imagination, on mountains, rivers, and authority, that is, of none. If at last an idea occurs to temples'; but give directions about his remittances, his him which seems of considerable authority, he may clothes, or the carriage, or the vessel, in which he is to here make a stand, and adopt his resolution, with firm- go. Ledyard surprised the official person who asked ness, as he thinks, and commence the execution. But him how soon he could be ready to set off for the intestill, as he cannot verify the authority of the principle rior of Africa, by replying promptly and firmly,' Towhich has determined him, his resolution is likely to morrow.' prove treacherous and evanescent in any serious trial. Again, it is highly conducive to a manly firmness, A principle so little defended and established by sound that the interests in which it is exerted, should be of a reasoning, is not terra firma for a man to trust himself dignified order, so as to give the passions an ample upon: it is only as a slight incrustation on a yielding scope, and a noble object. The degradation that should element; it is like the sand on the surface of the lake devote these passions to mean and trivial pursuits. Serbonis, which broke away under the unfortunate would, in general, I should think, likewise debilitate army which had begun to advance on it, mistaking it their energy, and therefore preclude strength of chafor solid ground.-These remarks may seem to refer racter. only to a single instance of deliberation; but they are And finally, if I would repeat that one should think equally applicable to all the deliberations and under- a man's own conscientious approbation of his conduct takings of a man's life; the same closely connected must be of vast importance to his decision in the outset, manner of thinking, which is so necessary to give firm- and his persevering constancy, I must at the same time aess of determination and of conduct in a particular in- acknowledge that it is astonishing to observe how many 32 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. of the eminent examples have been very wicked men. their minds,) of the grandest utility, capable of vindiThese must certainly be deemed also examples of the cating each good cause which has languished in a world original want, or the depravation, or the destruction, of adverse to all goodness, and capable of intimidating the moral sense. the collective vices of a nation or an age-becoming I am sorry, and I attribute it to defect of memory, themselves the very centres and volcanoes of those that a greater proportion of the illustrations introduced vices; and it is melancholy to follow them in serious in this essay, are not as conspicuous for goodness as for thought, from this region, of which not all the powers power. It is melancholy to contemplate beings,'whom and difficulties and inhabitants together. could have subour imagination represents as capable, (when they pos- dued their adamantine resolution, to the Supreme Trisessed great external means in addition to the force of bunal where that resolution must tremble and melt away. ESSAY III. ON THE APPLICATION OF THE EPITHET ROMANTIC. LETTER I. words, dull, stupid, and ridiculous, which he is repeatGreat convenience of having a number of Words that will an- ing many times to compensate for the incapacity of hit swer the Purposes of Ridicule or Reprobation without hay- ting off the right thing at once. These vague epithets ing any precise Meaning-Puritaun-Methodist-Jacobin describe nothing, discriminate nothing; they express -The word Romantic of the greatest Service to Persons, no species, are as applicable to ten thousand things as who, wanting to show their Scorn, have not wherewithal in to this one, and he has before employed them on a the way of Sense or Wit-Whenever this Epithet is ap- numberless diversity of subjects. But he can perceive plied, let the exact meaning be demanded-Does it attribute, that censure or contempt has the smartest effect, when to what it is applied to, the kind of Absurdity prevalent in the works called Romances?-That absurdity was from the its expressions have an appropriate peculiarity, which predominance, in various Modes, of Imagination over adapts them more precisely to the present subject than Judgment-IMesttal Character of the early Romance Wri- to another; and he is therefore not quite satisfied with ters-Opposite Character of Cervantes-Delightful, delu- the expressions which say'about it and about it,' but sive, and mischievous Operation of a predominant Imagi- do not say the thing itself; which rather show his misnation-Yet desirable, for several Reasons, that the Imagi- chievous will than prove his mischievous power. He nation should have this Ascendancy in early Life. wants words and phrases which would make the edge MY DEAR FRIEND, of his clumsy meaning fall just where it ought. Yes, A thoughtful judge of sentiments, books, and men, he wants words; for his meaning is sharp, he knows, if will oftei. find reasou to regret that the language of only the words would come. censure is so easy and so undefined. It costs no la- Discriminative censure must be conveyed, either in a bour, and needs no intellect, to pronounce the words, sentence which expresses some marked and acute turn foolish, stupid, dull, odious, absurd, ridiculous. The of thought, instead of simply applying an epithet, or in weakest or most uncultivated mind may therefore gra- an epithet so specifically appropriate, that the single tify its vanity, laziness, and malice, all at once, by a word is sufficient to fix the condemnation by the mere prompt application of vague, condemnatory words, precision with which it describes. But as the censurer where a wise and liberal man would not feel himself perhaps cannot succeed in either of these ways, he is warranted to pronounce without the most deliberate willing to seek some other resource. And he may often consideration, and where such consideration might per- find it in cant terms, which have a more spiteful force, haps terminate in applause. Thus the most excellent and seem to have more particularity of meaning, than performances, whether in the department of thinking, plain, common words, without needing any shrewdness or of action, might be consigned to contempt, if there for their application. Each of these is supposed to were no better judges, on the authority of those who denominate some one class or character of scorned or could not even understand them. A man who wishes reprobated things, but leaves it so imperfectly defined, some decency and sense to prevail in the circulation of that dull malice may venture to assign to the class any opinions, will do well, when he hears these decisions thing which it would desire to throw under the odium of ignorant arrogance, to call for a precise explication of the denomination. Such words serve for a mode of the manner in which the terms apply to the subject. of collective execution, somewhat like the vessels There is a competent number of words for this use which, in a season of oCitrage in a neighbouring counof cheap censure; but though a man deems himself to try, received a promiscuous crowd of reputed criminals, ble giving no mean proof of sagacity in this confident of unexamined and dubious similarity, and were then readiness to condemn, even with this impotence of lan- sunk in the flood. You cannot wonder that such comguage, he may however, have a certain consciousness pendious words of decision, which can give quick vent that there is, in some other minds, a keen dexterity to crude impatient censure, emit plenty of antipathy in which would find expressions to bite harder than the a few syllables, and save the condemner the difficulty FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 33 of telling exactly what he wants to mean, should have surd and execrable, so that the very sound of it shall had an extensive circulation. irritate the passions of this ignorant and scorned multiPuritan was, doubtless, welcomed as a term most tude, as dogs have been taught to bark at the name ot luckily invented or recalled when it began to be applied a neighbouring tyrant, it is a commodious thing for in contempt to a class of men, of whom the world was managing these passions to serve the interests of those not worthy. Its peculiarity gave it almost such an ad- who despise, while they flatter, their duped auxiliaries. vantage as that of a proper name among the lumber of The popular passions are the imps and demons of the common words by which they were described and re- political conjurer, and he can raise them, as other conviled; while yet it meant any thing, every thing, which jurers affect to do theirs, by terms of gibberish. the vain world disliked in the devout and conscientious The epithet romantic has obviously no similarity to character. To the more sluggish it saved, and to the these words in its coinage, but it is considerably like more loquacious it relieved, the labour of endlessly re- them in the mode and effect of its application. For peating,' demure rogues,''sanctimonious pretenders,' having partly quitted the rank of plain epithets, it has'formal hypocrites.' become a convenient exploding word, of more special, This term has long since lost its point, and is almost deriding significance than the other words of its order, forgotten; but some word of a similar cast was indis- such as wild, extravagant, visionary. It is a standard pensably necessary to the vulgar of both kinds. The expression of contemptuous despatch, which you hav.e vain and malignant spirit which had descried the ele- often heard pronounced with a very self-complacent air, vated piety of the Puritans, sought about (as Milton that said,' How much wiser I am than some people,' describes the wicked one in Paradise) for some conve- by the indolent and animate on what they deemed imnient form in which it might again come forth to hiss practicable, by the apes of prudence on what they acat zealous Christianity; and in another lucky moment counted foolishly adventurous, and by the slaves of cusfell on the term Methodist. If there is no sense in the tom on what startled them as singular. The class of word, as now applied, there seems however to be a great absurdities which it denominates, is left so undefined, deal of aptitude and execution. It has the advantage that all the views and sentiments which a narrow, cold of being comprehensive as a general denomination, and mind could not like or understand in an ample and feryet opprobrious as a special badge, for every thing that vid one, might be referred hither; and yet the word ignorance and folly may mistake for fanaticism, or that seems to discriminate their character so conclusively as malice may wilfully assign to it. Whenever a grave to put them out of argument. With this cast of sigformalist feels it his duty to sneer at those operations nificance, ar.d vacancy of sense, it is allowed to depreof religion on the passions, which ke never felt, he has ciate without being accountable; it has the license of only to call them methodistical; and notwithstanding a parrot, to call names without being taxed with insothat the word is both so trite and so vague, he feels as lence. And when any sentiments are decisively stigif he had uttered a good pungent thing. There is satiric matized with this denomination, it would require consmartness in the word, though there be none in the siderable courage to rescue and defend them; since man. In default of keen faculty in the mind, it is de- the imputation which the epithet fixes on them will pass lightful thus to find something that will do as well, ready upon the advocate; and he may expect to be himself bottled up in odd terms. It is not less convenient to a enrolled among the heroes of whom Don Quixotte is the profligate, or a coxcomb, whose propriety of character time immemorial commander-in-chief. At least he is to be supported by laughing indiscriminately at reli- may be assigned to that class which occupies a dubious gion in every form; the one, to evince that his courage frontier space between the rational and the insane. is not sapped by conscience, the other, to make the best If, however, the suggestions and sketches which I advantage of his instinct of catching at impiety as a sub- had endeavoured to exhibit as interesting and practicastitute for sense. The word Methodism so readily sets ble, were attempted to be turned into vanity and' thin aside all religion as superstitious folly, that they pro- air' by the enunciation of this epithet, I would say, nounce it with an air as if no more needed to be said. Pray now what do you mean by romantic? Have you, Such terms have a pleasant facility of throwing away as you pronounce it, any precise conception in your the matter in question to scorn, without any trouble of mind, which you can give in some other words, and making a definite, intelligible charge of extravagance then distinctly fix the charge? Or is this a word, which, or delusion, and attempting to prove it. because it is often used in some such way as you now In politics, Jacobinism has, of late years, been the use it, may be left to tell its own meaning better than brand by which all sentiments alluding to the principles the speakerknows how to explain it? Or perhaps you of liberty, in a way that could be taken to censure the mean, that the ideas which I am expressing associate measures of the ascendant partv in the State, have been in your mind with the fantastic images of Romance; consigned to execration. What a quantity of noisy and that you cannot help thinking of enchanted castles, zeal would have been quashed in dead silence, if it had encounters with giants, solemn exorcisms, fortunate been possible to enforce the substitution of statements surprises, knights and wizards, dragons and griffins. and definitions for this unmeaning, vulgar, but most ef- You cannot exactly distinguish what the absurdity in ficacious term of reproach. What a number of per- my notion is, but you fancy what it is like. You theresons have vented the superabundance of their loyalty, fore condemn it, not by giving a definition, but by apor their rancour, by means of this and two or three sinmi- plying an epithet which assigns it to a class of things lar words, who, if by some sudden lapse of memory already condemned; for evidently the epithet should they had lost these two or three words, and a few names signify a resemblance to what we have condemned in of persons, would have looked round with an idiotic va- the works of romance. Well then, take advantage of cancy, totally at a loss what was the subject of their this resemblance, to bring your censure into a disanger or their approbation. One may here catch a criminative form. Explain with precision the chief glimpse of the policy of men of a superior class, in em- points in which the absurdity of the works of romance ploying these terms as much as the vulgar, in order to has consisted, and then show how the same distilickeep them in active currency. If a rude populace, tions characterize my notions or schemes. I will then whose understandings they despise, and do not wish to renounce at once all my visionary follies, and be henceimprove, could not be excited and kept up to loyal ani- forward at least a very sober, if I cannot be a very ramosity, but by means of a clear comprehension of what tional man. they were to oppose, and why, a political party would The great, general characteristic of those works has have but feeble hold on popular zeal, and might vocife- been the ascendancy of imagination over judgment. rate, and intrigue, and fret itself to nothing. But if a And the description is correct as applied to the books. single word can be made the symbol of all that is ab- even supposing the makers of them to have been ever G 34 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. so well endowed with intellect. If they choose. for weak: and this double and equal deficiency produces their amusement, to lay a sound judgment a while to mere dulness. But it is obvious that a weak jlug(rment rest, to stimulate their imagination to the wildest ex- may be accompanied with a great force of that faculty travagances, and to write them as they event on, the which can so powerfully assert itself even in childhood, book might be nearly the same thing as if produced by in dreams, and in the state of insanity. a mind in which sound judgment had no place; it would Again, there may be an intellect not positively feeble display imagination actually ascendant by the writer's (supposing it estimated separately from the other power) voluntary indulgence, though, not necessarily so by the yet practically reduced to debility by a disproportionate constitutioll of his mind. It was a different case, if a imagination, which continually invades its siphere, and writer kept his judgment active, amidst these extrava- takes every thing out of its hands. And then the case gances, for the very purpose of managing and directing is made worse by the unfortunate cilcumstance, that them to some particular end, of satire or sober truth, the exercise of the faculty which should be repressed, is But, however, the romances of the ages of chivalry and incomparably more easy and delightful, than of that the preceding times, were composed under neither of which should be promoted. Indeed the term exercise these intellectual conditions. They were not the pro- is hardly applicable to the activity of a faculty which can ductions either of men who, possessing a strong judg- be active without effort, which is so far from needing to ment, chose formally to forego its exercise, in order to be stimnulated to its works of magic, that it often scorns riot a while in scenes of extravagant fancy, only keep- the most serious injunctions to forbear. It is not exering that judgment so far awake as to retain a continual cise, but indulgence; and even minds possessing much consciousness in what degree they were extravagant; of the power ofunderstanding, may be disposed to underor of men designing to give effect to truth or malice gobut little of the labour of it, when amidst the ease of under the disguise of a fantastic exhibition. It is evi- the deepest indolence they can revel in the activity of dent that the authors were under the real and perma- a more animating employment. Imagination may be nent ascendartcy of imagination; and though they must indulged till it usurp an entire ascendency over the have perceived that the operations of this faculty went mind, and then every subject presented to that mind to an excess in some of its wildest flights, yet it might will excite imagination, instead of understanding, to reach a very great degree of extravagance without their work; imagination will throw its colours where the inbeing conscious of any excess at all. They could drive tellectual faculty ought to draw its lines; imagination on their career through monstrous absurdities of descrip- will accumulate metaphors where reason ought to detion and narration, without being sensible of inconsis- duce arguments; images will take the place of thoughts, tency and improbability, and with an air as if they really and scenes of disquisitions. The whole mind may bereckoned on being believed. And the general state of come at length something like a hemisphere of cloudintellect of the age in which they lived seems to have scenery, filled with an ever-moving train of changing, been well fitted to allow them the utmost license. This melting forms, of every colour, mingled with rainbows, irrationality of the romancers, and the age, provoked meteors, and an occasional gleam of plure slun-light, all the powerful mind of Cervaites to expose it, by means vanishing away, the mental, like this natural imagery, of a parallel and still more extravagant representation when its hour is up, without leaving ally thing behind of the prevalence of imagination over reason, drawn in but the wrish to recover the vision. And yet, the while, a ludicrous form, by which he rendered the folly palpa- this series of visions may be mistaken for operations of ble even to the sense of that age. From that time the thought, and each cloudy image be admitted in the delirium abated; the works which inspirited its ravings place of a proposition or a reason; or it may even be having been blown away almost beyond the reach of mistaken for something sublimer than thinking. The bibliomaniac curiosity; and the fabrication of such is influence of this habit of dwelling on the beautiful, falbecomre a lost branch of manufacture. lacious fornis of imagination, will accompany the mind Yet romance was in some form to be retained, as in- into the most serious speculations, or rather musings, dispensable to the craving of the human mind for some- on the real world, and what is to be done in it, and exthing more vivid, more elated, and more wonderful, pected; as the image, which the eye acquires from than the plain realities of life; as a kind of mental bal- looking at any dazzling object, still appears before it loon, for mounting into the air from the ground of or- wherever it turns. The, vulgar materials that constidinary experience. To afford this extrarational kind of tute the actual economy of the world, will rise up to luxury, it was requisite the fictions should still partake, its sight in fictitious forms, which it cannot disenchant in a limited degree, of the quality (f the earlier romance. into plain reality, nor will even suspect to be deceptive. It The writers were not to be the dupes of wild fancy; cannot go about with sober, rational inspection, and they were not to feign marvels in such a manner as if ascertain the nature and value of all things around it. they knew no better; they were not wholly to lose sight Indeed such a mind is not disposed to examine, with of the actual system of things, but to keep within sone any careful minuteness, the real condition of things. It is measures of relation and proportion to it; and yet they content with ignorance, because environed with somewere required to disregard the strict laws of verisimili- thing more delicious than such Iknowledge, in the Pa tude in shaping their inventions, and to extend them radise which imagination creates. In that Paradise it with an indulgence and daring of fancy very consider- w7alks delighted, till some imperious circumstance of ably beyond the bounds of probability. Without this, real life call it thence, and gladly escapes thither again their fictions would have lost what was regarded as the when the avocation is past. There, every thing is essential quality of romance. beautiful and noble as could be desired to form the reIf, therefore, the epithet Romantic, as now employed siden.e of an angel. If a tenth part of the felicities for description and censure of character, sentiments, that have been enjoyed, the great actions that have and schemes, is to be understood as expressive of the beenperformed, the beneficent institutions that have quality which is characteristic of that class of fictions, been established, and the beautiful objects that have it imputes, in substance, a great, excess of imagination been seen in that happy region, could have been imin proportion to judgment; and it imputes, in particu- ported into this terrestrial place-what a delightful lars, such errors as naturally result from that excess.- thing, my dear friend, it would have been to awake each It may be worth while to look for some of the practical morning to see such a world once more. exemplificatiors of this unfortunate disproportion be- It is not strange that a faculty, of which the exertween the two faculties. cise is so easy and bewitching, and the scope infinite, It should first be noted, that a defective judgment is, should obtain a predominance over judgment, espenot necessarily accompanied by a romantic disposition, ciallv in young persons, and in those who have been since the imagination may be as inert as thejudgment is brought up, like Rasselas andl his companions, in a state FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 35 of seclusion from the sight and experience of the world. The extravagance of imagination in romance has very Indeed a considerable vigour of imagination, though it much consisted in the display of a destiny and course of be at the expense of a frequent predominance over juve- life totally unlike the common condition of mankind. nile understanding, seems even necessary, in early life, And you may have observed in living individuals, that to cause a generous expansion of the passions by giving one of the effects sometimes produced by the predomthe most lively aspect to the objects which must at- inance of this faculty is, a persuasion in a person's own tract them, in order to draw forth the activity of our mind that he is born to some peculiar and extraordinary being. It may also contribute to prepare the mind for destiny, while yet there are no extraordinary indications the exercise of that faith which converses with things in the person or his circumstances. There was someunseen, but converses with them through the medium thing rational in the early pre-sentiment which some of those ideal forms in which imagination presents them, distinguished men have entertained of their future caand in which only a strong imagination can present reer. When a celebrated general of the present times them impressively.* And I should deem it the indi- exclaimed, after performing the common military exercation of a character not destined to excel in the libe- cise in a company of juvenile volunteers,'I shall be a ral, the energetic, or the devout qualities, if I ob- commander-in-chief,'* a sagacious observer of the signs served in the youthful age a close confinement of oftalents yet but partially developed, might have thought thought to bare truth and minute accuracy, with an en- it indeed a rather sanguine, but probably not a quite tire aversion to the splendours, amplifications, and ex- absurd, anticipation. An elder and intelligent associate cursions of fancy. This opinion is warranted by in- of Milton's youth might without much difficulty have stances of persons so distinguished in youth, who have believed himself listening to an oracle, when so powerbecome subsequently very sensible indeed, but dry, ful a genius avowed to him, that he regarded himself as cold, precise, devoted to detail, and incapable of being destined to produce a work which should distinguish the carried away one moment by any inspiration of the nation and the age. The opening of uncommon faculbeautiful or the sublime. They seem to have only the ties may be sometimes attended with these anticipations, bare intellectual stamina of the human mind, without and may be allowed to express them, perhaps, even, as the addition of what is to give it life and sentiment. a stimulus, encouraged to indulge them. But in most They give one an impression similar to that made by instances these magnificent presumptions form, in the the leafless trees which you remember our observing observer's eye, a ludicrous contrast with the situation in winter, admirable for the distinct exhibition of their and powers of the person that entertains them. And, in branches and minute ramifications so clearly defined on the event, how few such anticipations have proved themthe sky, but destitute of all the green, soft luxury of selves to have been the genuine promptings of an extrafoliage which is requisite to make a perfect tree. And ordinary mind. even the affctions existin in such minds seem to The visionary presumption of a peculiar destiny is have a bleak abode, somnewhat like those bare, deserted entertained in more forms than that which implies a nests which you have often seen in shlch trees. confidence of possessing uncommon talent. It is often If, indeed, the signs of this exclusive understanding the flattering self-assurance simply of a life of singular indicated also such an extraordinary vigour of the fa- felicity. The captive of fancy fondly imagines his prosculty, as to promise a very great mathematician or pect of life as a delicious vale, from each side of which metaphysician, one would perhaps be content to forego every stream of pleasure is to flow down to his feet; and some of the properties which form a complete mind, for while it cannot but be seen that innumerable evils do the sake of this pre-eminence of one of its endowrments; harass other human beings, some mighty spell is to proeven though the person were to be so defective iil seu- tect him against them all. He takes no deliberate account timent and fancy, that, as the stdry goes of an-eminent of what is inevitable in the lot of humanity, of the sober mathematician, he could read through a nmost animated probabilities of his own situation, or of those principles and splendid epic poem, and on being asked what he in the constitution of his mind which are perhaps unfathought of it, gravely reply,'What does it prove' vourable to happiness. But the want of imagination is never an evidence, and If this excessive imagination is composed with tenperhaps but rarely a concomitant, of superior under- dencies to affection, it makes a person sewztimentally standing. romantic. With a great, and what might, in a better Imagination may be allowed the ascendency in early endowed mind, be a just contempt of the ordinary rate youth; the case should be'reversed in mature life; and of attachments, both in friendship and love, he indulges if it is not, a man may consider his mind either as not a most assured confidence that his peculiar lot is to rethe most happily constructed, or as unwisely disci- alize all the wonders of generous, virtuous, noble, unaplined. The latter indeed is probably true in every lienable friendship, and of enraptured, uninterrupted, and such instance.' unextinguishable love, that fiction ever talked in her such instance. dreams; while perhaps a shrewd, indifferent observer can see nothing in the nativity or character of the man, or in the qualities of the human creatures that he adores, or in LETTER II. the principles on which his devotion is founded, to promise an elevation or permanence of felicity beyond the desOne of the Modes of this ascendancy justly called Romantic tiny of common mortals. is, the unfounded Persuasion of something peculiar and If passion or traordiary in a Persas Destiny-This vain Expect- f a passion for variety and novelty accompanies this extraordi'nary in a Person's Destiny-This vain Expectation ma y be relative to great Talent and Achievement, or to extravagant imagination, it will exclude from its bold great Felicity —Things ardently anticipated whieh not only sketches of future life every thing like confined regucannot be attained but would be unadapted to the Nature and larity, and common, plodding occupations. It will sugCondition of Man if they could-A Person that hoped to gest that I was born for an adventurer, whose story out-do rather than imitate Gregory Lopez, the Hermit- will one day amaze the world. Perhaps I am to be Absord E rxsperctations qf Parents- Utopian Anticipations an universal traveller; and there is not on the globe a of Philosophers-Practical Abbsurdity of the Age of Chiqhvalrny-The extravagant and Exelusive Paision for what grand city, or ruin, or volcano, or cataract, but I must valr —The extravagant and Exclusive Passion for what is Grand. of imagination; and every reflective man has felt how difficult THE ascendancy of imagination operates in various it is to apprehend even this object without the intervention of an image. In thinking of the transactions and personages of his. mors; I will enaeavour to distinguish those which tory, the final events of time foretold by prophecy, the state of may justly be called romantic. good men in another world, the superior ranks of intelligent agents, &c, he has often had occasion to wish his imaginatioa * The Divine Being is the only one of these objects which a much more vivid. Christian would wish it possible to contemplate4ithout the aid * Relate:A of Moreau 36 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. see it. Debility of constitution, deficiency of means, Perhaps however you will say, What is that nature? innumerable perils, unknown languages, oppressive toils Is it not a mere passive thing, variable almost to infiand the shortness of life, are very possibly all left out.nity, according to climate, to institutious, and to the of the account. different ages of timne? Even taking it in a civilized If there is in the disposition alove of what is called glory, state, what relation is there between such a form of and an almost religious admiration of those capacious human nature as that displayed at Sparta, and, for inand intrepid spirits, one of which has often decided in stance, the modern society denominated Quakers, or one perilous day the destiny of armies and of empires, a the Moravion Fraternity; And how can we ascertain predominant imagination may be led to revel amidst the what is congenial with it or not, unless itself were first splendors of military exploit, and to flatter the man that ascertained? Allow me to say, that I speak of human he too is to be a hero, a great general. nature in its most general principles, only, as social VWhen a mind under this influence recurs to prece- self-interested, inclined to the wrong, slow to improve, dents as a foundation and a warrant of its expectations. passing through several states of capacity and feeling in they are never the usual, but always the extraordinary the successive periods of life, and the few other such examples, that are contemplated. An observer of the permanent distinctions. Any of these distinctions may ordinary instances of friendship is perhaps heard to vanish from the sight of a visionary mind, while formassert, that the sentiment is sufficiently languid in gene- ing, for itself or for others, such schemes as could have ral to admit of an entire self-interest, of absence without sprung only from an imagination become wayward pain, and of final indifference. Well, so let it be; through its excess of power. I remember, for examDamon and Pythias were friends of a different sort, and ple, a person, very young I confess, who was so enour friendship is to be like theirs, Or if the subject of chanted with the stories of Gregory Lopez, and one or musing and hope is the union in which love commonly two more pious hermits, as almost to form the resoluresults, it may be true and obvious enough that the tion to betake himself to some wilderness and live as generality of instances would not seem to tell of more Gregory did. At any time, the very word hermit was than a mediocrity of happiness in this relation; but a enough to transport him, like the witch's broomstick, visionary person does not live within the same world to the solitary hut, which was delightfully surrounded with these examples. The few instances which have by shady, solemn groves, mossy rocks, crystal streams, been recorded of tender and never-dying enthusiasm, and gardens of radishes. While this fancy lasted, he together with the numerous ones which romance and forgot the most obvious of all facts, that man is not poetry have created, form the class to which he belongs, made for habitual solitude, nor can endure it without and from whose enchanting history, excepting their misery, except when transformed into a superstitious misfortunes, he reasons to his own future experience. ascetic, nor probably even then.* So too the man, whose fancy anticipates political or mar- Contrary to human nature, is the proper description tial achievement, allows his thoughts, to revert continu- of those theories of education, and those flatteries of ally to those names which a rare conjunction of talents parental hope, which presume that young people in geand circunlstances has elevated into fame; forgetting neral may be matured to eminent wisdom, and adornthat many thousands of men of great ability have died ed with the universality of noble attainments, by the in at least comparative obscurity, for want of situations period at which in fact, the intellectual faculty is but in which to display themselves; and never suspecting beginning to operate with any thing like clearness and that himself perhaps has not abilities competent to any force. Because some individuals, remarkable excepthing great, if some extraordinary event were now just to tions to the natural character of youth, have in their place him in the most opportune concurrence of circum- very childhood advanced beyond the youthful giddiness, stances. That there has been one very signal man to a and debility of reason,-and have displayed, at the age of million, more avails to the presumption that he shall be perhaps twenty, a wonderful assemblage of all the a signal man, than there having been a million to one strong and all the graceful endowments, it therefore signal man, infers a probability of his remaining one of only needs a proper system of education to make other the multitude. young people (at least those of my family, the parent You will generally observe, that persons thus self- thinks,) be no longer what nature has always made appointed, in either sex, to be exceptions to the usual youth to be. Let this be adopted, and we shall see lot of humanity, endeavour at a kind of consistency of multitudes at that age possessing the judgment of sages, character, by a great aversion to the common modes of or the diversified acquirements and graces of all-accomaction andlanguage, and an habitual affectation of some- plished gentlemen and ladies. And what, pray, are the thing extraordinary. They will perhaps disdain regular beings which are to become, by the discipline of eight hours, usual dresses, and common forms of transacting or ten years, such finished examples of various excelbusiness; this you are to regard as the impulse of a lence 1 Not, surely, these boys here, that love nothing spirit whose high vocation requires it to renounce all so much as tops, marbles, and petty mischief-and signs of relation to vulgar minds. those girls, that have yet attained but few ideas beyond The epithet romantic then may be justly applied to the dressing of dolls? Yes, even these! those presumptions, (if entertained after the childish or The same charge of being unadapted to man, seems very youthful age,) of a peculiarly happy or important applicable to the speculations of those philosophers and destiny in life, which are not clearly founded on certain philanthropists, who have eloquently displayed the happalpable distinctions of character or situation, or which piness, and asserted the practicability, of an equality greatly exceed the sober prognostics afforded by those of property and modes of life throughout society. distinctions. It should be observed here that wishes Those who really anticipated or projected the practimerely do not constitute a character romantic. A per- cal trial of the system, must have forgotten on what son may sbmetimes let his mind wander into vain wishes planet those apartments were built, or those arbours, for all the fine and strange things on earth, and yet be were growing, in which they were contemplating such far too sober to expect any of them. In this case how- visions. For in these visions they beheld the ambition ever he will often check and reproach himself for the of one part of the inhabitants, the craft or audacity of folly of entertaining the wish. another, the avarice of another, the stupidity or indoThe absurdity of such anticipations consists simply in the improbability of their being realized, and not in * Lopez indeed was often visited by pious persons who sought his instructions; this was a great modification of the loneliness, their objects being uncongenial with the human mind; and of the trial involved in enduring it: but my hermit was fond but another effect of the predominance of imagination of the idea of an uninhabited island, or of a wilderness so deep may be a disposition to form schemes or indulge expec- that these good people would not have been able to come at him, without a more formidable pilgrimage thian was ever yet mad tations essentially incongruous with the nature of man. for the sake ofebtaining instruction. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 37 lence of another, and the selfishness of almost all, as The tendency to this species of romance, may be mere adventitious faults, superinduced on the charac- caused, or very greatly promoted, by an exclusive ter of the species, and instantly flying off at the ap- taste for what is grand, a disease to which some few proach of better institutions, which shall prove, to the minds are subject. They have no pleasure in contemconfusion of all the calumniators of human nature, that plating the system of things as the Creator has ordered nothing is so congenial to it as industry, moderation, it, a combination of great and little, in which the great and disinterestedness. It is at the same time but just is much more dependent on the little than the little on to acknowledge, that many of them have admitted the the great. They cut out the grand objects, to dispose necessity of such a grand transformation as to make them into a world of their own. All the images in man another being previously to the adoption of the their intellectual scene must be colossal and mountainsystem. This is all very well: when the proper race ous. They are constantly seeking what is animated of men shall come from Utopia, the system and polity into heroics, what is expanded into immensity, what is may very properly come along with them; or these elevated above the stars. But for great empires, great sketches of it, prepared for them by us may be careful- battles, great enterprises, great convulsions, great gely preserved here,'in volumes more precious thanthose niusses, great temples, great rivers, there would be noof the Sibyls, against their arrival. Till then, the sober thing worth naming in this part of the creation.* All observers of the human character will read these beau- that belongs to connexion, gradation, harmony, regutiful theories as romances, adapted to excite sarcastic larity, and utility, is thrown out of sight behind these ridicule in their splenetic hours, when they are disgust- forms of vastness. The influence of this exclusive ed with human nature, and to produce deep melancholy taste will reach into the system of projects and expectain their benevolent ones, when they commiserate it. tions. The man will wish to summon the world to It hardly needs to be said, that the character of the throw aside its tame, accustomed pursuits, and adopt age of chivalry may be cited as an illustration of the at once more magnificent views and objects, and will same kind. One of its most prominent distinctions be indignant at mankind that they cannot or will not be was, an immense incongruity with the simplest princi- sublime. Impatient of little means and slow processes, ples of human nature. For instance, in the concern of he will wish for violent transitions and entirely new inlove: a generous young man became attached to an stitutions. He will perhaps determine to set men the interesting young woman-interesting as he believed, example of performing something great, in some illfrom having once seen her; for probably he never judged, sanguine project in which he will fail; and, heard her speak. His heart would naturally prompt after being ridiculed by society, both for the scheme him to seek access to the object whose society, it told and its catastrophe, may probably abandon all the actihim, would make him happy; and if in a great mea- vities of life, and become a misanthrope the rest of sure debarred from that society, he would surrender his days. himself to the melting mood of the passion, in the musings of pensive retirement. But this was not the way. He must abandon for successive years her society and vicinity, and every soft indulgence of feeling, and rush LETTER III. boldly into all sorts of hardships and perils, deeming no misfortune so great as not to find constant occasions The Epithet applicable to Hopes and Projects inconsistent of hazarding his life among the roughest foes, or if he with the known Relations between Ends and Means-Reckoning on happy Casualties-Musing on Instances of good could find or fancy them, the strangest monsters; and Luck-Novels go more than half the Length of the older all this, not as the allievation of despair, but as the Romance in promoting this pernicious Tendency of the courtship of hope. And when he was at length betray- Mind-Specimen of what they do in this way.-Fancy ed to flatter himself that such a probation, through magnifies the smallest Means into an apparent Compeevery kind of patience and danger, miglrt entitle him tence to the greatest Ends-This delusive Calculation apt ~ zhrow his trophies and himself at her imperial feet, to be admitted in Schemes of Benevolence-Projects for it was very possible she might be affronted that he had civilizing Savage Nations-Extravagant Expectations of the Eflicacy of direct Instruction, in the Lessons of Edupresumed to be still alive. It is unnecessary to refer cation, anid in Preaching-Reformers apt to overrate the to the other parts of the institution of chivalry, the Power of Means-The Fancy about the Omnnipotence of whole system of which would seem more adapted to Truth —Our Expectations ought to be limited by what we any race of beings exhibited in the Arabian Nights, or actually see and know of human Nature-Estimate of that to any still wilder creation of fancy, than to a commu- Nature-Prevalence of Passion and Appetite against nity of creatures appointed to live by cultivating the Conviction. soil, anxious to avoid pain and trouble, seeking the re- One of the most obvious distinctions of the works of ciprocation of affection on the easiest terms, and romance is, an utter violation of all the relations benearest to happiness in regular pursuits, and quiet, tween ends andmeans. Sometimessuchends areprodomestic life. posed as seem quite dissevered from means, inasmuch One cannot help reflecting here, how amazingly ac- as there are scarcely any supposable means on earth to commodating this human nature has been to all insti- accomplish them: but no matter; if we cannot ride tutions but wise and good ones; insomuch that an or- we must swim, if we cannot swim we must fly: the der of life and manners, formed in the wildest devia- object is effected by a mere poetical omnipotence that tion from all plain sense and native instinct, could be wills it. And very often practicable objects are attainpractically adopted, to some extent, by those who had ed by means the most fantastic, improbable, or inaderank and courage enough, and adored and envied by quate; so that there is scarcely any resemblance bethe rest of mankind. Still, the genuine tendencies of tween the method in which they are accomplished by nature have survived the strange but transient modifi- the dexterity of fiction, and that in which the same cations of time, and remain the same after the age of things must be attempted in the actual economy of the chivalry is gone far toward that oblivion, to which you world. Now, when you see this absurdity of imaginawill not fail to wish that many other institutions might tion prevailing in the calculations of real life, you may speedily follow it. Forgive the prolixity of these illus- justly apply the epithet, romantic. trations, intended to show, that schemes and specula- Indeed a strong and habitually indulged imagination tions respecting the interests either of an individual or may be so absorbed in the end, if it is not a concern of of society, which are inconsistent with the natural con- * Just as, to employ a humble comparison, a votary of fashion, stitution of man, may, except where it should be rea- after visiting a crowded public place which happened at that sonable to expect some supernatural invention, be de- time not to be graced by the presence of many people of conse. quence, tells you, with an affected tone,' There was not a crea nominated romantic. ture there.' 38 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. absolute, immediate urgency, as for a while quite to less genius than a novel-writer. This young man has forget the process of attainment. It has incantations an uncle, who has been absent a long time, nobody to dissolve the rigid laws of time and distance, and knew where, except the young man's lucky stars. place a man in something so like the presence of his During his absence, the old uncle has gained a large object, that he seems half to possess it; and it is hard, fortune, with which he returns to his native land, at a while occupying the verge of Paradise, to be flung far time most opportune for every one, but a highwayman, back in order to find or make a path to it, with the who, attacking him in a road through a wood, is frightslow and toilsome steps of reality. In the luxury of ened away by the young hero, who happens to come promising himself that what he wishes will by some there at the instant, to rescue and recognize his uncle, means take place at some time, he forgets that he is and to be in return recognized and made the heir to advancing no nearer to it-except on the wise and pa- as many thousands as the lady or her family could tient calculation that he must, by the simple movement wish.-Now what is the intended impression of all this of growing older, be coming somewhat nearer to every on the reader's mind 2 Is he to think it very likely that event that is yet to happen to him. He is like a tra- he too has some old uncle, or acquaintance at least, reveller, who, amidst his indolent musings in some soft turning with a shipload of wealth from the East Indies; bower, where he has sat down to be shaded a little and very desirable that the highwayman should make while from the rays of noon, falls asleep, and dreams one such attempt more; and very certain that in that he is in the midst of all the endearments of home, insen- case he shall be there in the nick of time to catch all sible that there are many hills and dales for him yet to that fortune sends? One's indignation is excited at the traverse. But, the traveller will awake; so too will immoral tendency of such lessons to young readers, the man of fancy, and if he has the smallest capacity of who are thus taught to regard all sober, regular plans just reflection, he will regret to have wasted in reveries for compassing an object with disgust or despondency, the time which ought to have been devoted to practical and to muse on improbabilities till they become foolish exertions. enough to expect them, and to be melancholy when But even though reminded of the necessity of inter- they find they may expect them in vain. It is unparvening means, the man of imagination will often be donable that these pretended instructers by example tempted to violate their relation with ends, by permit- should thus explode the calculations and exertions of ting himself to dwell on those happy casualties, which manly resolution, destroy the connexion between ends the prolific sorcery of his mind will promptly figure to and means, and make the rewards of virtue so depend him as the very things, if they would but occur, to ac- on chance, that if the reader does not either regard the complish his wishes at one, without the toil of a sober whole fable with contempt, or promise himself he shall process. If they would occur-and things as strange receive the favours of fortune in some similar way, he might happen: he reads in the newspapers that an es- must close the book with the conviction that he may tate of ten thousand per annum was lately adjudged to hang or drown himself as soon as he pleases; that is a man who was working on the road. He has even to say, unless he has learnt from some other source a heard of.people dreaming that in such a place some- better morality and religion than these books will ever thing valuable was concealed; and that, on searching teach him. or digging that place, they found an old earthen pot, Another deception in respect to means, is the facility full of gold and silver pieces of the times of good with which fancy passes along the train of them, and King Charles the Martyr. Mr. B. was travelling by reckons to their ultimate effect at a glance, without the mail-coach, in which he met with a most interesting resting at the successive stages, and considering the young lady, whom he had never seen before; they were labours and hazards of the protracted process from each mutually delighted, and were married in a few weeks. point to the next. If a given number of years are alMr C., a man of great merit in obscurity, was walking lowed requisite for the accomplishment of an object, across a field when Lord D., in chase of a fox, leaped the romantic mind vaults from one last day of Decemover the hedge, and fell off his horse into a ditch. Mr ber to another, and seizes at once the whole product C., with the utmost alacrity and kind solicitude, helped of all the intermediate days, without condescending, to his lordship out of the ditch, and recovered for him his recollect that the sun never shone yet on three hundred escaped horse. The consequence was inevitable; his and sixty-five days at once, and that they must be slowly lordship, superior to the pride of being mortified to have told and laboured one by one. If a favourite plan is to been seen in a condition so unlucky for giving the im- be accomplished by means of a certain large amount of pression of nobility, commenced a friendship with Mr property, which is to be produced from what is at preC. and introduced him into honourable society and the sent a very small one, the calculations of a sanguine road to fortune. A very ancient maiden lady of a large mind can change shillings into guineas, and guineas into fortune happening to be embarrassed in a crowd, a young hundreds of pounds, incomparably faster than, in the clergyman offered her his arm, and politely attended actual experiment, these lazy shillings can be.comher home; his attention so captivated her, that she be- pelled to improve themselves into guineas, and the queathed to him, soon after, her whole estate, though guineas into hundreds of pounds. You remember the she had many poor relations. noble calculation of Alnaschar on his basket of earthen That class of fictitious works called novels, though ware, which was so soon to obtain him the Sultan's much more like real life than the romances which pre- daughter. ceded them, (and which are recently, with some altera- Where imagination is not delusive enough to emtions, partly come into vogue again,) is yet full of these body future casualties as effective means, it may yet lucky incidents and adventures, which are introduced represent very inadequate ones as competent. In a as the chief means toward the ultimate success. A well-balanced mind, no conception will grow into a young man without fortune, for instance, is precluded favourite purpose, unaccompanied by a process of the from making his addresses to a young female in a su- understanding, deciding its practicability by an estimate perior situation, whom he believes not indifferent to of the meaps; in a mind under the influence of fancy, him, until he can approach her with such worldly ad- this is a subordinate after-task. By the time that this vantages as it might not be imprudent or degrading for comes to be considered, the projector is too much en her to accept. Now how is this to be accomplished? amoured of an end that is deemed to be great, to aban-Why, I suppose, by the exertion of his talents in don it because the means are suspected to be little. some fair and practicable department; and perhaps the But then they must cease to appear little; for there lady, besides, will generously abdicate for his sake some must be an apparent proportion between the means and of the trappings and luxuries of rank. You really sup- the end. WVell, trust the whole concern to this l)laspose this is the plan? I am sorry you have so much tic faculty, and presently every insignificant particle of FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 39 means, and every petty contrivance for their manage- even their sensations. And by what concentrated ment, will swell into magnitude; pigmies and Lillipu- force of all kinds of magic together, that Egypt or tlans with their tiny arrows will soon grow up into Chaldea ever pretended, are you to introduce humanity giants wielding spears; and the diffident consciousness and refinement among such creatures as the Northern which was at first somewhat afraid to measure the plan Indians, described by Mr. Hearne. If an animated against the object, will give place to a generous scorn young philanthropist still zealously maintained that it of the timidity of doubting. The mind will most inge- might be done, I should be amused to think how that niously place the apparatus between its eye and the ob- warm imagination would be quelled, if he were obliged ject at a distance, and be delighted to find that the one to make the practical trial. It is easy for him to be rolooks as large as the other. mantic while enlivened by the intercourse of cultivated The consideration of the deluded calculations on the society, while reading of the contrivances and the paeffect of insufficient means, would lead to a wide va- tience of ancient legislators, or while infected with the riety of particulars; I will only touch slightly on a few. enthusiasm of poetry. He feels as if he could be the Various projects of a benevolent order would come un- moral conqueror of a continent. He becomes a Herder this charge. Did you ever listen to the discussion cules amidst imaginary labours; he traverses untired, of plans for the civilization of barbarous nations with- while in his room, wide tracts of the wilderness; out the intervention of conquest 4 I have, with interest he surrounds himself with savage men, without either and with despair.* That very many millions of the trembling or revolting at their aspects or fierce exclaspecies should form only a brutal adjunct to civilized mations; he makes eloquent speeches to them, though and enlightened man, is a melancholy thing, notwith- he knows not a word of their language, which language standing the whimsical attempts of some ingenious men indeed, if he did know it, would perhaps be found totally to represent the state of wandering savages as prefer- incapable of eloquence; they listen with the deepest atable to every other condition of life; a state for which, tention, are convinced of the necessity of adopting new no doubt, they would have been sincerely glad to aban- habits of life, and speedily soften into humanity, and don their fame and proud refinements. But where are brighten into wisdom. But he would become sober the means to reclaim these wretched beings into the enough, if compelled to travel a thousand miles through civilized family of man? A few examples indeed are the desert, or over the snow, with some of these subfound in history, of barbarous tribes being formed into jects of his lectures and legislation; to accompany well-ordered and considerably enlightened states by one them in a hunting excursion; to choose in a stormy man, who began the attempt without any power but night between exposure in the open air and the smoke that of persuasion, and perhaps delusion. There are and grossness of their cabins; to observe the intellect perhaps other instances, of the success obtained by a tual faculties narrowed almost to a point, limited to a small combination of men employing the same means; scanty number of the meanest class of ideas; to find by as in the great undertaking of the Jesuits in South repeated experiments that his kind of ideas could neither America. But have not these wonderful facts been far reach their understanding nor excite their curiosity; to too few to be made a standard for the speculations of see the ravenous appetite of wolves succeeded for a sober men. And have they not also come to us with season by a stupidity insensible even to the few interests too little explanation to illustrate any general princi- which kindle the utmost ardour of a savage; to witness ples. To me it appears extremely difficult to coinpre- loathsome habits occasionally diversified by abominable hend how the means recorded by historians to have ceremonies; or to be for once the spectator of some been employed by some of the unarmred civilizers, could of the circumstances which accompany the wars of have produced so great an effect. In observing the savages. half-civilized condition of a large part of the population But there are many more familiar illustrations of the of these more improved countries, and in reading what extravagant estimate of means. One is, the expectatravellers describe of the state and dispositions of the tion of far too much from mere direct instruction. This various orders of savages, it would seem a presumption is indeed so general, that it will hardly be termed rounwarranted by any thing we ever saw of the powers of mantic, except in the most excessive instances. Obthe human mind to suppose that any man, or any ten serve it, however, a moment in the concern of education, men now on earth, if landed and left on a savage coast, Nothing seems more evident than the influence of exterwould be able to transform a multitude of stupid or fe- nal circumstances, distinct from the regular discipline rocious tribes into a community of mild intelligence and of the parent or tutor, in forming the character of youth. regular industry. We are therefore led to believe that And nothing seems more evident than that direct inthe few unaccountable instances conspicuous in the his- struction, though an useful ally to the influence of these tory of the world, of the success of one or a few men in circumstances when they are auspicious, is a feeble this work, must have been the result of such a combina- counteractor if they are malignant. And yet this mere tion of favourable circumstances, co-operating with their instruction is enough in the account of thousands of pagenius and perseverance, as no other man can hope to rents, to lead the youth to wisdom and happiness; even experience. Such events seem like Joshua's arresting that very youth whom the united influence of almost all the sun and moon, things that have been done, but can things else which he is exposed to see, and hear, and be done no more. Pray, which of you, I should say, participate, is drawing with the unrelaxing grasp of a could expect to imitate with success, or indeed would fiend to destruction. think it right if he could, the deception of Manco Ca- A too sanguine opinion of the efficacy of instruction, pac, and awe a wild multitude into order by a commis- has sometimes been entertainedby those who teach fromn sion from the sun 3'What would be your first expedi- the pulpit. Till the dispensations of a better age shall ent in the attempt to substitute that regularity and con- be opened on the world, the measure of effect which straint which they hate, for that lawless liberty which may reasonably be expected from preaching, is to be thev love? How could you reduce them to be con- determined by a view of the visible effects which are scious, or incite them to be proud, of those wants, for actually produced on congregations from week to week; being subject to which they would regard you as their and this view is far from flattering. One might appeal inferiors; wants of which, unless they could compre- to preachers in general-What striking improvements hend the refinement, they must necessarily despise the are apparent in your societies? When you inculcate debility? By what magic are you to render visible and charity on the Sunday do the misers in your congregapalpable any part of the world of science or of abstrac- tions liberally open their chests and purses to the distion, to beings who have hardly words to denominate tressed on Monday? Might I not ask as well, whether * I here place out of view that religion by which Omnipotence the rock and trees really did move at the voice of Orwill at length transform the world. pheus? After you have unveiled even the scenes of 40 FOSTER'S ESSA.YS. eternity to the gay and frivolous, do you find in more of experience. In other words, it is in proportion than some rare instances a dignified seriousness take to the number of happy transformations of character place of their follies What is the effect, on the ele- which we see taking place under the efficacy of religant, splendid professors of Christianity, of your incul- gious truth. eation of that solemn interdiction of their habits,' Be Reformers in general are very apt to overrate the not conformed to this world P' Yet, notwithstanding power of the means by which their theories are to be re this melancholy state of facts, some preachers, from alized. They are forever introducing the story of Archithe persuasion of a mysterious apostolic sacredness in medes, who was to have moved the world if he could the office, or from a vain estimate of their personal ta- have found any second place on which to plant his enlents, or from mistaking the applause with which the gines; and imagination discloses to moral and political preacher has been flattered, for the proof of a salutary projectors a cloud-built and truly extramundane position effect on the minds of the hearers, and some from a which they deem to be exactly such a convenience in much worthier cause, the affecting influence of sacred their department as the mathematician, whose converse truth on their own minds, have been inclined to antici- with demonstrations had saved part of his reason from pate imlnense effects from their public ministrations. being run away with by his fancy, confessed to be a deMelancthon was a romantic youth when he began to sideratum in his. This terra firma is called the Omnipreach. He expected that all must be inevitably and potence of Truth. immediately persuaded, when they should hear what he It is presumed, that truth must at length, by the force had to tell them. But he soon discovered as he said, of indefatigable inquiry, become generally victorious, that old Adam was too hard for young Melancthon. In and that all vice, being the result of a mistaken judgaddition to the grand fact of the depravity of the human ment of the nature or the means of happiness, must heart, there are so many causes operating injuriously therefore accompany the exit of error. Of course, it is through the week on the characters of those who form a presumed of the present times also, or of those immecongregation, that a thoughtful man often feels a melan- diately approaching, that in every society and every cholv emotion amidst his religious addresses, from the mind where truth is clearly admitted, the reforms which reflection that he is making a feeble effort against a it dictates must substantially follow. I have the most powerful evil, a single effort against a combination of confident faith that the empire of truth, advancing evils, a temporary and transient effort against evils of under a far mightier agency than a mere philosophic continual operation, and a purely intellectual effort inquiry, is appointed to irradiate the latter ages of a dark against evils, many of which act on the senses. When and troubled world; and, on the strength of prophetic the preacher considers the effect naturally resulting from intimations, I anticipate its coming sooner, by at least the sight of so many bad examples, the communications a thousand centuries, than a disciple of that philosophy of so many injurious acquaintances, and hearing and whichrejects revelation, as the first proud step towards talking of what would be, if written, so many volumes the improvment of the world, is warranted, by a view of vanity and nonsense, the predominance of fashionable of the past and present state of mankind, to predict. dissipation in one class, and of vulgarity in another; he The assurance from the same authority is the foundation must indeed imagine himself endowed with the power for believing, that when that sacred empire shall overa super-human eloquence, if the instructions, expressed spread the world, the virtue of character will correspond in an hour or two on the Sabbath, and soon forgotten, to the illuminations of understanding. But in the preas he might know, by most of his hearers, are to leave sent state of the moral system, our expectations of the something in the mind, which shall be through the week effect of truth on the far greater number of the persons the efficacious repellant to the contact and contamina- who shall admit its convictions, have no right to exceed tion of all these forces of mischief. But how soon he the rules of probability which are taught by facts. It would cease to imagine such a power in his exhorta- would be gratifying no doubt to believe, that the several tions, if the greater number of his hearers could sin- powers in the human constitution are so combined, that cerely and accurately tell him, toward the end of the to gain the judgment would be to secure the whole man. week, in what degree these admonitions had affected And if all history, and all memory of our observation and governed them, in opposition to their corrupt ten- and experience, could be merged in Lethe, it might be dencies and their temptations. What would be, in the believed, perhaps a few hours. How could an attentive five or six days, the number of the moments and the observer believe it longer. Is it not obvious that very instances in which these instructions would be proved many persons, with a most absolute conviction, by their to have been effectual, compared with the whole num- own ingenuous avowal, that one certain course of action bet of moments and circumstances to which they were is virtue and happiness, and another, vice and misery, justly applicable How often, while hearing such a do yet habitually choose the latter? It is not improbaweek's detail of the lives of a considerable proportion of ble that several millions of human beings are at this the congregation, a man would have occasion to say, very hour thus acting in violation of the laws of goodBy whose instructions were these persons influenced ness, while those laws are clearly admitted, not only as then, in that neglect of devout exercises, that excess of impositions of moral authority, but as the vital principles levity, that waste of time, that avowed contempt of re- of their own true self-interest.* And did not even the ligion, that language of profaneness and imprecation, best men confess a fierce discordbetween the tendencies those contrivances of selfishness, those paroxysms of of their nature, and the dictates of that truth which passion, that study of sensuality, or that general and * The criminal himself has the clearest consciousness that he obdurate depravity. violates the dictates of his judgment. How trifling is the subBut the preacher whom I deem too sanguine, may tilty which affects to show that he does not violate them, by altell me, that it is not by means of any force which he leging, that every act of choice must be preceded by a determination of the judgment, and that therefore in choosing an evil, can throw into his religious instructions, that he ex- aman does at the time judge it to be on some account preferable, pects them to be efficacious: but that he believes a divine though he may know it to be wrong. It is not to be denied that the energy will accompany what is undoubtedly a message choice does imply such a conclusion of the judgment. But this energy w i 1 accompan wha *s und y * m 1 conclusion is made according to a narrow and subordinate scale fromheaven. I am pleased with the piety, and the sound of estimating good and evil, while the mind is conscious that, judgment, (as I esteem it,) with which he expects the judging according to a larger scale, the opposite conclusion is conversion of careless or hardened mne~n from nothing true. It judges a thing better for immediate pleasure, which it knows to be worse for ultimate advantage. The criminal, less than the operation of a power strictly divine. But therefore, may be correctly said to act according to his judgI would remind him, that the probability, at any given ment, in choosing it for present pleasure. But since it is the great season, that such a power will intervene, must be in pro- office of the judgment to decide what is wisest ansi best on the portion to the frequency or infrequency with which its whole, the man may truly be said to act against his judgment, interentio Swho acts in opposition to the conclusion which it forms on this Intervention is actually manifested in the general course greater scale. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 41 they revere. They say with St Paul,' That which I race must be affected. And I trust I do not fail, since do, I allow not; for what I would, that I do not; but I keep in my mind a most clear distinction between what I hate, that I do; to will is present with me, but Christianity itself as a divine thing, and the administrahow to perform that which is good, I find not; the tion of it by a system of merely human powers and good that I would, that I do not, and the evil which I means. These means are indeed of divine appointwould not, that I do.' Every serious self-observer re- ment, and to a certain extent are accompanied by a collects instances,in which a temptation, exactly address- special divine agency. But how far this agency aced to his passions or his habits, has prevailed in spite of companies them is seen in the measure of their success. the sternest interdict of his judgment, pronounced at Where that stands arrested, the fact itself is the proof the very crisis. Perhaps the most lawful sanctions by that the superior operation does not go farther with which the judgment can ever enforce its authority, these means. There it stops, and leaves them to acwere distinctly brought to his view at the same moment complish, if they can, what remains. And oh, what with its convictions. In the subsequent hour he had to remains? If the general transformation of mankind reflect, that the ideas of God, of a future account, of a into such persons as could be justly deemed true disciworld of retribution, could not prevent him from viola- ples of Christ, were regarded as the object of his reliting his conscience. That he did not dwell deliberately gion, how mysteriously small a part of that object has on these ideas, is nothing against my argument. It is this divine agency ever yet been exerted to accomin the nature of the passions not to permit the mind to plish! And then, the awful and immense remainder fix strongly and durably on those considerations which evinces the inexpressible imbecility of the means, when oppose and condemn them. But what greater power left to be applied as a mere human administration. I than this, is requisite for their fatal triumphS If the need not illustrate its incompetency by citing the vast passions can thus prevent the mind from strongly fixing majority, the numerous millions of Christendom, nor the on the most awful considerations when distinctly pre- millions of even our own country, on whom this relisented, they can destroy the efficacy of that truth which gion has no direct influence. I need not observe how presents them. Truth can do no more than discrimi- many of these have heard or read the evangelic declanate the good from the evil before us, and declare the ration ten thousand times, nor with what perfect insenconsequences of our choice. When this is inefficacious, sibility vast numbers can receive its most luminous its power has failed. And no fact can be more evident ideas, and most cogent enforcements, which are but than that its power often thus fails. I should compas- like arrows meeting the shield of Ajax. Probably each sionate the self-complacency of the man who was not religious teacher can recollect, besides his general exconscious he had to deplore many violations of his own perience, very particular instances, in which he has set clearest convictions. And in tryingthe efficacy of truth himself to exert the utmost force of his mind, in reaon others, it would be found, in numberless instances, soning, illustration, and serious appeal, to impress some that to have informed and convinced a man, may be but one important idea, on some one class of persons to little toward emancipating him from the habits which he whom it was most specifically applicable; and has persincerely acknowledges to be wrong. There is then ceived the plainest indications, both at the instant and no such inviolable connexion as some men have sup- immediately after, that it was an attempt of the same posed between the admission of truth, and consequent kind as that of demolishing a tower by attacking it with action. And therefore, however great is the value pebbles. Nor do I need to observe how generally, if a of truth, the expectations that presume its omnipo- momentary impression is made, it is forgotten the foltence, without extraordinary intervention are, romantic lowing hour. delusion. A man convinced of the truth and supreme excelYou will observe that in this case of trying the effi- lence of Chrstianity, yet entertaining a more flattering cacy of the truth on others, I have supposed the great notion of the reason and moral dispositions of man previous difficulty of presenting it to the understand- than the judgment which that religion passes upon them, ing so luminously as to impress irresistible conviction, may be very reluctant to admit that there is such a fato be already overcome; though the experimental re- tal disproportion between the apparatus, if I may call former will find this introductory work such an arduous it so, of the Christian means as left to be applied by undertaking, that he will be often tempted to abandon mere human energy, and the object which is to be atit as a hopeless one. tempted with them. But how is he to avoid it? Will he, in this one excepted instance, reject the method of inference from facts. He cannot look upon the world of facts and contradict the representation in the precedLETTER IV. ing paragraph, unless his fancy is so illusive as to interpose a vision, an absolute dream, between his eyes Christianity the g,rand appointed Means of reforming the and the obvious reality. He cannot affirm that there World-But though the Religion itself be a Communica- and the obvious reality He cannot affirm that there tion from Heaven, the Administration of it by human are not an immense number of persons, even educated Agents is to be considered as a merely human Means, ex- persons, receiving the Christian declarations with indit. cepting so far as a special Divine Energy is made to ac- ference, or rejecting them with contempt mingled with company it-Its comparatively small success proves in what their carelessness. The right means are applied, and an extremely limited measure that Energy accompanies it- with all the force that human effort can give them, but Impotence of Man to do wuhat it leaves undone-Irrational with a suspension, in these instances, of the divine to expect from its progressive Administration a measure a agency, —and this is the effect T While the fact stands of success indefinitely surpassing the present State of its agency-and th the effect! While the fact stands Operations, till we see some Signs of a great Change in out so palpably to view, I am doomed to listen with the Divine Government of the World-Folly of Projects wonder, when some of the professed believers and ad to reform mankind which disclaim religion-Nothing in vocates of the gospel avowing high anticipations of its human Nature to meet and give effect to the Schemes and progressive efficacy, chiefly or solely by means of the Expedients of the Al-oral Revolutionist-Wretched State intrinsic force which it carries as a rational address to qf that Nature-Sample of the absurd Estimates of its rationalcreatures. Icannot help inquiring what length condition y the irrelgous Members of Society. of time is to be allowed for the experiment, which is to As far as the gloomy estimate of means and of plans prove the adequacy of the means independently of an for the amendment of mankind may appear to involve extraordinary intervention. Nor can it be impertinent the human administration of the religion of Christ, I am to ask what is, thus far, the state of the experiment and anxious not to seem to fail in justice to that religion by the success, among those who reject the idea of such which I entirely believe, and rejoice to believe, that a divine agency, as a tenet of fanaticism. Might it every improvement of a sublime order yet awaiting our not be prudent, to moderate the expressions of con 42 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. tempt for the persuasion which excites an importunity human nature, as thus illustrated by trial, could you for extraordinary influence from the Almighty, till the with confidence appeal in favour of any of the great obsuccess without it shall be greater? The utmost arro- jects which a benevolent man desires to see accom gance of this contempt will venture no comparison be- plished 3 If there were in it any one grand principle tween the respective success, in the conversion of vain of goodness which an earnest call, and a great occaand wicked men, of the Christian means as administer- sion, would raise into action, to assert or redeem the ed by those who implore and rely upon this special character of the species, one should think it would be agency of Heaver-, and by those who deny any such what we call, incorrectly enough, Humanity. Conoperation on the mind; deny it in sense and substance, sider then, in this nation for instance, which extols its whatever accommodating phrases they may sometimes own generous virtues to the sky, what lively and raemploy. Indeed, has there been any success at all, of tional appeals have been made to the whole comthat high order, to vindicate the calculations of this lat- munity, respecting the slave trade,* the condition ter class from the imputaton of all that should be meant of the poor, and the hateful mass of cruelty inby'the word Romantic 3 flicted on brute animals, not to glance toward the But, when I introduced the mention of reformers horrid sacrifices in that temple of Moloch named and their projects, I was not intending any reference to honourable war which has been kept open more than delusive presumptions of the operations of Christianity, half the past century; —appeals substantially in vain: but to those speculations and schemes for the amendment And why in vain 3 If humanity overe a powerful prinof mankind which anticipate their effect independently ciple in the nature of the community, they would not, of its assistance; some of them perhaps silently coin- in contempt of knowledge, expostulation, and spectaciding with several of its principles, while others ex- cles of misery, persist in the most enormous violations pressly disclaim them. Unless these'schemes bring of it. Why in vain 3 but plainly because there is not with them, like spirits from Heaven, an intrinsic com- enough of the virtue of humanity, not even in what is petence to the great operation, without being met or deemed a highly cultivated state of the human nature, aided by any considerable degree of favourable disposi- to answer to the pathetic call. Or if this be not the tion in the nature of the Subject, it is probable that cause, let the idolaters of human divinity call, like the they will disappoint their fond projectors. There is no worshippers of Baal, in a louder voice. Their success avoiding the ungracious perception, in viewing the ge- will too probably be the same; they will obtain no exneral character of the race, that, after some allowance traordinary exertion of power, though they cry from for what is called natural affection, and for compassio- morning till the settiner sun. And meanwhile the obnate sympathy, (an excellent principle, but extremely server, who foresees their disappointment, would think limited and often capricious in its operation,) the main himself warranted, but for the melancholy feeling that strength of human feeling consists in the love of sen- the nature in question is his own, to mock their expecsual gratification, of distinction, of power, and of money. tations,-You know that a multitude of exemplificaAnd by what suicidal inconsistency are these principles tions might be added. And the thought of so many to lend their force to accomplish the schemes of pure great and interesting objects, relating to the human reason and virtue, which, they will not fail to perceive, economy, as a sober appreciation of means seems to are plotting against them?* And if they have far too place beyond the reach of the moral revolutionist,t will perfect an instinct to be trepanned into such an employ- often, if he has genuine benevolence, make him sad. ment of their force, and yet are the preponderating He will repeat to himself,' How easy it is to conceive agents in the human heart, what other active principles of these inestimable improvements, and how nobly they it can the renovator of human character call to his ef- would exalt my species; but how to work them into fectual aid, against the evils which are accumulated and the actual condition of man!-Are there somewhere in defended by what is at once the baser and the strong- possibility,' he will ask,' intellectual and moral engines er part l Whatever principles of a better kind there mighty enough to perform the great process? Where may be in the nature, they can hold but a feeble and in darkness is the sacred repository in which they lie inert existence under the predominance of the worse, What Marratont shall explore the unknown way to it 3 and could make but a faint insurrection in favour of the The man who would not be glad, in exchange for invading virtue, the very worst of them may indeed the discovery of this treasury of powers, to shut up for seem to become its allies when'it happens, as it occa- ever the mines of Potosi, would deserve to be immursionally will, that the course of action which reforming ed as the last victim of those deadly caverns.' virtue forces, falls in the same line in which these But each speculative visionary thinks the discovery meaner principles can promote their interests. Then, is made? and while surveying his own great magazine and so far, an unsound coincidence may take place, and of expedients, consisting of Fortunatus's cap, the phithe external effect of those principles may be clad in losopher's stone, Aladdin's lamp, and other equally effispecious appearances of virtue; but the moment that cient articles, he is confident that the work may the reforming projector summons their co-operation to speedily be done. These powerful instruments of mea service in which they must desert their own object lioration perhaps lose their individual names under the and their corrupt character, they will desert him. As long as he is condemned to depend, for the efficacy of, Happily this topic of accusation is in a mecasure now set his schemes, on the aid of so much pure propensity as aside: but it would have remained as immoveable as the conhe shall find in the corrupted subject, he will be nearly tinent of Africa, if the Legislature had not been forced into a conviction that, on the whole, the slave trade was not advanin the case of a man attempting to climb a tree by lay- tageois in point of pecuniary interest. At least the guilt would ing hold, first on this side, and then on that, of some so have remained upon the nation acting in its capacity of a rotten twig, which still breaks off in his hand, and lets state.-This note is added subsequently to the first edition.-It may be subjoined, in qualification of the reproach relative to the him fall among the nettles. next article, —the condition of the poor —that during a later pe. Look again to the state of facts. Collective man riod, there has been a great increase of the attention and exeris human nature; and the conduct of this assemblage, tion (irected to that condition; which has, nevertleless, become under the diversified experiments continually made on t It is obvious that I am not supposing this moral revolutionit, expresses its true character, and indicates what may ist to be armed with any power but that of persuasion. If he be expected from it. Now then, to what principle in were a monarch, and possessed virtue and talents equal to his power, the case would be materially different. Even then, he * I am here reminded of the Spanish story of a village where would accomplish but little compared with what he could imathe devil, having made the people excessively wicked, was gine, and would desire; yet, to all human appearance, he punished by being compelled to assume the appearance and might be the instrument of wonderfuilly changing the condition habit of a friar, and to preach so eloquently, in spite of his in- of society within his empire. If the soul of Alfred could return ternal repugnance and rage, that the inhabitants vwere complete- to the earth! ly reformed. t Spectator, No 56. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 43 general denomination of Philosophy, a term that would sword of Michael in our hands. The nature of man be venerable, if it could be saved from the misfortune still' casts ominous conjecture on the whole success.' of being hackneyed into cant, and from the impiety of WNVhile that is corrupt, it will pervert even the very substituting its expedients in the place of divine power. schemes and operations by which the world should be But it is of little consequence what denomination the improved, though their first principles were pure as projectors assume to themselves or their schemes: it is heaven; and revolutions, great discoveries, augmented by their fruits that we shall know them. Their work science, and new forms of polity, will become in effect is before them; the scene of moral disorder presents what may be denominated the sublime mechanics of to them the plagues which they are to stop, the moun- depravity. tain which they are to remove, the torrent which they are to divert, the desert which they are to clothe in verdure and bloom. Let them make their experiment, and LETTER V. add each his page to the gloomy records in which experience contem. s the folly of imagination. * Melancholy Reflections-No Consolation amidst the mysterzAll the speculations and schemes of the sanguine ous Economy but in an Assurance that an infinitely good projectors of all ages, have left the world still a prey to Being presides, and will at length open out a new moral infinite legions of vices and miseries, an immortal band, World-Yet many moral Projectors are solicitous to keep which has trampled in scorn on the monumentsand the their Schemes for the Amendment of the World clear of any dust of the self-idolizing men who dreamed, each in his reference to the Almighty-Eien good Men are guilty of day, that they were born to chase these evils out of the placing too much Dependence on subordinate Poiwers and earth. If these vain demigods of an hour, who trusted Agents-The Representations in this Essay not intended to depreciate to nothing the Worth and Use of the whole Stock to change the world, and who perhaps wished to change of Means, but to reduce them, and the Effects to be expected it only to make it a temple to their fame, could be from them, to a sober ]'stimate-A humble Thing to be a awaked from the unmarked graves into which they Man-Inculcation of devout Submission, anid Diligence, sunk, to look a little while round on the world for some and Prayer-Sublime Quality, and indefinite JEflicacy, of traces of the success of their projects, would they not be this last, as a Means-Conclusion; briefly marking out a eager to retire again into the chambers of death, to hide few general Characters of Sentiment and Action to which, the shame of their remembered presumption? The though very uncommon, the Epithet Romantic is unjustly wars and tyranny, the rancour, cruelty, and revenge, together with all the other unnumbered vices and This view of moral and philosophical projects, added crimes with which the earth is still infested, are enough, to that of the limited exertion of energy which the Alif the whole mass could be brought within the bounds mighty has made to attend, as yet, the dispensation of of any one even the most extensive empire, to consti- the gospel, and accompanied with the consideration of tute its whole population literally infernals, all but their the impotence of human efforts to make that dispensaoelng incarnate, and that indeed they would soon, tion efficacious where his will does not, forms a melanthrough mutual destruction, cease to be. Hitherto the choly and awful account. In the hours of pensive fatal cause of these evils, the corruption of the hu- thought, the serious observer, unless he can fully reman heart, has sported with the weakness, or seduced sign the condition of man to the infinite wisdom and the strength, of all human contrivances to subdue them. goodness of his Creator, will feel an emotion of orror, Nor do I perceive any signs as yet that we are com' as if standing on the verge of a hideous gulf, into which mencing a better era, in which the means that have almost all the possibilities, and speculations, and efforts, failed before, or the expedients of a nelw and more and hopes, relating to the best improvements of manfortunate invention, shall become irresistible, like the kind, are brought down in a long abortive series by the torrent of ages to be lost in final despair. * In reading lately some part of a tolerably well-written book To an a t in final despair. published a few years since, I came to the following passae, thest of enlarged sensibility, f that were a which, though in connexion indeed with the subject of elections, possible character, how gloomy, beyond all power of expresses the author's general opinion of the state of society, description, must be the long review, and the undefinaand of the means of exalting it to wisdom and virtue.' The ble prospect, of this triumph of evil, unaccompanied, as bulk of the community begin to examine, to feel, to understand, their rights and duties. They only require the fostering care of it must appear to his thoughts, by any sublime, intellithe Philosopher to ripen them into complete rationality, and fur. gent process, converting, in some manner unknown to nish them with the requisites of political and moral action.' mortals this evil into good, either during the course, or Here I paused to indulge my wonder. The fostering care of the Philosopher! Why then is not the Philosopher about his in the result. A devout theist, when he becomes sad business? Why does he not go and indoctrinate a company of amidst his contemplations, recovers a solemn and subpeasants in the intervals of a ploughing or a harvest day, when missive tranquillity, by reverting to his assurance of he will find them far more eager for his instructions than for such a wise and omnipotent conduct. As a believer in drink? Why does he not introduce himself among a circle of suec aw is e and omnipo tent condu ct. As a believer farmers, who cannot fail, as he enters, to be very judiciously revelation, he is consoled by the confidence both that discussing, with the aid of their punch and their pipes, the most this train of evils will be converted into good in the efrefined questions respecting their rights and duties, and wanting but exactly his aid, instead of more punch and tobacco, to pos. t, and that the evil itself n this world wi at a future sess themselves completely of the requisites of political and period almost cease. He is persuaded that the Great moral action? The population of a manufactory, is another Spirit, who presides over this mysterious scene, has yet most promising seminary, where all the moral and intellectual an energy of operation in reserve to be unfolded on the endowments are so nearly'ripe,' that he will seem less to have the task of cultivating than the pleasure of reaping. Even earth, such as its inhabitants have never, except in a among the company in the ale-house, though the Philosopher few momentary glimpses, beheld, and that when his might at first be sorry, and might wonder, to perceive a slight kingdom comes those powers will be manifested to merge of the moral part of the man in the sensitive, and to find in so vociferous a mood that inquiring reason which, he had command the chaos of turbulent and malignant elements supposed, would be waiting for him with the silent, anxious do- into a new moral world. cility of a pupil of Pythagoras, yet he would find a most pow. And is it not strange, my dear friend, to observe erful predisposition to truth and virtue, and there would be every ow carefully some philosophers, who deplore the conthing to hope from the accuracy of his logic, the comprehensiveness of his views, and the beauty of his moral sentiments. dition of the world, and profess to expect its melioraBut perhaps it will be explained, that the Philosopher does not tion, keep their speculations clear of every idea of Dimean to visit all these people in person; but that having first s No builers of houses or cities cured the source of influence, having taken entire possession of princes, nobility, gentry, and clergy, which he expects to do in were ever more attentive to guard against the access of a very short time, he will manaze them' like an electrical ma- inundation or fire. If He should but touch their proschine, to operate on the bulk of the community. Either way the the achievement will be great and admirable; the latter event seems pective theories of improvement, they would renounce to have been predicted in that sibylline sentence,'When the them, as defiled, and fit only for vulgar fanaticism. sky falls, we shall catch larks.' Their system of providence would be profaned by the 44 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. intrusion of the Almighty. Man is to effect an apotheo- magnifying its means, inflates its projects with hopes sis for himself, by the hopeful process of exhausting his which may justly be called Romantic. The best corcorruptions. And should it take all but an endless rective of such irrational expectation is an appeal to series of ages, vices, and woes, to reach this glorious experience. There is an immense record of experiattainment, patience may sustain itself the while by the ments, which will tell the power of almost all the enthought that when it is realized, it will be burdened gines, as worked by human hands, in the whole moral with no duty of religious gratitude. No time is too magazine. And if a man expects any one of them to long to wait,-no cost too deep to incur, for the triumph produce a greater effect than ever before, it must be of proving that we have no need of that one attribute of because the talents of him who repeats the trial, transa Divinity, which creates the grand interest in acknow- cend those of all former experimenters, or else because ledging such a Being, the benevolence that would the season is more auspicious. make us happy. But even if this triumph should be The estimate of the power of means, obtained by tie found unattainable, the independence of spirit which appeal to experience, is indeed most humiliating: but has laboured for it, must not at last sink into piety. what then?. It is a humble thing to be a man. The This afflicted world,' this poor terrestrial citadel of feebleness of means is, in fact, the feebleness of him man,' is to lock its gates, and keep its miseries, rather that employs them; for the most inconsiderable means, than admit the degradation of receiving help from God. when wielded by celestial powers, can produce the I wish it were not true, that even men who firmly most stupendous effects. Till, then, the time shall arbelieve in the general doctrine of the divine govern- rive for us to assume a nobler rank of existence, we ment of the world, are often betrayed into the impiety must be content to work on the present level of our of attaching an excessive importance to human agency nature, and effect that little which we can effect; unin its events. How easily a creature of their own spe- less it be greater magnanimity and piety to resolve that cies is transformed by a sympathetic pride into a god because our powers are limited to do only little things, before them! If what they deem the cause of truth they shall therefore, as if in revenge for such an ecoand justice, advances with a- splendid front of distin- nomy, do nothing. Our means will do something; guished names of legislators, or patriots, or military that something is what they were meant to effect in heroes, it must then and must therefore triumph; no- our hailds, and not that something else which we all thing can withstand such talents, accompanied by the wish they would effect, and a visionary man presumes zeal of so many faithful adherents. If these shining they will. insects of fame are crushed, or sink into the despicable This disproportion between the powers and means reptiles of corruption, alas, then, for the cause of truth which mortals are confined to wield, and the great oband justice! All this while, there is no solemn refer- jects which all good men would desire to accomplish, ence to the' Blessed and only Potentate.' If, however, is a part of the appointments of Him who determined all the foundations of their religious faith have not been the relations in the universe; and He will see to the conshaken, and they possess any docility to the lessons of sequences. For the present, he seems to say to his sertime, they will after a while be taught to withdraw their vants,' Forbear to inquire why so small a part of those dependence and confidence from all subordinate agents, objects to which I have summoned your activity, is and habitually regard the Supreme Being as the only placed within the reach of your powers. Your feeble power ill the creation. ability for action is not accompanied by such a capacity Perhaps it is not improbable, that the grand moral of understanding, as would be requisite to comprehend improvements of a future age may be accomplished in why that ability was made no greater. Even if it had a manner that shall leave nothing to man but humility been made incomparably greater, would there not still and grateful adoration. His pride so obstinately as- have been objects before it too vast for its operation cribes to himself whatever good is effected on the Must not the highest of created beings still have someglobe, that perhaps the Deity will evince his own inter- thing in view, which they feel they can but partially position, by events as evidently independent of human accomplish till their powers are enlarged? Must there power as the rising of the sun. It may be that some not be an end of improvement in my creation, if the of them may take place in a manner but little connected powers of my creatures had become perfectly equal to even with human operation. Or if the activity of men the magnitude of their designs? How mean must be shall be employed as the means of producing all of the spirit of that being that would not make an effort them, there will probably be as palpable a disproportion now, toward the accomplishment of something higher between the instruments and the events, as there was than he will be able to accomplish till hereafter. Bebetween the rod of Moses and the stupendous pheno- cause mightier labourers would have been requisite to mena which followed its being stretched forth. No effect all that you wish, will you therefore murmur that Israelite was foolish enough to ascribe to the rod the I have honoured you, the inferior ones, with the appower that divided the sea; nor will the witnesses of pointment of making a noble exertion? If there is but the moral wonders to come attribute them to man. little power in your hands, is it not because I retain the I hope these extended observations will not appear power in mine? Are you afraid lest that power should like an attempt to exhibit the whole stock of means, as fail to do all things right, onl~y because you are so little destitute of all value, and the industrious application made its instruments Be grateful that all the work of them as a labour without reward. It is not to de- is not to be done without you, and that a God employs preciate a thing, if, in the attempt to ascertain its real you in that in which he also is employed. But rememmagnitude, it is proved to be little. It is no injustice ber, that while the employment is yours, the success is to mechanical powers, to say that slender machines altogether his; and that your diligence therefore, and will not move rocks and massive timbers; nor to not the effect which it produces, will be the test of yu or chemical ones, to assert that though an earthquake may characters. Good men have been employed in all ages fling a promontory from its basis, the explosion of an under the same economy of inadequate means, and ounce of gunpowder will not.-Between moral powers what appeared to them inconsiderable success. Go to also, and the objects to which they are applied, there your labours: every sincere effort will infallibly be one are eternal laws of proportion; and it would seem a step more in your own progress to a perfect state; and most obvious principle of good sense, that an estimate as to the Cause, when I see it necessary for a God to moderately correct of the force of each of our means interpose in his own manner, T will come.' according to these laws, as far as they can be ascer- I should deem a train of observations of the melantained, should precede every application of them. Such choly hue which shades some of the latter pages of this an estimate has no place in a mind under the ascend- essay, useless, or perhaps even noxious, were I not conency of imagination, which, therefore, by extravagantly vinced that a serious exhibition of the feebleness of hu FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 45 man agency in relation to all great objects, might ag- have not entirely lost and forgotten the very purpose gravate the impression, often so faint, of the absolute for which I took it up, which certainly was to examine supremacy of God, of the total dependence of all mor- the correctness of some not unusual applications of the tal effort on him, and of the necessity of devoutly re- epithet Romantic. It seemed necessary first to degarding his intervention at every moment. It might scribe the characteristics of that extravagance which promote that last attainment of a zealously good man, ought to be given up to the charge with some exemplithe resignation to be as diminutive an agent as God fications. The attempt to do this, has led me into a pleases, and as unsuccessful a one. I am assured also length of detail far beyond all expectation. The inthat, in a pious mind, the humiliating estimate of means tention was, next, to display and to vindicate, in an exand human power, and the consequent sinking down of tended illustration, several schemes of life, and models all lofty expectations founded on them. will leave one of character; but I will not carry the subject any farsingle means, and that far the best of all, to be held ther. I shall only just specify, in concluding, two or three not only of undiminished but of more eminent value of those points of character, on which the censure of than ever was ascribed to it before. The noblest of being romantic has improperly fallen. all human means must be that which obtains the exer- One is, a disposition to take high examples for imitation of divine power. The means which, introducing tion. I have condemned that extravagance, which no foreign agency, are applied directly and immediately presumes on the same career of action and success that to their objects, seem to bear such a defined proportion has been the destiny of some individuals, so extraordito those objects, as to assign and limit the probable nary as to be the most conspicuous phenomena of histoeffect. This strict proportion exists no longer, and ry. But this is a very different thing from the dispositherefore the possible effects become too great for cal- tion to contemplate with emotion the class of men who culation, when that expedient is solemnly employed, have been illustrious for their excellence and their which is appointed as the means of engaging the divine wisdom, to observe with deep attention the principles energy to act on the object. If the only means by that animated them and the process of their attainments, which Jehoshaphat sought to overcome his superior and to keep them in view, as the standard of character. enemy, had been his troops, horses, and arms, the pro- A man, may without a presumptious estimate of his portion between these means and the end would have talents, or the expectation of passing through any course been nearly assignable, and the probable result of the of unexampled events, indulge the ambition to resemconflict a matter of ordinary calculation. But whenhe ble and follow, in the essential determination of their said,' Neither know we what to do, but our eyes are characters, those sublime spirits who are now removed up unto thee,' he moved (I speak it reverently) a new to the kingdom where they' shine as the stars for ever and infinite force to invade the host of Moab and Am- anld ever.' mon; and the consequence displayed, in their camp, A striking departure from the order of custom in the difference between an irreligious leader, who could that rank to which a man belongs, by devoting the prifight only with arms and on the level of the plain, and a vileges of that rank to a mode of excellence which the pious one, who could thus assault from Heaven. It people who composeit never dreamed to be aduty, will may not. I own, be perfectly correct, to cite, in illus- by them be denominated Romantic. They will wonder tration of the efficacy of prayer, the most wonderful why a man that ought to be just like themselves should ancient examples. Nor is it needful, since the expe- affect quite a different style of life, should attempt rience of devout and eminently rational men, in latter unusual plans of doing good,' should distaste the times. has supplied a great'number of striking instances society of his class, and should put himself under some of important advantages so connected with prayer, that extraordinary discipline of virtue, though every point of thev deemed them the evident result of it. This ex- his system may be the dictate of reason and conscience. perinence, taken in confirmation of the assurances of the The irreligious will apply this epithet to the determiBible. warrants ample expectations of the efficacy of an nation to make, and the zeal to inculcate, great exerearnest and habitual devotion;* provided still, as I tions and sacrifices for a purely moral ideal reward. need not remind you, that this means be employed as Some gross and palpable prize is requisite to excite their the grand auxiliary of the other means, and not alone, energies; and therefore self-denial repaid by conscience, till all the rest are exhausted or impracticable. And I beneficence, without fame, and the delight of resembling am convinced that every man, who, amidst his serious the D)ivinity, appear very visionary felicities. projects, is apprised of his dependence on God, as com- The epithet will often be applied to a man who feels pletely as that dependence is a fact, will be impelled to it an imperious duty to realize as far as possible, and pray. and anxious to induce his serious friends to pray, as soon as possible, every thing which in theory he apalmost every hour. He will as little, without it, pro- proves and applauds. You will often hear a circle of mise himself any noble success, as a mariner would perhaps respectable persons agreeing entirely that this expect to reach a distant coast by having his sails one is an excellent principle of action, and that other spread in a stagnation of the air.-I have intimated my an amiable quality, and a third a sublime excellence, fear that it is visionary to expect an unusual success in who would be amazed at your fanaticism if you were to the numan administration of religion, unless there are adjure them thus:'My friends, from this moment you unusual omens; now a most emphatical spirit of are bound, from this moment we are all bound, on peril prayer would be such an omen; and the individual who of the displeasure of God, to realize in ourselves, to the should solemnly determine to try its last possible eff- last possible extent, all that we have thus applauded.' cacy. might probably find himself becoming a much Through some fatal defect of conscience, there is a very more prevailing agent in his little sphere. And if the general feeling, regarding the high order of moral and whole, or the greater number, of the disciples of Chris- religious attainments, that though it is a glorious and tianity, were, with an earnest, unalterable resolution of happy exaltation to possess them, yet it is perfectly safe each, to combine that heaven should not withhold one to stop contented where we are. One is confounded single influence which the very utmost effort of con- to hear irritable persons applauding a character of selfspiring and persevering supplication would obtain, it command; persons who trifle away their days admirwould be the sign that a revolution of the world was at ing the instances of a strenuous improvement of time hand. rich persons praising examples of extraordinary beneMy dear friend, it is quite time to dismiss this whole ficence which they know far surpass themselves, though subject; though it will probably appear to you that I without larger means; and all expressing their deep * Here I shall not be misunderstood to believe the multitude of respect for the men who have been most eminent for atories which have been told by deluded fancy, or detestable im. devotional habits;-and yet apparently with no conpoature. sciousness that they are themselves placed in a solemn 46 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. election of henceforth striving in earnest to exemplify have respecting others, it is necessary to add a farther this very same pitch of character, or of being condemn- distinction as to the nature of those which he might ened in the day of Judgment. tertain only for himself. His extraordinary plans and Finally, in the application of this epithet, but little expectations for himself might be of such a nature as to allowance is generally made for the very great differ- depend on other persons for their accomplishment, and ence between a man's entertaining high designs and might therefore be as extravagant as if other persons hopes for himself alone, and his entertaining them rela- alone had been their object. Or, on the contrary they tive to. other persons. It may be very romantic for a may be of a kind which shall not need the co-opman to promise himself to effect such "designs upon eration of other persons, and may be realized independothers as it may be very reasonable to meditate for him- ently of their will. The design of acquiring immense self. If he feels the powerful, habitual impulse of con- riches, or becoming the commander of an army, or the viction, prompting him to the highest attainments of legislator of a nation, must in its progress be dependent wisdom and excellence, he may perhaps justly hope to on other beings besides the individual, in too many approach them himself, though it would be most extra- thousand points for a, considerate man to presume that vagant to extend the same hope to all the persons to he shall be fortunate in them all. But the schemes of whom he may try to impart the impulse. I specify the eminent personal attainments, not being dependent in attainments of wisdom and excellence, because, to the any of these ways, are romantic only when there is some distinction between the designs and hopes which a man fatal intellectual or moral defect in the mind itself which might entertain for himself, and those which he might has adopted them. ESSAY IV. ON SOME OF THE CAUSES BY WHICH EVANGELICAL RELIGION HA8 BEEN RENDERED UNACCEPTABLE TO PERSONS OF CULTIVATED TASTE. LETTER I. the Christian system are more adapted to provoke, than any thing else that ever came from Heaven. Nor do Nature of the Displacency with which some of the most pe- I need to be told how much this chief cause has aided culiar Features of Christianity are regarded by many cul- and aggravated the power of those subordinate ones, tivated Men who do not deny or doubt the Divine Au- which may have conspired to prevent the success of thority of the Religion-Brief Notice of the Term Evan- evangelical religion among one class of persons; I gelical. mea,4 persons of a refined taste, and whose feelings MY DEAR FRIEND, concerning what is great and excellent have been disciplined to accord to a literary or a philosophical standWhile this life is passing so fast away, it is striking ard. But even had there been less of this natural averto observe the various forms of character in which men sion in such minds, or had there been none, some of the choose to spend this introductory season of their being, causes which have acted on them, would, nevertheand to enter on its future greater stage. If some one less, have tended, necessarily, as far they had any operaof these forms is more eligible than all the rest for en- tion at all, to lessen the attraction of pure Christiantering on that greater stage, a thoughtful man will ity.-I wish to illustrate several of these causes, after surely wish for that to be his own; and to ascertain briefly describing the anti-christian feelings in which I which it is, is the most important of all his inquiries. have observed their effect. We, my friend, are persuaded that the inquiry, if se- It is true that many persons of taste have, without rious, will soon terminate, and that the Christian cha- any precise disbelief of the Christian truth, so little racter will be selected as the only one, in which it is concern about religion in any form, that the unthinking wise to await the call into eternity. Indeed the assur- dislike which they may occasionally feel to the evangelance of our external existence itself rests but on ical principles hardly deserves to be described. These that authority which dictates also the right introduction are to be assigned, whatever may be their faculties or to it. improvements, to the numerous triflers, on whom we The Christian character is simply a conformity to can pronounce only the general condemnation of irrelithe whole religion of Christ. But this implies a cordial gion, their feelings not being sufficiently marked for a admission of that whole religion; and it meets, on the more discriminative censure. But the aversion to the contrary, in many minds not denying it to be a com- evangelical system is of a more defined character, as it munication from God, a disposition to shrink from some exists in a mind too serious for the follies of the world of its peculiar distinctions, or to modify them. I am and the neglect of all religion, and in which the very not now to learn that the substantial cause of this is aversion becomes, at times, the subject of painful and that repugnance in human nature to what is purely di- apprehensive reflection, from a consciousness that it is vine, which revelation affirms, and all history proves, an unhappy symptom, if that view of the subjects by and which perhaps some of the humiliating points of which it is excited, has really the sanction of divine FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 47 revelation. If a person of such a mind disclosed him- I wish I could display in the most forcible manner, self to you, he would describe how the elevated senti- the considerations which show how far such a state of ment, inspired by the contemplation of other sublime mind is wrong. But my object is, to remark on a few subjects, is confounded, and sinks mortified into the of the causes which may have contributed to it. heart, when this new subject is presented to his view. I do not, for a moment, place among these causes It seems to require almost a total change of his mental that continual dishonour which the religion of Christ habits to admit this as the most interesting subject of has suffered through the corrupted institutions, and the all, while yet he dares not reject the authority which depraved character of individuals or communities of supports its claims. The dignity of religion, as a ge- what is called the Christian world. Such a man as I neral and refined speculation, he may have long ac- have supposed, understands what its tendency and dicknowledged; but it appears to him as if it lost part of tates really are, so far at least that, in contemplating that dignity, in taking the specific form of the evangeli- the bigotry, persecution, hypocrisy, and worldly ambical system; just as if an ethereal being were reduced tion, which have stained, and continue to stain, the to combine his radiance and subtlety with an earthly Christian history, his mind instantly dissevers by a denature. He is aware that religion in the abstract, or, cisive glance of thought, all these evils, and the prein other words, the principles which constitute the obli- tended Christians who are accountable for them, from gatory relation of all intelligent creatures to the Su- the religion which is as distinct from them as the Spirit preme Being, must receive a special modification, by that pervades all things is pure from matter and from means of the addition of some other principles, in or- sin. In his view, these odious things and these wicked der to become a peculiar religious economy for a men that have arrogated and defiled the Christian particular race of those creatures, especially for a little name, sink out of sight through a chasm, like Korah, and a guilty race. And the Christian revelation assigns Dathan, and Abiram, and leave the camp and the cause the principles by which this religion in the abstract, the holy, though they leave the numbers small. It needs religion of the universe, is thus modified into the pecu- so very moderate a share of discernment, in a Protesliar form required for the nature and condition of man. tant country at least, where a well-known volume exh iBut when he contemplates some of these principles, bits the religion itself, genuine and entire as it came which do indeed place our nature and condition in a from heaven, to perceive the utter disconnexion and very humbling point of view, he can with difficulty antipathy between it and all these abominations, that avold regretting that our relations with the Divinity to take them as congenial and inseparable, betrays, in should be fixed according to such an economy. The every instance, a detestable want of principle, or a pitigospel appears to him like the image in Nebuchadnez- able want of sense. The defect of cordiality toward zar's dream, refulgent indeed with a head of gold; the the religion of Christ, in the persons that I am accussublime truths which are independent of every peculiar ing does not arise from this debility or this injustice. dispensation are luminously exhibited; but the doc- They would not be less equitable to Christianity than trinles which are added as descriptive of the peculiar they would to some estimable man, whom they would not circumstances of the Christian economy, appear less esteem the less because villains that hated him, knew, splendid, and as if descending towards the qualities of however, so well the excellence of his name and chairon and clay. In admitting this portion of the system racter, as gladly to employ them to aid their schemes, as a part of the truth, his feelings amount to the wish or to shelter their crimes.-But, indeed, these remarks that a different theory had been trite. It is therefore are not strictly to the purpose; since the prejudice with a degree of shrinking reluctance that he some- which a weak or corrupt mind receives from such a times adverts to the ideas peculiar to the gospel. He view of the Christian history, operates, as we see by would willingly lose this specific scheme of doctrines facts, not discriminatively against particular characterin a more general theory of religion, instead of resign- istics of Christianity, but against the whole system, ing every wider speculation for this scheme, in which and leads toward a denial of its divine origin. On the God has comprised, and distinguished by a very pecu- contrary, the class of persons now in question fully liar character, all the religion which he wills to be admit its divine authority, but feel a deep dislike to known, or to be useful, to our world. He would gladly some of its most peculiar distinctions. These pecuevade the conviction that the gospel is so far from be- liarities they may wish, as I have said, to refine away; ing merely one of the modes, or merely even the best but in moments of impartial seriousness, are constrainof the modes, of religion, that it is, as to us, the com- ed to admit the conviction, or something very near the prehensive and exclusive mode; insomuch that he conviction, of their being inseparable froim the sacred who has not a religion concordant with the New Testa- economy. This however fails to subdue or conciliate ment, is without a religion. He suffers himself to pass the heart; and the dislike to some of the parts has the year in a dissatisfied uncertainty, and a criminal often an influence on the affections in regard to the neglect of deciding whether his cold reception of the whole. That portion of the system which they think specific views of Christianity will render unavailing his they could admire, is admitted with the coldness of a regard for those more general truths respecting the mere speculative assent, from the intruding recollection Deity, moral rectitude, and a future state, which are of its being combined with something else which they necessarily at the basis of the system. He is afraid to cannot admire. Those distinctions from which they examine and determine the question, whether it will be recoil, are chiefly comprised in that view of Christiansafe to rest in a scheme composed of the general prin- ity which, among a large proportion of the professors ciples of wisdom and virtue, selected from the Chris- of it, is denominated, in a somewhat specific sense, tian oracles and th'e speculations of philosophy, harmo- Evangelical;' and therefore I have adopted this denonized by reason, and embellished by taste. If it were mination in the title of this letter. Christianity, taken safe, he would much rather be the dignified professor in this view, contains-a humiliating estimate of the of such a philosophic refinement of Christianity, than moral condition of man, as a being radically corruptyield himself to be completely humbled into a submis- the doctrine of redemption from that condition by the sive disciple of Jesus Christ. This refined system merit and sufferings of Christ-the doctrine of a diwould be clear of the unwelcome peculiarities of Chris- vine influence being necessary to transform the charactian doctrine, and it would also allow some different ter of the human mind, in order to prepare it for a ideas of the nature of moral excellence. He would not higher station in the universe-and a grand moral pebe so explicitly condemned for indulging a disposition, culiarity by which it insists on humility, penitence, and to admire and imitate some of those models of charac- a separation from the spirit and habits of the world.ter, which, however opposite to pure Christian excel- I do not see any necessity for a more formal and amlence, the world has always idolized. plified description of that mode of understanding 48 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. Christianity which has assumed the distinctive epithet on whom it is the heaviest reproach that they pretend Evangelical; and which is not, to say the least, more to be its friends. The perception of its nature and discriminatively designated among the scoffing part of dignity must be very vivid, in the man who can observe the wits, critics and theologians of the day, by the terms it in its state of intimate combination with the thoughts, Fanatical, Calvinistical, Methodistical. affections, and language of its disciples, without losing I may here notice that, though the greater share of sight for one moment of its essential qualities and lusthe injurious influences on which I may remark operates tre. No possible associations indeed can diminish the more pointedly against the peculiar doctrines of Chris- grandeur of some parts of the Christian system. The tianity, yet some of them are fatally hostile to that mo- doctrine of immortality, for instance, cannot be reduced ral spirit which is so essentially inherent that the re- to take even a transient appearance of littleness, by the ligion must partly retain it, even when reduced as far meanest or most uncouth words and images that shall as it can be toward the condition of a mere philosophi- ever be employed to represent it. But there are some cal theory. And I would observe, finally, that though other points of the system which have not the same obI have specified the more refined and intellectual class vious philosophic sublimity. And these principles are of minds, as indisposed to the religion of Christ by the capable of acquiring, from the mental defects of their causes to which I refer, and though I keep them chiefly believers, such associations as will give a character in view, yet the influence of some of these causes ex- very different from our common ideas of sublimity to so tends to many persons of subordinate mental rank. much as they constitute of the evangelical economy. One of the causes, therefore, which I meant to notice, as having excited in persons of taste a sentiment unfavourable to the reception of evangelical religion, is LETTER II. that this is the religion of many weak and uncultivated minds. One of the Causes of the Displacency is, that Christianity, be- The schools of philosophy have been composed of ing the Religion of a great Number of Persons of weak of superior faculties and extensive accomplishand uncultivated Minds, presents its Doctrines to the view men c ulties and extensive accomplishof Men of Taste associated with the Characteristics of those ments, who could sustain, by eloquence and capacious Minds; and though some Parts of the Religion instantane- thought, the dignity of the favourite themes; so that ously redeem themselves from that Association by their phil- the proud distinctions of the disciples and advocates osophic Dignity, other Parts may require a considerable appeared as the attributes of the doctrines. The adepts Effort to detatch them from it-This easily done ifthe Men could attract refined and aspiring spirits, by proof taste woere powerfully pre-occupied and qffected by the Re- claiming that the temple of their goddess was not proligion-Reflections of one of them in this Case-But the by being a rendezvous for vulgar men. On the Men of Taste now in question are not in this Case-Seve- faned dezvous for vulgar men. On the ral Specific Causes of injuirious Impression from this Asso- contrary, it is the beneficent distinction of the gospel, ciation of Evangelical Doctrines and Sentimnents with the that notwithstanding it is of a magnitude to interest intellectual Littleness of the Persons entertaining them- and to surpass angelic investigation, (and therefore asTheir Deficiency and Dislike of all strictly intellectual E- suredly to pour contempt on the pride of human intelercise on Religion —Their reducing the whole of Religion to licence that rejects it for its meanness,) it is yet most one or two favourite Notions, and continually dwelling on expressly sent to the class which philosophers have althem-The perfect Indifference of some of them to general essee Knoowledge, even when not destitute of Means of acquiring despised And a good man feels it a cause of it; and the consequent voluntary and contented Poverty of grateful joy, that a communication has come from heathe irreligious Ideas and Language-Their Admiration of ven, adapted to effect the happiness of multitudes, in Things in a literary Sense utterly bad-Their c'" nlacency spite of natural debility or neglected education. He is in their Deficiencies-Their injudicious Hu.iZs ana uere- grateful to him who has' hidden these things from the monies-their unfortunate Metaphors and Similes-Sug- wise and prudent, and revealed them to babes,' while gestion to religious Teachers that they should not run to its h observes that confined capacities do not preclude the lastt possibl Extet theParallel beetween the Pleasures of he observes that confined capacities do not preclude the last possible Etent the Parallel between the Pleasutres entrance, and the permanent residence, of that sacred Piety and those of Eating and Drinking-Mischief of such Practices-Effect of the ungracious Collision between un- ombination of truth and power, which finds no place cultivated Seniors and a young Person.of Literary and in the minds of many philosophers, and wits, and statesPhilosophic Taste-Expostulation with this intellectual men. But it is not to be denied that the natural con young Person, on the Folly and Guilt of suffering his sequence follows. Contracted and obscure in its abode, Mind to take the Impression of Evangelical Religion from the inhabitant will appear, as the sun through a misty any Thing which he knows to be inferior to that Religion it-ut ttle of its magnificence, to a man who selfany exhingbited bye New bTestament, and by the most sky, with but little of its magnificence, to a man who elevated of its Disciples, can be content to receive his impression of the intellectual character of the religion from the mode of its maniIn the view of an intelligent and honest mind the re- festation from the minds of its disciples; and in doing ligion of Christ stands as clear of all connexion with so, can indolently and perversely allow himself to rethe corruption of men, and churches, and ages, as when gard the weakest mode of its displaying itself, as its it was first revealed. It retains its purity like Moses truest image. In taking such a dwelling, the religion in Egypt, or Daniel in Babylon, or the Saviour of the seems to imitate what was prophesied of its author, world himself, while he mingled with scribes and phar- that, when he should be seen, there would be no beauty isees, or publicans and sinners. But though it thus- that he should be desired. This humiliation is inevitainstantly and totally separates itself from all appear- ble; for unless miracles are wrought, to impart to the ance of relation to the vices of bad men, a degree of less intellectual disciples an enlarged power of thinking, effort may be required in order to display it, or to view the evangelic truth must accommodate itself to the diit, mn an equally perfect separation from the weakness mensions and unrefined habitudes of their minds. And of good ones. It is in reality no more identified with perhaps the exhibitions of it will come forth with more the one than with the other; its essential sublimity is of the character of those minds, than of its own celestial as incapable of being reduced to littleness, as its purity distinctions: insomuch that if there were no declarais of uniting with vice. But it may have a vital con- tion of the sacred system, but in the forms of concepnexion with a weak mind, while it necessarily disowns tion and language in which they declare it, even a cana wickedhone; and the qualities of that mind with did man might hesitate to admit it as the most glorious which it confessedly unites itself, will much more seem gift of Heaven. Happily, he finds its quality declared to adhere to it, than of that with which all its principles by other oracles; but while from them he receives it in plainly in antipathy. It will be more natural to take his own character, he is tempted to wish he could dethose persons who are acknowledged the real subjects tach it from all the associations which he feels it has of its influence as illustrations as its nature, than those acquired from the humbler exhibition. And he does not FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 49 greatly wonder that other men of the same intellectual tament, and if I can much more delightfully participate habits, and with a less candid and profound solicitude the sentiments which devout genius has uttered in the to receive with simplicity every thing that really comes contemplation of it, I am therefore called upon to excel from God, should have admitted an injurious impres- them as much in devotedness to this religion, as I have sion from these associations. a more luminous view of its excellence. They would not make this impression on a man al- Let the spirit of the evangelical system once gain the ready devoted to the reign of Jesus Christ. No passion ascendency, and it may thus defy the impressions tendthat has become predominant is ever cooled by any ing to associate disagreeable ideas with its principles; thino which can be associated with its object, while as the angels in the house of Lot forced away the unthat object itself continues unaltered. The passion is worthy assailants. But it requires a most extraordieven willing to verify its power, and the merit of that nary energy of conviction to obtain a cordial reception which interests it, by sometimes letting the unpleas- for these principles, if such impressions have pre-occu-ing associations surround and touch the object for an pied the Inind. And that they should thus have preinstant, and then chasing them away; and it welcomes occupied the manl of taste, is not wonderfiul, if you with augmented attachment that object coming forth consider how early, how often, and by what diversities from them unstained; as happy spirits at the last day of the same general cause, they may have been made on will receive with joy their bodies recovered from the him. As the gospel comprises an ample assemblage of indust in a state of purity that will leave every thing be- tellectual views, and as the greater number of Christians longing to the dust behind. A zealous Christian ex- are inevitably disqualified to do justice to them, even ults to feel in contempt of how many counteracting in any degree, by the same causes which disqualify circumstances he can still love his religion; and that them to do justice to other intellectual subjects, it is this counteraction, by exciting his understanding to not improbable, that the greater number of expressions make a more defined estimate of its excellence, has but which he has heard in his whole life, have been utterly made him love it the more. It has now pre-occupied below the subject. Obviously this is a very serious even those avenues of taste and imagination, by which circumstance; for if he had heard as much spoken on alone the ungracious effect of associations could have any other intellectual subject, as, for instance, poetry, been admitted. The thing itself is close to his mind, or astronomy, for which perhaps he has a passion, and and therefore the causes which would have misrepre- if a similar proportion of what he had heard had been sented it, by coming between, have lost their power. as much below the subject, he would probably have acAs he hears the sentiments of sincere Christianity quired but little partiality for either of those studies. from the weak and illiterate, he says to himself-All And it is a very melancholy disposition against the huthis is indeed little, but I am happy to feel that the sub- man heart, that the gospel needs fewer unfavourable ject itself is great, and that this humble display of it can- associations to become repulsive in it, than any other not make it appear to me, different from what I abso- important subject. lutelv know it to be; any more than a clouded atmos- The injurious impressions have perhaps struck his ohere can diminish my impression of the grandeur of mind in many ways. For instance, he has met with some the heavens, after I have so often beheld the pure azure, zealous Christians, who not only were very slightly acand the host of stars. I am glad that it has in this man quainted with the evidences of the truth, and the illusall the consolatory and all the purifying efficacy, trations of the reasonableness, of their religion, but who which I wish that my more elevated views of it may actually felt no interest in the inquiry. Perhaps imore not fail to have in me. This is the chief end for which than one individual attempted to deter him from pursua divine communication can have been granted to the ing it, by suggesting that inquiry either implies doubt, world. If this religion, instead of being designed to which was pronounced a criminal state of mind, or will make its disciples pure and happy amidst their little- probably lead to it, as a judgment on the profane curnness, had required to receive lustre from their mental osity which, on such a subject, was not satisfied with dignity, it would have been sent to none of us. At implicitly believing. It was thought that an attempt to least, not to me; for though I would be grateful for an examine the foundation would be likely to end in a wish order of ideas somewhat superior to those of my uncul- to demolish the structure. tivated fellow Christian, I am conscious that the no- He may sometimes have heard the discourse of sinblest forms of thought in which I apprehend, or could cere Christians, whose religion involved no intellectual represent, the subject, do but contract its amplitude, do exercise, and, strictly speaking, no subject of intellect. but depress its sublimity. Those superior spirits who Separately from their feelings, it had no definition, no are said to rejoice over the first proof of t~l efficacy of topics, no distinct succession of views. And if he or divine truth, have rejoiced over its introduction, even some other person attempted to talk on some part of in so humble a form, into the mind of this man, and the religion itself, as a thing definable and important,. probably see in fact but little difference, in point of independently of the feelings of any individual, and as speculative greatness, between his manner of viewing consisting in a vast congeries of ideas, relating to the and illustrating it and mine. If Jesus Christ could be divine government of the world, to the general nature on earth as before, he would receive this disciple, and of the economy disclosed by the Messiah, to the distinct benignantly approve, for its operation on the heart, that doctrines in the theory of that economy, to moral prmnfaith in his doctrines, which men of taste might be tempt- ciples, and to the greatness of the fiture prospects of ed to despise for its want of intellectual refinement man,-they seemed to have no concern in that religion, And since all his true disciples are destined to attain and impatiently interrupted the subject with the obsergreatness at length, the time is coming, when each vation-That is not experience. pious though now contracted mind will do justice to Others he has heard continually recurring to two or this high subject. Meanwhile, such as this subject will three points of opinion, selected perhaps in conformity appear to the intelligence of immortals, and such as it to a system, or perhaps in consequence of some casual will be expressed in their eloquence, such it really is direction of the individual's thoughts, and asserted to be now; and I should deplore the perversity of my mind, the life and essence of Christianity. These opinions he if I felt more disposed to take the character of the re- has heard zealously though not argumentatively defenldligion from that style of its exhibition in which it ap- ed, even when they were not attacked or questioned. pears humiliated, than from that in which I am assured If they were called in question, it was an evidence not it will be sublime. If while we are all advancing to meet less of depraved principle than of perverted judgment. the revelations of eternity, I have a more vivid and cornm- All other religious truths were represented as deriving prehensive idea than these less privileged Christians, of their authority and importance purely from these, and the glory of our religion, as displayed in the New Tes- indeed as deriving so little authority and importance, H 50 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. that it was almost needless ever to advert to them. of truth would have given much more clearness to their The neglect of constantly repeating and enforcing these faculties, and much more precision to the articles of opinions was said to be the chief cause of the melan- their belief. They might have ramified the few leading choly failure attending the efforts to promote Christian- articles, into a rich diversity of subordinate principles ity in the world, and of the decay of particular religious and important inferences. They might have learned to societies. Though he could not perceive how these place the Christian truth in all those combinations with points were essential to Christianity, even admitting the other parts of our knowledge, by which it is enabled them to be true, they were made the sole and decisive to present new and striking aspects, and to multiply its standard for distinguishing between a genuine and a arguments to the understanding, and its appeals to the false profession of it. And perhaps they were abruptly heart. They might have rendered nature. history, and applied in eager haste to any sentiment which he hap- the present views of the moral world, tributary to the pened to express concerning religion, as a test of its illustration and the effect of their religion. But they quality, and a proof of its corruptness. neglected, and even despised, all these means of enIn some instances, he may have observed some one larging their ideas of a subject which they professed to idea or doctrine, though not especially sanctioned by any hold of infinite importance. Yet, perhaps, if this man system, to have so monopolized the mind, that every of more intellectual habits showed but little interest in conversation, from whatever point of the compass it conversing with them on that subject, or seemed destarted, was certain to find its way to the favourite to- signedly to avoid it,' this was considered as pure averpic, while he was sometimes fretted, sometimes amused, sion to religion; and what had been uninteresting to him and never much improved, by observing its progress to as a doctrine, then became revolting as reproof.* the appointed place. If his situation and connexions He may not unfrequently have heard worthy but illirendered it unavoidable for him often to hear this un- terate persons expressing their utmost admiration of fortunate manner of discoursing on religion, his mind saying, passages in books, or public discourses, which probably fell into a fault very similar to that of his well- he could not help perceiving to be hardly sense, or to be meaning acquaintance. As this worthy man could never the dictates of conceit, or to be common-place inflated speak on the subject without soon bringing the whole to fustian. While, on the other hand, if he has introof it down to one particular point, so the more refined duced a favourite passage, or an admired book, they and intellectual listener became unable to think on the have perhaps shown no perception of its beauty, or exsubject without adverting immediately to the narrow il- pressed a doubt of its tendency, from its not being in lustration of it exhibited by this one man. In conse- canonical diction. Or, perhaps they have directly avowquence of this connexion of ideas, he perhaps felt dis- ed that they could not understand it, in a manner that inclined to think on the subject at all; or, if he was very plainly implied that therefore it was of no value. disposed or constrained to think of it, he was so averse Possibly when he has expressed his high admiration of' to let his views of Christianity thus converge to the lit- some of the views of the gospel, such, for instance, as tleness of a point, that he laboured to expand them, till struck the mind of Rousseau. he has been mortified to they lost all specifically evangelical distinctions in the find that sotrne sublime distinctions of the religion of wildness of generality and abstraction. Christ are lost to many of his disciples, from being of too Again-the majority of Christians are precluded, by abstract a kind for the apprehension of any but improved their condition in life, from any acquirement of general and reflective men. knowledge. It would be unpardonable in this more If he had generally found in those professed Christians cultivated man, not to make the allowance for the na- whose intellectual powers and attainments were small, tural effect of this circumstance on the extent of their a candid humility, instructing them, while expressing religious ideas. But he has met with numbers, who their animated gratitude for what acquaintance with rehad no inconsiderable means, both as to money, judging ligion they had been able to attain, and for the immorby their unnecessary expenses, and as to leisure, judg- tal hopes springing from it, to feel that they had but a ing by the quantity of time consumed in useless chat, confined view of the subject which is of immense vaor in needless sleep, to furnish their minds with various riety and magnitude, he would have been too much information, but who were quite on a level, in -this re- pleased by this amiable feeling, to be much repelled by spect, with those of the humblest rank. They never the defective character of their conceptions and expreseven suspected that knowledge could have any con- sions. But often, on the contrary, he has observed nexion with religion; or that they could not be as clearly such a complacent sense of sufficiency in the little and amply in possession of the great subject as a man sphere, as if it self-evidently comprised every thing whose faculties had been exercised, and whose extended which it is possible, or which it is of consequence, for acquaintance with things would supply an endless series any mind to ~ee in the Christian religion. They were of ideas illustrative of religion. He has perhaps even like persons who should doubt the information that an heard them make a kind of merit of their indifference to infinitely greater number of stars can be seen through a knowledge, as if it were the proof or the result'of a higher telescope than they ever beheld, and who should have value for religion. If a hint of wonder was insinuated no curiosity to try. at their reading so little, and within so very confined a Many Christians may have appeared to him to attach scope, it would be replied, that they thought it enough an extremely disproportionate importance to the precise o read the Bible; as if it were possible for a person modes of religious observances, not only in the hour of whose mind fixes with inquisitive attention on what is controversy respecting them, when they are always exbefore him, even to read through the Bible without travagantly magnified, but in the habitual course of thousands of such questions being started in his thoughts their religious references. These modes may be either as can be answered only from sources of information such as are adhered to by whole communities of Chrisextraneous to the Bible. But he perceived that this tians, perhaps as their respective marks of distinction reading the Bible was no work of inquisitive thought; from one another; of any smaller ceremonial peculiariand indeed he has commonly found that those who ties, devised and pleaded for by particular individuals have no wish for any thing like a general improvement or families. in knowledge, have no disposition for the real business of The religious habit of some Christians may have disthinking even in religion, and that their discourse on gusted him excessively. Every thing which could even that subject is the exposure of intellectualpoverty. He distantly remind him of grimace, would inevitably do has seen them live on for a number of years content this; as, for instance, a solemn lifting up of the eyes, with the same confined views, the same meagre list of topics, and the same uncouth religious language. In so * I own that what I saidl of Jesus Christ's gladly receiving one topics, and the same uncouth religious language. In so of the humbler intellectual order for his disciple, will but I1. inconsiderable a space of time, the diligent investigation apply to some of the characters that I describe. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 51 artificial impulse of the breath, grotesque and regulated and shortest form, it may, by transiently suggesting the gestures and postures in religious exercises, an affect- analogy, assist the thought without lessening the subed faltering of the voice, and, I might add, abrupt re- ject. But it is degrading to spiritual ideas to be extenligious exclamations in common discourse, though they sively and systematically transmuted, I might say were even benedictions to the Almighty, which he cooked, into sensual ones. The analogybetweenmeanhas often heard so ill-timed as to have an irreverent er things and dignified ones should never be pursued and almost a ludicrous effect. In a mind such as I farther than one or two points of necessary illustration; am supposing, the happiest improvement in point of for if it is traced to every circumstance in which a reveneration for genuine religion will produce no toler- semblance can be found or fancied, the meaner thing no ance still for such habits. Nor will the dislike to them longer serves the humble and useful purpose of merely be lessened by ever so perfect a conviction of the illustrating some qualities of the great one, but besincere piety of any of the persons who have fallen into comes formally its representative and equal. By their them. being made to touch at all points, the meaner is conIn the conversation of illiterate Christians he has per- stituted a scale to measure and to limit the magnitude haps frequently heard the most unfortunate metaphors of the superior, and thus the importance of the one and similes, employed to explain or enforce evangelical shrinks to the insignificence of the other. It will take sentiments; and probably, if he twenty times recollect- some time. for a man to recover any great degree of ed one of those sentiments, or if he heard a similar one solemnity in thinking on the delights or the supports of from some other quarter, the repulsive figure was sure religion, after he has seen them reduced into all the to recur to his imagination. If he has heard so many forms of eating and drinking. In such detailed analoof these, that each Christian topic has acquired its ap- gies it often happens, that the most fanciful, or that the propriate images, you can easily conceive what a lively coarsest points of the resemblance, remain longest in perception of the importance of the subject itself must the thoughts. When the mind has been taught to debe requisite to overcome the disgust and banish the scend to a low manner of considering divine truth, it associations. The feeling accompanying these topics, will easily descend to the lowest. There is no such as connected with these ideas, will be somewhat like violent tendency to abstraction and sublimity in the that which spoils the pleasure of reading a noble poet, minds of the generality of readers and hearers, as to Virgil, for instance, when each admired passage recalls render it necessary to take any great pains for the purthe images into which it has been degraded in that kind pose of retaining their ideas in some small degree of of imitation denominated travesty. It may be added, alliance with matter. that the reluctance to think of the subject because it is The preceding pages are a short description of some connected with these ideas, strengthens that connexion. of the prominent circumstances of repellency, which For often the earnest wish not to dwell on the disagree- are connected with evangelical religion by means of its able images, produces a mischievous reaction by which uncultivated and injudicious professors; and more they press in more forcibly. The tenacity with which might have been added. After such a description, it ideas adhere to the mind, is in proportion to the degree would be unjust not to observe that some Christians, of interest, whether pleasing or unpleasing, which ac- f a subordinate intellectual order, are distinguished companies them; and an idea cannot well be accompanied y such an unassuming simplicity, by so much refineby a stronger kind of interest than the earnest wish to ment of conscience, and by a piety so fervent and even escape from it. If we could cease to dislike it, it would exalted, that it would imply a very perverted state of soon cease to haunt us. It may also be observed, that mind in a cultivated man, if these examples did not the infrequency of thinking upon the evangelical sub- operate, notwithstanding the confined scope of their jects, will confirm the injurious associations. The same ideas, to attract him toward the faith which renders them mental law operates in regard to subjects as to persons. so happy and excellent, rather than to repel him from If any unfortunate incident, or any circumstance of ex- it. But I am supposing his mind to be in a perverted pression or conduct, displeased us in our first meeting state, and am far from the impiety of defending him. with a person, it will be strongly recalled each subsequent This supposition, however, being made, I feel no surtime that we see him, if we meet him but seldom; on prise, on surveying the majority of the persons composthe contrary, if our intercourse with a person becomes ing evangelical communities, that this man has acquired frequent or habitual, such a first ulpleasing circum- an accumulation of prejudices against some of the disstance, and many following ones may be forgotten. tiuguishing featuresof the gospel. Permitting himself This observation might be of some use to a man that to feel as if the circumstances which thus diminish or really wishes to dissolve in his mind the-connexion be- distort an order of Christian sentiments, were insepatween evangelical subjects and such disagreeable ideas; rable from it, he is inclined to regret that there should as he will perceive that one of the most effectual means be any divine sanctions against his framing for himself, would be, to make those subjects familiar by often on the foundation of those principles in Christianity thinking on them. which he cannot but admire, but with a qualifying interWhile remarking on the effect of unpleasing images mixture of foreign elements, a more liberalized scheme employed to illustrate Christian principles, I cannot of religion. help wishing that religious teachers were aware of the It was especially unfortunate if, in the advanced propriety of not amplifying the less dignified class of stage of this man's perhaps highly cultivated youth, those metaphors which it may be proper enough some- while he was exulting in the conscious enlargement of times to introduce, and which perhaps are employed, in intellect, and the quickening and vivid perceptiveness a short and transient way in the Bible. I shall notice of taste, but was still to be regarded as in a degree the only that common one in which the benefits and plea- subject of education, it was his lot to have the princisures of religion are represented under the image of ples of religion exhibited and inculcated in a repulsive food. I do not recollect that, in the New Testament language and cast of thought by the seniors of his faat least,.this metaphor is ever drawn to a great length. mily or acquaintance. In that case, the unavoidable But from the facility of the process, it is not strange frequency of intercouse must have rendered the counthat it has been amplified both in books and discourses teractive operation of the unpleasing circumstances, into the most extended descriptions; and the dining- associated with Christian truth, almost incessant. room has been exhausted of images, and the language And it would naturally become continually stronger. ransacked for substantives and adjectives, to stimulate For each repetition of that which offended his refined the spiritual palate. The metaphor is combined with intellectual habits, would incite him to value and cher. so many terms in our language, that it will sometimes ish them the more, and to cultivate them according to unavoidably occur; and when emniojred in the simplest 1 a standard still more foreign from all congeniality with 18l 52 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. his instructers. These habits he began and continued tions through a gradation of larger and still larger fa'. to acquire from books of elegant sentiment or philo- culties, and with facility occupies the whole capacity sophical research, which he read in disregard of the of the amplest, in the same manner as the ocean fills a advice, perhaps, to read scarcely any but works speci- gulf as easily as a creek? Through this series it refically religious. To such studies he has again and tains an identity of its essential principles, and appears again returned with an animated rebound from system- progressively a nobler thing only by gaining a position abic common-places, whether delivered in private or in for more nobly displaying itself. WVhy will you not public instruction; and has felt the full contrast be- follow it through this gradation, till it reach the point tween the force, lustre, and mental richness, accompa- where it is presented in a greatness of character, to nying the moral speculations or poetical visions'of ge- correspond with the; improved state of your mind. nius, and the manner in which the truths of thegos- Never fear lest the gospel should prove not sublime pel had been conveyed. He was not serious and hon- enough for the elevation of your thoughts. If you est enough to make, when in retirement, any delibe- could attain an intellectual eminence from which you rate trial of abstracting these truths from the shape in would look with pity on the rank which you at present which they were thus unhappily set forth, in order to hold, you would still find the dignity of this subject ocsee what they would appear in a better. He could easily cupying your level, and rising above it. Do you doubt have transferred them into this better form; or, at least, this? WVhat then do you think of such spirits, for inif he could not, he had but a very small portion of that stance, as those of Milton and Pascal 1 And by how mental'superiority' of which he was congratulating many degrees of the intellectual scale shall yours surhimself that his disgusts were an evidence. But his pass them, to authorize your feeling that to be little sense of the duty of doing this was perhaps less co- which they felt to be great. They were often conscious gent, from his perceiving that the evangelical doctrines of the magnificence of Christian truth filling, distendwere inculcated by his relatives with no less deficiency ing; and exceeding, their faculties, and sometimes of the means of proving them true, than of rendering wished for greater powers to do it justice. In their not them interesting; and he could easily discern that his blest contemplations, they did not feel their minds eleinstructers had received the articles of their faith im- vating the subject, but the subject elevating their minds. plicitly from a class of teachers, or a religious commu- Now, consider that their views of the gospel were, in nity, without even a subsequent exercise of reasoning essence, the same with those of its meanest sincere to confirm what they had thus adopted. They believed disciples; and that therefore many sentiments which, these articles through the habit of hearing them, and by their unhappy form have disgusted you so much, maintained them by the habit of believing them. The bore a faithful though humble analogy to the ideas of recoil of his feelings, therefore, did not alarm his con- these sublime Christians. Why then, while hearing science with the conviction of its being absolutely the such sentiments, have you not learnt the habit of darttruth of God, that, under this uninviting form, he was ing upward, by means of this analogy, to the noblest reluctant to embrace. Unaided by such a conviction style of the subject, instead of abandoning the subject already existing in him, and unarmed with a force of itself in the recoil from the unfortunate mode of preargument sufficient to impress it, the seriousness, per- senting it? Have you not cause to fear that your O(ishaps sometimes harsh seriousness, of his friends, inces- like goes deeper than the mode of its appearance? santly asserting his mind to be in a fatal condition, till For, else, would you not anxiously seek, and rejoice to he should think and feel exactly as they did, was little meet the divine subject in that lustre of array, that likely to conciliate his repugnance. When sometimes transfiguration of aspect, by which its grandeur is thus their admonitions took the lmild or pathetic tone, his redeemed? respect for their piety, and his gratitude for their affec- I would make a solemn appeal to the understanding tionate solicitude, had perhaps a momentary effect to and the conscience of such a man. I would say to make him earnestly wish he could abdicate every intel- him, Is it among the excellences of a mind of taste, lectual refinement, and adopt in pious simplicity all that it loses, when the religion of Christ is concerned, their feelings and ideas. But as the contracted views, all the value of its discrimination? Do you not absothe rude figures, and the mixture of systematic and lutely know that the littleness which you see investing illiterate language, recurred, his mind would again re- that religion is adventitious? Are you not certain that volt, and compel him to say, They cannot, will not, be in hearing the discourse of such men, if they were now my mode of religion. to be found, as those that I have named, the evangelical Now, one wishes there had been some enlightened truths would appear to you most sublime, and that they friend to say to such a man, Why will you not under- cannot be less noble in fact than they would appear as stand that there is no necessity for this to be the mode displayed from those minds 2 But even suppose that of your religion. By what want of acuteness do you they also failed, and that all modern Christians, withfail to distinguish between the mode, (a mere extrinsic out exception, had conspired to give an unimpressive and casual mode,) and the substance l In the world aspect to the subject of their profession, do you never of nature you see the same simple elements wrought read the New Testament! If you do, is it in that iito the plainest and most beautiful, into the most di- state of susceptible seriousness, without which you will minutive and the most majestic forms. So the same have no just perception of its character; without which simple principles of Christian truth may constitute the you are but like an ignorant clown who, happening to basis of a very inferior, or a very noble, order of ideas. look at the heavens, perceives nothing more awful in The.principles themselves have an invariable quality; that wilderness of suns than in the row of lamps hlong but they were not imparted to man to be fixed in the the streets? If you do read that book in the better mind as so many bare scientific propositions, each con- state of feeling, I have no comprehension of the mefined to one single mode of conception, without any chanism of your mind, if the first perception would not collateral ideas, and to be always expressed in one un- be that of a simple venerable dignity, and if the second alterable form of words. They are placed there in or- would not be that of a certain abstract, undefinable der to spread out, if I might so express it, into a great magnificence; a perception of something which, behind multitude and diversity of ideas and feelings. These this simplicity, expands into a greatness beyond the ideas and feelings, forming round the pure, simple prin- compass of your mind; an impression like that with ciples, will correspond, and will make those principles which a thoughtful man would have looked on the counseem to correspond, to the meaner or more dignified tenance of Newton, after he had published his discoveintellectual rank of the mind. Why will you not per- ries, feeling a kind of mystical absorption in the attempt ceive that the subject which takes so humble a style in to comprehend the magnitude of the soul residing withits less intellectual believers, unfolds greater propor- in that form. When in this state of serious suscepti. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 53 bility, have you not also perceived, in the character and kingdom of his Father; while you are standing aloof, the manner of the first apostles of this truth, while they and perhaps thinking, that if he and all such as he were were declaring it, an expression of dignity, altogether dead, you might, after a while, acquire the spirit which different from that of other distinguished men, and much should impel you also toward heaven. But why do you more refined and heavenly. If you examined the cause, not feel your individual concern in this great subject as you perceived that the dignity arose partly from their absolutely as if all men were dead, and you heard alone being employed as living oracles of this truth, and still in the earth the voice of God; or, as if you saw, like more from their whole characters being pervaded by its the solitary exile of Patmos, an awful appearance of spirit. And have you not been sometimes conscious, Jesus Christ, and the visions of hereafter What is it for a moment, that if it possessed your soul in the same to you that many Christians have given an aspect of manner as it did theirs, it would make you one of the littleness to the gospel, or that a few have displayed it most elevated of mortals 1 You would then display a in majesty? cpombination of sanctity, devotion, disinterestedness, superiority to external things, energy, and exulting hope, in comparison of which the ambition of a conqueror, or the pride of a self-admiring philosopher, LETTER III. would be a very vulgar kind of dignity. You acknowledge these representations to be just; you allow that Another Cause the Peculiarity of Language adopted in reli.. the kind of sublimity which you have sometimes per- gage-Th Dicoure theological Deiation from it bandad of Lanusceived in the New Testament, that the qualities of the guage-The theological Deviation from it barbarousthe New Testament, that the qualities of th Surprise and Perplexity of a sensible heathen Foreigner, apostolic spirit, and that the intellectual and moral great- who, having learnt our Language according to its best ness of some modern Christians, express the genuine Standard alone. should be introduced to hear a public evancharacter of the evangelical religion, and therefore gelicalDiscourse-Distinctive Characters ofthis Theological evince its dignity. But then, is it not most disingenu- Dialect-Reasons against employing it-Competence of our ous in you to allow the meanness which you know to Language to express all religious Ideas without the aid of be but associated and separable, to be aw mitted by your this uncouth Peculiarity-Advantages that -would attend the eowbmind assa an excuse for its alienation from what is Use of the Language of mere general Intelligence, with the own.mind as an excuse for its alienation from what is addition of an extremely small Number of Words that may acknowledged to be the very contrary of meanness? be considered as necessary technical Terms in Theology. Ought you not to turn on yourself, with indignation at that want of rectitude which resigns you to the effect Another cause which I think has tended to render of these associations, or with contempt of the debility evangelical religion less acceptable to persons of taste, which tries in vain to break them? Is it for you to be is the peculiarity of language adopted in the discourses offended at the mental weakness of Christians? you, and books of its teachers, as well as in the religious whose intellectual vigour, and whose sense of justice, correspondence and conversation of Christians. I do but leave you to sink helpless in the fastidiousness of not refer to any past age, when an excessive quaintness sickly taste, and to lament that so many inferior spirits deformed the style of composition, both on religion and have been consoled and saved by this divine faith as to *ll other subjects: my assertion is respecting the diction make it impossible for you to embrace it, even though at present in use. your own salvation depend on it? At the very same The works collectively of the best writers in the lantime perhaps this weakness takes the form of pride. guage have created and substantially fixed a standard of Let that pride speak out; it would be curious to hear general phraseology. If any department is exempted it say, that your mental refinement perhaps might have from the authority of this standard, it is the low one of permitted you to take your ground on that eminence of humour and buffoonery, in which the writer may coin the Christian faith where Milton and Pascal stood, if and fashion phrases according to his whim. But in the so many humbler beings did not disgrace it, by occu- language of higher, and of what may be called middle pying the declivity and the vale. subjects, that authority is the law. It does indeed alBut, after all, what need of referring to illustrious low indefinite varieties of what is called style, since names, as if the claims of that which you acknowledge to twenty pure and able writers might be cited, who have be from heaven should be made to depend on the number had each a different style; but yet there is a certain geneof those who have received it gracefully; or, as if a ration- ral character of expression which they have mainly conal being could calmly wait for his taste to be conciliated, curred to establish. This compound result of all their before he would embrace a system by which his immor- modes of writing is become sanctioned as the classical tal interest is to be secured? Is the difference, as de- manner of employing the language, as the form' in clared by the Supreme Authority, between the conse- which it constitutes the most pure general vehicle of quences of cordially receiving or not receiving the evan- thought. And, though it is difficult to define this gelical system so small, that a solemn contemplation of standard, yet a well-read person of taste instantly feels it would not overwhelm you with wonder and mortifi- when it is transgressed or deserted, and pronounces cation that so subordinate a counteraction could so long that no classical writer has employed that phrase or have made you unjust to yourself? And if you avoid would have combined those words in such a manner. thie contemplation, will therefore the difference, and the Now the deviations from this standard must be, first, ultimate loss, prove the less serious because you would by mean or vulgar diction, which is below it; or, senot exercise thought enough to anticipate it? If the condly, by a barbarous diction, which is out of it, or foconsequence should prove to be inexpressibly disas- reign to it; or, thirdly, by a diction which, though trous, will a perversity of refinement appear a worthy foreign to it, is yet not to be termed barbarous, because cause for which to have incurred it? You deserve to it is elevated entirely above the authority of the standbe disgusted with a divine communication, and to lose ard, by a super-human force or majesty of thought, or a its inestimable benefits, if you can thus let every thing super-human communication of truth. have a greater influence on your feelings concerning it I might make some charge against the language of than its truth and importance, and if its accidental and divines under the first of these distinctions; but my separable associations with littleness, can counteract its present attention is to what seems to me to come under essential inseparable ones with the Governor and Re- the second character of difference from the standard, deemer of the world, with happiness, and with eternity. that of being barbarous. The phrases peculiar to any With what compassion you might be justlyregarded by trade, profession, or fraternity, are barbarous, if they an illiterate but zealous Christian, whose interest in the were not low: they are commonly both. The language truths of the New Testament at once constitutes the of law is felt by every one to be barbarous in the exbest felicity here, and carries him rapidly toward the treme, not only by the huge lumber of its technical 54 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. terms, but by its very structure, in such parts of it as acquired its leading principles from some author or do not consist of technical thrms. The language of speaker, who employed (with the addition of a very science is barbarous, as far as it differs arbitrarily, and small number of peculiar terms) the same style in in more than the use of those terms which are indispen- which any other serious subject would have been illussable to the science, from the pure general model. And trated, he would still be not less surprised.' Is it posI am afraid that, on the same principle, the accustomed sible,' he would say, as soon as he could apprehend diction of evangelical religion also must be pronounced what he was attending to,' that these are the very barbarous. For I suppose it will be instantly allowed, same views which lately presented themselves with that the mode of expression of the greater number of such lucid simplicity t6 my understanding Or, is there evangelical divines,* and of those taught by them, is something more, of which I am not aware, conveyed widely different from the standard of general language, and concealed under these strange devices of phrase 1 not only by the necessary adoption of some peculiar Is this another stage of the religion, the school of the terms, but by a continued and systematic cast of phrase- adepts, in which I am not yet initated' And does reology; insomuch that in reading or hearing five or six ligion then, every where, as well as in my country, afsentences of an evangelical discourse, you ascertain the fect to show and guard its importance by relinquishing school by the mere turn of expression, independently of the simple language of intelligence, and assuming an any attention to the quality of the ideas. If, in order obscure dialect of its own? Or, is this the diction of to try what those ideas would appear in an altered form an individual only, and of one who really intends but to of words, you attempted to reduce a paragraph to the convey the same ideas that I have elsewhere received language employed by intellectual men in speaking or in so much more clear and direct a vehicle of words T writing well on general subjects, you would find it must But then, in what remote corner, placed beyond the be absolutely a version. There is no room and no authority of criticism and the circulation of literature, need to collect phrases and quotations; but you know where a noble language stagnates into barbarism, did how easily it could be done; and the specimens would this man study his religion and acquire his phrases. give the idea of an attempt to create, out of the general Or, by what inconceivable perversion of taste and of mass of the language, a dialect which should be intrin- labour has he *amed, for the sentiments of his religion, sically spiritual; and so excessively appropriated to a mode of expression so uncongenial with the eloquence Christian doctrine as to be totally unserviceable for any of his country, and so adapted to dissociate them from other subject, and to become ludicrous when applied to all connexion with that eloquence?' it.t And this being extracted, like the Sabbath from My dear friend, if I were not conscious of a solemn the common course of time, the general range of diction and cordial veneration for evangelical religion itself, I is abandoned, with all its powers, diversities, and ele- should be more afraid to trust myself in making these gance, to secular subjects and the use of the profane. observations on the usual manner of expressing its It is a kind of popery of language, vilifying every thing ideas. If I am candid, I am willing to be corrected. not marked with the signs of the holy church, and for- Perhaps my description of this manner exaggerates -bidding any one to minister to religion except in conse- but that there is a great and systematical difference becrated speech. ~ tween it and the true classical diction, is most palpably Supposing that a heathen foreigner had acquired a obvious, and I cannot help regarding it as an unfortufull acquaintance with our language in its most classi- nate circumstance. It gives the gospel too much the cal construction, yet without learning any thing about air of a professional thing, which must have its pecuthe gospel, (which it is true enough he might do,) and liar cast of phrases, for the mutual recognition of its that he then happened to read or hear an evangelical proficients, in the same manner as other professions, Jiscourse-he would be exceedingly surprised at the arts, and mysteries, have theirs. This is officiously strange cast of phraseology. He would probably be placing the singularity of littleness to draw attention to more arrested and occupied by the singularity of the the singularity of greatness, which in the very act it diction than by that of the ideas; whereas the general misrepresents and obscures. It is giving an uncouthcourse of the diction should appear but the same as ness of mein to a beauty which should attract all hearts. that to which he had been accustomed. It should be It is teaching a provincial dialect to the rising instrucsuch that he would not even think of it, but only of the ter of a world. It is imposing the guise of a crampnew subject and peculiar ideas which it should present ed, formal ecclesiastic on what is destined for an unito his view; unless there could be some advantage in versal monarch. the necessity of looking at these ideas through the mist Would it not be an improvement in the administraand confusion of the double medium, created by the tion of religion. by discourse and writing, if Christian superinduction of an uncouth dialect on a plain language. truth were conveyed in that neutral vehicle of expres-Or, if he were not a stranger to the subject, but had sion which is adapted indifferently to common serious * When I say evangelical divines, I concur with the opinion subjects 2 But it may be made a question, whether it of those, who deem a considerable, and, in an intellectual and can be perfectly conveyed in such language. This literary view, a highly respectable class of the writers who have point, therefore, requires a little consideration. The professedly taught Christianity, to be not strictly evangelical. diction on which I have aniadverted may be distinThey mighl rather be denominated moral and philosophical divines, treating very ably on the generalities of religion, and on guished into three parts. the Christian morals, but not placing the economy of redemp- The first a peculiar mode of using various common tion exactly in that light in which the New Testament appears words. And this peculiarity consists partly in expressto me to place it. Some of these have avoided the kind of dia-. lect on which I am animadverting, not only by means of a die. ing ideas by such single words as do not simply and tion more classical and dignified in the general principles of its directly belong to them, instead of other single words structure, but also by avoiding the ideas with which the phrases whic of his dialect are commonly associated. I may, however, here observe, that it is by no means altogether confined to the speci- general language are used to express them;* and partly fically evangelical department of writing and discourse,.though in using such combinations of words as make uncouth it there prevails the most, and with the greatest number of phrases. Now, is this necessary? The answer to phrases. It extends is some degree, into the majority of writing on religion in general, and may therefore be called the theolo-the question is immediately obvious as to the former gical, almost as properly as the evangelical dialect. part of the description; there can be no need to use W This is so true, that it is no uncommon expedient with the one common word in an affected manner to convey an would-be wits, to introduce some of the spiritual phrases, in idea which there is another common word at hand to speaking of any thing which they wish to render ludicrous; and idea which there is another common word at hand to they are generally so far successful as to be rewarded by the express in the simplest and most usual manner. And laugh or the smile of the circle, who probably may never have had tho care privilege of hearing wit, and have natot tur salense of conductclinatio science to care about religion, actions, or deportment; flesh, instead of, sometimes body, some times natural inclination: FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 55 then as to phrases, consisting of an uncouth combina- remark will, in a great measure, apply to the words tion of words which are common, and have no degree blessed, happy, righteous, virtuous, carnal, sensual, and of technicality,-are they necessary. They are not a multitude of others. So that though there are few absolutely necessary, unless each of these combinations words in strict truth synonymous, yet there are very conveys a thought of so exquisitely singular a signifi- many which are so in effect, even by the allowance and cation, that no other conjunction of terms could have sanction of the most rigid laws to which the best wri expressed it; a thought which was never suggested by ters have conformed their composition. Perhaps this one mind to another till these three or four words hap- is a defect in human thinking, of which the ideal perpened to fall out of the general order of the language fection may be, that every conception should be so exinto the cluster of a peculiar phrase; a thought which quisitely discriminative and precise, that no two words, cannot be expressed in the language of another country which have the most refined shade of difference in their that has not a correspondent idiom; and which will meaning, should be equally and indifferently eligible to vanish from the world if ever this phrase shall be for- express that conception. But what writer or speaker gotten. But these combinations of words have no will ever even aspire to such perfection.-not to say, such pretensions. They will seldom appear to express that if he did, he would soon find the vocabulary of the a meaning which it required such a fortunate or such a most copious language deficient of single, direct terms dexterous expedient to bring and to retain within the to mark all the sensible modifications of his ideas. ]fI: scope of our ideas. Very often their sense is of so ge- a divine felt that he had such extreme discrimination neral and common a kind, that you could easily have of thought, that he meant something clearly different expressed it in five or ten different forms of words. by the words, carnal, godly, edifying, and so of many Some of these phrases would seem to have been origi- others, from what he could express by the words, sennally the mere produce of affectation; and some to sual, pious, religious, instructive, he would certainly have been invented to give all appearance of particular do right to adhere to the more peculiar words; but if significance to ideas which were so plain and common, he does not, he may perhaps improve the vehicle, withthat they seemed to have no force as exhibited in the out hurting the material, of his religious communicaordinary cast of diction. In religion, as in other de- tions, by adopting the general and classical mode of partments, artificial turns of expression have often been expression. resorted to, in order to relieve the obvious plainness The third distinction of the theological dialect consists. of the thought. In whatever manner, however, the in words almost peculiar to the language of divines, language was first perverted into these artificial modes, and for which equivalent terms cannot be found, except it would be easy to try whether they are become such in the form of definition or circumlocution. Sanctifispecial and privileged vehicles of thought that no other cation, grace, covenant, salvation, and a few more, may forms of words can express what is supposed to be be assigned to this class. These may be called, in a their sense. And it would be found that these phrases, qualified sense, the technical terms of evangelical relias it is within our familiar experience that all phrases, gion. Now, separately from any religious consideraconsisting of only common words, and having no rela- tions, it is plainly necessary, in a literary view, that tion to art or science, can be exchanged for several all those terms that express a modificatio]n of thought different combinations of words, without materially al- which there are no other words competent to express, tering the thought or lengthening the expression. I without great circumlocution, should be retained. They conclude, then, that what I have described as the first are requisite to the perfection of the language. And part of the theological dialect, the peculiar mode of then, in considering those terms as connected with the using common words, is not absolutely necessary as a Christian truth, I am ready to admit, that it will be of vehicle of Christian truths. advantage to that truth, for some of those peculiar modes The second part of the diction consists, not in a pe- of thought of which it partly consists, to be permanently culiar mode of using common words, but in a class of denominated by certain peculiar words which shall words peculiar in themselves, as being seldom used ex- stand as its technical terms. But here several thoughts cept by. divines, but of which the meaning can with suggest themselves. perfect ease be expressed, without definition or circum- First, The definitions of some of these Christian locution, by other single terms which are in general terms are not absolutely unquestionable. The words use. For example, edification, tribulation, blessed- have assumed the specific formality of technical terms, ness, godliness, righteousness, carnality, lusts, (a term without having completely the quality and value of such peculiar and theological only in the plural,) could be terms. A certain laxity in their sense render them of exchanged for parallel terms too obvious to need men- far less use, in their department, than the terms of scitioning. It is true, indeed, that there are very few terms, ence, especially of mathematical science, are in theirs. if any, perfectly synonymous. But when there are se- Technical terms have been the lights of science, but, in veral words of very similar thoughnot exactly the same many instances, the shades of religion. It is most unsignificatlon, and none of them belong to an art or sci- fortunate, when, in disquisitions or instructions, the ence, the one which is selected is far more frequently grand leading words on which the force of all the rest used in thrt general meaning by which it is merely depends, have not a precise and indisputable significaequivalent to the others, than in that precise shade of tion. The effect is similar to that which takes place meaning by which it is distinguished from them. The in the ranks of an army, when an officer has a doubtful words instruction, improvement, for instance, may not opinion, or gives indistinct orders. What I would inexpress exactly the sense of edification; but the word fer from these observations, is, that a Christian writer edification is probably not often used by a writer or or speaker will occasionally do well, instead of using speaker with any recollection of that peculiarity of its the peculiar term, to express at length in other words, meaning by which it differs from the meaning of im- at the expense of much circumlocution, that idea which provement or instruction. This is still more true of he would have wished to convey if he had used that some other words, as, for example, tribulation and peculiar term. I do not mean that he should do this affliction. Whatever small difference of import these so often as to render the term obsolete. It might b0 words may have from their etymology, it is probable useful sometimes, especially in verbal instruction, both that no man ever wrote tribulation rather than affliction to introduce the term, and to give such a sentence as I on account of that difference. If, in addition to these have described. Such an expletive repetition of the two, the word distress has occurred to the mind, the idea will more than compensate for the tediousness by selection of any one from the three has perhaps always the clearness.* been determined by habit, or accident, rather than by * It is needless to observe that this would be a superfluous laanyperceptinof a distinct sinification. The same bour, with respect to the most simple of the peculiar words; suto any perception of a distinct signification. The same tor instance, Ns salvation. 56 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. Secondly, If the definitions of the Christian peculiar words which express the ideas in a plain and unaffacted terms were even as precise and fixed as those of sci- manner; and the phrases formed of common words entific denominations, yet the nature of the subject is uncouthly combined, may be dismissed. Many pecusuch as to permit an indolent mind to pronounce or to liar and antique words might be exchanged for other:hear these terms without recollecting those definitions. single words, of equivalent significatiorf, and in geneIn delivering or writing, and in hearing or reading, a ral use. And the small number of peculiar terms acmathematical lecture, both the teacher and the pupil are knowledged and established as of permanent use and compelled to form in their minds the exact idea which necessity, might, even separately from the consideraeach technical term has been defined to signify; else tion of modifying the diction, be often, with advantage the whole train of words is mere sound and inanity. to the explicit declaration and clear comprehension o But in religion, a man has a feeling of having some Christian truth, made to give place to a fuller expresgeneral ideas connected with all the words as he hears sion, in a number of common words, of those ideas ot them, though he perhaps never studies, or does not re- which these peculiar terms are the single signs. tain, the definition of one. I shall have occasion to re- Now, such an alteration would bring the language of peat this remark, and therefore do not enlarge here. divines nearly to the classical standard. If evangelical The inference is the same as under the former obser- sentiments could be faithfully presented in an order of vation; it is, that the technical terms of Christianity words of which so small a part should belong exclusivewill contribute little to precision of thought, unless the ly to those sentiments, they could be presented in what ideas which they signify are often expressed at length should be substantially the diction of Addison or Pope. in other words, either in explanation of those terms And, if even Shaftesbury, Bolingbroke, and Hume, when introduced, or in substitution for them when could have become Christians by some mighty and sudomitted. den efficacy of conviction, and had determined to write Thirdly, It is not in the power of single theological thenceforth in the spirit of the Apostles, they would terms, however precise their definitions may at any have found, if these observations are correct, no radical time have been, to secure to their respective ideas an change necessary in the structure of their language. unalterable stability. Unless the ideas themselves, by An enlightened believer in Christianity might have been being often expressed in common words, preserve the sorry, if, in such a case, he had seen any of them supersignification of the terms, the terms will not preserve stitiously labouring to acquire all the phrases of a the accuracy of the ideas. This is true no doubt of school, instead of applying at once to its new and its the technical terms of science; but it is true in a much noblest use a diction fitted for the vehicle of universal more striking manner of the peculiar words in theology. thought. Are not they yet sufficient masters of lanIf the technical terms of science, at least of the strict- guage, it might have been asked with surprise, to exest kilnd of science, were to cease to mean what they press all their thoughts with the utmost precision? As had been defined to mean, they would cease to mean their language had been found sufficiently specific to any thing, and the change would be only from know- injure the gospel, it would have been strange if it had ledge to ignorance. But, in the Christian theology, been too general to serve it. The required alteration the change might be from truth to error; since the pe- would probably have been little more than to introduce culiar words might cease to mean what they were once familiarly the obvious denominations of the Christian defined to mean, by being employed in a different sense. topics and objects, such as. redemption, heaven, MediaIt may not be difficult to conjecture in what sense con- tor, Christ, Redeemer, with the others of a similar kind, version and regeneration, two more of the peculiar and a very few of those almost technical words which I words. were used by the reformers, and the men who have admitted to be indispensable. The habitual use of may be called the fathers of the established church of such denominations would have left the general order this country; but what sense have they subsequently of their composition the same. And it would have borne in the writings of many of its divines? The pe- been striking to observe by how comparatively small a culiar words may remain, when the ideas, which they difference of terms a diction which had appeared most were intended' to perpetuate, are gone. Thus, instead perfectly pagan, could be christianized, when the writer of being the signs of those ideas, they become their had turned to Christian subjects, and felt the Christian monuments, and monumnents profaned into abodes for spirit. On the whole, then. I conclude that, with the the living enemies of the departed. It must indeed be exception which I have distinctly made, the evangelical acknowledged, that in many cases innovations. of doc- principles may be clearly exhibited in what may be trine have been introduced partly by ceasing to employ called a neutral diction. And if they may, I can imthe words which designated the doctrines which it was agine some reasons to justify the wish that it had been wished to render obsolete; but, it is probable, they more generally employed. may have been still more frequently and successfully It will be permitted me to repeat, as one of these introduced under the advantage of retaining the terms reasons, the consideration of the impression made by while the principles were gradually subverted. And the style which I have described on those persons of therefore I shall be pardoned for repeating this once cultivated taste whom this essay has chiefly in view. more, that since the peculiar words can be kept in one I am aware that they are greatly inclined to make an invariable signification only by keeping that signification idol of their taste; and I am aware also that no species clearly in sight by means of something separate from of irreligion can be much worse than to sacrifice to this these words themselves, it would be wise in Christian idol any thing which essentially belongs to Christianity. authors and speakers sometimes to express the ideas in If any part of evangelical religion, separately from all common words, either in expletive and explanatory injurious associations, were of a nature to displease a connexion with the peculiar terms, or occasionally, finished taste, the duty would evidently be to repress instead of them. I would still be understood to ap- its claims and murmurs. We should dread the preprove most entirely of the habitual use of a few of this sumption which would require of the Deity, that his class of terms; while the above observations may tend spiritual economy should be, both in fact and in a manto deduct very much from the usual estimate of their ner obvious to our view, subjected or correspondent in value and importance. all parts to those laws of order and beauty, which we These pages have attempted to show, in what par- have learnt partly from the relations of the material world, ticulars the language adopted by a great proportion of and partly from the arbitrary institutions and habits'Christian divines might be modified, and yet remain of society. But, at the same time, it is a most unwise faithful to the principles of Christian doctrine.-Such policy for religion, that the sacrifice of taste, which ought, common words as have acquired an affected cast in tlhe- if reqirend, to be submissively made to any part of either ological use, might give place to the other co:non I o its oessi-:ce or its form as really displayed from heaven, FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 57 should be exacted to any thing unnecessarily and un- minished, after these ideas had been presented, in the gracefully superinduced by man. simple, general language of intellect. We cannot, As another reason, I vyould observe, that the disciples indeed, so far forget the lessons of experience, and the of the religion of Christ would wish it to mingle more inspired declarations concerning the disposition of the extensively and familiarly with social converse, and all human mind. as to expect that any improvement in the the serious objects of human attention. But then. it mode of exhibiting Christian truth will render it irresisshould have every facility, that would not compromise tible. But it were to be wished that'every thing should its genuine character, for doing so. And a peculiar be done to bring reluctant minds into doubt, at least, phraseology is the direct contrary of such facility, as it whether, if they cannot be evangelical, it be because they gives to what is already by its own nature eminently are too sensible and refined. distinguished from common subjects, an artificial As a farther consideration in favour of adopting a more strangeness, which makes it difficult for discourse to general language, it may be observed, that hypocrisy slide into it, and revert to it, and from it, without a form- would then find a much greater difficulty, as far as speech al and ungraceful transition. The subject is placed.in is concerned, in supporting its imposture.'The usual a condition like that of an entire foreigner in company, language of hypocrisy, at least of vulgar. hypocrisy, is who is debarred from taking any share in the conversa- cant; and religious cant is often an affected use of the tion, till some one interrupts it by turning it directly to phrases which have been heard employed as appropriate him, and beginning to talk with him in the foreign lan- to evangelical truth; with which phrases the hypocrite guage. You have sometimes observed, when a person has connected no distinct ideas, so that he would be has introduced religious topics, in the course of perhaps confounded if a sensible examiner were to require an a tolerably rational conversation on other interesting accurate explanation of them; while yet nothing is more subjects, that, owing to the cast of expression, fully as ea'sy to be sung or said. Now, were this diction, for much-as to the difference of the subject, it was done the greater part, to vanish from Christian society, leavby an entire change of the whole tenour and bearings Ing the truth in its mere essence behind,-and were, of the discourse, and with as formal an announcement consequently, the pretender reduced to assume the guise as the bell ringing to church. Had his religious of religion on the wide and laborious plan of acquiring diction been more of a piece with the common train an understanding of its leading principles, so as to be of sensible language, he might probably have introduc- able to assign them discriminately in language of his ed the subject sooner, and certainly with a much better own,-the part of a hypocrite would be much less easily effect.. acted, and less frequently attempted. Religion would A third consideration, is, Lhat evangelical sentiments therefore be seldomer dishonoured by the mockery of a would be less subject to the imputation of fanaticism, if false semblance. their language were less contrasted with that of other Again-if this alteration of language were introducclasses of sentiments. Here it is unnecessary to say, ed, some of the sincere disciples of evangelical religion that no pusillanimity were more contemptible than that would much more distinctly feel the necessity of a which, to escape this imputation, would surrender the positive intellectual hold on the principles of their prosmallest vital particle of the religion of Christ. We are fession. A systematic recurring formality of words to keep in solemn recollection his declaration,'Who- tends to prevent a perfect understanding of the subject, soever shall be ashamed of me and my words, of him by furnishing for complex ideas a set of ready-framed also shall the Son of Man be ashamed.' Any model of signs, (like stereotype in printing,) which a man learns terms, which could not be superseded without preclud- to employ without really having the combinations of ing some idea peculiar to the gospel from the possibility thought of which those ideas consist. Some of the of being easily and most faithfully expressed, it would be simple ideas which belong to the combination may be for his disciples to retain, in spite of all the ridicule of totally absent from his mind-the others may be most the most antichristian age. But I am, at every step, faintly apprehended: there is no precise construction supposing that every part of the evangelical system therefore of the thought; and thus the sign which he can be most perfectly exhibited in a diction but little employs, stands in fact for nothing. If, on hearing one peculiar; and, that being admitted, would it not be of these phrases, you were to turn to the speaker, and better to avert the imputation, as far as this difference say, Now, what is that idea.? What do you plainly of language could avert it. Better, I do not mean, in mean by that expression?-you would often find with the way of protective convenience to any cowardly feel- how indistinct a conception, with how littte attention ing of the man who is liable to be called a fanatic for to the very idea itself, the mind had been contented. maintaining the evangelical principles; he ought, on And this contentment you would often observe to be, the ground both of Christian fidelity and of manly inde- not a humble acquiscence in a consciously defective pendence, to be superior to caring about the charge; apprehension of some principle of which a man feels but better, as to the light in which these principles might and confesses the difficulty of attaining more than a appear to the persons who meet them with this preju- partial conception, but the satisfied assurance that he dice. You may have observed that in attributing fana- fully understands what he is expressing. On another ticism, they often fix on the phrases, at least as much subject, where there were no settled forms of words to as on the absolute. substance, of evangelical doctrines. beguile him into the feeling as if he thought and underNow would it not be better to show them what these stood when in fact he did not, and where words must doctrines are, as divested of these phrases, and exhibit- have been selected to define his own apprehension of ed clearly in that vehicle in which other important truths the thought, his embarrassment how to express himself are presented; and thus, at least, to obviate and dis- would have made him conscious of the indistinctness of appoint their propensity to seize on a mode of exhibition his conception, and have compelled an intellectual efso convertible to the ludicrous, in defence against any fort. But it is against all justice, that Christian truth claim to seriousness respecting the substantial matter? should be believed and professed with a less concern If' sometimes their grave attention, their corrected ap- for precision, and at the expense of less mental exercise, prehension, their partial approbation, might be gained, it than any other subject would require. And ofhowlittle were a still more desirable effect. And we can recol- consequence it would seem to be, in this mode of believlect instances in which a certain degree of this'good ing, whether a man entertains one system of principles, effect has resulted. Persons who had received unfavour- or the opposite. able impressions of some of the peculiar ideas of the But if such arguments could not be alleged, it would gospel, from having heard them advanced almost ex- still seem far from desirable, without evident necessity, elusively in the modes of phrase on which I have re- to clothe evangelical sentiment in a diction varying idn marked, have acknowledged their prejudices to be di- more than a few indispensable terms from the general 58 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. standard, for the simple reason, that it must be barbar- i of articles in the artificial distribution, have been natuous; unless, as I have observed, it be raised quite ralized into the theological dialect. But a large proporabove the authority of this standard, and of the criticism tion of its phrases consists partly in such combinations and the taste which appeal to it by the majesty of inspi- of words as were taken originally from the Bible, and ration which we have no more to expect, or by the still more in such as have been made in an intentional mighty intellectual action of a genius almost transcend- resemblance of the characteristic language of that book. ing human nature. I do not know whether it is abso- Before I make any farther remarks, I do not know lutely impossible that there should arise a man whose whether it may be necessary, in order to prevent mismanner of thinking shall be so incomparably original apprehension, to advert to the high advantage and proand sublime, as to authorize him to throw the language priety of often introducing sentences from the Bible,into a new order, all his own; but it is questionable not only in theological, but in all grave, moral compowhether there ever appeared such a writer, in any lan- sition. Passages of the inspired writings must necesguage which had been cultivated to its maturity. Even sarily be cited, in some instances, in proof of the truth Milton, who might, if ever mortal might, be warranted of opinions, and may be most happily cited, in many to sport with all established authorities, and to seize at others, to give a venerable and impressive air to serlwill every unsanctioned mode of expression into which ous sentiments which would be admitted without a uncontrollable genius could stray, is, notwithstanding, formal reference to authority. Both complete senfor having presumed in a certain degree to create for tences, and striking, short expressions, consisting perhimself a peculiar diction, censured by Johnson as having haps sometimes of only two or three words, mav be written in a' Babylonish dialect.' And Johnson's own thus introduced with an effect at once useful and ornamighty force of mind has not saved his own peculiar mental, while they appear pure and unmodified amidst structure of language from being condemned by all men the composltion, as simple particles of scripture, quite of taste. The magic of Burke's eloquence is not distinct from the diction of the writer who inserts enough to preclude a perception of its being much less them. When thus appearing in their own genuine perfect than it might have been, had the same marvel- quality, as lines or parts of lines taken from a veneralous affluence of thought been expressed in a language ble book which is writtein in a manner very different of less arbitrary, capricious, and mannerish construe- from our common mode of language, they continue to tion. No more have the most distinguished evangeli- be of a piece with that book. They are read as excal divines, who have adhered to the spiritual dialect, pressions, foreign to the surrounding composition, and, impressed on it either a dignity to overawe literary without an effort, referred to the work from which they taste, or a grace to conciliate it. Nor does it, with are brought; in the samle manner as passages, or strikme, derive any sanction from being not the language of ing, short expressions, adopted from some respected an individual only, but of a numerous and pious class; and well-known classic in our language. W/hatever nor from its long established use; nor yet from the pre- dignity characterizes the great work itself, is possessed eminence of its subject, since I think that subject suf- also by these detached pieces in the various places'ers in its dignity of appearance by being presented in where they are inserted. And if they are judiciously inthis vehicle. serted, they impart their dignity to the sentiments which they are employed to enforce. This employment of the sacred expressions may be very frequent, as the Bible contains such an immense variety of ideas. LETTER IV. applicable to all manner of interesting subjects. And from its being so familiarly known, its sentences or Answer to the Plea, in behalf of the Dialect in Question, that shorter expressions may be introduced without the forit is.formed from the Language of the Bible-Description mality of noticing, either by words or any other mark, of the Manner in which it isfjrmed-This Way of em- fromwhat volume they are drawn. These observatation-Grace and Utility with which brief Forms of Words. whether Sentences or single Phrases, may he introduced of wanting a due sense of the dignity and force which from the Bible, if they are brought in as pure Pieces and Par- may be imparted by a judicious introduction of the lanticles of the Sacred Composition, set in our own Composi- guage of the Bible. tion as something distinct from. it and foreign to it-But the It is a different mode of using biblical language, that biblical Phraseology in the Theological Dialect, instead of constitutes so considerable a part of the dialect which thus appearing in distinct bright Points and Gems, is modi- I have ventured to disapprove. When insertions are fled and mixed up throughout the whole Consistence of the made from the Bible in the manner here described a Diction, so as at once to lose its own venerable Character, and to give a pervading Uncouthness without Dignity to effective and ornamental, the composition comprises two the whole Composition-Let the Scripture Language be kinds of diction, each bearing its own separate characquoted often, but not degraded into a barbarous compound ter; the one being the diction which belongs to the Phraseology-Even if it were advisable to construct the author, the other that of the sacred book whence the Language of Theological Instruction in some kind of Re- citations are drawn. We pass along the course of his semblance to that of the Bible, it would not follow that itith the ordinary feeling of being spoken to in should be constructed in Imitation of the Phraseology of an language with the ordinary feeling of being spoken to in antique Version-License to very old Theologians to re-a common, general phraseology; tain in a great Degree this peculiar Dialect-Young ones with the insertions of direct scripture expression, they recommended to learn to employ in Religion the Language are recognized in their own peculiar character, as somein which cultivated Men talk and write on general Subjects- thing foreign to the author's diction, and with the sense The vast Mass of Writing in a comprehensive literary that we are reading just so much of the Bible itself. Sense bause on the DiSujectste of iEvl gelical Theology, ore This distinct recognition of the two separate characters great Cause of the Distaste felt by AMen of intellectual Re- of language prevents any impression of an uncouth, inement-Several Kinds of this bad [Writing specif of language prevents any impression of an uncouth, Wish for another Caliph Omar. heterogeneous consistence. But in the theological dialect, that part of the phraseology which has a biblical In defence of the diction which I have been describ- cast, is neither the one of these two kinds of language ing, it will be said, that it has grown out of the lan- nor the other, but an inseparable mixture of both. For guage of the Bible. To a great extent this is evident- the expressions resembling those of scripture are blendly true. Many phrases, indeed, which casually occur- ed and moulded into the very substance of the diction. red in the writings of divines, and many which were la- I say resembling; for though some of them are precisely boriously invented by those who wished to give to di- phrases from the Bible, yet most of them are phrases a vinity a complete, systematic arrangement, and there- little modified from the form in which they occur in the fore wanted denominations or titles for the multitude sacred book, by changing or adding a word, by giving FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 59 an artificial turn to the beginning or the end, or by rupt modification of the biblical phraseology. Without compounding two phrases into one. There are also, as our leave, the mode of expression habitually associated I have already observed, many forms of expression cast with the general exercise of our intelligence, conveys in imitation of the biblical, by taking some one word al- ideas to us the most easily and the most clearly. And most peculiar to the Bible, and connecting it with one, not unfrequently even in citing the pure expressions of or with several, of the common words, in a very pecu- scripture, especially in doctrinal subjects, a religio,- inliar construction separately from which it is seldom in- structer will find it indispensable to add a sentenc~ troduced. In this manner the scriptural expressions, order to expose the sense in a more obvious manner. instead of appearing as shining points on a darker If it should be feared that the use of a language in ground, as gems advantageously set in an inferior sub- which the biblical phrases are not in this manner blendstance, are reduced to become a constituent part of the ed, might have a tendency to make the reader or heas dialect, in which they lose their genuine quality and er forget the Bible, or recollect it only as an antiquated their lustre. They are not brought, in each single in- book, it may surely be assumed, that devout men, in stance, directly from the scriptures by the distinct se- illustrating religious subjects, will too often introduce lection of the person who uses them, but merely recur the pure, munmodified expressions of that book to admit to him in the common usage of the diction, and gene- any danger of its being forgotten. And though these rally without a recollection of their sacred origin. fhey should occur much seldomer in the course of their senare habitually employed by the school of divines, and tences than the half-scriptural phrases are repeated in therefore are now, in no degree, of the nature of quota- that diction on which I have remarked, they would protions introduced for their special appositeness in par- bably remind us of the Bible in a more advantageous ticular instances, as the expressions of a venerable hu- manner, than a dialect which has lost the dignity of a man author would be repeated. sacred language without acquiring the grace of a clasThis is the kind of biblical phraseology which I could sical one. I am sensible in how many points the illuswish to see less employed,-unless it is either more tration would not apply; but it would partly answer my venerable or more lucid than that which I have recom- purpose to observe, that if it were wished to promote mended. We may be allowed to doubt how far such the study of some venerated human author, suppose a cast of language can be venerable, after considering, IHooker, the way would not be to attempt incorporating that it gives not the smallest assurance of striking or a great number of his turns of expression into the eselevated thought, since in fact a great quantity of most sential structure of our own diction, which would geneinferior writing has appeared in this kind of diction; rally have a most uncouth effect, but to make respectful that it is not now actually learnt from familiarity with references, and often to insert in our composition senthe scriptures; that the incessant repetition of its tences, and parts of sentences, distinctly as his. phrases in every kind of religious exercise and perform- Let the oracles of inspiration be cited continually, ance wears out any solemnity it might ever have had; both as authority and illustration, in a manner that shall and that it is the very usual concomitant of a too sys- make the mind instantly refer each expression that is temauc and cramped manner of thinking. It may be introduced to the venerable book from which they are considered also, that phrases of whatever quality or taken; but let our part of religious language be simply high origin, if they do not stand separate in the compo- ours, and let those oracles retain their characteristic sition, but are made essentially of a piece with the dia- form of expression unimitated, unparodied, to the end lect, take, in point of dignity, the quality of that dialect, of time.* so that if the whole of it is not dignified, the particular part is not: if the whole o charactd of ithe peculiar lan- * In the above remarks, I have not made any distinction beuage of div he iho adapted of eite venrIatn tween the sacred books in their own language, and as translatguage of divines is not adaptedeno excite veneration, ed. It might not however be improper to notice, that though that proportion of it which has been formed ot of the there is a great peculiarity of manner in the original scriptures, scripture phraseology is not adapted to excite it. And yet a certain small proportion of the phraseology which appears in the translated scriptures, does not belong to the essential again, let it be considered, that in almost all cases, an structure of the original composition, but is to be ascribed to the attempt to imitate the peculiarity of form in which a state of the language at the time when the translation was made. venerable object is presented, instead of being content A translation, therefore, made now, and conformed to the presto aim at a coincidence of general qualities, not only ent mature state of the language, in the same degree in which oailm to excoine venerat bu xities, nth ontry the earlier translation was conformed to the state of the language fails to excite veneration, but excites the contrary sen- at that time, would make an alteration in some parts of that timent; especially when all things in the form of the phraseology which the theological dialect has attempted to invenerable model are homogeneous, while the imitation corporate and imitate. If therefore it were the duty of divines to take the biblical mode of expression for their model, it would exhibits some features of resemblance incongruously still be quite a work of supererogation to take this model in a combined with what is mainly and unavoidably of a dif- wider degree of difference from the ordinary language of serious ferent cast. grand, ancient edifice, of whatever or- thoughts than as it would appear in such a later version. This ferent cast. A grand, ancient edifice, of whatever or- t would be a homage, not to the real diction of the sacred scripder, or if it were of a construction peculiar to itself, tures, but to the earlier cast of our own language. At the same would be an impressive object; but a modern little one time it must be admitted, both that the change of expression, raised in its neighbourhood, in a style of building sub- which a later version might, on merely philological principles, stantially of the most vulgar kind, but with a number of be justified by the progress and present standard of our language stantially of the most vulgar kind, but with a number of for making, would not be great; and that every sentiment of antique windows and angles in imitation of the grand prudence and devotional taste forbids to make quite so much alstructure, would be a grotesque and ridiculous one. teration as those principles might warrant. All who have long Scriptural phrases, then, can no longer make a so- venerated the scriptures in their somewhat antique version, wrtr p rshen, c a. n o lo would protest against their being laboriously modernized into lemn impression, when modified and vulgarized into the every nice conformity with the present standard of the language, texture of a language which, taken altogether, is the and against any other than a very literal translation. If it could reverse of every thing that can either attract or om- be supposed that our language had not yet attained a fixed state, reverse of every thing that can either attract or corn- 1~'but that it would progressively change for ages to come, it would mand. Such idioms may indeed remind one of prophets be desirable that the translation of the Bible should always conand apostles, but it is a recollection which prompts to tinue, except in what might essentially affect the sense, a censay, WVho are these men that, instead of seriously in- tury behind, for the sake of that venerable air which a degree of antiquity confers on the form of that which is in its substance troducing at intervals the direct words of those revered so eminently sacred. But I cannot allow that the same law is dictators of truth, seem to be mocking the sacred lan- to be extended to the language of divines. They have no right guage by a barbarous, imitative diction of their own 7 to assume the same ground and the same distinctions as the Bible; they ought not to affect to keep it company. There is no They may affect the forms of a divine solemnity, but solemn dignity in their writings, which can claim to be invested there is no fire from heaven. They may show some- with a venerable peculiarity. Imitate the Bible or not, their thing like a burning bush, but it is without an an el. composition is merely of the ordinary human quality, and sub. As to perspicuity, it will not be made a question ject to the same rules as that of their contemporaries who write on ether subjects. Anid if they remain behind the advanced state whether that is one of the recommendations of this cor- of the classical diction, those contemporaries will not allow hem 60 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. An advocate for the theological diction, who should I of combined quality, a book cannot, as a literary pernot maintain its necessity or utility on the ground that I formance, please, though its subject be the most intera considerable. proportion of it has grown out of the esting on earth; and for acceptableness, therefore, the language of scripture, may think it has become neces- subject is unfortunate in coming to those persons in sary in consequence of so many people having been so that book. A disgusting cup will spoil the finest elelong accustomed to it. I cannot but be aware that ment which can be conveyed in it, though that were many respectable teachers of Christianity, both in speak- the nectar of immortality. ing and writing, are so habituated to put their ideas in Now, in this view, I suppose it will be acknowledged this cast of phraseology, that it would.cost them a very that the evangelical cause has not, on the whole, been great effort to make any material change. Nor could happy in its prodigious list of authors. A number of they acquire, if the change were attempted, a happy them have displayed a high order of excellence; but command of a more general language, without being one regrets as to a much greater number, that they did intimately conversant with good writers on general sub- not revere the dignity of their religion too mcn to bejects, and observant of their manner of composition. set and suffocate it with their superfluous offerings. To Unless, therefore, this study has been cultivated, or is you I do not need to expatiate on the character of the intended to be cultivated, it will, perhaps, be better to collective.Christian library. It will have been obvious adhere to the accustomed mode,,of expression with all to you that a great many books form the perfect vulgar disadvantages. Younger theological students, how- of pious authorship; an assemblage of the mnost subever, are supposed to be introduced to those authors ordinate materials that can be called thought, in ltnwho have displayed the utmost extent and powers of guage too grovelling to be called style. Some of these language in its freest form; and it may not be amiss writers seem to have concluded that the greatness for them to be told that evangelical ideas would incur of the subject was to do every thing, and that they no necessary corruption or profanation by being con- had but to pronounce, like David, the naine of' the' veyed in so liberal and lucid a diction. With regard Lord of Hosts,' to give pebbles the force of darts also to a considerable proportion of Christian readers and spears. Others appear to have really wanted the and hearers, I am sensible that a reformed language perception of any great difference, in point of excelwould be excessively strange to them. But may I not lence, between the meaner and the nobler modes of allege, without any affectation of paradox, that its be- writing. If they had read alternately B3arrow's pages ing so strange to them would be a proof of the neces- and their own, they probably would have been hardly sity of adopting it, at least in part, and by degrees. sensible of the superiority of his. A number of them, For the manner in which some of them would receive citing, in a perverted sense. the language of St. Paul, this altered dialect, would prove that the customary'not with excellency of speech,''not with enticing phraseology had scarcely given them any clear ideas. words of man's wisdom,''not in the words which man's It would be found, as I have observed before, that the wisdom teacheth.' expressly disclaim every thing that peculiar phrases had been, not so much the vehicles of belongs to fine writing, not exactly as what thev could ideas, as the substitutes for them. These hearers and not have exhibited or attained, but as what they judge readers have been accustomed to chime to the sound incompatible with the simplicity of evangelical truth and without apprehending the sense; insomuch that if they intentions. In the books of each of these classes you hear the very ideas which these phrases signify, or did are mortified to see how low religious thought and exsignify, expressed ever so simply in other language, pression can sink; and you almost wonder how it was they do not recognise thenm; and are instantly on the possible for the noblest ideas that are known to the subalert with the epithets, sound, orthodox, and all the limest intelligences, the ideas of God, of providence, of watch-words of ecclesiastical suspicion. For such redemption, of eternity, to come into a serious human Christians, the diction is the convenient asylum of ig- mind without imparting some small occasional degree of norance, indolence, and prejudice. dignity to the train of thought. The indulgent feelings, But I have enlarged far beyond my intention, which which you entertain for the intellectual and literary dewas only to represent, with a short illustration, that this ficiency of humble Christians in their religious communlpeculiarity is unfavourable to a cordial reception of cations in private, are with difficulty extended to those evangelical doctrines in minds of cultivated taste. who make for their thoughts this demand on public atThis I know to be a fact from many observations in tention; it was necessary for them to be Christians, but real life, especially among intellectual young persons, what made it their duty to become authors.? Many of the not altogether averse to serious subjects, nor inclined books are indeed successively ceasing, with the proto listen to the cavils against the divine authority of gress of time, to be read or known; but the new supChristianity itself. ply continually brought forth is so numerous, that a After dismissing the consideration of the peculiar person who turns his attention to religious reading is diction of divines, I meant to have taken a somewhat certain to meet a variety of them. Now only suppose more general view of the accumulation of bad writing, a man who has been conversant and enchanted with under which the evangelical theology has been buried; the works of eloquence, refined taste, or strong reaand which has contributed to render its principles less soning, to meet a number of these books in the outset ot welcome to persons of accomplished mental habits. A his more serious inquiries; in what light would the relarge proportion of that writing may be called bad, on ligion of Christ appear to him, if he did not find some more accounts than merely the theological peculiarity happier delineations of it? of dialect. But it is an invidious topic, and I shall There is another large class of Christian books, make only a few observations which bear the marks of learning, correctness, and a Evidences of an intellect superior in some degree to disciplined understanding; and by a general propriety the common level, with a literary execution disciplined leave but little to be censured; but which display no to great correctness, and partaking somewhat of ele- invention, no prominence of thought, nor living vigour gance, are requisite on the lowest terms of acceptance of expression: all is flat and dry as a plain of sand. for good writing, with cultivated readers; excepting It is perhaps the thousandth iteration of commonindeed that one requisite alone in a pre-eminent degree, places, the listless attention to which is hardly an acsuperlatively strong sense, will command attention and tion of the mind: you seem to understand it all, and even admiration, in the absence of all the graces, and mechanically assent while you are thinking of somenotwithstanding much incorrectness in the workman- thing else. Though the author has a rich, immeasuraship of the composition. Below this pitch of single or ble field of possible varieties of reflection and illustrato excuse themnselves by pretending to identify themselves with tion around him, he seems doomed to tread over again the Bible. the narrow space of ground long since trodden to FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 61 dust, and in all his movements appears clothed in velation, shrink into a meagre list of doctrinal points, sheets of lead. and who will let no verse in the Bible say a syllable till There is a smaller class that might be called mock- it has placed itself under one of them. You may meet eloquent writers. These saw the effect of brilliant with a Christian polemic, who seems to value the arguexpression in those works of eloquence and poetry ments for evangelical truth as an assassin values his where it was dictated and animated by energy of dagger, and for the same reason; with a descanter on thought, and very reasonably wished that Christian the invisible world, who makes you think of a popish sentiments might assume a language as impressive as cathedral, and from the vulgarity of whose illuminations any subject had ever employed to fascinate or com- you are excessively glad to escape into the solemn twimand. But unfortunately, they forgot that eloquence light of faith; or with a grim zealot for a theory of the resides essentially in the thought, and that no words divine attributes, which seems to delight in representcan make that eloquent, which will not be so in the ing the Deity as a dreadful king of furies, whose domiplainest that could fully express the sense. Or, proba- nion is overshaded with vengeance, whose music is the bly, they were quite confident of the excellence of cries of victims, and whose glory requires to be illustheir thoughts. Perhaps they concluded them to be trated by the ruin of his creation. vigorous and sublime from the very circumstance that It is quite unnecessary to say, that the list of excelthey refused to be expressed in plain language. The lent Christian writers would be very considerable. writers would be but little inclined to suspect of pover- But as to the vast mass of books that would, by the ty or feebleness the thoughts which seemed so natur- consenting adjudgment of all men of liberal cultivation, ally to be assuming, in their minds and on their page, remain after this deduction, one cannot help deploring such a magnificent style. A gaudy verbosity is always the effect which they must have had on unknown thoueloquence in the opinion of him that writes it; but sands of readers. It would seem beyond all question what is the effect on the reader. Real eloquence that books which, though even asserting the essential strikes on your mind with irresistible force, and leaves truths of Christianity, yet utterly preclude the full imyou not the possibility of asking or thinking whether pression of its character'; which exhibit its claims on it be eloquence; but the sounding sentences of these admiration and affection with insipid feebleness of senwriters leave you cool enough to examine with timent; or which cramp its simple majesty into an ardoubtful curiosity a language that seems threatening to tificial formh at once distorted and mean; must be semove or astonish you, without actually doing it. It is riously prejudicial to the influence of this sacred subsomething like the case of a false alarm of thunder; ject, though it be admitted that many of them have where a sober man, that is not apt to startle at sounds, sometimes imparted a measure of instruction and a looks out to see whether it be not the rumbling of a measure of consolation. This they might do, and yet cart. Very much at your ease, you contrast the pomp convey very contracted and inadequate ideas of the of the expression with the quality of the thoughts; and subject at the same time.* There are a great many then read on for amusement, or cease to read from dis- of them into which an intelligent Christian cannot look gust. In a serious hour, indeed, the feeling of being without rejoicing that they were not the books from amused, is prevented by the regret, that it should be which lie received his impressions of the glory of his possible for an ill-judged style of writing to bring the religion. There are many which nothing would induce most important subjects in danger of something worse him, even though he do not materially differ from them than failing to interest. The unpleasing effect which in the leading articles of his belief, to put into the it has on your own mind will lead to apprehend its hav- hands of an inquiring young person; which he would ing a very injurious one on many others. be sorry and ashamed to see on the table of an infidel; A principal device in the fabrication of this style, is, and some of which he regrets to think may still contrito multiply epithets, dry epithets, laid on the outside, bute to keep down the standard of religious taste, if I and into which none of the vitality of the sentiment is may so express it, among the public instructers of manfound to circulate. You may take a great number of kind. On the whole, it would appear, that a profound the words out of each page, and find that the sense veneration for Christianity would induce the wish, that, is neither more nor less for your having cleared the after a judicious selection of books had been made, the composition of these epithets of chalk of various colours, Christians also had their Caliph Omar, and their Genewith which the tame thoughts had submitted to be dap- ral Amrou. pled and made fine. Under the denomination of mock-eloquence may also be placed the mode of writing which endeavours to ex- LETTER V. cite the passions, not by presenting striking ideas of the object of passion, but by the appearance of an em- A grand Cause of the displacen enceuntered by Evangephatical enunciation of the writer's own feelings con- lical Religion among Men of Taste is, that the great School cerning it. You are not made to perceive how the in which that Taste is formed, that of Polite Literature, thing itself has the most interesting claims on your'taken in the widest Sense of the Phrase, is hostile to that heart; but you are required to be affected in mere Religion-Modern Literature intended principally to be sympathy with the author, who attempts your feelings animadverted on-Brief Notice of the ancient-Heathen by frequent exclamations, and perhaps by an incessant Theology, Metaphysics, and Morality-Harmlessness of application to his fellow-mortals, or to their Redeemer, the two former; Deceptiveness of the last-But the chief of Eall the a n ad eit of p, a* Influence is from so much of the History as may be called of all the appellations and epithets of passion, and Biography, and fromn the Poetry-Homer-Ml[anner in sometimes of a kind of passion not appropriate to the which the Interest he excite, is hostile to the Spirit of the object. To this last great Object, especially, such Christians Religion- Virgil. forms of expression are occasionally applied, as must The causes which I have thus far considered, are asrevolt a man who feels that he cannot meet the same sociated immediately with the object, and, by misrebeing at once on terms of adoration and of caressing *It is true enough that on every other subject, on which a equality. multitude of books have been written, there must have been It would be going beyond my purpose, to carry my many which in a literary sense were bad. But I cannot help remarks from the literary merits, to the-moral and the- thinking tht tlie number conin, under this description, bear a larger proportion to the excellent ones in the religious departological characteristics, of Christian books; else a ver ment than in any other. One chief cause of this has been, the strange account could be given of the injuries which mIistake by which many good men professionally employed in the gospel has suffered from its friends. You might religion, have deemed their respectable mental competence to often meet with a systematic writer, in whose hands the office of public speaking, the proof of an equal competence to a work, which is subjected to much severer literary and inthe whole wealth, and variety, and magnificence of re- tellectual laws. 62 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. presenting it, render it less acceptable to refined taste; to love it as heathenism more than they admire it as but there are other causes, which operate by pervert- wisdom; or unless their pride would wish to retain it ing the very principles of this taste itself, so as to make as a contrast to their own more rational theories. it dislike the religion of Christ, even though presented The ancient speculations on religion include, indeed in its own full and genuine character, cleared of all some very noble ideas relating to a Supreme Being; these associations. I shall remark chiefly on one of but these ideas do not produce, in an intelligent man, these causes. any degree of partiality for that immense system, or I fear it is incontrovertible, that far the greatest part rather chaos, of fantastic folly by which they are enof what is termed Polite Literature, by familiarity with vironed. He separates them from that chaos as somewhich taste is refined, and the moral sentiments are in thing not strictly belonging to heathenism, nor forming a great measure formed, is hostile to the religion of a part of it: He considers most of them as the tradiChrist; partly, by introducing insensibly a certain or- tionary remains of divine communications to man in der of opinions unconsonant, or at least not identical, the earliest ages. A few of them were, perhaps, the with the principles of that religion; and still more, by utmost efforts of human intellect, at some happy motraining the feelings to a habit alien from its spirit. And ments excelling itself. But whether they are referred in this assertion, I do not refer to writers palpably irre- to the one origin or the other, they stand so conspiculigious, who have laboured and intended to seduce the ously above the general assemblage of the pagan specupassions into vice, or the judgment into the rejection of lations on the subject of the Deity, that they throw a divine truth; but to the general assemblage of those solemn contempt on those speculations. They throw elegant and ingenious authors who are read and ad- contempt on the greatest part of the theological doctrine mired by the Christian world, held essential to. a libe- of even the very philosophers that expressed them. ral education and to the progressive accomplishment of They rather seem to direct our contemplation and afthe mind in subsequent life, and studied often without fection toward a religion divinely revealed, than to an apprehension, or even a thought, of their injuring the obtain any degree of favour for those notions of a God, views and temper of spirits advancing, with the New which sprung and indefinitely multiplied from a melanTestament for their chief instructer and guide, into an- choly combination of ignorance and depraved imaginaother world. tion. As to the apparent analogy between some of the It is mnodern literature that I have more particularly notions of pagan religion, and one or two of the most, in view; at the same time, it is obvious that the specific articles of Christianity, those notions are prewritings of heathen antiquity have continued to ope- sented in such fantastic, and varying, and often inonrate till now with their own proper influence, that is, a strous, shapes, that the analogy is not close and concorrectly heathenish influence, in the very sight and stant enough to pervert our conception, or to preclude presence of Christianity, on the minds of many who our admission of the defined propositions of the evanhave admitted the truth of that religion. This is just gelic faith. as if an eloquent pagan priest had been allowed con- The next part of the pure speculations of the anstantly to accompany our Lord in his ministry, and had cients, is, their metaphysics. And whatever may be divided with him the attention and interest of his disci- the effect of metaphysical study in general, or of the ples, counteracting, of course, as far as his efforts were particular systems of modern philosophers, with resuccessful, the doctrine and spirit of the Teacher from gard to the cordial and simple admission of Christian heaven.* doctrines, the ancient metaphysics may certainly be The few observations which the subject may require pronounced harmless, from holding so little connexion to be made on ancient literature, will be directed chiefly with modern opinions. Later philosophers, by means to one part of it. For it will be allowed, that the of a far better method of inquiry, have opened quite a purely speculative part of that literature has in a great new order of metaphysical views; and persons with measure ceased to interfere with the intellectual disci- but a very small share of the acuteness and ingenuity pline of modern times. It obtains too little attention, of those ancient framers of ideal systems, can now and too little deference, to contribute much toward wonder at their being so fantastic. The only attracfixing the mind in those habits of thought and feeling tion of abstract speculations is in their truth; and which prevent the cordial admission of the doctrines therefore when the persuasion of their truth is gone, and spirit of the gospel. Several learned and fanatical all their influence is extinct. That which could please devotees to antiquity and paganism, have indeed made the imagination or interest the affections, might in a some effort to recall the long departed veneration for ccnsiderable degree continue to please and interest the dreams and subtleties of ancient philosophy. jlBut them, though convicted of fallacy. But that which is they might, with perhaps a better prospect for success, too subtle to please the imagination, loses all its power recommend the building of temples or a pantheon, and when it is rejected by the judgment. And this is the the revival of all the institutions of idolatrous worship. predicament to which time has reduced the metaphyThe greater number of intelligent, and even learned sics of the old philosophers. The captivation of their men, would feel but little regret in consigning (if it systems seems almost as far withdrawn from us as the could be consigned,) the much larger proportion of that songs of their Syrens, or the enchantments of Medea. philosophy to oblivion; except they may be supposed The didatic morality of the heathen philosophers comes much nearer to our interests, and has probably *It is, however, no part of my object in these letters to re- cntinued to have a considerable interests, and has probably mark on the influence, in modern times, of the fabulous deities that infested the ancient works of genius. That influence is at timents of cultivated menl. After being detained a the present time, I should think, extremely small, from the fa- great while among the phantoms and the monsters of bles being so stale: all readers are sufficiently tired of Jupiter, mythology, orfollowing through the mazes of ancient Apollo, Minerva, and the rest. So long, however, as they couldmythology, or followg through the azes of ancient be of the smallest service, they were piously retained by the metaphysics that truth which occasionally appears for a Christian poets of this and other countries, who are now under moment, but still for ever retires before the pursuer, the the necessity of seeking out for some other mythology, the e a sage northern or the eastern, to support the languishing spirit of po. etry. Even the ugly pieces of wood, worshipped in the South who comes to him in a character of reality, with the Sea islands, will probably at last receive names that may more warm, living eloquence of a doctrine which speaks to commodiously hitch into verse, and be invoked to adorn and him in direct instruction concerning duty and happiness. sanctify the belles lettres of the next century. The pot has no And since it is necessarily the substantial object of reason to fear that the supply of gods may fail; it is, at the same time, a pity, one thinks, that a creature so immense should this instruction to enforce goodness, he feels but little have been placed in a world so small as this, where all nature, cause to guard against any perversion of his principles. all history, all morals, all true religion, and the whole resources He entirely forgets that goodness has been defined of innocent fiction, are too little to furnish materials enough for ae entirely forgets th at goodness has been defined Ihe wants and labours of his genius. and enforced by another authority; and that though FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 63 its main substance, as matter of practice, must be dom, to enter into a scene of such actions and characmuch the same in the dictates of that authority, and in ters, and to hear such maxims of merit and glory, as the writings of Epictetus, or Cicero, or Antoninus, those of Homer? He would be still more confounded yet there is a material difference in some parts of the by the transition, had it been possible for him to have detail, and a most important one in the principles that entirely escaped that depravation of feeling which can constitute the basis. While he is admiring the beauty think of crimes and miseries with but little emotion, and of virtue as displayed by one accomplished moralist, which we have all acquired from viewing the whole and its lofty independent spirit as exhibited by another, history of the world composed of scarcely any thing he is not inclined to suspect that any thing in their else. He would find the mightiest strain of poetry emsentiments, or his animated participation of them, can ployed to represent ferocious courage as the greatest of be wrong. virtues, and those who do not possess it as worthy of But the part of ancient literature which has had in- their fate, to be trodden in the dust. He will be taught, comparably the greatest influence on the character of at least it will not be the fault of the poet if he is not cultivated minds, is that which has turned, if I may so taught, to forgive a heroic spirit for finding the sweetest express it, moral sentiments into real beings and inter- luxury in insulting dying pangs, and imagining the tears esting companions, by displaying the life and actions and despair of distant relatives. He will be incessantly of eminent individuals. A few of the personages of called upon to worship revenge, the real divinity of the fiction are also to be included. The captivating spirit Iliad, in comparison of which the Thunderer of Olymof Greece and Rome resides in the works of the bio- pus is but a despicable pretender to power. He will be graphers; in so much of the history as might properly taught that the most glorious and enviable life is that, be called biography, from its fixing the whole attention to which the greatest number of other lives are made a and interest on a few signal names; and in the works sacrifice; and that it is noble in a hero to prefer even a of the principal poets. short life attended by this felicity, to a long one which No one, I suppose, will deny, that both the charac- should permit a longer life also to others. The dire ters and the sentiments, which are the favourites of the Achilles, a being whom, if he really existed, it had depoet and the historian, become the favourites also of the served a conspiracy of the tribes then called nations to admiring reader; for this would be to deny the excel- chain or to suffocate, is rendered interesting even amidst lence of the poetry and eloquence. It is the high test the horrors of revenge and destruction, by the intensity and proof of genius that a writer can render his subject of his affection for his friend, by the melancholy with interesting to his readers, not merely in a general way, which he appears in the funeral scene of that friend, by but in the very same manner in which it interests him- one momentary instance of compassion, and by his soself. If the great works of antiquity had not this power, lemn references to his own approaching death. A they would long since have ceased to charm. We reader, who has even passed beyond the juvenile ardour could not long tolerate what revolted, while it was de- of life, feels himself interested, in a manner that excites signed to please, our moral feelings.'But if their at intervals his own surprise, in the fate of this stern characters and sentiments really do thus fascinate the destroyer; and he wonders, and he wishes to doubt, heart, how far will this influence be coincident with the whether the moral that he is learning be, after all, exspirit and with the design of ChriStianity. actly no other than that the grandest employment of a Among the poets, I shall notice only the two or great spirit is the destruction of human creatures, so three pre-eminent ones of the Epic class. Homer, you long as revenge, ambition, or even caprice, may choose know, is the favourite of the whole civilized world; to regard them under an artificial distinction, and call and it is many centuries since there needed one ad- them enemies. But this, my dear friend, is the real ditional word of homage to the amazing genius display- and effective moral of the Iliad, after all that critics ed in the Iliad. The object of inquiry is, what kind of have so gravely written about lessons of union, or any predisposition will be formed toward Christianity in a other subordinate moral instructions, which they discoyoung and animated spirit, that learns to glow with en- ver or imagine in the work. Who but critics ever thusiasm at the scenes created by Homer, and to in- thought or cared about these instructions Whatever dulge an ardent wish, which that enthusiasm will pro- is the chief and grand impression made by the whole bably awaken, for the possibility of emulating some of work on the ardent minds which are most susceptible the principal characters. Let this susceptible youth, of the influence of poetry, that is the real moral; and after having mingled and burned in imagination among Alexander, and, by reflection from him, Charles XII. heroes, whose valour and anger flame like Vesuvius, correctly received the genuine inspiration. who wade in blood, trample on dying foes, and hurl de- If it be said that such works stand on the same fiance against earth and heaven; let him be led into the ground, except as to the reality or accuracy of the facts, company of Jesus Christ and his disciples, as displayed with an eloquent history, which simply exhibits the acby the evangelists, with whose narrative, I will suppose, tions and characters, I deny the assertion. The actions he is but slightly acquainted before. What must he, and characters are presented in a manner which prevents what can he, do with his feelings in this transition? their just impression, and empowers them to make an He will find himself flung as far as' from the centre of opposite one. A transformingmagic of genius displays the utmost pole;' and one of these two opposite exhi- a number of atrocious savages in a hideous slaughterbitions of character will inevitably excite his aversion. house bf men, as demigods in a temple of glory. No Which of them is that likely to be, if he is become tho- doubt an eloquent history might be so written as to give roughly possessed with the Homeric passions? the same aspect to such men, and such operations; but Or if, on the other hand, you will suppose a person that history would deserve to be committed to the have first become profoundly interested by the New flames. A history that should present a perfect'display Testament, and to have acquired the spirit of the Sa- of human miseries and slaughter, would incite no one, viour of the world, while studying the evangelical his- that had not attained the last possibility of depravation, tory; with what sentiments will he come forth from to imitate the principal actors. It would give the same conversing with heavenly mildness, weeping benevo- feeling as the sight of a field of dead and dying men lence, sacred purity, and the eloquence of divine wis- after a battle is over; a sight at which the soul would shudder, and earnestly wish that this might be the last It may be noticed here, that a great part of what could be time the sun should behold such a spectacle: but the said on heathen literature as opposedI to the religion of Christ, must necessarily refer to the peculiar moral spirit of that reli- tendency of the Homeric poetry, and of a great part of gion. It would border on the ridiculous to represent the mar- epic poetry in general, is to insinuate the glory of retial enthusiasm of ancient historians and poets as counteracting, how it the peculiar doctrines of the gospel, meaning by the term those p such a traey. therefore ask agan, ow dictates of truth that do not directly involve moral precepts. would be possible for a man, whose mind was first 64 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. completely assimilated to the spirit of Jesus Christ, to great authors of antiquity, should cease to be read, is read such a work without a most vivid antipathy to just as vain as to wish they had never been written. what he perceived to be the moral spirit of the poet l As to the far greater number of readers, it were equally And if it were not too strange a supposition, that the in vain to wish that pure Christian sentiments might most characteristic parts of the Iliad had been read in be sufficiently recollected, and loved, to accompany the presence and hearing of our Lord, and by a person the study, and constantly prevent the injurious impresanimated by a fervid sympathy with the work-do you sion of the works of pagan genius. The few maxnot instantly imagine Him expressing the most emphatical ims of Christianity to which the student may have ascondemnation! Wouldnotthe reader have been made sented without thought and for which he has but litto know, that in the spirit of that book he could never tle veneration, will but feebly oppose the influence; become a disciple and a friend of the Messiah! But the spirit of Homer will vanquish as irresistibly as his then, if he believed this declaration, and were serious Achilles vanquished. It is also most perfectly true, enough to care about being the disciple and friend of that so long as pride, ambition, and vindictiveness hold the Messiah, would he not have deemed himself ex- so mighty a prevalence in the character and in the na tremely unfortunate to have been seduced, through the ture of our species, they would still amply display thempleasures of taste and imagination, into habits of feeling selves, though the stimulus of heroic poetry were which rendered it impossible, till they could be de- withdrawn by the annihilation of all those works which stroyed, for him to receive the only true religion, and have invested the worst passions, and the worst actions the only Redeemer of the world. To show how im- with a glare of grandeur. With or without classical possible it would be, I wish I may be pardoned for ideas, men and nations will continue to commit offenmaking another strange and indeed a most monstrous ces against one another, and to avenge them; to assupposition, namely, that Achilles, Diomede, Ulysses, sume an arrogant precedence, and account it noble and Ajax, had been real persons, living in the time of spirit; to celebrate their deeds of destruction and call our Lord, and had become his disciples and yet (ex. them glory; to idolize the men who possess, and can cepting the mere exchange of the notions of mythology infuse, the greatest share of an infernal fire; to set at for Christian opinions,) had retained entire the state of nought all principles of virtue and religion in favour of mind with which their poet has exhibited them. It is a thoughtless, vicious mortal who consigns himself in instantly perceived that Satan, Beelzebub, and Moloch, the sanme achievement to fame and perdition; to vaunt might as consistently have been retained in heaven. in triumphal entries, or funeral pomps, or strings of But here the question comes to a point: if these great scalps, how far human skill and valour can excel.the examples of glorious character, pretending to coalesce powers of famine and pestilence: men and nations will with the transcendant Sovereign of virtues, would have continue thus to act, till some new dispensation of been probably the most enormous incongruity existing, Heaven shall establish the reign of Christianity. In or that ever had existed, in the whole universe, what that better season, perhaps the great works of ancient harmony can there be between a man who has acquired genius will be read with such a state of mind as can a considerable degree of congeniality with the spirit of receive the intellectual improvement derivable from these heroes, and that paramount Teacher and Pattern them, and at the same time as little coincide or be inof excellence. And who will assure me that the en- fected with their moral spirit, as in the present age we thusiast for heroic poetry does not acquire a degree of venerate their mythological vanities. this congeniality But unless I can be so assured, I In the mean time, one cannot believe that any man necessarily persist in asserting the noxiousness of such who seriously reflects how absolutely the religion of poetry. Christ claims a conformity of his whole nature, will Yet the work of Homer is, notwithstanding, the without regret feel himself animated, even for a mobook which Christian poets have translated, which ment, with a class of sentiments of which the habitual Christian divines have edited and commented on with prevalence would be the total preclusion of Christianoride, at which Christian ladies have been delighted to ity. And it seems to show how little this religion is see their sons kindle into rapture, and which forms an really understood, or even considered, in any of the essential part of the course of a liberal education, over countries denominated Christian, that so many who proall those countries on which the gospel shines. And fess to adopt it never once thought of guarding their who can tell how much that passion for war which, own minds, and those of their children, against the elofrom the universality of its prevalence, might seem in- quent seductions of a spirit which is mortally opposite. separable from the nature of man, may, in the civilized Probably they would be more intelligent and vigilant, world, have been reinforced by the enthusiastic admira- if any other interest than that of the professed religion tion with which young men have read Homer, and simi- were endangered. But a thing which injures them only lar poets, whose genius transforms what is, and ought in that concern, is sure to meet with all possible inalways to appear, purely horrid, into an aspect of dulgence. grandeur. With respect to religious parents and preceptors, Should it be asked, And what ought to be the prac- whose children and pupils are to receive that liberal edutical consequence of such observations? I may surely cation which must inevitably include the study of answer that I cannot justly be required to assign that these great works, it will be for them to accompany consequence. I cannot be required to do more than the youthful readers throughout, with an effort to show exhibit in a simple light an important point of truth. If them, in the most pointed manner, the inconsistency such works do really impart their own genuine spirit to of many of the sentiments, both with moral rectitude the mind of an admiring reader, in proportion to the de- in general, and with the special dictates of Christianity. gree ir which he admires, and if this spirit is totally'And in order to give the requisite force to these dichostile to that of Christianity, and if Christianity ought tates, it will be an important duty to illustrate to really and in good faith to be the supreme regent of all them the amiable tendency, and to prove the awful aumoral feeling, then it is evident that the Iliad, and all thority, of this dispensation of religion. This careful the books which combine the same tendency with great effort will often but very partially prevent the mischief; poetical excellence, are among the most mischievous but it seems to be all that can be done. things on earth. There is bur little satisfaction, cer- Virgil's work is a kind of lunar reflection of the artainly, in illustrating the operation of evils without pro- dent effulgence of Homer; surrounded, if I may extend posing any adequate method of contending with them. the figure, with as beautiful a halo of elegance and But, in the present case, I really do not see what a se- tenderness as perhaps the world ever saw. So much rious observer of the character of mankind can offer. more refined an order of sentiment might have rendered To wish that the works of Homer, and some other the heroic character far more attractive to a mind that FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 65 can melt as well as burn, if there had actually been a men all that which forms the specific martial display of hero in the poem. But none of the personages intend- the hero, you would find their greatness little diminish ed for heroes excite the reader's enthusiasm enough to ed; they would be commanding and interesting men assimilate the tone of his feelings. No fiction or his- still. The better class of them, amidst war itself, hate tory of human characters and actions will -ver power- and deplore the spirit and ferocious exploits of war. fully transfuse its spirit, without some me or some They are indignant at the vices of mankind for comvery few individuals of signal peculiarity o' greatness, to pelling their virtue into a career in which such sangui concentrate and embody the whole energy of the work. nary glories can be acquired. And while they deem it There would be no danger, therefore, o any one's be- their duty to exert their courage in a just cause, they coming an idolater of the god of war th'ough the inspi- regard camps and battles as vulgar things, from which ration of the Aneid, even if a larger proportion of it their thoughts often turn away into a train of solemn had been devoted to martial enterprise. Perhaps the contemplations in which they approach sometimes the chief counteraction to Christian sentiments which I empyreal region of sublimity. You have a more abshould apprehend to an opening, susceptible mind, would solute impression of grandeur from a speech of Cato, be a depravation of its ideas concerning the other than from all the mighty exploits that epic poetry ever world, from the picturesque scenery which Virgil has blazoned. The eloquence of Lucan's moral heroes opened to his hero in the regions of the dead, and the does not consist in images of triumphs and conquests, solemn and interesting images with which he has but in reflections on virtue, suffering, destiny and death; shaded the avenue to them. Rrhaps, also, the affect- and the sentiments. expressed in his own name have ing sentiments which precede Ihe death of Dido might often a melancholy tinge which renders them irresistitend to lessen, especially in a pensive mind, the horror bly interesting. He might seem to have felt a presage, of that impiety which would throw back with violence while musing on the last of the Romans, that their poet the possession of life into the hands of Him who was soon to follow them. The reader becomes devoted gave it. both to the poet and to these illustrious men; but, under the influence of this attachment, he adopts all their sentiments, and exults in. the sympathy; forgetting, or unwilling to reflect, whether this state of feeling is conLETTER VI cordant with the religion of Christ, and with the spirit of the apostles and martyrs. The most seducing of Lucan-Influence of the moral Sublimity of his Iteroes-Plu- Lucan's sentiments, to a mind enamoured of pensive trch-The Historians —Antichristian Efi'ect of admiring sublimity, are those concerning death. I remember the moral Greatness of the eminent Heathens-Points of the very principle which I would wish to inculcate, that essential Differenc e between Excellence according to Chris- is, the necessity that a believer of the gospel should tian Principles, and the most elevated Excellence of the resrve the Christian tnour of feeling predominant in Heathens-An uejualffed Complacency in thte latter pro,- preserve the Christian tenour of feeling predominant in Weathens —.,dn unqualified Complacency in the latter produces an alienation of Affection and Admiration from the his mind, and clear of incongruous mixture, having former. struck me with great force amidst the enthusiasm with which I read many times over the memorable account VWhen I add the name of Lucan, I must confess that of Vulteius, the speech by which he inspired his galnotwithstanding the offence to taste from a style too lant band with a passion for death, and the reflections ostentatious and inflated, none of the ancient authors on death with which the poet closes the episode. I would have so rmuch power to seduce my feelings, in said to myself, with a sensation of conscience,'What respect to moral greatness, into a temper not coinci- are these sentiments with which I am burningl Are dent with Christianity. His leading characters are these the just ideas of death? Are they such as were widely different from those of Homer, and of a greatly taught by the Divine Author of our religion. Is this superior order. The mighty genius of Homer appeared the spirit with which St Paul approached his last hour'. and departed in a rude age of the human mind, a stran- And I felt a painful collision between this reflection and ger to the intellectual enlargement which would have the passion inspired by the poet. I perceived with the enabled him to combine in his heroes the dignity of clearest certainty that the kind of interest which I feit thought, instead of mere physical force, with the energy was no less than a real adoption, for the time, of'the of passion. For want of this, they are great heroes very same sentiments by which he was animated. without being great men. They appear to you only as The epic poetry has been selected for the more tremendous fighting and destroying animals; a kind of pointed application of my remarks, from the conviction human Mammoths. The rude efforts of personal con- that it has had a much greater influence on the moral flict are all they can understand and admire, and in their sentiments of succeeding ages than all the other poetry warfare their minds never reach to any of the sublimer of antiquity, by means of its impressive display of iinresults even of war; their chief and final object seems dividual great characters. And it will be admitted that to be the mere savage glory of fighting, and the anni- the moral spirit of the epic poets, taken together, is as hilation of their enemies. When the heroes of Lucan, little in opposition to the Christian theory of moral both the depraved and the nobler class, are employed sentiments as that of the collective poetry of other in war, it seems but a small part of what they can do, kinds. The just and elevated sentiments to be found and what they intend; they have always something in the Greek tragedies, tend to lead to the same habits farther and greater in view than to evince their valour, of thought as the best of the pagan didactic moralists. or to riot in the vengeance of victory. Even the ambi- And these sentiments infuse themselves more intimatetion of Pompey and Cmesar seems almost to become a ly into our minds when thus coming warm in the course grand passion, when compared to the contracted as well of passion and action, and speaking to us with the emas detestable aim of Homer's chiefs; while this passion phasis imparted by affecting and dreadful events; but too is confined to narrow and vulgar designs, in compa- still are not so forcibly impressed as by the insulated rison with the views which actuated Cato and Brutus.- magnificence 6f such striking and sublime individual The contempt of death, which in the heroes of the Iliad characters as those of epic poetry. The mind of the often seems like an incapacity or an oblivion of thought, is reader does not retain for months and years an aniin Lucan's favourite characters the result, or at least the mated recollection of some personage whose name inassociate, of profound reflection; and this strongly con- cessantly recalls the sentiments which he uttered, or trasts theircouraae with that of Homer's warriors, which which his conduct made us feel. Still, however, the is, (according indeed to his ow-n frequent similes,) the moral spirit of the Greek tragedies acts with a considarins of wild beasts. Lucan su'blimrnates martial into derable force on a susceptible mind; and if there should moralgrandeur. Even if you could deduct from his great be but half as great a difference between the quality of I 66 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. the instructions which they will insinuate, and the prin- power with illustrious virtue constitutes the supreme ciples of evangelical morality, as there was between glory of heathen antiquity. And why do I deem the the religious knowledge and moral spirit of the men admiratiorn of this noble display of moral excellence themselves who wrote and contended for their own fame pernicious to these reflective minds, in relation to the in Greece, and the divine illumination and noble cha- religion of Dhrist. For the simplest possible reason; racter of those apostles that opened a commission from because theprinciples of that excellence are not idenheaven to transform the world, the student may have tical with th, principles of this religion; as I believe'some cause to be careful lest his Athenian morality every serious and self-observant man, who has been should disincline him to the doctrines of a better school. attentive to them both, will have verified in his own I shall not dwell long on the biography and history, experience. ILe has felt the animation which pervaded since it will be allowed that their influence is very his soul, in musng on the virtues, the sentiments, and nearly coincident with that of the epic poetry. The the great actiont of these dignified men, suddenly exwork of Plutarch, the chief of the biographers, (a work piring, when he has attempted to prolong or transfer it so necessary, it would seem, to the consolations of a to the virtues, sertiments, and actions of the apostles Christian, that I have read of some author who did not of Jesus Christ. bometimes he has, with mixed wonprofess to disbelieve the New Testament, declaring der and indignation, emonstrated with his own feelings, that if he were to be cast on a desert island, and could and has said, I know there is the highest excellence in have one book, and but one, it should be this,) the work the religion of the Messiah, and in the characters of his of Plutarch delineates a greatness.partly of the same most magnanimous fd.lowers; and surely it is excelcharacter as that celebrated by Homer, and partly of lence also that attracts me to those other illustrious the more dignified and intellectual kind which is so men; why then cannot 1 take a full delightful interest commanding in the great men of Lucan, several of in them both But it is in vain; he finds this amwhom, indeed, are the subjects also of the biographer. phibious devotion impossible. And he will always Various distinctions might, no doubt, be remarked in find it so; for, antecedently to experience, it would be the impression made by great characters as illustrated obvious that the order of sentiments which was the life in poetry, and as exposed in the plainness of historical and soul of the one form of excellence, is extremely disrecord: but I am persuaded that the habits of feeling tinct from that which is the animating spirit of the other. which will grow from admiring the one or, the other, If the whole system of a Christian's sentiments is rewill be substantially the same as to a cordial reception quired to be adjusted to the economy of redemption, of the religion of Christ. they must be widely different from those of the men, A number of the men exhibited by the biographers however wise or virtuous who never thought or heard and historians, rose so eminently above the general of the Saviour of the world; else where is the peculicharacter of the human race, that their names have be- arity or importance of this new dispensation, which come inseparably associated with our ideas of moral does, however, both avow and manifest a most signal greatness. A thoughtful student of antiquity enters peculiarity, and with which Heaven has connected the this majestic company with an impression of mystical signs and declarations of its being of infinite importance. awfulness, resembling that of Ezekiel in his vision. In If, again, a Christian's grand object and solicitude is to this select and revered assembly we include only those please God, this must constitute his moral excellence, who were distinguished by elevated virtue, as well as (even though the facts were the same,) of a very differpowerful talents and memorable actions. Undoubtedly ent nature from that of the men who had not in firm the magnificent powers and energy without moral ex- faith any god that they cared to please, and whose cellence, so often displayed on the field of ancient his- highest glory it might possibly become, that they boldly tory, compel a kind of prostration of the soul in the differed from their deities; as Lucan undoubtedly inpresence of men, whose surpassing achievements seem tended it as the most emphatical applause of Cato, that to silence for a while, and but for a while, the sense of jus- he was the inflexible patron and hero of the cause which tice which must execrate their ambition and their crimes; was the aversion of the gods.* If humility is required but where greatness of mind seems but secondary to to be a chief characteristic in a Christian's mind, he is greatness of virtue, as in the examples of Phocion, Epa- here again placed in a state of contrariety to that love mninondas, Aristides, Timnoleon, Dion, and a considerable of glory which accompanied, and was applauded as a virnumber more, the heart applauds itself for feeling an ir- tue while it accompanied, almost all the moral greatresistible captivation. This number indeed is small, cornm- ness of the heathens. If a Christian lives for eternity, pared with the whole galaxy of renowned names; but and advances towards death with the certain expectation it is large enough to fill the mind, and to give as vene- of judgment, and of a new and awful world, how different table an impression of pagan greatness, as if none of must be the essential quality of his serious sentiments, as its examples had been the heroes whose fierce brilliance partly created, and totally pervaded, by this mighty anticilightens through the blackness of their depravity; or pation, from the order of feeling of the virtuous heathens, the legislators, orators, and philosophers, whose wis- who had no positive or sublime expectations beyond dom was degraded by hypocrisy, venality, or vanity. death! The interior essences, if I may so speak, of the A most impressive part of the influnence of ancient two kinds of excellence, sustained or produced by these character on modem feelings, is derived from the ac- two systems of thought, are so different, that they will counts of two or three of the greatest philosophers, hardly be more convertible or compatible in the same whose virtue, protesting and solitary in the times in mind than even excellence and turpitude. Now it appears which they lived, whose intense devotedness to the to me that the enthusiasm, with which a mind of deep pursuit of wisdom, and whose occasional sublime and thoughtful sensibility dwells on the history of sages, glimpses of thought, darting beyond the sphere of er- virtuous legislators, and the noblest class of heroes, of ror in which they were enclosed and benighted, pre- heathen antiquity, will be found to beguile that mind sent them to the mind with something like the venera- into an order of sentiments congenial with theirs, and bleness of the prophets of God. Among the exhibi- therefore thus seriously different from the spirit and printions of this kind, it is unnecessary to say that Xeno- ciples of Christianity.t It is not exactly that the judgphon's Memoir of Socrates stands unrivalled and above * Victrix causa Dils placuit, sed victa Catoni. comparison. t If it should be said that, in admiring pagan excellence, the anguine spirits without number have probably been n takes the mere facts of that excellence, separately from Sanguine spirits without number have probably been the principles, and as far as they are identical with the facts of influenced in modern times by the ancient history of Christian excellence, and then, connecting Christian principles mere heroes; but persons of a reflective disposition with them, converts the whole into a Christian character before have been incomparably more affected by the contem- it cordially admires, I appeal to experience while I assert that 1 have been incomparably more affected by the co m i bthis is not true. If it were, the mind would be able to turn with platit,n of those men, whose combination of mental full complacency from an affectionate admiration of an illustri FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 67 ment admits distinct pagan propositions, but the heart in- logous to those already made; since the greatest numsensibly acquires an unison with many of the sentiments ber of the modern fine writers acquired much of the which imply those propositions, and are wrong, unless character of their minds from those of the ancient those propositions are right. It forgets that a different world. Probably, indeed, the ancients have exerted a state of feeling, corresponding to a greatly different much more extensive influence in modern times by scheme of propositions, is appointed by the Sovereign means of the modern writers to whom they have comJudge of all things as (with relation to us) an indispen- municated their moral spirit, than immediately by their sable preparation for entering the eternal paradise;* own works. and that now, no moral distinctions, however splendid, are excellence in his sight, if not conformed'to this standard. It slides into a persuasion that, under any economy, to be exactly like one of those heathen ex-LETTER VII. amples would be a competent qualification for any world to which good spirits are to be assigned. The devoted When a Communication, declaring the true Theory of both to which good spirits are to be assigned. The devoted Religion and Morals, was admitted as coming from Heanadmirer contemplates them as the most enviable speci- en, it was reasonable to expect that, from the Time of thit mens of his nature, and almost wishes he could have Revelation to the End of the World, all by whom it was so been one of them; without reflecting that this would admitted would be religiously careful to maintain, in what. have been under the condition probably, among many ever they taught on Subjects within its cognizance, a syste. other circumstances, of adoring Jupiter, Bacchus or matic and punctillious Conformity to its Principles-Abe,Esculapius, and of despising even the deities that he surdity, Impiety, and pernicious Effect, of disregarding this sovereign Claim to Conformity-The greatest Number adored; and under the condition of being a stranger to f ourine Writers have inm to red this Guilt, e greatd done this the son of God, and to all that he has disclosed and Mischief-They are Antichristian, in the first Place, bthis accomplished for the felicity of our race. It would Omission; they exclude from their moral sentiments the even throw an ungracious chill on his ardour, if an modifying interference of the Christian Principles-Ex. evangelical monitor should whisper,' Recollect Jesus tended Illusftration of this Fact, and o the Consequences. Christ,' and express his regret that these illustrious men could not have been privileged to be elevated into To a man who had long observed the influences Christians. If precisely the word'elevated' were which tyrannize over human passions and opinions, it used, the admonished person might have a feeling, at would not, perhaps, have appeared strange, that when the instant, as if it were not the right word. But this the Grand Renovator came on earth, and during the state of mind is no less than a serious hostility to the succeeding ages, a number of the men whose superior gospel, which these feelings are practically pronouncing talents were to carry on the course of literature, and to be at least unnecessary; and therefore that noblest guide the progress of the human mind, should reject part of ancient literature which tends to produce it, is his religion. These I have placed out of the question, inexpressibly injurious. It had been happy for many as it is not my object to show the injuries which Chriscultivated and aspiring minds, if the men whose cha- tianity has received from its avowed enemies. But it racters form the moral magnificence of the classical might have been expected, that all the intelligent men, history, had been such atrocious villains, that their from that hour to the end of time, who should really names could not have been recollected without execra- admit this religion, would perceive the sovereignty, and tion. Nothing can be more disastrous than to be led universality of its claims, and feel that every thing unastray by eminent virtue and intelligence, which can consonant with it ought instantly to vanish from the give a sense of grandeur, or of an alliance with grandeur, whole system of approved sentiments and the whole in the deviation. school of literature, and to keep as clearly aloof as the It will require a very affecting impression of the Chris- Israelites from the boundaries that guarded Mount Sitian truth, a.very strongly marked idea of the Christian nai. It might have been presumed, that all principles character, and a habit of thinking with sympathetic ad- which the new dispensation rendered obsolete, or demiration of the most elevated class of Christians, to dared or implied to be wrong, should no more be represerve entire the evangelical spirit among the exam- garded as belonging to the system of principles to be ples of what might pardonably have been deemed the henceforward received and taught, than dead bodies in most exalted style of man, if a revelation had not been their graves belong to the race of living men. To rereceived from heaven. Some views of this excellence tain or recall them would, therefore, be as offensive to it were in vain for a Christian to forbid himself to ad- the judgment, as to take up these bodies and place them mire; but he must learn to admire under a serious re- in the paths of men, would be offensive to the senses; striction, else every emotion is a desertion of his cause. and as absurd as the practice of the ancient Egyptians, He must learn to assign these men in thought to an- who carried their embalmed ancestors to their festivals. other sphere, and to regard them as beings under a dif- It might have been supposed, that whatever Christianiferent economy with which our relations are dissolved; ty had actually substituted, abolished, or supplied, would as marvellous specimens of a certain imperfect kind of therefore be practically regarded by these believers of moral greatness, formed on a model foreign to true re- it as substituted, abolished or supplied; and that they ligion, which model is crumbled to dust and given to would, in all their writings, be at least as careful of the winds. At the, same time, he may well deplore, their fidelity in this great article, as a man who adopts while viewing some of these men, that, if so much ex- the Newtonian philosophy would be certain to exclude cellence could be formed on such a model, the sacred from his scientific discourse all ideas that'seriously imsystem on which his own character professes to be plied the Ptolemaic or Tychonic system to be true. formed should not have raised him almost to heaven. Necessarily, a number of these literary believers would So much for the effect of the most interesting part of write on subjects so completely foreign to what comes ancient literature. within the cognizance of Christianity, that a pure neuIn the next letter I shall make some observations, in trality, which should avoid all interference with it, would reference to the same object on modern polite litera- be all that could be claimed from them in its behalf; ture. Many of these must unavoidably be very ana- though, at the same time, one should feel some degree of regret, to see a man of enlarged mind exhausting ous heathen, to admire, in the very same train of feeling, and his ability and his life on these foreign subjects, withwith still warmer emotion, the excellence of St Paul; which is not the fact. out devoting some short interval to the service of that * I hope none of these observations will be understood to in- which he believes to be of far surpassing moment.* sinuate the impossibility of the future happiness of virtuous heathens. But a disquisition on the subject would here be out: I could not help feeling a decree of this regret in reading of place. lately the memoirs of the admirable and estimable Sir William 68 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. But the great number who choose to write on sub- Christian tingc and modification, (indicated partly by jects that come within the relations of the Christian the occasional expression of Christian recollections, system, as on the various views of morals, the distinc- and partly by a solicitous, though it were a tacit, contions and judgments of human character, and the theory formity to every principle of the Christian theory,) of happiness, with almost unavoidable references some- which should be diffused universally through the sentitimes to our connexion with Deity, to death, and to a ments that regard man as a moral being. Consider future state, ought to have written every page under the how small a portion of the serious subjects of thought recollection, that these subjects are not left free for can be detached from all connexion with the religion of careless or arbitrary sentiment, since the time that Christ, without narrowing the scope to which he meant'God has spoken to us by his Son;' and that the no- it to extend, and repelling its intervention where he inblest composition would be only so much eloquent im- tended it to intervene. The book which unfolds it, has piety, if discordant with the dictates of the New Testa- exaggerated its comprehensiveness, and the first distinment. Had this been a habitual recollection amidst the guished Christian had a delusive view of it, if it does studies of the fine writers of the Christian world, an in- not actually claim to mingle its principles with the genuous mind might have read alternately their works whole system of moral ideas, so as to impart to them and those of the evangelists and apostles, without being a specific character: in the same manner as the eleconfounded by a perception of antipathy between the ment of fire, interfused through the various forms and inspirations of genius and the inspirations of heaven. combinations of other elements, produces throughout I confine my view chiefly to the elegant literature of them, even when latent, a certain important modificaour own country. And it may be presumed, indepen- tion, which they would instantly lose, and therefore lose dently of any actual comparison, that this (the literature their perfect condition, by its exclusion. of directly vicious and infidel tendencybeing put out of And this claim to extensive interference, made, as view on both sides,) is much less exceptionable than a matter of authority, for the Christian principles, apthe belles lettres of the other parts of modern Europe; pears to be supported by their nature. For they are for this plain reason, that the extended prevalence of not of a nature which necessarily restricts them to a the happy light of the Reformation, through almost the peculiar department, like the principles which constiwhole period that has'produced our works of genius and tute some of the sciences. We should at once pertaste, must necessarily, by presenting the religion of ceive the absurdity of a man who should be attempting Christ in an aspect more true to its genuine dignity, to adjust all his ideas on general subjects according to have compelled from the intellectual men who could hot the principles of geometry, and who should maintain (if reject its truth, a respect which the same class of men any man could do so preposterous a thing,) that geomein popish countries would be but little inclined to feel; trical laws ought to enter into the essence of our reaor which would generally be, if they did feel it, but the soning on politics and morals. This I own is taking homage of superstition, which injured the sacred cause an illustration in the extreme; since geometrical and another way. moral truth are not only very different, but of a nature I do not assign any class of writers formally theolo- essentially distinct. Let any other class of principles gical to the polite literature of a country, not even the foreign to moral subjects be selected, in order to its distinguished sermon-writers of France; as it is prob- being shown how absurd is the effect of an attempt to able that works of direct theology have formed but a stretch them beyond their proper sphere, and force small part of that school of thinking and taste, in which them into some connexion with ideas with which they the generality of cultivated men have acquired the mo- have no relation. Let it be shown how such princiral conformation of their minds. That school is com- ples can in no degree modify the subject to which they posed of poets, moral philosophers, historians, essay- are attempted to be applied, nor mingle with the reaists, and you may add the writers of fiction. If the sons concerning it, but refuse to touch it, like magnetgreat majority of these authors have injured, and still ism applied to brass. I would then show that, on the injure their pupils in the most important of all their contrary, the Christian principles have something in interests, it is a very serious consideration, both in re- their nature which has a relation with something in the spect to the accountableness of the authors, and the nature of almost all serious subjects. Their being exfinal effect on their pupils. I maintain that they are tended to those subjects, therefore, is not an arbitrary guilty of this injury. and forced application of them; it is merely permitting On so wide a field,gmy dear friend, it would be in their cognizance and interfusion in whatever is essenvain to attempt making particular references and selec- tially of a common nature with them. It must be evitions to verify all these remarks. I must appeal for dent in a moment that the most general doctrines of their truth to your own acquaintance with our popular Christianity, such as those of a future judgment, and fine writers. inlrnortality, if believed to be true, have a direct relaIn the first place, and as a general observation, the tion with every thing that can be comprehended within alleged injury has been done, to a great extent, by the widest range of moral speculation and sentiment. Omission, or rather it should be called Exclusion. It will also be found that the more particular doctrines, And here I do not refer so much to that unworthy care, such as those of the moral depravity of our nature, an which seems prevalent through the works of our inge- atonement made by the sacrifice of Christ, the interfernious authors, to avoid formally treating on any topics ence of a special divine influence in renewing the human of a precisely evangelical kind, as the absence of that mind, and educating it for a future state, together with Jones. Soine of his researches in Asia have incidentally served, all the inferences, conditions, and motives resulting from in a very important manner, the cause of religion; but did he them, cannot be admitted and religiously regarded, think the last possible direct service had been rendered to Chris. without combining themselves, in numberless instances, tianity, that.his accomplished mind was left at leisure for hymns with a man's ideas on moral subjects. I mean, that it to the Hindoo gods? Was not this even a violation of the neu-deas on moral subjects. I mean, that it trality, and an offence, not only against the gospel, but against is in their very nature thus to interfere and find out a theism itself? I know what may be said about personification, relation with these ideas, even if there were no divine license of poetry, and so on; but should not a worshipper of requirement that they should. That writer must, God hold himself under a solemn obligation to abjure all tol hat writer ust rance of even poetical figures that can seriously seem, in any therefore, have retired beyond the limits of an immense way whatever, to recognise the pagan divinities. or abomina- field of important and most interesting speculations, tions, as the prophets of Jehovah would have called them? must indeed have retired beyond the limits of all the What would Elijah have said to such an employment of talents must indeed have retired beyond the limits of all th in his time? It would have availed little to have told him that speculation most important to man, who can say that these divinities were only personifications (with their appropri- nothing in the religion of Chtist bears, in any manner, ate representative idols) of objects in nattre, of elements, or of or any part of his subject any more than if he were a abstractions. He would have sternly replied, And was nt Baal, philosopher of Satan. whose prophets I destroyed, the same?. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 69 And; in thus habitually interfering and combining with such aspects as never appear but under the lights of moral sentiments and speculations, the Christian prin- heaven. You might observe, the next time that you ciples will greatly modify them. The evangelical ideas open one of these works, how far you may read, without will stand in connexion with the moral ones, not simply meeting with an idea of such a nature, or so expressed, as additio'nal ideas in the train of thinking, but as ideas as could not have been, unless Jesus Christ had come which impart or dictate a particular character to the into the world;* even though the subject be one of rest. A writer whose mind is so possessed with the those which he came to illuminate, and to enforce on Christian principles that they thus continually suggest the mind by new and most cogent arguments. And themselves in connexion with his serious speculations, where so little of the light and rectifying influence of will unavoidably present a moral subject in a some- these communications hasbeen admitted into the habits what different aspect, even if he make no express re- of thought, there will be very few cordially reverential ferences to the gospel, from that in which it would be and animated references to the great Instructer himpresented by another writer, whose habits of thought self. These will perhaps not oftener occur than a trawere clear of evangelical recollections. And in every veller in some parts of Africa, or Arabia, comes to a train of thinking in which the serious recognition of spot of green vegetation in the desert. You might those principles would produce this modification, it have read a considerable number of volumes, without ought to be produced; so that the very last idea within becoming apprised that there is such a dispensation in Athe compass of speculation which would have a differ- existence, or that such a sublime minister of it had ent cast as a ray of the gospel falls, or does not fall, ever appeared among men. And you might have diliupon it, should be faithfully exhibited in that light. gently read, for several years, and through several hunThe Christian principles cannot be true, without de- dred volumes, without at all discovering its nature or termining what shall be true in the mode of represent- importance, or that the writers, when alluding to it, ing all those subjects with which they hold a connexion. admittdd any peculiar and essential importance to beObviously, as far as the gospel can go, and does by its long to it. You would only have conjectured it to be relations with things thus claim to go, with a modifying a scheme of opinions and discipline which had appeared power, it cannot be a matter of indifference whether it in its day, as many others had appeared, and left us, as do go or not; for nothing on which its application the rest have left us, to follow our speculations very would have this effect, would be equally right as so much in our own way, taking from them, indifferently, modified and as not so modified. That which is made any notions that we may approve. precisely correct by this qualified condition, must, You would have supposed that these writers had therefore, separately from it, be incorrect. He who has heard of one Jesus Christ, as they had heard of one sent a revelation to declare the theory of sacred truth, Confucius, as a teacher whose instructions are admitted and to order the relations of all moral sentiment with to contain many excellent things, and to whose system that truth, cannot give his sanction at once to this final a liberal mind will occasionally advert, well pleased to constitution, and to that which disowns it. He, there- see China, Greece, and Judea, as. well as England, fore, disowns that which disowns the religion of Christ. producing their philosophers, of various degrees and And what he disowns he condemns; thus placing all modes of illumination, for the honour of their respective moral sentiments in the same predicament, with regard countries and periods, and for the concurrent promotion to the Christian economy, in which Jesus Christ placed of human intelligence. All the information which they his contemporaries,' He that is not with me is against would have supplied to your understanding, and all the me.' The order of ideas thus dissentient from the conjectures to which they would have prompted your Christian system, presumes the existence, or attempts inquisitiveness, would have left you, if not instructed the creation, of some other economy. from other sources, to meet the real religion itself, when Now, in casting a recollective glance over our ele- at length disclosed to you, as a thing of which you had gant literature, the far greater part, as far as I am ac- but slight recognition, except by its name as a wonderquainted with it, appears to me to fall under this con- ful novelty. How little you would have expected, demnation. After a comparatively small number of from their literary and ethical glimpses, to find the names and books are excepted, what are called the Bri- case to be, that the system, so insignificantly and caretish Classics, with the addition of very many works of lessly acknowledged in the course of their fine sentigreat literary merit that have not quite attained that ments, is the actual and sole economy by the provisions rank, present an immense vacancy of christianized sen- of which their happiness can be secured, by the laws of timent. The authors do not exhibit the signs of having which they will be judged, which has declared the reever deeply studied Christianity, or of retaining any lations of man with his Creator, and specified the exdiscriminative and serious impressionof it. Whatever clusive ground of acceptance; which is therefore of has strongly occupied a man's attention, affected his infinite consequence to you, and to them, and to all feelings, and filled his mind with ideas, will even unin- their readers, as fixing the entire theory of the condition tentionally show itself in the train and cast of dis- and destinies of man on the final principles to which all course: these writers do not in this manner betray that theories and sentiments are solemnly required to be their faculties have been occupied and interested by the' brought into obedience.' special views unfolded in the evangelic dispensation. Now, if the writers who have thus preserved the Of their being solemnly conversant with these views, whole world of interesting ideas which they have unyou discover no notices analogous, for instance, to those folded free from any evangelical intermixture. are really which appear in the writing or discourse of a man, who the chief instructers of persons of taste, and form, from has lately passed some time amidst the wonders of early life, their habits of feeling and thought, it is easy Rome or Egypt, and who shows you, by almost uncon- to see that they must produce a state of mind very. scious allusions and images occurring in his language uncongenial with the gospel. Views habitually presenteven on other subjects, how profoundly he has been in- ed to the mind, during its most susceptible periods, and terested in comtemplating triumphal arches, temples, through the main course of its improvements, in every pyramids, and tombs. Their minds are not naturalized, varied light of sublimity and beauty, with every fasciif I may so speak, to the images and scenery of the nation of that taste, ingenuity, and eloquence, which it kingdom of Christ, or to that kind of light which the has learnt still more to admire each year as its faculties gospel throws on all objects. They are somewhat like have expanded, will have become the settled order of its the inhabitants of those towns within the vast salt ideas. And it will feel the same complacency in this mines of Poland, who, beholding every object in their * Excert, perhaps,'in respect to humanity and benevolence region by the light of. lamps and candles only, have in on which subject his instructions have improved the sentiments their conversation no expressions describing things in even of infidel, in spite of the rejection of their divine authority 70 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. intellectual order, that as inhabitants of the material the equator, and those of one from the arctic regions. world, we do in the great arrangement of nature, in the Would not that law of the apostle's feelings by which green, blooming earth, and the magnificent hemisphere there was a continual intervention of ideas concerning of heaven. one object, in all subjects, places, and times, have appeared to this man of virtue and wisdom, incon ceivablymysticall In what manner would he have listened to the emphatical expressions respecting the LETTER VIII. love of Christ constraining us, living not to ourselves, but to him that died for us and rose again, counting all NMore Specific forms of their contrariety to the Principles of things but loss for the knowledge of Christ, being arRevelation-Their Good Man is not a Christian-Con- dent to win Christ and be found in him, and trusting trasted with St Paul-Their Theory of Happiness essen- that Christ should be magnified in our body, whether, tially diferent from the Evangelical-Short Statement of both-In moralizing on Life, they do not habitually by life or by death? Perhaps St Paul's energy, and consider, andthey prevent their Readersfrom considering,. the the appearance of its being accompanied by a vigorous present State as introductory to another-Their Consola- intellect, might have awed him into silence. But tionsfor Distress, Old Age, and Death, widely different amidst that silence, he, must, in order to defend his on the whole, from those which constitute so much of the self-complacency, have decided that the apostle's mind Value of the Gospel - The Grandeur and Heroism in h Death, which they have represented with irresistible Elo- fallen, notwithstandig its strength, under the domiquence, emphatically and perniciously opposite to the nion of an irrational association; for he would have Christian Doctrine and examples of Sublimity and Hap- been conscious that no such ideas had ever kindled his piness in Death-Examples from Tragedy. affections, and that no such affections had ever animated his actions; and yet he was indubitably a goodman. It ivill be proper to specify, somewhat more distinct- according to a generally approved standard, and could, ly, several of the particulars in which I consider the in another style, be as eloquent for goodness as St Paul generality of our fine writers as disowning or contradic- himself. He would therefore have concluded, either ting the evangelical dispensation, and, ther efore beguil- that it was not necessary to be a Christian, or that this ing their readers into a complacency in an order of sen- order of feelings was not necessary to that character. timnents that is unconsonant with it. But if the apostle's sagacity had detected the cause of And one thing extremely obvious to remark, is, that this reserve, and the nature of his associate's reflections, the good man, the man of virtue, who is of necessity he would most certainly have declared to him with constantly presented to view in the volumes of these great solemnity that both these things were necessary writers, is not a Christian. His character could have -or that he had been deceived by inspiration; and been formed, thongh the Christian revelation had never he would have parted from this self-complacent man been opened on the earth, or though all the copies of with admonition and compassion. Now, would St Paul the New Testament had perished ages since; and it have been wrong? But if he would have been right, might have appeared admirable, but not peculiar. It what becomes of those authors, whose works, whether has no such complexion and aspect as would have ap- from neglect or design, tend to satisfy their readers of peared foreign and unacountable in the absence of the the perfection-of a form of character which he would Christian truth, and have excited wonder what it should have pronounced essentially defective t bear relation to, and on what model, in what school, Again-moral writings are instructions on the subsuch a - confirmation of principles and feelings could ject of happiness. Now the doctrine of this subject is have taken its consistence. Let it only be said that declared in the evangelical testimony: it had been this man of virtue had conversed whole years with the strange indeed if it had not, when the happiness of man instructions of Socrates, Plato, Cicero, and perhaps was expressly the object of the communication. And Antoninus, and all would be explained; nothing would what, according to this communication, are the essential lead to ask,' But if so, with whom has he conversed requisites to that condition of the mind without which aince, to lose so completely the appropriate character of no man ought to be called happy; without which ignohis school, under the broad impression of some other rance or insensibility alone can be content, and folly mightier iufluence 1' alone can be cheerful? A simple reader of the ChrisThe good man of our polite literature never talks tian scriptures will reply that they are-a change of with affectionate devotion of Christ, as the great High heart, called conversion, the assurance of the pardon of Priest of his profession, as the exalted Friend, whose sin through Jesus Christ, a habit of devotion approachinjunctions are the laws of his virtues, whose work and ing so near to intercourse with the Supreme Object of sacrifice ate the basis of his hopes, whose doctrines' devotion that revelation has called it'communion guide and awe his reasonings, and whose example is with God,' a process of improvement called sanctificathe pattern which he is earnestly aspiring to resemble. tion, a confidence in the divine Providence that all The last intellectual and moral disignation in the world things shall work together for good, and a conscious'bywhich it would occur to you to describe him, would preparation for another life, including a firm hope of be those by which the apostles so much exulted to be eternal felicity. And what else can he reply? What recognized, a disciple, and a servant, of Jesus Christ; else can you reply? Did the lamp of heaven ever shine nor would he (I am supposing this character to become more clearly since Omnipotence lighted it, than these a, real person,) be at all gratified by being so described. ideas display themselves through the New Testament 1 You do not hear him avowing that he deems the ha- Is this then absolutely the true, and the only true, acbitual remembrance of Christ essential to the nature of count of happiness? It is not that which our accomthat excellence which he is cultivating. He rather plished writers in general have chosen to sanction. seems, with the utmost coolness of choice, adopting Your recollection will tell you that they have most cervirtue as according with the dignity of a rational agent, tainly presumed to avow, or to insinuate, a doctrine of than to be in the least degree impelled to it by any re- happiness which implies much of the Christian doctrine lations with the Saviour of the world. to be a needless intruder on our speculations, or an On the supposi"ean of a person realizing this charac- imposition on our belief; and I wonder that this seriter having fallen into *he company of St Paul, you can ous fact should so little have: alarmed the Christian easily imagine the total want of congeniality. Though students of elegant literature. The wide difference bth avowedly devoted to truth, to virtue, and perhaps between the dictates of the two authorities is too evito religion, the difference in the cast of their sentiments dent to be overlooked; for the writers in question have Would have been as great as that between the physical very rarely, amidst an immense assemblage of senticonstitution and habitudes of a native of the country at ments concerning happiness, made any reference to FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 71 what the New Testament so explicitly declares to it should be the grand test of the value of all pursuits, be its constituent and vital principles. How many friendships, and speculations; and that it should mnintimes you might read the sun or the moon to its repose, gle a certain nobleness with every thing which it per before you would find an assertion or a recognition, for mitted to occupy our time. Now how far will the discs instance of a change of the mind being requisite to hap- pline of modern polite literature coincide'! piness, in any terms commensurate with the signifi- I should be pleased to hear a student of that literacance which this article seems to bear in all the varied ture seriously profess that he is often and impressively propositions and notices of it in the New Testament. reminded of futurity; and to have it shown that ideas Some of these writers appear hardly to have admitted relating to this great subject are presented in sufficient or to have recollected even the maxim, that happi- number, and in a proper manner, to produce an affect ness must essentially consist in something so fixed in which should form a respectable proportion of the whole the mind itself as to be substantially independent of effect produce by these authors on susceptible minds. worldly condition; for their most animated representa- But there is no ground for expecting this satisfaction. tions of it are merely descriptions of fortunate combi- It is true that the idea of immortality is so exceedingly nations of external circumstances, and of the feelings grand, that many writers of genius who have felt but immediately caused by them, which will expire the mo- little genuine interest in religion, have been laid by ment that these combinations are broken up. The their perception of what is sublime to introduce an illugreater number, however, have fully admitted so plain sion which is one of the most powerful means of elea truth, and have given their illustrations of the doc- vating the imagination. And the energy of their lantrine of happiness accordingly. And what appears in guage has been worthy of the subject. In these inthese illustrations of the brightest image of happiness 1 stances, however, it is not always found that the idea It is, probably, that of a man feeling an elevated com- is presented exactly in that light which both shows its placency in his own excellence, a proud consciousness individual grandeur, and indicates the extent of its neof rectitude; possessing extended views, cleared from cessary connexion with other ideas; it appears somethe mists of ignorance, prejudice, and superstition; un- what like a majestic ower, which a traveller in some folding the generosity of his nature in the exercise of countries may find standing in a solitary scene, no lonbeneficence; without feeling, however, any grateful ger surrounded by that great assemblage of buildings, incitement from remembrance of the transcendent gen- that ample city, of which it was raised to be the centre, erosity of the Son of Man; maintaining, in respect to the strength, and the ornament. Immortality had been the events and bustle of the surrounding scene, a dig- had recourse to in one page of an ingenious work as a nified indifference, which can let the world go its own single topic of sublimity, in the same manner as a stuway, undisturbed by its disordered course; and living pendous natural phenomenon, or a brilliant achievment, in a cool resignation to fate, without any strong expres- has been described in another. The author's object sions of a specific hope, or even solicitude, with regard might rather seem to have been to supply an occasional to the termination of life and to all futurity. Now, not- gratification to taste, than to reduce the mind and all withstanding a partial coincidence of this description its feelings under the perpetual dominion of a grand with the Christian theory of happiness,* it is evident practical principle. that on the whole the two modes are so different that It is true also, that a graver class of fine writers, who the same man cannot realize them both. The con- have expressed considerable respect for religion and for sequence is clear; the natural effect of incompetent Christianity, and who, though not writing systematiand fallacious schemes, prepossessing the mind by cally on morals, have inculcated high moral principles, every grace of genius, will be an aversion to the Chris- have made references to a future state as the hope and tian scheme; which will be seen to place happiness in sanction of virtue. But these references are made less elements and relations much less flattering to what will frequently than the connexion between our present conbe called a noble pride; to make it consist in some- duct and a future life would seem to claim. And the thing of which it were a vain presumption for the man manner in which they are made sometimes indicates to fancy that himself can be the sovereign creator. either a deficiency of interest in the great subject, or a It is, again, a prominent characteristic of the Chris- pusillanimous anxiety not to offend those readers who tian Revelation, that, having declared this life to be but would think it too directly religious. It is sometimes the introduction to another, it systematically preserves adverted to as if rather from a conviction, that if there is the recollection of this great truth through every repre- a future state, moral speculation must be defective, even sentation of every subject; so that the reader is not al- to a degree of absurdity, without some allusions to it, lowed to contemplate any of the interests of life in a than from feeling a profound delight m the contemplation view which detaches them from the grand object and of it. When the idea of another life is introduced to agconditions of life itself. An apostle could not address gravate the force of moral principles, and the authority his friends on the most common concerns, for the length of conscience, it is done at times in a manner which of a page, without the final references. He is like a appears like a somewhat reluctant acknowledgment of person whose eye, while he is conversing with you the deficiency of all inferior sanctions. The consideraabout an object, or a succession of objects, immediate- tion is suggested in a transient glimpse, after the writer ly near, should glance every moment toward some great has eloquently expatiated on every circumstance by spectacle appearing on the distant horizon. He seems which the present life can supply motives to goodness. to talk to his friends m somewhat of that manner of ex- In some instances, a watchful reader will also perceive pression with which you can imagine that Elijah spoke, what appears too much like care to dives the idea, if he remarked to his companion any circumstance in when it must be introduced, of all direct references to the journey from Bethel to Jericho, and from Jericho to that sacred person who first completely opened the the Jordan; a manner betraying the sublime anticipa- prospect of immortality, or to some of those other doction which was pressing on his thoughts. The correct trines which. he taught in immediate connexion with consequence of conversing with our Lord and his apos- this great truth. There seems reason to suspect the ties would be, that the thought of immortality should writer of having been pleased that, though it is indeed become almost as habitually present and familiarized to to the gospel alone that we owe the assurance of imthe mind as the countenance of a domestic friend; that mortality, yet it was a subject so much in the conjec* No one can be so absurd as to represent the notions which tures and speculation of the heathen sages, that he may pervade the works of polite literature as totally and at all points, mention it without therefore so expressly recognizing opposite to the principles of Christianity; what I am asserting, the gospel as in the case of introducing some truth of is, that in some important points they are substantially and es. which not o the e sentially different, and that in others they didown the Christian which not only the evidence, but even the first explicit modification. conception, was communicated by that dispensation. 72 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. Taking this defective kind of acknowledgment of a confine of paradise, the immediate access to the region future state, together with that entire oblivion of the of eternal life. subject which prevails through an ample portion of ele- Now, in the greater number of the works to which I gant literature, I think there is no hazard in saying, that am referring, what are the modes of consolation which a reader who is satisfied without any other instructions, sensibility, reason, and eloquence, have most generally will learn almost every other lesson sooner than the ne- exerted themselves to apply to the mournful circumcessity of habitually living for eternity. Many of these stances of life, and to its close? You will readily rewriters seem to take as much care to guard against the collect such as these: a man is suffering-well, it is inroad of ideas from this solemn quarter, as the inhabi- the common destiny, every one suffers sometimes, and tants of Holland do against the irruption of the sea; some much more than he; it is well it is 1no worse. It and their writings do really form a kind of moral dyke he is unhappy now, he has been happy, and he could. against the invasion from the other world. They do not expect to be always so. It were ridiculous to cornnot instruct a man to act, to enjoy, and to suffer, as a plain that his nature was constituted capable of sufferbeing that may by to-morrow have finally abandoned ing, or placed in a world where it is exposed to the this orb: every thing is done to beguile the feeling of causes of it. If it were not capable of pain, it would not his being' a stranger and a pilgrim on the earth.' The of pleasure. Would he be willing to lose his being, to relation which our nature bears to the circumstances of escape these ills'? Or would he consent, if' such a the present state, and which individuals bear to one thing were possible, to be any person else? The another, is mainly the ground on which their considera- sympathy of each kind relative and friend will not be tions of duty proceed and conclude. And their schemes wanting. His condition may probably changre for the of happiness, though formed for beings at once ilnimor- better; there is hope in every situation; and meanwhile, tal and departing, include little which avowedly relates it is an opportunity for displaying manly fortitude. A to that world to which they are removing, nor reach strong mind can proudly triumph over the oppression of beyond the period at which they will properly but begin pain, the vexations of disappointment, and the tyranny to live. They endeavour to raise the groves of an of fortune. If the cause of distress is some irreparable earthly paradise, to shade from sight that vista which deprivation, it will be softened by the lenient hand of opens to'the distance of eternity. time.d Another article in which the anti-Christian tendency The lingering months of an aged man are soothed of a great part of our productions of taste and genius allnost, it is pretended, into cheerfulness by the respectis apparent, is, the kind of consolation administered to ful attention of his neighbours; by the worldly prosdistress, old ace, and death. Things of a mourniful perity and dutiful regard of the family that he has kind make so large a portion of the lot of humanity, brought up; by the innocent gayety and amusing frolics that it is impossible for writers who take human life of their children; and by the consideration of his fair and feelings for their subject, to avoid (nor indeed have character in society. If he is a man of thought, he has they endeavoured to avoid) contemplating man in those the added advantage of some philosophical consideraconditions in which he Ileeds every benignant aid to tions; the cares and passions of his former life are save him from despair. And here, if any where, we calmed into a wise tranquillity; he thinks he has had a may justly require an absolute coincidence of all moral competent share of life; it is as proper and necessary instructions with the religlon of Christ: since consola- for mankind to have their' exits,' as their' entrances;' tion is eminently its distinction and its design; since a and his business will now be to make a' well-graced' being in distress has peculiarly a right not to be trifled retreat from the stage, like a man that has properly actwith by the application of unadapted expedients; and ed his part, and may retire with applause. since insufficient consolations are but to mock it, and As to the means of sustaining the spirit in death, the deceptive ones are but to betray. It should then be general voice of these authors asserts the grand ad - clearly ascertained by the moralist, and never forgotten, only all-sufficient one to be the recollection of a wellwhat are the consolations provided by this religion, and spent life. To this chief source of consolation you under what condition they are offered. will find various additional suggestions; as for inChristianity offers even to the irreligious, who relent stance, that death is in fact a far less tremendous thing amidst their sufferings, the alleviation springing from than that dire form of it by which imagination and suinestimable promises made to penitence: any other sys- perstition are haunted; that the sufferings of death are tem, which should attempt to console them, simply as less than men often endure in the course of life; that suffering, and without any reference to the moral and it is only like one of those transformations with which religious state of their minds, would be mischievous, if the world of nature abounds; and that it is easy to conit were not inefficacious. WVhat are the principal ceive, and reasonable to expect, a more commodious sources of consolation to the pious, is immediately ap- vehicle and habitation. It would seem almost unaparent. The victim of sorrow is assured that God esx- voidable to glance a momentary thought toward what ercises his paternal wisdom and kindness in afflicting revelation has signified to us of' the house not made his children; that this necessary discipline is to refine with hands,' of the' better country, that is, the heavand exalt them by making them')partakers of his holi- enly.' But yet the greater number of the writers of ness;' that he mercifully regards their weakness and taste advert to the subject with apparent reluctance, pains, and will not let them suffer beyond what they except it can be done, on the one hand, in the manner shall be able to bear; that their great Leader has suf- of pure philosophical conjecture, or on the other, under fered for them more than they can suffer, and compas- the form of images, bearing some analogy to the visions sionately sympathizes still; that this short life was not of classical poetry.t meant so much to give them joy, as to prepare them for meant so uch to give them joy, as to prpare them fo Can it be necessary to notice here again, that every systemn it; and that patient constancy shall receive a resplen- of moral sentiments must inevitably contain some principles dent crown. An aged Christian is soothed by the as- which the gospel does not disapprove? Various particulars in surance that his almighty friend will not despise the this assemblage of consolations are compatible, in a subordinate place, with the dictates of Christianity. But the enumeration, enfeebled exertions, nor desert the oppressed and faint- altogether, and exclusively of the grand Christian principles, ingweakness, of the last stage of his servant's life. forms a scheme of consolation quite different from that of the'When advancing into the shade of death itself, he is reliion of Christ. anated by the faith that the grat scrifice has tan I am infinitely far from disliking philosophical speculation, animated by the faith that the great sacrifice has taken or even daring flights of fancyrthis thigh specutiOn, or evet daring faiihts of fancy, onl this high subject. On the the malignity of death away; and that the divine pre- contrary, it appears to me strange that any one should solemn. sence will attend the dark steps of this last and lonely ly entertain the belief of a life torcome, without its exciting both enterprise, and show the dying traveller and comlbatant the intellectual faculty and the imagination to their highest ex. ercise. What I mean to censure in the mode of referring to with evil that even this melancholy gloom is the very another life, is, the care to avoid any direct resemblance or re FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 73 The arguments for resignation to death are not so personages of this high order, in the same fatal predicamuch drawn from future scenes, as from a considera- ment; and the situation of such men has appeared intion of the evils of the present life, the necessity of sub- expressibly enviable, by means of those sublime sentimitting to a general and irreversible law, the dignity of ments by which they illuminated the gloom of death. submitting with that calmness which conscious virtue The reader has loved to surround himself in imaginais entitled to feel, and the improbability (as these writers tion with that gloom, for the sake of irradiating it with sometimes intimate) that any very formidable evils are that sublimity. All other greatness has been for a to be apprehended after death, except by a few of the while eclipsed by the greatness of thought displayed by very worst of the human race. Those arguments are these contemplative and magnanimous spirits, though in general rather aimed to quiet fear than to animate untaught by religion, when advancing to meet their hope. The pleaders of them seem more concerned to fate. But the Christian faith recalls the mind from convey the dying man in peace and silence out of the this enchantment to recollect that the Christian spirit world, than to conduct him to the celestial felicity. Let' in dying can be the only right and noble one, and to us but see him embarked on his unknown voya:ge in consider whether these examples be not exceedingly fair weather, and we are not accountable for what he different. Have not the most enlightened and devout may meet, or where he may be carried, w;hen he is Christians, whether they have languished in their chamgone out of sight. They seldom present a lively view hers, or passed through the fire of martyrdom, maniof the distant happiness, especially in any of those fested their elevation of mind in another strain of eloimages in which the Christian revelation has intinmated quence! The examples of greatness in death, which its nature. In which of these books, and by which of poetry has exhibited, generally want all those sentithe real or fictitious characters whose last hours and ments respecting the pardon of sin, and a Mediator thoughts they sometimes display, will you find, in terms through whom it is obtained, and often the explicit idea or in spirit, the apostolic sentiments adopted,' To de- of meeting the Judge, with which a Christian contempart and be with Christ is far better,''WVilling rather plates his approaching end. Their expressions of into be absent from the body, and present with the Lord.' trepidity and exultation have no analogy with the lanThe very existence of that sacred testimony which has guage of an incomparable saint and hero,' Oh death, given the only genuine consolations in death, and the where is thy sting? 0 grave, where is thy victory? only just conceptions of the realities beyond it, seems Thanks be to God, who giveth us the victory through to be scarcely recollected; while the ingenious moral- our Lord Jesus Christ.' The kind of self-authorized ists are searching the exhausted common-places of the confidence of taking possession of some other state of stoic philosophy, or citing the dubious maxims of a re- being, as monarchs would talk of a distant part of their ligion moulded according to the corrupt wishes of man- empire which they were going to enter; the proud kind, or even recollecting the lively sayings of the few apostrophes to the immortals, to prepare for the great whose wit has expired only in' the same moment with and rival spirit that is coming; their manner of conlife, to fortify the pensive spirit for his last removal.' Is signing to its fate a good but falling cause, which will it not because there is not a God in Israel, that ye have sink when they are gone, there not being virtue enough sent to inquire of Baalzebub the God of Ekron V' in earth or heaven to support or vindicate it; their welAnother order of sentiments concerning death, of a coming death as a kind of glad revenge against a hated character too bold to be called consolations, has been world and a despicable race,-are not the humility nor represented as animating one class of human beings. the benevolence with which a Christian dies. If a In remarking on Lucan, I noticed that desire of death Christian will partly unite with these high spirits in bewhich has appeared in the expressions of great minds, ing weary of a world of dust and trifles, in defying the sometimes while merely indulging solemn reflections pains of death; in panting for an unbounded liberty, it when no danger or calamity immediately threatened, will be at the same time with a most solemn commitbut often in the conscious approach towards a fatal ca- ment of himself to the divine mercy, which they forget, tastrophe. Many writers of later times have exerted or were never instructed, to implore. And as to the their whole strength, and have even excelled themselves, vision of the other world, you will observe a great difin representing the high sentiments in which this desire ference between the language of sublime poetry and has displayed itself; genius has found its very gold that of revelation, in respect to the nature of the sentimine in this field. If this grandeur of sentiment had ments and triumphs of that world, and still more, perawakened piety while it exalts the passions, some of haps, in respect to the associates with whom the departthe poets would have ranked among our greatest bene- ing spirit expects soon to mingle. The dying magnafactors. Powerful genius, aiding to inspire a Christian nimity of poetry anticipates high converse with the'souls triumph in the prospect of death, might be revered as a of heroes, and patriots, and perhaps philosophers; a prophet, might be almost loved as a benignant angel. Christian feels himself going, (I may accommodate the No man's emotions perhaps have approached nearer to passage,) to' an innumerable company of angels, to the enthusiasm than mine, in reading the thoughts which general assembly and church of the first born, to God are made to be expressed by sages and reflective he- the Judge of all, to the spirits of just men made perfect, roes in this prospect. I have always felt these pas- and to Jesus the Mediator of the new covenant.' sages as the last and mightiest of the enchantments of In defence of those who have thus rendered death poetry, capable of inspiring for a little while a contempt attractive by other means than the evangelical views, of all ordinary interests, of the world which we inhabit, it may be said, that many of the personages whom' their and of life itself. WVhile the enthusiast is elated with scenes exhibit in the contemplation of death, or in the such an emotion, nothing may appear so desirable as approach to it, were necessarily, from the age or counsome noble occasion of dying; such an occasion as try in which they lived or are feigned to have lived, that supplied by the legal injustice which awarded the unacquainted with Christianity; and that therefore it hemlock to Socrates, or by the destiny which at Philippi would have been absurd to represent them as animated involved Brutus in the ruin of a great design for the by Christian sentiments. Certainly. But I then ask, liberty of the world.* Poetry has delighted to display on what principle men of genius will justify themselves cognition of the ideas which the New Testament has given to for choosing, with a view to the instruction of the guide, in some small, very small degree, our conjectures. heart, as they profess, examples, of which they cannot $ Poetry will not easily exceed many of the expressions which preserve the consistency, without making them pernimere history has recorded. I should little admire the capability cious? Where is the conscience of that man, who is of feeling, or greatly admire the Christian temper, of the man who could without emotion read, for instance, the short observa. hope of freedom:'We shall either be victorious, or remove tions of Brutus to his friend, (in contemplation even of a self. beyond the power' of those that are so. We shall deliver our inflicted death,) on the eve of the battle which extinguished all country by victory, or ourselves by death.' 74 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. most anxious that every sentiment expressed by the'Death joins us to the great majority; historical or fictitious personage, in the fatal season,'Tis to be born to Platos and to COesars; should be harmonious with every principle of the cha-'Tis to be great forever. racter,-but feels not the smallest concern about the'Tis pleasure,'tis ambition then, to die.' consistency of selecting or creating the character itself, Another, an illustrious female, in a tragedy which I with his conviction of the absolute authority of the re- lately read, welcomes death with the following senti. ligion of Christ. In glancing forward, he knows that ments: his favourite is to die, and that he cannot die as a Chris- -' Oh'tis wondrous well! tian: yet he is to die with the most elevated moral Ye gods of death that rule the Stygian gloom! dignity. Would it not, therefore, be a dictate of con- Ye who have greatly died, I come! I come! dignity. Would it not, therefore, be a dictateThe hand of Rome can never touch me more; science to warn his readers, that he hopes to display Hail! perfect freedom, hailnever the exit with a commanding sublimity of which the natural effect will be, to make them no more wish to My free spirit should ere now Itave join'd die as Christians. But how would he feel while se- Tha t great assembly, th ose devoted shades, riously writing such a warning. Might it not be said But, ere their country fell, abhorr'd the light.' to him, And are you then willing to die otherwise than'Shift not thy colour at the sound of death; as a Christian? If you are, you virtually pronounce'It is to e perfection, glory, triumph. Christianity to be a feeble, and, to be consistent, should Nay, fondly would I choose it, though persuaded avow the rejection. If you are not, how can you en- It were a long, dark night without a morning; deavour to seduce your readers into an enthusiastic ad- To bondage far prefer it, since it is miration of such a kind of death as you wish that you Deliverance from a world where Romans rule.' may not die. How can you endeavour to inspire -' Then let us spread those sentiments, which would excite your apprehen- A bold, exalted wing, and the last voice we hear, sion and compassion for the state of your reader's Be that of wonder and applause.' mind, if you heard him utter them in his last hours 1' And is the sacred moment then so near? Is it necessary to the pathos and sublimity of poetry, to The moment when yon sun, those heavens, this earthy introduce characters which cannot be justly represented Hateful to me, polluted by the Romans, without falsifying our view of the most serious of all And all the busy, slavish race of men, moral subjects 1 If this be necessary, it would be bet- Shall sink at once, and straight anotherstate ter that poetry with all its charms were exploded, than Rise on a sudden round that the revelation of God should not attain its end, and fix its own ideas of death, clearly and alone, in the You will recollect to have read many that are equally minds of beings whose manner of preparing for it is of improper to engage a Christian's full sympathy, and infinite consequence. But this is far from being the therefore improper for a poet, admitting Christianity, to dilemma; since innumerable examples could be found, have written in order to engage that sympathy. It is a.or rationally imagined, of Christian greatness in death. pernicious circumstance in passages of this strain, that Is not then this preference of examples inimical to some of the general sentiments of anticipation and high Christianity, and is *not the sympathetic animation emotion which might be expressed by a dying Chriswhich so easily expresses their appropriate feelings, tian, are combined so intimately with other ideas and a and informs them with their utmost energy, a worse predominant state of feeling contradictory to Chritianikind of infidelity, as it is far more mischievous, than ty, as to tempt the mind by the approbation of the one that of the cold dealer in cavils and quibbles against into a tolerance of the other. the gospel. What is the Christian belief of that poet Sometimes even very bad men are made to display worth, who would not, on reflection, feel self-reproach such dignity in death, as at once to excite a sympathy for the affecting scene, which has, for a while, made with their false sentiments, and to lessen the horror of each of his readers rather wish to die with Socrates, their crimes. I recollect the interest with which Iread, or with Cato, than with St John. What would have many years since, in Dr Young's Busiris, the proud, Ibeen thought of the pupil of an apostle, who after hear- magnanimous speech at the end of which the tyrant ing his master describe the spirit of a Christian's de- dies: the following are some of the lines: parture from the world, in language which he believed'I thank these wounds, these raging pairs, which promise to be of conclusive authority, and which asserted or An interview with equals soon elsewhere. -clearly implied that this alone was greatness in death, Great Jove, I come! should have taken the first occasion to expatiate with Even the detestable Zanga, though conscious that' to enthusiasm on the closing scene of a philosopher, or on receive him hell blows all her fires,' appears, (if I recolthe exit of a stem hero, that, acknowledging in the lect right,) with a fine elevation in the prospect of death, visible world no object for either confidence or fear, by means, partly indeed of the sentiments of returning departed with the aspect of a being who was going to justice, but chiefly of heroic courage. To create an summon his gods to judgment for the misfortunes of his occasion of thus compelling us to do homage to the life. And how will these careless men of genius give dying magnanimity of wicked men, is an insult to the their account to the Judge of the world, for having vir- religion which condemns such magnanimity as madness. tually taught many aspiring minds that, notwithstand- It is no justification to say, that such instances have ing his first coming was to conquer for man the king of been known, and therefore such representations but terrors, there needs no recollection of him, in order imitate reality; for if the laws of criticism do not ento look toward death with noble defiance or sublime join, in works of genius, a careful adaptation of all desire. examples and sentiments to the purest moral purpose, Some of their dying personages are so consciously as a far higher duty than the study of resemblance to uninformed of the realities of the invisible state, that the actual world, the laws of piety most certainly do. the majestic sentiments which they disclose on the Let the men who have so much literary conscience verge of life, can only throw a slight glimmering on about this verisimilitude, content themselves with the unfathomnable darkness; but some anticipate the other office of mere historians, and then they may relate world, as I have already observed, in very defined im- without guilt, if the relation be simple and unvarnished, ages. I recollect one of them, after some just re- all the facts and speeches of depraved greatness within flections on the vanity and wretchedness of life, thus expressing his complacency in view of the great de- * This is not, perhaps, one of the best specimens; it is the iverer: last that has come under my notice. I am certain of having read many, but have not, just now, the means of finding them again. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 75 the memory of the world. But when they choose the ting a nature subject in so fatal a degree to moral evil, higher office of inventing and combining, they are ac- will fail. But even if a new revelation were given to countable for all the consequences. They create a turn this inquiry into noon-day, it would make no difnew person, and in sending him into society, they can ference in the actual state of things. An extension of choose whether his example shall tend to improve or knowledge could not reverse the fact, that the human to pervert the minds that will be compelled to admire nature has displayed thrligh every age the most aghim. gravated proofs of being in a deplorable and hateful It is an immense transition from such instances as condition, whatever were the reasons for giving a mothose which I have been remarking upon, to Rousseau's ral agent a constitution which it was foreseen would celebrated description of the death of his Eloisa, which soon be found in this condition. Perhaps, if there were would have been much more properly noticed in an a mind expanded to a comprehension so far beyond all earlier page. It is long since I read that scene, one of other created intelligences, that it could see at once the the most striking specimens probably of original con- whole order of the universe, and look into distant ages, ception and interesting sentiment that ever appeared; it might understand in what manner the melancholy fact but though the representation is so extended as to in- could operate to the perfection of the vast system; and ~elude every thing which the author thought needful to according to what principles, and in reference to what make it perfect, there is no explicit reference to the ends, all that has taken place within the empire of the peculiarly evangelical causes of complacency in death. eternal monarch is right. But in this contemplation Yet the representation is so admirable, that the serious of the whole, it would also take account of the sepa-reader is tempted to suspect even his own mind of fa- rate condition of each part; it would perceive that this inaticism, while he is expressing to his friends the wish human world, whatever are its relations to the universe, that they, and that himself, may be animated, in the has its own distinct economy of interests, and stands last day of life, by a class of ideas which this eloquent in its own relation and accountableness to the righteous writer would have been ashamed to introduce. governor; and that, regarded in this exclusive view, it is an awful spectacle. Now, to this exclusive sphere of our condition and interests revelation confines our attention; and pours contempt, though not more than LETTER IX. experience pours, on all attempts to reason on those The Estimate of the depraved moral Condition of Huma grand, unknown priniples, according to which the AlNature is quite different in Revelation and Polite Litera mighty disposes the universe; all our estimates, theretre —Consequently, the Redemption by Jesus Christ which fore, of the state and relations of man must take the subappears with such momentous Importance in the one, is, in ject on this insulated ground. Considering man in this comparison, a Trifle in the other-Ourfine Writers em- view, the sacred oracles have represented him as a more ploy and justify antichristian Motives to Action; espe- melancholy object than Nineveh or Babylon in ruins; cially the Love of Fame-The Morality of this Passion and an infinite aggregate of obvious facts confirms the argued-The earnest Repression of it shown to be a Duty doctrine. This doctrine, then, is absolute authority in -Some of the lighter Order of our popular Writers have But to this authoraided the Counteraction of Literature to Evangelical Re- speculations onhumannature. ligion by careless or malignant Ridicule of Things asso- ity the writers in question seem to pay, and to teach ciated with it-Brief Notice of the several Classes of fine their readers to pay, but little respect. And unless Writers, as lying under the Charge of contributing to those readers are preoccupied by the grave convictions alienate Men of Taste.from the Doctrines and moral Spirit of religious truth, rendered still more grave by painful of the New Testament-Moral Philosophers —Historians reflection on themselves, and bhy observation on manEssayists-Addison-Johnson-The Poets-Exception in kind; or unless they are capable of enjoying a malifavour of Milton, 4-c.-Pope-Antichristian Quality of or Iisanthropi e re, like Mandeville and kis Essa~ry on n-Novels —Melancholy Reflection on ~is Essay on Men-Novels-Melancholy Reflection on cious or misanthropic pleasure, like Mandeville and the Revieu —Conclusion. Swift, in detecting and exposing the degradation of our nature, it is not wonderful that they should be prompt Does it not appear to you, my dear friend, that an to entertain the sentiments which insinuate a much approving reader of the generality of our ingenious au- more flattering estimate. Our elegant and amusing -thors will entertain an opinion of the moral condition moralists no doubt copiously describe and censure the of our species very different from the divine declara- follies and vices of mankind; but many of these, they tions? The governor of all intelligent creatures has maintain, are accidental to the human character, rather spoken of this nation or family of them, as exceedingly than a disclosure of intrinsic qualities. Others do inremote from conformity to that standard of perfection deed spring radically from the nature; but they are which alone can ever be his rule of judgment. And only the wild weeds of a virtuous soil. Man is still a this is pronounced not only of vicious individuals, who very dignified and noble being, with strong dispositions are readily given up to condemnation by those who form to all excellence, holding a proud eminence in the ranks the most partial or the proudest estimate of human na- of existence, and, (if such a Being is adverted to,) high ture, but of the constitutional quality of that nature it- in the favour of his Creator. The measure of virtue self. The moral part of the constitution of man is in the world vastly exceeds that of depravity; we should represented as placing him immensely below that rank not indulge a fanatical rigour in our judgments of manof dignity and happiness to which, by his intellectual kind; nor be always reverting to an ideal perfection; powers, and his privilege of being immortal, he would nor accustom ourselves to contemplate the Almighty otherwise have seemed adapted to belong. The de- always in the dark majesty of justice. None of their scriptions of the human condition are such as if the speculations seem to acknowledge the gloomy fact which nature had, by a dreadful convulsion, been separated off the New Testament so often asserts or implies, that all at each side from a pure and happy system of the cre- men are,'by nature children of wrath.' ation, and had fallen down an immeasurable depth, into It is quite of course that among sentiments of this depravation and misery. In this state man is repre- order, the idea of the redemption by Jesus Christ, (if sented as loving, and, therefore, practically choosing,' any allusion to it should occur,) can appear with but an the evils which sutject him to the condemnation of equivocal meaning, and with none of that transcendent God; and it is affirmed that no expedient, but that very importance with which his own revelation has displayed extraordinary one which Christianity has revealed, can it. While man is not considered as lost, the mind change this condition, and avert this condemnation cannot do justice to the expedient, or to,'the only with its formidable consequences. name under heaven,' by which he can be redeemed. Every attempt to explain the wisdom and the precise Accordingly the gift of Jesus Christ does not appear to ultimate intention of the Supreme Being in constitu- be habitually recollected as the most illustrious instance 76 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. of the beneficence of God that has ever come to human since it is incapable of being gratified to satiety. The knowledge, and as the single fact which, more than all applause of a continent has not satisfied some men, nor others, has relieved the awfulness of the mystery in would that of the whole globe. To what extent, I rewhich our world is enveloped. No thankful joy seems to peat, may the desire be indulged? Evidently not bebeam forth at the thought of so mighty an interposition, yond that point where it begins to introduce its acesand of him who was the agent of it. When it is diffi- sories, disdainful comparison, or envy, or competition cult to avoid making some allusion to him, he is ac- or ungenerous wishes. But I appeal to each man who knowledged rather in any of his subordinate characters, has deeply reflected on himself, or observed those around than as absolutely a Redeemer; or if the term Redeem- him, whether, this desire, under even a considerably er, or, our Saviour, is introduced, it is with an awkward limited degree of indulgenee, does not introduce these formality, which betrays that its meaning is but little accessories; and whether, in order to exclude them from relished, or but little understood. Jesus Christ is re- his own mind, he has not often felt it necessary to adopt a garded rather as having added to our moral advantages, severity of restriction approaching near an endeavour to than as having conferred that without which all the rest suppress the very desire itself. In wishing to prohibit an were in vain; rather as having made the passage to a excess of its indulgence, h e has perceived that even a happy futurity somewhat more commodious, than as very small degree has amounted, or most powerfully having formed the passage itself over what was else an tended, to that excess-with that exception perhaps, of impassable gulf. Thus that comprehensive sum of that modification of the desire which has had reference blessings, called in the New Testament salvation, or to engaging the affection of relations or a few friends. redemption, is shrunk into a cornparatively incon- The measure, therefore, of this desire, which may be slderable favour, which a less glorious messenger permitted consistently with perfect innocence, will be might have brought, which a less magnificent language found to be exceedingly small. than that dictated by inspiration might have described Again, the desire cannot be cherished without oeand which a less costly sacrifice might have secured. coming a motive of action exactly in the degree in which It is consistent with this delusive idea of human it is cherished. Now if the supreime, though not only nature, and these faint impressions of the gospel, that motive of action in a pious mind, mnust be the wish to these writers commonly represent eternal felicity as please God, it is evident that the passion which supplies the pure reward of merit. I believe you will find this, another motive, ought not to be allowed in a degree as far as any illusions are -made to the subject, the that will empower this motive involved in it to contest, prevailing opinion through the school of polite literature. in the mind, the supremacy of the pious motive. But You will perceive it to be the real opinion of many wri- here I again appeal to the reflective man of conscience, ters who do sometimes advert, in some phrase employed whether he has not felt that a very small degree of inby way of respectful ceremony to ovr rational creed, to dulgence of the desire of human applause is enough, not the work or sacrifice of Christ. only to render the m6tive involved in it strong enough I might remark on the antichristian motives to ac- to maintain a rivalry with what should be the supreme tion which are more than tolerated among these au- motive, but absolutely to prevail over it. In each thors: I will only notice one, the love of glory; that is, pursuit or performance in which he has excelled, or the desire of being distinguished, admired, and praised. endeavoured to excel, has he not felt with grief and No one will deny that to wish for the favourable indignation that his thoughts much more promptly turnopinion of the human beings around us, is, to a cer- ed to the consideration of human praise, than of divine tain extent, and under certain conditions, consistent approbation? And when he has been able in some with the Christian laws. In the first place a material measure to repress this passion, has he not found that portion of human happiness depeinds on the attachment a very slight stimulus was competent to restore its imof relatives and friends, and it is right for a man to wish pious ascendency. Now what is the inference fiom for the happiness resulting from such attachment. But these observations? What can it be but absolutely the degree in which he will obtain attachment, will de- this, that though the desire of human applause is in pend very much on the higher or the lower estimate sonme certain small degree innocent, yet that since it so which these persons entertain of his qualities and mightily tends to an excess destructive of the very abilities. In order, therefore, to possess a great de- essence of piety, it ought, (excepting in the cases where gree of their affiection, it is right for him to wish, while he human estimation is sought purely as a means toward endeavours to deserve, that their estimate might be high. some valuable end,) to be opposed and repressed in a In the next place it is almost too plain to need an manner NOT MUCHI LESS general and unconditional than observatioii, that if it were possible for a man to desire if it were purely evil; and that all those things and the respect and admiration of mankind purely as a books which teld(, on the contrary, to aninmate it with mean of giving a greater efficacy to his efforts for their new force, are most pernicious? And such an inferwelfare, and for the promotion of the cause of heaven, ence is concordant with the spirit of the iNew Testawrile he would be equally gratified that any other man, ment which, though not requiring the absolute extincin whose hands this mean would have exactly the same tion of the desire of human applause, yet alludes to effect, should obtain the admiration instead of himself, most of its operations with censure, exhibits probably this would be sonlethingt more than innocent; it would no approved instance of its indulgence, and abounds indicate a most noble state of mind. But where is the with the most emphatically cogent representations, example. both of its pernicious influence when it predominates In the third place, as the Creator has fixed this desire in the mind and of its powerful tendency to acquire this in the essential constitution of our nature, he intended predominance. Insomuch that a serious reader of this its gratification, in some restricted degree, to be a di- boolk feels that the degree to which the most indulgent rect and'immediate cause of pleasure. The good Christian casuistry canl tolerate this desire, is a decree opinion of mankind, expressed in praise, pleases us by which it will be certain to reach and to exceed in his mind the same necessary and inexplicable laws according to in spite of the most systematical opposition. He will perwhich mutual affection pleases us, or according to which ceive that the question is not so much how far he may we are gratified by music, or the beauties and gales of encourage it, as by what means he say repress it; and spring. To a certain extent, therefore, it is innocent that in the effoirt to repress it, there is no possibility of to admit the gratification of this desire, simply for the going to an excess. The most resolute and persevering sake of this pleasure. exertion will still leave so much of this passion as But to what extent. It is very apparent that this Christianity will pronounce a fault or a vice. He will desire has, if I may so express it, an immense voracity. be anxious to assemble, in aid of the discipline by which It has within itself no natural principle of limitation, he endeavours to repress the feeling, all the arguments FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 77 of reason, all striking examples, and all the interdictions of that truth, have had cause to wish' those pages or of the Bible. volumes had gone into the fire, instead of coming into Now I think I cannot be mistaken in asserting, that their hands. Many others, who have not become thus much the greater number of ourfine writers have done seriously affected, retain the impression and cherish the the direct contrary of what I have thus represented a disgust. Gay writers ought to know that this is dandevout reader of the New Testament as feeling neces- gerous ground. sary to be done. Which of their advocates will ven- I am sorry that this extended censure on works of ture to deny, that they really have encouraged the love genius and taste could not be prosecuted with a more of applause, of fame, of glory, or whatever else it may marked application, and with more discriminate referbe called, in a degree which, if the preceding argument ences than the continual repetition of the expressions, is Just, places them in the most pointed hostility with' elegant literature,' and' these writers.' It might be a the Christian religion? Their good sense has, indeed, service of some value to the evangelical cause, if a work often, without adverting to the religious considerations, were written containing a faithful and serious estimate, admitted the conviction, and compelled the acknowledg- individually, of the most popular writers of the last ment, of the inanity of this glory. Almost all our in- century and a half, in respect to the important subject genious writers have, in one place or another, expressed of these comments; with formal citations from some of a contempt of the' fool to fame.' They perceived the their works, and a candid statement of the general tentruth, but as the truth did not make them free, they dency of others. In an essay like this it is impossible were willing after all to dignify a passion to which they to make an enumeration of names, or pass a judgment, felt themselves irretrievable slaves. And they have except in a very slight, occasional manner, on any parlaboured to do it by celebrating, with every splendid ticular author. Even the several classes of authors, epithet, the men who were impelled by this passion which I mentioned some time back, as coming under through the career in which they were the idols of man- the accusation, shall detain you buit a short time. kind and their own; by describing glory as the best in- The moral philosophers for the most part seem centive to noble actions, and their worthiest reward; anxious to avoid every thing that might subject them to by placing the temple of virtue (proud station of the the appellation of Christian divines. They regard their goddess) in the situation to be a mere introduction to department as a science complete in itself; and they inthat of Fame; by lamenting that so few, and their un- vestigate the foundation of morality, define its laws, and fortunate selves not of the number, can'climb the affix its sanctions, in a manner generally so distinct steep where that proud temple shines afar:' and by in- from Christianity, that the reader would almost contimating a charge of meanness of spirit against those, elude that religion to be another science complete in itwho have no generous ardour to distinguish themselves self.* An entire separation, indeed, it is hardly possifrom the crowd by deeds calculated and designed to ble to preserve; since Christianity has decided some command admiration. If sometimes the ungracious re- moral questions on which reason was dubious or silent; collection strikes them, and seems likely to strike their and since that final retribution which the New Testareaders, that this admiration is infinitely capricious and ment has so luminously foreshown, is evidently the perverse, since men have gained it without claims, and greatest of sanctions. To make no reference, while inlost it without demerit, and since all kinds of fools have culcating moral principles, to a judgment to come, after offered the incense to all kinds of villains, they escape it has been declared, on what has been confessed to be from the disgust and from the benefit of this recollec- divine authority, would look like systematic irreligion. tion by saying, that it is ho~nourable fame that noble But still it is striking to observe how small a portion of spirits seek; for they despise the ignorant multitude, the ideas, which distinguish the New Testament from and seek applause by none but worthy actions, and from other books, many moral philosophers have thought innone but worthy judges. Almost every one of these dispensable to a theory in which they professed to inwriters sometimes mentions the approbation of the Su- clude the sum of the duty and interests of man. A preme Being, as that to which wise and good men will serious reader is constrained to feel that either there is beyond all things aspire; but such an occasional ac- too much in that book, or too little in theirs. He will knowledgment feebly counteracts the effect of many perceive that, in the inspired book, the moral principles glowing sentiments and descriptions of a contrary ten- are intimately interwoven with all those doctrines which dency. I must read once Inore, and with a habit of could not have been known without that revelation. He mind adapted to receive impressions in a very different will find, also, in this superior book, a vast number of manner, the assemblage of our elegant classics, before ideas avowedly designed to interest the affections in faI can be convinced that the above representation is un- yvour of all moral principles and virtues. These ideas just; and if it is correct, there can be no question are taken from a consideration of the divine mercy, the whether they have instructed their readers to tolerate, compassion of the Redeemer, and other topics to which and even to cherish, anti-christian motives of action. moral philosophers have very rarely alluded. And I will only remark on one particular more, namely, though the same definition would apply to any given that the lighter order of these writers, and soine even virtue as illustrated in the inspired and in the philoof the graver, have increased the unacceptableness of sophical page, yet the manner in which it bears on the Christian doctrines to men of taste, by their manner of conscience and on the heart is materially different. The ridiculing the cant and extravagance by which hvpocrisy, difference becomes momentous, if it should be found enthusiasm, or the peculiarities of a sect or a period, may that the sacred authority pronounces the virtues of a haae disgraced them. Sometimes, indeed, they have good man not to be the cause of his acceptance with selected and burlesqued modes of expression which God, and that the philosophic moralists disclaim any were not cant, and which ignorance and impiety alone other. On the whole, it must be concluded that there would have dared to ridicule. And often, in exposing cannot but be something very defective in the theory of to contempt the follies of language or manners, by morality which makes so slight an acknowledgment of which a Christian of good taste deplores that the pro- the religion of Christ, and takes so little of its peculiar fession of the gospel should ever have been deformed, character. The philosophers place the religion in the they take not the smallest care to preserve a clear sepa- relation of a diminutive satellite to the world of moral ration between what taste and sense have a right to ratelo between what pietaste and o resense have a right to * When it happens, sometimes, that a moral topic hardly can explode, and what piety commands to reverence. By be disposed of without some recognition of its involving, or bethis criminal carelessness, (unless, indeed, it were de- ing intimateiy coniected with, a theological doctrine it is cusign,) they have fixed disagreeable and irreverent asso- rious to notice with what an air of indifference somewsat partaking of coiltemrt, one of these wvriters will observe, that that riation, on the evangelical truth itself, for which many -f the matter is the business of thee. ivines, with whos0 >persons, afterwards bcorne mzore, se7 7 y VlCnviei of the mat ter is the business of the divines, witt whose persons, afterwards become more seriously convinced departm^,t ho does not pretend to intri.re. 78 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. and eternal interests; useful, as throwing a few rays on ashamed to apply, or never took the trouble to underthat side of it on which the solar light of human wisdom stand. How they will be confounded, if some of the could not directly shine; but that it can impart a vital men whom they had extolled, are consigned to ignowarmth, or that it claims the ascendant power and ho- miny, and some that they had despised, are applauded nours, some of them seem not to have a suspicion. by the voice at which the earth will tremble and be siWithout doubt, innumerable reasonings and conclu- lent. But such a sad humiliation will, I think, be apsions may be advanced on moral subjects which shall prehended for many of the historians, by every seri. be true on a foundation of their own, equally in the pre- ous Christian reader who shall take the hint of this sence of the evangelical system and in its absence. subject along with him through their works. He will Without any reference to that system, or if it had never not seldom feel that the writers seem uninformed, while been appointed or revealed, it had been easy to illus- they remark and decide on actions and characters, that trate, the utility of virtue, the elevation which it confers a final lawgiver has come from heaven, or that he will on a rational being, its conformity with the orders of come, or on what account he will come, yet once more. the universe, and many other views of the subject. It Their very diction often abjures the plain Christian dewould also have been easy to pass from virtue in the nominations of good and evil; nor do I need to enumeabstract into an illustration and enforcement of the se- rate the specious and fallacious terms which they have veral distinct virtues as arranged in a practical system. employed in their place. How, then, can a mind which An&'if it should be asked, Why may not some writers learns to think in their manner, learn, at the same time, employ their speculations on those parts and views of to think in his from whose opinion it will, however, be moral truth which are independent of the gospel, leaving found no light matter to have dissented, when they shall it to other men to Christianize the whole by the addi- be declared for the last time in this world tion of the evangelical relations, motives and condi- The various interesting sets of short Essays, espetions 1 I readily answer, That this may sometimes cially the Spectator and Rambler, must have had, durvery properly be done. AAn author may render valua- ing a se'ason at least, a very considerable influence on ble service by explaining, for instance, the utility of the moral taste of the public; and probably they have virtue in general, or of any particular virtue, or by a a considerable influence still. The very ample scope clear illustration of any other circumstance of the mo- of the Spectator gave a fair opportunity for a serious ral system. In doing this, he would expressly take a writer to introduce, excepting pure science, a little of marked ground, and aim at a specific object. He every subject connected with the condition and happiwould not let it be imagined for a moment that this ness of men. How did it happen that the stupendous particular view of the subject of morals involved all the circumstance of the redemption by the Messiah, of relations of that subject with the interests of man, and which the importance is commensurate with the whole with God. It would be fully understood that a multi- interests of man, with the value of his immortal spirit, tude of other considerations were indispensable to a with the government of his Creator in this world, and complete moral theory. But the charge against the with the happiness of eternity, should not have been a moral philosophers is meant to be applied to those who few times, in the long course of that work, fully and have professed to consider morals under a comprehen- solemnly exhibited 1 Why should not a few of the sive view, including all the relations in which they are most peculiar of the doctrines comprehended in the connected with duty and happiness; and who, in this subject have Deen clothed with the fascinating elegance comprehensive view, seem quite to have forgotten the of Addison, from whose pen many persons would have implication of moral with evangelical truth, since they received an occasional evangelical lesson with incomneither include the evangelical ideas in their specula- parably more candour than from any professed divine 1 tions, nor appear sensible of a defect. A pious and benevolent man, such as the avowed advoWhen I mention our Historians, it will instantly oc- cate of Christianity ought to be, should not have been cur to you, that the very foremost names in this depart- contented that so many thousands of minds as his writment imply every thing that is deadly to the Christian ings were adapted to instruct and to charm should have religion itself, as a divine communication, and there- been left, for any thing that he very explicitly attemptfore lie under condemnation of a different kind. But ed to the contrary in his most popular works, to end a as to the generality of those who have not been life which he had contributed to refine, acquainted but regarded as enemies to the Christian cause, have they slightly with the grand security of happiness after death. not forgotten what was due from its friends? The Or, if it was not his duty to introduce in a formal manhistorian intends his, work to have the effect of a series ner any of the most specifically evangelical subjects, it of moral estimates of the persons whose actions he re- might at least have been expected, that some of the cords; now, if he believes that a Judge of the world many serious essays contained in the Spectator should will come at length, and pronounce on the very charac- have had more of a Chirstian tinge, more references to ters that his work adjudges, it is one of the simplest the sentiments of the gospel, intermingled with the dictates of good sense, that all the awards of the histo- speculations concerning the Deity, and the gravest morian should be faithfully coincident with the judgments ral subjects. There might easily have been more aswhich may be expected from that supreme authority on similation of what may, as it now stands, be called a the last day. Those distinctions of character, which literary religion, to the spirit of the New Testament. the historian applauds as virtues, or censures as vices, From him also, as a kind of dictator among the majorshould be exactly the same qualities, which the lan- ity of the elegant writers of the age, it might have been guage already heard from that judge certifies us that expected that he would have set himself, with the same he will applaud or condemn. It is worse than foolish decision and noble indignation which his Cato had to erect a literary court of morals and human character, shown against the betrayers of Roman liberty and laws, of which the maxims, the language, the decisions, and to denounce that ridicule which has wounded religion the judges, will be equally the objects of contempt be- by a careless or by a crafty manner of holding up its fore him whose intelligence will instantly distinguish abuses to scorn: but of this the Spectator itself is not and place in light the right and the wrong of all time. free from examples. What a wretched abasement will overwhelm on that Addison wrote a book expressly in defence of the day some of the pompous historians, who were called religion of Christ; but to be the dignified advocate of by others, and deemed by themselves, the high authori- a cause, and to be its humble disciple, may be very diftative censors of an age, and whose verdict was to fix ferent things. An advocate has a feeling of making on each name immortal honour or infamy, if they shall himself important-he seems to confer something on find many of the questions and the decisions of that tri- the cause; but as a disciple, he must feel littleness, bunal proceed onprinciples!which they would have been humanity, and submission. Self-admiration might find FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 79 more to gratify it in be6oming the patron of a beggar, tial assent on subjects, on which it has been the delight than the servant of the greatest potentate. Addison of wise and devout men to expatiate. was, moreover, very unfortunate, for any thing like jus- If there be any truth in the representations which tice to the gospel, in the class of persons with whom he compose so large a part of this essay, Johnson's conassociated, and whom he was anxious to please. One tinual immersion, if I may so express it, in the studies can imagine with what a perfect storm of ridicule he of polite literature, must have subjected him to no small would have been greeted, on entering one of his cele- measure of an influence, which it requires a more intibrated coffee-houses of wits, on the day after he should mate and habitual familiarity with the Christian princlhave published in the Spectator, a paper, for instance, ples than perhaps we are warranted to believe he mainon the necessitybf being devoted to the service of Jesus tained, to prevent being injurious to a man's views and Christ. The friendship of the world ought to be a feelings concerning religion.'pearl of great price,' for its cost is very serious. It must, however, be admitted that this illustrious The powerful and lofty mind of Johnson was much author, who, though here mentioned only in the class more capable of scorning the ridicule, and defying the of essayists, is to be ranked among the greatest of opposition, of wits and worldlings. And yet it is too moral philosophers, is less at variance with the principrobable that his social life was eminently unfavourable ples which appear to be displayed in the New Testato a deep and simple consideration of Christian senti- ment, than almost any other distinguished writer of ment; and that the very ascendency by which he inment; and that the very ascendency by which he in- either of these classes. But few of his speculations, timidated and silenced impiety, contributed to the in- comparatively, tend to beguile the reader and admirer into that spirit which, on turning to the instructions of very learned, some were extremely able, but of whom Jesus Christ and his apostles, would feel estrangement comparatively few made any decided profession of or disgust; and he has more explicit and solemn referpiety; and, perhaps, a considerable number were such ences to the grand purpose of human life, to a future as would in other society have shown a strong propen- judgment, and to eternity, than almost any other of our sity to irreligion. This, however, seldom dared to ap- elegant moralists has had the piety or the courage to pear undisguisedly in Johnson's presence and it is make. There is so much that most powerfully coinmpossible not to revere the strength and noble severi- cides and co-operates with Christian truth, that the dis-,mpossible not to revere the strength and noble severity that made it so cautious. But this repression of ir- iple of Christianity the more regrets to meet occasionreligion had the effect of rendering mally a sentiment, respecting perhaps the review of life, religion had the effect of rendering many men accepta- the consolations in death, the effect of repentance, or ble associates, with whom his judgment, his conscience, the consolations in dea the effect of repentance, or and all his moral feelings, would have forbidden much friendly intercourse, if those men had habitually assum- concile with the evangelical theory, nor with those prined the freedom of fully disclosing themselves. Deco- ciples of Christian faith in which Johnson avowed his belief. In such a writer he cannot but deem such derum in respect to religion being preserved, he could viations a matter of grave culpability. take a most lively interest in the company of men who viations a matter of grave culpability. drew forth the utmost force and stores of his mind, in Omission is his other capital fault. Though he did conversations on literature, moral philosophy, and gen- more distinct allusions to religios as have observed eral intelligence, and who could enrich every subject of other moralist yet he did not introduce them so often social argument by their learning, their genius, or their other moralists, yet he did not introduce them so often knowledge of mankind. But if there was at the same as may be claimed from a writer who frequently carries seriousness to the utmost pitch of solemnity. There time a repressed impiety latent in their minds, it was ries seriousness to the utmost pitch of solemnity. There impossible that it should not infuse into the sentiments scarcely ever was an author, not formally theological, which they communicated, a certain quality unconge- in whose works a large proportion of explicit Christian nial with Christianity, though every thing avowedly op- sentiment was more requisite for a consistent entireposed to it were in his company avoided. Now, ness of character, than in the moral writings of Johnthrough the complacency which he felt in such intel- son. No writer ever more completely exposed and lectual intercourse, this quality would, in some degree, blasted the folly and vanity of the greatest number of steal into his own ideas and feeling. For it is not in human pursuits. The visage of Medusa could not have the power of the strongest and most vigilant mind, darted a more fatal glance against the tribe of gay triamidst the animated interchange of eloquence, to avoid flers, the competitors of ambition, the proud possessors amidst thdegree of assimilation to even the least approved of wealth, or the men who consume their life in useless some degree of assimilation to even the least approved s l. is severe and just condemnation strikes sentiments of men whose intellectual wealth or energy speculations. His severe and ust condemnation strikes gives so much pleasure, and commands so much respect. indeed at almost all classes, and all the most favourite gves ~o much pleasure, and commands so much respect. Thus the very predominance by which he could repress employments of mankind. But it was so much the the direct irreligion of statesmen, scholars, wits, and ac- e peculiarly his duty to insist, still more fully than he did, on that one model of character, that one grand complished men of the world, might, by retaining him he did, on that o f life, w hich is enjoined by heaven, and their intimate or frequent associate, subject him to meet which w ill stand the test of the most rigid by heaven, and the influence of that irreligion acting in a manner too indi- whlch willon, and of the final account. No author has more rect and refined to excite his hostility or his caution. ation, and of the final account. No author has more impressively displayed the misery of human life: he But, indeed, if his caution was excited, there might still laid himself under so much the stronger obligation to be a possibility of self-deception in the case. He would unfold most explicitly the only effectual consolations, feel it, and justly feel it, so great an achievement to the true scheme of felicity as far as it is attainable on constrain such men as I have described, to adopt, at least earth, and the delightful prospect of that better region by acquiescence, when with him, a better style of moral which has so often inspired exultation in the most sentiment, cleared of all obvious irreligion, that he melancholy situations. No writer has better illustrated might be too much disposed to be satisfied himself with the rapidity of time, and the shortness of life; he ought such an order of sentiments. It would be difficult for so much the more fully to have dwelt on the views of him to admit that what was actually a victory over im- that eternity at which his readers are reminded that piety, could be itself less than Christianity. It is hard they will so quickly arrive. No writer will easily make for a man to suspect himself deficient in that very thing more poignant reflections on the pains of guilt: was it in which he not only excels other men, but mends not indispensable that he should oftener have directed them. Nothing can well be more unfortunate for the mind suffering this deepest distress to that great Christian attainments, than to be habitually in society sacrifice once offered for sin? No writer represents where a man will feel as if he displayed a saintly emi- with more accurate and mortifying truth the faiiure of nence of character by obtaining a decent silence or par- human resolutions, and the feebleness of human efforts, 80 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. in the contest against corrupt inclination, depraved If it be said for some parts of these dim speculations, habit, and temptation: why did not this melancholy that though Christianity comes'forward as the practical contemplation and experience prompt a very frequent dispensation of truth, yet there must be, in remote abrecollection, and a most emphatical expression of the straction behind it, some grand, ultimate, elementary importance, of that divine assistance, without which the truths, of which this dispensation does not inform us, Bible has fully warned us that our labours will fail or which it reduces from their pure recondite into a In applying the censure to the poets, it is very grati- more palpable and popular form; I answer, And what tying to meet with so much to applaud in the most ele- did the poet, or' the master of the poet and the song,' vated of all their tribe. Milton's genius might harmo- know about these truths, and how did they come by niously have mingled with the angels that announced the their information? Messiah to be come, or that on the spot and at the mo- A serious observer must acknowledge with regret, ment of his departure predicted his coming again; that such a class of productions as novels, in which might have shamed to silence the muses of paganism; folly tries to please in a greater number of shapes than or softened the pains of a Christian martyr. Part of the poet enumerates in the Paradise of Fools, is capathe poetical works of Young, those of Cowper, Watts, ble of producing a very considerable effect on the moand a few others, have animated a very great number ral taste of the community. A large proportion of them, of minds with sentiments, which they did not feel it however. consist too much of pure folly to have any necessary to repress or exting-Jish in order to listen with more specific counteraction to Christian principles than complacency to the language of Christ and his apostles. that of mere folly in general; excepting, indeed, that But as to the great majority of the poets, it would be the most flimsy of them will occasionally contribute most curious to try what kind of religious system, and their mite of mischief, by alluding to a Christian prowhat view of the economy of man, would be formed by fession in a manner that identifies it with the cant by the assemblage of all the sentiments belonging or al- which hypocrites have aped it, or the extravagance luding to the subject throughout their works; if such an with which fanatics have distorted it. But a great and experiment were worth the trouble, and there were any direct force of counteracting influence proceeds from person sufficiently in the state of the ingenuous Huron those which eloquently display characters of eminent to perform it justly. But it would be exceedingly vigour and virtue, when that virtue is founded on no amusing to observe the process and the fantastic result; basis consolidated by religion; but on a mixture of reit would, in the next place, be very sad to consider, that fined pride with generous feeling, or expressly on those these fallacies have been insinuated by the charms of philosophical principles which are too often accompanipoetry into countless thousands of minds, with a beguile- ed, in these works, by an avowed or strongly intimated ment that has, first, diverted them from a serious atten- contempt of every idea of any religion, especially the tion to the gospel, then formed them to a habitual dis- Christian. If the case is mended in those into which like of it, and finally operated to betray some of them to an awkward religion has found its way, it is rather be-' the doom which, beyond the grave, awaits the neglect cause the characters excite less interest, than because of Jesus Christ. that which they do excite is favourable to religion. No You have probably seen Pope cited as a Christian reader is likely to be impressed with the dignity of be. poet, by some pious authors, whose anxiety to impress ing a Christian by seeing, in one of these works, an atreluctant genius into an appearance of favouring Chris- tempt to combine that character with the fine gentletianity, has credulously seized on any occasional verse man by means of a most ludicrous apparatus of amuse. which seemed an echo. of the sacred doctrines. No ments and sacraments, churches and theatres, morningreader can admire more than I, the discriminate thought, prayers and evening-balls. Nor will it perhaps be of the finished execution, and the galaxy of poetical fe- any great service to the Christian cause, that some licities, by which Pope's writings are distinguished. others of them profess to exemplify and defend, against But I cannot refuse to perceive, that almost every allu- the cavils and scorn of infidels, a religion of which it sion in his lighter works to the names, the facts, and does not appear that the writers would have discovered the topics, that peculiarly belong to the religion of the merits, had it not been established by law. One Christ, is in a style and spirit of profane banter; and may doubt whether any one will be more than amused that, in most of his graver ones, where he meant to be by the venerable priest, who is introduced probably dignified, he took the utmost care to divest his thoughts among wicked lords and giddy girls, to maintain the of all the mean vulgarity of Christian associations. sancity of terms, and attempt the illustration of doc-'Off! ye profane!' might seem to have been his address trines, which these well-meaning writers do not perto all evangelical ideas, when he began his Essay on ceive that the worthy gentleman's college, diocesan and Man; and they were obedient, and fled; for if you de- library, have but very imperfectly enabled him to untach the detail and illustrations, so as to lay bare the derstand. If the reader even wished to be more than outline and general principles of the work, it will stand amused, it is easy to imagine how mush he would be likeconfest an elaborate attempt to redeem the whole theory ly to be instructed and affected, by such an illustration or of the condition and interests of men, both in life and fence of the Christian religion, as the writer of a fadeath, from all the explanations imposed on it by an shionable novel would deem a graceful expedient for unphilosophical revelation from heaven. And in the filling up his plot. happy riddance of this despised though celestial light, it One cannot close such a review of our fine writers exhibits a sort of moon-light vision, of thin, impalpable without melancholy reflections. That cause which will abstractions, at which a speculatist may gaze, with a raise all its zealous friends to a sublime eminence on dubious wonder whether they are realities or phantoms; the last and most solemn day the world has to behold, but which a practical man will in vain try to seize and and will make them great forever, presented its claims turn to account, and which an evangelical man will dis- full in sight of each of these authors in his time. The dain to accept in substitution for those applicable and very lowest of those claims could not be less than a affecting forms of truth with which his religion has conscientious solicitude to beware of every thing that made him conversant. But what deference to Chris- could in any point injure the sacred cause. This tianity'was to be expected, when such a man as Boling- claim has been slighted by so many as have lent attracbroke was the genius whose imparted splendours was to tion to an order of moral sentiments greatly discordant illuminate, and the demigod* whose approbation was to with its principles. And so many are gone into etercrown, the labours which were to conjoin these two nity under the charge of having employed their genius, venerable names, according to the wish of the poet, in as the magicians their enchantmuents against Moses, to everlasting fame counteract the Saviour of the world. ~ He is so named somewhere in Pope's works. Under what restrictions, then, ought the study of po. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 81 lite literature to be conducted? I cannot but have are born, in a civilized country. It is indispensable to foreseen that this question must return at the end of acquire the advantage; it is inevitable to incur the evil. these observations; and I can only answer as I have The means of counteraction will amount, it is to be answered before. Polite literature will necessarily con- feared, to no more than palliatives. Nor can these be tinue to be the grand school of intellectual and moral proposed in any specific method. All that I can do is, cultivation. The evils, therefore, which it may contain, to urge on the reader of taste the very serious duty of will as certainly affect in some degree the minds of the continually recalling his mind, and if he is a parent or successive students, as the hurtful influence of the cli- preceptor, of cogently representing to his pupils, the real mate, or of the seasons, will affect their bodies. To be character of the religion of the New Testament, and the thus affected, is a part of the destiny under which they reasons which command an inviolable adherence to it. ESSAY V. ON POPULAR IGNORANCE. MY PEOPLE ARE DESTROYED FOR LACK OF KNOWLEDGE. — osea, CHAPTER I. move its affections to any depth, though the subjects HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE GENERAL CONDITION OF appealing to them be unspeakably mournful. MANKIND, IN AN INTELLECTUAL RESPECT, AT DIF- That the'people are destroyed,' is perceived to FERENT PERIODS. have the sound of a lamentable declaration. But the import which it languidly conveys to the mind, sinks SECTION I. into insignificance as received into a state of feeling Indifference of the Human Mind to representations of which, if reducible to distinct thought would be expressed Indierece f th Huan Mier toto this effect;-that the people's destruction, in whatMisery. ever sense of the word, is, doubtless, a deplorable It may excite in us some sense of wonder, and per- thing, but quite a customary and ordinary matter, the haps of self-reproach, to reflect with what a stillness prevailing fact, indeed, in the general state of this and indifference of the mind we can read and repeat world; that, in truth, they seemed to be made but to sentences asserting facts which are awful calamities; be destroyed, for that they have always been, in a variety espe'ially if we perceive that this repose of feeling re- of ways, the subjects of destruction; that, subjected in mains undisturbed when the calamities so pronounced common with all living corporeal beings on earth to the have all the aggravationof being of a moral and spiritual doom of death, and to a fearful diversity of causes tendnature. And this indifference is not an extraordinary ing to inflict it, they have also appeared, through their thing, the mere transient effect of occasional heaviness long sad history, consigned to a spiritual and moral deand languor. The self-inspector must often be com- struction, if that term be applicable to a condition the pelled to acknowledge it as an indication of the moral reverse of wisdom, goodness, and happiness; that, in habit of his mind, that ideas of misery and destruction, short, such a sentence as that taken from the prophet, though expressed in the plainest, strongest language, is too merely an expression of what has been always seem to come with but a faint glimmer on his appre- and over the whole world self-evident, to exite any parhension, and die away without being able to awake one ticular attention or emotion. emotion of that sensibility which so many comparatively Thus the destruction, in every sense of the word, of trifling causes can bring into exercise. human creatures, is so constantly obvious, as mingled Will the hearers of the'sentence just now repeated and spread throughout the whole system of things in from the sacred book, give a moment's attention to the which we are placed, that the mind has been insensibly manner in which it impresses them? Would you find wrought to that guarded state which we acquire in deit difficult to say what idea, or whether any thing that fence of our own ease, against any grievance which is can properly be denominated an idea at all, has been habitually present to us. The instinctive policy, with formed by the sound of words bearing so melancholy a respect to this prevailing destruction, has been-not to significance? And would you be constrained to own feel. And the art of maintaining this exemption, by all that they excite no interest which would not instantly the requisite devices, avoidances, and fallacies,. has begive place to that of the smallest of your own concerns, come almost mechanical. When fully matured, it apsuggested in the course of your thoughts, or to the ten- pears like a wonderful adventitious power, added to the dency to wander loose among casual fancies, or to feel- natural faculties of the mind,-a power of not seeing, ings of the ludicrous, if any little unlucky or whimsical (though with eyes open, and perfectly endowed with incident were to happen? It is at least too probable sight,)what is obviously and glaringly presented to view that this is true of the majority of any numerous as- on all sides. There is, indeed, a dim general recognisemblage, even though concerns of the gravest interest tion that such things are; the hearing of a bold denial be ostensibly the object of their meeting. And per- of their existence might provoke the mind in re-action haps even many of even the most serious will confess, to go out in intent observation to take account of them; they are mortified to find what strong repeated painful and their reality and dreadful excess would then be exertion it requires, to-fix the mind so effectually as to asserted in emphatic terms of contradiction to that dcK 82 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. nial, their impression continuing in force as long as re- recollection, as a matter of experience, of the ignorance quired for maintaining that contradiction; but, in the which actually preceded one part, and another, of the ordinary state of feeling, the mind preserves a comfort- knowledge, in the progress of its attainment: the reable dulness of perception towards the melancholy vi- collection will be very imperfect in those personsespesion, and sees it as if it saw it not. cially who were well instructed in their childhood. This habitual and fortified insensibility may, indeed, But though you cannot perform in imagination a series be sometimes broken in upon with violence, by the sud- of acts of unlearning, realizing to yourselves, through den occurrence of some particular instance of human out the retrogradation, what you would be, intellectualdestruction, in either import of the word, some example ly, at each successive extinction of a portion of knowof peculiar aggravation, or happening under extraor- ledge, you can go backward along this train in the way dinary and striking circumstances, or very near us in of supposing the negation of the valuable benefits which place or interest. An emotion is excited of pity, or have arisen to you from knowledge. Distinguishing terror, or horror; so strong, that if the person has been the respective advantage accruing to you at each stage, habitually thoughtless, and has no wish to be other- and from each particular part, of your knowledge prowise, he fears he shall never be able to recover his state gressively acquired, you can so make the supposition of careless ease; or, if of a more serious disposition, of that advantage not, having become yours, as to thinks it impossible he can ever cease to feel an awful conceive, in some measure, in what state you would and salutary effect. This more serious person perhaps have been in the absence of it. And, while going also thinks it must be inevitable that henceforward his through this process, you may consider that you are feelings will be more alive to the miseries of mankind. making out a representation of the condition of innuBut how mighty is the power of habit against any sin- merable beings of your race. gle impressions made in contravention to it! Both the It may be presumed of many in a numerous grave thoughtless and the more reflective man may probably assemblage of persons, that if their attention were difind, that a comparatively short lapse of time suffices to rected to take an account of the benefit they have rerelieve them from any thing more than slight momen- ceived through the medium of knowledge, they might in tary reminiscences of what had struck them with such sober truth, and the spirit of gratitude, say they do not painful force, and to restore, in regard to the general well know where to begin the long enumeration, nor view of the acknowledged misery of the human race. how to bring into one estimate so ample a diversity of nearly the accustomed tranquillity. The course of valuable things. It might be something like being askfeeling bears some resemblance to a listless stream of ed to specify, in brief terms, what a highly improved water, which, after having been provoked into turbu- portion of the ground, in a tract rude and sterile if left to lence and ebullition, by a massive substance flung into itself, has received from cultivation. No little time it, or by its precipitation at a rapid, relapses, in the would be required to consider and recount what it has progress of a few fathoms and a few moments, into its received. The fancy is carried back through a gradaformer sluggishness of current. tion of states and appearances, in which the now fertile But is it well that this should be the state of feeling, spots, and picture-like scenes, and commodious passes, while a fatal process is going on under which the peo- may or must have existed in the advance from the oriple are destroyed. Is there not cause to suspect some ginal rudeness. The estimate of what has ultimately unsound principles in a tranquillity to which it makes been effected, rises at each stage in this retrospect of no material difference whether the multitude be destroy- the progress, in which so many valuable changes and ed or saved. which would hardly, perhaps, have been additions still required to be followed by something excited to an act of deprecation at the view of what more, to complete the scheme of improvement. In Ornan beheld, and which might have permitted the pri- thus tracing backward the condition of a now fair and vileged patriarch to sink in a soft slumber at the mo- productive place of human dwelling and subsistence, ment when the ark was felt to move from its ground. it may easily be recollected, what a vast number of the Is it possible to conceive that beings put in one place, earth's inhabitants there are whose places of dwelling so near together, so much alike, and under such a com- are in all those states of worse cultivation and commoplication of connexions and dependences, can yet really diousness, and what multitudes leading a miserable be so insulated, as that some of them may, without any and precarious life amidst the inhospitableness of the thing wrong in feeling, behold, with unmoved compo- waste howling wilderness. Each presented circumsure, innumerable companies of the rest in such a stance of fertility or shelter, salubrity or beauty, may condition, that it had been better for them not to have be named as what is wanting to a much greater numexisted. ber of the occupants of the world, then enjoy such an To such a condition a vast multitude have been con- advantage. signed by the' lack of knowledge.' And we have to If, ill like manner, a person richly possessed of the appeal to whatever there is of benevolence and con- benefits imparted by means of knowledge, finds, in atscience in those who deem themselves happy instances tempting to estimate the amount of good thus acquired, of exemption from this deplorable consignment and who that the kind and modes of it, in their variety, combiascribe their state of inestimable privilege to knowledge, nations, and gradations from less to greater, rise so fast it being a consequence which has resulted, under the on his view, that his computing faculty loses itself blessing of heaven, from information, from truth, hav- among them, he may be reminded that this account of ing been communicated to their minds. Amidst the his wealth is, in truth, that of many other men's poverbenefit and delight of what they thus possess in conse- ty. A comparison for compassion may be made at the quence of knowing, they.might make, sometimes, the view of one important advantage after another, ascertrial of how far they can go toward conceiving what tained to have been fromn this source and observed their condition would be under a negation of that pos- through their progress of enlargement, while he thinks session by a negation of its cause. It may, indeed, be what it would be to suffer a depravation of all this good, alleged that the mind has not the power to place itself or a reduction to its smallest measure, and then rein any effectual imagination of the predicament of suf- alizes to himself the melancholy fact, that parallel to fering, or having suffered, an annihilation of its know- such a state is that of the multitude in every direction. ledge; that it cannot follow out a supposed process of -But truly what a state that must be, if men still but putting out one bright fixed truth within it, and another, very partially enlightened, and feeling themselves in all ii. order to conceive the state it would be in if they respects imperfect, and also exposed to sorrows and were extinguished. It is true that such a voluntary doomed to death, can, nevertheless, look down upon it artificial eclipse of the light of the soul is not practi- with compassion, in consequence of what knowledge cable: all that is possible in this way, is an imperfect has done for them! To what a depth this implies that FOSTER'S ESSAYS'. 83 their fellow mortals are sunk by the'lack of know- condition, that any thing is the less acceptible for comledge.' ing directly.from God; it being quite consistent, that We may say to persons so favoured,-If knowledge the state of mind which is declared to be' enmity against has been made the cause that you are beyond all corn- him,' should have a dislike to his coming so near, as to parison better qualified to make the short sojourn on impart his comnnunications, as it were, by his immediate this earth to the greatest advantage, think what a fatal act, and bearing on them the fresh and sacred impresthing that must be which condemns so many, whose lot sion of his hand. The supplies for man's temporal beis contemporary, and in vicinity with yours, to pass ing are conveyed to him through an extended medium, through the most precious possibilities of good unpro- through a long process of nature and art, which seems fited, and at last to lookback on life as a lost adventure. to place the great first cause at a commodious distance; If through knowledge you have been introduced into a and those gifts are, on that account, more welcome, on new and superior world of ideas and realities, and your the whole, than if they were sent like the manna. The intellectual being there brought into exercise among manna itself would not, probably, have been so soon the highest interests, and into communication with the loathed, had it been produced in what we call the regunoblest objects, think of that state of the soul to which lar course of nature. And with respect to the intellecthis better economy has no existence. If knowledge tual communications which were given to constitute rendered efficacious has become, in your minds, the light the light of knowledge in their souls, there can, on the and joy of the Christian faith and hope, look at the state same principle, be no doubt that they would more willof those whose minds have never been cultivated to an ingly have opened their minds to receive them, and exability to entertain the evangelical truths even as mere in- ercised their faculties upon them, if they could have aptellectual notions. In a word, what a state and what a peared as something originating in human wisdom, or calamity you deem the abandonment of human spirits at least as something which had been long surrendered to ignorance to be, when you would not for the wealth, by the divine revealer, to maintain itself in the world literally, of an empire or a world, consent, were it on much the same terms as the doctrines worked out possible, to descend into it from that to which you have from mere human speculation. But trutk declared to been advanced by means of knowledge. them, and inculcated on them, through a continual But in this state have the multitude been from the immediate manifestation of the sovereign intelligence, time of the prophet, whose words we have cited, down had a glow of divinity (if we may so express it) that to this hour. Our design is to offer, without much for- was unspeakably offensive to their minds, which theremality of method, a series of observations descriptive fore receded with instinctive avoidance. They were of the wretchedness, especially in a moral point of view, averse to look toward that which they could not see naturally and inseparably attending on prevailing igno- without seeing God; and thus they were hardened in rance in the people; though it might perhaps be con- ignorance, through a re-action of human depravity tended that the emphatic sentence of this ancient de- against the too luminous approach of the divine prenunciator referred rather to the punishment inflicted by sence to give them wisdom. divine judicial appointment on the guilt involved in But, in whatever degree the case might be thus, as that ignorance, and on the crimes resulting from it.'to the cause, the fact is evident, that the Jewish people Exact distinctions, however, as to the mode in which were not more remarkable for this state of privilege, the fatal consequence was connected with the cause, than for the little benefit, in point of mental light, which would be in little account with him who was deploring they acquired under a dispensation specially and miracuso sad a calamity. lously constituted and administered for their instruction. The sacred history of which they are the subject, ex hibits every mode in which the intelligent faculties may resist, evade, or pervert the truth; every way in which SECTION II. the decided preference for darkness may avail to defy what might have been presumed to be irresistible irraDisastrous Consequences of Ignorance in the Ancient diations; every condition of ignorance which makes it Israelites. be also guilt; and every form of practical mischief in which the natural tendency of ignorance is shown. A The prophets had their exalted, privilige of dwelling great part of what the devout teachers of that people amidst the illuminations of heaven, effectually counter- had to address to them, wherever they appeared among vailed by the daily spectacle of the grossest manifesta- them, was in reproach of their ignorance, and in order, tions and mischiefs of ignorance, among the very peo- if possible, to dispel it.'We may, in some degree, ple for whose instruction they were under the prophetic conceive the grievous manner in which it was continuvocation. One of the most striking of the characteris- ally encountering them. If we should imagine one of tics by which their writings so forcibly seize the imagi- these well instructed and benevolent teachers going nation, is that strange fluctuating visionary light and into a promiscuous-company of the people, in a house, gloom, caused by the continual intermingling and con- or open place in a village, and asking them, with a view trast of the emanations from the spirit of infinite wis- at once to see into their minds and inform them, say ten dorn, with the disclosures from the dark debased souls plain questions, relative to matters somewhat above the of the people. We are tempted to pronounce that na- ordinary secular concerns of life, but essential for themn tion not only the most perverse, but the most unintelli- to understand, it is but making the case similar to what gent and stupid of all human tribes. The revealed law might happen in much later and nearer states of society, of god in the midst of them; the prophets and other if we suppose him not to obtain from the whole compaorgans and modes of oracular communication; religi- ny rational answers to more than three, or two, or even ous ordinances and emblems; facts, made and express- one, of those questions, notwithstanding that every one ly intended to embody truths, in long and various se- of them might be designedly so framed as to admit of ries; the whole system of their superhuman govern- an easy reply from the most prominent of the dictates ment constituted as a school-all these were ineffec- of the'law and the prophets,' and the right application tual to create so much just thought in their minds,'as of the most memorable of the facts in the national histo save them from the vainest and the vilest fancies, tory. In his earlier experiments he might be very delusions, and superstitions. reluctant to admit the fact, that so many of his countryBut, indeed, this very circumstance, that knowledge men, in one spot, could have been so faithfully mainshown on them from him that knows all things, may, taining the ascendency of darkness in their spirits, while in part, account for a stupidity that appears so peculiar surrounded by divine manifestations of truth. He and marvellous. The nature of man is in such a moral might be willing to suspect he had not been happy in 84 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. the form of words in which his queries had been con- to which one, and a second, and a third, and the much veyed. But it may be believed that all his changes and greater number, of the indispensable points of infornnaadaptations of expression, to elicit from the-contents of tion thus given in divine testimony, were wanting; of his auditors' understandings something fairly answering which minds, therefore, the estimates, volitions,. pasto his questions, might but complete the proof that the sions, the principles of action, and the actions too, were thing sought was not there. And while he might be abandoned to take, as it were, their chance for good or looking from one to another, with regret not unmingled evil. But, if we may continue to use such a term, had with indignation at an ignorance at once so unhappy and they any chance for good in such an abandonment? so criminal, they probably might little care, excepting From what known principal in the human nature was some very slight feeling of mortified pride, that they good to be fallen upon through an impulse that made were thus proved to be nearly pagans in knowledge the rational discrimination of it needless 1 It were truly within the immediate hearing of the oracles of God. an exceedingly probable thing that by a kind of benefiOr we may represent to ourselves this benevolent cent instinct, without any determination given by knowpromoter of improvement endeavouring to instruct such ledge, good would be found and chosen by that nature a company, not in the way of interrogation, but in the which can so often resist knowledge, conscience, and ordinary manner of discourse, and that he assumed the the divine authority combined to constrain it to such existence in their minds of those principles, those points a choice! And besides, the absence of knowledge is of knowledge, which would have suggested the proper likely to be something more and worse than simple igreplies to the questions on the former supposition to norance. Even that mere negation would be sure to have been put to them. You can well conceive what have its mischiefs. But the vacancy of truth would reception the reasonings, advices, or reproofs, proceed- probably be found replenished with positive error ing on such an assumption, would find among the hear- There might not, indeed, be thought enough, of any ers, according to their respective temperaments. Some kind, for the formation of opinions or prejudices diswould be contentwith knowing nothing at all about the tinctly and definitely the opposites to the truths that matter, which, they would perhaps say, might be, for were wanting; but such false notions as there were in aught'they knew, something very wise; and, according the mind, however crude, and however deficient in to their greater or less degree of patience and sense of number for constituting a full system of error, would be decorum, would wait in quiet and perhaps sleepy dul-ess found sufficient to spread their influence to all the for the end of the irksome lecture, or escape from it by points left unoccupied by truth. It is frightful to see slyly stealing off, or by an open and ostentatiously noisy what a space, in an ignorant mind, one false notion can manner of going away. To others it would all seem fill, so as to be virtually the reverse of a great number ridiculous absurdity, and they would readily laugh aloud of distinct truths that are wanting there, as effectually if any one would begin. A few possessed of some na- the reverse, for practical influence, as if, instead of one, tural shrewdness, would set themselves to catch at this false notion were a number of distinct errors, forsomething in the way of cavil, with awkward aim, but mally standing in place of so many truths. And thus good will. While perhaps one or two, of better dispo- the supposed visitor for instruction would find that the sition, imperfectly descrying at moments something true ignorance of the people was not only the want of direcand important in what was said, and convinced of the tion to good, and of defence against evil, but a positive friendly intention of the speaker, might feel a transient active power of mischief. regret for what they would with honest shame call the And also, he would be made to perceive that, while stupidity of their own minds, accompanied with some the absence of right apprehensions was practically resentment against those to whose neglect it was greatly equivalent to wrong ones, that small portion of knowattributable. The teacher must have been a man very ledge which an ignorant people might ~eally possess little exercised in observing looks and manner, as indi- could be of very little avail. For one thing, from its cations, if he did not after a while perceive that he had being most confined in its compass, and scanty in its no effective hold on the mental faculties of the living particulars, there would be a vast number of things and figures before him. And if he could have heard their occasions by which it would not, (as bearing no direct talk about him and his discourse, at their evening ren- relation to them,) be called into exercise, and in which, dezvous, he might have been compelled to pronounce therefore, the bad activities generated from ignorance himself nearly as foolish as any of them, for having so would be left to have their unrestrained play. For anthoughtlessly assumed men's being in possession of other thing, a few notions conformable to truth cannot. principles which they might have learnt by serious at- in understandings left mainly in ignorance, and so tention during a few days, and which they Were not fit given up, as we have seen, to error, maintain the clearto live one day without. At the same time, he would ness and power of truth for application even to the have been moved to utter the most bitter reproaches very things to which those notions are applicable. A against the gross incompetence and wicked neglect in mind holding but a little of truth will, commonly, hold the system and office of public instruction, of which the that little with both a feeble apprehension, and a great intellectual condition of such a company of persons liability to have it perverted to subserve the errors that. could not but be taken as an evidence and conse- occupy that same mind. The conjunction of truths is quence. And in fact there is no class more conspicu- of the utmost importance for preserving the genuine ous in reprobation in the solemn invectives of the tendency, and securing the efficacy, of each. It is an prophets, than those whose special duty it was to in- unhappy' lack of knowledge' when there is not enough struct the Jewish people. to preserve, to what there is of it, the honest beneficial Now if such were the state of their intelligence, quality of knowledge. How many of the follies, exwhat would the consequences naturally be 1 How would cesses, and crimes, in the course of the world, have this friend of truth and the people expect to find their taken their pretended warrant from some fragment of piety, their morals, and their happiness, affected by truth, dissevered from the connexion of truths indissuch destitution of knowledge 1 Do men gather grapes pensable to its right operation, and in that detached of thorns, or figs of thistles? We are supposing them state easily perverted into coalescence with the most to be in ignorance of four parts out of five, or even a noxious principles, which concealed and gave effect to still greater proportion, of what the supreme wisdom their malignity by the advantage of this combination. was maintaining an extraordinary dispensation to de- There was no want of exemplifications of all we dare to them. Why to declare, but because each par- have said of ignorance, in the conduct of that ancient ticular in this manifestation,was adapted to set and pre- people at present in our view. Doubtless an awful serve something right which other means were not share of the iniquities which, by their necessary tendcompetent to rectify? Consider then the case of minds ency and by the divine vindictive appointment, brought FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 85 plagues and destruction upon them, were committed in The ignorance which pervaded the heathen nations, violation of what they knew. But that also it was in was fully equal to the utmost result that could have part from the non-admission into their minds, of the been calculated from all the causes contributing to information which pressed almost in a palpable form on thicken the mental darkness. The feeble traditional their very senses, that they were betrayed into crimes glimmering of the truth that had been originally reand cOnsequent miseries, is evident equally from the ceived by divine communication, had long since become language of the prophets, and from the surprise which nearly extinct, having as it. were gone out ia the act of they sometimes seem to have felt on finding themselves lighting up certain fantastic inventions of doctrine, of involved in retributive suffering. How could such which the element was exhaled from the corruptions of things as these, (they have seemed to say of their con- the human soul. In other words, the grand principles duct, with sincere unknowing amazement,) bring on us of truth, imparted by the creator to the early inhabisuch inflictions? It seemed as if they had never so tants of the earth, had gradually lost their clearness and much as dreamed of such a consequence; and their. purity, and at length passed out of existence in yieldmonitors had to represent to them, that it had been ing somewhat of their semblance and authority, through through their own stupid inattention to divine dictates some slight deceptive analogy, to the vanities of fancy and warnings, if they did not know that such proceed- and notion which sprang from the inventive depravity ings would have such a termination. of man. And thus, if we except so much instruction as How one portion of knowledge admitted, with the we may deem to have been conveyed by the extraordiexclusion of other truths equally indispensable to be nary and sometimes dreadful interpositions of the goknown, may not only be quite unavailing, but be per- vernor of the world, (and it was in but an extremely verted to coincide with destructive error, is dreadfully limited degree that these had actually the effect of illuillustrated in the final catastrophe of that favoured guilty mination,) the human tribes were surrendered to their nation. They were in possession of the one important own understanding for all that they were to know and point of knowledge, that a Messiah was to come. They think. Melancholy predicament! The understanding, held this assurance not slightly, but with strong con- the intellect, the reason, (whatever name or distinction viction, and as a matter of the greatest interest. But we designate it by,) which had not sufficed even for then, that this knowledge might have its appropriate seeing the necessity of preserving the true light from and happy effect, it was indispensable for them to know heaven, was to be competent to give light in its abalso the character of this Messiah, and the real nature sence. Under the disadvantage of this loss,-after the of his great design. This they did not, because they setting of the sun-it was to exercise itself on an unwould not, learn, and were absolutely ignorant of. Lite- imited diversity of important things, inquiring, comrally the whole people, with an exception awfully di- paring, and deciding. All those things, if examined minutive, had failed, or rather refused, to admit, as to far, extended into mystery. All genuine thinking was that part of the subject, the inspired declarations. Now a hard repellent labour. The senses were feeble orcomes the fatal consequence of knowing only one thing gans for the action of intellect on exterior existence. of several that require to be inseparable in knowledge. Casual impressions had a mighty force of perversion. They formed to themselves a false idea of the Messiah, The appetites and passions would infallibly, for the according to their own vain and worldly imaginations. most part, occupy and actuate the whole man. When They extended the full assurance which they justly en- his imagination was put in activity, it would not be at tertained of his coming, to this false notion of what he all more favourable to the attainment of truth. His inwas to be and to accomplish when he should come. terest, according to the gross apprehension of it, would From this it was natural and inevitable that when the in numberless instances require, and therefore would true Messiah should come they would not recognize gain, false judgments for justification of the manner of him, and that their hostility would be excited against a pursuing it. And all this while, there was no grand person who, while evidently the reverse of all their fa- standard and test to which the notions of things could vourite and confident ideas of that glorious character, be brought. If there were some spirits of larger and demanded to be acknowledged as realizing the declara- purer thought, that went out in the honest search of tions of heaven concerning it. And thus they were truth, they must have felt an oppression of utter hopeplaced in an incomparably worse situation for receiving lessness in looking round on a world of doubtful things, him when he did appear, than if they had had no know- on no one of which they could obtain the dictate of a ledge at all that a Messiah was to come. For on that supreme intelligence. There was no sovereign desupposition they might have received him as a most monstrator in communication with the earth, to tell striking moral phenomenon, with curiosity, and wonder, wretched man what to think in any of a thousand quesand as little prejudice as it is possible in any case for tions which arose to confound him. There were, indepravity and ignorance to feel toward sanctity and stead, impostors, magicians, vain theorists, prompted wisdom. But this delusive pre-occupation of their by ambition and superior native ability to abuse the creminds formed a direct grand cause for their rejecting dulity of their fellow mortals, which they did with such Jesus Christ. And how fearful was the final conse- success as to become their oracles, their dictators, or quence of this'lack of knowledge!' How truly, in all even their gods. The multitude most naturally sursenses, the people were destroyed! The violent ex- rendered themselves to all such delusions. If it was, termination at length of multitudes of them from the perhaps, possible that their feeble and degraded reason, earth, was but as the omen and commennrement of a in the absence of divine light, and but little disciplined deeper, perdition. And the terrible memorial is a per- by education, might by earnest exertion have attained petual admonition what a curse it is not to know. For to judge better, that exertion was precluded by indolhe by the rejection of whom. these despisers devoted ence, by the immediate wants and unavoidable employthemselves to perish, while he looked on their great ments of life, by love of amusement, by subjection, city, and wept at the doom which he beheld impend- even of the mind, to superiors and national institutions, ing, said, If thou hadst known, even thou in this thy and by the tendency of human individuals to fall, if day we may so express it, in dead conformity and addition to the lump. SECTION III. The result of all these causes, the sum of all these Mliseries resulting from the Ignorance of Pagans. effects, was that unnumbered millions of living beings, So much for that selected people:-we need not whose value was in their intelligent and moral nature; dwell long on the state of the whole world beside, as were, as to that nature, in a condition analogous to exemplifying the perniciousness of the want of know- what their physical existence would have been under a ledge. total and permanent eclipse of the sun. It was perpe 86 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. tual night in their souls, with all the phenomela incident own evil qualities, exalted to the sky to be thence reto night. The physical economy around them present- flected hack upon them invested with Olympian charms ed its open and brightened aspect; there was a true and splendors, their ideas of deity would evidently colight coming on them every morning in material beams operate with all that made it impossible for them to from the sky; they saw one order of things aright, — conceive a perfect model for human excellence. See that which they were soon to leave, look back upon as the mighty labour of human depravity to confirm its doa dream when one awaketh. But there was subsisting minion! It would translate itself to heaven, and usurp present with them, unapprehended except in faint and divinity, in order to come down thence with a sanctign delusive glimpses, another order of things involving for mah to be wicked,-in order by a falsification of their greatest interests, with no luminary to malke that the qualities of the supreme nature, to preclude his apparent to them, after the race had willingly forgotten forming the true idea of what would be perfect rectitude the primary instructions from their creator. in his own. The dreadful consequences of this' lack of know- A system which could thus associate all the modes ledge,' as appearing in the religion and morals of the of moral turpitude with the most lofty and illustrious nations, and through these affecting their welfare, forms of existence, would go far toward vitiating essenequalled and even surpassed all that might in theory tially the entire theory of moral good and evil. And if, have been presaged from the cause. in spite of all its power of subversion, any moral prinThis ignorance could not annihilate the principle of ciples still maintained their ground in the convictions religion in the spirit of man, but in removing the awful of the understanding, and there asserted their claim repression of the idea of one exclusive sovereign di- with a voice which nothing could silence, such a system vinity it left that spirit to form its religion in its own would nevertheless greatly contribute to defraud them manner. And as the creating gods might be the most of practical efficacy. appropriate way of celebrating the deliverance from But, how small was the number of pure moral printhe most imposing idea of one supreme being, deprav- ciples, (if indeed any,) that among the people of the ed and insane invention took this with ardor. The heathen nations did maintain themselves in the conmind threw a fictitious divinty into its own phantasms, victions of the understanding. The darkness to which and into the objects in the visible world. It is amazing the privation of the divine light had abandoned them, to observe how, when one solemn principle was taken gave free action to all the perversities of thought and away, the promiscuous numberless crowd of almost desire that went to the abrogation, in speculative acall shapes of fancy and of matter became, as it were, knowledgment, in judgment, of almost all the essential instinct with ambition, and mounted into gods. They principles and specific rules of the true morality. And were alternately the toys and the tyrants of their misera- of this melancholy privilege, the naturally rebelling temble creator. They appalled him often, and often he per of the mind against those principles and rules availcould make sport with them. For overawing him by ed itself in every possible way, operating to this effect, their supposed power they made him a compensation of erasing from the understanding the just notions and by descending to a fellowship with his follies and vices. traces of morality, partly by the direct means of the But indeed this was a condition of their creation; influence of the passions and appetites, and partly, as they must own their mortal progenitor by sharing his we have just described, by the corrupt agency more depravity, even amidst the lordly domination over him circuitously brought to bare on the same object through and the universe. We may safely affirm, that the a falsification of religion. mighty artificer of deifications, the corrupt soul of man, And so mighty was the success of this anti-moral never once, in its almost infinite diversification of de- operation, that iniquities without number took the name vice in their production, struck out a form of absolute and repute of virtues. It is quite tremendous to congoodness. No, if there were a million of deities, there sider how large a proportion of all the vices and crimes should not be one that should be authorized by perfect of which mankind were ever guilty, have actually conrectitude in itself to punish him; not one by which it stituted, in one nation and age, and another, a part of should be possible for him to be rebuked without having the approved moral and religious system. It is quesa right to recriminate. tionable if we could select from the worst forms of deSuch a pernicious creation of active delusions it was pravity any one which has not been at least admitted that took the place of religion in the absence of know- among the authorized customs, if not even appointed ledge. And to this intellectual obscuration, and this among the institutes of the religion, of some tribe ot legion of pestilent fallacies, swarming lilke the locusts the human race. And when thus sanctioned, these defrom the smoke of the bottomless pit in the vision of pravities might without restraint'diffuse an infection St John, the fatal effect on morals and happiness cor- of their quality through every thing in the social econoresponded. Indeed the mischief done there perhaps my in which they were contained. This was as natural even exceeded the proportion of the ignorance and the an effect as that which would follow from the admission, false theology; according to the general rule, that any among a close assemblage of persons, of an individual thing wrong in the mind will be the most wrong where who was sickening of the plague. Wherever, thereit comes the nearest to its ultimate practical effect. fore, in the imperfect notices afforded us of ancient The people of those nations, (and the same descrip- nations, we find any one virulent iniquity holding an tion is applicable to modern heathens,) did not know authorized place in custom or religion, we may confithe essential. nature of perfect moral goodness, or vir- dently make a very large inference, even where the retue. How should they know it 1 A depraved mind cord is silent. would not find in itself any native conception to give Every thing that, under the advantage of this destithe bright form of it. There were no living examples tution of knowledge, operated to the destruction of the of it. The men who held the pre-eminence in the true morality, both in theory and practice, must have community were generally, in the most important had a fatal reinforcement of its power in that part of points, its reverse. It was for the divine nature, mani- this ignorance which respected hereafter. The docfesting itself and contemplated, to have preseited the trine of a future existence and retribution did not, in archetype of the idea of perfect rectitude, whence might any rational and salutary form, interfere in the adjusthave been derived the modified examplar for human ment of the system of life. What there was of such a virtue. And so would the idea of perfect moral excel- notion in the minds of the pagans, was too fantastic in hence have come to dwell anA shine in the understand- its conception, or too slightly held in faith, either to being, if it had been the true divinity that men beheld in come itself, as from its own nature and authority, a their contemplations of a superior existence. But when definer and prescriber of genuine virtues, (by the rule the gods of their heaven were little better than their of inference-if this is so, then such and such ought to FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 87 be the conduct of the expectants,) or to give efficacy to It is true, indeed, that this last does prevent an in what might have been yet retained of natural reason to finity of actual mischief. There is involved in the very discern between good and evil. Imagine, if you can, constitution of things a principle by which a coarse self. the withdrawment of this doctrine from the minds of interest prevents, under providence, more practical those whose present faith is the whole of revealed truth. evil, beyond comparison more, than all other causes Suppose the grand idea wholly obliterated, or faded to together. The man iuclined to perpetrate an iniquity, a shadowy and dubious trace of what it had been, or of the nature of a wrong to his fellow-mortals, is aptransmuted into a poetic dream of classic or barbarian prized that he shall provoke a reaction, to resist or punmythology, and how many moral principles would be ish him; that he shall incur as great an evil as that he found to have vanished with it. How many things is disposed to do, or greater; that either summary rewhich it had imposed would have ceased to be duties, venge will strike him, or a process instituted in oror would continue such only on the strength, and in the ganized society will vindictively reach his property, proportion, of some very minor consideration which liberty, or life. This defensive array, of all men against might remain to enforce them, perhaps in an altered all men, restrains to stop within the mind an immensity and deteriorated form. If some things retained the un- of wickedness which is there burning to come out into deniable quality of duty, by virtue of a close relation to action. But for this, Noah's flood had. been rendered the matter of benefit or mischief, of the most obvious needless. But for this, our planet might have been and tangible kind, the sense of obligation would be des- accomplishing its circles round the sun for thousands titute of all solemnity, from the abolition of all its rela- of years past without a human inhabitant. By virtue tions to deity, eternity, an invisible world, and a judg- of this great law in the constitution of things, it was ment to come. It would therefore have none of that possible for the race to subsist, notwithstanding all that emphasis of impression which can sometimes dismay ignorance of the divine being, of heavenly truth, and and quell the opposing passions, as by a mysterious of uncorrupt morality, in which we are contemplating visitation from an unseen power. It would be deprived the heathen nations as benighted. But while it thus of that which forms the chief force of conscience. And prevented utter destruction, it had no, corrective operait would have no strength to uphold in the higher tion on the depravity of the heart. It was not through quality of principle, that which would be constantly de- a judgment of things being essentially evil that they generating into mere policy, and rationally justifying were forborne; it was not by means of conscience that itself in doing so. depraved propensity was kept under restraint. It was The withdrawment, we say, of the grand truth in but by a hold on the meaner principles of his nature, question, from a man's faith, would necessarily break that the offender in will was arrested in prevention of up the moral government over his conscience. How the deed. Thus the immense multitudes were virtuevident then is it, that among the people of the heath- ally as bad as they would actually have been if they en lands, under a disastrous ignorance of this and all had dared for fear of one another. But besides, how the sublime truths that are fit to rule an immortal being very partial was the effect of this restraint, even in the during his sojourn on earth, no man could feel any per- exterior operation to which it was confined. Men did emptory obligation to be universally virtuous, or ade- dare, in contempt of this preventive defensive array, to quate motives to excite the endeavour to approach that commit a stupendous amount of crimes against one anhigh attainment, even were there not a perfect inability other, to say nothing of their moral self-destruction, or to form the true conception of it. How evident too it of that view of their depravity in which it is to be conis, that the general mass would be horribly depraved. sidered as against God. While there was no force of We may indeed, at times, notwithstanding the dread- beneficent truth to invade the dreadful cavern of inifulness of the results easily foreseen as inevitable from quity in the mind, and there to combat and conquer it, such causes, be somewhat surprised at reading of some there would be sure to be often no want of audacity to transcendent enormities; but we feel no wonder at the send it forth into action at all hazards. substance of the exhibition of such a state of those na- Something might be said, no *doubt, in behalf of tions as the sacred scriptures affirm, in descriptions what might be supposed to be done for the pagan nato which the other records of antiquity add their testi- tions by legislation, considered, not in its character of mony and their ample illustrations. Let the spectacle director of the coercive and retributive force in the be looked on in thought, of vast national multitudes, community, but strictly in the capacity of a moral prefilled, agitated, and impelled, by the restless forces of ceptor. But besides that legislators who themselves, passions and appetites. Say what measure and what in common with the people of their nations, looked on kinds of restraint there should be on such crowds, so human existence and duty through a worse than twilight actuated, to keep them from rushing into evil. Take medium, who had no divine oracles to speak wisdom to off, as far as you dare, any given restraint, to see what them, and were, some of them, reduced to begin their will follow. Take off or withhold from these beings, operations with the lie that pretended they had,-bepossessed and inflamed as you see them to be,-remove sides that such legislators would inevitably be, in many from them all the coercion that could be applied in the of their principles and enactments, at variance with form of just ideas of the righteous almighty governor; eternal rectitude,-besides this fatal defect, legislation a luminous exposition of what it is for moral agents to bore upon it too plainly that character of self-interest, of be good, and what to be evil, with the vast importance mutual self-defence and menace, to which we have adof the difference, and the prospect of a judgment, retri- verted, to be an efficacious teacher of morals, in any bution, and eternal existence. All this being removed deeper sense than the prevention of a certain measure from resting on and grasping the spirits of the innume- of external crime. Every one knew well that the pure rable assemblage, imagine them yielded up for their approbation and love of goodness were not the source passions and appetites to have the dominion, excepting of law, but that it was an arrangement originating and so far as it shall be opposed and limited by something deriving all its force from self-love, a contrivance by else than those solemn counteractions, something re- which each man was glad to make the collective maining or supplied when they are annihilated. And strength of society his guarantee against his neighwhat will, for this use, so remain or be supplied. What bour's presumed wish and interest to do him wrong. a lamentable scene ensues, if all that will be left or be While happy that his neighbour was under this restraint, found to maintain the opposition and repression is, from he was often vexed to be under it also himself; but on within, so much innate blind preference for goodness tfie whole deemed this security worth the cost of sufas even such a state of things cannot destroy, and from fering this interdict on his own inclinations, perhaps as without, that measure of resistance which all men make judging it probable that his neighbour's were still much to one another's bad inclinations, in self-defence. worse than his own. We repeat, that a preceptive sys 88 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. tem thus estimated would but ill instruct the judgment exhibition of the general misery of a world is felt, (when in the pure principles of virtue, and could not come to be looked back upon through some intervening ages) with the weight of authority and sanctity on the con- too insignificant a thing to illustrate to us the very truth, science.. We may here observe, by the way, how evi- to enforce on us the very instruction, which it so promindent was the necessity, that the rules and sanctions of ently and peculiarly offers,-we might almost say fulmorality, to come in simplicity and power on the human minates, so glaring is the fact that a condition emphatimind, should primarily emanate from a being exalted cally unhappy, manifested, in those nations of old, the above all implication and competition of interests with natural tendency of ignorance of the most important man. truths. Thus we see, that in the darkened economy of the It is true that the mental darkness which we are reheathens there was nothing to be applied, with a grand presenting as so greatly the cause of their wickedness corrective restraining operation, directly and internally, and unhappiness, had the effect, in a measure, of proto the mighty depraved energy of the passions and ap- tecting them from some kinds of suffering. They had petites. That was left in awful predominance in the not illumination enough, to have conscience enough, innumerable multitude. And to the account of what for inflicting the severest pains of remorse, and of' the this energy of feeling tending to evil would accomplish, fearful looking for of fiery indignation.' But that they let there be added all that could result from the co- were wretched was practically acknowledged in the operation of intellect. Only reflect for a moment on very quality of what they ardently and universally the extent of human genius, in its powers of invention, sought as the highest felicities of existence. Those combination, diversification, and then think of all this delights were violent and tumultuous, in all possible faculty, in an immense number of minds, through many ways and degrees estranged from reflection, and adages, and in every imaginable variety of situation, im- verse to it. The whole souls of great and small, in the pelled to its utmost exertion in the service of sin, as it most barbarous and in the more polished state, were would of course, and was in fact. Reflect how many passionately set upon revelry, upon expedients for inideas, available to the purpose, would spring up casu- flaming the indulgences of licentiousness to extrava. ally, or be suggested by circumstances, or be attained gance, madness, and monstrous enormity; upon conby the earnest study of beings goaded in pursuit of courses of multitudes for pomps, celebrations, shows, change and novelty. The simple modes of iniquity games, combats; onthe riots of exultation and revenge were put under an active ministry of art, to combine, after victories. The ruder nations had, in their way, innovate, and augment. And consequently all con- however pitiable in their attempts at magnificence, their ceivable,-literally all conceivable forms of immorality grand festive, triumphal, and demoniac confluxes and were brought to imagination, most of them into experi- revellings. To these joys of tumult, the people of the ment, and the greater number into prevailing practice, savage and the more cultivated nations sacrificed every in those nations: insomuch that the sated monarch thing belonging to the peaceful economy of life, with a would have imposed nearly as difficult a task on inge- desparate frantic fury. And all this was the confession nuity in calling for the invention of a new vice, as of a that there was little felicity in the heart or in the home. new pleasure. They would perhaps have been identi- Nor could all this bte itself happiness: even if the vain cal demands when he was the person to be pleased. elation could be called so while it lasted, it was brief in If such depravity did not, as viewed in itself and each instance, and it subsided in an aggravated drearialone, appear equivalent to the gravest import of the ness of the soul..terms,'the people are destroyed,' the attendant misery The fact of their being unhappy had a still more instantly rushes on our sight to complete their verifica- gloomy attestation in the mutual enmity which seems tion. There may not be wanting a class of vain sneer- to have been of the very essence of life, so fatal a prining mortals who, receive no impression of any serious ciple that it could not be spared an hour. No, they could truth in the maxim that wicked nations must be miser- not live without this luxury drawn from the fountains of able ones, and will say,' the state of the ancient heath- death! What is the most conspicuous material of ancient ens as referred to in exemplification, is a matter of history, what is it that glares out the most hideously from most trivial interest to us, just fit to give some show that darkness and oblivion into which the old world has and exaggeration to a common-place. They might be in so great a degree retired, but the incessant furies of wretched enough; and perhaps also the matter has been miserable mortals against their fellow-mortals,' hateful extravagantly magnified for the service of a favourite and hating one another?' We cannot look that way theme, or to afford indulgence to rhetorical excess. At but we see the whole field covered with inflicters and any rate, it is not now worth while to go so far back to sufferers, not seldom interchanging those characters. trouble ourselves about it. The ancient heathens had If that field widens to our view, it is still to the utmost their day and their destiny, and it is of very little im- line to which the shade clears away, a scene of cruelty, portance to us what they were or suffered.' And whose oppression, and slavery; of the strong trampling on the compass of thought, we would ask, is evinced, whose weak, and the weak often attempting to bite at the feet apprehension of the higher and permanent relations of of the strong; of rancorous animosities and murderous things, whose aptitude to derive admonition and wisdom competitions of persons raised above the mass of the from the past, whose contemplation of the divine govern- community; of treacheries and massacres; and of war, ment as one system from the beginning to the end,-if between hordes, and cities, and nations, and empires, nothing can powerfully strike the mind but a thing of war never, in spirit, intermitted, and suspended somethe present moment? There were doubtless some timesin act only to acquire renewed force for destruc.reckless souls that could sport in great self-complacen- tion, or to find another assemblage of hated creatures cy in view of the ruins of Jerusalem, sometime after to cut in pieces. Powerful as' the spirit of the firstthe Roman legions had left it and its myriads of dead born Cain' has continued, down to our own age, and in inhabitants to silence, and would have made light of a the most improved division of mankind, there was nereference to it as an example of the consequences of the vertheless, in the ancient pagan race, (as there is in wickedness of a people; but would not exactly these some portions of the modern,) a more complete unconhave been the most likely to provoke the next avenging trolled actuation of the all-killing, all-devouring fury, a visitation, and to perish in it? The ancient triflers more absolute possession of Moloch. with the wretchedness and destruction of their race, Now it is as meisery that we are exhibiting all this who thought it but an impertinent moralizing that at- depravity. To be thus was sltfferiing. The corruption tempted to recall such funereal spectacles for admoni- and the torment are inseparable in description, and they tion, assuredly found themlselves atlast tobefools. And were so in reality. And both together were a natural we are convicted of exceeding stupidity, if the dreadful result of being ignorant of God and all the most im FOSTER'S ESSA AYS. 89 portant truth. A comprehensive estimate of the con- There would be little national hesitation of choice, (at dition of those tribes, on a larger scale, would, we need least in the central regions of the dominion of this not observe, include some minor things of less gloomy hateful imposture,) between the introduction of any character, but not availing to change the general aspect general system of expedients for driving them from of the picture. How emphatically then, as of the Jew- their stupefaction into something like thinking and learnish tribes when they rejected the divine illuminations, ing, and a general plague, to rage as long as any reand found the consequence, it may be pronounced of mained for victims. the heathen nations that surrounded them,' the people were destroyed for lack of knowledge.' We might have been allowed to comprehend in the account of their miserable condition all the kinds of infelicity inseparable from their ignorance. We should Awful Abominations directlyflowingfrom the Ignorance then have recounted such topics as these: the unhap- and Errors of Popery. piness of being without an assurance of an all-comprehending and merciful providence, and of wanting there- But let us now look a moment at the intellectual fore the best support in sorrow and calamity; the un- state of the people denominated Christian, during the controlable impatience, or the deep melancholy, with long course of ages preceeding the Reformation. The which the mow, thoughtfulpersons must have seen de- acquisition made by earth from heaven, of Christianity, parting from life, with no anticipation approaching to a might have seemed to bring with it an inevitable necesdefined hope of ever meeting them in a life elsewhere, sity of an immense difference speedily and for permathe relatives or associates who were dear to them in nence taking place, in regard to the competence of exception to prevailing selfishness and hostility; and men's knowledge to prevent their destruction. It was the gloomy and perhaps sometimes alarmed sentiment, as if, in the physical system, some one production, far with which they must have thought of their own con- more salutary to life than all the other things furnished tinual approach towards death. But, as the sentence from the elements, had been reserved by the creator to we adopted, to introduce these observations, evidently spring up in a later age, after many generations of men implies the people's iniquity while pronouncing that had been languishing through life, and prematurely they are destroyed, we have wished to give the promi- dying, from the deficient virtue of their sustenance and nence, in the representation, to the misery which they remedies. The image of the inestimable plant had suffered by necessary result, or rather in the very fact, been shown to the prophets in their visions, but the of their being wicked, and wicked in natural conse- reality was now given; its fruit had' the seed in itself,' quences of being estranged from the knowledge of and it was for all people to cultivate it. But, while by the true religion and the divinely authorized morality. the greater part of mankind it was not accounted worth VTre shall not, we trust, incur the imputation of such admission to a place on their blasted desolated soil, the an absurdity as to imagine, that had that knowledge manner in which its virtue was frustrated among those prevailed among them, to the extent of being present in who pretended to regard it, as it was, the best gift of all their minds, there could then have been scarcely the divine beneficence, is recorded in eternal reproach any thing of this wickedness and misery: these evils of the Christian nations. have a deeper source than even ignorance. But it As the hostility of heathenism, in the direct endeavwould be no less an absurdity to deny, that something ours to extirpate the Christian religion, became eviof the highest importance toward the desired practical dently hopeless, in the realms within the Roman empire, end is accomplished, if it is made sure that the dictates there was a grand change of the policy of evil: and all and impulses of a corrupt will shall be encountered, manner of reprobate things, heathenism itself among like Balaam by the angel, by a clear manifestation of them, rushed as by general conspiracy, into treachtheil bad and ruinous tendency, by a convinced judg- erous conjunction with Christianity, retaining their ment, a protesting conscience, and the aspect of the own quality under the sanction of its name, and almighty judge,-instead of their being under the tol- by a rapid process reducing it to surrender alerance of a judgment not instructed to condemn them, most every thing distinctive of it but that disor, (as ignorance is sure to quicken into error,) pervert- honoured name. There were indeed in existence the ed to reinforce them by its sanction. sacred oracles, and these could not be essentially falsiHaving thus shown, at greater length than was first fled. But there was no lack of expedients and pretexts intended, how the ancient state of rriankind both Jews for keeping' them in a great measure secreted, and a and Gentiles, verified the expression of the prophet, kind of reverence might be pretended in doing so. In we shall glance rapidly over the'long subsequent pe- the progress of version from their original languages, riods, and come down to our own times. In doing so, they could be stopped short in a language but little less however, we need not take farther account of Jews or unintelligible to the bulk of the people, in order that heathens. Nor shall we do more than just name the this' profane vulgar' might never hear the very words Mahomedan imposture, though that is, perhaps, the of God, but only such report as it should please certain most signal instance in the world and all time, of a ma- men, at their discretion, to give of what he had said. lignant delusion maintained directly and immediately But even though the people had understood the lanby ignorance, by a solemn determination and even a guage, in the usage of social converse, there was a'fanatic zeal not to receive one new idea. This exe- grand security against them in keeping them so desticrable delusion is so strong and absolute in ignorance, tute of the knowledge of letters that the bible, if such is so identified with it, and so systematically repels at a rare thing ever did happen to fall into any of their all points the approach of knowledge, that it is difficult hands, would be no more to them than a scroll of hieroto conceive a mode of its extermination that shall not glyphics. When to this was added, the great cost of a involve some fearful destruction, in the most literal copy of so large a book before the invention of printing, sense, of the people. And such a catastrophe it is it remained perhaps just worth while, (and it would be probable the great body of them, in this temper of mind a matter of very little difficulty or daring,) to make it, prevailing among them at the hour, would choose to in the matured state of the system, an offence, and a incur by preference, we do not say to a serious patient sacrilegious invasion of sacerdotal privilege, to look into consideration of the true religion, but even to the sad- a bible. If it might seem hard thus to constitute a new mission among them of a system merely favouring know- sin, in addition to the long list already denounced by ledge in general, an order of measures which should the divine law, amends were made by indulgently urge upon the adults, and peremptorily enforce for the rescinding some article in that list, and qualifying the children, a. discipline of intellectual improvement. rules of obligation with respect to them all. 90 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. In this retirement and latency of the sacred authori- striking situations for a religious and reflective Protestties from all communication with men's minds, the ant is, that of passing some solitary hour under the lofty Christian world was left in possession of merely the vault, among the superb arches and columns, of any of names of the solelnn realities of religion. These names, the most splendid of these edifices remaining at this day thus vacated, were available to all evil. They were as in our own country. If he has sensibility and taste, the unfilled vessels of the sanctuary, into which crafty and magnificence, the graceful union of so many diverse inwicked men might clandestinely introduce the most ventions of art, the whole mighty creation of genius malignant preparations. And such men did improve that so many centuries since quitted the world without their opportunity to the utmost. How prolific was the leaving even a name, will come with magical impresinvention of the falsehoods and absurdities of notion, and sion on his mind, while it is contemplatively darkening of the vanities and corruptions of practice, which it was into the awe of antiquity. But he will be recalled,managed to make these names designate and sanction; the sculptures, the inscriptions, the sanctuaries enclosed while it was also managed, with no less sedulity and off for the special benefit, after death, of persons who success, that the inventors and propagators should be had very different concerns during life from that of the held in submissive reverence by the community, as the care of their salvation, and various other iusignia of the oracular depositaries of truth. That community had original character of the place, will help to recall him,not knowledge enough of any other kind, to create a to the thought, that these proud piles were in fact raised resisting and defensive power against this imposition in to celebrate the conquest, and prolong the dominion, of the concern of religion. A sound exercise of reason on the power of darkness over the souls of the people. other subjects, a moderate degree of instruction in liter- They were as triumphal arches, erected in memorial of ature and science rightly so called, might have given the extermination of that truth which was given to be some competence to question, to examine, to call for the life of men. evidence, and to detect some of the fallacies imposed As he looks round, and looks upward, on the prodigy for Christian faith. But the general mind was on all of design, and skill, and perseverance, and tributary sides pressed and borne down to its fate. All re-action wealth, he may image to himself the multitudes that, was subdued; and the people were reduced to exist in during successive ages, frequented this fane in the asone huge, unintelligent, monotonous, substance, united sured belief, that the idle ceremonies and impiouas superby the interfusion of a vile superstition, which just kept stitions, which they there performed or witnessed, were it enough mentally alive for all the uses of cheats and a service acceptable to heaven, and to be repaid in blestyrants,-a proper subject for the dominion of'our sings to the offerers. He may say to himself, Here, Lord God the Pope,' as he was sometimes denominated, on this very floor, under that elevated and decorated and might be denominated with perfect impunity, as to any vault, in a' dim religious light' like this, but with the excitement of revolting or indignation, in millions of be- darkness of the shadow of death in their souls, they ings, bearing the form of men, and the name of Christians. prostrated themselves to their saints, or their' queen Such was,-it is easy to conceive what shouldl have of heaven;' nay, to painted images and toys of vwood! been,-the condition of existence of this vast mass, or wax, to some ounce or two of bread and wine, to which was thus assimilated and reduced into a material fragments of old bones, and rags of clothing. Hither fit for all the bad uses, to which priestcraft could wish they came, when conscience, in looking either back or to put the souls and bodies of its slaves. The mighty forward, dismayed them, to purchase remission with aggregate of Christendom should have consisted of so money or atoning penances, or to acquire the privilege many beings having each, in some degree, the inde- of sinning in a certain manner, or for a certain time, pendent beneficial use of his mind; all of them trained with impunity; and they went out at yonder door in to the object of being made sensible of their responsi- the perfect confidence that the priest had secured, in bility to their creator, for the exercise of their reason the one case the suspension, in the other the satisfacon the matters of belief and choice; all of them capaci- tion, of the divine law. Here they solemnly believed, tated for improvement by being furnished with the rudi- as they were taught, that, by donatives to the church, ments and instrumental means of knowledge; and all they delivered the souls of their departed sinful relahaving within their easy reach, in their own language, tives from their state of punishment; and they went the scriptures of divine truth. out at that door resolved to bequeath some portion of Can any doubt arise, whether there were in the their possessions, to operate in the same manner for Christian states resources competent, if so applied, to themselves another day, in case of need. Here they secure to all the people an elementary instruction, and were convened to listen in reverence to some representhe possession of the bible? Alas! all nations, suffi- tative emissary from the man of sin, with new dictates ciently raised above perfect barbarism to exist as states, of blasphemy or iniquity to be promulgated in the name have in all ages consumed, in some way or other else of the almighty; or to witness the trickery of some than they should, an infinitely greater amount of re- detestable farce, devised to cheat or fright them out sources than would have sufficed, after comfortable of whatever remainder the former impositions might physical subsistence was provided for, to afford a mod- have left to them of sense, conscience, or property. erate share of instruction to all the people. And in Here, in fine, there was never presented to their underthose popish ages, that expenditure alone which went standing, from their childhood to their death, a cornpreto ecclesiastical use, would have been far more than hensive honest declaration of the laws of duty, and the adequate to this beneficent purpose. Think of the pure doctrines of salvation. To think! that they should boundless cost for supporting the magnificence and sa- have mistaken for the house of God, and the very gate tiating the rapacity of the hierarchy, from its triple- of heaven, a place where the power of darkness had so crowned head, down through all the orders, consecrated short a way to come from his appropriate dominicns, mnder that head to maintain the delusion and share the and his agents and purchased slaves so short a way to spoil. Recollect the immense system of policy, for go thither. If we could imagine a momentary visit jurisdiction and intrigue, every agent of which was a from him who once entered a fabric of sacred denomiconsumer. Recollect the pomps and pageants, for nation with a scourge, because it was made the resort which the general resources were to be taxed; while of a common traffic, with what aspect and voice, with the general industry was injured by the interruption of what infliction but the'rebuke with flames of fire,' useful employment, and the diversion of the people to would he have entered this mait of iniquity, assuming suen dissipation as their condition qualified them to in- the name of his sanctuary, where the traffic was in dedulge in. Think also of the incalculable cost of eccile- lusions, crimes, and the souls of men? It was ever siastical structures, the temples of idolatry, as in truth as if, to use the prophet's language, the very'stone thevl may be adjudged to have been. One of the most cried out of the wall, and the beam out of the ti:nube FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 91 answered it,' in denunciation; for a portion of the to our imagination, of a number of human crealtures shut means of building, in the case of some of these edifices, up by their fellow-mortals in some strong hold, under was obtained as the price of dispensations and pardons. an entire privation of sustenance; and presenting each In such a hideous light would the earlier history of day their imploring, or infuriated, or grimly sullen, or one of these mighty structures, pretendedly consecrated more calmly woeful countenances, at the iron and inmto Christianity, be presented to the reflecting protest- pregnable grates; each succeeding day more haggard, ant; and then would recur the idea of its cost, as re- more perfect in the image of despair; and after a while lative to what that expenditure might really have done appearing each day one fewer, till at last all are gone. for Christianity and the people. It absorbed in the Now shall we feel it as a relief to turn in thought from construction, sums sufficient to have supplied even the inhabitants of a country, or from those of such ar manuscript bibles, costly as they were, to all the fami- accursed prison-house, thus pining away, to behold the lies of a province; and in the revenues appropriated to different spectacle of numerous national tribes, or any its ministration of superstition, enough to have provided small selection of persons on whose minds are displaymen to teach all those families to read those bibles. ed the full effects of knowledge denied; who are under In all this, and in the whole constitution of the grand the process of whatever destruction it is, that spirits apostacy, involving innumerable forms of mischief and can suffer from the want of the vital aliment to the intelabomination to which our object does not require any ligent nature, especially from a' famine of the words of allusion, how sad a spectacle is held forth of the people the Lord.' destroyed for lack of knowledge. If, as one of their To bring the two to a close comparison, suppose the plagues, an inferior one in itself, they were plundered, case, that some of the persons thus doomed to perish as we have seen, of their worldly goods, it was that the in the tower were in possession of the genuine light and spoil might subserve to a still greater wrong. What consolations of Christianity, perhaps even had actually was lost to the accommodation of the body, was to be been adjudged to this fate, (no extravagant supposition,) made to contribute to the depravation of the soul. It for zealously and persistingly endeavouring the restosupplied means for multiplying the powers of the grand ration of the purity of that religion to the deluded comecclesiastical machinery, and confirming the intellec- munity. Let it be supposed that numbers of that comtual despotism of the absolute authorities in religion. munity, having conspired to obtain this adjugment, freThose authorities enforced on the people, on pain of quented the precincts of the fortress to see their vicfinal perdition, and acquiescence in principles and ordi- tims gradually perishing. It would be perfectly in the nances which, in effect, precluded their direct access to spirit of the popish superstition, that they should bethe almighty, and the saviour of the world, interposing lieve themselves to have done God service, and be between them and the divine majesty a very extensive, accordingly pleased at the sight of the more and more complicated, and heathenish mediation, which in a great deathlike aspect of the emaciated countenances. The measure substituted itself for the real and exclusive while, they might be in the enjoyment of' fulness of mediation of Christ, obscured by its vast creation of in- bread.' We can imagine them making convivial aptercepting vanities, the glory of the eternal being, and pointments within sight of the prison grates, and going thus almost extimguished the true worship. But how from the spectacle to meet at the banquet. Or they calamitous was such a condition!-to be thus intercept- might delay the festivity, in order to have the additional ed from direct intercourse with the supreme spirit, and luxury of knowing that the tragedy was consummated; to have the solemn and elevating sentiment of devotion as Bishop Gardiner would not dine till the martyrs flung downward, on objects and phantoms which even were burnt. Look at these two contemporary situathe most superstitious could not pay homage to, with- tions, that of the persons with truth and immortal hope out some indistinct sense of degradation. in their minds, enduring this slow and painful reduction It was, again a disastrous thing to be under a direc- of their bodies to dissolution, and that of those who, tory of practical life framed for the convenience of a while their bodies fared sumptuously, were thus misecorrupt system, a rule which enjoined many things rably perishing in soul, through ignorance wrought into wrong, allowed a dispensation from every thing that was error and intense depravity: and say which was the right, and abrogated the essential principle and ground- more calamitous predicament. work of true morality. Still again, it was an unhappy If we have no hesitation in pronouncing, let us conthing, that the consolations in sorrow and the view of sider whether we have ever been grateful enough to death should either be too feeble to animate, or should God for the dashing in pieces so long since, in this land, animate only by deluding. And it was the consumma- of a system which maintains, to this hour, much of its tion of evil in the state of the people of those dark ages, stability over the greater part of Christendom. If we it was, emphatically, to be' destroyed,' that the grand regret that certain fragments of it are still held in yendoctrines of redemption should have been essentiallyvi- eration here, and that so tedious a length of ages tiated or formally supplanted, so that multitudes of the should be required, to work out a complete mental respeople were betrayed to rest their final hopes on a cue from what usurped the faculties of our ancestors, ground unauthorized by the judge of the world. In this let us at the same time look at the various states ol most important matter, the spiritual authorities were sub- Europe, small and great, where this superstition conjects themselves of the fatal delusion in which they held tinues to hold the minds of the people in its odious the community; and well they deserved to be so, in ju- grasp, and verify to ourselves what we have to be thankdicial retribution of their wickedness in imposing on the ful for, by thinking how our minds could subsist on people, deliberately and on system, innumerable things their mummeries, masses, absolutions, legends, relics, which they knew to be false. mediation of saints, and corruptions, even to complete We have often mused, and felt a gloom and dreari- reversal, of the evangelical doctrines. ness spreading over the mind while we have mused, on It was, however, but very slowly that the people ot descriptions of the aspect of a country after a pestilence our land realized the benefits of the. Reformation, glohas left it in desolation, or of a, region where the people rious as that event was, regarded as to its progressive are perishing by famine. It has seemed a mournful and its ultimate consequences. Indeed, the thickness thing to behold, in contemplation, the multitude of life- of the preceding darkness was strikingly manifested by less forms, occupying in silence the same abodes in the deep shade which still continued stretched over the which they had lived, or scattered upon the gardens, nation, in spite of the newly risen luminary, the beams fields, and roads; and then to see the countenances of of which lost much of their fire in pervading it to reach the beings yet languishing in life, looking despair, and the popular mind, and came with the faintness of an impressed with the signs of approaching death. We have obscured and tedious dawn. even sometimes had the vivid and horrid picture offered Lonlg there lingered enough of night for the evil spirit FOSTER'S ESSAYS. of popery to walk abroad in great power. How de- this deficiency of influence be supplied by the authority plorably deficient and partial must have been the utmost of the class held next to the government in the right to effect to be obtained by a change of formularies, and claim deference, since the people well knew, in their of a portion of the hierarchy, with some curtailment of respective neighbourhoods, that many of the persons of the ceremonial, when that effect was to be wrought upon consequence throughout the country had never in reality profound ignorance fortified by being in the form of an renounced the ancient religion. And while deficient inveterate superstition! and when the innovation in in these means of enforcement, the reformed religion doctrine had no accompanying prodigies to strike the was naturally so much the less attractive, to vast numsenses, in default of finding a qualified recipient in the bers, for appearing shorn, in a material degree, of the reason, of beings who had never been trained to deal pomp which is always the delight of the ignorant, and intellectually with any thing in all existence, nor could for having no privileges to offer in the way of commube ever the wiser for the volume of inspiration itself, tation and indulgence in matters of conscience. When had it been, in their native language, in every house, such were the recommendations which it had not, and instead of being hardly in one house in five hundred. when that which it had, was, that it appealed to the unIt was doubtless a good thing at any rate, and a most derstanding that it was true, no wonder the unintelliimportant alteration, that a man should cease and refuse gent multitude were very slow to yield their assent and to worship relics and wafers, to rest his confidence on submission. Great numbers of them were faithful to penance and priestly absolution, and to regard the vir- the infatuation in which they had been brought up, and gin and saints as in effect the supreme regency of did not become proselytes. But even as to those who heaven; a very good thing even though he could not did, while it was a happy deliverance, as we have said, read, nor apprehend the precise meaning and -force of to escape on almost any terms fi'om the utter grossness terms in the very argument on the strength of which of popery, still they would carry into their better faith, he made his transition. Yes, this was a valuable thing (it is of the uneducated people that we speak,) much of gained; but not even thus much was gained, but in an the unhappy effect of that previous debasement of their exceedingly limited measure, during a long period of mental existence. A man cannot be completely ignotime. The superstition, long after being supplanted, rant and stupified as to truth in general, and have a luas a national institution, by the reformed order of things, minous apprehension of one of its particulars. There maintained a dominion but little diminished over a large would not be in' men's minds a similitude to what we proportion of the people, though reduced to consult, in image to ourselves of Goshen in the preternatural night its formal observances, the policy of saving appearances. of Egypt, a space defined out in full brightness with a As far as to this policy, it was an excellent and persua- precise limit amidst the general thick darkness. The sive argument that the state had decreed, and would rejection and substitution of religious ideas, in the perresolutely enforce, a change in religion, that is to say fectly illiterate converts from popery, would not appear till it should be the sovereign pleasure of a succeeding with a magnitude of change and contrast proportioned monarch, readily seconded by a majority of the eccle- to the difference between a compost of lying vanities siastical authorities, just to turn the whole matter round and vile practical principles, and a religion which ha'd from north to south. But the argument would find its originally come on earth in the light and sanctity of the main strength expended upon this policy; its efficacy of third heaven. There had been inflicted for life and to persuasion would go no farther; for what force could it be prolonged for generations downward, among the carry inward to act upon the fixed tenets of the mind, common people, the doom of entertaining genuine to destroy there the effect of the earliest and ten thou- Christianity itself, restored by the reformation, with an sand subsequent impressions, of inveterate habit, and of excessively inadequate apprehension of its attributes,ancient authority' VWas it to enforce itself in the form as in the primitive ages a good man might have enter of saying, that the government, in church and state, was tained a heaven-commissioned visitant as a respectable wiser than the people, and therefore the best judge in human sojourner, unaware that it was an angel. Hapevery matter? This, as a general proposition, was py for both the worthy ancient, and the honest though what the people most firmly believed; it has always rude and ignorant adopter of the reformed religion, been their prevailing faith. But then, was the benefit when that which they entertained repaid them according of that conviction to go exclusively to the government to its own quality of an angel, and not in proportion to of just that particular time,-a government which, by their inadequate reception. This consideration of how its innovations and demolitions, was exhibiting a con- much good was, we may believe, conferred by the retemptuous dissent from all past government remember- stored true religion on many honest disciples, (notwithed in the land VWe.re the people not to hesitate a standing that, from the profound ignorance in which moment to take this innovating government's word for barbarism and superstition had sunk and kept them, they it that all their forefathers, up through an unknown were utterly incapable of forming more than a meagre length of ages, had been fools and dupes in reverencing, and degraded conception of it,) affords more of a relief in their time the wisdom and authority of their govern- than any other thing presented in the dreary spectacle ors? The most unthinking and submissive would feel of the period in which popery was slowly retiring, with that this was too much; especially after they had seen a protracted effort to maintain its dominion at every proof that the government so demanding, might, on the step of its retreat. substitution of just one individual for another at its head, revoke its own last year's decrees and ordinances, and punish those who should contumaciously continue to be ruled by them. You summon us, they might have SECTION V. said to their government, at your arbitrary dictate to Intellectual Condition of the Mass of Population in renounce, as what you are pl-ased to call idolatries and England since the reign of Elizabeth. abominations, the faith and rites held sacred by twenty Of a very different kind, however, are the circumgenerations of our ancestors and yours. We are to do stances most readily exhibiting themselves to view in this onl peril of your highest displeasure, and that of alleviation of the gloom with which we might contemGod, whom you so easily assume as your authority or plate that period of our history; or rather they would ally; now who will insure us that, within a few months, beguile us out of the perception of its being a gloomy there may not be a vindictive inquisition made who scene at all. For we all look back with pleasure to that among us has been the most obsequiously prompt to age of our nation when Elizabeth reigned. How can offer wicked insult to the holy catholic apostolic church? we refuse to indulge a delightful sympathy with the Thus baffled must the force of the state authority energy of those times, and an elation at beholding the have been on the minds of the multitude. Nor would splendid unparalleled allotment to her reign and sert FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 93 vice, of statesmen, heroes, and literary geniuses, but camps, and heroic and romantic enterprises, and in some for whom' that bright occidental star' would have left immortal works of genius. And thus we are as if no such brilliant track of fame behind her? But, all gazing with delight at a prodigious public bonfire, while this while, what was the intellectual state of the peo- in all the cottages round, the people are shivering for ple, properly so denominated, and what should we deem want of fuel. it ought to have been in order to be in due proportion Our history becomes very bright again with the intelto the magnificence of these their representive chiefs? lectual and literary riches of a much later period, often There is evidence that it was, what the infernal blight denominated a golden age,-that which was illustrated and blast of popery might be expected to have left it, by the talents of Addison, Pope, Swift, and their nugenerally and most wretchedly degraded. What it merous secondaries in fame, and which was amply furwas, is shown by the facts, that it was found impossi- nished, too, with its philosophers, statesmen, and heble, even under the inspiring auspices of the literate roes. And what had been effected by the lapse of four Elizabeth, wish her constellation of geniuses, orators, or five ages, according to the average term of human scholars, to supply the churches generally with officiating life, since the earlier grand display of mind, to advance persons capable of going with decency through the task the mental condition of the general population toward of the public service, made ready, as every part of it a point, at which it would be prepared for ready and inwas, to their hands; and that to be able to read, was telligent communication with this next tribe of highly the very marked distinction of here and there an indi- endowed spirits? By this time, the class of persons vidual. It requires little effort but that of going low who sought knowledge on a wider scale than what sufenough, to complete the general account in conformity ficed for the ordinary affairs of life, who took an interto such facts. est in literature, and constituted the Authors' Public, And here we cannot help remarking what a decep- extended somewhat beyond the people of condition, the tionwe suffer to pass on us from history. It celebrates persons formally receiving a high education, and those some period in a nation's career as pre-eminently illus- whose professions involved some necessity, and might trious, for magnanimity, lofty enterprise, literature, and create some taste for reading. But still they were a original genius. There was perhaps a learned and vi- class, and that with a limitation marked and palpable, gorous monarch, and there were Cecils and Walsing- to a degree very difficult for us now to conceive. They hams, and Shakspeares and Spensers, and Sidneys and were in contact, indeed, on the one side, with the great Raleighs, with many other powerful thinkers and actors thinkers, moralists, poets, and wits, but not with'the to render it the proudest age of our national glory. great mass of the people on the other. They received And we thoughtlessly admit on our imagination this the emanations of the powerful assemblage of talent splendid exhibition, as representing, in some indistinct and knowledge, but did not serve as conductors to conmanner, the collective state of the people in that age! vey them down indefinitely into the community. While The etheral summits of a tract of the moral world are these distinguished minds, and this class instructed and conspicuous and fair in the lustre of heaven, and we animated by them, formed the superior part of the take no thought of the immensely greater proportion of great national body, that body, the collective national it which is sunk in gloom and covered with fogs. The being, was intellectually in a condition too much regeneral mass of the population, whose physical vigour, sembling what we have sometimes heard of a human indeed, and courage, and fidelity to the interests of the frame in which, (through an injury in the spinal marcountry, were of such admirable avail to the purposes, row,) some of the most important functions of vitality and under the direction, of the mighty spirits that wield- have terminated at some precise limit downward, and ed their rough agency,-this great mass was sunk in the inferior extremities have been devoid of sensation such mental barbarism, as to be placed at about the and the power of action. same distance from their illustrious intellectual chiefs, It is on record, that works admirably adapted to find as the hordes of Scythia from the most elevated minds readers, and to make them, had but an extremely conof Athens. It was nothing to this great debased mul- fined and slowly widening circulation, according to our titude spread over the country, existing in the coarsest standard of the popular success of the productions of habits, destitute, in the proportion of ten thousand to distinguished genius. It is even apparent in allusions one, of cultivation, and still to a considerable extent to the people in these works themselves, that'the enslaved by the popish superstition,-it was nothing lower sort,''the vulgar herd,''the canaille,''the mob,' directly, to them, as to drawing forth their minds into' the many-headed beast,''the million,' (and evien these. free exercise and acquirement, that there were, within designations often meant something short of the lowest the circuit of the island, a profound scholarship, a most class of all,) were no more thought of in any relation disciplined and vigorous reason, a masculine eloquence, to a state of cultivated intelligence than Turks or Tarand genius breathing enchantment. Both the actual tars. The writers are habitually seen, in the very mode possessors of these noble things, and the portion of so- of addressing their readers, recognizing them as a kind ciety forming, around them, the sphere immediately of select community; and any references to the main pervaded by the delight and instruction imparted by bulk of society are unaffectedly in a manner implying, them, might as well, for any thing they diffused of this that it is just merely recollected as a, herd of beings luxury and benefit among the general multitude, have existing on quite other terms, and for other purposes, been a Brahminical cast, dissociated by an imagined thain we fine writers, and you, our admiring readers. essential distinction of nature. This prostrate multi- Indeed it is apparent in our literature of that age, (a tude grovelled through life as through dark subterra- feature siill more prominent in that of France, at that neous passages, to their graves. Yet they were the and down to a much later period,) that the main nationnation; they formed the great aggregate which under al population were held by the mental lords in the most that name and image of consociation, has been histori- genuine sovereign contempt, as creatures to which cally mocked with an implied community in the appli- souls were given just to render their bodies mechanication of the superb epithets, which a small proportion cally serviceable. of the men of that age claimed by a striking exception Wrong as such a feeling was, there is no doubt that to the condition of the mass. History too much con- the actual state of the people was perfectly adapted to sults our love of effect and pomp, to let us see in a close excite it, in men whose large and richly cultivated minds and distinct manner any thing did not contain philanthrophy or Christianity enough to' On the low level of the inglorious thron;' regret the popular debasement as a calamity. For while and our attention is borne away to the intellectual'they were indulging their pride in the elevation, and splendor exhibited among the most favoured aspirants their taste in all the luxuries and varieties, within the of the seats of learning, or in councils, in courts range of that ampler higher existence enjoyed by such 94 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. men, and could even infuse a refinement and a grace and power, of the country, maintained as faithful a peace into the very turpitude of the elegant part of society, with it, as if the divine anger had been apprehended the great liviug crowd of the nation would appear to against whatever should attempt its molestation. The them as-a good stout race of animals, indeed,' and being sensible of the true characters of good and evil. well fitted for their appointed use, supposing it an use in the world around us, is a thing strangely subject to which left mind out of the account, but-as a contempt- the effect of habit, not only in the uncultivated bulk of' able and offensive mass of barbarism, if to be viewed the community, but also in the more select and responin any reference to what man is in his higher style sible persons. The highly instructed and intelligent were revelling in an unlimited opulence of ideas, the ma- men, through a series of generations, shall have directly jority of the inhabitants of the island were reduced to within their view an enormous nuisance and iniquity, subsist on the most beggarly pittance on which mind and yet shall very rarely think of it, and neverr be made be barely kept alive. Probably they had still fewer restless by its annoyance; and so its odiousness shall ideas than the people of the former age which we have never be decidedly apprehended till some individual or been describing. For many of those with which pope- two, as by the acquisition of a new moral sense, receive ry had occupied the faith and fancy of those earlier peo- a sudden intuition of its nature, a disclosure of its most ple, had now vanished from the popular mind, without interior essence and malignity,-the essence and maligbeing replaced in equal number by better ideas, or by nity of that very thing which has been offering its quaideas of any kind. And then their vices had the whole lity to view, without the least reserve, and in the most grossness of vice, and their favourite amusements were flagrant signs, to millions of observers. at best rude and boisterous, and a large proportion of Thus it has been with respect to the barbarous ignothem detestably savage and cruel. So that when we rance under which nine-tenths, at the least, of thepopulook at the shining wits, poets, and philosopbers, of lation of our country, have been, during a number of that age, they appear like gaudy flowers growing in a ages subsequent to the Reformation, surrendered to putrid marsh. every thing low, vicious, and wretcheQ. This state of Arid to a much later period the same dreadful igno- things was manifest in its whole breadth of debasement rance, with all its appropriate consequences, formed the and national dishonour, to statesmen, to dignified and intellectual and moral condition of the inhabitants of subordinate ecclesiastics, to nmagistrates, to the philoEngland. Of England! which had through many cen- sophic contemplators of actual human nature, and to turies made so great a figure in Christendom; which all those whose rank and opulence brought them hourly has been so splendid in arms, liberty, legislation, sci- proofs what influence they could exert on the people ence, and all manner of literature; which has boasted below them. And still it appeared all very right, at its universities of early establishment and proudest fame, least substantially so, that the multitudes, constituting of munificently endowed and possessed of stupendous the grand living agency through the realm, should reaccumulations of literary treasure; and which has had, main in such a condition that, when they died, the through the charity of individuals, such a multitude of country should lose nothing but so much living body, minor institutions for education, that it was thought it and the quantum of vice which had probably helped to could be afforded to let many of them fall into desue- keep it in action. It is a most ungracious thing that tude, as to that purpose. Of England! so long after we should have to add, that a large proportion of these the reformation, and all the while under the superinten- classes not only were slow to admit the reformed docdence and tuiton of an ecclesiastical establishment ex- trine which began at length to pronounce all this to be tending both its instruction and jurisdiction over every wrong, but systematically decried the speculations, and part of the realm, conjunct and armed with the power plans, which philanthropy was growing earnest to bring of the state, supported by an immense revenue, and fur- to some practical bearing on the object of giving the nished with mental qualifications from the most venera- people, at last, the use and value of their souls as well ble institutions for instruction perhaps in the world. as their hands. The philanthropists wondered, perThus favoured had England been, thus was she favour- haps, rather inconsiderately, at this phenomenon; and ed at the period under our reviw, (the former part of it gave them, as by force, more insight into human nathe last century,) with the facilities, the provisions, the ture. This unwelcome manner of having the insight great intellectual apparatus, to be wielded in whatso- sharpened does not tend to make its subsequent exerever modes she might devise, and with whatever cise very indulgent. But nevertheless, they are willing strength of hand she chose to apply, for promoting her to forego any shrewd investigation into the causes of several millions of rational, accountable, immortal be- the later silence or acquiescence of some of these opings, somewhat beyond a state of mere physical exist- posers, and of the motives instigating others of them to ence. When therefore, notwithstanding all this, an the adoption, though in a frowning and repellent mood, awful proportion of them were under the continual pro- of measures tending in their general effect to the same cess of destruction for want of knowledge, what a tre- end. Were they even compelled to entertain an unmendous responsibility was insensibly borne by what- favourable judgment or suspicion of those motives, they ever portion of the community it was that stood, either would recollect an example, not altogether foreign to by formalvocation, orby the general obligation insepara- the nature of their business, and quite in point to their ble from ability, in the relation of guardianship to the rest. duty, that of the great Apostle's magnanimous concepBut here some voice of patriotic scepticism may be tion of the right policy and calculation for the zealous heard to say, Surely this is a wantonness of reproach. promoter of a good cause. lie exulted to seize, and Is it possible that that could be so flagrant and mighty to bring into his capacious reckoning, the very proan evil, which the combined power, wealth, intelligence, ceedings promoted by a rival or hostile disposition toand religion of England so long tranquilly suffered to ward himself, when they were such that they must, be prevalent in the state of the people? England has however intended, conduce to his great object. Some been a nation breathing another spirit than to tolerate preached Christ of envy, and strife, and contention, long any gross moral deformity, which her utmost en- supposing to add afflictions to his bonds; but, says he, ergy could remove or modify. - What then? notwithstanding every way, whether in Alas! this would be a thoughtless and rash enco- pretence or truth, Christ is preached-the thing itself mium. There is no saying what a civilized and Chris- is done,-and I therein rejoice, yea, and will rejoice. tian nation; (so called,) may not tolerate. Recollect This is the high style and the great scale of ambithe slave trade, which, with the magnitude of a national tion and policy, which will not let a good cause lose concern, continued its infernal course of abominations the advantage of any thing that may have unwittingly while one generation after another of Englishmen pronounced its name, though without the genuine spirit passed away; and the united illumination, conscience, to serve it; and which assumes as something gained FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 95 for it, all things that in their leading effect advance it, through all these varieties of greetings, there was a notwithstanding any offensive subordinate aim of their strong sense of something novel and passing strange in action. He who is to this degree devoted to the cause, what they proclaimed as religion.' Thou bringest cermay triumphantly say to those who are doing what ne- tain strange things to our ears,' was an expression not cessarily advances it, but on a principle unamicable to uttered more fully in the meaning of the words by any himn, — am far more pleased by what you are in point hearer of an apostle, preaching in a heathen city. And to of fact contributing, whatever be the temper, to the many of the auditors, it was a matter of nearly as much great object which I am intent upon, than it is possible difficulty as it would to an inquisitive heathen, and refor you to aggrieve me by letting me perceive that you quired as new a posture of the mind, to obtain a clear would not be sorry for the frustration of nmy schemes view of the evangelical doctrines, though they were the and exertions for its service. very same which had been held forth by the fathers and We revert but for one moment to the review of past martyrs of the English church. times. We aid that long after the brilliant show of We have alluded to the violence, which sometimes talent, and the creation of literary supplies for the na- encountered the endeavour to restore these doctrines to tional use, in the early part of the last century, the de- the knowledge and faith of the people. And if any one plorable mental condition of the people remained in no should have thought that: in the descriptions we have very great degree altered. Tolook on that bright and been giving, too frequent and willing use has been sumptuous display, regarded as in connexion with the made of the epithet' barbarous,' and similar words, as subsequent state of the popular cultivation, is like going if we could have a perverse pleasure in degrading our out from some magnificent apartment, with its lustres nation, we should request him to select for himself the music, refections, and assemblage of elegant person- appropriate terms for estimating that state of the peoages, into the gloom and fog and cold of a winter night, pie, in point of sense and decency, to say nothing of beset too by shivering beggars. religion, which could admit of such a thing as the folTake a few hours, indulgence in the literary luxuries lowing becoming a fact, in their history; namely that, of Addison and Pope, and then turn to some authentic in a vast number of instances and places, where some plain representation of the attainments and habits of person, unexceptionable in character as far as known, the mass of the people, at the time when Whitefield and sometimes well known to be of undeniable worth, and Wesley commenced their invasion of the barbarous has attempted to address a- number of the inhabitants, community. But the benevolent reader, (or let him under a roof or under the sky, on what it imported them be a patriotically proud one,) is quite reluctant to re- beyond all things in the world to know and consider, a cognize his country, his celebrated Christian nation, multitude has rushed together shouting and howling, the most enlightened in the world, in a populace for raving and cursing, and accompanying, in many of the the far greater part as perfectly estranged from the page instances, their ferocious cries and yells with loathsome of knowledge as if printing, or even letters, had never or dangerous missiles; dragging or driving the preachbeen invented; the younger part finding their supreme er from his humble stand, forcing him, and the few that delight in rough frolic and savage sports, the old sink- wished to encourage and hear him, to flee for their ing down into impenetrable stupefaction with the decline lives sornetimes not without serious injury before they of the vital principle. could escape. And these savage tumults have, in If he would please himself with the courage, and a many cases, been well understood to be instigated or certain natural rudimental good sense, which are ac- abetted by persons, whose advantage of superior con knowledged to have characterized the people, he has dition in life, or even express vocation to instruct the to observe these beset and befooled by a multitude of people better, has been irnfanmously lent in defence of the the most contemptible superstitions, — contemptible perpetrators against shame, or remorse, or legal punishnot only for their stupid absurdity, but also as hav- ment, for the oltrage. ing in general nothing of that pensive, lofty, and poet- There would be no hazard, we believe, in affirming, ical Character, which superstition itself is capable of that since Wesley and Whitefield began the conflict assuming, and did assume in the northernmost part of with the heathenism of the country, there have been in the island. it hundreds of occurrences answering in substance to As to religion, there is no hazard in saying, that sev- this description. From any one, therefore, who should eral millions of them had no farther notion of it than be inclined to accuse us of harsh language, we may that it was an occasional, or in the opinion of perhaps well repeat the demand in what terms, he would think one in twenty, a regular attendance at church, hardly he gave the true character of a mental and moral conditaking into the account that they were to be taught any tion, manifested in such explosions of obstreperous savthing there. And what were they taught! The state age violence as the Christian missionaries among of their notions would be, so to speak, brought out, it eastern idolaters never have the slightest cause to apwould be made apparent what they were taught or not prehend. These occurrences were so far from uncomtaught, when so strong'and general asensation was mon half a century back, that they might fairly be taken produced by the irruption among them of the two re- as symptoms of a habitual state. Yet the good and formers just named, proclaiming, as they both did, not- zealous men whose lot it was to be, in various places, withstanding their considerable difference, the grand thus set upou by a furious rabble of many hundreds, the principles which the venerable reformers, so called by foremost of them active in direct violence, and the rest eminence, had made the very essence of the national venting their ferocious delight in a hideous blending of creed. And, bearing with them this quality of a test, ribaldry and execration. of joking and cursing, were which would prove, by the manner of' their reception, taxed with a canting hypocrisy, or a fanatical madness, the nature of popular Christianity, how were these men for speaking of the prevailing ignorance and barbarism received. Why, on account of their doctrine, fully as in terms equivalent to our sentence from the prophet, much as of the zeal with which they promulgated it,' The people are destroyed for lack of knowledge,' and they were generally received with as complete an im- deploring that the existing institutions were utterly inpressiorn of novelty and outlandishness, as any of our efficient for any revolution in this empire of darkness. voyagers and travellers of discovery have been by the But those, whom direct danger could not deter from rebarbarous tribes who had never before seen civilized newing and indefinitely repeating such attempts at all man, or as the Spaniards on their arrival in Mexico or hazards, were little likely to be appalled by these conPeru. They might, as the voyagers have done, ex- tumelies of speech. They might have laughed at the perience every local difference of moral temperament, persons so abusing them, and said,' Now really you are from that which hailed them with acclamations, to that inconsiderately wasting your labour. Don't you know, which went off in a volley of mud and brickbats; but that on the score of this same business we have sus 96 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. tained the battery of stones, bricks, and the contents Thus the past age has left, as imparted through imof the ditch 1 And is it possible you should think, mediate tradition, an image of its character in the minds that we can much care for the force of mere words, of the generation now themselves growing old. Here gibes, and sneers, after that? Albeit the opprobrious and there, indeed, there lingers, long after the deparphrases have all the coarse violence of a proud rich pro- ture of the great company to which he belonged, an anprietor, or the more highly inspirited tone of invective cient who retains in some degree this image immediatelearnt in a college, they are quite another kind of thing ly from the reality, as having become of an age to look to be the mark for, than. such assailments as have come at the world, and take a share in its activities, about the from the brawny arms of some of your peasants.' It middle of the last century. It mightbe an employment is gratifying to see thus exemplified, in the endurance of considerable though rather melancholy interest, for a of evil for a good cause, the effect of that provision in person visiting many parts of the-land, to put in requionr nature for economizing the expense of feeling through sition, in each place, for a day or two, the most faithwhich the encountering of the greater reduces the less ful of the memories of the most narrative of the oldest to insignificance. people, for the materials from which to form an estimate That our descriptive observations do not exaggerate of the mental and moral state of the main body of the the popular ignorance, with its natural concommitants, inhabitants, of town or country, in the period of which as prevailing at the middle, and down far beyond the they themselves saw the latter part, and retain also middle, of the last century, many of the elderly and many recollections of what their progenitors testified of middle-aged persons among us can readily confirm from the former. With the removal of these persons the what they remember of the testimony of their irnmedi- image of that age, in its most vivid delineation on the ate ancestors, some of them perhaps not very long re- mind, will become extinct. It will soon, therefore, be moved from the world. It will easily be recollected no otherwise to be acquired than from written memowhat pictures they gave, of the moral scene spread over rials. the country when they were young. They could con- But if we could have it placed before the mental eye vey lively images of the situations in which the vulgar in all the luminousness of a supernatural manifestation, notions and manners had their free display, by repre- are we sure we should not have the mortification of senting the assemblages, and the cast of communica- perceiving that the change, from that condition of popution, at fairs, revels, and other rendezvous of amuse- lar attainments and habits to the present, has been but ment, or in the field of rural employment, or on the vil- in a humiliating proportion to the ostensible amount of lage green, or in front of the mechanic's shop. They the advantages, which we are apt to be elated in recould recount various anecdotes characteristic of the counting as the boast and happiness of a later age? If times; and repeat short dialogues, or single sayings, we had not this mortifying impression, if on the conwhich expressed the very essence of what was to the trary, the people of the present times, thus brought into population of the township or province, instead of law comparison, appeared so much less ignorant and debased and prophets, or sages or apostles. They could de- as a moderate efficacy of their greater advantages scribe how free from all sense of shame whole families would have rendered them, then, it is certain, we would seem to be, from grandsires down to the third should behold those former people presented in a still rude reckless generation, for not being able to read; darker character than we have been depicting. For and how well content, when there was some one indi- what must that moral condition have beenl, if it was vidual in the neighbourhood who could read an adver- worse than the present by any thing near the difference tisement, or ballad, or last dying speech of a malefac- of a tolerably fair improvement of the additional means tor, for the benefit of the rest. They could describe latterly afforded l If it has taken so much to make the the awful desolation of the land, with respect to any present generation but what it is, what must they have enlightening and impressive religious instruction in the been to whom as means, and in whom as effect, all this places of worship, and what wretched and delusive no- was wanting? tions of religion such of themn as cared to pay any atten- The means wanting to the former generations, and tion at all to its public observances, were permitted and that have sprung into existence for the latter, may be authorized, by their appointed spiritual guides, to carry briefly named. There has been a vast extension of the with them to their last hour; at which hour, some ce- system of preaching, by the classes of Christians that remonial form was to be a passport to heaven. A little arose under the influence of the happy innovation of bread and wine, under an ecclesiastical designation, and Whitefield and Wesley, but especially by the followers with the recital of some sentences regarded much in of the latter; a connexion of Christians which, (while, the nature of an incantation,-and all was safe! The many of us differ materially from their theological tenets sinner expiring believed so, and the sinners surviving and while we may attribute to them some certain modwere allowed to form their plan of life on a calculation icum too much of ambition in capacity of a religious of the same final resource.'* body, combined with a good deal too much tendency to * The form of an address to an auditory, retained thus far servility to power in capacity of citizens, also a small and still farther on in the original composition of these observa- portion more than is defensively necessary of the Ishtions, (conibrmably to the purpose for which they had first been maelitish quality, as toward other sects of dissenters, meditated and used,) it is so expressly.marked in the paragraph which here immediately follows, that it cannot well be modified and some exemplification of the difficulty of perfectly to fall without awkwavadness into the course of the composition combining temperance and zeal in religious feelings,) in its present more general character. In a note it may be read we must acknowledge to be doing incalculable good in or passed by. It stands thus:'Some of you can hardly fail to be, at this moment, recollect- the nation, more good probably than any other religious ing descriptions which you may have heard given by persons of denomination. We may add, the progressive formation the preceding generation, ofthe condition, as they could remem- of a serious zealous evangelical ministry in the cstabber it, of the people of some districts in the neighbourhood of this city, (Bristol.) In those accotunts they described some of lished church, and the rapid extension of the dissenting the persons andti leagues of perlsns, of local notoriety, whose worship and teaching. daripg andl address gave them the precedence in an uncivilized conmunity; related iticidental rencounters and conversations era] terms can aggravate or equal the wildness and gloominess with itndividuals of the inhabitants; and detailed the circum- of the scene, in which an ignorance. nearly as profound as any stances of some formidable affray, or some mischievous or fital thing we can well imagine in the centre of Afiica, had its legitiviole ce committed against strangers passing through the coun- mate effect, hn the cherishing, letting loose, and justifying of all try. And perhaps it was told in what Inannier religion itself and the active propensities to evil, and that with a remarkable local its teachers were received by them, when it was begun to be in- advantage of system and compact. The depraved spirit of the troduced, in a forum absolutely new to them, by those its worthy population, acting with such a collectiveness of force, might be champions who could set at nought abuse and( danger when an said to conrstitute a great nmoral steam-engine of iniquity,-if a attempt was to be made to rescue men's souls. Stuch of you as fanciel analogy between the then state of the mind in the dis. have the clearest reme:nbrance of these recitals by contempo. trict, arnd the now conspicuous mechanical appearances on it, rarics and observers of the facts, will acknowledge that no gen. may warrant such a metaphor,' FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 97 These being things of directly religious operation, it our nation, antecedently to the creation of this modern perhaps might seem for a moment questionable whether comprehensive economy of so many influences and they are more than very partially to the purpose, in an means, for awakening them to something of an intellienumeration of the agencies for banishing the ignorance gent existence. of the community. But we hardly need to say, that true religion, besides that it is knowledge, of the most important order, in whatever degree it occupies the understanding, is a marvellous improver of the sense of CHAPTER Il. uneducated persons, by creating in them a habit of serious thought, which has in many instances been seen VARIOUS ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE EVILS ATTENDANT ON to have the effect of making them appear to have ac- AN UNEDUCATED STATE OF A PEOPLE. quired, it the spance of a very few years, double the measure of intellectual faculty they had ever shown before. Degradation of the lower class shown by contrast with And then there have been the diversified causes and something better within that class itself expedients, contributing to the increase of knowledge among the people in a mode less specifically directed to The gloomy review of the past, however, may here the religious effect. There was the grand novelty of be terminated. And how happy were it, if here also Sunday schools, which conferred immense benefit terminated the prevalence of that which makes it so themselves, and encouraged instead of superceding the gloomy, if all these later multiplied means for forming formation of other schools. There was a large produc- a more enlightened race, were seen to have had so tion and circulation of tracts, which showed how well much success, that, with respect to the people of our entertainment might be made, by the proper hands, to country, the prophet's expression, which led us into the subserve moral and religious instruction without lessen- train of description, might here be dismissed as a mere ing its seriousness, and which will remain a monument sentence of history. But we are compelled to see how of the talent, knowledge, and benevolence, of that dis- slow is the progress of mankind toward thus rendering tinguished benefactor of her country and age, Mrs. H. obsolete any of the darker lines of the sacred book. More, perhaps even pre-eminent above her many ex- So completely, so desperately, had the whole popular cellent works in a higher strain. Later issues of tracts, body and being been pervaded by the stupifying power in different forms of composition, to the amount almost of the long reign of ignorance,-with such heavy reluctof an inundation, have solicited millions of thoughtless ance, at the best, does the human mind open its eves to beings to begin to think. The enormous flight of pe- admit light,-and so incommensurate as yet, even on riodical miscellancies, and of newspapers, mustbe taken the supposition of its having much less of this reluctas both the indication and the cause that hundreds of ance, has been in quantity the whole new supply of thousands of persons were giving some attention to the means for a happy change,-that we have still before matters of general information, where their grandfathers us a most melancholy spectacle. were, during the intervals of time allowed by their em- Even that proportion of beneficial effect which actuployments. prating, brawling, sleeping, or drinking, the ally has resulted from this new creation and co-operahours away. tion of means, but serves to bring out to view, in more When we come down to a comparatively recent ungracious manifestation, the ignorance and debasetime, we see the bible' going up on the breadth of the ment, still obviously constituting the character of imland;' schools, of a construction, devised as in rivalry mersely the greater part of the population of our land; of the multiplied forces in the finest mechanical inven-. as a dreary waste is made to look still more dreary by tions, in a hopeful progress toward general adoption; the little inroads of cultivation and beauty in its hollows, and an extensive practice, by the instrumentality of and the faint advances of an unwonted green upon its missionary and other benevolent institutions, of render- borders. The degradation of the lower class is the ing familiar to common knowledge a great number of most forcibly illustrated, as seen in contrast with somesuch interesting and important facts, in the state of thing better within that class itself. It is not with the other countries and our own, as would formerly have great literati and philosophers, that men would ever been far beyond the sphere of ordinary information. think of comparing the untutored rustics, and labourers The statement would be signally deficient, if we in handicraft. The two classes were as antipodes of omitted to observe, that the prodigious commotion in the moral world, and could not be kept in sight both at the political world, during a third part of a century, has once. They were regarded as having their respective been a grand cause, in whatever proportion it may be places in the system, as formed for quite different modes judged that the attendant evil has balanced against the of moral subsistence, as hardly required on the one side, good, of any observable rising of the popular mind from or permitted on the other, to recognize in each other a its former stagnation. In all time there has not been a common nature; as being, in short, under an allotment combination of events with principles that has, within which rendered it idle to speculate on any expedients so short a period, stirred to the very bottom the mind for their approximation, or to regret, that no slight humof so vast a portion of the race. The mighty spirit of ble participation could be afforded to the one class, of the commotion has not only agitated men's passions that in the fulness of which the other deems itself and tempers, but through these, and with all the force to verify the nobleness of the rational nature. But of these, has reached their opinions. now, when such a humble participation has been affordBut reverting to the account of minor and more spe- ed, a description of people has been formed, contiguous cific instrumentality, in our own country, we may add, to the multitude, or rather intermingled with them; and that for a good many years past, there has been a most it is between this improved portion and the general prolific inventiveness in making almost every sort of in- crowd, that the grievous contrast arises. It certainly formation offer itself in brief, familiar, and attractive were ridiculous enough to fix on a labouring mran and forms, adapted to youth or to adult ignorance; so that his family, and affect to deplore that he is doomed not knowledge, which was formerly a thing to be searched to behold the depths and heights of science, not to exand dug for,'as for hid treasures,' has seemed at last patiate over the wide field of history, not to luxuriate beginning to effloresce through the surface of the among the delights, refinements, and infinite diversities ground on all sides of us. And, now, when we have of literature; and that his family are not growing up in put all these things together, we may well pause to in- a training to every high accomplishment, after the patdulge again our wonder what could have been the men- tern of some neighbouring family, favoured by fortune, tal situation of the inferior orders, the great majority of and perhaps unusual ability combined with the highest L 98 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. cultivation in those at their head. But it is a quite reflection, the spirit that naturally goes outward, in these different thing to take this man and his family, unable vivacions, active, careless leings, when we assert that perhaps, both himself and they, even to read, and there- it is possible to teach many of them with a degree of fore sunk in all the debasement of ignorance,-and success, in very juvenile years, to apprehend and admit compare them with another man and family in the same such a principle. We have many times seen this exsphere of life, but who have received the utmost im- emplified in fact. We have found some of them apt provement within the reach of that situation, and learnt pearing apprized that life is for somethineg as a whole; to set the proper value on the advantage; who often and that, to answer that general purpose, a mere sucemploy the leisure hour in reading, (sometimes socially cession of interests and activities, each engaged in for and with intermingled converse,) such instructive and his own sake, will not suffice. The.y could cornpreinnocently entertaining things as they can procure, are hend, that the multiplicity of interests and activities in detached from constant and chosen society with the detail, instead of being allowed, vwithout plan or perabsolute vulgar, have acquired much of the decorums of vading principle, to constitute and be that general purlife, can take some intelligent interest in the great pose, were to be things selected and regulated in referevents of the world, and are prevented, by what they ence and amenableness to it. By the comprehensive read and hear, from forgetting that there is another and presiding object, we do not rigoroutsly and excluworld. It is, we repeat, after thus seeing what may, sively mean the religious concern, (though that is the and in particular instances does exist, in a humble con- most essential thing in it,) but the combination of all dition, that we are compelled to regard as an absolutely those interests and attainments, for the sake of which horrible spectacle the still prevailing state of our na- it is worth while to have the activities of life disposed tional population. into a system, instead of being left to casualty. The The brief display which we would attempt, in several scheme will bear toward ultimate felicity; but will also of the most prominent particulars, of the evils of an un- take large account of what is to be attempted and hoped educated state of the people, is not to be regarded as for in this life. peculiarly and exclusively a representation of the popu- Now, we no more expect to find any such idea of a lar condition in this country, as if meant precisely as a presiding purpose of life, than we do the profoundest portrait. BMt a general description of what is naturally philosophical reflection, in the minds of the uneducated inseparable from prevailing ignorance in the national children and youth. They think nothing at all about multitude will necessarily be, in substance, a picture of their existence and life in any moral reference whatever. our people; and it is chiefly from what is too conspicu- They know no good that is to have been endowed with ous among them, and our specific illustrations will be a rational rather than a brute nature, excepting that taken. thus they have the privilege of tormenting brutes with The subject is to the last degree unattractive. It is impunity. They think nothing about what they shall totally unsusceptible of that something partaking of become, and very little about what shall become of them. magnificence in the display, which so readily, though There is nothing that tells them of the relations, for mischievously, throws itself over some of the forms in good and evil, of present things with future and remote which depravity and misery make a prey of mankind. ones. The whole energy of their moral and intellecNor does it afford any thing of that wild and pictur- tual nature goes out as in brute instinct on present obesque character, in which some of the fantastic shapes jects, to make the most they can of them for the moof pagan superstition array themselves to our view. ment, taking the chance for whatever may be next. The representation, too, while it displays degradation They are left totally devoid even of the thought, that and wretchedness in one whole class, reflects ungraci- what they are doing is the beginning of a life; their ously, at least by implication, on other classes who may whole faculty is engrossed in the doing of it; and be supposed to look at the spectacle. And also, the whether it signify any thing to the next ensuing stage whole matter of the exhibition must have the disadvan- of life, or to the last, is as foreign to any calculation of tage, as to arresting attention, of being mere obvious theirs, as the idea of reading their destiny in the stars. facts plain to the view of whoever looks around him. Not only, therefore, is there an entire preclusion from But indeed, ought it not to be so much the better, their minds of the faintest hint of a monition, that they when we are pleading for a certain mode of benevolent should live for the grand final object pointed to by exertion, that every one can see, and that no one can religion, but also, for the most part, of all consideration deny, the sad reality of all that forms the object and of the attainment of a reputable condition and character imposes the duty, of that exertion. in life. The creature of so many faculties, and enterLook, then, at the neglected ignorant class in their ing on an endless career, is seen in the predicament of childhood and youth. One of the most obvious cir- snatching, as its utmost reach of purpose, at the low cumstances is, that there is not formed in their minds amusements and vices of each passing day; and cursing any thing of the nature of an estimate of the life before its privations and tasks, and often also the sharers of them. The human being should, as early as possible, those privations, and the exactors of those tasks. have fixed within him a notion of what he is in exist- When these are grown up into the mass of mature ence for, of what the life before him is for. It ought population, what will it be, as far as their quality shall to be among the chief of the things which he early be- go toward constituting the quality of the whole l Alas! comes aware of, that the course of activity he is be- it will be, to that extent, just a continuation of the ginning should have a leading principle of direction, ignorance, debasement, and misery. so conspicuous in some predominant aim, a general and comprehensive the bulk of the people now. And to what extent 2 purpose, paramount to the divers particular objects he Calculate that from the unquestionable fact, that hurlmay pursue. It should be as much in his settled ap- dreds of thousands of the human beings in our land, prehension as the necessity of his having an employ- between the agres, say, of eight and sixteen, are at this ment in order to live, that there is something it imports hour thus abandoned to go forward into life at random, him to be, which he will not become, merely by passing as to the use they shall make of it,-(if, indeed, it can from one day into another, by eating, growing taller be said to be at random, when there is strong tendency and stronger, seizing what share he canl of noisy sport, and temptation to evil, and no discipline to good.) and p-erforming appointed portions of work; and that Looking at this proportion, does any one think there not to be, that which it is so imports him to be, will of will be, on the whole, wisdom and virtue enough in the necessity be to be worthless and miserable.' community to render this black infusion imperceptible AWe are not entertaining the extravagant fancy of the or innoxious? possibility, except in some rare instances of premature But are we accounting it absolutely inevitable that thoughtfulness, of turning inward into deep habitual the sequel must be in full proportion to this present FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 99 fact,-must be every thing that this fact threatens, and nature of an experiment, (which implies uncertainty,) can lead to,-as we should behold persons carried to make the attempt with ideal forms of nobleness down in a mighty torrent, where all interposition is or beauty, with intellectual, poetical, or moral captiimpossible, or as the Turks look at the progress of a vations. conflagration or a plague? It is in order to' frustrate Yet this addiction to sensuality, beyond all competithe tokens' of such melancholy divination, to arrest tion of worthier modes and means of interest, does not something of what a destructive power is in the act of altogether refuse to admit of some division and divercarrying away, to make the evil spirit find, in the next sion of the vulgar feelings, in favour of some things of stages of his march, that, all his enlisted host have not a more mental character, provided they be vice. A man. followed him, and to quell somewhat of the triumph of so neglected in his youth that he can hardly spell the his boast,'my name is Legion, for we are many;'- names of Alexander, Caesar, or Bonaparte, may feel the it is for this that the friends of improvement, and of strong incitement of ambition. This, instead of raismankind, are called upon for efforts beyond those which ing him, may only propel him forward, so to speak, on are requisite for maintaining, in its present extent of the level of his debased condition and society, and it is operation, the system of expedients, for instructing, a favourable supposition that makes himn'the best before it be too late, the yet youthful tribe. wrestler on the green,' or a manful pugilist; for it is probable his grand delight may be, to indulge himself in an oppressive insolent arrogance toward such as are unable to maintain a strife with him on terms of fair riSECTION II. valry, making his will the law to all whom he can force Uncultivated minds abandoned to seek thezr pleasures in or frighten into submission. sensual gratification. Another obvious circumstance in the state of the untaught class is, that they are abandoned, in a direct SECTION I1I. unqualified manner, to seek their chief good in sensual gratification. The very narrow scope to which their e devotonsensuality nd coarsepleasuresaready condition limits them in the pursuit of this, will not introduction to habits of cruelty. prevent its being to them the most desirable thing in The devotement to coarse sensuality admits, again, existence, since for any other mode of happiness their of occasional competition and suspension in behalf of scope is narrower still. By the very constitution of the pleasures of cruelty; a flagrant characteristic, genthe human nature, the mind seems half to belong to erally, of uncultivated degraded human creatures, both the senses, it is so shut within them, affected by them, where the whole community consists of such, as in bardependent on them, and impotent but through their barous and savage tribes, and where they form a large medium. And while, by this necessary hold which portion of it, as in this country. It is hardly worth they have on what would call itself a spiritual being, while to put in words, the acknowledgment of the obvithey absolutely will engross to themselves, as of clear ous and odious fact, that a considerable share of mental right, a large share of its interest and exercise they will attainment is sometimes inefficient to extinguish this strive to possess themselves of the other half too. And infernal principle of human nat ire, by which it is gratithey will have it, if it has not been carefully otherwise fying to witness and inflict suffering, even separately claimed and pre-occupied. And when the senses have from any prompting of revenge. All of us have seen thus usurped the whole mind for their service, how will examples of this inefficiency. But why do we regard you get any of it back? Try, if you will, whether this them as peculiarly hateful, and biand them with the most is a thing so easy to be done. Present to the minds, intense reprobation, but because it is judged the fair and so engrossed with the desires of the senses, that their natural tendency of mental cultivation to repress that main action is but in these desires and the consideration principle, insomuch that a surpassing virulence of dehow to fulfil them,-offer to their view nobler objects, pravity is evinced by the failure of that discipline to which are appropriate to the spiritual being, and ob- produce this effect? But then, think of that discipline serve whether that being promptly shows a sensibility to being almost wholly withheld, so that the ordinary, and the worthier objects, as congenial to its nature, and, ob- the extraordinary, degrees of this execrable propensity sequious to the new attraction, disengages itself from may go into action in their unmitigated malignity. what has wholly absorbed it. And such a consequence of the absence of that disNor would we require that the experiment be made by cipline, is manifest in the lower portion of our self-expresenting something of a precisely religious nature, to tolled community; notwithstanding a diminution, which which there is an innate aversion for religion's own the progress of education and religion has effected, in sake separately from Its being an intellectual thing,- certain of the once most favourite and customary pracan aversion even though the mental faculties be culti- tices of cruelty. These very practices, nevertheless, vated. It may be made with something that ought to still keep their ground in some of the more heathenish have power to please the mind as simply a being of in- parts of the country; and if it were possible, that the telligence, imagination, and sentiment, a pleasure which more improved notions and taste of the more respectamay not be altogether foreign, in some of its modes, ble classes could admit of any countenance being given to the senses themselves; as when, for instance, it is to their revival, in the more civilized parts, it would be to be imparted by something fine or grand in the found that even there too large a portion of the people natural world, or in the works of art. Let this refined is, to this hour, left in a disposition which would welsolicitation be addressed to the grossly uncultivated, in come the return of savage exhibitions. It may be, that competition with some low indulgence, with the means some of the most atrocious forms and degrees of cruelty for example, of gluttony and inebriation. See how the would hardly please the greater number of them; for subjects of your experiment, (intellectual and moral there have been instances in which an English popunatures, though they are,) answer to these respective lace has shown inrdignation at extreme and unaccustomoffered gratifications. Observe how these more digni- ed perpetrations of this kind, even to the extent of crufied attractives encounter and overpower the meaner, elly revenging them. Perhaps not many would be deand reclaim the usurped debased spirit. Or rather, lighted with such scenes as those which, in the Place observe whether they can avail, for more than an in- de Greve, used to be a gratification to a multitude of stant, so much as to divide its attention. But indeed all ranks of the Parisians. But how many odious facts, you can foresee the result so well, that you may spare characteristic of our people, have come under every the labor. Still less could you deem it to be of the one's observation. 100 FOSTER S ESSAYS. Who has not seen numerous instances of the delight presided over its economy, one generation after another, with which advantage is taken of weakness or simplici- that so hideous a fact should never, as far as we can ty, to practise upon them some sly mischief, or inflict remember to have heard, have moved even a thought of some open mortification; and of the unrepressed glee authoritative interference. An inconceivable daily with which many spectators can witness or abet the amount of suffering, inflicted on unknown thousands of malice? And if, in such a case, an indignant observer creatures, dying in slow anguish, when their death has hazarded a remark or expostulation to any of them, might be without pain as being instantaneous, is acthe full stare, and the quickly succeeding laugh and re- counted no deformity in the social system, no incongrutort of brutal scorn, has thrown open to his revolting ity with the national profession of a religion of which sight the state of the recess within, where the moral the essence is charity and mercy, nothing to sully the sentiments are; and shown how much the preceptions polish, or offend the refinement, of what will be seriousand notions had been indebted to the cares of the in- ly asserted to be, in its higher portions, a pre-eminently structor. Could he help thinking what was deserved civilized and humanized community. Precious and somewhere, by individuals or by the local community well protected polish and refinement, and humanity, and collectively, for suffering a being to grow up to quite Christian civilization! to which it is a matter of easy or nearly the complete dimensions and features of man- indifference to know, that in the neighbourhood of their hood, with so vile a thing in it in substitution for what abode, in whatever part of the whole country it may a soul should be. We need not remark, what every be, those tortures of butchery are, unnecessarily, inone has noticed, how much the vulgar are amused by flirted, which could not be actually witnessed by perseeing vexatious or injurious incidents, (if only not sons in whom the pretension to these fine qualities is quite disastrous or tragical ones,) befalling persons any thiing better than affectation, without intolerable againstwhom they can have no resentment; how fero- sensations of horror. cious often their temper and means of revenge when They are known to be inflicted, and yet this is a trithey have causes of resentment; or how intensely de- fle not worth an effort toward innovation on inveterate lighted, in company, it is' true, with many that are cal- custom, on the part of the influential classes; who may led their betters, in beholding several of their fellow- be far more worthily intent on changing the fashion of mortals, whether in anger or athletic competition, cov- a dress, or possibly some new refinement in the cookering each other with bruises, deformity and blood. ery of the dead bodies of the victims. It is a matter Our institutions, however, protect, in some consider- far below legislative attention; while the powers of deable degree, man against man, as being framed in a finition are exhausted under the stupendous accumulaknowledge of what would else become of the commu- tion of regulations and interdictions for the good order nity. But observe a moment what are the dispositions of society. So hardened may the moral sense of a of the vulgar as indulged, and with little preventive in- community be by universal and continual custom, that terference of those institutions, on the inferior animals. we are perfectly aware these very remarks will provoke To a large proportion of the class it is, in their youth at the ridicule of many; and provoke it not at all the less least, one of the most vivid exhilaration to witness the that not one man of them can deny, or affect to deny, terrors and anguish of living beings. If there is heard that the manner of the practice referred to steels and at a distance a howl that strikes you as almost infernal, depraves, to a dreadful degree, a vast number of the one of your first conjectures in explanation would be, human beings immediately employed in it, and, as a that a company of rationals may be witnessing the spectacle, powerfully contributes to confirm, in a much writhings, agonies and cries, of some animal struggling greater number, exactly that which it is, by eminence, for escape or for life. while it is suffering the infliction, the object of moral tuition to counteract-men's disperhaps, of stones and kicks, or the application of the position to make light of all suffering but their own. more directly fatal instruments of violence. If you Now this one thing, exactly this one disposition, is hear in the clamour a sudden burst of fiercer exultation, the grand principle of moral depravity on earth,-this you will surmise that just then the deadly blow or stab not caring for what is endured by other beings that are has been given. There is hardly an animal on the whole made liable to suffer. Estrangement from the supreme face of the country, of size enough, and enough within goodness, indeed, is the primary cause; but this very reach, to be a sufficient object of attention, that would thing, this not caring for the sufferings of other beings, not be persecuted to death if no consideration of own- is the substantial practical essence of the iniquity ership interposed. The children of the uncultivated which forms the curse and blast of this wretched world. families are allowed, without a check, to exercise and And yet, we repeat it, a civilized and Christian nation improve the hateful disposition, on flies, young birds, feels not the slightest self-displacency, for its allowing and other feeble and harmless creatures; and they are a certain unhappy but necessary part in the economy of actually encouraged to do it on what, under the denom- the world to be executed, (by preference to a harmless ination of vermin, are represented in the formal charac- method,) in i manner which probably does more to corter of enemies, almost in such a sense as if a moral roborate in'e vulgar class this essential principle of responsibility attachted to them, and they were therefore depravity, th.n all the expedients of amelioration yet not only to be destroyed as a nuisance, but deserving applied are doing to expel it. to be punished as offenders. Were it not vain and absurd to muse on supposThe destruction of sympathy, with the consequent able new principles in the constitution of the moral syscarelessness of inflicting pain, combined inseparably, as tem, there is one that we might have been tempted to this will probably always be, with the love of inflicting wish for, namely, that of all suffering uznnecessarily aild it, must be confirmed by the horrid spectacle of slaugh- wilfully inflicted by man on any class of sentient exter all over the land; a spectacle sought for gratifica- istence, a bitter intimation and participation might be tion by the children anti youth of the lower order; and conveyed to him through a mysterious law of nature, in many places so publicly exhibited that they cannot enforcing an avenging sympathy in severe proportion well avoid seeing it, and its savage preliminary circum- to that suffering, on all the men, be where they might. stances, sometimes dire, tly wanton aggravations, per- who were really accountable for its being inflicted. haps in diabolic revenge of a struggle to resist or escape. After children and youth are trained to behold with Horrid, we call it because it is the infliction, on millions something worse than hardened indifference, with a of sentient and innocent creatures every year, in what feeling of stimulant amusement, the sufferings of creacalls itself a humane and Christian nation, of anguish tures dying for the service of man, it is no wonder if perfectly unnecessary to the purpose. And it is a flag- they are barbarous in their treatment of those that serve rant dishonour to such a country, and to the class that him by their life. And in fact nothing is more obvious virtually, by rank, and formally, by official power, have as a prevailing, if we may not say general abomination, FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 101 than the cruel habits of the lower class toward the la- nancing, by some things which they do, and some things bouring animals placed within their power. Of what- which they omit or refuse to do. ever quality and condition those animals may be, they have experienced enough of human nature; but generally its diabolic disposition is the most fully exercised on those that have been already the greatest sufferers. SECTION IV Meeting, wherever we go, with some of these starved, abused, exhausted figures, we shall not unfrequently meet Uneducated persons have vague, limited, unsteady, and with also another figure accompanying them,-that of often perverted notions of right and wrong. a ruffian, young or old, who with a visage of rage, and If we did not trust to be indulged in an exemption, in accents of hell, in wrecking his utmost malevolence a course of observations on such a subject, from any on a wretched victim for being slow in performing, or rigorous enforcement of the laws of order, we ought to quite failing to perform, what the excess of loading, and have put nearer the beginning of these illustrations, perhaps the feebleness of old age, have rendered diffi- from notorious fact, of the state of an uneducated peocult or absolutely impracticable; or for shrinking from ple, that obvious characteristic-a rude, limited, uneffort, to be made by a pressure on bleeding sores, or steady, and often perverted, sense of right and wrong for loosing the right direction through blindness, and in general. that occasioned by hardship or savage violence. Many It is curious to look into a large volume of religious of the exacters of animal labour really seem to resent casuistry, for instance Bishop Taylor's Ductor Dubiit as a kind of presumption and insult to the slave, that tantium, and reflect what a conscience disciplined in it should be any thing else than a machine, that the liv- the highest degree might be, and then observe what ing being should betray under its toils that it suffers, this regulator of the soul actually is where there has that it is pained, weary, or reluctant. And if, by out- been any dicipline of reason at all; and where there is rageous abuse, it should be excited to some manifesta- no deep religious sentiment to rectify thy perceptions, tion of resentment, that is a crime for which the suffer- in the absence of an accurate intellectual discriminaer would be likely to incur such a fury and repetition tion of things. This sentiment being wanting, dispoof blows and lacerations, as to die on the spot, but for sitions and conduct will not be taken account of accordan interfering admonition of interest against destroying ing to the distinction between holiness and sin; and in so much property, and losing so much service. When the absence of instructed understanding, they connot that service has utterly exhausted, often before the be brought to the test of the distinguishing law between term of old age, the strength of those wretched ani- propriety and turpitude; nor estimated upon any moral mals, there awaits many of them a last short stage of and comprehensive notion of utility. The evidence of still more remorseless cruelty, that in which it is be- all this is thick and close around us; so that every come a doubtful thing whether the utmost efforts to serious observer has been struck and almost shocked to which the emaciated disease sinking frame can be forc- observe, in what a very small degree conscience is a ed by violence, are worth the trouble of that violence, necessary attribute of the human creature; and how the delays and accidents, and the expense of the scanty nearly a non-entity the whole system of moral princisupply of subsistence. As they must at all events ples may be, as to any recognition of it by an unadaptvery soon perish, it has ceased to be of any material ed spirit. While that system is of a substance veritaconsequence, on the score of interest, how grossly they ble and eternal, and stands forth in its exceeding breadth, may be abused; and their tormentors seem delighted marked with the strongest characters and prominence, with this release from all restraint on their dispositions. it comes before these persons with hardly a shadow's Those dispositions, as indulged in some instances, virtue and reality, except in a few things of the grosswhen the miserable creatures are formally consigned est bulk, if we may so express it; their conscience to be destroyed, cannot be much exceeded by any thing having little sense of its vocation as respecting the evil we can attribute to fiends. Some horrible exemplifi- of any thing done, or questioned whether to be done, cations were adduced, not as single casual circum- in matters short of very palpable and flagrant iniquity. stances, but as usual practices, by a patriotic senator It is therefore probable, they have considerably prosome years since, in endeavouring to obtain a legisla- tracted exemptions from any interference of conscience tive enactment in mitigation of the sufferings of the at all; it is certain that they experience no such pertibrute tribes. The design vanished to nothing in the nacious attendance of it, as to feel habitually a monihouse of commons, under the effect of argument and tory intimation, that without great thought and care ridicule from a person distinguished for intellectual cul- they will inevitably do something wrong. But what may tivation; whose resistance was not only against that we judge and presage of the moral fortunes of a sojournspecific measure, but avowedly against the principle it- er, of naturally corrupt propensity, in this bad world, self on which any measure of the same tendency could who is not haunted, even to a degree of alarm, by this ever be founded.* monitory sense, through every day of his life? If some advocate for things as they are in the lower As he moves hither and thither on the scene, he.has classes, should be inclined to interpose here with a re- his perception of what is existing and passing on it; mark, that after such a reference, we have little right to there are continually meeting his senses numberless ascribe to those classes, as if it were peculiarly one of moving and stationary objects; and among the latter their characteristics, the insensibility to the sufferings there are many forms of limitation and interdiction; of the brute creation, and to number it formally among there are high walls, and gates, and fences, and bricks the results of the' lack of knowledge,' we can only re- of torrents and precipices; in short, an order of things ply, that however those of higher order may explode on all sides signifying to him, with more or less of meany attempt to make the most efficient authority of the nace,-Thus far and no farther. And he is in a genenation bear repressively upon the evil, and however it ral way obsequious to this arrangement. We do not may in other ways be abetted by them, it is, at any ordinarily expect to see him carelessly violating the rate, in those inferior classes chiefly that the actual most decided of the artificial lines of warning-off, nor perpetrators of it are found. It is not a little to say in daring across those dreadful ones of nature. But the favour of cultivation, that it generally renders those while, as he is nearly destitute of that faculty of the who have the benefit of it incapable of practising, them- soul which would perceive, (analogously to the effect selves, those cruelties which they are, indeed, far too of coming in contact with something charged with that little sensible how much they may be virtually counte- element which causes the lightning,) the awful inter* Lord Erskine's memorable Bill, triumphantly scouted by the ceptive lines of that other arrangement which he is ir late Mr. Windham. the midst of as a subject of the laws of God, we see 102 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. with what insensibility he can transgress those prohibi- of the population, of this Christian and protestant countory significations of the almighty will, which are to de- try, are but so much the worse for the riddance of some vout men as lines streaming with an infinitely more for- parts of the superstitions of former ages. There were midable than material fire. Andifwe looktowardhis fu- admitted even in those times, he might say, some right ture course of life, the natural sequel foreseen is, that injunctions of morality, considered as an external practhose lines of divine interdiction which he has not con- tical concern. These might be, and actually were, inscience to perceive as meant to deter him, he will seem, fixed in the popular mind as matter of conscience, by nevertheless, to have, through his corruptions, a strong the great array of things pretendedly divine and demirecognition of, but in another quality-as temptations to divine which surrounded, and pressed closely and powattract him. erfully on, the mind of the multitude. Whereas now, But to leave these terms of generality, and advert to when this great array is vanished, there is nothing, aba few particulars of illustration:-Recollect how com- solutely nothing, to enforce moral principles and rules monly persons of the class described are found utterly on the ignorant portion of the people with the mighty violating truth, not in hard emergencies only, but as a authority of divine sanction; since they have not, in habitual practice, and apparently without the slightest their exemption from the superstitions of their ancesreluctance or compunction, their moral sense perfectly tors come under any solemn and commanding effect at rest under the accumulation of a thousand deliberate of the true idea of the divine majesty. And it is undefalsehoods. It is seen that by far the greatest propor- niable that this is the state of conscience among them. tion of them think it no harm to take little unjust ad- The vague faint notion, as they conceive it, of a being vantages in their dealings, by deceptive management; who is said to be the creator, governor, lawgiver, and and very many would take the greatest but for fear of judge, and who is somewhere in the sky, has not, to temporal consequences; would do it, that is to say, many of them, the smallest force of intimidation from without inquietude of conscience, in the proper sense. evil, at least when they are in health and day-light. It is uniformly the testimony of experience, from per- One of the large sting-armed insects of the air does not sons who have had the most to transact with them and alarm them less. A certain transitory fearfulness, that to employ them, that the indispensable rule of proceed- sometimes comes upon them, points more to the devil, ing is to assume generally their want of principle, and and perhaps sometimes the ghosts of the dead, than to leave it to time and prolonged trial to establish rather the almighty. It may be, indeed, that this feeling is in slowly, the individual exceptions. Those unknowing its ultimate principle, if it were ever followed up so far, admirers of human nature, or of English character, who an acknowledgment of justice and power in God, reachare disposed to exclaim against this as an illiberal rule, ing to wicked men through these hostile beings as a may be recommended to act on what they will there- kind of instrumentality; but beyond these proximate fore deem a liberal one-at their cost. objects of apprehension the idea of invisible spiritual, In any species of wrong which has the salvo of cus- power is inexpressibly vacant and feeble. tom in its favour, the most palpable iniquity of the prac- Even what notion they do conceive of the greattice shall not force any moral debate upon it on the ness of God tends little to restrain the dispositions to mind. From recent accounts it appears, that the en- sin, or to impress the sense of guilt after it is committire coast of our island is not even yet clear of those ted. He is too great, they readily say, to mind the people called wreckers, who regarded it as all fair and little matters that such creatures as we may do right to appropriate whatever they could seize, of the amiss; they can do him no harm. The idea, too, of lading of vessels cast ashore, including, often, what they his bounty, is so coarsely formed as to be a protection could tear from the personal possession of the unfor- against all conscious reproach of ingratitude toward tunate beings who might just be escaping from the him: he has made us to need all this that it is said he does most dreadful peril. The cruelty we have so largely for us; and it costs him nothing, it is no labour, and attributed to our English vulgar, never recoils on them he is not the less rich; and besides, we have toil, and in a compulsion to detest themselves. The habitual want, and plague enough, notwithstanding any thing indulgence of the irascible, vexatious, and malicious that he gives. tempers, to the plague or terror of all within reach, It is probable this unhappiness of their condition, scarcely ever becomes a subject of judicial estimate, as oftener than any other cause, brings God into their a character viewed in the abstract, with then a reflec- thoughts, and that as a being against whom they have tion of that estimate on the man's own self to whom the a quarrel on account of it. And this strongly assists character belongs. He reflects but just enough to say the reaction against whatever would enforce the sense to himself that it is all right and deserved, and unavoid- of guilt on the conscience. When he has done so able too, for that he is unpardonably crossed and pro- little for us, (something like this is the sentiment,) he voked; nor will he be driven from this self-approval, cannot think it any such great matter if we do somethough it be evident to every one else that the provo- times come a little short of his commands. There is cations are comparatively slight. The inconvenience no doubt that their recollections of him as a being to and vexation incident to low libertinism, will make the murmur against for their allotment, are more frequent, offenders fret at themselves indeed for having been such more dwelt upon, and with more of an excited feeling, fools, but it is in general with an extremely trifling de- than their'recollections of him as a being whom they gree of the sense of guilt. Suggestions of reprehen- ought'to have loved and served, but have offended sion, in even the discreetest terms, and from persons against. The very idea of such offence, as one of the confessedly the best authorized to apply them, would things which constitute wickedness, is so slightly conmost commonly be answered by a grinning defying ceived, (because he is invisible, and because he is secarelessness, or abusive retort; instead of any betrayed cure against all injury,) that if the thoughts of one of signs of even an internal acknowledgement of deserv- these persons should, by some rare occasion, be thrown ing reproof. And while thus the censure of a fellow- into the direction of unwillingly seeing his own faults, mortal finds nothing in their minds to meet it, in the it is probable his impiety would appear the most inconway of owning its justice, this stupid self-complacency siderable thing in the account, that he would easily foris undisturbed also on the side toward heaven. A mere give himself the negation of all acts and feelings of philosopher, that should make little account of religion, devotion toward the supreme being, and the countless beyond its adaptedness to be applied to enforce and ag- multiplication of insults to him by profane language. gravate the sense of obliga ion with respect to rules of To conclude this part of the melancholy description, conduct, and would not, pr ivided it may have this ef- it may be observed of the class in question, that they feet, care much about its t uth or falsehood, might be have but very little notion of guilt, or possible guilt, disposed to assert, that the gnlorant and debased part in any thing but external practice. That busy interior FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 103 existence, which is the moral person, genuine and corn- than that of their being taught the value of their spirplete; the thoughts, imaginations, volitions; the mo- itual nature, and carefully trained to be enlightened, tives, projects, deliberations, devices; the indulgence good, and happy. Laws against crime, it is true, she of the ideas of what they cannot or dare not practically has enacted for them in great plenty. She has also realize,-all this, we have reason to believe, passes maintained public sabbath observances to remind them nearly exempted from jurisdiction, even of that feeble of religion, of which observances the reading of a and undecisive kind which may occasionally attempt a book of sports was, at one period, long after her adoplittle interference with their actions. They do indeed tion of the reformation in religion, an indispensable part. take such notice of the quality of these things within, But she might plainly see what all this did not accomas to be aware that some of them are not to be disclosed plish. It was a glaring fact before her eyes, that a vast in their communications; which prudential caution has number of her children were brought up in a mental of course little to do with conscience, when the things rudeness akin to that of Muscovite boors. She had so withheld are internally cherished in perfect disregard most ample resources indeed for supplying the remeof the omniscient observer, and with hardly the faintest. dy; but, provided that the productions of the soil and monition that the essence of the guilt is the same, with the workshop were duly forthcoming, she thought it of only a difference in degree, in intending or deliberately no consequence, it should seem, that the operative desiring an evil, and, in acting it. hands belonged to degraded minds. And then, too, as It is not natural obtuseness of mental faculty that we at all times, her lofty ambition destined a good proporare attributing all this while, to the uneducated class of tion of them to the consumption of martial service, our people, in thus exposing the deplorable defective- she perhaps judged that the less they were trained to ness of their discernment between right and wrong. If think, the more fit they might be to be actuated meit were, there might arise somewhat of the consolation chanically, as an instrument of blind impetuous force. afforded in contemplating some of the very lowest of Or perhaps she thought it would be rather an inconsisthe savage tribes of mankind, by the idea that such out- tency, to be making much of the inner existence of a casts of the rational nature must stand very nearly di- thing which was to be so unceremoniously cut or dashed vested of accountableness, through absolute natural to pieces. And besides, a certain measure of instrucwant of mind. But in the barbarians of our country tion to think, especially if consisting, in a considerable we shall often observe a very competent, and now and part, of the inculcation of religion, might have donQ then an abundant share of native sense. We may see something to disturb that Mahomedan notion, which it evinced in respect to the very questions of morality, she was by no means desirous to expel from her fleets in cases where they are quite compelled, as will occa- and armies, that death for'king and country' clears off sionally happen, to feel themselves brought within the all accounts for sin. cognizance of some plain principle of distinction between right and wrong. In such cases we have witnessed a sharpness and activity of intellect which have SECTION V. excited almost our admiration. What contrivance of deception, and artful evasion. What dexterity of quib- Genera effects of the want of knowledge in a commuble, and captious objection, and petty sophistry. What nity, and the facility with which a vacant mind vigilant observance how the plea in justification takes receives wrong impressions. effect, and address in changing it if they perceive it is Let us direct our attention a little while to the efnot the right one. What quickness to avail themselves fects of the privation of knowledge, as they may be of any mistake, or apparent concession in the examiner seen displayed in the several parts of the economy of or reprover. What readiness of resource for reply or life, in the uneducated portion of the community. Obsubterfuge. What copious rhetoric in exaggeration of serve those people in their daily occupations. None of the cause which tempted to do wrong, or the great us need to be told that of the prodigious diversity of good hoped to be effected by the little deviation from manual employments, some consist of, or include, opethe right-a good surely enough to excuse so trifling an rations of such minuteness or complexity, and so much impropriety. What facility of placing between them- demanding nicety, arrangement, or combination, as to selves and the censure, the recollected example of some necessitate the constant and almost entire attention of good man who has been' overtaken in a fault.' the mind; nor that nearly all of them must require its Here is mind, after all, we have been prompted to full attention at times, at particular stages, changes, exclaim; mind educating itself to evil, in default of and adjustments, of the work. We give this its full that discipline which should have educated it to good. weight, in prevention of any extravagant notion of how How much of the wisdom of evil, (if we may be al- much it is possible to think of other things during the lowed the expression,) there is faculty enough in the working time. It is however to be recollected, that neglected corrupt popular mass of this nation to attain, persons of a class superior to the numerous one we by the exercise into which the individual's mind is car- have in view, take the chief share in the departments ried by its own bad impulse, with the advantage too of of operation which require the most of mental effort,a most extensive co-operation. And how freely the those which demand extreme precision, or inventive advantage has always been conceeded to each of these contrivance, or taste, or scientific skill. We may also self-improvers in depraved sense, that he should have as take into the account of the allotment of employments great a number as he could desire of associates and to the uncultivated multitude, how much facility is co-operators; that no attempt should be made, in a acquired by habit, how rch use there is of instrustrenuous manner, on a large scale, to diminish the irn- mental mechanism, (the And exempter from the remense tribe! Multitudes beyond calculation, have sponsibility, that would lie on the mind,) and how been, through every period, abandoned to this destruc- merely general and very slight an attention is exacted, in tive process of self-education, and to assist one another the ordinary course of some of the occupations. These in it. Where then has been that character of parental things being considered, we may venture perhaps to asguardianship, which seems to be ascribed when poets, sume, on an average of those employments, that the orators, and patriots, are inspired with tropes, and talk persons engaged in them might be, as much at least as of England and her children? This imperial matron one third part of the time, without detriment to the of their rhetoric seems to have little carea how much manual performance, giving the thoughts to other she might be disgraced in the larger portion of her pro- things with attention enough for interest and improvegeny, or how little cause.they might have to all eter- ment. This is particularly true of the p'ainer parts of nity to remember her with gratitude. She has had far the labours of agriculture. other concern about them, and employment for them, But as the case at present is, rwhat'oes become, 104 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. during such portion of the time, of the ethereal essence thought of in despair as a blessing too great to be atwhich inhabits the corporeal labourer, this spirit cre- tainable; and when the reply of the artizan, to an unated for thought, knowledge, and immortality? Can witting admonition, that even amidst his work, he we without regret know, that in very many of the per- might have some freedom for useful thinking may be, eons in the situations supposed, it suffers a dull absorp-' Thinking! I have no work to confine my thinking; tion, subsides into the mere physical nature, is sunk I may, for that, employ it all on other subjects ~ but and sleeping in the animal warmth and functions, and those subjects are, whether I please or not, the plenty lulled and rocked, as it were, in its lethargy, by the and luxury in which many creatures of the same kind as bodily movements in the works which it is not necessa- myself are rioting, and the starvation which and my ry for it to keep habitually awake to direct? In being, family are suffering.' at the same time, under a general responsibility for We hope in Providence, more than in any wisdom their right execution, it has a kind of license and pro- shown by men, that this melancholy state of things will tectilo for this somnolency. The employment is some- be alleviated, otherwise than by the extinction of a dthnioo to be szinded, though but now and then requiring considerable portion of suffering humanity. ~We trust a full attention, and therefore it seems an exemption to see the time, when a Christian monitor shall no longfrom the claim to mind any thing else: as a person er be silenced by the apprehension of such a reply, when retained for some service which requires but occasion- he would suggest to the humble class that they should allay an active exercise, will excuse the indolence which strive against being reduced to mere machines amidst declines taking in hand, as he very properly might, any their manual employments; that it is miserable to have other business in the intervals, under the pretext that the whole mental existence shrunk and shrivelled as it he has his appointment; and so, when not under the were to the breadth of the material thev are working immediate calls of that appointment, he will go to upon; that the noble interior agent, wlhich lends itself sleep, even in the full light of day, with an easy con- to maintain the external activity, and direct the operascienlce. tions required of the bodily powers for the body's welLet not any such folly be imputed to us here, as that fare, has eminently a right and claim to have employwe are fancying the labouring class, in this age and ments on its own account, during such parts of those cou'itry, to be placed under a moderate demand of their operations as do not of necessity monopolize its attentlhoughts, for their immediate necessities. Many of tion. It has a right to take its privilege, by a rule them experience, amidst their employment, a severe analogous to what would be applicable, in the case of arrest of those thoughts which the employment itself a man of great general intelligenlce or science having would leave free. The lot of that classs seems to be the charge of directing a common workmnan, in a busiplaced in a melancholy disproportion, between what ness of no considerable novelty or difficulty, and who bvss? lie given to the cares and toils for mere subsist- would interfere when really acquired; but would not essce, and what can, at most, be given to the interests give up all other thought and employment to be a conof the noble part of their nature. It is a strange and stant mloere looker-on, during operations of so ordinary sad spectacle, to behold so many myriads of spiritual a nature that he could not really fix his attentionii on beings under the dooni, of consuming the greatest them. share of their energy and time in just supporting so But how is the mind of the labourer or artizan to be many bodies in the struggle to live; a struggle, not in delivered from the blank and stupified state, during the the general sense merely, that the body must, by the parts of his employment that do not necessarily engross laws of our nature, compel to the concern of its life and his thoughts? How, but by its having within some well-being a great deal of the mind's attention and ac- store of subjects for thought; in a word, by the possestivity; nor in the general sense merely of that sentence, sion of knowledge? How can it be sensibly alive and in the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat thy bread;' active, when it is placed fully and decidedly out of but in the more special sense, that through the adventi- communication with all things that are friendiy to intious effect of some dreadful disorder of the social tellectual life, all things that apply a beneficent stimulus economy in this part of the world, at this time, the ut- to the faculties, all things, of this world or another, that most that the exertions of the body and mind together are the most inviting or commanding to thought and can do, but barely suffices, in some instances, does not emotion? We can imagine this ill-fated spirit, thus suffice, for the mere protraction of life,-comfortable detached from all vital connexion, secluded from the life being altogether out of the question. The course whole universe, and enclosed as by a wall of incarcoraof the administration of the civilized states, and the re- tion,-we can imagine it sometimes moved with ast cent dire combustion into which they have almost unan- indistinct longing for its appropriate interests and inmously rushed, as in emulation which of them should going round and round by this dark dead wall, to seek with the least reserve. and with the most desperate ra- for any spot where there might be a chance of escape, pidity annihilate the resources which should have been or any crevice where a living element for the soul for the subsistence and competence of their people, transpires and then, as feeling it all in vain, relapsing lhave resulted in such destitution and misery as were into inertion and slumber. Some ignorant minds have:oever suffered in this country before, except as irnrne- instinctive impulses of this kind; though many, it is diately inflicted by the local visitation of some awful possible, are so deeply stupified as to be habitually much calamity. The state very many of our people, at this at ease. But let them have received, in their youth hour, is nearly what might be conceived as the conse- and progressively afterwards, a considerable imeasure quence of a failure of the accustomed produce of the of interesting information, respecting, for instance, the earth. N1ot a few mighttgive the image of families many striking objects on the globe they inhabit, the driven out into a desert, from abodes destroyed in the memorable events of past ages, the origin and uses of mivara.e of war. remarkable works within their view, remaining from VrTe were wishing to introduce a suggestion how the ancient times the causes of effects and phenomena }aboruring people's thoughts might be pa.rtly employed, familiar to their observation as now unintelligible facts d-uriing their daily task, and consistently with industry the prospects of man, from the relation he stands in to -Illd mood'workllnanship. Alas! what a state of things time and eternity, and God, explained by the great s exhibited where the very name of industry, the virtue principles and facts of religion, and that reliioil, declaruniversally honoured, the topic of so many human and ed by a direct revelation from heaven. Let there be divinue inculcations, cannot be spoken without offering fixed in their minds so many ideas of these kinds, as a bitter insult; where the heavy toil, denounced on man might be imparted by a comparatively hn:;iiible education, S-io his transgression, in the same sentence as death, is (one quite compatible with the destination to a life of nhvain implored. as the greatest possible privilege; or ordinary employment,) and even involuntarily the FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 105 thoughts would often recur to these subjects, in those ceded, a great proportion of the class under contemplamoments and hours when the manual occupation can, tion have in some days several hours, and in the whole and actually will, be prosecuted with but little of ex- six days of the week, on all average of the year, many clusive attention. Slight incidents, casual expressions, hours, to be given, as they choose, to useful purposes would sometimes suggest these subjects; by associa- or to waste; and again we ask, where the mind has tion they would suggest one another. The mere re- been left waste how is that time mostly expended? action of a some what cultivated spirit against invading If the persons are of a phlegmatic temperament, we dulness, might recal some of the more amusing and shall often see them just simply annihilating those porelating ones; and they would fall like a gleam of sun- tions of time. They will for an hour, or for hours toshine on the imagination. An emotion of conscience, gether, if not disturbed by some cause from without, sit a self-reflection, an occuring question of duty a moni- on a bench, or lie down on a bank of hillock, or lean on tory sensation of defective health, would sometimes a wall, or fill the fire-side chair, yielded up to utter vapoint to the serious and solemn ones. The mind might cancy and torpor, not asleep perhaps, but more exempt thus go a great way, to recreate or profit itself, and, on fromn mental excitement than if they were; since the coming back again, find all safe in the process of the dreams, that would probably v'sit their slumbers, would field or the loom. The man would thus come from most certainly be a more livel) train of ideas than any these processes with more than the bare earnings to set they have awake. Of a piece with this, is the habit, against the fatigue. There would thus be scattered among many of this order of people, of giving formally some appearances to entertain, and some sources and to sleep as much as one-third part, sometimes considerproductions to refresh, over what were else a dead and ably more, of the twenty-four hours. Certainly there barren flat of existence. is a mounful number of cases in which infirmity, care, There is no romancing in all this; we have known fatigue, and the comfortlessness and penury of the huminstances of its verification to a very pleasing and ex- ble dwelling, effectually plead for a large allowance of emplary extent. We have heard persons of the class this balm of oblivion. But very many surrender themin question tell of the exhilarating imaginations, or so- selves to this excess from destitution of any thing to lemn reflections, which, through the reminiscences of keep their minds awake, especially in the evenings of what they had read in youth or more advanced years, the winter. What a contrast is here suggested to the had visited their minds; and put them as it were in imagination of those who have read Dr. Henderson's, communication for a while with diversified, remote, and and other recent descriptions, of the habits of the peoelevated objects, while in their humble employments ple of Iceland! under the open sky or the domestic roof. And is not These, however, are their mnost harmless modes of this, (if it be true, after all, that the intellectual immor- wasting the time. For while we might think of the tal nature is by emphasis the man,) is not this vastly many hours merged by them in apathy and needless better than that this mind should lie nearly as dormant, sleep, with a wish that those hours could be recovered during the labourer's hours of business, as his attendant to the account of their existence, we might well think of the canine species shall be sometimes seen to do in with a wish that the hours could be struck' out of it the corner of the field where he is at work'l which they may sometimes give, instead, to conversaBut perhaps it will be said, that the minds. of the un- tion; in parties where ignorance, coarse vulgarity, and cultivated order are not generally in this state of utter profaneness, are to support the dialogue on topics the inanity during their common employments; but are often most to their taste; always including, as the most welawake and busy enough in recollections, fancies, pro- come to that taste, the depravities and scandals of the jects, and the tempers appropriate; and that they abun- neighbourhood; while all the reproach and ridicule, exdantly show this when they stop sometimes in their pended with the warmest good will on those depraviwork to talk; or talk as they are proceeding in it. So ties, have uniformly the strange result, of making the much the stronger, we answer, the argument for sup- censors the less disinclined themselves to practise them, plying them with knowledge; for it were better their and only a little better instructed how to do it with immental being were sunk in lethargy, than busy among punity. In many instances there is the additional misthe imaged transactions, the wishes, and the schemings, chief, that these assemblings for corrupt communication which will be the most likely to occupy the faculties of find their resort at the public house, where intemperance persons abandoned to ignorance, vulgarity, and there- and ribaldry may season each other, if the pecuniary fore probably to vice. means can be afforded, even at the cost of distress at We may add to the representation, the manner in home. But short of this depravity, the worthlessness which they spend the part of their time not required to of the communications of a number of grossly ignorant be devoted to the regular, nor to the occasional, exer- beings is edsy to be imagined, besides that most of us cise of their industry. It is too true that many of them have been made judges of their quality by rnumberless may plead as they do, that excepting Sunday, the ut- occasions of unavoidably hearing samples of them. most suspension of toil allowed them is little more than In the finer seasons of the year, much of these leisure what, being caused by weariness, is absolutely needed spaces of time can be expended out of doors; and we for complete repose. This is particularly the case of have still only to refer each one to his own observation the females, especially those who have the chief cares of the account to which they are turned, in the lives of of the family. Nevertheless, it is within'our constant beings whose lot allows but so contracted a portion of observation that a considerable proportion of the men, time to be, at the best, applied directly to the highest a large one of the younger men, do in fact, include, for purposes of life. Here the hater of all such schemes of substance, their manual employments within such limits improvement, as would threaten to turn the lower orof time, as often to leave several hours in-the day to be der into what that hater may probably call Methodists. spent nearly as they please. And in what manner, for in other words, into rational creatures and Christians, the most part, is this precious time expended by those comes in with a ready cant of humanity and commiserof no mental cultivation? It is very true, again, that in ation. And why, he says, with an affected indignation many departments of labour, a diligent exertion during of philanthropy, why should not the poor creatures eneven this limited space of the day, occasions such a de- joy a little fresh air and cheerful sunshine, and have a gree of lassitude and heaviness as to render it almost chance for keeping their health, confined as many of inevitable, especially in certain seasons of the year, to them are, for the greatest part of their time, in narrow surrender some moments of the spare time, beyond squalid rooms, unwholesome shops, or one kind or other what is necessary for taking the supports of life, to a of disagreeable places and employments? Very true, kind of listless subsidence of all the powers, corporeal we answer; and why should they not be collected in and mental. But after all these allowances fully con- groups by the road side, in readiness for any thing that, 106 - FOSTER'S ESSAYS. in passing, may furnish occasions for gross jocularity, Those favoured portions of their time, interposed a practising some impertinence, or uttering some jeering regular and frequent intervals, with a mark of the discurrility, at the expense of persons going by; shouting vine benediction upon them, might, without any ap-. with laughter at the effect of the sport, and inspiriting proach toward the punctilious and burdensome austerity it all with infernal imprecations? Or why should they in the manner of improving them which some good men not form a little conventicle for cursing, blaspheming, in former times enjoined, be the means of diffusing a and blackguard obstreperousness in the street, about degree of light and dignity over the whole series of their the entrance of one of the haunts of intoxication; where days; whereas an unhappily large number of those of they are perfectly safe from that far worse mischief of our people who are now arrived near the close of that a gloomy fanaticism, with which they might have been long series, have to look back on the Sundays as having smitten if seduced to frequent the meeting-house twen- been made. in a peculiar manner, the dishonour and ty paces offS? Or why should not the children, grow- bane of their life. One of the most melancholy views ing into the stage called youth, be turned loose through in which a human being can be presented to us, is when the lanes, roads, and fields, to form a brawling impu- we behold a man of perhaps seventy years sunk in the dent rabble, trained by Lheir association to every low gross stupidity of an almost total ignorance of all the vice, and ambitiously f tnulating, in voice, visage, and most momentous subjects, and reflect that more than manners, the drabs and ruffians of maturer growth? Or three thousand Sundays have passed over him, of which why should not the young men and women collect in every hour successively has been his time, since he clusters, or range about or beyond the neighbourhood in came to an age of some natural capacity for mental exbands, for revel, frolic, and all kinds of coarse mirth, to ercise. Perhaps some compassionate friend may have come back late at night to quarrel with their wretched been pleading in his behalf-Alas! what opportunity, elders, who perhaps envy them their capacity for such what time, has the poor mortal ever had? His lot has wild gaities and strollings, while rating them for their been to labour hard through the week, throughout aldisorderly habits? We say, where can be the harm of most his whole life. Yes, we answer, but he has had all this? What reasonable and benevolent man would three thousand Sundays; what would not even the think of making any objection to it? Reasonable and most moderate improvemnent of so immense a quantity benevolent,-for these are qualities expressly boasted of time have done for him? 1But the ill-fated man, by the opposers of an improved education of the people, (perhaps rejoins the commiserating pleader,) had no while in such opposition they virtually avow their ap- advantages of education, had nothing in any sense deprobation of all that we have here described. serving that name. There, we reply, you strike the We have allowed most fully the plea of how little mark. Sundays are of no practical value, nor bibles, time, comparatively, could be afforded by the lower nor the enlarged knowledge of the age, nor heaven nor classes from their indispensable employments to the earth, to beings brought up in estrangement from all concern of mental improvement; and also that of the right discipline of their minds. And therefore we are fatigue consequent on them, aId causing a temporary pleading for the schemes and institutions which will not incapacity of effort in any other way. But here we see let human beings be thus brought up. that, nevertheless, time, strength, and wakefulness, and In so pleading, we can happily appeal to a conspicuspring and spirit for exertion, are found for a vast deal ous fact in evidence that the intellectual and religious of busy diversion. culture, in the introductory stages of life, tends to seThis is the manner in which the spare time of the cure that the persons so trained shall be, after they are week-days goes to waste, and worse; but the Sunday grown up, much more sensible than the uncultivated, is welcomed as giving scope for the same things on a of the value of means and opportunities, and more dislarger scale. It is very striking to consider, that seve- posed to avail themselves of them. Look at the numral millions, we may safely assert, of our English peo- hers now attending, and with a deportment not unsuitple, come to what should be years of discretion, are able, public worship and instruction, as compared with almost completely exempt from any manner of con- what the proportion is remembered or recorded to have science respecting this seventh part of time, not merely been half a century since, or ally time previous to the as to any required consecration of it to religion, but as great exertions of benevolence, to save the children of to its being under any claim or of any worth at all, the inferior classes from preserving the likeness of the otherwise than for amusement. It is actually regarded minds of their forefathers. by them as a section of time far less under obligation It can be testified also, by persons whose observathan any other. They take it as so absolutely at their tion has been the longest in the habit of following chilfree disposal, by a right so exlusively vested in their dren and youth from the instruction of the school institaste and will, that a demand made even in behalf of tutions into mature life, that in a gratifying number of their own most important interests is contemptuously instances, they have been seen permanently retaining repelled as an interference. If the idea occurs at all too much love of improvement, and too much of the of claims which they have heard that God should make habit of an useful employment of their minds, to sink, on the hours, it is dismissed with the thought that it re- in their ordinary daily occupations, into that wretched ally cannot signify to him how creatures condemned by inanity we were representing; or to consume the free his appointment to toil all the rest of the week, may intervals of time in the listlessness, or worthless gabwish to spend this one day, on which the secular task- ble, or vain sports, of which their neighbours furnished master manumits them, and he, the spiritual one, might plenty of example and temptation. surely do as much. An immense number pay no attention whatever to any sort of religious worship; and multitudes of those that do afford an hour to such an observance, do it either as a mode of amusement, or by SECTION VI. way of taking a license of exemption from any farther accountableness as to the manner in which they may Gross ignorance produces a degraded state of domestic like to spend the day. It is the natural consequence society. of all this, that there is more folly, if not more crime, These representations have partly included, what committed on this than on all the other six days to- we may yet specify distinctly as one of the unhappy gether. effects of gross ignorance-a degraded state of domestic Thus man, at least ignorant man, is unfit to be trusted society. with any thing under heaven; since a remarkable ap- That form of community is seen to have a peculiar pointment for raising the general tenor of moral exist- tendency to fall below the level of complacent and digence, has, with these persons, the effect of sinking it. nified association, and strongly requires the intervention FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 107 of every preventive and corrective cause. Human be- the children. Far from it:; but at the same time, it ings cannot be together without having constantly, should not be obvious to the natural shrewdness of the though it may be somewhat indistinctly, a certain sense children that their domestic authorities really have no of claiming from one another something meant and reasons better than all obstinate or capricious will, so suited to please. This is fully recognized when stran- that they should plainly perceive there is no reason for gers fall into company for a few hours. The members their submission but the necessity imposed by their deof the domestic society have each this same feeling that pendence. But this must often be the unfurtunate case the others should please them; but their passing so in such families. very large a portion of their time together is adverse to Now imagine a week, month, or year, of the intertheir giving what they thus mutually claim. To be course iu such a domestic society, the course of talk, through so long a time maintaining a study and effort the mutual manners, and the progess of mind and charto please one another, would be too long and costly a acter; where there is a sense of drudgery approaching suspension of their individual wills, tastes, and hu- to that of slavery, in the unrelenting necessity of labour; mors; for to please each one himself, rather than oth- where there is none of the interest of imparting knowers, is the predominant principle of human feeling after ledge or receiving it, or of reciprocating knowledge all. Hence the absence, in domestic society, of the that has been imparted and received; where there is attentiveness, the tone of civility, the habits of little not an acre, if we might express it so, of intellectual concessions and accommodations, voluntary and super- space around them, clear of the thick universal fog of numerary, which are observable in the temporary inter- ignorance; where, especially, the luminaries of the course of acquaintance, and, as we have said, of stran- spiritual heaven, the attributes of the almighty, the gers. Where the claim is perpetual, each one seems grand phenomenon of redeeming meditation, the solemn prompted by a natural impulse to a manner of deport- realities of a future state and another world, are totally ment which has the ungraciousness of asserting his obscured in that shade; where the conscience and the freedom. discriminations of duty are dull and indistinct, from the And then consider, in so close a kind of community, youngest to the oldest; where there is no genuine rewhat near and intimate witnesses they are of all one spect felt or shown on the one side, nor affection unanother's faults, weaknesses, tempers, perversities; of mixed with vulgar petulence and harshness, expressed whatever is offensive in manner, or unseemly in habit; perhaps in wicked imprecations, on the other; where a of all the irksome, humiliating, or even ludicrous, cir- mutual coarseness of manners and language has the efcumstances and situations. And alsoirin this close as- fect, without their being aware of it as a cause of desociation, the bad moods, the strifes, and resentments, basing their worth in one another's esteem, all round; are pressed into immediate lasting corrosive contact and where, notwithstanding all, they absolutely must with whatever should be the most vital to social happi- pass a great deal of time together, to converse, and to ness. If there be, into tfhe account, the wants, anxi- display their dispositions toward one another, and exeties, and vexations of severe poverty, they will gener- emplify what the primary relations of life are reduced ally aggravate all that is destructive to domestic con: to when divested of all that is to give them dignity enplacency and decorum. dearment, and conduciveness to the highest advantage Now add gross ignorance to all this, and see what of existence. the picture will be. How many families we have seen Home has but little to please the young members of where the parents were only the older and stronger an- such a family, and a great deal to make them eager to imals than their children, whom they could teach no- escape out of the house; which is also a welcome ridthing but the methods and tasks of labour. They natu- dance to the elder persons, when it is not in neglect or rally could not be the mere companions, for alternate refusal to perform the allotments of labour. So little play and quarrel, of their children, and were disquali- is the feeling of a peaceful cordiality created among fled by mental rudeness to be their respected guard- them by their seeing one another all within the habitaians. There were about them these young and rising tion, that, not unfrequently, the passer-by may learn forms, containing the inextinguishable principle which the fact of their collective number being there, from the was capable of entering on an endless progression of sound of a low strife of mingled voices, some of them wisdom, goodness, and happiness; needing numberless betraying youth replying in anger and contempt to masuggestions, explanations, admonitions, and brief rea- turity or age. It is wretched to see how early this lisonings, and a training to follow the thoughts of written berty is boldly taken. As the children perceive nothing instruction. But nothing of all this from the parental in the minds of their parents that should awe them inmind. Their case was as hopeless for receiving this to deference, the most important difference left between benefit, as the condition, for physical nutriment, of in- them is that of physical strength. The children, if of fants attempting to draw it, (*e have heard of so affect- hardy disposition, to which they are perhaps trained in ing and mournful a fact,) from the breast of a dead pa- battles with their juvenile rivas, soon show a certain derent. These unhappy heads of families possessed no gree of daring against this superior strength. Arid as the resources for engaging and occupying, for at once amus- difference lessens, and by the time it has nearly ceased, ing and instructing, the younger minds; no descrip- what is so natural as that they should assume equality, in tions of the most wonderful objects, or narratives of manners and in following their own will; But equality the memorable events, to set, for superior attraction, assumed where there should be subordination, inevitably against the idle stories of the neighbourhood; no as- involves contempt toward the party against whose claim semblage of admirable examples, from the sacred or it is asserted. other records of hulnan character, to give a beautiful The relative condition of such parents as they sink real form to virtue and religion, and promote an aversion in old age, is most deplorable. And all that has preto base companionship. ceded leads, by a natural course, to that consequence Requirement and prohibition must be a part of the which we have sometimes beheld, with feelings emphafamily economy, perpetually in operation of course; tically gloomy,-the almost perfect indifference with and in such examples we have seen the family govern- which the descendants, and a few other near relatives, ment exercised, or attempted to be exercised, in the of a poor old man of this class, would consign him to the roughest barest shape of will and menace, with no apti- grave. A human being was gone out of the world, a tude or means of imparting to injunction and censure being whom they had been near all their lives, some of a convincing and persuasive quality. Not that the sen- them sustained in their childhood by his labours, and iors should allow their government to be placed on such yet not one heart, at any one moment, felt the sentia ground, that, in every thing they enforce or forbid, ment-I have lost..-They never could regard him they may be liable to have their reasons demanded by with respect, and their miserable education had not 108 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. taught them humanity enough to regard him in his de- h ner of attending to what they said, his perfect undexclining days as an object of pity. Some decency of standing of the language naturally employed by cultiattention was perhaps shown him, or perhaps not, in vated sense, the considerateness and pertinence of his his last hours. His being become a dead, instead of a replies, and the chastened independence, just amountliving man was a burden taken off; and the insensibi- ing to the absence of servility and awkward timidity, lity and levity, somewhat disturbed and repressed at greatly pleased those persons of superior rank, and inthe sight of his expiring struggle, and of his being duced various friendly and useful attentions, on their loweredinto the grave, recovered, by the day after his part, to him and his family. He and his family thus interment, if not on the very same evening, their ac- experieficed a direct benefit of superior sense, civility, customed tone, never more to be interrupted by the and good principle, in a humble condition; and were effect of any thought of him. It is a very melancholy put under a new responsibility to preserve a character spectacle to see an ignorant thoughtless father, sur- for those distinctions. Now think of the incalculable rounded by his untaught children, at the sight of whom advantage to society, if any thing approaching to this our thought thus silently accosts him, The event which were the general state of social relation, between the will take you finally from among them, perhaps after lower and the higher orders. forty or fifty years of intercourse with them. will leave On the contrary, there is no medium of complacent no more impression on their affections, than the cutting communication between the classes of higher condition down of a decayed old tree in the neighbourhood of and endowment, and an ignorant coarse populace. Exyour habitation. cept on occasion of giving orders or magisterial reThere are instances of rare occurrence, in which the bukes, the gentleman will never think of accosting dark and thoughtless spirit of the head of such a family the clowns in his vicinity. They, on their part, are deis, late in life, far too late for their welfare, roused by qsrous to avoid him; excepting when any of them may an influence from heaven into earnest thoughtfulness have a purpose to gain, by arresting his attention with and conscience. When the sun thus breaks out in an ungainly cringe; or when some of those, that have radiance toward the close of his gloomy day, and when, no kind of dependence on him, are disposed to cross in the energy of this new life, he puts forth the best his way with a look and strut of rudeness, to show how efforts of his untaught soul to acquire a little divine little they care for himr. The servility, and the impuknowledge, to be a lamp to him in entering ere long dence, almost equally repress, in him, all friendly disthe shades of death, with what bitter regrets he looks position toward a voluntary intercourse with the class. back to the period when a number of human beings There is thus as complete a dissociation between the now scattered from him, and here and there pursuing two orders, as mutual dislike, added to every imaginatheir course in careless ignorance, were growing up ble dissimilarity, can create. And this broad, ungraunder his roof, within his charge but ill utter estrange- cious separation, intercepts all modifying influence, that ment from all discipline of wisdom. And most gladly might otherwise have passed, from the intelligence and would he lay down his life to make the impression, on refinement of the one, upon the barbarism of the other. the now harder state of their minds, which instruction But there is, in human nature, a pertinacious dispomight have been rendered efficacious to make upon sition to work disadvantages, in one way or other, into them in that early season. privileges. The people, in being thus consigned to a Another thing is to be added, to this representation low and alien ground, in relation to the cultivated part of the evils attendant on an uncultivated state of the of society, are put in possession, as it were, of a terripeople, namely-that this mental rudeness puts them tory of their own; where they can give their disposidecidedly out of communication with the superior and tion freer play, and act out their characters in their cultivated classes. It does so to a degree most perni- own manner; under none of the necessity or policy cious to their own and the general welfare. It is of which, had they occupied a ground where they must great consequence to a nation, that whatever there is in have been in communication with persons of superior it of dignity and refinement, of liberalized feeling and order, they would have felt of partially conforming te deportment, and of intelligence, should have its effect the tastes and manners of those superiors. They thu downward, through all the gradations of the social enjoy a great emancipation; a degrading and pernicious condition, even to the lowest. It is easy to conceive one indeed, but one of which they are certain to make such an effect, so pervading them all, that there should the full license. In all things and situations, it is one be perceptible, in every class, a modification betraying of the first objects with human beings, to verify experia beneficent influence of those the most eminent and mentally the presumed extent of their liberty and privienlightened. But in order to this, the subordinate lege. In this dissociation, the people are rid of the ranks must be in a certain degree in communication, on many salutary restraints and incitements, which they favourable and amicable terms, with the higher. We would have been made *o feel, if on terms of friendly have known individual instances of such a friendly ap- recognition with the respectable part of the community; proximation, and of the benefit of it. Each reader may they have neither honour nor disgrace, from that quarprobably recollect an example, in the case of some man ter, to take into their account; and this contributes to in humble station, but who has had, (for his condition,) extinguish all sense and care of respectability of characan excellent education; having been well instructed and ter,-a sense and care which will never be maintained exercised in his youth in the elements of useful know- by any regard to one another's estimates, which they ledge; having had good principles diligently inculcated are far enough from holding in reverence: in truth there upon him; having subsequently instructed himself, to the is a kind of tacit mutual understanding among them, best of his very confined means and opportunity, through that, for the benefit of them all, they are systematically a habit of reading; and exhibiting in his manners all the to set aside all high notions and nice responsibilities of decorums of a respectable human being. It has been character and conduct. seen, that such a man, has not found, in his superiors And what is the natural consequence of their being in station and attainment, any disposition to shun him; thus abandoned to themselves, free from all the influand has not felt in himself or his situation any reason ence they would have been under in a state of friendly why he should seek to shun them. He would occasion- contiguity, if we may so express it, to the cultivated ally fall into conversation with the wealthy and accom- orders? Times may have been, when the great mass, plished proprietor, or the professional man of learning, thus detached, combined such a quietude with their igin the neighbourhood. He maintained toward them a norance, that they had none but submissive feelings in modest deference, but yet with an honest freedom of relation to their superiors, whose property, almnost, they avowing his opinion, and making his observations on were inured to consider themselves: when it never octhe matters brought in question. His intelligent man- curred to them to make a question, why there should FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 109 be so vast a difference of condition between beings of tified with the stability of the existing social order, they the same race, when there were never unfolded to their consider it as something that would spring from the view, the portentious possibilities included in the fact ruin of that order. They have lost all that veneration of the immense superiority of numbers, and therefore by habit, partaking somewhat perhaps of the nature of of the physical force, of the lower order as put in com- a superstition, which had been protracted downward, parison with the higher. But the times of this perfect, though progressively attenuated with the lapse of time, unquestioning, unmurmuring, succumbency, under the from the feudal ages into the last century. They have actual allotment, have passed away; except in such re- quite lost, too, in this disastrous age, that sense of corngions as the Russian empire, where they have yet long petence, and possible well-being, which might have harto continue. In the other principal states of Europe, monized their feelings with a social economy under and especially in our own, the grossest ignorance of the which they have enjoyed such a state. Whatever the people has no where prevented them from acquiring a actual economy may have of wisdom in its institutions, sense of their strength and importance; with a certain and of splendor, and fulness of all good things, in some ill conceived, but stimulant notion, of some change parts of'its apportionment, they feel that what is allotwnich they think ought to take place in their condition. ted to most of them, in its arrangements, is pressing How, indeed, should it have been possible, for any con- hardship, galling unremitting poverty. And while thus siderable proportion of them to remain unaware of this thrown loose from the former ties to the social order, strength and importance, while the whole civilized world their minds have not been seized upon to be put under was shaken with a practical and tremendous contro- the substitutional ones which sound instruction alone versy, between the two grand opposed orders of soci- could impose. Wise instruction might have made them ety, concerning their respective rights; or that they capable of understanding, how a considerable proporshould not have taken a strong, and, from the rudeness tion of the evil may have been inevitable from unconof their mental condition, a fierce interest, in the prin- trollable causes; of admitting in their consciences that ciple and progress of the strife? And how should they national calamities are visitations of divine judgment, have failed to hear, that during this commotion, innu- of which they were to reflect whether they had not deinerable persons from the lowest class, signalizing them- served a heavy share; and of comprehending that, at selves by talent and daring, had taken, by main strength, all events, rancour, violence, and disorder, cannot be the advantageous ground formerly deemed in a great the way to alleviate any of the evils, but to aggravate measure the peculiar right, as if by a law of nature of them all. But, we repeat it, there are millions in this those who held their claim in virtue of their nativity? landl, and if we include the neighboring island politicThe effect of all this is gone deep into the minds, of ally united to it, many millions, who have received no great numbers who are not excited, in consequence, to instruction adequate, in the smallest degree, to counany worthy, exertion for raising themselves, individually, teract the natural effect of the distresses of their confrom their degraded condition, by the earnest improve- dition, or to create a new principle of adherence to the ment and application of their faculties and means. The established order, in place of those which time and the feeling of many of them seems to be, that they must innovation of opinions have worn out. and will sullenly abide by the ill-starred fate of their Thus alienated, and thus not reclaimed, there is a class, till some great comprehensive alteration, in their large proportion of human strength and feeling not in favour, shall absolve them from that bond of hostile vital combination with the social system, but aloof from sentiment, in which they make common cause against it, looking at it with'gloomy and malign regard,' in a the superior orders; and shall create a state of things state progressive toward a fitness to be impelled against in which it shall be worth while for the individual to it with a dreadful shock, under the actuating energy of make an effort to raise himself. WVe can at best, (they whatever daring powerful spirits Ilmight arise, intent on seem to say,) but barely maintain, with the utmost dif- its demolition, and favoured by opportune conjunctures ficulty, a miserable life; and you talk to us of cultiva- of circumstances. There have not been wanting examtion, of discipline, of moral respectability, of efforts to ples to show, with what fearful effect this hostility may come out from our degraded rank! No, we shall even come into action, in the crisis of the fate of a nation's anstay where we are, till it is seen how the question is cient system; where this alienated portion of its own peosettled between the people of our sort, and those who ple, rushing in, have revenged upon it the neglect of their will have it that they are of a far worthier kind. There tuition; that neglect which had abandoned them to so may then, perhaps, be some chance for such as we; and utter a' lack of knowledge,' that they really understood if not, the less we are disturbed about improvement, no better than to expect their own solid advantage in knowledge, and all those things, the better, while we general havoc and disorder. But how bereft of sense are bearing the heavy load a few years, to die like those the state too must be, that would thus let a multitude before us. of its people grow up in a condition of mind to believe We said they are banded in a hostile sentiment. It that the sovereign expedient for their welfare is to be is true, that among such a degraded populace there is found in spoliation and destruction! It might easily very little kindness, or care for one another's interests. have comprehended, what it was reasonable to expect They all know too well what they all are not, to be from the matured dispositions and strength, of such of much attached to one another. But it is infinitely ea- its children as it abandoned to be nursed by the vwolf. sier, for any set of human beings, to maintain a com- While this principle of ruin was working on, by a munity of feeling in hostility to something else, than in steady and natural process, this supposed infatuated benevolence toward one another; for here no sacrifice state was, it is extremely possible, directing its chief is required of any one's self-interest. And it is certain, care to maintain the splendor of a court, or to extort that the subordinate portions of society, in this and seve- the means for prosecuting some object of vain and ral other nations, have come to regard the occupants wicked ambition, some project of conquest and milil of the tracts of fertility and sunshine, the possessors of tary glory. opulence, splendor, and luxury, with a deep settled systemratic aversion,-to use the most moderate term; with a disposition to contemplate in any other light than SECTION VIT. that of a calamity, an extensive downfall of the favorites of fortune, when a brooding imagination figures swer t such a thing as possible; and with but very slight teges of a geeral diLeszoe of kelledwCle, in conhints, from conscience, of the iniquity of the most tu- ne ll th religion, ilstrated. multuary accomplishment of such a catastrophe. In a But there may be persons ready to asK here. whether. ord, so far from considering their own welfare as iden it be so certain that giving the people of the lower or 110 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. der more knowledge, and sharpening their faculties, of education. The advocates of schools have had the will really tend to the preservation of good order. triumph of its being shown, that it was not from these Would not such improvement elate them, to a most ex- seminaries that such delinquents were to go out, to travagant estimate of their own worth and importance; evince that the improvement of intelligence may be but and therefore result in insufferable arrogance, both in the greater ability for fraud and mischief. No, it was the individuals and the class? Would they not, on the uniformly found to have been in very different places strength of it, be continually assuming to sit in judg- of resort, that these wretches had been almost from ment on the proceedings and claims of their betters, their infancy, accomplished for crime; and that their even in the most lofty stations; and demanding their training had not taken or needed any assistance from. own pretended rights, with a troublesome and probably an exercise on literary rudiments, from bibles, cateturbulent pertinacity? Would they not, since their chisms, or religious and. moral poetry, or from an atimprovement cannot from their condition in life, be tendance on public worshin. Indccd, as if it were large and deep, be in just such a half-taught state, as through an intervention of Providence to confound the would make them exactly fit to be wrought upon by all cavillers, the children and youth of the schools were sorts of crafty schemers, fierce declaimers, empirics, found to have been more generally preserved from deand innovators? Is it not, in short, too probable that, fection to the league of premature reprobates, than a. since an increase of mental power is available to bad moral calculator, with the quality of human nature kept uses as well as good, the results would greatly prepon- in his sight, would have ventured to anticipate, upon a. derate on the side of evil? moderate estimate of the influence of instruction. They would do well to put the objection in direct Experience equally falsifies the notion that knowterms, and say, Understanding is to be men's guide to ledge, imparted to the lower orders, beyond what is neright conduct, and therefore the less understanding they cessary to the handling of their tools, tends to factious have, the more safe are we against their going wrong. turbulence; to a re-action, (in pursuance of certain But not to dwell on the absurdity of denying, that the wild principles and theories,) against law and regular more mental light people have, the better qualified, in government in society. The maintainers of which nothat proportion, must they be to discern their duty, nor tion should also affirm, that the people of Scotland have on the tendency of an argument, if such questions long been about the most disaffected tumultuary, revo contain one, which goes to depreciate the desire of lutionary rabble in Europe; and that the Cornish miiners, truth, and all that has been venerated as wisdom, and at this day so worthily distinguished at once by exer all literature, and divine revelation, and our rational cised intellect and religion, are incessantly on the point nature itself,-not to insist on this absurdity, we can of insurrection, against their employers or the state. most confidently answer from matter of fact. It is And we shall be just as ready to believe them if they proved by fact, that giving the people more knowledge also assert, that, in those popular irregularities which and more sense, does not tend to disorder and insubor- have too often disturbed, in particular places, the peace dination; does not excite them to impatience and ex- of our country, the clamorous bands or crowds, collected. travagant claims; does not spoil them for the ordinary for purposes of intimidation or demolition, have consisted. business of life, imposed by duty and necessity; does chiefly of the more cultivated part of the poorer inhabiriot make them the dupes of knaves; nor prompt them tants;-yes, or that this class furnished one in a hunto seek the benefit of the improvement of their facul- dred of the numbers forming such lawless bands; even ties in turning knaves themselves. Employers can though many of these more instructed of the people testify, from all sides, that there is a striking general might. be suffering, with their families, the utmost exdifference between those bred up in ignorance and rude tremity of want, the direct pressure of that hunger vulgarity, and those who have been trained through the which, as well as oppression, may' make a wise man well ordered schools for the humble classes; a differ- mad.' Many of these, in their desolate abodes, with ence exceedingly in favour of the latter, who are found tears of parents and children mingled together, have not only more apt at understanding and executing, but been committing themselves to their father in heaven, more decorous, more respectful, more attentive to or- at the time that the ruder part of the population have ders, more ready to see and acknowledge the propriety been carrying alarm, and sometimes mischief, through of good regulations, and more disposed to a practical ac- the district, and so confirming the faith, we may supquiescence in them; far less inclined to ebriety and low pose, of sundry magnates of the neighbourhood, who company; and more to be depended on in point of hon- had vehemently asserted, a few years before, the peresty. In almost any part of the country, where the ex- nicious tendency of educating the people. periment has been zealously prosecuted for a moderate It would be less than what is due to suffering hunumber of years, a long resident observer can discern manity, to leave this topic without observing, that if a a modification in the character of the neighbourhood; numerous portion of the community should be sinking a mitigation of the former brutality of manners; a less under severe, protracted, unmitigated distress, distress frequency of brawls and quarrels, and less tendency to on which there appears to them no dawn of hope from draw together into rude riotous assemblages. There ordinary causes, it is not to be held a disparagement to is especially a marked difference on the Sabbath, on the value of education, if some of' those who have enwhich multitudes attend public worship, whose fore- joyed a measure of that advantage, in common with a fathers used to be found in those very assemblages on greater number who have not, should become feverishly that day; and who would themselves, in all probability, agitated with imaginations of great sudden changes in have followed the same course, but for the tuition which the social system; and be led to entertain suggestions has led them into a better. In many instances, the of irregular violent expedients for the removal of inchildren have carried from the schools inestimable ben- supportable evils. It niust, in all reason, be acknowefits home to their unhappy families; winning even ledged the last lesson, which education could be extheir depraved thoughtless parents into consideration pected to teach with practical effect, that one part of and concern about their most important interests,-a the community should be willing to resign themselves, precious repayment of all the long toils and cares en- as far as they can see, to destruction, that the others dulred to support them through the period of childhood, may live in sufficiency and tranquillity. Such heroic and an example of that rare class of phenomena, in devotement might not be difficult in the sublime elation which a superlative beauty arises from the inversion of of Thernopylo; but it is a very different matter in a the general order of nature. melancholy cottage, and in the midst of famishing chilEven the frightful statements of the increase, in re- dren. cent years, of active juvenile depravity, especially in After thus referring to matter of fact, for contradicthe metropolis, include a gratifying testimonyin favour tion of the notion, that the mental cultivation of the FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 111 lower classes might render them less subject to the rules dictates the laws of that conduct, and will judicially of good order, we have to observe, in farther reply, that hold them amenable for every part of it. we are not heard insisting on the advantages of increased And, as far as any judgment can be formed of means knowledge, and mental invigoration, among the people, as adapted to ends, is not this endeavour to fix religious unconnected swith the inculcation of religion. Nor is principles in ascendency, the way to bring up citizens this essential point forgotten or neglected in the actual fit to preserve the great social compact? Or perhaps system of procedure, in the institutions of which we are far less interference of the divine sanctions, would do the advocates. Undoubtedly, their conductors and quite as well, for securing peace and good order among zealous friends account knowledge valuable absolutely, the mulitude, provided they be but kept in profound as being the apprehension of things as they are; a pre- ignorance,-the religious principles being rendered unvention of delusion; and so far a fitness for right voli- necessary to them, just in the proportion of their want tions. But they consider religion, (besides being itself of other knowledge. This is, at least virtually, said. the primary and infinitely the most important part of by the disapprover of the designs for educating the peoknowledge,) as a principal indispensable for securing the ple. For, it were most idle for these persons to prefull benefit of all the rest. It is desired and endeav- tend, that they would have the people, in some way or oured, that the understandings of these opening minds other, put in the state of understanding the principal may be taken possession of, by just and solemn ideas truths, and acknowledging the sanctions, of religion, as of their relation to the eternal almighty being; that they a special and separate attainment, while remaining desmay be taught to apprehend it as an awful reality, that titute of mental cultivation in the general sense. If they are perpetually under his inspection; and as a cer- those who would so pretend, were to see the actual tainty, that they must at length appear before him in phenomenon; if it were to come before them as a real judgment, and find, in another life, the consequences of fact,-(an extremely ignorant man entertaining a lively what they are in spirit and conduct here It is im- and influential sense of religion,)-would they not pressed upon them, that his will is the supreme law; greatly marvel? Would they not be nonplussed in. that his declarations are the most momentous truth trying to understand such a thing? What if there known on earth; and his faour and condemnation the were whispered to them, just then, some of the phrases greatest good and evil. And it is wished, and endeav- at which they had often sneered; for example divine oured, to be by the light of this divine wisdom that they grace; which the man himself might very possibly be are disciplined in other parts of knowledge; so that guilty of naming? We shall not deny the possibility nothing they learn may be detached from all sensible of such a phenomenon fromnt Such a cause. But here relation to it, or have a tendency contrary to it. Thus we are speaking of the course required in human proit is sought to be secured, that, as the pupil's mind ceeding, by practical rational methods, toward the atgrows stronger, and multiplies its resources, and he tainment of an object attainable through discipline. therefore has necessarily more power and means for And how, it may well be demanded, is this supposed what is wrong, there may be luminously presented to education to be conducted, which shall preserve the him, as if celestial eyes visibly beamed upon him, the people's general ignorance inviolate, and yet inculcate most solemn ideas that can enforce what is right. religion with the due efficacy for making them virtuous Such is the discipline mediated for preparing the sub- citizens? How introduce the subject into minds unordinate classes to pursue their individual welfare, and formed to admit any thing but the impressions of sense; act their part as members of the community. They never made to affix a meaning to the very terms to be are to be trained in early life to diligent employment employed; never opened to a capacity of comprehendof their faculties, tending to strengthen them, regulate ing any one idea approaching to greatness or remnotethem, and give their possessors the power of effectually ness; and infinitely repugnant to beg'in so unwonted using them. They are to be exercised to form clear and uncouth an exercise with the topic of religion, of correct notions, instead of crude vague delusive ones. all subjects in the world? No, assuredly, the good The subjects of these ideas will be, a very considerable order of a populace, left in stupid ignorance, cannot be number of the most important facts and principles; preserved by the effect of so slight ain infusion of religwhich are to be presented to their understandings with ion, as these pretended good friends of theirs would ina patient repetition of efforts to fix them there as know- stil into their mental grossness. It must be done by ledge that cannot be forgotten. By this measure of something far stronger; and if it actually is done alsubstantial acquirement and by the habit formed in so ready, in nearly the required degree, with no more of acquiring, they will be qualified for making farther at- religion than this, it is done by other means; and theretainment in future time, if they are disposed to improve fore much hypocritical canting about the necessity of their opportunities. During this progress, and in con- religion in the lower orders, to the safety of the state, nexion with many of its exercises, their duty is to be might be spared to such persons as we have heard utenforced on them, in the various, forms in which they tering it together with more than a doubt of the pruwill have to make a choice, between right and wrong dence of qualifying these same lower orders even to in their conduct toward society. There will be incul- read the bible. cated justice, prudence, inoffensiveness, estrangement But all this while, we are forgetting to inquire how from the counsels and leagues of vain and bad men; much is to be understood as included in that good order, love of peace, hatred of all disorder and violence, and a that deference and subordination, which it has been aprespect for institutions designed and necessary to pre- prehended that the possession of more mind and knowvent these evils. All this will be taught directly from ledge, by the people, might disturb or destroy. May the holy scriptures, from which authority will also be in- not the notion of it, as entertained by some persons, be culcated, all the while, the principles of religion. And conceived somewhat according to the model of an earreligion, while its grand reference is to the state of the lier age, or of some eastern dominion? Is it required, soul towards God, and to eternal interests, yet takes that the sentiment of obsequiousness should be, in the every principle and rule of morals under the full sane- people, like the instinct by which a lower order of anition of its authority; making the primary obligation mals as in awe of a higher, by which the common tribe and responsibility be towards God, of every thing that of beasts would shrink at the sight of lions? Or is the is a duty with respect to men. So that, with the sub- deference expected to be of an absolute, unconditional jects of this education, the sense of propriety shall be kind, as to something claimiing it bhv siinple divine right, conscience, the consideration of how they ought to be as the prophets or judres of Israel did? Are the peoreguiated, in their conduct as a part of the community, ple to be prevented fiorm considering their relation to shall be the recollection that their master in heaven the comlmunity, any farther than the la!Jours it is their 112 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. assigned part to perform in it, and the respect they are be carried on with less fierceness and malice, in tho to pay to the higher orders of it? Are they to enter- spirit and manner, on the part of the people. And the tain no questions, respecting the right adjustment of ground itself of the contention, the substance of the their condition, in the arrangements of the great social matters in contest, would be gradually diminished-by body. Are they forbidden ever to admit a single doubt, the concessions of the higher classes to the claims of of its being quite a matter of course, that every thinz the lower: for there is no affecting to dissemble, that that ought to be is done, and in such manner as it a great mental and moral improvement of the people ought to be, for the interests of their class; or, there- would necessitate, though there vere not a single fore, to pretend to any such right as that of represent- movement of rude force in the case, important concesing, complaining, and remonstrating? sions to them, on the part of the superior orders. A A subordination founded in such principles, and re- people advanced to such a state, would make its moral quired to such a degree, it is true enough that the com- power felt in a thousand ways, and every moment. munication of knowledge is not the way to perpetuate. This general augmentation of mind and virtue would For the first use, which men infallibly make, of an en- send forth, against all arrangements, and inveterate largement of their faculties and ideas, will be to take a usages, of the nature of invidious repression and exclularger view of their interests; and they may happen, as sion, an energy, which could no more be resisted than soon as they do so, to think they discover that it was the power of the sun, when he advances in the spring quite time; and the longer they do so, to retain still less to annihilate the relics and vestiges of the winter. and less of implicit faith, and.those interests will be done This plastic influence would modify the institutions of justice too without their own vigilance and intervention. the national community, to a state adapted to secure An educated people must be very slow indeed in their all the popular interests; and to convey the genuine, learning, if they do not soon grow out of all belief in the collective opinion, to bear directly on the counsel and necessary wisdom, and rectitude, of any class of human transaction of national concerns. That opinion would creatures whatever. They wiil see how unreasonable have a weight which could not be set at defiance, and it were to expect, that any class will fail in fidelity to an unperverted fidelity of manifestation, which would the great natural principle, of making its own advan- leave no possibility of affecting to take an opposite one tage the first object; and therefore they will not be apt as the genuine. to listen, with the gravity which in other times and re- That such consequences woiuld inevitably follow a gions may have been shown in listening, to injunctions highly improved general state of the people, must be of gratitude for the willingness, evinced by the higher freely acknowledged to those, who cannot consent to orders, to take on them the trouble of watching and their receiving the utmost practicable cultivation. And guarding the people's welfare, by keeping them and all is it because this would follow, that these disapprovers their interests in a proper course. would deprecate such a cultivation? Then let them But neither will it necessarily be in the spirit of hos- say, what it is that they are hoping for from an opposite tility, in the worst sense of the word, that a more in- system. What is it, that they are seriously promising structed people will thus show a diminished credulity of themselves, from the auspicious influence of all the igreverence, toward the predominant ranks in the social norance, that can henceforward be retained among the economy; and will keep in habitual exercise upon them population of this part of the world? They see, that in a somewhat suspicious observation, and a judicial es- this country, and other of the great states of Europe, timate; with an honest freedom in sometimes avowiug there is gone forth, among the great mass of the peodisapprobation, and strongly asserting any right which ple, a spirit of revolt from the sense of obligation toward is believed to be endangered. This will only be ex- institutions simply as existing or as ancient; a spirit pressing that, since all classes naturally consult, by that re-acts, with deep and settled antipathy, against preference, their own interests, it is plainly unfit, that some of the arrangements and claims, of the order into one portion of the community should be trusted with which the national community has been disposed by an unlimited discretion, in ordering what affects the institutions and the course of events; a spirit which welfare of the others; and that, in all prudence, the regards some of the appointments, and requirements, people must withhold an entire affiance, and uncondi- of that order, as little better than adaptations of the tional unexamining acquiescence; till some such thing system to the will, and gratification, of the more fortuas a commission of angels shall come to harmonise, nate portion of the species. We need not repeat, with and then administer, interests which are placed so un- what dreadful commotion the pervasion of this spirit appeasably at strife:-for as to what is so often assert- has wrought, both in its own proper action and explosive ed of those interests being in reality the same, it is evi- force, and as excited to preternatural energy in the dently impossible for either party, even while believing conflict with the arrayed power of the old order of so, to concede to the other the exclusive adjustment 6f things. And is it extinguished? Is it subdued? Is it the practical mode of identification. in the slightest degree reduced?-reduced we mean, But only let the utmost that is possible be done, to as a principle fixed in the decided form of an opinion, train the people, from their early years, to a sound use and actuating, with the strength and sanction of this of their reason, under a discipline for imparting a valu- its possession of the judgment, the wishes and strongable portion of knowledge, and assiduously inculcating est passions; and often kindling, in the more restthe principles of social duty and of religion; and then less and sanguine spirits, imaginations of supposesomething may be said, to good purpose, to their under- able changes, and of the expedients for accomplishing standing and conscience, while they are maintaining them. the inevitable competition of claims with their superiors. Is it, we repeat, repressed? There may be persons They will then be capable of seeing put in a fair bal- who cannot believe it possible,' good easy men,' that ance, many things which headlong ignorance would it can have lived in spite of a world of war and legislahave taken all one way. They will be able to appreciate tion aimed at its destruction, to come forth, with unamany explanations, alleged causes of delay, statements bated vigour, at the opportune junctures in the future of difficulty between opposing reasons; which would be progress of events; like some great serpent, meeting thrown away on an ignorant populace. And it would and glaring upon the sight again, with his appalling be an inducement to their making a real exertion of the glance and uninjured length of volume, after a storm of understanding, that they thus found themselves so for- missiles has sent him to his retreat, and been poured mally put upon their responsibility for its exercise,- in there with destructive intention after him. But that they were, summoned to a rational discussion, in- these must be the dullest, or most spell-bound in their stead of being addressed in the style of Pharaoh to the faculties, of all prognosticators. Represecd!-what is Israelites. The strife of interests would thus come to I it that is manifesting itself in the most remarkable FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 113 events in the old, and what has been named the new every part of Europe would have fondly wished to world, at this very hour? And what are the measures maintain in perpetuity, without one particle of surof several of the great state authorities of Europe, and render. the apparent agitation, and as it vwere fitful changes of But though they cannot preserve its entireness, the feeling between rashness and dismay, in the adoption manner in which it shall yield to alteration is in a great of those measures in some of the states, but a confes- measure at their command. And here is the important corsion, that after all, this spirit is growing strong- sideration. If a movement has really begun in the geneer? Every year renders it but more evident, that the ral popular mind of the nations, and if the principle of it is principle in action is something far different from a growing and insuppressible, so that it must in one mansuperficial transient irritation; that it has gone the ner or another ultimately prevail, what will the state be whole depth of the mind; has possessed itself of the of any national community where it shall be an unenvery judgment and conscience, of an innumerable lightened, half barbarous, people that so prevails 1-a legion, extending, continually, to a still greater num- people no better informed, perhaps, than to believe that ber. No doubt is permitted to remain, whether the all the hardship and distress endured by themselves and real current of the popular feeling has made a porten- their forefathers were wrongs, which they suffered from tous change in its direction, to return to its ancient the higher orders; than to ascribe to bad government, course, when the stream of some great branch of the and the rapacity and selfishness of the rich, the very Mississippi shall resume the channel, which it has aban- evils caused by inclement seasons; and than to assume doned by making for itself a new one into the Mexican it as beyond question, that the whole accumulation of Gulf. For when once the great mass of the lower and their resentments, brought out into action at last, is but larger division of the community, shall have become justice demanding and effecting a retribution. filled with an absolute, and almost unanimous convic- In such an event, what would not the superior orders tion, that they, the grand physical agency of that cornm- be glad to give and forego, in compromise with princimunity; that they, the operators, the producers, the ples, tempers, and demands, which they will know they preparers, of almost all it most essentially wants; that should never have had to encounter, to the end of time, they, the part, therefore, of the social assemblage so if, instead of %Inding their vast advantages on merely obviously the most essential to its existence, and on their own state and indulgence, they had applied them which all the rest must depend;-that they are placed in in a mode of operation and influence tending to ima condition, in the great social arrangement, which does prove, in every way, the situation and character of the not do justice to this their importance, which does not people? It is true, that such a wild triumph of overadequately reward these their services;-we say, when powering violence would necessarily be short. A blind this shall have become the feeling and the conviction, turbulent monster of popular power never can for a long to the very centre of the mind, in the millions of Europe, time maintain the domination of a political community. we would put it as a question to the judgment of a It would rage and riot itself out of breath and strength, sober man, how this state of feeling is to be reversed or succumb under some'strong coercion of its own creneutralized, while those circumstanaes of the economy ating, and lie subject and stupified, till its spirit should which have caused it are remaining. But then we put be recovered and incensed for new commotion. But it to his judgment at the next step, what the conse- this impossibility of a very prolonged reign of confuquence must ultimately be. WVill he pretend not to sion, would be little consolation for the classes, against foresee, that the power of so vast a combination of whose privileged condition the first tremendous erupwills and agents, must sooner or later, in one manner or tion should have driven. It would not much cheer a another, affect a great modification in the arrangements man who should see his abode carried away, and his of the social system. What plan, then, is he suppos- fields and plantations devastated, to tell him that what ing adopted to prevent it? Are the higher and more had inflicted this ruin was but a transient mountain torprivileged portions of the national communities to have, rent. A short prevalence of the overturning force would henceforward, just this one grand object of their exist- have sufficed, for the subversion of the proudest longest ence, this chief employment for all their knowledge, established state of privilege; and most improbable means, and power, namely to keep down the lower would it be, that those who lost it in the tumult, would orders of their fellow-citizens, by mere stress of coer- find the new authority, which would arise as that tumult cion and punishment. Are they resolved, and prepar- subsided, either able or disposed to restore it. They ed, for a rancorous interminable hostility in prosecution might perhaps, (on a favorable supposition,) survive in of such a benign purpose; with, of course, a continual personal safety, but in humiliated fortunes, to ruminate exhaustion upon it of the means, which mlight be ap- on their manner of occupying their former elevated situplied to diminish that wretchedness of the people, ation, and of employing its ample means of power, a which has been, and must continue to be, the grand due portion of which applied to promote the universal corroborator of the principles that have passed like education of the community, with an accompanying an earthquake under the foundations of the old social liberal yet very gradual concession of privileges to the systems 1 But supposing this should be the course people, would have prevented the catastrophe. pursued, how long can it be effectual? That must be Let us urge then, that a zealous endeavor to render a very firm structure, must be of gigantic mass or most it absolutely impossible that, in any change whatever, excellent basis and conformation, against which the the destinies of a nation should fall under the power of ocean shall unremittingly wear and foam in vain. And an ignorant infuriated multitude, may take place of the it does not appear what there can be of such impreg- presumption that there is no great change to be ever nable consistene in any particular construction of the effected by the progressive and conscious importance of social order wvhich is, by the supposition to be resolved the people; a presumption than which nothing can apto be maintained in sovereign immutability, in perrna- pear more like infatuation; when we look at the recent nent frustration of the persevering, ever-growing, aim scenes and present temperament of the moral world. and impulse of the great majority, pressing on to Educate the people; train them to sound sense; civilachieve important innovations in their favour; innova- ize them; promote the reformation of their morals; intions in those svstems of institution and' usage, under culcate the principles of religion, simply and solemnly which they will never cease to think they have had far as religion, as a thing directly of divine dictation, and less happiness heretofore than they ought to have had. not as if half of its authority were in virtue of human W7e cannot see how this impulse can be so repelled institutions; let the higher orders generally make it or diverted that it shall not prevail at length, to the perfectly evident to the multitude that they are desirous effect of either bearing down, or w-earing away a portion to improve thelm, raise them, and promote their happiof the order of things wvhich the ascendent classes in ness ~ and then whatever the demands of the people as M 114 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. a body, thus improving in understanding and the sense that almost all the people must, by some means or other, of justice, shall come to be, and whatever modification have been brought to be tolerably apprised of a few first their preponderance may ultimately enforce on the great principles of religion; that this could not have failed to social arrangements, it will be infallibly certain that be the case in a community acknowledging, in its colthere never can be a love of disorder, an insolent an- lective capacity, a considerable responsibility that its archy, a prevailing spirit of revenge and devastation. members should not be left totally destitute of the most Such a conduct of the ascendent classes would, in this essential of all things to their well-being. This agreenation at least, secure that as long as the world lasts, able assurance would vanish, like a dream interrupted, there never would be any formidable commotion, or vio- at the spectacle thus presented, of persons nearly, very lent sudden changes. All those modifications of the nearly, as devoid of those first principles, after iiving national economy which an improving people would as- eighteen, thirty, forty,'or twice forty years, under the pire and would deserve to obtain, would be gradually superintendence of that community, as if they had been accomplished, in a manner by which no party would be the aboriginal rovers of the.American forests, or natives injured, and all would be the happier. of unvisited coral-built spots in the ocean. If these examiners were to prosecute the investiga.. tion widely, and their reflections grew more pensive with their discoveries, they might become sensible of a very CHAPTER III. altered estimate of this our Christian tract of the earth. From appearing to them so peculiarly auspicious, as if THE FATAL INAPTITUDE WHICH IGNORANCE CREATES, almost by some virtue of its climate, to the cultivation OR CONSTITUTES, FOR RECEIVING RELIGIOUS IN- and enlargement of religious understanding in the peoSTRUCTION. ple, it might come to appear to them as favourable to the developement of all things rather than that. Plants SECTION I. and trees, the diversity of animal forms and powers, the human frame, the features enlarging or enlarged to manUneducated minds destitute of any rtgi oses notions, hood in the persons looked upon while making the anand fortified against all approach of truth. swers to the exposed examiner, with their passions also, and prevailing dispositions-see how all things can unWe do not know whether any of these observations fold themselves in our territory, and grow and enlarge to will be accounted foreign to the purpose, of illustrating their completeness, excepting the ideas of the human the effects of popular ignorance..However that may soul relating to the almighty, and to the grand purpose be, we shall pursue the course of illustration toward of its existence! its conclusion, by describing somewhat more fully here The supposed answers would, in many instances, bethan in the former stages, the manner in which the want tray, that any thought of God at all was of very rare of mental improvement affects the people in regard to occurrence, as never having become strongly associated the most important concern of all, religion, It is true, with any thing beheld in the whole creation. We should that this has'been already very expressly adverted to, think it probable, as we have said before, that with and perhaps more than once; but the topic seems to many, while in health, weeks often pass away without merit a considerable amplification; and will better ex- the idea being once so presented as to hold the mind, cuse, than any other, the fault of a too evident repeti- so to speak, looking at it for one moment of time. If tion. What we would especially remark upon is, the they could be set to any such task as that of retracing, wretched inaptitude which ignorance creates or consti- at the end of the day or week, what has come into their tutes for receiving religious instruction. But first a minds, and what their thoughts have dwelt upon, it few sentences relative to what there actually is of re- would no more be recalled that this idea had encounligious notion in the minds of the uneducated,-to show tered them, than that a splendid mettor had passed whether, as far as that great subject is concerned, edu- through the air before them. Yet during such a space cation may be spared. of time, their thoughts, such as they are, shall have run Some notion of such a thing, something different in through incalculable thousands of changes; and even their consciousness from the absolute negation of the the divine name itself may have been pronounced by idea, something that faintly responds to the terms in them a multitude of times, in jocularity or imprecation. which a person conversing with them would express the This is a state very near absolute atheism. idea, in the way of questioning them on the subject, But the idea of God which has, by some means, may be presumed to exist in the minds of all who are found its way into their minds to abide thereso nedrly advanced a considerable way into youth, or come to in silence and oblivion,-what is it, when some direct mature age, in a country where all have the monitory call does really evoke it? It is generally a gross approxispectacle of edifices for religious use, on spots appoint- mation of the conception of the infinite being to the likeed also for the interment of the dead. If this sort of ness of man. If whattheyhave heard of his beinga spirit, measured caution in the assumption should seem bor- has indeed some little effect in prevention of the total dedering on the ridiculous, we would recommend those basement of the idea, it prevents it rather by confusion who would smile at it to make some little experiments. than by magnificence. It may somewhat restrain and It would not be difficult to insinuate themselves, on baffle the tendency of the imagination to a direct deroad or field, into the company of some of the innu- grading definition; but it does so by turning the idea merable rustics who have grown up destitute of every as into a wide attenuated cloud. And ever and anon, thing worth calling education; or of the equally ill- this cloudy diffusion is again drawing in, and shaping, fated beings in the alleys, precincts, and lower employ. toward an image, enormous perhaps, and spectral, ments of towns. They might manage to avoid an ab- and portentous across the firmament, but in some ruptness and judicial formality, which would prevent strong analogy to the human mode of personality. the readiness to be communicative, while they contrived The divine attribute which it apprehended by them to question, in effect rather than express form, some of with most of an impression of reality, is a certain vastthese persons respecting God, Jesus Christ, the human ness of power. But through the grossness of their insoul, the invisible world. And we can assure them tellectual atmosphere, this appears to them rather in the they would in many instances receive such answers as character of something prodigiously huge, than sublimewould amaze them. The exposure made to them in ly glorious. As considered in his quality of moral juthese answers would break up, as by a sudden shock, dicial governor, God is regarded by some of them as their easy complacent assurance, (were it possible they more disposed, than there is any reasonable.cause, to had been so unknowing as to cherish such a feeling,) be displeased with what is done in this world. But the FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 115 far greater number have no prevailing sentiment that But the offences which they deem to deserve it, form he takes any very vigilant account or concern.* And but a short catalogue. It is indeed enlarged sometimes, even those who entertain the more ungracious appre- in the case of the individual, by the addition of an ofhension, have it not in sufficient force to make thcn. fence which he would not have accounted so heinous, once in whole months, deliberately think it worth while but that it has happened to be committed against him. to care what he may disapprove. We can recollect the exultation of sincere faith, seen The notions that should answer to the doctrine of a mingling with the anger of an offended man, while preprovidence, are a confusion of some crude idea of a di- dicting, as well as imprecating, this retribution of some vine superintendence, with stronger fancics and impres- injury he had suffered; a real injury, indeed, in some sions of luck and chance; and these still farther, and degree; yet of a kind which he would have held in most uncouthly, confounded by the admixture of the small account, had he only seen it done to another perancient heathen notion of fate, reduced from its philo- son As to the nature of that future punishment, the sophy to its dregs. In many instances, however, this ideas of these neglected minds, go scarcely at all beobtains such a predominance, as to lesson the confusion, yond the images of corporeal anguish, conveyed by the and withal to preclude, in a great measure, the sense of well known metaphors. accountableness. In neither of these states of intel- It is most striking to observe how wholly negative are lectual desolation is there any serious admisson, at their conceptions of the future happiness, which it least during the enjoyment of health, of the duty or ad- should seem they expect to obtain, as the necessary alvantage of prayer. ternative of the evil they so easily assure themselves The supposed examiner may endeavour to elicit the of escaping. The ordinary images employed in relinotions concerning the redeemer of the world. They gious discourse to represent'it, (if they should ever have would be found, in numerous instances, amounting heard enough of such discourse to be acquainted with literally to no more than, that Jesus Christ was a wor- those images,) are very little congenial to their notions thy kind of man, (the word has actually been'gentle- of pleasure; and no more would the abstracted and man,' in more than one instance that we have heard elevated ideas be so, if they had intellect and thought told from unquestionable authority,) who once, some- enough to reach so far. Here the reflection again rewhere, (these national Christians had never in their lives turns, what an inexpressible poverty of mind there is, thought of inquiring when or where,) did a great deal when the people have no longer a mythology, and yet of good, and was very ill used by bad people. The have not obtained in its place any knowledge of the true people now, they think, bad as they may be, would not religion. The martial vagrants of Scandinavia glowed do so in the like case. Some of these persons may with the vivid anticpations of Valhalla; the savages of have casually been at church; and are just aware that the western continent had their animating visions of the his name often recurs in its services; they never con-'land of souls;' the modern Christian barbarians of sidered why; but they have a vague impression of its England, who also expect to live after death, do not repetition having some kind of virtue, perhaps rather in know what they mean by their phrase of' going to the nature of a spell. The names of the four evange- heaven.' lists are by some held literally and technically available Most of this class of persons think very little in any for such an use. way whatever of the invisible spiritual economy. And A few steps withdrawn from this thickest of the many of them wish to think, if possible, still less. For mental fog, there are many, who are not entirely unin- they are liable to be occasionally affected with dark formed of something having been usually affirmed, by hints and hauntings of an unseen world. But it is religious teachers, of Jesus Christ's being more than a very remarkable, how little these may contribute to enman, and of his having done something of great import- force the salutary impressions of religion. A man, who ance toward preventing our being punished for our sins, is, for instance, subject to the terror of apparitions, This combination of a majestic superiority to the hu- shall not therefore be in the smallest degree the less man nature, with the fact of his being yet confessedly profane, except just at the time that this terror is upon human, just passes their minds like a shape formed of him. A number of persons, of whom not one durst a shadow, as one of the unaccountable things that may have walked, alone, at midnight, round a lonely church, be as it is said, for what they know, but which they encompassed with graves, an among them perhaps the need not trouble themselves to think about. As to the recent one a notoriously, wicked man, will neverthegreat things said to be done by him, Ao save men from less, on a fine Sunday morning, form a row of rude idlers, being punished, they see indeed no necessity for such standing in the road to this very church, to vent their an expedient, but if it is so, very right, and so much jokes on the persons going thither to attend the offices the better; for between that circumstance in our fa- of religion, and on those offices themselves. vour, and God's being too good, after all that is said of Such, as regarding religion, is the state out of which his holiness and wrath, to be severe on such poor crea- it is desired to redeem a multitude of thepeople of this tures as men, we must have a; good chance of coming land. Or rather we should say, it is sought to save a off safely at last. But multitudes of the miserably multitude from being consigned to it. For consider, in poor, however wicked, have a settled assurance of this the next place, (what we wished especially to point at, coming off well at last, independently of any thing effect- in this last and most important article in the enumeraed for men by the mediator: they shall not be exempted, tion of the evils of ignorance,) consider what a fatal they believe, from any future suffering in consideration inaptitnde for receiving the truths of religion, is created of their having suffered so much here. There is no- by the neglect of training minds to the exercise of their thing, in the scanty creedof great numbers, more firmly faculties, and the acquirement of elementary infnrmaheld than this. tion. It is true, they believe that the most atrociously How inevitably it must be so, from the nature of the wicked must go to a state of punishment after death. case!-There is a sublime economy of invisible realiThey consider murderers, especially as under this doom. ties. There is the supreme existence, an infinite and eternal spirit. There are spiritual existences, that have * Some have~o very distinct impression the one way or the kindled into brightness and power, from nothing, at his other. Not very long since, a friend of the writer, in one of the creating will. There is an universal government, ommidland counties, fell into talk, on a Sunday, with a man who. l ere s an universal government, omhad been in some very plain violation of the consecrated char nipotent, all-wise, righteous, of that supreme being, acter of the day. He seriously animadverted on this, adding, over tLe creation. There is the immense tribe of huDon't you think God will be displeased at and punish such con- man spirits, in a most peculiar and tremendous predicaduct? or words to that effect. The man, after a moments consideration,' answered, with unaffected cool simplicity, exactly ns:' That's according as how he takes it.' law which emanates from the holiness of its sovereign 116 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. author, but perverted to a state of disconformity to it, patriarch, perhaps, and the eldest matron, of the kinand opposition to him. Next, there is a marvellous dred company. You attempted by degrees, with all anomaly of moral government, the constitution of a new managements of art, as if you had been seeking to gain state of relation between the supreme governor and this a favour for yourselves, to train into the talk some topic alienated race, through a mediator, who makes an atone- bearing toward religion; and which could be followed ment for humau iniquity, and stands representative be- up to a more explicit reference to that great subject, fore almighty justice, for those who gratefully accord without the abruptness which causes instant silence to the mysterious appointment, and consign themselves and recoil. We will suppose, that the gloom of such a to his charge. There are the several doctrines declara- moral scene was not augmented to you, by the mnortifitory of this new constitution through all its parts. cation of observing impatience'of this suspension of There is the view of religion in its operative character, their usual and favourite tenor of discourse, betrayed in the combination of its doctrines and precepts with a marks of suppressed irritation, or rather by the withdivine agency on the mind, transforming and disciplin- drawing of one, and another, from the company. But ing it. And all this while, there is the invisible world, it was quite enough to render the moments and feelings to which the spirits of men proceed at death, in posses- some of the most disconsolate you had ever experienced, sion of a conscious existence to be retained for ever; to have thus immediately before you a number of raand there is the certain prospect of a final judgment and tional beings as in a dark prison house, and to feel the a retribution. impotence of your friendly efforts to bring thenl out. Look at this solemn ideal'scene, so distinct, and Their darkness of ignorance infused into your spirit the stretching to such remoteness, from the field of ordinary darkness of melancholy, when you perceived that the things; consisting of elements of which it is for intel- fittest words you could think of, in every change and lect alone to apprehend the reality; of objects with combination in which you could dispose them, failed to which intellect alone can hold converse. Look at this impart, to their understanding, the most elementary scene; and then consider, what manner of beings you and essential ideas of the most momentous subject. are calling upon to enter into it by contemplation. You thought again, perhaps, and again, Surely this Beings who have never learned to think at all. Beings mode of expression, or this, as it is in words familiar who have hardly ever once, in their whole lives, made to them, will define the meaning to their apprehension. a real effort, to direct and concentrate the action of But you were forced to perceive that the common their faculties on any thing abstracted from the objects words and phraseology of the language, those which palpable to the senses; whose entire attention has been make the substance of ordinary discourse on ordinary engrossed, from their infancy, with the common busi- subjects, had not, for the understandings of these perness, the low amusements and gratifications, the idle sons, an indifferent and general applicableness. It talk, the local occurrences, which formed the whole seemed as if the perfectly neutral and general portion compass of the occupation, and practically acknowledged of the language had become in its meaning special and interests, of their progenitors. Beings who have never exclusive for their own sort of topics. Their narrow been made, in the least, familiar with even the matters associations had rendered it incapable" of conveying of fact, those especially of the scripture history, which sense to them on matters foreign to their habits. WVhen stand in the most obvious relation to religion, and have used on a subject to which they were quite unaccusgiven a substantial form, as it were, to some of its tomed, it became like a stream which, though one and truths. Beings who will thus combine, as we have said the same current, flows clear on the one side, and mudbefore, the utmost aversion to any attempt at a purely dy (as we sometimes see for a space) on the other,intellectual exercise, with whatever dislike it is in our and to them it was clear only at their own edge. And nature to feel toward this class of subjects. What kind if even the plain popular language turned dark on their of ideas should you imagine to be raised in their minds, understandings when employed in explanation of reliby all the words you might employ, to place within gion, it is easy to imagine what had been the success their intellectual vision some portion of this spiritual of any thing approaching to a more technical expression order of things,-even should you be able, which you of the subject, though it went no farther than such terms often would not, to engage any effort of attention to the as are used in the bible. subject. And yet we have heard men, who had been You continued, however, the effort, for a while. As disciplined in the most splendid institutions for mental desirous to show you due civility, some of the persons, cultivation in the world, pertinaciously maintain, that perhaps the oldest, would give assent to what you said, the common people need not be taught so much as to with some sign Of acknowledgement of the importance be able to read the bible, in order to their attaining a of the concern. In expressing this assent, they would competent knowledge of religion; for that they may say something which they took to be equivalent to what learn as much of it by an attendance at church, as it you had said. And when it was an intelligible idea can be of any use for them to know. that they uttered, it would probably show the grossest Do such men ever make an immediate, personal ex- possible misconception of the first principles of religion; periment, on this happy facility with which mature ig- something clumsily analogous to its worst perversions norance learns religion? We may appeal to those by popery, or approaching to very paganism. You pious and benevolent persons who have made the most tried, perhaps, with repeated modifications of your exnumerous trials, for testimony to the inaptitude of un- pression, and attempts at illustration, to loosen the false educated people to receive that kind of instruction. notion, and to place the true one in such a near obviYou have visited, perhaps, some numerous family, or ousness to the apprehension, that at least the difference Sunday assemblage of several related families; to should be seen, and (perhaps you hoped) a little movewhich you had access without awkward intrusion, in ment excited to think farther of the subject, and make consequence of the acquaintance arising from near a serious question of it. But all in vain. The hoary neighbourhood, or of little services -you had rendered, unhappy subject of your too late instruction, either or of the circumstance of any of their younger children would still take it that it came all to the same thing; coming to your charity schools. You were soon made or, if compelled to perceive that you were trying to sensible what a desert you were in, as to all religious make him unthink his poor old notions, *d learn somethought, by indications unequivocal to your perception, thing new and contrary, would probably retreat, in a though, it may be, not reducible, in a few. words, to little while, into a half sullen half despondent silence, exact description. And those indications were per- after observing, that he was too old,'the worse was haps almost equally apparent in the young persons, the luck,' to be able to learn about such things, which those advanced to the middle of life, and those who he never had, like you, the'scholarship' and tle time for. were evidently destined not long to remain in it, the In several of the party you perceive'the signs of al. FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 117 most a total blank. They seemed but to be waiting duty in given circumstances-a cogent enforcement of for any trifling incident to take their attention, and keep some specific point as of most essential moment in retheir minds alive. Some one with a little more of spect to eternal safety;-from the attempted grasp, or listening curiosity, but without caring about the sub- supposed seizure, of any such subject, these rational ject, might have to observe, that it seemed to him the spirits started away, with infinite facility, to the movesame kind of thing that the Methodist parson, (the term ments occasioned by the falling of a hat from a peg. most likely to be used,) was lately saying in such a one's By the time that any semblance of attention returns funeral sermon. It is too possible that one or two of the the preacher's address may have taken the form of visages'of the company, of the younger people espe- pointed interrogation, with very defined supposed cially, might wear, during a good part of the time, some- facts; or even real ones, to give the question and its what of a derisive smile, meaning,'What odd kind of principle as it were a tangible substance. Well; just stuff all this is;' as if they could not help thinking it at the moment when his questions converged to a most ludicrously strange, that any one should be talk- point, which was to have been a dart. of conviction ing of God, of the Saviour of mankind, of the facts of striking the understanding, and compelling the common the bible, the welfare of the soul, the shortness and value sense and conscience of the auditors to answer for of life, and a future account, when he might be talking themselves,-at that moment, he perceives two or of the neighbouring fair, past or expected, or the local three of the persons he had particularly in view begin quarrels, or the last laughable incident or adventure of in active whispering, prolonged with the accompanithe hamlet. It is particularly observable, that grossly ment of the appropriate vulgar smiles. They may ignorant persons are very apt to take a ludicrous im- possibly relapse at length, through sheer dullness, into pression from high aud solemn subjects; at least when tolerable decorum; and the instructor, not quite losing introduced in any other time or way than in the cere- sight of them, tries yet again to impel some serious monial of public religious service; when brought for- ideas through the obtuseness of their mental being. ward as a personal concern, demanding consideration But he can clearly perceive, after the animal spirits every where, and which may be urged by individual on have thus been a little quieted by the necessity of sitindividual. You have commonly enough observed this ting still awhile, the signs of a perfectly stupid vacanprovoke the grin of stupidity and folly. And if you cy, which is hardly sensible that any thing is actually asked yourselves, (for it were in vain to ask them,) why saying, and probably makes, in the case of some of the it produced this so perverse effect, you had only to con- individuals, what is mentally but a slight transition to sider that, to minds abandoned through ignorance to yawning and sleep. be totally engrossed and besotted by the immediate ob- Utter ignorance is a most effectual fortification to a jects of sense, the grave assumption, and emphatic en- vicious state of the mind. Prejudice may perhaps be forcement. of the transcendent importance of a wholly removed; unbelief may be reasoned with; even deunseen and spiritual economy, has much the appear- moniacs have been capable of bearing witness to the ance and effect of a great lie attempted to be passed truth; but the stupidity of confirmed ignorance, not upon them. You might indeed recollect also, that the only defeats the ultimate efficacy of the means for most that some of them may have learnt about religion, making men wiser and better, but stands inpreliminary is, that it, and those who profess it, may be laughed at, defiance to the very act of their application. It refor that they are so by multitudes, not of their own vul- minds us of an account, in one of the relations of the gar order only, but including many of the wealthy, the French Egyptian campaigns, of the attempt to reduce genteel, the magisterial, and the dignified in point of a garrison posted in a bulky fort of mud. Had the rank. defences been of timber, the besiegers might have burnt Individuals of the most ignorant class may stroll into them; had they been of stone, even blocks of granite, a place of worship, bearing their character so conspicu- they might have shaken and ultimately breached them ously in their appearance and manner as to draw the par- by the incessant battery of their cannon; or they ticular notice of the preacher, while addressing the con- might have undermined and blown them up. But the gregation. It may be, that having taken their stare huge mound of mud received the iron missiles withround the place, they go out, just, perhaps, when he is out effect; they just struck in and were dead; so that in the midst of a marked, prominent, and even pic- the mighty engines of attack and demolition were utterturesque illustration, possibly from some of the striking ly baffled. facts or characters of the scripture narrations, which The most melancholy of the exemplifications of the had not made the slightest ingress on their thoughts or effect of ignorance, as constituting an incapacity for imagination. Or they are pleased to stay through the receiving religious instruction, have been presented to service; during which his eye is frequently led to where those, who have visited persons thus devoid of knowseveral of them may be seated together. Without an ledge in sickness and the approach to death. Supposappearance of addressing them personally, he shall be ing them to manifest alarm and solicitude, it is deploexcited to direct a special effort toward what he sur- rable to see how powerless their understandings are, mises to be the state of their minds. He may in this for any distinct conception of what, or why, it is that effort acquire an additional force, emphasis, and point- they fear, or regret, or desire. The objects of their edness of delivery; but especially his utmost mental apprehension come round them as vague forms of darkforce shall be brought into action to strike upon their ness, instead of distinctly exhibiting dangers and foes, faculties, with vivid rousing ideas, plainly and briefly which they might steadily contemplate, and think how expressed. And he fancies, perhaps, that he has at to escape or encounter. And how little does the beleast arrested their attention; that what is going from nevolent instructor find it possible for him to do, when his mind is in some manner or other taking a place in he applies his mind to the painful task of reducing this theirs; when some inexpressibly trivial occurring cir- gloomy confused vision to the plain truth of their uncumstances shows him, that the hold he has on them is happy situation, set in order before their eyes. not of the strenghth of a spider's web. Those thoughts, He deems it necessary to speak of the most elementhose intellects, those souls, are instantly and wholly tary principles-the perfect holiness, and justice of gone-from a representation of one of the awful visit- God-the corresponding holiness, and the all-compretions of divine judgment in the ancient world-a de- hending extent, of his law, appointed to his creatures scription of sublime angelic agency, as in some recorded -the absolute duty of conformity to it in every act, fac.t in the bible-an illustration of the discourse, mira- word, and thought-the necessary condemnation consecles, or expiatory sorrows of the redeemer of the world quent on failure-the dreadful evil, therefore of sin, -a strong appeal to conscience on past sin-a state- both in its principle and consequences. God-perfect ment, in form, perhaps, of example, of an important holiness-justice-law-universal conformity-sin 118 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. condemnation! Alas! the hapless auditor has no such I exercise, an utter inability for self-inspection. There sense of the force of terms, and no such analogical ideas, is before his eyes, looking at him, but a stranger to himas to furnish the medium for conveying these represen- self, a man on whose mind no other minds, except one, tations to his understanding. He never had, at any can shed a life of self-manifestation, to save him from time; and now there may be in his mind all the addi- the most fatal mistakes. tional confusion and incapacity of fixed attention, aris- If the monitor would turn, (rather from an impulse to ing from pain, debility, and sleeplessness. All this leave the gloom of the scene, than from any thing he therefore passes before him with a tenebrious glimmer, sees even faintly approaching toward a right apprehenand is gone; like lightening faintly penetrating to a sion of the austerer truths of religion,) if he would man behind a thick black curtain. turn his efforts, to the effect of directing on this dark The instructor attempts a personal application, en- spirit the benign rays of the Christian redemption, what deavouring to give the disturbed conscience a rational is he to do for terms,-yes, for very terms? Mediadirection, and a distinct cognizance. But he finds, as tor, sacrifice, atonement, satisfaction; faith, reliance; he might expect to find, that a conscience without know- even the expression believing in Christ; merit of the ledge has never taken but a very small portion of the death of Christ, acquittal, acceptance, justification:man's habits of life under its jurisdiction; and that it he knows, or will soon learn, that he might as well talk seems a most hopeless thing to attempt.to send it back in the language of the occult sciences. And he is reinforced, to reclaim and conquer, through all the past, forced down to such expedients of grovelling parathe whole extent of its rightful but never assumed do- phrase, and humiliating analogy, that he becomes senminion. As conscience has not necessarily received, sible his method of endeavoring to make a divine subby its present alarm, the benefit of a larger exercise of ject intelligible, is to divest it of all its radiance, and the understanding, it is absolutely incapable of admit- reduce it, in order that it may not confound, to the rank ting the monitor's estimate of the measure of guilt in- of things which have not majesty enough to impress volved in omission, and in an irreligious state of the'with awe. And after this has been done, to the utmost mind, as a dreadfuill addition to the account of criminal of his ability, and to the unavoidable weariness of his action. The person is totally and honestly unable to suffering auditor, he is distressed to think of the proconceive of substantial guilt in any thing of which he portion between any such slight ideas as this man's can ask, what injury it has done to any body, This mind now possesses of the economy of redemption, and single point-whether positive harm has been done to the stupendous magnitude of the interest in which he any one,-comprehends the whole essence and sum of stands dependent on it. Some crude sentiment, as, the conscious accountableness of very ignorant people. that he'hopes Jesus Christ will stand his friend;' that As to a duty absolute in the nature of things, of a duty it was very good of the Saviour to think of us; that he as owing to themselves, or a duty as imposed by the wishes he knew what to do to get his help; that Jesus afmighty,-that their minds should be in a certain pre- Christ has done him good in other things, and he hopes scribed state,-there does really require a perfectly new he will now again at the last;*-such expressions will manner of the action of intellect to enable them to des- afford little to alleviate the gloomy feelings, with which cry its existence. Material wrong, very material wrong, the serious visitor descends from the chamber in which, to thir fellow mortals, they are sensible they should perhaps, a few days after, he hears that the man he not do; it is very little farther than so, that a sense of conversed with is a dead body. being amenable even to God is distinctly admitted; be- But such benevolent visitors have to tell of still more yond that, they are absolved from jurisdiction; they melancholy exemplifications of the effects of ignorance are their own property, without an obligation even to in the close of life. They have seen the neglect of themselves, as to the manner in which the possession early cultivation, and. the subsequent estrangement from may be held and ordered. The effect of their having all knowledge and thinking, except about business and thus habitually made nothing of the state of the mind, folly, result in such a stupefaction of mind, that irrelinow meets the supposed instructor. He presses on gious and immoral persons, approaching death, and fully this side of the province of conscience, on account of aware that they were, and by no means in a state of its vast importance; and partly, too, because he would physical lethargy, were absolutely incapable of being avoid, except in a case of notoriously bad character, the alarmed at the near approach of death. They did not invidiousness of seeming directly to reproach the sick deny, nor in the infidel sense disbelieve, what was said man's outward conduct. But to. give in an hour the to them of the awfulness of that event, and its conseunderstanding which it requires the discipline of many quences; but they had actually never thought enough years to render competent! How vain the attempt! of death to have any solemn associations with the idea. The man's sense of guilt fixes almost exclusively on And their faculties were become so rigid, so stiffened, something that has been improper in the practical as it were, they could not now acquire them; no, not courses. He professes to acknowledge the evil of this; while the portentious spectre was unveiling his visage and perhaps with a certain stress of expression, intend- to them, in near and still nearer approach; not when ed, by an. apparent respondence to the serious empha- the element of another world was beginning to penesis which the monitor is laying on another part of the trate to their souls, through the rents of their mortal accountableness and guilt, to take him off from thus tabernacle. It appeared that literally their thoughts endeavouring, as it appears to the ignorant sufferer, to could not go out from what they had been through life;nake him more of a sinner than there is any reason. immersed in, to contemplate, (with any realizing feelBy continuing to insist on the subject, the instructor ing,) a grand change of being, expected so soon to take may find himself in danger of being regarded as having place. They could not go to the fearful brink to look taken upoil him the unkind office of accuser in his own off. It was a stupor of the soul not to be awaked but name, and of his own will and authority. by the actual plunge into the realities of eternity. In In the'inculcation of the necessity of repentance, he such a case, there probably appeared the instinctive rewill perceive the indistinctness of apprehension, re- pugnance to death. But the feeling was, If it must be specting the difference between that kind of forced re- so, there is no help for it; and as to what may come coil from sin which is' caused by dread of impending after, we must take our chance. In this temper and consequences, and the antipathy to its essential nature. manner, we recollect a sick man, of this untaught class, And even if this distinction, which admits of yery easy * Such an expression as this would hardly have occurred but forms of exemplification, should thus be rendered in a from recollection of fact, in the instance of an aged farmer, (the degree perceptible in itself, the man cannot make the owner of the farm,) in his last illness. In the way of reassurapplication. The instructor observes, as one of the ing his somewhat doubtful hope that Christ would not fail him when now had recourse to, at his extreme need, he said, (to the most striking results of a want of disciplined mental writer,)' Jesus Christ has sent me a deal ol good crops.' FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 119 answering the inquiry how he felt himself,'Getting if he would not acknowledge,-This that you call diworse; I suppose I shall make a die of it.' And his vine grace, whatever it may really be, is the strangest pious neighboL rs, earnestly exhorting him to solemn awakener of faculties after all. And to adevout man, concern and preparation, could not make him sensible it is a spectacle of most enchanting beauty thus to see there was occasion for any extraordinary disturbance the immortal plant, which has been under a malignant of mind. And yet this man was not inferior to those blast while sixty or seven*tj years have passed over it, around him in sense for the common business of life. coming out at length in the bloom of life. After a tedious length of suffering, and when death We cannothesitate to draw the inference, that if reis plainly inevitable, it is not very uncommon for the ligion is so auspicious to the intellectual faculties, the persons under this infatuation to express a wish for its cultivation and exercise of those faculties must be of arrival, simply as a deliverance from what they are en- great advantage to religion. during, without troubling themselves with a thought of what may follow.'I hope it will please God soon, to release me,' was the expression, to his religious medical attendant, of such an ignorant and insensible mortal, SECTION II. within an hour of his death, which was evidently and Mischievous operation of ignorance in disposing the directly brought on by his vices. And he uttered it mid to receive evey species of absurdityas religiou without a word, or the smallest indicated emotion, of truth. penitence or solicitude; though he had passed his life in a neighbourhood abounding with the public means of Perhaps we should not finally dismiss the subject of religious instruction and warning. the effect of ignorance, as creating an incapacity of reWhen' earnest, persisting, and seriously menacing ceiving religious instruction, without just noticing its admonitions, of pious visitors or friends, almost literally mischievous operation on many who are disposed to atcompel such unhappy persons to some precise recogni- tend to such instruction, in fitting their mrinds to receive, tion of the subject, their answers will often be faithfully as religious truth, all manner of absurdities. representative, and a consistent completion, of their WVe have expressly said, (what indeed did not need course through mental darkness, from childhood to the to be said,) that such a noble exemplification as above mortal hour. We recollect the instance of a wicked old described, is very rare. If we come down to a very man, who, within that very hour, replied to the urgent considerably lower degree, we shall find the examples admonitionS, by which a religious neighbour felt it a numerous, among the uneducated subjects of genuine painful duty to make a last effort to alarm him,' What, religion, of persons remarkably improved in the power do you believe that God can think of damning me be- and exercise of their reason; and we may assume that cause I may have been as bad as other folk? I am some share of this improvement reaches to all who are sure he will do no such thing: he is far too good for really under this most beneficent influence in the creathat.' tion.* But still it must be acknowledged of too many, We cannot close this detailed illustration of so who are in a measure, we may candidly believe, under gloomy a subject, without again adverting to a rare, it the genuine efficacy of religion, that they have attained, is true, but most admirable phenomenon, for which the under its influence, but so diminutive a proportion of observers may, if they choose, go round the whole cir- the improvement of intellect, that they can be well cle of their philosophy, and begin again, to find any ade- pleased with a great deal of absurdity of religious noquate cause, other than the most immediate agency of tions and language. While, however, we confess and the almighty spirit. Here and there an instance oc- regret that it is so, we should not overlook the obvious curs to the delight of the Christian philanthropist, of a causes and excuses for it; partly in the constitution person brought up in utter ignorance and barbarian of the mind, partly in extraneous circumstances. Many rudeness, and so continuing till late, sometimes'very whose attention is in honest earnestness drawn to reli. late in life; and then, at last, after the long petrifying, gion, are naturally endowed with so scanty a portion of effect of time and habit, suddenly seized upon by amys- the thinking power, strictly so denominated, that it terious power, and taken, with an alarming and irre- would have required high cultivation to raise them to sistible force, out of the dark hold in which the spirit the level of very moderate understanding. There are has lain imprisoned and torpid, into the sphere of thought some who appear to have a natural invincible tendency and feeling. to an uncouth fantastic mode of forming their notions. This we notice, not so much to show how far a di- It is in the nature of others, that whatever cultivation vine influence surpasses all other applications, to the they might have received, it would still have been by human mind, as for the purpose of again remarking, their passions, rather than, by any due proportion by how wonderfully this great moral change may effect the their reason, that an important concern would have obtuse intellectual faculties; which it appears, in the taken and retained hold of them. In the case of too most signal of these instances, almost to create anew. many, there may have been associated with the causes It is exceedingly striking to observe how the contracted of their first effectual religious impressions, with the rigid soul seems to soften, and grow warm, and ex- instructions and instructors, perhaps, that first drew pand, and quiver with life. With the new energy in- them into the full interest of the subject, circumstances fused, it painfully struggles to work itself, into freeiom, unfortunately tending to prevent a sound rational discifrom the wretched contortion in which it has so long pline, of the understanding which was coming into exbeen fixed, as by the impressed spell of some infernal ercise on that subject. magic. It has been seen filled with a painful and in- Now suppose all these worthy persons, with these dignant emotion at its own ignorance; actuated with circumstances against them, to be also under the one a restless earnestness to be informed; acquiring an un- great sad calamity of an utterly neglected education; wonted applicableness of its faculties to thought; at- and is it any wonder they Can receive with approbation, tiining a perception, combined of intelligence and mor- a great deal of what is a heavy disgrace to the name of al sensibility, to which numerous things are becoming * Really under this influence, we repeat, pointedly; for we discernible and affecting, that they were as non-exist- justly put all others out of the account. It is nothing, as again. entl before. It is not in the very utmost strength of our asserted principle or fact, that great numbers who may contribute to swell a public bustle about religion, who may run totheir import that we employ such terms of description; gether at the call of whim imposture, or insanity, assuming that but we have known instances in which the change, the name; who may acquire, instead of any other folly, a turn for intellectual change, has been so conspicuous, within a talking, disputing, or ranting, about that subject; it is nothing-. brief space of time, that even an infidel observer must in short, that any who are not in real conscientious serfousre, the disciples of religion, can be shown to be no better for it. in have forfeited all claim to be esteemed a man of sense, point of improved understanding. 120 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. religious doctrine and ministration? Where is the derstanding what it is that they profess to believe and wonder, that crudeness of conception should not disap- love. point and offend minds that have not, ten times since Thus we have endeavoured, we are afraid with too they came into the world, been compelled to form two much prolixity and repetition, to describe the evils atideas with precision, and then combine them with strict- tendant on a neglected state of the minds of the people. ness, beyond the narrow scope of their ordinary pur- The representation is far enough from comprehending suits? Where is the wonder, if many such persons all those even of magnitude and prominence; but it take noise and fustian, for something zealous and somre- displays that portion of them which is the most serious thing lofty; if they mistake a wheedling cant for affec- and calamitous, as being the effect which the people's tionate solicitude; if they defer to pompous egotism ignorance has on their moral and religious interests. and dogmatical assertion, from the obvious interest, And we think no one who has attentively surveyed the which those who cannot inquire much for themselves, state and character of the lower orders of the commuhave to believe their teacher is an oracle; if they are nity, in this country, will impute exaggeration to the, delighted with whimsical conceits as strokes of discov- picture. It is rather to be feared that the reality is of ery and surprise, and yet at the same time are pleased much darker shade; and that a more strikingly gloomy with common-place, and endless repetition, as an ex- exhibition might be formed, by such a process as the emption from mental effort; and if they are gratified following:-That a certain number, twenty, or less or by vulgarity of diction and illustration, as bringing reli- more, of the most observant of the religious philanthropic glon to the level where they are at home? Nay, if an persons, who have had most intercourse with the classes artful pretender, or half lunatic visionary, or some poor in question, for the purposes of instruction, charitable set of dupes of their own inflated self-importance, aid, or perhaps of furnishing employment, should relate should give out, that they are come into the world for the most characteristic circumstances and anecdotes the manifestation, at last, of true Christianity, which within their own experience, illustrative of this mental the divine revelation has failed, till their advent, to ex- and moral condition; and that these should be arranged, plain to any of the numberless devout and sagacious without any comment, under the respective heads of examiners of it, what is there in the minds of the most the preceding sketch, or of a more comprehensive ignorant class of the persons desirous to secure the enumeration. Let each of them repeat, in so many benefits of religion, that can be relied on to Certify words, the most notable things he had heard uttered as them, that they shall not forego the greatest blessing ever expressing notions of deity, or any part of religion; or offered to them by setting at nought these pretensions? respecting the ground and extent of duty and accountIt is grievous to think there should be a large snd ableness; or the termination of life, and a future retrialmost perpetual stream of words, conveying crudities, bution. Let the recital include both the expressions of extravagances, arrogant dictates of ignorance, pompous individual conception, and those of the most prevailing nothings, vulgarities, catches of idle fantasy, and im- maxims and common-places; and let them be the saypertinences of the speaker's vanity, as religious instruc- ings of persons in health, and of those languishing and fion, to assemblages of ignorant people. But then, dying. Then let there be produced a numerous assorthow to turn this current away, to waste itself, as it ment of characteristic samples of practical conduct; deserves, in the swamps of the solitary desert? The conduct not alone proceeding, in a general way, from thing to be wished is, that it were possible to put some corrupt disposition; but bearing the special marks of strong coercion on the minds, (we deprecate all other the cast and direction given to that disposition by exrestraint,) of the teachers, a compulsion to feel the ne- treme ignorance. The assemblage of things thus recessitv of information, sense, disciplined thinking, the counted, when the actual circumstances were also correct use of words, and the avoidance at once of so- added of the wretchedness corresponding and insepaporific formality and wild excess. There are signs of rable, would constitute such an exhibition of fact, as amendment, certainly;'but while the passion of human any description of those evils in general terms would beings for notoriety lasts, (which will be yet a consider- incur the charge of rhetorical excess in attempting to able time,) there will not fail to be men, in any num- rival. We can well imagine, that some of these perber required, ready to exhibit in religion, in any man- sons of large experience may have accompanied us ner in which the people are willing to be pleased with through the foregoing series of illustrations with a feel them. The effectual method will be, to take the mat- ing, that they could have displayed the subject with a ter in the inverted order, and endeavour to secure that more impressive prominence. those who assemble to be taught, shall already have learnt so much by other means, as to impose upon their teachers the necessity of wisdom. But by what other means, except the discipline of the best education pos- SECTION III. sible to be given to them, and the subsequent voluntary self improvement to which it may be hoped that such an The, preceding remarks exemplified by the co.dition of education would often lead! England. We cannot dismiss this topic, of the unhappy effect And now again the grievous reflection comes upon of extreme ignorance on persons religiously disposed, us, that all this is the description of a large portion ot in rendering them both liable and inclined to receive.the'people of our own nation. Of this nation, the their ideas of the highest subject in a disorderly, per- theme of so many lofty strains of panegyric. Of this verted, and debased form, mixed largely with other nation, stretching forth its powers in ambitious entermen's folly and their own, without again remarking a prise, with infinite pride and cost, to all parts of the pleasing testimony to the connexion between genuine globe;-just as if a family were seen eagerly intent on religion and intelligence. It arises from the fact, appa- making some new appropriation, or going out to mainrent to any discriminating observer, that, as a general tain some new competition or feud with its neighbours, the most truly pious of the illiterate disciples of reli- or mixing perhaps in the strife of athletic games, or gion, those who have the most of its devotional feeling, drunken frays, at the very time that several of its memdo certainly manifest more of the operation of judgment bers are lying dead in the house. So that the fame of in their religion than is evinced by those of less solemn the nation resounded, and its power made itself felt, in and devout sentiment. The former will unquestion- every clime, it was not worth a consideration that a vast. ably be found, when on a level as to the measure of na- proportion of its people were systematically consigned, tural faculty and the want of previous cultivation, to through ignorance and its inseparable irreligion and deshow more discernment, to be less captivated by pravities, to wretchedness and even final nerdition. It aoise and extravagance, and more intent on really un- is matter for never-ending amazement, that during one FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 121 generation after another, the presiding wisdom in this curred in systems and schemes, which could deliberatechief of Christian and Protestant states, should have ly put such a thing last? Last! nay, not even that; thrown out the living'strength of that state, into almost for they have till recently, as we have seen, thrown it every mode of agency under heaven, rather than that of almost wholly out of consideration. A long succession promoting the state itself to the condition of a happy of men are gone to this audit. Let the rest beware. community of cultivated beings. What stupendous in- We were supposing a thoughtful man to draw out fatuation, what disastrous ascendency of the power of to his view a parallel and contrast exhibiting, on the darkness, that this energy should have been sent forth one side, the series of objects on which, during several to pervade all parts of the world in quest of objects, to ages, an enormous exertion of the national energy has inspirit and accomplish innumerable projects, political been directed; and on the other those improvements of and military, and to lavish itself, even to exhaustion the people which might have been effected by so much and fainting at its vital source, on every alien interest; of that exertion as he deems to have been wasted. In while here, at home, a great portion of the social body this process, he might often be inclined to single out was in a moral and intellectual sense dying and putre- particular parts and points in the disapproved series, to fying over the land. And it was thus perishing for be put in special contrast over against the possibilities want of the vivifying principle of knowledge, which one on the opposite line. For example; there perhaps fifth part of this mighty amount of exertion would have occurs to his view some island, of inconsiderable exbeen sufficient to diffuse into every corner and cottage tent, the haunt of pestilence, rendered productive soleof the island. Within its circuit, a countless multitude ly by means involving the most flagrant iniquity; an were seen passing away their mortal existence little iniquity which it avenges by opening a premature grave better, in any view, than mere sentient shapes of mat- for many of his countrymen, and being a most powerter, and by their depravity inexpressibly worse; and yet ful moral corrupter of others. Such a blasted spot, this hideous fact had not the weight of the very' dust nevertheless, may havle been one of the most material of the balance,' in the deliberation, whether a grand objects of a widely destructive war, which has in effect exertion of the national vigour and resource could have sunk incalculable treasure in the sea, and in the sands, any object so worthy, (with God for the judge, the ditches and fields of plague-infested shores; with a while,) as some scheme of foreign aggrandizement, dreadful sacrifice too of blood, life, and all the best mosome interference in remote quarrels, an avengement, ral feelings and habits. Its possession, perhaps, was by anticipation, of wrongs pretended to be foreseen, or the prize and triumph of all the grand exertion; the the obstinate prosecution of some fatal career, begun in equivalent for all the cost, misery, and crime. the very levity of pride, or from the casual ascendency Or there may occur to him the name of some forof some perverse and irritated individual or party. tress, in a less remote region, where the' Christian naThe national honour, perhaps, would be alleged in a tions seem to have vied with one another which of certain matter of punctilio, for the necessity of under- them should deposit the greatest number of victims, takings of incalculable consumption, by men who could securely kept in the charge of death, to rise and testify see no national disgrace in the circumstance, that sev- for them, at the last day, how much they have been eral millions of the persons composing the nation could governed by the peaceful spirit of their professed rel;not read the ten commandments. Or the national safety gion. He reads that his countrymen, conjoined with has been pleaded, to a similar purpose, in terms of pa- others, have battled round this fortress, wasting the triotic emphasis, upon some very slight symptoms of vicinity, but richly manuring the soil with blood. They danger; and the pleaders would have suspected alien- have co-operated in hurling upon the abodes of thouation of mind in any adviser suggesting,-' Do you, in- sands of inhabitants within its walls, a thunder and stead, apply your best efforts, and the nation's means, lightning incomparably more destructive than that of to raise the barbarous population from their ignorance nature; and have put fire and earthquake under the and debasement, and you really may venture some little fortifications; shouting,' to make the welkin ring,' at trust in divine providence for the nation's safety mean- sight of the consequent ruin and chasm, which have while.' opened an entrance for hostile rage. They have taken If a serious and religious man, looking back through the place,-and then they have surrendered it. The one or two centuries, were enabled to take, with an next year perhaps they have taken it again; to be again adequate comprehension of intellect, the sum and value at last given up, upon compulsion or in the acknowof so much of the astonishing course of the national ledgment of right, to the very same party to which it exertions of this country, as the supreme judge has put had belonged previously to all this horrible commotion. to the criminal account of pride and and ambition; and The operations in this local and very narrow portionof if.he could then place in contrast to the transactions the grand affray of monarchies, he may calculate to on which that mighty amount has been expended, a have cost his country, as much as the amount earned sober estimate of what so much exerted vigour might by the toils of the whole life of all the inhabitants of have accomplished, for the intellectual and moral exal- one of its considerable towns; if he can set aside from tation of the people, it could not be without an emotion his view, long enough for such a mere pecuniary reckof horror that he would say, Who is to oe accountable oning, the more portentous part of the account,-the who has been accountable, for this difference 1 He would carnage, the crimes, and the devastation committed on no longer wonder at any plagues and judgments, which the foreign tract, the place of abode of people who had may have been inflicted on such a state. And he would little interest in the contest, and no power to prevent solemnly adjure all those, especially, who profess in a it. And why all this. He may not be able to divest peculiar manner to feel the power of the Christian re- himself of the principles that should rule the judgment ligion, to beware how they implicate themselves, by of a moralist and a Christian, in order to think like a avowed or even implied approbation, in what must be a statesman, and therefore may find no better reason matter of fearful account before the highest tribunal. than that, when despots would quarrel, Britain must For some or other persons, such a course must have take the occasion to prove itself a great power, by been a matter of account. Such a moral agency could bearing a high hand amidst their rivalries; though this not throw off its responsibility into the air, to be dissi- should be at the expense of having this scene at home pated and lost, like the black smoke of forges or volca- chequered between children learning little more than noes. This one grand thing, (the improvement of the how to curse, and old persons dying without knowing people,) left undone, while a thousand arduous things how to put words together to pray. have been done or strenuously endeavoured, cannot be The question may have been, in one part of the less than an awful charge somewhere. And where -- world or another, which of two wicked individuals of but on all who have voluntarily co-operated and con- the same family, competitors for sovereign authority, 122 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. should be actually invested with it, they being equal in In figuring to himself the channels and instrumental. the qualifications and dispositions to make the worst ity, through which this great stream of energy might use of it. And the decision of such a question was pass into this operation, he will soon have many specific worthy, that England should expend what remained of means presented to his view: Schools, of the most her depressed strength from previous exertions of it in perfect appointment, in evelry section and corner of the some equally meritorious cause. town; a system of friendly, but cogent and peremptory: Or the supposed reviewer of our history may f ind, with all the people of inferior condition, rela somewhere in his retrospect, that a certain brook or tively to the necessity of their practical accordance to swamp in a wilderness, or stripe of waste, or settle- the plans of education;* an exceedingly copious supment of boundaries in resuect to some insignificant ply, for individual possession, of the best books of eletraffic; was difhicult of adjustment between jealous, irri- mentary knowledge, accompanied, as we need not say, tated, and mutually incursive neighbours; and there- by the sacred volume; a number of assortments of usefore national honour Ed interest equally required that fil and pleasing books for circulation, established under war should be lighted up, sea and land, through several strict order; and with appointments of honorary and quarters of the globe. Or a dissension may have arisen other rewards to those who gave evidence of having upon the matter of some petty tax on an article of cor- made the best use of them; a number of places of remerce; an absolute will had been rashly signified on sort where various branches of the most generally usethe subject; pride had committed itself, and was per- ful and attainable knowledge and arts should be exemptory for persisting; and the resolution was to be plained and applied, by every expedient of familiar, prosecuted through a wide tempest of destruction pro- practical, and entertaining illustration, admitting a detracted perhaps many years; and only terminating gree of co-operation by those who attended to see and in the loss, as to the leading power concerned, of infin- hear; and an abundance of comrniodious places for reitely more than this' least fatal arbitrement' had been ligious instruction on the sabbath, where there should determined on as the means of maintaining;-besides be intelligent and zealous men to impart it. Our specthe absolutely fathomless amount of every kind of cost ulator has a good right to suppose a high degree of in this progress to final frustation. But there would be these qualifications in his public teachers of reli gion, no end of recounting facts of this order. when he is to imagine something parallel in this departNow the comparative estimator has to set against a ment to the skill and ardor displayed in the supposed large array of things of this character, the forms of military operations. He may add to such an apparaimagined good, which might, during the ages of this tus, a police, (if we may employ that rather ungracious retrospect, have been realized by an incomparably less term,) faithful and vigilant against every cognizable exhausting series of exertion, an exertion, indeed, con- form of neglect and immorality. And besides all this, tinually renovating its own resources. Imagined good, there will be a great variety of undefined and optional we said —; alas! the evil stands in long and awful dis- activity of benevolent, and intelligent men of local play on the ground of history; the hypothetical good influence. pr.esents itself as but a dream; with this difference, Under so auspicious a combination of discipline, he that there is resting on the conscience of beings some- will not indeed fancy, in his transient vision, that he where still existing, an eternal accountableness for its beholds Athens revived; but he will in sober consistnot thaving been a reality. ency, we think, with what is known of the relation of For such an island, as we have supposed our com- cause and effect, imagine a place surpassing any actual parer to read of, he can, in imagination, look on a space town or city now on earth. And let it be distinctly of proportional extent in any part of his native country, kept in view, that to produce the effect exhibited in this taking a district as a detached section of a general na- ideal spectacle, he is just supposing to have been extional picture. Anld he can figure to himself the result,'pended, on the population of the town, a measure of resplendent upon this tract, of so much energy there exertion and means equal, (as far as agencies in so difbeneficently expended as that island had cost: an en- ferent a form and direction can be brought to a rule oi ergy, we mean, equivalent in measure; while in the comparative estimate,) to what has been expended by infinitely different mode of an exertion, by all appropri- his country in investing, battering, undermining, burnate means, to improve the reason, manner, and morals ing, taking. and perhaps retaking, one particular foreign of the people. What a prevalence of intelligence, what town, in one or several campaigns. a delightful civility of deportment, what repression and If he should perchance be sarcastically questioned, almost disappearance of the most gross obtrusive forms how can he allow himself in so strange a conceit as that of vice, what domestic decorum, attentive education of of supposing such a quantity of moral forces concenthe children, gravity and understanding in attendance trated to act in one exclusive spot, while the rest of the on public offices of religion, sense and good order in country remained under the old course of things; or assemblages for the assertion and exercise of civil and in such an absurdity as that of fancying that any any political rights! quantity of those forces could effectually raise one We were supposing his attentionfixed awhile on the local section of the people eminently aloft, while conrecorded operations against a strongly fortified place, tinuing surrounded and unavoidably in constant interin a region marked through every part with the traces course with the general mass, remaining still sunk in and memorials of the often renewed conflicts of the degradation-he has to reply that he is fancying no such Christian states. And we suppose him to make a col- thing. For while he is thus converting, in imagination, lective mixed estimate of all kinds of human ability put the military exertions against one foreign town, into forth around and against that particular devoted place, intellectual and moral operations on one town at home, as a detached portion of the whole enormous quantity why may he not, in similar imagination, make a whole of exertion, expended by his country in all that region, coumfry correspond to a whole country l He may conin the campaigns of a war, or of a century's wars. He ceive the grand incalculable amount of exertion made may then again endeavour, by a rule of equivalence, to by his country in marshal operations over all that wide conceive the same amount of exertion in quite another foreign territory of which he has selected a particular way; to imagine human forces equal in quantity to all spot, to have been, on the contrary, expended in the that putting forth of strength, physical, mental, and financial, for annoyance and destrfction, expended, in- * It is here most confidently presumed, that any man who stead, in the operation of effecting the utmost improve-:looks, in a right state of his senses, at the manner in which the stead, in the operation of effecting the utmost improve- children are still brought up, in many parts of the land, will melit which they coutld effect, in the mental cultivation hear with unlimited contempt any hypccritical protest against and the morals of the inhabitants of one large tot r in'rl 7 so nmuch interference with the discretion, the liberty of palrets; his own country. the discretion, the liberty, forsooth, of bringing up their children a nuisance on the face of the oarth! FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 123 supposed beneficent process on the great scale of this what manner the mind might live in all these bodies, if whole nation. Then would the supposed popular im- only it were there in competence to make them efficient provement in the one particular town, so far from being as machines and implements. Contented to be gazed a strange insulated phenomenon, absurd to be conceived at, to be envied, or to be regarded as too high even for as existing in exception and total contrast to the gene- envy, and to have the rough business of the world perral state of the people, be but a portion and specimen formed by these inhalers of the vital air, they perhaps of that state. thought, if they reflected at all on the subject, that the He may proceed along the series of such confronted best and most privileged state of such beings was to be representations as far as bitter mortification will let in the least possible degree morally responsible; and him. But he will soon be sick of this process of coin- that therefore it would but be doing them an injury to parison. And how sick will he thenceforward be, to enlarge their knowledge. And might not the thought perpetual loathing, of the vain raptures with which an be suggested at some moment, (see how many things immoral and antichristiaa patriotism can review a long may be envied in their turns!) how happy they should history of what it will call national glory, acquired by be, if with the vast superiority of their advantages they national energy ambitiously consuming itself in a con- could be just as little accountable? And yet even at tinual succession and unlimited extent of extraneous such moments they were little thinking how much it operations, of that kind which has been the grand curse was for which they would, in consequence of those adof the human race ever since the time of Cain; while vantages, be summoned to answer; little anticipating the one thing needful of national welfare, the very they should ever be arraigned on a charge, to which summun m bonum of a state, has been regarded with con- they would vainly wish to be permitted to plead, temptuous indifference.' Were we our brothers' keepers?' If an office desigThese observations are not'made on any assumption, nated by those terms, had been named to them as formthat England could in all cases have kept clear of im- ing a part of their duty, their thoughts might have plications of foreign interests and remote and sangui- beaten about in various conjectures and protracted pernary contests. But they are made on the assumption plexity, before it had come explicitly to their apprehenof what is admitted and deplored by every thoughtful sion, that the objects of that office were in a peculiar religious man, whose understanding and moral sense manner the understandings, principles, and consciences, are not wretchedly prostrated in homage to a prevailing of the vulgar mass We repeat that we speak genersystem, and chained down by a superstition that dare ally, and not universally. not question the wisdom and probity of high national But we think a great revolution is evidently beginauthorities and counsels. WVhat is so admitted and de- ning; a far more important one, by its higher principle plored by the true and Christian patriots is, that this and more expansive and beneficent consequences, than nation has gone to an awfully criminal extent beyond the the ordinary events of that name. What have comline of necessity; and it has been extremely prompt to find monly been the matter and circumstances of revoluoccasions for appearing again, and still again, in array for tions? The last deciding blow in a deadly competition the old work of waste and death; and that, taking into the of equally selfish parties; actions and re-actions of amaccount the high advantage enjoyed by its preponderating bition and revenge; the fiat of a predominating potenclasses for forming a religious judgment, it has shown tate or conqueror; a burst of blind fury, suddenly during several generations and down into our own age, sweeping away an old despotism, but overwhelming, an astonishing insen.sibility to the dictates of Christiani- too, all attempts to substitute a better institution; plots, ty and the warning of accountableness to the sovereign massacres, battles, dethronements, restorations: all orjudges. dinary things. How little of the sublime of moral These observations assume, too, with perfect confi- agency has there been, with one or two partial excepdence, that there CANNO. be, in the world, any such tions, in these mighty commotions; how little wisdom thing as a nation habitually absolved from the duty of or virtue, or reference to the supreme patron of nationraising its people from brutish ignorance, in considera- al interests; how little nobleness, or even distinctness tion of a necessity and duty of expending its vigour of purpose, or consolidated advantage of success! But and means in foreign enterprise. The concern of re- here is a revolution with different phenomena. It disdeeming the people from a besotted condition of their plays its quality and project in activities, of continually reason and conscience, is a duty at all events and to an enlarging scope and power, for the universal diffusion of entire certainty; is a duty imperative and absolute; the divine revelation; in enterprises to attempt an and any pretended necessity for such a direction of the opening of the doors of all the immense prison-houses national exertion as would be incompatible with a pa- of human spirits in every region; in schemes, (adramount attention to this, must be an imposition too vancing with a more quick and widening impulse into gross to furnish an excuse for being imposed on. effect than good designs were wont to do in former times,) for rendering education and the possession of valuable knowledge universal; in multiplying exertions, in all official and unofficial forms, for making it imposSECTION IV. sible to mankind to avoid hearing the voice of religion; and all this taking advantage of the new and powerful Indications of a better age approaching-with remarks movement in the general mind; as earnest bold advenon some visionary projects, for meliorating the con- turers have sometimes availed themselves of a formidable dition of mankind. torrent to be conveyed whither the stream in its accustomed state would never have carried them; or as we have Such as we have described has been, for Pages, the heard of heroic assailants seizing the moment of an aw.degraded state of the multitude. And such has been ful tempest of thunder and lightning, to break through the indifference manifested in regard to it by the supe- the enemy's lines. These are the insignia by which it rior, the refined, the ascendant portion of the commu- may well express disdain to take its rank with ordinary nity; who, generally speaking, could see these sharers revolutions. with them of the dishonoured human nature, in endless Do these appear but a feeble array, to be recounted numbers around them, in the city and the field, without as the signs and forces of a great revolution, to the its ever flashing on conscience that on them was lying mere political projectors and calculators, whose object a solemn accountableness, destined to press one day is to ameliorate the state and character of the people? with all its weight, for what excluded these beings from And what, alas! can you do, we might ask them, by hVe sphere of rational existence. It never occurred to expedients relying on any different class of forces from giany of them as a question of the smallest moment, in these? As a preliminary point, how are you to ti!rine 124 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. (if your theory of an improved state of the people re- body. This, you think, would be such a mighty and quire that there be obtained in the first instance,) any comprehensive advantage, that it must stand primary materially altered political arrangements in their favour in a rational scheme for the grand object. Bnt then, In what manner call you promise yourselves to bring you will say, for subordinate and subsidiary means, to into effect a theory, thlat should presume a hasty con- follow in detail, under this chief improver of the people, cession of privileges to the people by the superior or- you do not fail to set a high value on plans of educaders of the community, while those orders have to allege tion, and efforts for diffusing the knowledge of religion; in justification of refusal, that the people are so igno- that in reality you are never imagining the possibility rant, and so exceedingly corrupt, as to be totally unfit of the full accomplishment of the object without the asfor the possession of any such privileges, even supposing sistance of these means: they are always included in them, abstractedly speaking, their right your speculation, though accounted in it as secondary But suppose the leading classes did not refuse any and instrumental, under the paramount importance of one thing you would ask, for reducing your theory to what you must still insist on placing first. Do you say practise, or to experiment. Suppose the people instat- so? Then confess that those persons are right at all ed in the fulness of what you would call the privileges events, who are zealous to bring into operation immerightfully appropriate to their situation in the commu- diately the expedients thus admitted by yourselves to nity; placed on just such a ground in the great politi- be indispensible somewhere in the process; who will do cal arrangement as you would wish to claim and vindi- it as so much gained at any rate, in dispute of the reluccate for them, in order to raise them, as you think, to tance of the economy around them to dispose itselfinrespectability and happiness. Suppose them placed to an order, under which the benificent design might there at this moment; and what then? How,-through have a greater power and more rapid efficacy. Whatwhat mode of the salutary effect of this change,-are ever order of things you would conceive as the most the felicitous consequences to follow? You know, yes, propitious to the improvement of the people, what would you absolutely know, that a vast majority of the multi- that improvement itself consist in, for its most valuable tude are, at this hour, as wretchedly ignorant, and as part, but exactly that which is endeavoured to be imdreadfully corrupt, as any of those esteemed their ene- parted now by the men who will not wait for the fortumies have represented them. Hardly any language on nate aspects and conjunctions of yourpolitical astrology this subject can exceed the odious truth. Nor can any We should say, which is imparted by them; for they thing on earth be more contemptible than that strain of find that in some measure their scheme for infusing that talking which affects a confidence in their sound judg- best improvement can be brought in contact with the ment, their steady principles, there well ordered dispo- mind of the humbler order, in its juvenile portion; and sitions, and so forth; and which in addressing them, that already, as from the garment of the redeemer, a adopts phrases of encomium and difference, and makes sanative virtue goes out of it. And shall they despise a kind of boasting in their name, as if in them where to this measure of utility, just because they have reason be found the main substance of what there is of sterling to wish it were a thousand times as much? They acworth in the land. It is but an incipient and exceed- knowledge with regret the exceedingly limited reach ingly partial appearance of transformation that the most and force of their operations, as compared with the imsanguine of us can, as yet, profess to perceive, as the mensity of the assemblage of intellectual and moral result of all the new and augmented moral forces in existence requiring to be operated upon; but who, nerecent times brought into operation; so inveterate, so vertheless, are the truer friends of the people,-they, obdurate, so profound in evil, is that popular condition who find an intrinsic value in such means as there are, attempted to be corrected. The great mass is still in the absence of whatever means there are not, and acmost deplorably corrupt. And yet you really can, not- tively exert themselves that the people may be the withstanding, place it, in imagination, under some mere- better so far; or you, who rate all means as but cyly political auspicious adjustment which shall act upon phers, unless a certain favourite one be at their head; it with a more immediate and powerful efficacy of cor- and seem almost content that, till it shall be there, the rection, than any;alterative influence of higher educa- people should remain jnst as they are for mere evition and inculcated religion. But how? Through the dence that no scheme but yours can do them good? medium of what principles? Think in what terms you But some of those persons who, whenever they think shall name these merely political vitalites, so mighty for of great plans of utility to a nation, inevitably think ala moral regeneration. Would you, perhaps, talk of- so of that which directs the nation's organized strength, the dignified sense of independence; the generous, the and of the forms of institution, and of the prevailing liberalizing, the ennobling sentiments of freedom; the spirit, according to which that strength is made to act, self-respect, and conscious responsibility of men in the have to plead, that it is not on specfic circumstances full exercise of their rights; the manly disdain of what wrong in the political arrangement, that they are restis base; and the innate sense and love of what is wor- ing so much of the emphasis of their regrets or wishes; thy and honourable, which would spontaneously deve- that it is not from this or that particular formal correclope itself on the removal of certain ungenial circum- tion of institutions, that they are imagining, in melanstances in the political constitution of society, which choly musings, how much good might flow to pour life have had the effect of winter on the moral nature of its and vigour into the process for reforming and exalting inferior portions? Tt would be difficult to believe you the people. They say, that whatever they might. perwere not aware that all this, in such a manner of put- haps, on examination, deem wrong in political mechanting it forth, in fragrant nonsense. ism, their ungracious feeling toward states, and those But perhaps you will say, that your scheme of means who have presided in the management of them, is of for the desired renovation of the state and character of this more general and solemn purport,-that those nathe people, is not exclusively political. Your chief tional systems and administrators have never, in the power, you own, your Hercules in the operations for plenitude of immense power, actually wrought to this placing them on a happier ground, is indeed to be a grand effect, of saving the people from a dreadful menhighly improved form of the political framing together tal degradation. It is on this enormous practical failof the national community because in the attainment ure that they dwell, with such deep displacency, rather ~of this there would be an end of many bad impressions than on precise defects in the construction of states, now strongly and habitually affecting the people and the theoretically considered. And then they say, that the commencement of as many beneficent influences, to contemplation of this fact has the effect of reducing alcome upon them with a direct immediate action, and most to folly, in their view, the little schemes and efan action not merely affecting a proportion of themr as forts of individuals directed toward such an object. individuals, but falling on them generally as one great Now we earnestly wish it might be granted by tnsa FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 125 almighty, that the political institutions of the nations by a bold sentiment of independence, (humble, at the might speedily take a form, and come under an ad- same time, in reference to the necessity of a celestial ministration, that would apply the energy of the state to agency,) in the prosecution of it. Each person who is so sublime a purpose; and we always consider the standing still to look, with grief or indignation, at the question whether they do this, or the degree in which evils which are overrunning the world, would do well they do it, as the grand test of their merits. But then, to recollect what he may have read of some gallant parwe must suggest it to the persons thus on the point of tizan, who, perceiving where a prompt movement, with turning the awful omissions of states into a license for the force at his own command, would make an impresindividuals to do nothing, to consider what, after all, has sion infallibly tending to the success of the warfare, been the criminal neglect of which nations in their cha- could not endure to lose the time till somne great sultan racter of states have been guilty, but the neglect of should find it convenient to come in slow march, and which the individuals composing them have been guilty. the pomp of state, to take on him the general direction And are individuals now absolved from all such respon- of the compaign. sibility; and the more so, that the conviction of the im- But happpily, such admonitions are becoming every portance of the object is come upon them with such a day of more limited application; and we return with new and mighty force. When they say, reproachfully, pleasure to the animating idea of that great revolution that the nation in its collective capacity, as a body poli- of which we were noting the introductory signs. It is tic, neglects a most important duty, does this amount a revolution in the manner of estimating the souls of to the very'same thing as saying that they perform their the people, and consequently in the judgment of what share. In actually not performing it, by what princi- should be done' for their welfare. Through many ages, ple do they transfer the blame on the state? Would that immense multitude had been but obscurely prethey, in effect, prostitute the language of religion, and sented to view in the character of rational improvable say, In thee we live, move, and have a being Or, in creatures. They were recognized but as one large imitation of what the pagans of the East are rid of all mass, of equivocal moral substance, but faintly distinsense of guilt by believing of their gods, namely, that guishable into individuals; a breadth of insignificant the gods so pervade or rather essentially constitute their sameness, undiscernible in marked features and aspects faculties and wills, that whatever they do' or refuse to of mental character; existing, and to be left to exist, do, it is not they, but literally the gods that do it, or in their own manner; and that manner hardly worth refuse,-in imitation of this will these persons account concern or inquiry. Little consideration could there themselves but as particles of matter, actuated and ne- be of how much spiritual immortal essence might be cessitated in all things by a sovereign mythological going to waste, while this multitude was reduced to something denominated the State? this kind of collective nothingness on the field of conIt is not so that they feel with respect to those other templation. But now it is as if a mist were rising and interests and projects, which they are really in earnest dispersing from that field, and leaving this mighty to promote, though those concerns may lie in no greater assemblage of spiritual beings exhibited to view in proportion than the one in question does within the such a light from heaven as they were never beheld scope of their individual ability. The incubus has then in before, except by the eyes of Apostles, and vanished; and they find themselves in possession of a of a small number that in every age have resembled free agency, and a degree of power which they are by them. no means disposed to underrate. What is there then It is true, this manifestation forms so melancholy that should reduce them, as individnal agents, to such a vision, that if we had only to behold it as a spectacle, utter and willing insignificance in the present affair! we might well desire that the misty obscurity might deBesides, they may form themselves, in indefinite num- scend upon it again, to shroud it from sight; while we ber, into combination. And is there no power in any should be left to indulge and elate our imaginations by collective form in which they can be associated, save dwelling on the pomps and splendours of the terrestrial just that one in which the aggregation is constituted scene,-the mighty empires, the heroes, the victories, under the political shape and authority denominated a the triumphs; the refinements and enjoyments of the state' Or does the matter come at last to this, that most highly cultivated of the race; the brilliant perthey grow alarmed in conscience at thehigh-toned cen- formances of genius, and the astonishing reach of sure they have been stimulated and betrayed to pro- science. So the tempter would have beguiled our nounce on the state. for neglect of its greatest duty; Lord into a complacent contemplation of the kingdoms that they relapse into the obsequiousness of hesitating, and glories of the world. But he was come to look whether to attempt to do good of a kind which that on a different aspect of it! Nor could he be withhigh agent has left undone; that they must wait for the drawn from the gloomy view of its degradation and sanction of its great example; that till the' shout of misery. And a good reason why. For the sole object kings is among them' it were better not to march for which he had appeared in the only world where against the vandalism and the paganism which are, the temptation could even in form approach him, was to while, quite at their ease, destroying the people? begin in operation, and finish in virtue, a design for But if this had always been the way in which private changing that state of degradation and misery. In the individuals, single or associated, had accounted of them- prosecution of such a design, and in the spirit of that selves and their possible exertions, in regard to great divine benevolence in which it sprung, he could endure general improvements, but very few would ever have to fix on the melancholy and odious character of the been accomlplished. For the case has commonly been, scene, the ccntemplation which was vainly attempted that the schemes of such improvements have originated to be diverted to any other of its aspects. What inwith persons not invested with political power; have deed, could sublunary pomps and glories be to him been urged on by the accession and co-operation of in any case; but emphatically what, when his object such individuals; and at length slowly and reluctantly was to redeem the people from darkness and destrucacceded to by the holders of the dominion over the tion. community, the last to admit what may long hav'e ap- Those who, actuated by a spirit in some remote repeared to the majority of thinking men, no less than semblance to hip, have entered deeply into the state of demonstrative evidence of the propriety and advantage the people, such as it is found in our own nation, have of the reformation. often been appalled at the spectacle disclosed to them. In all probability, the improvement of mankind is They have been astonished to think what canl have been destined, under divine providence, to advance just in the direction, while successive ages have passed away, proportion as good men feel the responsibility for it of so many thousands of acute and vigilant mental eyes, resting on themselves, a.s individuals, and are actuated that so dreadful a sight should scarcely have been de 126 FOSTER'S ESSAYS scried. They have been aware in describing it as they of whom are returning animated thanks, and will do so actually saw it, they would be regarded by some as I in the hour of death, for what these, their best human gloomy fanatics, tinctured with insanity by the influence friends, have been the means of imparting to them. of some austere creed; and that others, of kinder na- Let them recollect of how many families they have seen ture, but whose sensibility has more of self-indulging the domestic condition pleasingly, and in some inrefinement than tendency to active benevolence, wonld stances eminently and delightfully amended. And let almost wish that so revolting an exhibition had never them reflect how they have trampled down prejudices, been made, though the fact be actually so. There may greatly silenced a heathenish clamour, and provoked have been moments, when even they themselves have the imitative and rival efforts of many who, but for experienced a temporary recoil of their benevolent zeal, them, would have been most cordially willing for all under the impression at once of the immensity of the such schemes to lie in abeyance to the end of time. evil and its grievously offensive quality. At times, Let them think of all this, and then go on and try, (we the rudeness of the subjects, and perhaps the ungracious speak reverently,) what God and they can do, whether reception and thankless requital, of their philanthropic the authorities that govern the nations will or will not labours, aggravating the general feeling of the miser- lend their powers vigorously in aid; whether, when the ableness, (so to express it,) of seeing so much misery, the infinite importance of the concern is represented have lent seduction to the temptations to ease and self- to them, they will hear, or whether they will forbear. indulgence. Why should they, just they of all men, But let them never fear but the time will. come, when condemn themselves to dwell so much in the most the rulers and the ascendent classes in states will comdreary climate of the moral world, when they could per- prehend it to be their best policy to promote all possihaps have taken their almost constant abode in a little ble improvement of the people. It will be given to elysium of elegant knowledge, taste, and refined so- them to understand, that the highest glory of those at ciety. Then was the time to revert to the example the head of great communities, must consist in the emnof him' who, though he was rich, for our sakes became inence attained by those communities generally, in poor.' whatever it is that constitutes the most valuable and Or, again, their thoughts may not unfrequently be honorable superiority of one man or class over others. turned on that view of things, which we have described They will one day have learnt to esteem it a far nobler as so habitual, and of such withering effect, with men form of power to lead an immense combination of inwho speculate on benevolence with but little of its telligent minds, than to command and coerce a great spirit. They may have dwelt too long on the consid- aggregation of brute force. They will come to feel, eration, of how much the higher and inmore amply fur- that it is better for them to have a people who can unnished powers leave such generous designs to proceed derstand and rationally approve their purposes and as they can, in the mere strength of private individual measures, than one befnt in stupid submission,-or exertion. And they may have yielded to gloomy and rather one fermenting in ignorant disaffection, continurepressive feelings after the fervour of indignant ones: ally believing them to be wrong, and without sense for indignation, unless animated by a very sanctified enough to appreciate the arguments to prove them principle, is very apt, when it cools, to become de- right. And a time will come, when it will not be left spondency. It is as if, (they have said,) armies and to the philanthropic speculatists alone, to make the giants would stand aloof, to amuse themselves, while comparative estimate between what has been effected we are to be committed and abandoned in the ceaseless by the. enormously expensive apparatus of coercive and toil of a conflict, which these armies and giants have penal administration, —the prisons, prosecutions, transno business even to exist as such but for tbe very pur- portations, and a vast military police,-and what might pose of waging. We are, if we will,-and if we will have been effected by one half of that expenditure dewe may let it alone-to try to effect in diminutive pieces, voted to popular reformation, to be accomplished by and detached local efforts, a little share of that, to means of schools, and every practicable variety of methwhich the greatest human force on eaxth might be ap- ods for effecting, that men's understanding and conplied to operate on system, and to the widest compass. science shall stand confronting them in the way, like -So they have said, perhaps, and been tempted to the angel with the sword, when they are inclined or leave their object to its destiny. tempted to go wrong. All this will come to pass in But really it is now too late for this resentful and de- due time. But meanwhile, let the promoters of a good sponding abandonment. They cannot now retire in the cause act on the consideration, that no time is theirs, tragical dignity of despair. It must be a matter more but the present. forlorn that would admit of their saying, as in parody or travesty of Cato,' Witness heaven and earth, we have done our duty, but the stars and fate are against us; and here it becomes us to terminate a strife, which SECTION V. would degenerate into the ridiculous if prosecuted against impossibilities. On the contrary, the zeal which Moderate computations to be made for the effects of could begin so onerous a work, and prosecute it thus knowledge communicated: advantages actually gainfar, could not now remit without betraying its past ar- ed: improvement in benevolent institutions: general dor to the condemnation and ridicule due to a fantastic considerations. caprice. Is it for the projectors of a noble edifice for public utility, to abandon the undertaking when it has We have not come so near the end of our observarisea from its foundation to be seen above the ground; tions, without having been many times reminded, that or is just come to be level with the surface of the wa- there will be persons ready to impute sanguine extravaters, in defiance of which it has been commenced, and gance to our expectations of the results, to follow from the violence of which it was designed to control, or the such means and exertions for improving the popular unfordable depths and streams of which it was to bear education as are already in progress; we mean espepeople over? ILet the promoters of education and cially the schools which benevolence is multiplying Christian knowledge among the inferior classes, reflect over the land, the kind and measure of subsequent what has already been accomplished; regarding it, we reading for which it is hoped not a few of their pupils once again repeat, as quite the incipient stage. It is will have acquired a taste, and the habit established of most truly as yet, the day of small things; but let them attendance on public Christian instruction. And what recount the individuals whom, nevertheless, they have is. it, then, how much is it, we ask, that the advocates seen rescued from what had all the the signs of a desti- of the system, profess to anticipate? Are they heard nation to the lowest debasement, and utter ruin; some maintaining that the communication of knowledge, FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 127 or true notions of things, to youthful minds, will infal- their own, when they find themselves assertiug, in other libly ensure their virtue and happiness. They are not words, that there is actually as much virtue in the world quite so new to the world, to experimental labours in as there is knowledge of its principles. Wie should the business of tuition, or to self-observation. They rather have surmised that, deplorably deficient as that have constantly within their view a mournful illustra- knowledge is, the reduction of it all to practice would tion of the quality of human nature, in the circumstance, make a glorious change in England and Europe. of the. great difference of assurance with which the ef- The persons, therefore, whose zeal is combined with fects may be predicted of ignorance on the one hand, knowledge in the prosecution of plans for the extension and knowledge on the other. There is v'ery nearly an of education, proceed on a calculation of an effect more absolute certainty of success in the method for making limited, in apparent proportion to the means, and less clowns, sots, vagabonds and ruffians. You may safely positively, (even in that more limited measure,) to be leave it to themselves to carry on the process for be- reckoned on in a given single instance, than they would coming complete. Let human creatures grow up with- have been justified in anticipating in many other departout discipline, destitute therefore of salutary informa- ments of operation. They would, for example, predict tion, sound judgment, or any conscience but what will with more confidence the results of an undertaking to shape itself to whatever they like, and serve in the cultivate any tract of waste land, or to reclaim a bog, manner of some vile friar pander in the old plays,-and or to render mechanical forces and contrivance availno one thinks of taking any credit for foresight in say- able in a difficult untried mode of application, or, ihn ing they will be a noxious burden on the earth; except many cases, the successful results of the application of indeed in those tracts of it where they seem to have the healing art to diseased body. They still remember their fair business, in being matched against the wolves what nmoral nature they are calculating on, and calcuand bears of the wildernes. When they infest what lating for good. And in their more gloomy moments should be a civilized and Christianized part of the world, they perhaps fall into a comparison of their calculation the philanthropist is sometimes put in doubt whether to on it for good, with that which an enemy of mankind repress, or indulge, the sentiment which tempts him to might please himself in making on it for evil; both of complacency in the operations of an epidemic which is them having respect to the same particular human bethinning their members. ings, and both keeping in view this fact of the very imThe consequences of ignorance are certain, unless perfect command of the judgment over the active powalmost a miracle interpose; but unhappily those of ers of the mind. In some such moments they would be knowledge are of diffdent and very restricted calcula- glad of an exchange between their respective degrees tion. It is the testimony of all ages that men may see of probability. That is to say, let a man, if such there and even approve the better, and yet follow the worse. be, who could be pleased with the depravity and misery It is the hapless predicament of our nature, that the no- of the race, a sagacious judge, too, of their moral conblest of its powers, the understanding, has but imper- stitution, and a veteran observer of their conduct,-let fectly and precariously that commanding hold on the him look over a hundred children in one of the benevoothers, which is essential to the good order of the soul; lent schools, and indulge himself in prognosticating, on as in a machine where the aecondary wheels should be the strength of the fact to which we have adverted, the liable to be thrown by a slight movement out of the proportion, in numbers and degree, in which these chilcatch and grapple of the master one. Nay, worse than dren will, in subsequent life, exemplify the failure of so, these moral powers, when detached from the con- what is done for their wisdom and welfare,-there may trol of the understanding, may have a powerful action be times, we say, when the friends of these institutions of their own, from the impulse of another principle: in- would be glad to transfer the portion in which, and the deed it is this impulse that causes the detachment from probability with which, he so prognosticates evil from that control. It is really frightful to look at the evi- the nature of the beings, to their own hopes of the good dence, from facts, that these active powers may grow to be effected by discipline. In other words, there are strong in the depravity which will set the judgment at times when they would say,' evil be thou my good,' in defiance, during. the very time that the judgment is the sense of wishing that the respective proportions of training, and not without success, to an ability to dic- power, with which the agencies of good and evil are tate to them what is right. We cannot pay any serious affecting the subjects in question, could be exchanged attention to the fancy of those, who will have it that between them. when the passions and will go wrong, it must'be be- But we shall know where to stop in the course of cause th- understanding has not a just apprehension, observations of this darkening colour; and we shall This gross assumption, in what is purely a question of take off the point of the derider's taunt, just forthcomfact, is in flat contradiction to an infinity of evidence, of ing, that we are here unsaying, in effect, all that we men deliberately and distinctly avowing theirconviction have been so laboriously urging about the value and of the evil quality, and fatal consequences, of courses absolute necessity of knowledge to the people. It was which they are soon afterwards seen pursuing, and proper to show, that the prosecutors of these designs without the smallest pretence of a change of opinion; are not suffering themselves to be beguiled out of a of men still avowing the same conviction, and some- perception of what there is in the nature of their subtimes' in strong terms of self-reproach, in the checks jects of a tendency to frustate them, and of certain and pauses of their career; and of men in the near power to reduce their efficacy to a very partial measure prospect of death and judgment expressing, in bitter of the effect desired. It was to be shown that they regret, the acknowledgment that they had persisted in are not unknowing enthusiasts; but then, in keeping acting wrong while they knew better. And this as- clear of the vain extravagancies of hope, they are not sumption so wilfully made against such evidence, is to to surrender their confidence that something great and be maintained for no better reason, that appears, than important can be done: it should be possible for a man that human nature cannot, must not, shall not, be so to be sober, short of being dead. They are not to graabsurd and depraved as to be capable of such madness. vitate down into a state of feeling as if the understandAs if human nature were taking the smallest trouble to ing had been proved to have no sway upon the moral assame before them any equivocal appearance to cozen powers; as if, therefore, any presumption upon the rethem into a favourable opinion; as if it suspended its lation between means and ends must in this great dedetermined propensities in complaisance to their deny- partment of action be illusory. It might not, indeed, ing that it has them. It has. and kIeeps, and shows its be amiss for them to be told that the case is so, by those character, without the leave of those who would resolve who would desire, from whatever motive, to repress its moral turpitude into error in its understanding. But their efforts and defeat their designs; as so downright for understanding-it should be time to take care of a blow at.their favourite object would but serve to pro 128 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. yoke them, to a determined exercise of thought to as- provision of means for their instruction. And, for the certain more definitely what there really is for them contrast, he has only to leave the school, and walk a to form their schemes and calculations upon, and there- mile round the neighbourhood, in which it will be very fore to verify to themselves the reasons they have for wonderful, (we may say this of most parts of England,) persisting, in confidence that the labour will not be lost. if he shall not, in a populous district and on a fine day, And the instant they apply themselves, in this severe meet with a great number of wretched disgusting imps, sobriety, to the estimates, they have the fact conspicu- straggling or in knots, in the activity of mischief and ous before them, that there is at any rate such an effi- nuisance, or at least the full cry of vile and profane cacy in cultivation, that it is quite certain a well culti- language; with here and there, as a lord among them, vated people cannot remain on the same degraded mor- an elder larger one growing fast into an insolent blackal level as a neglected ignorant one,-or any where guard. He may make the comparison, quite sure that near it. None of those even that value such designs such as they are, and so employed, would many now the least, ever pretend to foresee, after they shall have under the salutary discipline of yonder school have been, taken effect, an undiminished prevalence of rudeness but for its institution. But the two classes, so beheld and brutality of manners, of delight in spectacles and in contrast,-might they not seem to belong to two difamusements of cruelty, of noisy revelry, of sottish in- ferent nations Do they not seem growing into two temperance, or of disregard of character. It is not extremely different orders of character Do they not pretended to be foreseen that the poorer classes will even. seem preparing for different worlds in the final then continue to display so much of that heedless and distribution. almost desperate improvidence, respecting their tempo- The friends of these designs for a general and highly ral means and prospects, which has aggravated the ca- improved education, may proceed farther in this course lamities of the present times. It is not predicted that of verifying to themselves the grounds of their assurance an universal school discipline will bring up several rnil- of happy results. A number of ideas decidedly the lions to the neglect, and many of them in the impudent most important that were ever formed in human thought, contempt, of attendance on the ministrations of reli- or imparted from the supreme mind, will be so taught gion. The result will at all hazards, by every one's in these institutions, that it is absolutely certain they acknowledgment, be the contrary of all this. will be fixed irrevocably and for ever in the minds of But more specifically: —The promoters of the plans maniy of the pupils. It will be as impossible to erase of popular education see a most important advantage these ideas from their memories as to extinguish the gained in the very outset, and as perhaps the smallest stars. And in the case of many, perhaps the majority, matter in the account of emolument, in the obvious of these youthful beings, advancitg into the temptations fact, that in their schools a very large portion of time of life, these grand ideas, thus fixed deep in their souls, is employed well, that otherwise would infallibly be will distinctly present themselves to judgment and conemployed ill. Let any one introduce himself into one science an incalculable number of times. What a of these places of assemblage, where there has been number, if the sum of all these reminiscences of these time to mature the arrangements into the most efficient ideas, in all the minds now assembled in a numerous system. He should not enter as an important person- school, could be conjectured! But if one in a hunage, in patronizing and judicial state, to demand the dred of these recollections, if one in a thousand, shall respectful looks of the whole tribe from their attention have the efficacy that it ought to have, who can comto their printed rudiments and their slates; but glide pute the amount of the good resulting from the tuition in as a quiet observer, just to survey at his leisure the which shall have so enforced and fixed these ideas that character and operations of the scene. Undoubtedly they shall infallibly be thus recollected? And it is alhe will descry here and there the signs of inattention, together out of reason to hope that the desired efficacy weariness, or vacancy, not to say of perverseness. will, as often as once in a thousand times, attend the Even these individuals, however, are out of the way of luminous rising again of a solemn idea to the view of practical harm; and at the same time he will see a the mind 2 Is still less than this to be hoped for our multitude of youthful spirits acknowledging the duty of unhappy nature, and that too while a beneficent God directing their best attention to something altogether has the superintendence of it? foreign to their wild amusements; of making a pro- The institutions' themselves will gradually improve tracted effort in one mode or another of the strange in both the manner and the compass of their discipline. business of thinking. He will perceive in many the They.will acquire a more vigorous mechanism, (if we unequivocal indications of a teal grave and earnest ef- may so name it,) and a more decidedly intellectual chafort made to acquire, with the aid of visible signs and racter. In this latter respect, it is but comparatively implements, a command of what is invisible and imma- of late years that schools for the inferior classes have terial. They are thus treading in the precincts of an ventured any thing beyond the humblest pretensions. intellectual economy; the economy of thought and Mental cultivation-intellectual and moral disciplinetruth, in which they are to live for ever; and never, to almost the word education itself-were terms of deeternity, will they have to regret this period and part of nomination which they were reverently cautious ot their employments. He will be delighted to think how taking in vain. They would have been regarded as ot many disciplined actions of the mind, how many just too ambitious an import, as seeming to betray someideas, distinctly admitted, that were strangers at the what of the impertinence of a disposition, (for the idea beginning of the day's exercise, (and among these ideas of the practicability of any such invasion would have some to remind them of God and their highest interest,) been scorned,) to encroach on a ground exclusively ap-there will have been by the time the busy and well propriate to the superior orders. Schools for the poor ordered company breaks up in the evening, and leaves were to be as little as possible scholastic. They were silence within these walls. He will not indeed grow to have every possible assimilation to the workshop, exromantic in hope; he knows too much of the nature to cepting perhaps in one particular,-that of working which these beings belong; knows therefore that the hard: for the scholars were literally to throw time away desired results of this discipline will but partially fol- rather than be occupied with any thing beyond the low; but still rejoices to think that partial result, which merest rudiments. Their advocates and petitioners for will most certainly follow, will be worth incomparably aid were to avow and plead how little it was that they more than all it will have cost. pretended or presumed to teach. The argument in their Now let himr, vhell he has contemplated this scene, behalf was either to begin or end with saying, that they consider how the greatest part of this numerous coin- only taught reading and writing; or if it could not be pany would have been employed during the saie hours, denied that there was to be some meddling with the (whether of the sabbath or other days,) but for such a first rules of a:ithmetic, —we may safely appeal to some FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 129 of these pleaders whether they did not, twenty or thirty mechanies, should continue to be kept in stupid igno, years since, bring out this addition with the manage- rance? ment and hesitation of a confession and apology. It is It is very possible this may excite a smile. as the a prominent characteristic of that happy revolution we threatening of a necessity or a danger of these privileghave spoken of as in commencement, that this aristo- ed persons, which it is thought they may be comfortacratic notion of education is breaking up. The theory bly assured is very remote. This danger,-that a good of the subject is loosening into enlargement; and no many of them, or rather of those who are coming in the longer presumes, or will not much longer presume, to course of nature to succeed them in the same rank, will impose a niggardly restriction on the extent of what find that its relative consequence cannot be sustained shall be sought to be accomplished in schools for the but at a very considerably higher pitch of mental qualiinferiors of the community. fication,-is threatened upon no stronger presages than As these institutions go on, augmenting in number the following:-Allow us first to take it for granted, and improving in organization, their pupils will bring that no very long course of years will have passed betheir quality and efficacy to the proof, as they grow to fore the case comes to be, that a large proportion of the maturity, and go forth to act their part in society. And children of the lower classes are trained through a lathere can be no doubt, that while too many of them borious discipline, during a series of years, in such may probably be mournful examples of the evil genius schools as every thing possible is done to render effiof the corrupt nature, and the infection of a bad world, cient. Then, if we include in one computation all the prevailing against the better influences of instruction, time they will have spent in real mental exercise arind and may descend toward the old wretched condition of acquirement there, and all those pieces and intervals of the people, a very considerable proportion will take and time which we may reasonably hope that many of them permanently maintain a far higher ground. They will will employ to the same purpose in the subsequent have become imbued with an element, which will have years, a good proportion of them will have employed, put them in strong repulsion to that coarse vulgar that by the time they reach middle age, many thousands of will be sure to continue in existence, in this country, hours more than people in their condition have heretolong enough to be a trial of the moral taste of this bet- fore done, in a way the most directly tending to the ter cultivated race. It will be seen that they cannot improvement of their minds. And how must we be associate with it by choice, and in the spirit of com- estimating the natural capacities of these inferior classes, panionship. And while they are thus withheld on their or the perceptions of the higher, not to foresee as a part, from approximating, it may be hoped that the re- consequence, that these latter will find their relative pelling principle will be converted into attraction in the situation greatly altered, with respect to the measure case of a certain less ill affected portion of that vulgar. of knowledge and mental power requisite as one most Its entire numbers cannot remain careless, contemptu- essential constituent of their superiority, in order to ous, or merely and malignantly envious, at sight of the command the unfeigned deference of their inferiors? advantages obtained, through the sole medium of per- Our strenuous promoters of the schemes for cultivasonal improvement, by those who had otherwise been ting the minds of all the people, are not afraid of proexactly on the same level as themselves. The effect fessing to foresee, that when schools, of that completeon pride, in some, and on better propensities, it may ly disciplinarian organization which they will gradually be hoped, in others, will be to excite them to make attain, shall have become general, and shall be vigourtheir way upward to a community which, they will ously seconded by all those auxiliary expedients for clearly see, could commit no greater folly than to come popular instruction which are also in progress, a very downward to them. And we will presume a friendly pleasing modification will become apparent in the chardisposition in most of those who shall have been raised acter, the moral colour, if we might so express it, of to this higher ground, to meet such aspirers and help the people's ordinary employment. The young perthem to ascend. sons so instructed, being appointed, for the most part, And while they will thus draw upward the less im- to the same occupations to which they would have been movable and hopless part of the mass below them, they destined had they grown up in utter ignorance and vulwill themselves on the other hand be placed, by the re- garity, are expected to give striking evidence that the spectability of their understanding and manners, within meanness, the debasement almost, which had characthe influence of the higher cultivation of the classes terized many of those occupations, in the view of the above them; a great advantage, as we have taken oc- more refined classes, was in truth the debasement of casion to notice in a former stage of these observations. the men rather than of the callings; which, it is anti-We must not, however, attribute high cultivation, cipated, will change to an appearance of much more as quite a thing of course in the classes above them, respectability, as associated with the sense, decorum, meaning by this designation the superiority in property and self-respect of the performers, than they had borne and what is called condition in life. For.in truth, too when blended and polluted with all the low habits, many of these more privileged persons may be observ- manners, and language, of ignorance and vulgar grossed to betray a disgraceful deficiency of what is indis- ness. And then for the degree of excellence in the pensible in the mind in order to dignify their station. performance-who will be the persons most likely to But here another important advantage is suggested as excel, in the many branches of workmanship and busilikely to accrue from the better education of the com- ness which admit of being better done in proportion to mon people, namely, that their rising attainments would the degree of intelligence directed upon them And compel not a few of their superiors to betake them- again, who will be most in requisition for those offices selves to mental improvement, in order to keep their of management and superintendence; where something desired distance. Would it not be a most excellent must be confided to judgment and discretion, and where thing that they should find themselves thus incommo- the value is felt, (often grievously felt from the want,) diously pressed upon by a new and strange circum- of some power of combination and foresight? stance in the creation, and forced to nreserve that as- Such as these are among the subordinate benefits cendency for which wealth and station would formerly reasonably, we might say infallibly, calculated upon. suffice, at the coast, now, of a good deal more reading, Our philanthropists are confident in foreseeing also, that thinking, and trfneral self-discipline? Would it be a very many of these better disciplined young persons worthy sacrifice, that to spare some substantial agricul- -will be valuable co-operators against that iginorance turists, idle gentlemen, and sporting or promenading'from which themselves have been so happily saved; ecclesiastics, such an afflictive necessity, the actual til- will exert an influence, by their exaM e aand the: steady lers of the ground, and the workers in manufacture and avowal of their op.rions, against the vice and:folly in 130 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. their vicinity; and will be useful advisers of their There is also palpable and striking matter of fact, to neighbours in their perplexities, and sometimes mode- confirm the certainty, that an education in which rellrators in their discords. It is predicted, with a confi- gions instruction shall be mingled in the mental discipdence so much resting on general grounds of probabili- line, will be rendered, in many instances, efficacious to ty, as hardly to need the instances already afforded in the formation of a religious character. This obvious various parts of the country to confirm it, that here and fact is, that a much greater proportion of the persons so there one of the well instructed humbler class will be- educated do actually becomd the subjects of religion, come an able and useful public teacher of the most im- than of a similar number of those brought up in ignoportant truth. It is, in short, anticipated with delight- rance and profligacy. Take collectively alny nllrlber ful assurance, that great numbers of those who will go of families in which such an education prevaiis, and the forth from under the friendly guardianship which is now same number in which it does not, and follow the young preparing to take the charge of their youthful minds, persons respectively into subsequent life. But any one will be examples, through life and at its conclusion, of who hears the suggestion, feels there is no need to wait the.power and felicity of religion. the lapse of time and follow their actual course. As Here we can suppose it not improbable that some instructed by what he has already seen in society, he one may, in pointed terms, put the question-Do you can go forward with them prophetically, with an absothen, at last, mean to affirm that you can, by the course lute certainty that a much greater proportion of the one of discipline spoken of, absolutely secure that effectual tribe, than of the other, will become persons not only operation and ascendency of religion in the mind, which of moral respectability, but of decided religion. Here shall place it in the right condition toward God, and in then is practical evidence, that while discipline must a state of fitness for passing, without fear or danger, disclaim any absolute power to produce this effect, into the scenes of its future endless existence there is, nevertheless, such a constitution of things that Certainly we should think, there might have been it infallibly will, as an instrumental cause, in many inmany expressions and sentiments in the preceding train stances produce it. of observations, of a nature to preclude any such ques- The state of the matter, then, is very simple. The tion; but let it be asked, since there can be no difficul- supreme cause of men's being'made wise to salvation,' ty to reply. mVe do loit affirm that any form of disci- in appointing a system of means, to be put by human pline, the wisest and best in the power of the wisest activity in operation toward this effect, has connected and best men to anpiy, is competent of itself thus to certainly and inseparably with that system, some porsubject the mind to the power of religion. On the tion of the accomplishment of this sovereign good contrary, we believe that grand effect can be accom- which would not take place in the absence of such ap plished only by a special influen'ce of the divine being, plication of means:-only he has placed this certainty operating by the means of such a discipline, or, if he In the system of operation as takene generally and cornpleases, without. But next we have to say, that it is prchensively; leaving, as to human foresight, an unperfectly certain, eotwithstmalding, that the application certainty with respect to the particular instances in of these human -..-.ans will, in a multitude of instances, which the desired success shall he attained. His suborbe efficacious to that sublime effects dinate agents are to proceed on this positive assurance This certainty arises from a few very plain general that the success shall be somezwhere, though they canconsiderations. Tile fi st is, that the whole system of not know that it will be in this one case, or in the othmeans appointed by the almnighty to be employed as a er.' In the morning sow thy seed, and in the eveninsg human process for presenting religion solemnly in view' withhold not thy hand; for thou knowest not whether before men's minds, and enforcing it upon them, is an shall prosper, this, or that.' If they rate the value of appointment cxplressly intenlded for working that great their agency so high, as to hold it incompatible with effect which secures their endless felicity, though to their dignity that any part of their labonrs should be what extent in point of number, is altogether unknown performed under the condition of possibly being unsucto the subordinate agents. With some awful excep- cessful, they may be assured that such is not exactly tions of obdurate malignant infidelity, (as in the case the estimate in which they stand in the judgment of of the Jews in the timne of our Lord,) in which it was him to whom they look for the acceptance of their serplainly signified that the manifestation and enforce- vices, and for the reward. ment of divine truth would not, and should not have But it may be added, that the great majority of those this blessed effect-with these exceptions, the whole who are intent on the schemes for enlightening and reorder of expedients in this great course of operation is forming mankind, are entertaining a confident hope of most formally represented, by him that has commanded the approach of a period when the success. will be far their employment, as to be employed in a confident ex- greater in proportion to the measure of exertion, in pectation of attaining, in a proportion to be determined every department of the system of instrumentality for by himself, the great end to which these expedients are that grand object. We cherish this confidence, not on avowedly directed. The appointment is most evident- the strength of any pretension to be able to resolve ly not one of mere exercise for the faculties and sub- prophetic emblems and numbers into precise dates and missive obedience of those who are summoned to be events of the present and approaching times. We rest active in its execution. it on a much more general mode of comlbinincr the very Accordingly, there are in the divine revelation very extraordinary indications of the period we live in, with many explicit and animating assurances, that their ex- the substantialpurport of the divine predictions. There ertion shall certainly be in a measure successful, in the unquestionably gleams forth, through the plainer lines highest sense of the word. And if these assurances and through the mystical imagery of prophecy, the viare made in favour of the exertions for inculcating re- sion of a better age, in which the armplication of the liglon, generally, that is on men of all conditions and truths of religion to men's minds will be irresistible. ages, they may be assurned with a still stronger conlfi- And what should more naturally be interpreted as one deuce in favour of those for impressing it on young of the dawning sirns of its approach, than a sudden wide minds, before they can be pre-occupied and hardened movement at once to clear their intlellects anlt briun the by the depravities of the world. But besides, there are heavenly lighut to shine close upon them; accompanied. some of these expressions of promised success given in by a prodigious breakinii up in the old s'astevn of the special favour of this onie part of the application of the world, which hardly recognized in the inferior millions great general process; affirdinrr rays of hope which the very existence of souls to need such an illuminahave In ten thousand instances animated the dilicence tion 1 of pious parents, aund the oiher benevolednt instrulctors The labourers in the institutions for intr;-ctinc the i cmidren, young descendants of those millions, may oftesn regret FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 131 to perceive how little the process is as yet informed a very large portion of their time and exertions are re with the energy which is thus to pervade the world. quired for mere subsistence. This accident of a conBut let them regard as one great undivided economy fined situation is no more a reason why their minds and train of operation, these initiatory efforts and all should not require the best possible cultivation than that is to follow, till that time' when all shall know the would be the circumstance that the body in which a Lord;' and take by anticipation, as in fraternity with man's mind is lodged, happens to be of smaller dimenthe happier future labourers, their just share of that ul- sions than those of other mind. timate triumph. Those active spirits, in the happier That under the disadvantages of this humble situation stages, will look back with this sentiment of kindred they cannot acquire all the mental improvement, desiraand complacency to those who sustained the earlier ble for the perfection of their intelligent nature,-that toils of the good cause, and did not suffer their zeal to the situation renders it impracticable,-is quite another languish under the comparative smallness of their suc- matter. So far as this inhibition is real and absolute, cess. it must be submitted to as one of the infelicities of their lot. What we are insisting on is, that by the law of their nature there is to them the same general necessity SECTION VI. as to any other human beings, of that which is essential to the well-being of the mind; and that therefore Concluding remarks. they should be advanced in this improvement as far as they can. A greater degree of this advancement will We shall conclude with a few sentence in the way conduce more to their welfare than a less. of reply to another question, which we can surmise This might be confirmed by easy and obvious illusthere may be persons ready to ask, after this long itera- tration. A poor man, cultivated in a small degree, has tion of the assertion of the necessity of knowledge to acquired a few just ideas of an important subject, which the common people. The question would be to this lies out of the scope of his daily employments for subeffect: What do you, all this while mean to assign as sistence. Be that subject what it may, if those ideas the measure of knowledge proper for the people to be are of any use to him, by what principle would one idea put in possession of?-for you do not specify the kinds, more, or two, or twenty, be of no use to him? Of no nor limit the extent: you talk in vague general terms use, when all the thinking world knows, that every adof mental improvement; you leave the whole matter ditional clear idea of a subject is valuable by a ratio of indefinite and for all that appears, the people are never progress much greater than that of the mere numerical to know when they know enough. increase, and that by a large addition of ideas a man We answer, that we do leave the extent undefined, trebles the value of those with which he began. He and should request to be informed where, and why, has read a small meagre tract on the subject, or perthe line of circumscription and exclusion should be haps only an article in a magazine, or an essay in the drawn. literary column of a provincial newspaper. Where We could wish, in the first place, to be certified, would be the harm, on supposition he can fairly afford whether it is to be considered as yet at all a settled the time, in consequence of husbanding it for this very point, in what the value and importance of the human purpose, of his reading a well written concise book, nature does really consist. It is indeed quite an uni- which would give him a clear comprehensive view of formly assumed thing in the language of both divines the subject! and philosophers, that the worth, the dignity, the im- But perhaps another branch of the tree of knowledge portance, of man, are in his rational immortal nature; bends its fruit temptingly to his hand. And if he should and that therefore the best condition of that is his true indulge, and gain a tolerably clear notion of one more felicity and glory, and the object chiefly to be aimed at interesting subject, (still punctually regardful of the duiin all that is done by him, and for him, on earth. But ties of his ordinary vocatlon,) where, we say again, is whether this sholld be regarded as any thing more than the harm? Converse with him; observe his conduct; the elated faith of ascetics, or a fine dogm.a of academic compare him with a wretched clown in a neighbouring speculation. For we often see, and it is very strik- dwelling; and say that he is the worse for having thus ink to see, how principles which pass for infallible truth nmuch of the provision for a mental subsistence. But within the province of thinking and doctrine, and are if thus much has contributed greatly to his advantage, directly applicable, with most emphatic importance, to why should he be interdicted still farther attainments? great practical interests may be disowned and repelled, Are you alarmed for him, if he will needs go the length as perfectly foreign, intrusive, and visionary, when they of acquiring sorne knowledge of geography, the solar come demanding to have their appropriate place and system, and the history of his own country and of the power in the actual state of things. But is it really ancient world?* Let him proceed; supply him graadmitted, as the great practical principle, that the mind tuitously with some of the best books on these subjects; the intelligent imperishable existence, is the supremely and if you shall converse with him again, after another valuable thing in man? Is it then admitted, inevitably, year or two of his progress, and compare him once more that the discipline, the correction, the improvement, the with the ignorant, stunted, cankered beings in his vimaturation, of this spiritual being, to the highest attain- cinitv, you will see whether there be any thing essenable degree, is the great object to be desired by men, tially at variance, between his narrow circumstances in for themselves, and one another. That is to say, that life and his mental enlargement. knowledge, cultivation, salhtary exercise, -wisdonrj, ra You are willing, perhaps, that he should acquire some that can, conduce to the perfection of the mind, form theo!lowledTeO of ancient times, and can trust him with state in which it is due to man's nature that he shonld Goldsmith's histories of Greece and Rome; But if he be endeavoured to be laced. But then. this is due to Fhoull then bh some means find his way into such a his nat~ure By an absolutely>r pgonernal I-T. He cannot T Iwork as that of Rollin, or betray that he covets an acbe so circumstanced iri the order of society that this lsinta'ce Vth those of Gillies, or even Mitford,-itis shal] not be due to it. No situation in' which the al over with hin for beingan useful member of society arrangrements of the world, or sayJ of Providence, may * Th-c rlen rnmintins of' knowledlre. so stransse 0,s thev will to place him. can constitute him a specific kind of cream- 1se e)solear' in stch a conaiirrion, w hO.ve reOt;lllto a, * rioe i')rne o)l-rsuevinr. t thlt thei stand i! the schemes of alementuren to whicl i n. longrer fit and lece- r'' rv that whnt i h t:V'm.I ivnr,,t,!i:,! in' the o - is inav schools for the children ro the is necessary to the vwell-bhin-r of man considered fTenC- -:,teves nr Be1nal. 0Bt rf c(,iirse nc are to ac'nrf,(!ee(lC. that rally, as a spiritossl immortal nature. The essenti-al i:'.J n! vi.'mmiS hi?.h-toret pel its of thrse Asi tie io,!teiors. are..... o~ 1 w 5 w * ~ ~T rlated to recueive;a mich sunerin:' style of Clllivatin to any of of this natire cgmvnot be abrocrate. hZ soen's hemetmhincr tyle of tii.ti t oa ti h uis nartrotreu ca.;?r~he ci'~ rcumstan.. ces,,,h-,h tie, n i iiblo progeny of DJeliand can be, supposed to be cao placed in humble aed. -,narrow circum-.stancees, in wlii:? pa ljie. 132 FOSTER'S ESSAYS. in his humble situation. You would consent to his cle pass away, to rest on an age in distant prospect. reading a slender abridgment of voyages and travels; At last he takes his imaginary stand on what he feels but what is to become of him if nothing less will con- to be a very low level of the supposed improvement of tent him than the whole length story of Captain Cook? the general popular mind; and he says, Thus much, at He will direct, it is to be hoped, some of his best at- the least, should be a possibility allowed by the circumtention to the supreme subject of religion. And you stances of the people under any tolerable order of would quite approve of his reading some useful tracts, the disposition of national interests;-and then he some manuals of piety, some commentary on a cate- turns to look down upon an actual condition in which chism, some volume of serious plain discourses; but he care, and toil, and distress, render it utterly impossible is absolutely undone if his ambition should rise at length for a great proportion of the people to reach, or even to Stillingfleet, or Howe, ox Jeremy Taylor. And yet approach, this his last and lowest conception of what all this while we can believe that he acquits himself the state of their minds ought to be. ~ with exemplary regularity and industry in his allotted In spite of all the optimists, it is a grievous refleclabours; and that even in this very capacity he is pIe- tion, after the race has had so many thousands of years ferred by the men of business to the illiterate tools in on earth to improve its condition, that all the experience, his neighbourhood; nay, most likely preferred, in the the philosophy, the science, the art, the power acquired more technical sense of the word, to the honourable, by mind over matter-that all the contributions of all but often sufficiently vexatious office, of directing and departed and all present spirits and bodies, yes, and all superintending the operations of those tools. religion too, should have come but to this;-to this, And where, now, is the evil he is incurring, or that in what is esteemed the most favoured and imcausing, during this progress of violating, step after proved nation of all terrestrial space and time, a vast step, the circumscription by which the aristocratic com- proportion of the people are absolutely found in a conpasses were again and again, with reluctant extension dition which confines them, with all the rigor of necesto successive greater distances, defining the scope of sity, to the veriest childhood of intelligent existence, the knowledge proper for a man of his condition? It without its innocence. is a bad thing, is it, that he has a great variety of ideas But at the very same time, and while compassion is to relieve the tedium incident to the sameness of his rising at such a view, there comes in on the other hand, course of life; that, with many things which had else the reflection, that even in the actual state of things, been bare unmeaning facts and objects, he has many there are a considerable number of the people who interesting associations, like woodbines and roses might acquire a valuable share of improvement which wreathing round the stumps of trees; that the world is they do not. Great numbers of them grown up, waste a translated and intelligible volume before his eyes; by choice, and multitudes of children waste through that he has a power of applying himself to think of what utter neglect, a large quantity of precious time, which becomes at any time necessary for him to understand. their narrow circumstances still leave free from the iron Is it a judgment upon him for his temerity, that he has dominion of necessity. And they will waste it, it is so much to impart to his children as they are growing certain that they will, till education shall have become up, and that if some of them are already come to ma- general, and much more vigorous in discipline. If turity, they know not where to find a man to respect through a miracle there were to come down on this more than their father? Or if he takes a part in the country, with a sudden delightful affluence of temporal converse and devotional exercises of religious society, amelioration, resembling the vernal transformation from is no one there the better for the clearness and pleni- the dreariness of winter, an universal prosperity so that tude of his thoughts and the propriety of his expression? all should be placed in ease and plenty, it would reBut there would be no end of the preposterous supposi- quire another miracle to prevent this benignity of heavtions fairly attachable to the notion, that the mental en from turning to a dreadful mischief. What would improvement of the common people has some proper the great tribe of the uneducated people do with the limit of arbitrary prescription, on the ground simply of half of their time, which we may suppose that su'ch a their being the common people, and quite distinct from state would give to their voluntary disposal? Every the restriction which their circumstances may invincibly one can answer infalliby, that the far greater number impose on their ability. of them would consume it in idleness, vanity, or abomTaken in this latter view, we acknowledge that their ination. Educate them, then, educate them;-or, in condition would be a subject for most melancholy con- all circumstances and events, calamitous or prosperous, templation, if we -did not hope for better times. The be- they are still a race made in vain! nevolent reflector when sometimes led to survey in In quitting the subject, we wish to express, in strong thought the endless myriads of beings with minds terms, the applause and felicitations due to those excelwithin the circuit of a country like this, will have a mo- lent individuals, found here and there, who in very humble mentary vision of them as they would be if all improv- circumstances, and perhaps with very little advantage of ed to the highest mental condition to which it is natu- education in their youth, have been excited to a strenuous rally possible for them to be exalted; a magnificent continued exertion for the improvement of their minds, spectacle but it instantly fades and vanishes. And the by which they have made, (the unfavourable situation sense is so powerfully upon him of the unchangeable considered,) admirable attainments, which are now passeconomy of the world, which even if the fairest fondest ing with inestimable worth into the instruction of their visions of the millennium itself were realized, would families, and a variety of usefulness within their sphere. still render such a thing actually impossible, that he They have nobly struggled with their threatened destihardly regrets the bright scene was but a beautiful ny, and have overcome it. When they think, with recloud, and melts away. His imagination then descends gret, how confined, after all, is their portion of knowto view this immense tribe of rational beings in an- ledge, as compared with the rich possessions of those, other, and comparatively moderate state of the improve- who have had from their infancy all facilities and the ment of their faculties, a state not one third part so amplest time for its acquirement, let them be consoled lofty as that in which he had beheld all the individuals by reflecting, that the value of mental progress is not improved to the highest degree of which each is natur- to be measured solely by the quantity of knowledge ally capable; and he thinks, that the condition of man's possessed; but partly, and indeed still more, by the abode on earth might admit of their being raised to this corrective invigorating effect produced on the mental elevation. But he soon sees, that till a mighty change powers by the resolute exertions made in attaining it. shall take place in the system according to which the And therefore, since, under their great disadvantages, nations aremanaging th eir affairs, this too is impossible; it has required a much greater degree of this resolute alnd with regret he see's even this inferior ideal specta- exertion in them to force their way victoriously out of FOSTER'S ESSAYS. 133 ignorance, than it has required in those who have had one principle of it by the accession of many others every thing in their favour, to make a long free career Let them persevere in this worthy self-discipline, apover the field of knowledge, they may be assured they propriate to the introduction of an endless mental life. have obtained a greater benefit in proportion to the Let them go on from strength to strength; —but solmeasure of what they have attained to know. This emnly taking care, that all their improvements may persistence of a determined will to do what has been tend to such a result, that at length the rigor of their so difficult to be done, has infused a peculiar energy lot and the confinement of mortality itself bursting at into the exercise of their powers; a valuable point of once from around them, may give them to those intelcompensation; to be set against the circumstance, that lectual revelations, that everlasting sun-light of the they have not equally with the ampler possessors of soul, in which the truly wise will expand all their faculk- wledge, the advantage of illustrating and perfecting ties in a happier economy. END OF THE ESSAYS. CONTENTS OF FOSTER'S ESSAYS. Page. ESsAY FIRST. On a Man's Writing Memoirs of CHAPTER I Himself..... 3 Historical Review of the General Condition of ManESSAY SECOND. On Decison of Character, 18 kind, in an intellectual respect, at different periods. EssAY THIRD. On the Application of the Epi- CHAPTER II. thet Romantic,... 31 Various Illustrations of the Evils attendant on an unEssAY FOURTH. On some of the Causes by educated state of the People. which Evangelical Religion has been rendered unacceptable to persons of cultivated taste, 48 CHAPTER III. EsSAY FIFTH. On Popular Ignorance,.. 81 The fatal inaptitude which Ignorance creates, or constitutes, for receiving Religious Instruction. L E0 S P H Y SLEEP. BY ROBERT MACNISH, AUTHOR OF "TIlE ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS," AND MEMBER OF THE FACULTY OF PHIYiCIANS AND SURGEONS OF GLASGOW. HARTFORD: PUBLISHED BY SILAS ANDRUS & SON. 1850. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The present edition of THE PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP capable of affording a rational and easy explanation of' is so different from its predecessor, that it may almost all the phenomena of mind. It is impossible to account be regarded as a new treatise. The work has been, in for dreaming, idiocy, spectral illusions, monomania. a great measure, re-written, the arrangement altered, and partial genius in any other way. For these reasons, and a great accession made to the number of facts and and for the much stronger one, that having studied the cases: the latter, many of which are now published for science for several years with a mind rather hostile the first time, will, I hope, add much to its value. the first time, will, I hope, add much to its value than otherwise to its doctrines, and found that nature Some of them have occurred in my own practice; and Some of them have occurred in my own practice; and invariably vindicated their *ruth, I could come to no for others, I am indebted to the kindness of several in- invariably vndlcated their truth, I could come to no genious friends. Notwithstanding every care, the work other conclusion than that of adopting them as a mat ter of belief, and employing them for the explanation of is far from being what it ought to be, and what I could phenomena which they alone seem calculated to elucihave wished; but, imperfect as it is, it may, perhaps, stimulate some other inquirer to investigate the subject date satisfactorily. The system of Gall is gaining more deeply, and thus give rise to an abler disquisi- ground rapidly among scientific men, both in Europe tion. So far as I know, this is the only treatise in and America. Some of theablestphysiologists inboth which an attempt is made to give a complete account of quarters of the globe have admitted its accordance with Sleep. The subject is not an easy one; and, in the nature; and, at this moment, it boasts a greater numpresent state of our knowledge, moderate success is ber of proselytes than at any previous period of its ca. probably all that canr be looked for. reer. The prejudices still existing against it, result In the first edition Dr Gall's theory, that the brain is from ignorance of its real character. As people get composed of a plurality of organs, each organ being the better acquainted with the science, and the fornidaseat of a particular mental faculty, was had recourse ble evidence by which it is supported, they will think to for the purpose of explaining the different phenome- differently. na of Sleep; in the present edition, this doctrine is Many persons who deny the possibility of estimating more prominently brought forward. The great objec- individual character, with any thing like accuracy, by tion to the prevailing metaphysical systems is, that none the shape of the head, admit the great phrenological of their positions can be proved; and that scarcely two principle that the brain is composed of a plurality of writers, agree upon anyparticular point. Thedisciples organs. To them, as well as to those who go a step of Gall, on the one hand, assume that his system, hav- er, the doctrine laid down in the present work will ing ascertainable facts to illustrate it, is at all times appear satisfactory. An admission that the brain is the material apparatus by which the mind manifests itsusceptible of demonstration-that nothing is taken for self, and that each mental faculty is displayed through granted; and that the inquirer has only to make an ap- the medium of a particular part of the brain, is all that peal to nature to ascertain its fallacy or its truth. The is demanded in considering the philosophy of the sciis demanded in considering the philosophy of the sciscience is entirely one of observation: by that it must ence. These points are only to be ascertained by an stand or fall, and by that alone ought it to be tested. appeal to nature. No man can wisely reject phreno The phrenological system appears to me the only one logy without making such an appeal. THE PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. CHAP. 1. twilight is left to silence, with her own star and her falling dews. Action is succeeded by listlessness, enINTRODUCTION. ergy by languor, the desire of exertion by the inclination for repose. Sleep, which shuns the light, embraces Sleep is the intermediate state between wakefulness darkness, and they lie down together under the sceptre and death: wakefulness being regarded as the active state of midnight. of all the animal and intellectual functions, and death as From the position of man in society, toil or employthat of their total suspension. ment of some kind or other is an almost necessary conSleep exists in two states; in the complete and the comitant of his nature-being essential to healthy sleep, incomplete. The former is characterized by a torpor and consequently to the renovation of our bodily orof the various organs which compose the brain, and by gans and mental faculties. But as no general rule can that of the external senses and voluntary motion. In- be laid down as to the quality and quantity of labour complete sleep, or dreaming, is the active state of one best adapted to particular temperaments, so neither can or more of the cerebral organs while the remainder are it be positively said how many hours of sleep are necesin repose: the senses and the volition being either sus- sary for the animal frame. When the body is in a state pended or in action according to the circumstances of of increase, as in the advance from infancy to boyhood, the case. Complete sleep is a temporary metaphysical so much sleep is required, that the greater portion of death, though not an organic one-the heart and lungs existence may be fairly stated to be absorbed in this performing their offices with their accustomed regularity way. It is not mere repose from action that is capable under the control of the involuntary muscles. of recruiting the wasted powers, or restoring the nervSleep is variously modified, as we shall fully explain ous energy. Along with this is required that oblivion hereafter, by health and disease. The sleep of health of feeling and imagination which is essential to, and is full of tranquillity. In such a state we remain for which in a great measure constitutes, sleep. But if in hours at a time in unbroken repose, nature banqueting mature years the body is adding to its bulk by the acon its sweets, renewing its lost energies, and laying in cumulation of adipose matter, a greater tendency to a fresh store for the succeeding day. This accomplish- somnolency occurs than when the powers of the absorbed, slumber vanishes like a vapour before the rising ents and exhalents are so balanced as to prevent such sun; languor has been succeeded by strength; and accession of bulk. It is during the complete equipoise all the faculties, mental and corporeal, are recruited. of these animal functions that health is enjoyed in greatIn this delightful state, man assimilates. most with that est perfection; for such a state presupposes exercise, in which Adam sprang from his Creator's hands, fresh, temperance, and the tone of the stomach quite equal to buoyant, and vigourous; rejoicing as a racer to run his the process of digestion. course, with all his appetencies of enjoyment on edge, Sleep and stupor have been frequently treated of by and all his feelings and faculties prepared for exertion. physiological writers as if the two states were synonyReverse the picture, and we have the sleep of dis- mous. This is not the case. In both there is insensiease. It is short, feverish, and unrefreshing, disturbed bility; but it is easy to awake the person from sleep, by frightful or melancholy dreams. The pulse is agi- and difficult, if not impossible, to arouse him from stutated, and, from nervous excitation, there are frequent por. The former is a necessary law of the animal econstartings and twitchings of the muscles. Nightmare omy; the latter is the.result of diseased action. presses like an incarnation of misery upon the frame- Birth and death are the Alpha and Omega of existimagination, distempered by its connexion with physi- ence; and life, to use the language of Shakspeare,' is cal disorder, ranging along the gloomy confines of rounded by a sleep.' terror, holding communication with hell and the grave, When we contemplate the human frame in a state ot and throwing a discolouring shade over human life. vigour, an impression is made on the mind that it is calNight is the time for sleep; and assuredly the hush culated to last forever. One set of organs is laying of darkness as naturally courts to repose as meridian down particles and another taking them up, with such splendour flashes on us the necessity of our being up at exquisite nicety, that for the continual momentary our labour. In fact, there exists a strange, but certain waste there is continual momentary repair; and this is sympathy between the periods of day and night, and the capable of going on with the strictest equality for a half performance of particular functions during these peri- a century. ods. That this is not the mere effect of custom, might What is life? Those bodies are called living in be readily demonstrated. All nature awakes with the which an appropriation of foreign matter is going on rising sun. The birds begin to sing; the bees to fly death is where this process is at an end. When we find about with murmurous delight. The flowers which blood in motion, the process of appropriation is going shut under the embrace of darkness, unfold. themselves on. The circulation is the surest sign of life. Mus-:o the light. The cattle arise to crop the dewy herb- cles retain irritability for an hour or two after circulation age; andI'man goeth forth to his labour until the even- ceases, but irritability is not life. Death is owing to ing.' At close of day, the reverse of all this activity the absence of this process of appropriation. and motion is observed. The songs of the woodland Bichat has divided life into two varieties, the organic choir, one after another, become hushed, till at length and the animal. The first is common to both vegetables 4 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. and animals, the last is peculiar to animals alone. Or- large brains, and whose slumber is neither profound nor ganic life applies to the functions which nourish and of long continuance. The assertion, therefore, that the sustain the object-animal life to those which make it quantum of sleep has any reference to the size of a sentient being; which give it thought, feeling, and the brain may be safely looked upon as unfounded. motion, and bring it into communication with the sur- That it has reference to the quality of the brain is more rounding world. The processes of assimilation and likely, for we find that carnivorous animals sleep more excretion exist both in animals and vegetables: the than such as are herbivorous; and it is probable that other vital processes are restricted solely to animals. the texture, as well as form, of the brains of these two The digestive organs, the kidneys, the heart, and the ciasses is materially different. This remark, with relungs, are the apparatus which carry into effect the gard to the causes of the various proportions of sleep organic life of animals. Those which manifest animal required by the carnivorous and herbivorous tribes, I life are the brain, the organs of the senses, and the throw out not as as a matter of certainty, but merely as voluntary powers. Sleep is the suspension of animal surmise whic-i seems to have considerable foundation life; and during its continuance the creature is under in truth. the influence of organic life alone. In proportion as man exceeds all other animals in the Notwithstanding the renovating influence of sleep, excellency of his physical organization, and an intellecwhich apparently brings up the lost vigour of the frame tual capability, we shall find that in him the various to a particular standard, there is a power in animal life phenomena of sleep are exhibited in greater regularity which leads it almost imperceptibly on from infancy to and perfection. Sleep seems more indispensably resecond childhood, or that of old age. This power, quisite to man.than to any other creature, if there can sleep, however, healthy, is incapable of counteracting. be supposed to exist any difference where its indispenThe skin wrinkles, and everywhere shows marks of the sability is universal, and where every animal must, in ploughshare of Saturn; the adipose structure dissolves; some degree or other, partake of it; but, as regards, the bones become brittle; the teeth decay or drop out; man, it is certain that he sustains any violation of the the eye loses its exquisite sensibility to sight; the ear law ordaining regular periods of repose with less irdifto sound; and the hair is bleached to whiteness. ference than the lower grades of creation-that a cerThese are accompanied with a general decay of the tain proportion of sleep is more essential to his existintellectual faculties; there is a loss of memory, and ence than theirs-that he has less power of enduring less sensibility to emotion; the iris hues of fancy sub- protracted wakefulness, or continuing in protracted side to twilight; and the sphere of thought and action sleep-and that he is more refreshed by repose and is narrowed. The principle of decay is implanted in more exhausted by the want of it than they. The sleep our nature, and cannot be counteracted. Few people, of man, therefore, becmmes a subject of deeper interest however, die of mere decay, for death is generally ac- and curiosity than that of any other animal, both on celerated by disease. From sleep we awake to exer- account of the more diversified manner in which it distion-from death not at all, at least on this side of time. plays itself, and the superior opportunity which exists Methuselah in ancient, and Thomas Parr in modern of ascertaining the various phenomena which in the times, ate well, digested well, and slept well; blit at insferior animals can only be conjectured or darkly length they each died. Death is omnivorous. The worm guessed at. which crawls on the highway and the monarch on his Sleep, being a natural process, takes place in general couch of state, are alike subjected to the same stern and without any very apparent cause. It becomes, as it inexorable law; they alike become the victims of the were, a habit, into which we insensibly fall at stated universal tyrant. periods, as we fall into other natural or acquired habits. But it differs from the latter in this, that it cannot in any case be entirely dispensed with, although by custom we may bring ourselves to do with a much smaller CHAPTER II. portion than we are usually in the practice of indulging in. In this respect it bears a strong analogy to the apSLEEP IN GENERAL. petite for food or drink. It has a natural tendency to recur every twenty-four hours, and the periods of its Every animal passes some portion of its time in accession coincide with the return of night. sleep. This is a rule to which there is no exception; But though sleep becomes a habit into which we althougn the kind of slumber and the degree of pro- would naturally drop without any obvious, or very easifoundness in which it exists in the different classes are ly discovered cause, still we can often trace the origin extremely various. Some physiologists lay it down as of our slumbers; and we are all acquainted with many a general rule, that the larger the brain of an animal the circumstances which either produce or heighten them. greater is tne necessity for a considerable proportion of I shall mention a few of these causes. sleep. This, however, I suspect is not borne out by Heat has a strong tendency to produce sleep. We facts. Man, for instance, and some birds, such as the often witness this in the sammer season; sometimes sparrow, have the largest brains in proportion to their in the open air, but more frequently at home, and above size, and yet it is probable that they do not sleep so all in a crowded meeting. In the latter case the sopomuch as some other animals with much smaller brains. rific tendency is greatly increased by the impurity c~ The serpent tribe, unless when stimulated by hunger, the air. A vitiated atmosphere is strongly narcotic, (in which case they will remain awake for days at a and when combined with heat and monotony, is apt to time waiting for their prey,) sleep much more than men induce slumber, not less remarkable for the rapidity of or birds, and yet their brain are proportionally greatly its accession than its overpowering character. In such inferior in size: the boa, after dining on a stag or goat, a situation, the mind in a few minutes ceases to act, will continue in profound sleep for several days. Fish- and sinks into a state of overpowering oblivion. The cs,* indeed, whose brains are small, require little sleep; slumber, however, not being a natural one, and seldom but the same remark applies to birds,t which have occurring at the usual period, is generally short: it * As a proof that fishes sleep, Aristotle, who seems to have rarely exceeds an hour; and when the person awakes paid more attention to their habits than any modern author,states, from it, so far from being refreshed, he is unusually that while in this condition they remain motionless, with the exception of a gentle movement of the tail —that they may then be dull, thirsty, and feverish, and finds more than com readily taken by the hand, and that, if suddenly touched, they case with the goose which is disturbed by the slightest noise, instantly start. The tunny, he adds, are surprised and surround- and more useful than any watch-dog for giving warning of dan. ed by nets while asleep, which is known by their showin g the ger. It was the cackling of the sacred geese that saved the capiwhite of tneir eyes. tel of Rome from the soldiers of Brennus, when the watch-aoga f The sleep of some birds is amazingly light. Such is the failed to discover the approach of an enemy. PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 5 mon difficulty in getting his mental powers into their i continued very long. By lying flat upon a millstone usual state of activity. while performing its evolutions, sleep is soon produced A heated church and a dull sermon are almost sure and death, without pain, w07ould be the result, if the exto provoke sleep. There are few men whose powers periment were greatly piotracted. Apoplexy, which are equal to the task of opposing the joint operation of consists of a turgid state of the cerebral vessels, protwo such potent influences. They act on the spirit duces perhaps the most complete sleep that is known, like narcotics, and the person seems as if involved in a in so far that, while it continues it is utterly impossicloud of anconite or belladonna. The heat of the church ble to walken the individual: no stimulus, however might'be resisted, but the sermon is irresistable. Its powerful, has any influence in arousing his dormant famonotony falls in leaden accents upon the ear, and soon culties. When the circulating mass in the brain is subdues the most powerful attention. Variety, whether diminished beyond a certain extent, it has the same of sight or sound, prevents sleep, while monotony of effect on the opposite state; whence excessive loss of all kinds is apt to induce it. The murmuring of a blood excites sleep. river, the sound of a Eolian harp, the echo of a distant Opium, hyoscyamus, aconite, belladonna, and the cascade, the ticking of a clock, the hum of bees under whole tribe of narcotics, induce sleep, partly by a spea burning sun, and the pealing of a remote bell, all ex- cific power which they exert on the nerves of the ercise the same influence. So conscious was Boer- stomach, and partlyby inducing an apoplectic state of haave of the power of monotony, that in order to pro- the brain. The former effect is occasioned by a modecure sleep for a patient, he directed water to be placed rate-the latter by an over dose. in such a situation as to drop continually on a brass A heavy meal, especially if the stomach is at the pan. When there is no excitement, sleep is sure to same time weak, is apt to induce sleep. In ordinary follow. We are all kept awake by some mental or circumstances, the nervous energy orsensorial power of bodily stimulus, and when that is removed our wake- this viscus is sufficient to carry on its functions; but fulness is at an end. Want of stimulus, especially in when an excess of food is thrown upon it, it is then a heated atmosphere, produces powerful effects; but.,unable to furnish, from its own resources, the powers where sufficient stimulus exists, we overcome the ef- requisite for digestion. In such a case it draws upon fects of the heat, and keep awake in spite of it. Thus, the whole body-upon the chest, the limbs, &c., from in a crowded church, where a dull, inanimate preacher whence it is supplied with the sensorial power of would throw the congregation into a deep slumber, which it is deficient; and is thus enabled to perform such a man as Massilon, or Chalmers, would keep them that which by its own unassisted means it never could in a state of keen excitement. He would arrest their have accomplished. But mark the consequences of attention, and counteract whatever tendency to sleep such accommodation! Those parts, by communicawould otherwise have existed. In like manner, a ting vigor to the stomach, become themselves debiliprosing, monotonous, long-winded acquaintance is apt tated in a corresponding ratio, and get into a state to make us doze, while another of a lively, energetic analogous to that from which they had extricated this conversation keeps us brisk and awake. It will gene- viscus. The extremities become cold, the respiration rally be found that the reasoning faculties are those heavy and stertorous, and the brain torpid. In consewhich are soonest prostrated by slumber, and the ima- quence of the torpor of the brain, sleep ensues. At ginative the least so. A person would more readily had parted with that portion of sensorial energy which fall asleep if listening to a profound piece of argumenta- kept it awake, and by supplying another organ is itself tion, than to a humorous or fanciful story; and proba- thrown into the state of sleep. It is a curious fact, bly more have slumbered over the pages of Bacon and that the feeling of sleep is most strong while the food Locke, than over those of Shakspeare and Milton. remains on the stomach, shortly after the accession of Cold produces sleep as well as heat, but to do so the digestive process, and before that operation which a very low temperature is necessary, particularly with converts the nourishment into chyle has taken place. regard to the human race; for, when cold is not exces- When, therefore, the sensorial power is sufficiently sive, it prevents, instead of occasioning slumber: in exhausted, we naturally fall asleep. As this exhausillustration of which, I may mention the case of seve- tion, however, is a gradual process, so is that of slumral unfortunate women, who lived thirty-four days in a ber. Previous to its accession, a feeling of universal small room overwhelmed with the snow, and who lassitude prevails, and exhibits itself in yawning,* scarcely slept during the whole ofthat period. In very peevishness, heaviness, and weakness of the eyes; innorthern and southern latitudes, persons often lose their difference to surrounding objects, and all the characterlives by lying down in a state of drowsiness, occasioned istics of fatigue. If the person be seated, his head nods by intense cold. The winter sleep, or hybernation of and droops; the muscles become relaxed; and, when animals, arises from cold; but as this species of slum- circumstances admit of it, the limbs are thrown into ber is of a very peculiar description; I have discussed the recumbent position, or that most favorable for comit separately in another part of the work. plete inaction. The senses then become unconscious The finished gratification of all ardent desires has the of impressions, and, one after the other, part with seneffect of inducing slumber; hence, after any keen ex- sation; the sight first, then taste, smell, hearing, and citement, the mind becomes exhausted, and speedily touch, all in regular order. The brain does not all at relapses into this state. Attention to a single sensa- once glide into repose: its different organs being suction has the same effect. This has been exemplified cessively thrown into this state; one dropping asleep, in the case of all kinds of monotony, where there is a then another, then a third, till the whole are locked up want of variety to stimulate the ideas, and keep them in the fetters of slumber. This gradual process of inon the alert.' If the mind,' says Cullen,' is attached tellectual obliteration is a sort of confused dream —a to a single sensation, it is brought very nearly to the mild delirium which always precedes sleep. The state of the total absence of impression;' or, in other ideas have no resting-place, but float about in tne conwords, to the state most closely bordering upon sleep. * We yawn before falling asleep and when we wake Remove those stimuli which keep it employed, and ing, therefore, precedes and follows sleep It seems an effort of sleep ensues at any time. nature to restore the just equilibrium between the flexor and exAny thing which mechanically determines the blood tensor muscles. The former have a natural predominancy in the to the brain, acts in a similar manner, such as whirling system; and on their being fatigued, we, by an effort of the will, o or rather by a species of instinct, put the latter into action for the round for a great length of time, ascending a lofty purpose of redressing the balance, and poising the respective mountain, or swinging to and fro. The first and last muscular powers. We do the same thing on awaking, or even of these actions give rise to much giddiness, followed on getting up from a recumbent posture-the flexors in such cir cumstances having prevailed over the extensors, which were in by intense slumber, and at last by death, if they be a great measure inert. 6 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. fused tabernacle of the mind, giving rise to images of hence diarrhoea, menorrhagia, &c., are checked during the most perplexing description. In this state they the intervals of slumber. continue for some time, until, as sleep becomes more From the diminished vascular action going on upon profound, the brain is left to thorough repose, and the surface, we would be apt to expect a decrease of they disappear altogether. perspiration, but the reverse is the case. Sleep relaxes Sleep produces other important changes in the sys- the cutaneous vessels, and they secrete more copitem. The rapidity of the circulation is diminished, ously than in the waking state. According to Sanctoand, as a natural consequence, that of respiration: the rius, a person sleeping some hours undisturbed, will force of neither function, however, is impaired; but, perspire insensibly twice as much as one awake.. This on the contrary, rather increased. Vascular action is tendency of sleep to produce perspiration is strikingly diminished in the brain and organs of volition, while exhibited in diseases of debility; whence the nocturnal digestion and absorption shall proceed with increased sweats so prevailing and so destructive in all cachectic energy. The truth of most of these propositions it is affections. Sanctorius farther states, that the insensinot difficult to establish. ble perspiration is not only more abundant, but less The diminished quickness of the circulation is shown acrimonious, during sleep than in the waking state; in the pulse, which is slower and fuller than in the that. if diminished during the day, the succeeding sleep waking state; that of respiration in the more de- is disturbed and broken, and that the diminution in liberate breathing which accompanies sleep. Dimi- consequence of too short a sleep, disposes to fever, un-:ished action of the brain is evident from the aboli- less the equilibrium is established, on the following day, tion of its functions, as well as direct evidence. A by a more copious perspiration. case is related by Blumenbach, of a person who had Sleep produces peculiar effects upon the organs of been trepanned, and whose brain was observed to sink vision. A priori, we might expect that, during this when he was asleep, and swell out when he was awake. state, the pupil would be largely dilated in consequence As for the lessened vascular action in the voluntary of the light being shut out. On opening the eyelids powers, this is rendered obvious by the lower tempera- cautionsly it is seen to be contracted; it then quivers ture on the surface which takes place during the slum- with an irregular motion, as if disposed to dilate, but at bering state. Moreover, in low typhus, cynanche ma- length ceases to move, and remains in a contracted ligna, and other affections attended with a putrid dia- state till the person awakes. This fact I have often thesis, the petechiae usually appear during sleep when verified by inspecting the eyes of children. Sleep also the general circulation is least vigorous, while the pa- communicates to these organs a great accession of senroxysms of reaction or delirium take place, for the sibility, so much so, that they are extremely dazzled by most part, in the morning when it is in greater strength a clear light. This, it is true, happens on coming out and activity. of a dark into a light' room, or opening our eyes upon In some individuals the stronger and more laborious the sunshine even when we are awake, but the effect respiration of sleep is made manifest by that stertorous is much stronger when we have previously been in sound commonly denominated snoring. Stout apoplec- deep slumber. tic people-those who snuff much or sleep with their Sleep may be natural or diseased-the former arising mouths open, are most given to this habit. It seems to from such causes as exhaust the sensorial power, such arise principally from the force with which the air is as fatigue, pain, or protracted anxiety of mind; the In into thelungs isleep.Theresiratorymusclesas fatigue, pair, or protracted anxiety of mind; the latdrawn into the lungs in sleep. The respiratory muscles ter from cerebral congestion, such as apoplexy or plethbeing less easily excited during this state do not act so era The great distion between thesp varieties is, readily, and the air is consequently admitted into the that the one can be broken by moderate stimuli, while chest with some degree of effort. This, combined with the othe r r equires either excessive stimuli, or the r the relaxed state of the fauces, gives rise to the sterto- moal of the particular cause which gave rise to it. rous noise. Snuffing, by obstructing the nasal pas- Dse sages and thus rendering breathing more difficult, has During complete sleep no sensation whatever is exthe same effect; consequently snuffers are very often perienced by the individual: he neither feels pain, hungreat snorers. The less rapidly the blood is propelled ger, thirst, nor the ordinary desires of nature. He may through the lunfgs, the slower is the respiration, and the be awakened to a sense of such feelings, but during perlouder the stertor becomes. Apoplexy, by impairing fect repose he has no consciousness whatever of their the sensibility of the respiratory organs, and thus re- existence-if they can indeed be said to exist where ducing the frequency of breathing, produces snoring to they are not felt. For the same reason, we may touch a great extent; and all cerebral congestions have, to a him without his feeling it; neither is he sensible to greater or less degree, the same effect. sounds, to light, or to odours. When, however, the That sleep increases absorption is shown in the dis- slumber is not very profound, he may hear music or appearance or diminution of many swellings, especially conversation, and have a sense of pain, hunger, and cedema of the extremities, which often disappears in and, although not awakened by such circumnight and recurs in the daytime, even when the patient stances, may recollect them afterwards. These imkeeps his bed, a proof that its disappearance does not pressions, caught by the senses, often give rise to the not always depend on the position of the body: that it most extraordinary mental combinations, and form the increases digestion, and, as a natural consequence, nu- groundwork of the most elaborate dreams. trition, is rendered probable by many circumstances: I am of opinion that we rarely pass the whole of hence it is the period in which the regeneration of the any one night in a state of perfect slumber. My body chiefly takes place. Were there even no aug- reason for this supposition is, that we very seldom rementation given to the assimilative function, as is main- main during the whole of that period in the position in tained by Broussais and some other physiologists, it is which we fall asleep. This change of posture must clear that the body would be more thoroughly nourished have been occasioned by some emotion, however obthan when awake, for all those actions which exhaust it scure, affecting the mind, and through it the organs of in the latter condition are quiescent, ald it remains in a volition, whereas in complete sleep we experience no state of rest, silently accumulating power, without ex- emotion whatever. pending any. The position usually assumed in sleep has been Sleep lessens all the secretions, with one exception- mentioned; but sleep may ensue in any posture of the that of the skin. The urinary, salivary, and bronchial body; persons fall asleep on horseback, and continue discharges, the secretions from the nose, eyes, and ears, riding in this state for a long time without been are all formed less copiously than in the waking state. awakened. Horses sometimes sleep for hours in the The same rule holds with regard to other secretions — standing posture; and the circumstance of somnambu PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 7 lism shows that the same thing may occur in the hu- tain hour, the anxiety of mind thus produced not only man race. prevents the sleep from being very profound, but reSome animals, such as the hare, sleep with their tards its accession; and even after it does take place, eyes open; and I have known similar instances in the we very seldom oversleep ourselves, and are almost human subject. But the organ is dead to the ordinary sure to be awake at, or before, the stipulated time. stimulus of light, and sees no more than if completely Shortly after falling asleep, we often awake with a shut. sudden start, having the mind filled with painful im — Animals which prey by night, such as the cat, hyena, pressions; although we often find it impossible to say &c., pass the greater part of their time in sleep; while to what subject they refer. Some persons do this rethose that do not, continue longer awake than asleep. gularly, every night, and there can be no doubt that it The latter slumber part of the night and continue proceeds from the mind being tortured by some disawake so long as the sun continues above the horizon. tressing vision; which, however, has faded away withThe propensity of the former to sleep in the day time out leaving behind it any feeling, save one of undefinaseems to proceed from the structure of their eyes; as ble melancholy. There are some persons who are sure they see much better in darkness than in light, and con- to be aroused in this startling and painful manner if sequently pass in slumber that period in which their they happen to fall asleep in the position in which they vision is of least avail to them. It is a very curious at first lay down, who nevertheless escape if they turn fact, however, that these animals, when kept in capti- themselves once or twice before falling into repose. vity, reverse the order of their nature, and remain This fact we must take as we find it: any explanation awake by day while they sleep by night. This fact as to its proximate cause seems quite impracticable. has been ascertained in the menagerie at Paris. In Disease exercises a powerfill influence upon sleep. such cases I apprehend that some corresponding change All affections attended with acute pain prevent it, in must take place in the structure of the eyes, assimila- consequence of the undue accumulation which they ting them to those animals which naturally sleep by occasion of sensorial power. This is especially the night. case where there is much active determination of blood M. Castel observes,* that the greater part of animals to the head, as in phrenetic affections, and fevers in sleep longer in winter than in summer. It is precisely general. on account of perspiration that in the first of these Sleep is always much disturbed in hydrothorax; and seasons sleep is more necessary than in the second, almost every disease affects it, more or less; some preIn winter, the want of perspiration during the day is fur- venting it altogether, some limiting the natural propornished in sleep; in summer, the diurnal sweat supplies tion, some inducing fearful dreams, and all acting with that of the night, and renders much sleep less neces- a power proportioned to the direct or indirect influence sary. In other words, during summer the perspiration which they exercise upon the sensorium. Is so much excited by atmospheric temperature, that a From the increased irratibility of the frame and reshorter time is sufficient to give issue to the fluids laxed state of the cutaneous vessels during sleep, the which have to be expelled by this means. For the system at that time is peculiarly apt to be acted upon same reason, the inhabitants of very cold climates by all impressions, especially of cold; and those who sleep more than those who live in the warmer latitudes. fall asleep exposed to a current of air are far more apt The profoundness of sleep differs greatly in different to feel the consequences thereof than if they were broad individuals. The repose of some is extremely deep; awake. By a law of nature the sensibility of the systhat of others quite the reverse. One will scarcely tem is increased by any suspension of the mental or obey the roar of cannon; another will start at the voluntary powers, for the same reason that it is diminchirping of a cricket or the faintest dazzling of the ished, while these powers resume their action. In moonbeams. Heavy-minded, phlegmatic people gene- drunkenness, for instance, where the mind is vehementrally belong to the former class; the irritable, the ner- ly excited, we are far less susceptible of cold than in a vous, and the hypochondriac to the latter, although we state of sobriety. shall at times find the cases reversed with regard to Sleep is much modified by habit. Thus, an old artilthe nature of sleep enjoyed by these different tempera- lery-man often enjoys tranquil repose, while the cannon ments. Man is almost the only animal in whom much are thundering around him; an engineer has been known variety is to be found in this respect. The lower to fall asleep within a boiler, while his fellows were grades are distinguished by a certain character, so far beating it on the outside with their ponderous hamas their slumber is concerned, and this character runs mers; and the repose of a miller is nowise incommoded through the whole race; thus, all hares, cats, &c., are by the noise of his mill. Sound ceases to be a stimulight sleepers; all bears, turtles, badgers, &c., are the lus to such men, and what would have proved an inexreverse. In man, the varieties are infinite. Much of pressible annoyance to others, is by them altogether this depends upon the age and temperament of the in- unheeded. It is common for carriers to sleep on horsedividual, and much upon custom. back, and coachman on their coaches. During the batThe profoundness of sleep differs also during the tle of the Nile, some boys were so exhausted, that they same night. For the first four or five hours, the slum- fell asleep on the deck amid the deafening thunder of ber is much heavier than towards morning. The cause that dreadful engagement. Nay, silence itself may beof such difference is obvious; for we go to bed ex- come a stimulus, while sound ceases to be so. Thus, hausted by previous fatigue, and consequently enjoy a miller being very ill, his mill was stopped that he sound repose, but, in the course of a few hours, the might not be disturbed by its noise; but this so far from necessity for this gradually abates, and the slumiber na- inducing sleep, prevented it altogether; and it (lid not turally becomes lighter. take place till the mill was set a-going again. For the That sleep from which we are easily roused is the same reason, the manager of some vast iron-work who, healthiest: very profound slumber partakes of the na- slept close to them amid the incessant din of hammers ture of apoplexy. forges, and blast furnaces, would awake if there was On being suddenly awakened from a profound sleep any cessation of the noise during the night. To carry our ideas are exceedingly confused; and it is some- the illustration still farther, it has been noticed, that a time before we can be made to comprehend what is person who falls asleep near a church, the bell of which said to us. For some moments, we neither see, nor is ringing, mnay hear the sound during the whole of his hear, nor think without our usual distinctness, and are, slumber, and be nevertheless aroused by its sudden in fact, in a state of temporary reverie.. cessation. Here the sleep must have been imperfect, When there is a necessity for our getting up at a cer- otherwise he vwould have beeot insensible to the sound: ~* Journal Comipl6meentire.' the noise o bf' the bell uw.: lxo::iowrcl-es ~ it was its ces $ PHILOSOPHY OF SLiEEP. sation which, by breaking the monotony, became so, life; but vcry young children always sleep away the and caused the sleeper to awake. most of their time. At this early period, the nerves The effects of habit may be illustrated in various being extremely sensitive and unaccustomed to impresways.' If a person, for instance, is accustomed to go sions, become easily fatigued. As the children get to rest exactly at nine o'clock in the evening, and to older, the brain besides becoming habituated to impresrise again at six in the morning, though the time of go- sions, acquires an accession of sensorial power, which ing to sleep be occasionally protracted till twelve, he tends to keep it longer awake. For the first two or will yet awake at his usual hour of six; or, if his sleep three years, children sleep more than once in the twenbe continued by darkness, quietude or other causes, till ty-four hours. The state' of the fretus has been denothe day be farther advanced, the desire for sleep will re- minated, by some writers, a continued sleep, but the turn in the evening at nine.' propriety of this definition may be doubted; for the Persons who are much in the habit of having their mind having never yet manifested itself, and the volunrepose broken, seldom sleep either long or profoundly, tary organs never having been exercised, can hardly be however much they may be left undisturbed. This is said to exist in slumber, a condition which supposes a shown in the cases of soldiers and seamen, nurses, moth- previous waking state of the functions. Middle-aged ers, and keepers. persons who lead an active life, seldom sleep above Seamen and soldiers on duty can, from habit, sleep eight or nine hours in the twenty-four, however much when they will, and wake when they will. The Em- longer they may lie in bed; while a rich, lazy, and peror Napoleon was a striking instance of this fact. gormandizing citizen will sleep twelve or thirteen hours Captain Barclay, when performing his extraordinary at a time. feat in walking a mile an hour for a thousand succes- Sleep is greatly modified in old people. They usual sive hours, obtained at last such a mastery over him- ly slumber little, and not at all profoundly. Solnetimes, self, that he fell asleep the instant he lay down. however, when they get into a state of dotage, in conSome persons cannot sleep from home, or on a different sequence of extreme old age, the phenomena of childbed from their usual one: some cannot sleep on a hard, hood once more appear, and they pass the greater part others on a soft bed. A low pillow prevents sleep in of their time in sleep. The repose of the aged is most some, a high one in others. The faculty of remaining apt to take place immediately after taking food, while asleep for a great length of time, iL possessed by some they often solicit it in vain at that period at which, durindividuals. Such was the case with Quin, the cele- ing the former years of their lives, they had been accusbrated player, who could slumber fortwenty-four-hours tomed to enjoy it. The celebrated de Moivre slept successively-with Elizabeth Orvin, who spent three- twenty hours out of the twenty-four, and Thomas Parr fourths of her life in sleep-with Elizabeth Perkins, latterly slept away by far the greater part of his existwho slept for a week or a fortnight at a time-with Ma- ence. ry Lyall, who did the same for six successive weeks- Those who eat heartily, and have strong digestive and with many others, more or less remarkable. In powers, usually sleep much. The great portion of Bowyer's life of Beattie, a curious anecdote is related sleep required by infants is owing, in part, to the proof Dr Reid, viz., that he could take as much food and dicious activity of theirdigestive powers. The majority immediately afterwards as much sleep as were sufficient of -animals sleep after eatinig, and man has a strong tenfor two days. dency to do the same thing, especially when oppressed A phenomenon of an opposite character is also some- with heat. In the summer season, a strong inelin.ation times observed, for there are individuals who can sub- is often felt, to sleep after dinner, when the weather is sist up9n a surprisingly small portion of sleep. The very warm. celebrated General Elliot was an instance of this kind A heavy meal, which produces no uneasy feeling he never slept more than four hours out of the twenty- while the person, will often do so if he fall asleep. Acfour. In all other respects he was strikingly abstinent; cording to Dr. Darwin, this proceeds from the sensorial his food consisting wholly of bread, water, and vegetables. actions beinlr increased, when the volition is suspended. In a letter communicated to Sir John Sinclair, by John The dilestion fiom this circumstance goes on with inGordon, Esq. of Swiney, Ctithness, mention is made creased rapidity.' Ieat is produced in the system fastof a person named James Mackay, of Skerray, who died er than it is expended; and, operating on the sensitive in Strathnaver in the year 1797, aged ninety-one: he actions, carries them beyond the limitations of pleasure, only slept, on an average, four hours in the twenty-four, producing, as is common in sums cases, increased freand was a remarkably robust and healthy man. Fred- quency of pulse.' In this case, incomplete sleep is erick the Great, of Prussia, and the illustrious surgeon, supposed, for, when the slumber is perfect, no sensa-. John Hunter, only slept five hours in the same period; tion whatever, either painful or the reverse, can be exand the sleep of the active-minded iS always much less perienced. than that of the listless and indolent. The celebrated In recovering from long protracted illness, accompaFrench General Pichegru, informed Sir Gitbert Blane, nied with great want of rest, we generally sleep muchthat, during a whole year's campaigns, he had not above far more, indeed, than during the most perfect health. one hour's sleep in the twenty-four. I know a lady This seems to be a provision of nature for restoring the who never sleeps above half an hour at a time, and vigour which had been lost during disease, and bringthe whole period of whose sleep does not exceed three ing back the body to its former state. So conipletely or four hours in the twenty-four; and vet she is in the does this appear to be the case, that as soon as a thoenjoyment of excellent health. Gooch gives an in- rough restoration to health takes place, the portion of stance of a man who slept only for fifteen minutes out sleep diminishes till it is brought to the standard at of the twenty-four hours, and even this was only akind which it orillnally stood before the accession of illness. of dozing, and not a perfect sleep: notwithstanding After continuing a certain time asleep, we awake, which, he enjoyed good health, and reached his seven- stretch ourselves, open our eyes, rub them, and yawn ty-third year. I strongly suspect there m'it be some several times. A'r the moment of awaking, there is mistake ir. this case, for it is not conceivable that hu- some conifusion of ideas, but this immediately wears man nature could subsist upon such a limited portion away. The mental faculties fiorm being in utter torpor, of repose. Instances have hbn-arelated us pecrsons who besin to act one after the other;,: the senses do the never slept; but these orust be re-gardeda as purly Gbu * b in. s the.,'-adcul prongress fromn intense sleep, when there lous. eoan be no dtrear- to the rnoinent of perfect vicilance, see what The period of life mnodifies sleep matenrally. /7ihen wrrire. n. The first casrebrl! olmeran th;.t awakes enters into the a man is about his g.rand cliomateri., or fa fw vyars be- trai n.,fthinkin;g connectedl with its faculty: some kind cfdream is.he result as oriZ.e1 after org-an awakes, the dream becomes yend it, he slumbers less thah at any rn9e period of mora vivid atod as tte noumber of active organs increases, so PHILOSOPtHY OF SLEEP. 9 same.. At last, the mind, the senses, and the locomo- CHAPTER III. tion being completely restored, what are our sensations 1 Instead of the listlessness, lassitude, and general fatigue DREAMING. experienced on lying down, we feel vigorous and refreshed. The body is stronger, the thoughts clearer In perfect sleep, as we have elsewhere stated, there and more composed; we think coolly, clearly, ration- is a quiescence of all the organs which compose the ally, and can often comprehend with ease what baffled brain but when, in consequence of some inward exlus on the previous night. citement, one organ or more continues awake, while One or two other points remain to be noticed. On the remainder are in repose, a state of incomplete awaking, the eyes are painfully affected by the light, sleep is the result, and we have the phen.onmena of but this shortly w-ea~rs away, and twe ~then feel them dreaming. If, for instance, any irritation, such as pain, stronger than when we went to bed. The muscular fever, drunkenness, or a heavy meal, should throw the power, also, for a few seconds, is affected. We totter perceptive organs into a state of action while the rewhen vwe get up; and if we lay hold of anfy thing, the fleeting ones continue asleep, we have a consciousness hand lacks its wonted strength. This, however, as the of objects, colors, or sounds being presented to us, just current of nervous enery is restored throughout the as if the former organs were actually stimulated by havmuscles, irrnmcdiately disappears; and we straightway ig such impressions communicated to them by the expossess redoubled vigour. On examining the urine, we ternal senses;* while in consequence of the repose of find that it is higher in its colour than when we lay the reflecting organs, we are unable to rectify the illudown. The saliva is more viscid, the phlegm harder sions, and conceive that the scenes passing before us, and tougher, the eyes glutinous, and the nostrils dry. or the sounds that we hear, have a real existence. If we betake ourselves to the scale, we find that our This want of mutual co-operation between the differweight has dimninished in consequence of the nocturnal ent organs of the brain accounts for the disjointed perspirations; while, by subjecting our stature to mea- nature, the absurdities, and incoherencies of dreams. suremellt, we shall see that we are taller by nearly an Many other doctrines have been started by philosoinch than on the preceding night. This fact was cor- phers, but I am not aware of any which can lay claim rectly ascertained in a great variety of instances, by even to plausibility; some, indeed, are so chimerical, Mr. Wasse, Rector of Aynho in Northumberland; aid and so totally unsupported by evidence, that it is diffi is sufficiently accounted for by the intervertebral car- cult to conceive how they ever entered into the imagi tilages recovering their elasticity, in consequence of the nations of their founders. Baxter, for instance, in his bodily weight being taken off them during the recurp- Treatise on the Imortality of the Soul, endeasours bent posture of sleep. to show that dreams are produced by the agency of Such are the leading phenomena of sleep. With re- some spiritual beings, who either aaiuse, or employ gaid to the purposes which it serves in the econom themselves seriously, in engaging manlind in tle "o'm imaginary transaction with which they -tre employed in these are too obvious to require much detail. Its mai maginary on with which they a obiect is to restore the strength expended durin wake- dreaming. The theory of Derocritus an-d ITucetius is fulness;, to recruit the body by promoting nutrition equally whimsical. They accounted for dreams by and giving rest to the muscles; and to renovate the supposing that spectres, and simulacra of corporeal mind by the- repose which it affords the brain. Action things constantly emitted from them, and floating up is necessarily followed by exhaustion; sleep by check- and down in the air, come and assault the soul in sleep. ing the one restrains the other, and keeps the animal The most prevailing doctrine is that of the Cartesians, achine ill due viroar. lMr Carmichael supposes sleep vwho supposed that the mind was continually active in to' be the period when assimilationgoes on iii thebrain, sleep; in other words. that durince this state we were to be the periodl wvhen assimilation goes on in the brain. In this respect, I believe that the brain is not differentl always dreaming. Hazlitt, in his' Round Table,' has situated from the rest of the body. There, as else- take thesame view of he suject id atlegs, thatif where, the assimilative process proceeds both in the a person is awakened at any given time and asked what slumbering and in the waking state ~ but that it is only ie has'ea dreaming about, he will at once be recalled to a train of associations with which his mnind has at work in the brain during sleep analogy forbids us to ed to a train of asrocialio. s lith ahlch his id has admit. So lon as circulaton coinu a deposition of beer,. busied previously. Unfortunately for this theory admit. So long as circulation continues% a deposition~of matter is going on; and circulation, we all know, is at work in the brain as p. other organs, whether we be pose having shown that, though in some few instances, asleep or awake. Accoedinc to Richeraud, one of the the individual had such a consciousness of dreaming as a.sleep or awake. According to Richerand, one of the is described, yet in the great majority he had no congreat purposes, served oy sleep, is to diminish the acti-is dscribd, yet i the great ority le had noconvity of the circulation, which a state of wakefulness has sciousiless any thing of the kind The doctrine, the invariable effectof increasing.'The exciting causes' therefore, so far as direct evidence is concerned must the invariable effect of increasing.'The exciting causes' fall to the eround. and yet unsupported as it is either fall to the ground; and yet, unsupported as it is either he observes,' to which our organs are subject du ring the day, tend prog r essively to increase their ac by proof or analogy, this is the fashionable hypothesis during the day, tend progressively to increase their action. The throbbings of tI e heait for instance, are of the schools, and the one most in vogue among our tion. The throbbings of the heart, for instance, are' more frequent at night than in the morning ~ and this best metaphysical writers. action gradually' accelerated, wol sobecridt There is a strong analogy between dreaming and inaction, gradually, accelerated, would soon be carried to an r I such a degree of activity as to be inconsistent with life, tw thetwo states to be the t in the differ the errotween the two states to be, that in the latter the erroif its velocity were not noderated at intervals by the re- neous impressiou, being permaneit, afcts the conduct; curfence of sleep.' whereas in dreamingn no iflence oi the conduct is To detail the beneficent purposes served by sleep in the cure of diseases. as well as in health, would be a pfOduced, becanse ta vision b isiaced on Warinr. This definition is ncarly, but not wholly correct; for work of supereroigation. They are felt and recognised in somnambulism n. sleep t rot cenct is inr by mrankind as so indispensable to sireti.gth, to ha-pri mfleuced h PD pir-In dre ai. Di-. I-ih has, with hess, and to ti- itself, that he who dispenses with thlat portion of repose required by the.wants of n- sidere as a transiernt paro-ys of. delirium, n and deliture, is in reanity curtafiling the duration of its own ex niuin as a n eiranuent drneam isterice. rium as a rermanent dremn'. Man is not the onlv a-nimal subject to dreaming. iWe have every reason to believe tlhat imany of the lower does the complication o( dreams; and if all the internal orea.nso are awake. t. ie nan is still asleep until his awalkening sei ses This iaternal stiultion o, priclar'as wit'hout the tbring hitia ii di;rect coos-munication with the w-orld' concurrence of oul;tva'i i!nproessions bv tile seses is IAore fully Crarnich(-I)gs Afesrolr ~f *t';Z',rzSie>'. 7.,.. s ated tinder Sptc h ead of Spectral fil,'sions. 10 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. animals do the same. Hlerses neigh and rear, and dogs brain, liver, and stomach, dreams are both common and bark and growl in their sleep. Probably, at such times, of a very distressing kind. the remembrance of the chase or the combat was pass- Some writers imagine, that as we grow older, our ing through the minds of these creatures; and they dreams become less absurd and inconsistent, but this also not unfrequently manifest signs of fear, joy, play- is extremely doubtful. Probably, as we advance ill fulness, and almost every other passion.* Ruminating life, we are less troubled with these phenomena than at animals, such as the sheep and cow, dream less; but the period of youth, when imagination is full of activity, even they are sometimes so affected, especially at the and the mind peculiarly liable to impressions of every period of rearing their young. The parrot is said to kind; but when they do take place, we shall find themn dream, and I should suppose some other birds do the equally preposterous, unphilosophical, and crude, with same. Indeed the more intellectual the animal is, the those which haunted our early years. Old people more likely it is to be subject to dreaming. Whether dream more, however, than the middle-aged, owing fishes dream it is impossible to conjecture: nor can it doubtless to the more broken and disturbed nature of be guessed, with any thing like certainty, at what point their repose. in the scale of animal intellect, the capability of dream- I believe that dreams are uniformly the resuscitation ing ceases, although it is very certain there is such a or re-embodiment of thoughts which have formerly, in point. I apprehend that dreaming is a much more some shape or other, occupied the mind. They are general law than is commonly supposed, and that many old ideas revived either in an entire state, or heterogeanimals dream which are never suspected of doing so. neously mingled together. I doubt if it be possible for Some men are said never to dream, and others only a person to have, in a dream, any idea whose elements when their health is disordered: Dr. Beattie mentions did not, in some form, strike him at a previous period. a case of the latter description. For many years be- If these break loose from their connecting chain, and fore his death, Dr. Reid had no consciousness of ever become jumbled together incoherently, as is often the having dreamed; and Mr. Locke takes notice of a per- case, they give rise to absurd combinations; but the son who never did so till his twenty-sixth year, when elements still subsist, and only manifest themselves in a he began to dream in consequence of having had a new and unconnected shape. As this is an important fever. It is not impossible, however, but that, in these point, and one which has never been properly insisted cases, the individuals may have had dreams from the upon, I shall illustrate it by an example. I lately same age as other people, and under the same circum- dreamed that I walked upon the banks of the great castances, although probably they were of so vague a nal in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. On the side opnature, as to have soon faded away from the memory. posite to that on which I was, and within a few feet of Dreams occur more frequently in the morning than in the water, stood the splendid portico of the Royal Exthe early part of the night; a proof that the sleep is change. A gentleman, whom I knew, was standing much more profound in the latter period than in the upon one of the steps, and we spoke to each other. I former. Towards morning, the faculties, being re- then lifted a large stone, and poised it in my hand, freshed by sleep, are more disposed to enter into ac- when he said that he was certain I could not throw it tivity; and this explains why, as we approach the to a certain spot which he pointed out. I made the hours of waking, our dreams are more fresh and vivid. attempt, and fell short of the mark. At this moment, Owing to the comparatively active state of the facul- a well known friend came up, whom I knew to excel at ties, morning dreams are more rational-whence the putting the stone; but, strange to say, he hatI lost both old adage, that such dreams are true. his legs, and walked upon wooden substitutes. This Children dream almost from their birth; and if we struck me as exceedingly curious; for my impression may judge from what, on many occasions, they endure was that he had only lost one leg, and had but a single during sleep, we must suppose that the visions which wooden one. At my desire he took up the stone, and, haunt their young minds are often of a very frightful without difficulty, threw it beyond the point indicated kind. Children, from many causes, are more apt to by the gentlenlan upon the opposite side of the canal. have dreams of terror than adults. In the first place, The absurdity of this dream is extremely glaring; and they are peculiarly subject to various diseases, such as yet, on strictly analyzing it, I find it to be wholly comteething, convulsions, and bowel complaints, those fer-posed of ideas which passed through my mind on the tile sources of mental terror in sleep; and, in the se- previous day, assuming a new and ridiculous arrangecond place, their minds are exceedingly susceptible of ment. I can compare it to nothing but to cross readdread in all forms, and prone to be acted on by it, ings in the newspapers, or to that well known amusewhatever shape it assume. Many of the dreams ex- ment which consists in putting a number of sentences, perienced at this early period, leave au indelible im- each written on a separate piece of paper, into a hat, pression upon the mind. They are remembered in shaking the whole, then taking them out one by one as after-years with feelings of pain; and, blending with they come, and seeing what kind of medley the heterothe more delighful reminiscences of childhood, demon- geneous compound will make, when thus fortuitously strate that this era, which we are apt to consider one put together. For instance, I had, on the above day, varied scene of sunshine and happiness, had, as well as taken a walk to the canal, along with a friend. On refilture life, its shadows of melancholy, and was not un- turning from it, I pointed out to him a spot where a tinged with hues of sorrow and care. The sleep of new road was forming, and where, a few days before, infancy, therefore, is far from being that ideal state of one of the workmen had been overwhelmed by a quanfelicity which is commonly supposed. It is haunted tity of rubbish falling upon him, which fairly chopped with its own terrors, -even more than that of adults; off one of his legs, and so much damaged the other that and, if many of the visions which people it are equally it was feared amputation would be necessary. Near delightful, there can be little doubt that it is also tor- this very spot there is a park, in which, about a month tured by dreams of a more painful character than often previously, I practised throwinu the s jnne. On passfall to the share of after-life. ing the Exchange on my way home, I expressed iregret In health, when the mind is at case, we seldom at the lowness of its situation, and remarked what a fine dream; and when we do so our visions are generally effect the portico would have were it placed upon more of a pleasing character. In disease, especially of the elevated ground. Such were the previous circum stances, and let us see how they bear upon the dream. *'The stag-hounds, weary with the chase, In the first place, the canal appeared before me. 2. Its Lay stretched upon tlhe rushy floor, situation is an elevated one. 3. The portico of the oAnd ured in drot-stose to fcore oorace exchange, occurring to my mind as being placed too From Teviotr-stone to FskdIale las t. lo, became associated with the elevation of the canal.' lay of the last Minstrel. low, became associated with the elevation of the canal, PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 1 and I placed it close by on a similar altitude. 4. The on whom any kind of dream could be induced, by his gentleman I had been walking with, was the same friends gently speaking in his presence upon the parwhom, in the dream, I saw standing upon the steps of ticular subject which they wished him to dream about. the portico. 5. Having related to him the story of the I have often tried this experinent upon persons asleep, man who lost one limb, and had a chance of losing an- and more than once with a like result. I apprehend, other, this idea brings before me a friend with a brace that when this takes place, the slumber must have been of wooden legs, who, moreover, appears in connexion very imperfect. With regard to the possibility of dreams with putting the stone, as I know him to excel at that being produced by bodily impressions, Dr Gregory re exercise. There is only one other element in the lates that having occasion to apply a bottle of hot water dream which the preceding events will rnot, account for, to his feet when he went to bed, he dreamed that he and that is, the surprise at the individual referred to was nlaking a journey to the top of Mount Etna, and having more than one wooden leg. But why should that he found the heat of the ground almost insufferahe have even one, seeing that in reality he is limbed ble. Another person having a blister applied to his like other people. This also, I can account for. Some head, imagined that he was scalped by a party of Inyears ago he slightly injured his knee while leaping a dians; while a friend of mine happening to sleep in ditch, and I remember of jocularly advising him to get damp sheets, dreamed that he was dragged through a it cut off. I am particular in illustrating this point with stream. A paroxysm of gout during sleep, has given regard to dreams, for I hold, that if it were possible to rise to the persons supposing himself under the power analyze them all, they would invariably be found to of the Inquisition, and undergoing the torments of the stand in the same relation to the waking state as the rack. The bladder is sometimes emptied during sleep, above specimen. The more diversified and incongru- from the dreaming idea being directed (in consequence ous the character of a dream, and the more remote from of the unpleasant fullness of the viscus) to this particuthe period of its occurrence the circumstances which lar want of nature. These results are not uniform, but suggest it, the more difficult does its analysis become; such is the path in which particular bodily states are and, in point of fact, this process may be impossible, so apt to lead the imagination; and dreams, occurring in totally are the elements of the dream often dissevered these states, will more frequently possess a character from their original source, and so ludicrously huddled analogous to them than to any other modified, of course, together. This subject shall be more fully demon- by the strength of the individual cause, and fertility of strated In speaking of the remote causes of dreams. the fancy. Dreams generally arise without any assignable cause, Some curious experiments in regard to this point, but sometimes we can very readily discover their ori- were made by M. Giron de Buzareingues, which seems gin. Whatever has much interested us during the to establish the practicability of a person determining at day, is apt to resolve itself into a dream; and this will will the nature of his dreams. By leaving his knees generally be pleasurable, or the reverse, according to uncovered, he dreamed that he travelled during night in the nature of the exciting cause. If, for instance, our in a diligence: travellers, he observes, being aware reading or conversation be of horrible subjects, such as that in a coach it is the knees that get cold during the spectres, murders, or conflagrations, they will appear night., On another occasion, having left the posterior before us magnified and heightened in our dreams. Or part of his head uncovered, he dreamed that he was if we have been previously sailing upon a rough sea, present at a religious ceremony performedl in the open we are apt to suppose ourselves undergoing the perils air. It was the custom of the country in which he lived of shipwreck. Pleasurable sensations during the day to have the head constantly covered, except on particuare also apt to assume a still more pleasurable aspect lar occasions, such as the above. On awaking, he felt in dreams. In like manner, if we have a longing for the back of his neck cold, as he had often experienced any thing, we are apt to suppose that we possess it. dnring the real scenes, the representation of which had Even objects altogether unattainable are placed within been conjured up by his fancy. Having repeated this our reach: we achieve impossibilities, and triumph experiment at the end of several days, to assure himwith ease over the invincible laws of nature. self that the result was not the effect of chance, the A disordered state of the stomach and liver will often second vision turned out precisely the same as the first. produce dreams. Persons of bad digestion, especially Even without making experiments, we have frequent hypochondriacs, are harassed with visions of the most evidence of similar facts; thus, if the clothes chance frightfll nature. This fact was well known to the cele- to fall off us, we are liable to suppose that we are parbrated Mrs Radcliffe, who, for the purpose of filling ading the streets in a state of nakedness, and feel all her sleep with those phantoms of horror which she has the shame and inconvenience which such a condition so forcibly elmbodied in the'Mysteries of Udolpho,' and would in reality produce. We see crowds of people'Romance of the Forest,' is said to have supped upon following after us and mocking our nudity; and we the most indigestible substances; while Dryden and wander from place to place, seeking a refuge under this Fuseli, with the opposite view of obtaining splendid ideal misfortune. Fancy, in truth, heightens every cirdreams, are reported to have eaten raw flesh. Diseases cumstance, and inspires us with greater vexation than of the chest, where the breathing is impeded, also give we would feel if actually labouring under such an anrise to horrible visions, and constitute the frequent noyance. The streets in which we wander are depictcauses of that most frightful modification of dreaming- ed with the force of reality; we see their windings, nightmare. their avenues, their dwelling-places, with intense truth. The usual intoxicating agents have all the power of Even the inhabitants who follow us are exposed to exciting dreams. The most exquisite visions, as well view in all their various dresses and endless diversities as the most frightfill, are perhaps those occasioned by of countenance. SoInetimrnes we behold our intimate narcotics. These differences depend on the dose and friends gazing upon us with indifference, or torturing with the particular state of the system at the time of taking annoying impertinence. Sometimes we see multitudes it. Dreams also may arise from the deprivation of cus- whom we never beheld before; and each individual is tomary stimuli, such as spirits, or supper before going exposed so vividly, that we could describe or even paint to bed. More frequently, however, they originate from his aspect. indulging in such excitations. In like manner, if we lie awry, or if our feet slip over A change of bed will sometimes induce dreams; and, the side of the bed, we often imagine ourselves standgenerally speaking, they are more apt to occur in a ing upon the brink of a fearful precipice, or falling from strange bed than in the one to which we are accustomed. its beetling summit into the abyss beneath.* If the Dreams often arise from the impressions made upon * Dr Currie,in alluion to the visions of the hypochondriac obthe senses during sleep. Dr Beattie speaks of a man serves, that if he dream oflfalling into the sea, he awakes just as 0 12 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. rain or hail patter against our windows, we have often the whole conflagration from its commencement till it the idea of a hundred cataracts pouring from the rocks; be finally extinguished. The thoughts which arise in if the wind howl without, we are suddenly wrapt up in such situations are endless, and assume an infinite va a thunderstorm, with all its terrible associations; if riety of aspects. The whole, indeed, constitutes one the head happen to slip under the pillow, a huge rock is of the strangest phenomena of the human mind, and hanging over us, and ready to crush us beneath its pon- calls to recollection the story of the Eastern monarch, derous bulk. Should the heat of the body chance to be who, on dipping his head into the magician's water increased by febrile irritation or the temperature of the pail, fancied he had travelled for years in various naroom, we may suppose ourselves basking under the fiery tions, although he was only immersed for a single insun of Africa; or if, from any circumstance, we la- stant. This curious psychological fact, though occurbour under a chill, we may then be careering and found- ring under somewhat different circumstances, has not ering among the icebergs of the pole, while the morse escaped the notice of Mr De Quincey, better known and the famished bear are prowling around us, and as the'English Opium-Eater.''The sense of space, claiming us for their prey. Dr Beattie informs us, says he,' and, in the end, the sense of time were both that once, after riding thirty miles in a high wind, he powerfully affected. Buildings, landscapes, &c., were passed the night in visions terrible beyond description. exhibited in proportions so vast as the bodily eye is not The extent, in short, to which the mind is capable of fitted to receive. Space swelled, and was amplified to being carried in such cases, is almost incredible. Stu- an extent of unutterable infinity. This, however, did pendous events arise from the most insignificant causes not disturb me so much as the expansion of time. I -so completely does sleep magnify and distort every sometimes seemed to have lived for seventy or a hunthing placed within its influence. The province of dred years in one night; nay, sometimes had feelings dreams is one of intense exaggeration-exaggeration representative of a millennium passed in that time, or beyond even the wildest conceptions of Oriental ro- however, of a duration beyond the limits of any humance. man experience.' It is more easy to state the fact of A smoky chamber, for instance, has given rise to the this apparent expansion of time in dreams than to give idea of a city in flames. The conflagrations of Rome any theory which will satisfactorily account for it. and Moscow may then pass in terrific splendor before I believe that, whenever it occurs, the dream has the dreamer's fancy. He may see Nero standing afar abounded in events and circumstances which, had they off, surrounded by his lictors and guards, gazing upon occurred in reality, would have required a long period the imperial city wrapt in flames; or the sanguinary for their accomplishment. For instance, I lately dreamfight of Borodino, followed by the burning of the an- ed that I made a voyage to India-remained some days cient capital of Russia, may be presented before him in Calcutta-then took ship for Egypt, where I visited with all the intenseness of reality. Under these cir- the cataracts of the Nile, and the pyramids: and, to cumstances, his whole being may undergo a change. crown the whole, had the honor of an interview with He is no longer a denizen of his native country, but of Mehemit Ali, Cleopatra, and the Sultan Saladin. All that land to which his visions have transported him. this'was the work of a single night, probably of a single All the events of his own existence fade away; and hour, or even a few minutes; and yet it appeared to he becomes a native of Rome or Russia, gazing upon occupy many months. the appalling spectacle. I must also mention another circumstance of a someOn the other hand, the mind may be filled with ima- what similar kind, which though it occur in the waking gery equally exaggerated, but of a more pleasing char- condition, is produced by the peculiar effect of previous acter. The sound of a flute in the neighborhood may sleep upon the Inind. Thus, when we awake in a invoke a thousand beautiful and delightful associations. melancholy mood, the result probably of some distressThe air is, perhaps, filled with the tones of harps, ing dream, the remembrance of all our former actions, and all other varieties of Inusic-nay, the performers especially those of an evil character, often rushes upon themselves are visible; and while the cause of this us as from a dark and troubled sea.* They do not apstrange scene is one trivial instrument, we may be re- pear individually, one by one, but come linked together galed with a rich and melodious concert. For the in a close phalanx, as if to take the conscience by same reason a flower being applied to the nostrils may, storm, and crush it beneath their imposing front. The by affecting the sense of the smell, excite powerfully whole span of our existence, from childhood downthe imagination, and give the dreamer the idea of wards, sends them on; oblivion opens its gulphs snd walking in a garden. impels them forwards; and the mind is robed in a There is one fact connected with dreams which is cloud of wretchedness, without one ray of hope to highly -remarkable. When we are suddenly awaked brighten up its gloom. In common circumstances, we from a profound slumber by a loud knock at, or by the possess no such power of grouping so instantaneously rapid opening of the door, a train of actions which it the most distant and proximate events of life; the spell would take hours, or days, or even weeks to accom- of memory is invoked to call them successively from plish, sometimes passes through the mind. Time, in the past; and they glide before us like shadows, more fact, seems to be in a great measure annihilated. An or less distinct according to their remoteness, or the extensive period is reduced, as it were, to a single force of their impress upon the mind. But in the point, or rather a single point is made to embrace an case of which I speak, they start abruptly forth from extensive period. In one instant, we pass through the bosom of time, and overwhelm the spirit with many adventures, see many strange sights, and hear a crowd of most sad and appalling reminiscences. In many strange sounds. If we are awaked by a loud the crucible of our distorted imagination, every thing knock, we have perhaps the idea of a tumult passing is exaggerated and invested with a blacker gloom than before us, and know all the characters engaged in it- belongs to it; we see, at one glance, down the whole their aspects, and even their very names. If the door vista of time. and each event of our life is written open violently, the flood-gates of a canal may appear there in gloomy and distressing characters. Hence to be expanding, and we may see the individuals em- the mental depression occurring under these circumployed in the process, and hear their conversation, stances, and even the remorse which falls, like bitter which may seem an hour in length. If a light be and unrefreshing dews, upon the heart. brought into the room, the notion of the house being WVe have seldom any idea of past events in dreams in flames perhaps invades us, and we are witnesses to if such are called forth, they generally seem to be prethe waters close over him, and is sensible of the precise guregling * Something similar occurs in drowping. Persons recovered sound which those experience who actually sink under water. from this state have mentioned that, in the course of a single In falling from heights, during dreams, we always awake before mi nute, almost every event of their life has been brought to their reaching the ground. recollection. PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 13 sent and in the process of actual occurrence. We may player; language, a wrangler or philologist; secretivedream of Alexander the Great, but it is as of a person ness, a deceiver; acquisitiveness, a thief. Occasionwho is co-existent with ourselves. ally, indeed, the reverse is the case, and those trains of Dreams being produced by the active state of such thoughts in which we mostly indulge are seldom or organs as are dissociated from, or have not sympathis- never the subjects of our dreams. Some authors even ed in, the general slumber, partake of the character of assert that when the mind has been strongly impressed those whose powers are in greatest vigour, or farthest with anypeculiar ideas, such are less likely to occur in removed from the somnolent state. A person's natur- dreams than their opposites; but this is taking, the ex. al character, therefore, or his pursuits in life, by ception for the general rule, and is directly at variance strengthening one faculty, make it less susceptible, than with both experience and analogy. In fact, whatever such as are weaker, of being overcome, by complete propensities or talents are strongest in the mind of the sleep; or, if it be overcome, it awakes more rapidly individual, will, in most cases, manifest themselves with from its dormant state, and exhibits its proper charac- greatest readiness and force in dreams; and where a teristics in dreams. Thus, the miser dreams of wealth, faculty is very weak it will scarcely manifest itself at the lover of his mistress, the musician of melody, the all. Thus, one person who has large tune and small philosopher of science, the merchant of trade, and the casuality will indulge in music, but seldom in ascerdebtor of duns and bailiffs. In like manner, a choleric taining the nature of cause and effect; while another, man is often passionate in his sleep; a vicious man's with a contrary disposition of organs, may attempt to mind is filled with wicked actions; a virtuous man's reason upon abstract truths, while music will rarely inwith deeds of benevolence; a humorist's with ludicrous trude into the temple of his thoughts. It is but fair to ideas. Pugnacious people often fight on such occasions, state, however, that the compositions, the reasonings, and do themselves serious injury by striking against and the poems which we concoct in sleep, though octhe posts of the bed; while persons addicted to casionally superior to those of our waking hours,* are lying, frequently dream of exercising their favourite vo- generally of a very absurd description; and, how adcation. mirable soever they have appeared, their futility is For such reasons persons who have a strong passion abundantly evident when we awake. To use the words abundantly evident when we awake. To use the words for music often dream of singing and composing melo- of Dr Parr,' In dreams we seem to reason, to argue, tc dies; and the ideas of some of our finest pieces are compose; and in all these circumstances, during said to have been communicated to the musician in his sleep, we are highly gratified, and think that we excel. sleep. Tartini, a celebrated violin player, is said to If, however, we remember our dreams, our reasonings have composed his famous Devil's Sonata from the in- we find to be weak, our arguments we find to be inspiration of a dream, in which the Devil appeared to conclusive, and our compositions trifling and absurd.' him and challenged him to a trial of skill upon his own The truth of these remarks is undeniable; tut the ves fiddle. A mathematician, in like manner, is often en- circumstance of a man's dreams turnin habitually upon gaged in the solution of problems, EInd has his brain full a particular subject-however ridiculously he may meof Newton, Euler, Euclid, and Laplace; while a poet ditate thereupon-is a strong presumption that that is occupied in writing verses, or in deliberating upon subject is the one which most frequently engrosses his the strains of such bards as are most familiar to his faculties in the waking state; in a word, that the powspirit; it was thus in a dream that Mr Coleridge co- er most energetic in the latter condition is that also posed his splendid fragment of Kubla Khan.* To most active in dreams. speak phrenologically: if the organ of size be large, Dreams are sometimes useful in affording prognosi CD of the proreamsble termintimes ofsefutl fodingaes Viognsithen material images more than sounds or abstractions f the bable ternination of severaldiseases. ipossess the mind, and every thing may be magnified to Z possess the mind, and every thing m~ay be magnified to lent and impetuous dreams occurring in fevers generally unnatural dimensions; if color be fully developed, indicate approaching delirium; those of a gloomy, terwhatever is presented to the mental eye is brilliant and rific nature give strong grounds to apprehend danger; gaudy, and the person has probably the idea of rich while dreams of a pleasant cast may be looked upon as paintings, shining flowers, or varied landscapes: should harbingers of approaching recovery. The visions, nlocality predominate, he is carried away to distant deed, which occur in a state of fever are highly distdeed, which occur in a state of fever are highly dislands, and beholds more extraordinary sights than Cook, tressing; the mind is vehemently hurried on from one Ross, or Franklin ever described. An excess of cau- Toegnrtdb yohn Ross, or Franklin ever described. An excess of cae train of ideas to another, and participates in the painful tiousness will inspire him with terror; an excess of ctivity of the system. Those generated byhypochonself-esteem cause him to be placed in dignified situa- da or indigestion are equally aficting, but more contions; while imitation may render him a mimic or a fined to one unpleasant idea-the intellect being overpowered, as it were, under the pressure of a ponderous * The following is the account he himself gives of the circum- powered, as it were, under the pressure of a ponderous stance:-' In the summer of the year 1797, the author, then in load, from which it experiences an utter icapacity to ill-health, had retired to a lonely farm-house between Porlock relieve itself. The febrile dream has a fiery, volatile, and Linton, on the Exmoor confines of Somerset and Devon- fugitive character: the other partakes of the nature of shire. In consequence of a slight indisposition, an anodyne had in nightmare, in which the faculties seem frozen to torpor, been prescribed, fiom the effects of which hlie'fell asleep in his chair at the moment that he was reading the following sentence, by the presence of a loathsome and indolent fiend. or words of the same substance, in'Purchas's Pilgrimage:- Other diseases and feelings besides fever give a Here the Khan Kubla commanded a palace to be built, and a character to dreams. The dropsical suject often has statoly garden thereunto. And thus ten miles of fertile ground were enclosed with a wall.' The author continued for about the idea of fountains, and rivers, and seas, in his sleep; three hours in a profiound sleep, at least of the external senses, jaundice tinges the objects beheld with its Own yellow durinn which time he had the most vivid confidence, that he and sickly hue; huner induces dreams of eating agreecould have composed not less than from two to three hundred' lines; if that indeed can be called composition in which all the im- able food; an attack of inflaimation disposes us to see ages rose up before him as things, with a parallel prodiuction of the all things of the colour of blood; excessive thirst precorrespondent expressions, without any sensation or conscious- sents us with visions of dried up streams, burnin. sandness of effort. On awaking, he appeared to himself to have a distinct recollection of the whole: and taking his pen, ink, and plains, and immitigable heat; a bad taste in the mouth, paper instantly and eagerly wrote down the lines that are here with every thing bitter and nauseous in the vegetable preserved At this moment he was unfortunately called out by world. a person on business from Porlock, and detained by him above an hour; and on his return to his room, found, to his no small * Such was the case with Cabanis, who often, during dreams, surprise and mortification, that though hlie still retained some saw clearly into the bearings of political events which had bafvague and dim recollection of the general purport of the vision; fled him when awake; and with Condorcet, who, when,. enyet, with the exception of some eight or ten scattered lines and gaged in some deep and complicated calculations, was frequentimages, all the rest had passed away like the images on the sur. ly obliged to leave them in an unfinished state, and retire to face of a stream into which a stone had been cast, but alas! with- rest, when the results to which they led were at once unfolded in out the afier restoration of the latter.' his dreams. 14 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. If, from any cause, we chance to be relieved from the a house on the road. He soon fell asleep.; when, physical suffering occasioning suchdreams,'the dreams dreaming that he was falling into a furnace of boiling themselves also wear away, or are succeeded by others wort, it put him into so great an agony of fright, that, of a more pleasing description. Thus, if perspiration struggling with all his might to call out for help, he ac succeed to feverish heat, the person who, during the tually did call out aloud, and recovered the use of his continuance of the latter, fancied himself on the brink tongue that moment, as effectually as ever he had it in of a volcano, or broiled beneath an African sun, is his life, without the least hoarseness or alteration in the transported to some refreshing stream, and enjoys pre- old sound of his voice.' cisely the pleasure which such a transition would pro- There have been instances where the terror of a frightduce did it actually take place. ful dream has been so great as even to produce insanity. Some authors imagine that we never dream of ob- Many years ago, a woman in the West Highlands, in jects which we have not seen; but the absurdity of this consequence of a dream of this kind, after being newly notion is so glaring as to carry its own refutation along brought to bed, became deranged, and soon after made with it. I have a thousand times dreamed of such her escape to the mountains, where for seven years, she objects. herded with the deer, and became so fleet that the shepWhen a person has a strong desire to see any place herds and others, by whom she was occasionally seen, or object which he has never seen before, he is apt to could never arrest her. At the end of this term, a very dream about it; while, as soon as his desire is gratified, severe storm brought her and her associates to the he often ceases so to dream. I remember of hearing valley, when she was surrounded, caught, and conveya great deal of the beauty of Rouen Cathedral, and in ed to her husband, by whom she was cordially received one form or other it was constantly presented before my and treated with the utmost kindness. In the course imagination in dreams; but having at last seen the of three months, she regained her reason, and had aftercathedral I never again dreamed about it. This is not wards several children. When caught, her body is the invariable result of a gratified wish; but it happens. said to have been covered with hair, thus giving a colso often that it may be considered a general rule. or to the story of Orson and other wild men of the wood. Sometimes we awake from dreams in a pleasing, at Instances have.not been wanting where, under the other times in a melancholy mood, without being able panic of a frightful vision, persons have actually comto recollect them. They leave a pleasurable or dis- mitted murder. They awake from such a dream — agreeable impression upon the mind, according doubt- they see some person standing in the room, whom they less to their nature; and yet we cannot properly remem- mistake for an assassin, or dreadful apparition; driven ber what we were dreaming about. Sometimes, though to desperation by terror, they seize the first weapon that baffled at the time, we call recall them afterwards, but occurs, and inflict a fatal wound upon the object of this seldom happens. their alarm. Hoffbauer, in his Treatise on Legal MedIt often happens that the dreamer, under the influence icine, relates a case of this kind. Although he does of a frightful vision, leaps from his bed and calls aloud not state that the circumstances which occasioned the in a paroxysm of terror. This is very frequently the panic was a previous dream of terror, I do not doubt case with children and persons of weak nerves; but it that such, in reality, must have been the case.' A remayhappen even with the strongest minded. There is port,' says he,' of the murder committed by Bernard something peculiarly horrible and paralyzing in the ter- Schidmaizig was made by the Criminal College of ror of sleep. It lays the energies of the soul prostrate Silesia. Schidmaizig awoke suddenly at midnight: at before it, crushes them to the earth as beneath the the moment of awaking, he beheld a frightful phantom weight of an enormous vampyre, and equalizes for a (at least his imagination so depicted it) standing near time the courage of the hero and the child. No firm- him, (in consequence of the heat of the weather he slept ness of mind can at all times withstand the influence of in an open coach-house.) Fear, and the obscurity of these deadly terrors. The person awakes panic-struck the night, prevented him from recognizing any thing from some hideous vision; and even after reason re- distinctly, and the object which struck his vision apturns and convinces him of the unreal nature of his ap- peared to him an actual spectre. In a tremulous tone, prehensions, the panic for some time continues, his he twice called out, who goes there?-he received no heart throbs violently, he is covered with cold perspi- answer, and imagined that the apparition was approachration, and hides his head beneath the bed-clothes, ing him. Frightened out of his judgment, he sprung afraid to look around him, lest some dreadful object of from his bed, seized a hatchet which he generally kept alarm should start up before his affrighted vision. close by him, and with this weapon assaulted the imCourage and philosophy are frequently opposed in vain aginaiy spectre. To see the apparition, to call out to these appalling terrors. The latter dreads what it who goes there? and to seize the hatchet where the disbelieves; and spectral forms, sepulchral voices, and work ofia moment: he had not an instant for reflection, all the other horrid superstitions of sleep arise to vindi- and with one blow the phantom was felled to the ground. cate their power over that mind, which, under the fan- Schidmaizig uttered a deep groan. This, and the noise cied protection of reason and science, conceived itself occasioned by the fall of the phantom, completely reshielded from all such attacks, but which, in the hour stored him to his senses; and all at once the idea flashof trial, often sinks beneath their influence as completely ed across his mind that he must have struck down his as the ignorant and unreflecting mind, who never em- wife, who slept in the same coach-house. Falling inployed a thought as to the real nature of these fantastic stantly upon his knees, he raised the head of the woundand illusive sources of terror. The alarm of a frightful ed person, saw the wound which he had made, and the dream is sometimes so overpowering, that persons un- blood that flowed from it; and in a voice full of ander the impression thus generated, of being pursued by guish exclaimed Susannah, Szlsannah, come to yoursome imminent danger, have actually leaped out of the self! He then called his eldest daughter, aged eight window to the great danger and even loss of their years, ordered her to see if her mother was recovering, lives. In the 9th volume of the' Philosophical Transac- and to inform her grandmother that he had killed her. tions of the Royal Society of London,' a curious case In fact, it was his unhappy wife who received the blow, is given by Archdeacon Squire, of a person who, after and she died the next day.'* having been dumb for years, recovered the use of his * This case is highly important in a legal point of view; and speech by means of a dream of this description:' One to punish a man for acting similarly in such a state would be as unjust as to inflict punishment for deeds committed under the inday, in the year 1741, he got very much in liquor, so fluence ofinsanity orsomnambulism.'This man,, as Hoffbauer much so, that on his return at home at night to the De- properly remarks,'did not enjoy the free use of his senses: he vize~s, he fell from his horse three or four times, and knew not what he saw: he believed that he was repulsing an was he felat fm u hy a or apu tobesd aind unlooked for attack. He soon re roegnised the place where he was at last taken up by a neighbour, and put to bed in usually slept; it was natural that he should seize the hatchet, PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 15 The passion of horror is more frequently felt in dreams The most, vivid dreams are certainly those which than at any other period. Horror is intense dread, pro- have reference to sight. With regard to hearing, they duced by some unknown or superlatively disgusting ob- are less distinctly impressed upon the mind, and still ject. The visions of sleep, therefore, being frequently more feebly as regards smell, or taste. Indeed, some undefined, and of the most revolting description, are apt authors are of opinion that we never dream of sounds, to produce this emotion, as they are to occasion simple unless when a sound takes place to provoke a dream: fear. Under its influence, we may suppose that fiends and the same with regard to smell and taste; but this are lowering upon us; that dismal voices, as from the doctrine is against analogy, and unsupported by proof. bottomless pit, or from the tomb, are floating around us; There are, beyond doubt, certain parts of the brain that we are haunted by apparitions; or that serpents, which take cognizance of taste, odors, and sounds, for scorpions and demons are our bed-fellows. Such sen- the same reason that there are others which recognise sations are strongly akin to those of nightmare; but forms, dimensions, and colors. As the organs of the between this complaint and a mere dream of terror, three latter sensations are capable of inward excitethere is a considerable difference. In incubus, the indivi- ment, without any communication, by means of the dual feels as if his powers of volition were totally paralyz- senses, with the external world, it is no more than ed; and as if he were altogether unable to move a limb in analogical to infer that, with the three former, the same his own behalf, or utter a cry expressive of his agony. thing may take place. — In fever, although the individual When these feelings exist, we may consider the case is ever so well protected against the excitement of to he one of nightmare: when they do not, and when external sounds, the internal organ is often vionotwithstanding his terror, he seems to himself to pos- lently stimulated, and he is harassed with tumultuous sess unrestrained muscular motion, to run with ease, noises. For such reasons, it is evident that there may breathe freely, and enjoy the full capability of exertion, be in dreams a consciousness of sounds, of tastes, and it must be regarded as a simple dream. of odors, where such have no real existence from Dr Elliotson has remarked, with great acuteness, without. that dreams, in which the perceptive faculties alone are Dreams are sometimes exceedingly obscure, and concerned, are more incohereut, and subject to more float like faint clouds over the spirit. We can then rapid transitions than those in which one or more of resolve them into nothing like shape or consistence, the organs of the feelings are also in a state of activity. but have an idea of our minds being filled with dim,'Thus, in our dreams, we may walk on the brink of a impalpable imagery, which is so feebly impressed upon precipice, or see ourselves doomed to immediate de- the tablet of memory, that we are unable to embody it struction by the weapon of a foe, or the fury of a tern- in language, or communicate its likeness to others. pestuous sea, and yet feel not the slightest emotion of At other times, the objects of sleep are stamped fear, though, during the perfect activity of the brain, with almost supernatural energy. The dead, or the we may be naturally disposed to the strong manifesta- absent, whose appearance to our waking faculties had tion of this feeling; again we may see the most extra- become faint and obscure, are depicted with intense ordinary object or event'without surprise, perform the truth and reality; and even their voices, which had bemost ruthless crime without comnpunction, and see come like the echo of a forgotten song, are recalled what, in our waking hours, would cause us unmitigated from the depths of oblivion, and speak to us as in grief, without the smallest feeling of sorrow.' former times. Dreams therefore, have the power of Persons are to be found, who, when they speak brightening up the dim regions of the past, and premuch during sleep, are unable to remember their senting them with a force which-. the mere effects of dreams on awaking, yet recollect them perfectly if unassisted remembrance could never have accomplished they do not speak. This fact is not very easily ac- our waking hours. counted for. Probably when we are silent, the mind This property of reviving past images, is one of the is more directed upon the subject of the dream, and most remarkable possessed by sleep. It even goes the not so likely to be distracted from it. There is per- length, in some cases, of recalling circumstances which haps another explanation. When we dream of speak- had been entirely forgotten, and presenting them to the ing, or actually speak, the necessity of using language mind with more than the force of theiroriginal impression. infers the exercise of some degree of reason; and, This I conceive to depend upon a particular part of the thus the incongruities of the dream being diminished, brain-that, for instance, which refers to the memory its nature becomes less striking, and consequently less of the event-being preternaturally excited; hence likely to be remembered. Though we often dream of forgotten tongues are sometimes brought back to the performing impossibilities, we seldom imagine that we memory in dreams, owing doubtless to some peculiar are relating them to others. excitement of the organ of Language. The dreamer When we dream of visible objects, the sensibility of sometimes converses in a language of which he has no the eyes is diminished in a most remarkable manner; knowledge whatever when he awakes, but with which and on opening them, they are much less dazzled by he must at one period have been acquainted. Phethe light than if we awoke from a slumber altogether nomena of a similar kind occasionally occur in madness, unvisited by such dreams. A fact equally curious is delirium, or intoxication, all of which states have an noticed by Dr. Darwin, in his'Zoonomia,'-'If we analogy to dreaming. It is not uncommon, for insleep in the day time, and endeavor to see some object stance, to witness in the insane an unexpected and asin dreams, the light is exceedingly painful to our eyes; tonishinm resusciation of knowledge-an intimacy with and, after repeated struggles, we lament in our sleep events and languages of which they were entirely igthat we cannot see it. In this case, I apprehend, the norant in the sound state of their minds. In like eyelid is in some measure opened by the vehemence of manner, in the delirium attendant upon fevers, people our sensations; and the iris being dilated, shows as sometimes speak in a tongue* they know nothing of in great, or greater sensibility than in our waking hours.' A girl wasseized with a dangerous fever, and, in the deliThere are some persons to whom the objects of rious paroxysm accompanying it, was observed to speak in a their dreams are always represented in a soft, mellow strange lanauage which, for some time, no one could undersimilar to twilight.'They never seem to be- stand. At last it was ascertained to be Welsh — a tongue she was lustre, similar to wwilight. They never seem to be- wholly ignorant of at the time she was taken ill, and of which hold any thing in the broad glare of sunshine; and, in she could not speak a single syllable after her recovery. For general, the atlosphere of our vision is less brilliant some time the circumstance was unaccountable, till, on inquiry, it was found she was a native ot Wales, and had been familiar than that through which we are accustomed to, see I untry in her childhood, but had 0 ~~~~~~~~~~with the language of that country in her childhood, but had things while awake. wholly forgotten it afterwards. During the delirium of fever, Oince he had taken the precaution to place it beside him; but the the obliterated impressions of infancy were brought to her mind, dea of his wife and the possibility of killing her were the last and continued to operate there so long as she remained under hings that occurred to him.' the mental excitation occasioned by the disease, but no longer, 16 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. health; and in drunkenness events are brought to the these circumstances, many scenes of most exquisite memorywhich desert itin a state of sobriety.* Analo- pleasure often take place. The slumberer supposes gous peculiarties occur inl dreams. Forgotten facts are himself enjoying the communionship of those who were restored to the mind. Sometimes those adhere to it dearer to him than life, and has far more Intense delight and are remembered when we awake: at other times- than he could have experienced, had these individuals as can be proved in cases of sleep-talking —they vanish been in reality alive, and at his side. with the dream which called them into existence, and'I hear thy voice in dreams are recollected no more. Upon me softly call, I believe that the dreams of the aged, like their Like echo of the mountain streams memory, relate chiefly to the events of early life, and In sportive waterfall: less to those of more recent occurrence. My friend, I see thy form, as when Dr Cumin, has mentioned to me the case of one of his Thou wert a living thing, patients, a middle-aged man, whose visions assumed And blossomed in the eyesofmen this character in consequence of severe mental anxiety. Like any flower of spring Owing to misfortunes in trade, his mind had been Nor is the passion of love, when experienced in greatly depressed: he lost his appetite, became rest- dreams, less vivid than any other emotion, or the senless, nervous, and dejected; such sleep as he had was sation to which it gives rise less pleasurable. I do nol filled with incessant dreams, which at first were entirely here allude to the passion in its physical sense, but to of events connected with the earliest period of his life, that more moral and intellectual feeling, the result ol so far as he recollected it, and never by any chance of deep sensibility and attachment. Men who never loved late events. In proportion as he recovered from this before, have conceived a deep affection to some parstate, the dreams changed their character, and referred ticular woman in their dreams, which, continuing to to circumstances farther on in life; and so regular was operate upon them after they awoke, has actually terthe progression, that, with the march of his recovery, minated in a sincere and lasting fondness for the objecso was the onward march of his dreams. During the of their visionary love. Men, again, who actually are worst period of his illness, he dreamed of occurrences in love, dream more frequently of this subject than of which happened in boyhood: no sooner was conva- any thing else-fancying themselves in the society of lescence established than his visions had reference to their mistresses, and enJoying a happiness more exquimanhood; and on complete recovery they were of those site than is compatible with the waking state-a haprecent circumstances which had thrown him into bad piness, in short, little removed from celestial. Such health. In this curious case, one lateral half of the -feelings are not confined to men; they pervade the fehead was much warmer than the other. This was so male breast with equal intensity; and the young maidremarkable as to attract the notice of the barber who en, stretched upon the couch of sleep, may have her shaved it~. spirit filled with the image of her lover, while her whole One of the most remarkable phenomena of dreams being swims in the ecstacies of impassioned, yet virtuis the absence of surprise. This, indeed, is not inva- ous attachment. At other times, this pure passion riable, as every one must occasionally have felt the may, in both sexes, be blended with one of a grosser character; whichalso may acquire an increase of plea sensation of surprise, and been not a little puzzled in character; which afso may acquire an increase of plea his visions to account for the phenomena which pre- surable sensation: to such an extent is every circumsent themselves; but, as a general rule, its absence is stance, whether of delight or suffering, exaggerated by so exceedingly common, that, when surprise does oc- sleep. cur, it is looked upon as an event out of the common For the same reason that the lover dreams of love, order, and remarked accordingly. Scarcely any event, does the newly married woman dream of children however incredible, impossible, or absurd, gives rise to They, especially if she have a natural fondness for this sensation. WVe see circumstance at utter variance them-if she herself be pregnant, or possess an ardent with the laws of nat.ure, and yet their discordancy, im-longing for offspring-are often the subject of her sleeppracticability, and oddness, seldom strike us as at all ing thoughts; and she conceives herself to be encircled out of the usual course of things. This is one of the by them, and experiencing intense pleasure in their instrongest proofs that can be alleged in support of the nocent society. Men who are very fond of children dormant condition of the reflecting faculties. Had often experience the same sensations; and both men these poers been awake, and women who are naturally indifferent in this respect, would have pointed out the erroneous nature of the im dream about them, and never with any feelings pressions conjured into existence by fancy: and shown of peculiar delight. us truly that the visions passing before us were merely During the actual process of any particular dream, the chimeras of excited imagination-the airy phantoms we are never conscious that we are really dreaming: of imperfect sleep. - but it sometimes happens that a second dream takes In visions of the dead, we have a striking instance place, during which we have a consciousness, or a susof the absence of surprise. We almost never wonder picion, that the events which took place in the first at beholding individuals whom we yet know, in our dream were merely visionary, and not real. People, dreams, to have even been buried for years. We see for instance, sometimes fancy in sleep, that they have them among us, and hear them talk, and associate with acquired wealth: this may be called the first dream; them on -the footing of fond companionship. Still the and during its progress they never for a moment doubt circumstance seldom strikes us with wonder, nor do the reality of their impressions; but a second one suWe attempt to account for it. They still seem alive as pervenes upon this, and they then begin to wonder Whether their riches be reac or imaginary —In other when they wereon earth, only all their qualities, whether rds, ther try to ascertain whether they had been good or bad, are exaggerated by sleep. If we hated words, they try to ascertain whether they had been them while in life, our animosity is now exaggerated to previously dreaming or not. But even in the second a double degree. If we loved them, our affection be- dream we are unconscious of dreaming. We still seem comes more passionate and intense than ever. Under to ourselves to be broad awake-a proof that in dreams we are never aware of being asleep. This uncorlsciousfor so soon as the state of mind which recalled these impres- ness of being asleep during the dreaming state, is resions Was removed, they also disappeared, as she was as ignor- ferable to the quiescent condition of the reasoning ant of Welsh as before she was taken ill. The mind is wholly subject to the sceptre of * Mr Combe mentions the case of an Irish porter to a ware. po ers. The mind is wholly subject to the sceptre of house, who, in one of his drunken fits, left a parcel at the wrong other faculties; and whatever emotions or images they house, and when sober could not recollect what he had done invoke seem to be real, for want of a controlling power with it,; but the next time he got drunk, he recollected wherer. 1e had left it, and went and recovered it. to poin PHILOSOPHIY OF SLEEP. 1~' You stood before me like a thought, not to move himself in bld, and indeed cc. ald not, if he A dream remembered in a dream.' had possessed the coura'e. It was some time before Those troubled with deafness do not hear distinctly he had it in his power to awake his wife, and cornmmrruSuch sounds as they conceive to be uttered during nicate to her the subject of his terror. The shoulder sleep. Dr. Darwin speaks of a gentleman who, for which had felt the impression of the hand, continued thirty years, had entirely lost his hearing, and who in to feel benumbed and uncomfortable for some timhe. his dreams never seemed to converse with any person It had heen uncovered, and most probably, the cold except by the fingers or in writing: he never had the to which it was exposed was the cause of the phenoimpression of hearing them speak. In like manner, a menon.'e blind man seldom dreams of visible objects, and never An attack of dreaming illusion, not, however, accoinif he has been blind from his birth. Dr Blacklock, in- panied with any unpleasant feeling, occurred to myself deed, who became blind in early infancy, may seem an lately. I had fallen accidentally asleep upon an armexception to this rule. While asleep, he was conscious chair, and was suddenly awaked by hearing, as I supof a sense which he did not possess in the waking state, posed, two of my brothers talking and laughing at the and which bears some analogy to sight. He imagined. door of the room, which stood wide open. The irn — that he was united to objects by a sort of distant con- pressions were so forcible, that I could not believe tact, which was effected by threads or strings passing them fallacious, yet I ascertained that they were so enfrom their bodies to his own. tirely; for my brothers had gone to the country- an The illusion of dreams is much more complete than hour before, and did not return for a couple of hours that of the most exquisite plays. We pass, in a second afterwards. of time, from one country to another; and persons who There are few dreams involving many circumstances, lived in the most different ages of the world are brought which are, from beginning to end, perfectly philosophitogether in strange and incongruous confusion. It is cal and harmonious: there is usually some absurd not uncommon to see, at the same moment, Robert the violation of the laws of consistency, a want of congruiBruce, Julius Cesar, and Marlborough in close conver- ty, a deficiency in the due relation of cause and effect, sation. Nothing, in short, however monstrous, incredi- and a string of conclusions altogether unwarranted by ble, or impossible, seems absurd Equally striking the premises. Mr Hood, in his' Whims and Oddities,' examples of illusion occur when the person awakes gives a curious illustration of the above facts.' It oc — from a dream, and imagines that he hears voices or be- curred,' says he,' when I was on the eve of marriage, holds persons in the room beside him. In the first a season when, if lovers.sleep sparingly, they dream cases we are convinced, on awaking, of the deceptive profusely. A very brief slumber sufficed to carry me, nature of our visions, from the utter impossibility of in the night coach, to Bogner, It had been concerted their occurrence; they' are at variance with natural between Honoria and myself that we should pass the laws; and a single effort of reason is sufficient to point honeymoon at some such place upon the coast. The out their absolute futility. But when the circumstances purpose of my solitary journey was to procure an apwhich seem to take place are not in themselves con- propriate dwelling, and which, we had agreed upon, ceived impossible, however unlikely they may be, it is should be a little pler sant house, with an indispensable often a matter of the utmost difficulty for us to be con- look-out upon the sea. I chose one accordingly, a vinced of their real character. On awaking, we are pretty villa, with bow windows, and a prospect delightseldom aware that, when they took place, we laboured fully marine. The ocean murmur sounded incessantly under a dream. Such is their deceptive nature, and from the beach. A decent elderly body, in decayed such the vividness with which they appear to strike our sables, undertook on her part to promote the comfort of senses, that we imagine them real; and accordingly the occupants by every suitable attention, and, as she often start up in a paroxysm of terror, having the idea assured me, at a very reasonable rate. So far the nocthat our chamber is invaded by thieves, that strange turnal faculty had served me truly: a day dream could voices are calling upon us, or that we are haunted by not have proceeded more orderly: but alas! just here, the dead. When there is no way of confuting these when the dwelling was selected, the sea-view was seimpressions, they often remain ineradicably fixed in the cured, the rent agreed upon, when every thing -:as mind, and are regarded as actual events, instead of the plausible, consistent, and rational, the incoherent fancy mere chimeras of sleep. This is particularly the case crept in, and confounded all-by marrying me to the with the weak-minded and superstitious, whose feelings old woman of the house!' are always stronger than their judgments; hence the There are no limits to the extravagancies of those thousand stories of ghosts and warnings with which the visions sometimes called into birth by the vivid exercise imaginations of those persons are haunted-hence the of the imagination. Contrasted with them, the wildest frequent occurrence of nocturnal screaming and terror fictions of Rabelais, Ariosto, or Dante, sink into absoin children, whose reflecting faculties are naturally too lute probabilities. I remember of dreaming on one ocweak to correct the impressions of dreams, and point casion that I possessed ubiquty, twenty resemblances out their true nature-hence the painful illusions occur- of myself appearing in as many different places, in the ring even to persons of strong intellect, when they are same room; and each being so thoroughly possessed debilitated by watchfulness, long-continued mental suf- by my own mind, that I could not ascertain which of fering, or protracted disease. These impressions often them was myself, and which my double, &c. On this arise without any apparent cause: at other times, the occasion, fancy so far travelled into the regions of abmost trivial circumstances will produce them. Avoice, surdity, that I conceived myself riding upon my own for instance, in a neighbouring street, may seemn to pro- back-one of the resemblances being mounted upon ceed from our own apartment, and may assume a cha- another, and both animated with the soul appertaining racter of the most appalling description; while the tread to myself. in such a manner that I knew not whether I of footsteps, or the knocking of a hammer over-head, was the carrier or the carried. At another time, I may resolve itself into a frightful figure stalking be- dreamed that I was converted into a mighty pillar of fore us. stone, which reared its head in the midst of a desert,' I know,' says Mr Waller,' a gentleman who is where it stood for ages, till generation after generation living at this moment a needless slave to terror, which rlelted away before it. Even in this state, though u narises from a circumstance which admits easily of ex- conscious for possessing any organs of sense, or being planation. He was lying in his bed with his wife, and, else than a mass of lifeless stone, I saw every object as he supposed, quite awake, when he felt distinctly the around-the mountains growing bald_ with age-the impression of some person's hand upon his right should- forest trees drooping in decay; and I heard whatever er, which created such a degree of alarm that he dared * Waller's' Treatise on the Incubus or Nighltmare.' 18 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. sounds nature is in the custim of producing such as it was that upon the rocking waters of the ocean, the the thunder-peal breaking oer my naked head, the human face began to appear; the sea appeared paved winds howling past me, or the ceaseless murmur of with innumerable faces, upturned to the heavens: faces streams. At last I also waxed old, and began to crum- imploring, wrathful, despairing, surged upwards by ble into dust, while the moss and ivy accumulated, thousands, by myriads, by generations, by centuries: upon me, and stamped me with the aspect of hoar -my agitation was infinite —my mind tossed and surgantiquity. The first of these visions may have arisen ed with the ocean.' frorn reading Hoffman's' Devil's Elixir,' where there I have already spoken of the analogy subsisting be-:is an account of a man who supposed he had a double, tween dreaming and insanity, and shall now mention a or, in other words, was both himself and not him- circumstance which occurs in both states, and points self; and the second had perhaps its origin in the out a very marked similitude of mental condition. The Heathen Mythology, a subject to which I am extreme- same thing also occasionally, or rather frequently, takes ly partial, and which abounds in stories of metamor- place in drunkenness, which is, to all intents and purphosis. poses, a temporary paroxysm of madness. It often Such dreams as occur in a state of drunkenness are happens, for instance, that such objects or persons as remarkable for their extravagance. Exaggeration be- we have seen before and are familiar with, become utyond limits is a very general attendant upon them; and terly changed in dreams, and bear not the slightest rethey are usually of a more airy and fugitive character semblance to their real aspect. It might be thought than those proceeding from almost any other source. that such a circumstance would so completely annihl The person seems as if he possessed unusual lightness, late their identity as to prevent us from believing them and could mount into the air, or float upon the clouds, to be what, by us, they are conceived; but such is not while every object around him reels and staggers with the case. We never doubt that the particular object emotion. But of all dreams, there are none which, for or person presented to our eyes appears in its true unlimited wildness, equal those produced by narcotics. character. In illustration of this fact, I may mention, An eminent artist, under the influence of opium, fanci- that I lately visited the magnificent palace of Versailed the ghastly figures in Holbein's' Dance of Death' to les in a dream, but that deserted abode of kings stood become vivified-each grim skeleton being endowed not before me as when I have gazed upon it broad with life and motion, and dancing and grinning with an awake; it was not only magnified beyond even its stuaspect with hideous reality. The'English Opium pendous dimensions, and its countless splendors imEater,' in his' Confessions,' has given a great variety measurably increased, but the very aspect Itself of the of eloquent and appalling descriptions of the effects pro- mighty pile was changed; and instead of stretching its duced by this drug upon the imagination during sleep. huge Corinthian front along the entire breadth of an elaListen to or;e of them:- borate and richly fantastic garden, adorned to profusion' Southern Asia is, and has been for thousands of with alcoves, fountains, waterfalls, statues, and terraces, years, the part of the earth most swarming with human it stood alone in a boundless wilderness-an immense life; the great officiona gentium. Man is a weed in architectural creation of the Gothic ages, with a hunthose regions. The vast empires, also, into which the dred spires and ten thousand minarets sprouting up, and enormous population of Asia has always been cast, give piercing with their pointed pinnacles the sky. The a farther sublimity to the feelings associated with all whole was as different as possible from the reality, but Oriental names or images. In China, over and above this never once occurred to my mind; and, while gazwhat it has in common with the rest of Southern Asia, ing upon the visionary fabric, I never doubted for anin[ am terrified by the modes of life, by the manners, and stant that it then appeared as it had ever done, and was the barrier of utter abhorrence and want of sympathy in no degree different from what I had often previously laced between us by feelings deeper than I can ana- beheld. lyze. I could sooner live with lunatics or brute animals. Another dream I shall relate in illustration of this All this, and much more than I can say, or have time to point. It was related to me by a young lady, and, insay the reader must enter into before he can compre- dependent of its illustrative value, is well worthy of hend the unimaginable horror which these dreams of being preserved as a specimen of fine imagination.' I Oriehtal imagery and mythological tortures impressed dreamed,' said she,'that I stood alone upon the brink upon me. Under the connecting feeling of tropical of a dreadful precipice, at the bottom of which rolled a heat and vertical sunlights, I brought together all crea- great river. While gazing awe-struck upon the gulph tures, birds, beasts, reptiles, all trees and plants, usa- below, some one from behind laid a hand upon my ges and appearances, that are found in all tropical re- shoulder, and, on looking back, I saw a tall, venerable gions, and assembled them together in China or Indos- figure with a long, flowing, silvery beard, and clothed tan. From kindred feelings I soon brought Egypt and in white garments, whom I at once knew to be the all her gods under. the same law. I was stared at, Saviour of the world. "Do you see," he inquired, hooted at, grinned at, chattered at, by monkeys, by "the great river that washes the foundation of the rock paroquets, and cockatoos. I ran into pagodas: and upon which you now stand? I shall dry it up, so that was fixed for centuries at the summit, or in the secret not a drop of its waters shall remain, and all the fishes rooms; I was the idol; I was the priest; I was wor- that are in it shall perish." He then waved his hand, shipped; I was sacrificed. I fled from the wrath of and the river was instantly dried up; and I saw the Brama through all the forests of Asia: Vishnu hated fishes gasping and writhing in the channel, where they me: Seeva laid in wait for me. I came suddenly up- all straightway died. "Now," said he, "the river is on Isis and Osiris: I had done a deed, they said, which dried up and the fishes are dead;'but to give you a farthe ibis and the crocodile trembled at. I was buried ther testimony of my power, I shall bring back the for a thousand years, in stone coffins, with mummies flood, and every creature that was wont to inhabit it and sphinxs, in narrow chambers, at the heart of eter- shall live again." And he waved his hand a second nal pyramids. I was kissed, with cancerous kisses, time, and the river was instantly restored, its dry bed by crocodiles, and laid confounded with all unutterable filled with volumes of water, and all the dead fishes slimy things, amongst reeds and Nilotic mud.' brought back unto life. On looking round to express Again;' Hitherto the human face had mixed often to him my astonishment at those extraordinary mirain my dreams, but not so despotically, nor with any cles, and to fall down and worship him, he was gone; special power of tormenting. But now that which and I stood by myself upon the precipice, gazing with I have called the tyranny of the human face began to astonishment at the river which rolled a thousand feet unfold itself. Perhaps some part of my London life beneath me.' In this fine vision, the difference bemight be answerable for this. Be that as it may, now tween the aspect of Christ as he appeared in it, and as PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 19 he is represented in the sacred writings, as well as in semblance of happiness; but when their heads are laid paintings, did not suggest itself to the mind of the upon the pillow, the flimsy veil which hung between dreamer. He came in the guise of an aged man, which them and crime, melts away like an illusive vapor, and is diametrically opposite to our habitual impressions of displays the latter in naked and horrid deformity. his aspect. If it be asked what produces such differ- Then, in the silence of night, the' still small voice' is ences between the reality and the representation, I ap- heard like an echo from the tomb; then, a crowd of prehend we must refer it to some sudden second dream doleful remembrances rush in upon the criminal, no or flash of thought breaking in upon the first, and con- longer to be debarred from visiting the depths of his fusing its character. For instance, I have a dream of spirit; and when dreams succeed to such broken and an immense Gothic prle, when something about Ver- miserable repose, it is only to aggravate his previous sailles, somehow, occurs to my mind, and this I imme- horrors, and present them in a character of still more diately associate with the object before me. The lady overwhelming dread.* has the idea of an old man in her dream, and the thought of Christ happening to come across her at the instant, Yet thy spirit shall not sleep; she identifies it involuntarily with the object of her There are shades which will not vanish, vision. There is yet another explanation of the latter. There are thoughts thou canst not banish; The old man has the power of working a great mira- By a power to thee unknown, cle; so had Christ, and she is thus led to confound the Thou canst never be alone; two together. She, it is true, imagines she knows the Thou art wrapt as with a shroud old man at once to be the Saviour, without any previ- art gathere d in a cloud; And forever shalt thou dwell ous intimation of his miraculous gifts; but, this, very In the spirit of this spell." possibly, may be a mistake and the knowledge which possibly, may be a mstake; an the knowldge which Such are the principal phenomena'of dreams; and she only acquires after witnessing his power, she may, ch are them it will natcipally be deduced, that dream nd by the confusion attendant on dreams, suppose to have from them it ill naturally be deduced, that dreaming occurredto herin the firstinstance. These facts, com- may occur uider a great variety of circumstances; bined with the dormant state of the reflecting faculties, that it may result from the actual state of the body or which do not rectify the erroneous impressions, render mind, previous to falling asleep; or exist as a train of the explanation of such dreams sufficiently easy, how- emotions which can be refersed to no apparent external ever puzzling, and unaccountable at first sight. cause. The forms it assumes are also as various as In some cases, the illusion is not merely confined to the causes giving rise to it, and much more striking in sleep, but extends itself to the waking state. To il- their nature. In dreams, imagination unfolds, most lustrate this I may state the following circumstance: gorgeously, the ample stores of its richly decorated Some years ago, my impressions concerning the aspect empire; and in proportion to the splendor of that and localities of Inverness, were strangely confused by faculty in any individual, are the visions which pass a dream which I had of that town, taking so strong a before him in sleep. But even the most dull and pashold upon my fancy as to be mistaken for a reality. I sionless, while under the dreaming influence, frequently had been there before, and was perfectly familiar with enjoy a temporary inspiration: their torpid faculties are the appearance of the town, but this was presented in aroused from the benumbing spell which hung over so different a light, and with so much force by the them in the waking state, and lighted up with the Prodream, that I, at last, became unable to say which of methean fire of genius and romance; the prose of the tao aspects was the real one. Indeed, the visionf their frigid spirits is converted into magnificent poetry; ary panorama exhibited to my mind, took the strongest he atmosphere and them p eopled with new an to which hold upon it; and I rather felt inclined to believe that heard-of imagery; and they walk in a region to which this was the veritable appearance of the town, and that the proudest flights of their limited energies could the one which I had actually beheld, was merely the never otherwise hate attained. illusion of the dream. This uncertainty continued for I shall conclude this chapter with a few words on several years, till, being again in that quarter, I satis- the management of dreams. fled myself on the real state of the case. On this oc- When dreams are of a pleasing character, no one casion, the dream must have occurred to my mind cares any thing about their removal: it is only when some titme after it had happened, and taken such a firm they get distressing and threaten to injure the health of hold upon it as to dethrone the reality, andtaken its the individual, by frequent recurrence, that this becomes hold upon it as to dethrone the reality, and taken its place. I remember distinctly of fancying that the animportant object. When dreams assume the chalittle woody hill of Tomnachurich was in the centre of racter of nightmare, they must be managed according the town, although it stands at some distance from it; to the methods laid down for the cure of that affection. that the principle steeple was on the opposite side of In all cases, the condition of the digestive organs must the street to that on which it stands; and that the be attended to, as any disordered state of these parts is great mountain of Ben-WVevis, many miles off, was in *' No fiction of romance presents so awful a picture of the the immediate neighborhood. ideal tyrant as that of Caligula by Suetonius. His palace —radiant with purple and gold, but murder every where lurking beThe power of imagination is perhaps never so vividly neath flowers; his smiles and echoing laughter. masking (yet displayed, as in those dreams which hauht the guilty hardly meant to mask) his foul treachery of heart; his hideous mind. When any crime of an infamous character has and tumultuous dreams; his baffled sleep, and his sleepless ibeen perpetrated and when the person is not so utterly nights, compose the picture of an Agschylus. What a master's bee perpetrated, and when the person is not so utterly sketch lies in those few lines:-' Incitabatur insomnio maxime; harMened as to be insensible of his iniquity, the wide neque enim plus tribus horis nocturnis quiescebat; acne his plastorehouse of retributive vengeance is opened up, and cida quiete, at pavida miris rerum imaginibus; ut qui inter cetits appalling horrors poured upon him. In vain does eras pelagi quondam speciem colloquentem secum videre visus sit. Ideoque magna parte noctis, vigilime cubandlique taedio, he endeavor to expel the dreadful remembrance of his nune toro residens, nune per longissimas porticus vagus, invodeeds, and bury them in forgetfulness; from the abyss care identidem atque expectare lucem consueverat;'-i. e. But of slumber they start forth, as the vampyres start from above all, he was tormented with nervous irritation, by sleeplessness; for he enjoyed not more than three hours of nocturnal their sepulchres, and hover around him like the furies repose: nor even these in pure, untroubled rest, but agitated by that pursued the footsteps of Orestes; while the voice phantasmata of portentous augury; as, for example, upon one of conscience stuns his ears with murmurs of judg- oocasion he fancied he saw the sea, under some definite imperment and eternity. Such is the punishment reserved sonation, conversing with himself Hence it was, and from this incapacity of sleeping, and from weariness of lying awake, that for the guilty in sleep. During the busy stir of active he had fallen into habits of ranging all the night long through the existence, they may contrive to evade the memory of palace, sometimes throwing himself on a couch, sometimes their wickedness-to silence the whispers of the' still wandering along the vast corrodors-watching for the earliest dawn, and anxiously invoking its approach.'-Blackwood's %miall voice' within them, and cheat thernselvme with a Magazine, vol. xxxiii. p. 59. 20 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. apt to induce visions of a very painful character. For This opinion is so singularly unphilosophical, that I this purpose, mild laxatives may become useful; and would not have noticed it, were it not advocated even if the person is subject to heartburn, he should use a by persons of good sense and education. In ancient little magnesia, chalk, or carbonate of soda, occasion- times, it was so common as to obtain universal belief; ally. Attention, also, must be paid to the diet; and and the greatest men placed as implicit faith in it as in as suppers, with some people, have a tendency to gene- any fact of which their own senses afforded them cograte dreams of all kinds, these meals should, in such nizance. That it is wholly erroneous, however, cancases, be carefully avoided. At the same time, great not be doubted; and any person who examines the nacare should be taken not to brood over any subject upon ture of the human mind, and the manner in which it lying down, but to dispel, as soon as possible, all intru- operates in dreams, must be convinced, that, under no sive ideas, especially if they are of a painful nature. If circumstances, except those of a miracle. in which the there is any unpleasant circumstances, such as hard- ordinary laws of nature are triumphed over, can such ness, irregularity, &c., connected with the bed, which an event ever take place. The sacred writings testends to affect sleep, and thus induce dreams, it must tifiy that miracles were common in former times; but be removed. Late reading, the use of tea or coffee I believe no man of sane mind will contend that they shortly before going to rest, or any thing which may ever occur in the present state of the world. In judgstimulate the brain, ought likewise to be avoided. ing of things as now constituted, we must discard sl.If dreaming seems to arise from any fulness of the pernatural influence altogether, and estimate events system, blooding and low diet will sometimes effect a according to the general laws which the great ruler of cure. Mr Stewart, the celebrated pedestrian traveller, nature has appointed for the guidance of the universe. states that he never dreamed when he lived exclusively If, in the present day, it were possible to conceive a upon vegetable food. This, however, may not hold suspension of these laws, it must, as in former ages, be true with every one.' When dreams arise from a di- in reference to some great event, and to serve some minution of customary stimuli, a light supper, a draught mighty purpose connected with the general interests of of porter, a glass of wine, or a dose of opium, general- the human race; but if faith is to be placed in modern ly prevent them. Habitual noises, when suspended miracles, we must suppose that God suspended the should be restored.'* above laws for the most trivial and useless of purposes In speaking of dreams representative of danger, I -as, for instance, to intimate to a man that his WPay mention that there are instances of persons, who, granidmother will die on a particular day, that a fahaving determined to remember that the perils seen in vourite mare has broke her neck, that he has received them are fallacious, have actually succeeded in doing a present of a brace of game, or that a certain so, while asleep; and have thus escaped the terrors friend will step in and take pot-luck with him on the which those imaginary dangers could otherwise have morrow. produced. Haller relates a case of this kind; and Mr At the same time, there can be no doubt that imany Dugald Stewart mentions that the plan was successfully circumstances occurring in our dreams have been actuadopted by Dr Reid to get rid of the distress of those ally verified; but this must be regarded as altogether fearful visions by which he was frequently annoyed. the effect of chance; and for one dream which turns Whenever, in a dream, the Doctor supposed himself on out to be true, at least a thousand are false. In fact, the brink of a precipice, or any other dangerous situa- it is only when they are of the former description, that tion, it was his custom to throw himself over, and thus we take any notice of them; the latter are looked upon destroy the illusion. Dr Beattie also relates, that at as mere idle vagaries, and speedily forgotten. If a one time he found himself in a dangerous situation upon man, for instance, dreams that he has gained a law-suit the parapet of a bridge. Reflecting that he was not in which he is engaged, and if this circumstance actusubject to pranks of this nature, he began to fancy that ally takes place, there is nothing at all extraordinary in it might be a dream, and determined to pitch himself the coincidence: his mind was full of the subject, and, over, with the conviction that this would restore him in sleep, naturally resolved itself into that train of ideas to his senses, which accordingIy took place.t I could in which it was most deeply interested. Or if we have never manage to carry this system into effect in an a friend engaged in war, our fears for his safety will ordinary dream of terror, but I have sometimes suc- lead us to dream of death or captivity, and we may see ceeded in doing so during an attack of nightmare; and him pent up in a hostile prison-house, or lying dead have thus very materially mitigated the alarm produced upon the battle plain. And should these melancholy by that distressing sensation. This intellectual opera- catastrophies ensue we call our vision to memory; and, tion may also be successfuly employed to dispel the in the excited state of mind into which we are thrown, lowness of spirits under which we often awake from un- are apt to consider it as a prophetic warning, indicative pleasant visions by teaching us that the depression we of disaster. The following is a very good illustration experience is merely the result of some unnatural of this particular point. excitement in the brain. Indeed, all kinds of melan- Miss M -, a young lady, a native of Ross-shire, choly, not based upon some obvious foundation, might was deeply in love with an officer who accompanied be mitigated or dispelled altogether, could we only Sir John Moore in the peninsular war. The constant oppose our feelings with the weapons of reason, and danger to which he was exposed, had an evident effect see things as they really are, and not as they only seem upon her spirits. She became pale and melancholy in to be. perpetually brooding over his fortunes; and, in spite of all that reason could do, felt a certain conviction, that when she last parted with her lover, she had parted with him for ever. In vain was every scheme tried to disCHAPTER IV. pel from her mind the awful idea; in vain were all the sights which opulence could command, unfolded before PROPSHETIC POWER OF DREAMS. her eyes. In the midst of pomp and gaiety, when music and laughter echoed around her, she walked as a Dreams have been looked upon by some, as the oc- pensive phantom, over whose head some dreadful and casional means of giving us an insight into futurity, pensive phantom, over whose head some dreadful and * Rush's Medical Inquiries, mysterious influence hung. She was brought by her These facts do not ontrovert what is elsewhere stated of a affectionate parents to Edinburgh, and introduced into person never being aware, during the actual process of a dream, all the gaiety of that metropolis, but nothing could rethat he was dreaming. While the above dreams were in pro- store her, or banish from her mind the insupportable gress, the individuals never doubted that they were'dreaming: load which oppressed it. The song and the dance the doubt, and the actions consequent upon it, were after-ope- w hich oppre ssed i t. The son g a nd the dance ration were tried in vain: they only aggravated her distress PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 21 and made the bitterness of despair more poignant. In mained under the protection of his uncle and aunt, Major a surprisingly short period, her graceful form declined and Mrs Griffiths, during the winter. When spring arinto all the appalling characteristics of a fatal illness; rived, Mr D. and three or four young gentlemen from and she seemed rapidly hastening to the grave, when a England, (his intimates,) made parties to visit all the dream confirmed the horrors she had long anticipated, neighboring places about Edinburgh, Roslin, Arthur's and gave the finishing stroke to ner sorrows. One Seat, Craig-Millar, &c., &c. Coming home one night, after falling asleep, she imagined she saw her evening from some- of those places, Mr D. said,'We lover, pale, bloody, and wounded in the breast, enter have made a party to go a-fishing to Inch-Keith toher apartment. He drew aside the curtains of the bed, morrow, if the morning is fine, and have bespoke our and with a look of the utmost mildness, informed her boat; we shall be off at six;' no objection being made, that he had been slain in battle, desiring her, at the they separated for the night. same time, to comfort herself, and not take his death too'Mrs Griffiths, had not been long asleep, till she seriously to heart. It is needless to say what influence screamed out in -the most violent agitated manner, this vision had upon a iMind so replete with woe. It'The boat is sinking; save, oh, save them!' The withered it entirely, and the unfortunate girl died a few Major awaked her, and said,' Were you uneasy about days thereafter, but not without desiring her parents to the fishing party?'' Oh no,' said she,' I had not once note down the day of the month on which'it happened, thought of it.' She then composed herself, and soon and see if it would be confirmed, as she confidently de- fell asleep again; in about an hour, she cried out in a dlared it would. Her anticipation was correct, for ac- dreadful fright,' I see the boat is going down.' The counts were shortly after received that the young man Major again awoke her, and she said,'It has been was slain at the battle of Corunna, which was fought on owing to the other dream I had; for I feel no uneaslthe very day, on the night of which his mistress had ness about it.' After some conversation, they both beheld the vision. fell sound asleep, but no rest could be obtained for her; This relation, which may be confidently relied upon, in the most extreme agony, she again screamed,' They is one of the most striking examples of identity between are gone; the boat is sunk!' When the Major the-dream and the real circumstances with which I am awakened her, she said,' Now I cannot rest; Mr D. acquainted, but it must be looked upon as merely acci- must not go, for I feel, should he go, I would be dental. The lady's mind was deeply interested in the miserable till his return; the thoughts of it would alfate of her lover, and full of that event which she most most kill me.' deeply dreaded-his death. The time of this occur-' She instantly arose, threw on her wrapping-gown, rence, as coinciding with her dream, is certainly curi- went to his bedside, for his room was next their own, ous; but still there is nothing in it which can justify us and with great difficulty she got his promise to remain in referring it to any other origin than chance. The at home.'But what am I to say to my young friends following events, which occurred to myself, in August whom I was to meet at Leith at six o'clock?'' With 1821, are almost equally renlarkable, and are imputable great truth you may say your aunt is ill, for I am so to the same fortuitous cause. at present; consider, you are an only son, under our I was then in Caithness, when I dreamed that a near protection, and should any thing happen to you, it would relation of my own, residing three hundred miles off, be my death.' Mr D. immediately wrote a note to his had suddenly died: and immediately thereafter awoke friends, saying he was prevented from joining them, in a state of inconceivable terror, similar to that pro- and sent his servant with it to Leith. The morning dur.ed by a paroxysm of nightmare. The same day, came in most beautifully, and continued so till three happening to be writing home, I mentioned the circum- o'clock, when a violent storm arose, and in an instant stance in a half-jesting, half-earnest way. To tell the the boat, and all that were in it, went to the bottom, truth, I was afraid to be serious, lest I should be laughed and were never heard of, nor was any part of it ever at for putting any faith in dreams. However, in the seen.'* interval between writing and receiving an answer, I re- Equally singular is the following case, from the mained in a state of most unpleasant suspense. I felt'Memoirs of Lady Fanshawe.' a presentiment that something dreadful had happened,'My mother being sick to death of a fever, three or would happen; and although I could not help months after I was born, which was the occasion she blaming myself for a childish weakness in so feeling, I gave me suck no longer, her friends and servants was unable to get rid of the painful idea which had thought to all outward appearnce she was dead, and so taken such rootedpossession of mymind. Three days lay almost two days and a night; but Dr Winston after sending away the letter, what was my astonish- coming to comfort my father, went into my mother's ment when I received one written the day subsequent room, and looking earnestly on her face, said,' She to mine, and stating that the relative of whom I had was so handsome, and now looks so lovely, I cannot dreamed, had been struck with a fatal shock of palsy think she is dead;' and suddenly took a lancet out of the day before-viz. the very day on the morning of his pocket, and with it cut the sole of her foot, which which I had beheld the appearance in my dream! My bled. Upon this, he immediately caused her to be laid friends received my letter two days after sending their upon the bed again, and to be rubbed, and such means, own away, and were naturally astonished at the cir- as she came to life, and opening her eyes, saw two of cumstance. I may state that my relation was in per- her kinswomen stand by her, my Lady Knollys and my fect health before the fatal event took place. It came Lady Russell,'both with great wide sleeves, as the upon him like a thunderbolt, at a period when no one fashion then was, and said,' Did not you promise me could have the slightest anticipation of danger. fifteen years, and are you come again' which they not The following case will interest the reader, both on understanding, persuaded her to keep her spirits quiet its own account, and from the remarkable coincidence in that great weakness wherein she then was; but between the dream and the succeeding calamity; but, some hours after, she desired my father and Dr Howlslike all other instances of the kind, this also must be worth might be left alone with her, to whom she said, referred to chance.' I will acquaint you, that during the time of my trance'Being in company the other day, when the conver- I was in great quiet, but in a place I could neither sation turned upon dreams, I related one, which as it distinguish nor describe; but the sense of leaving my happened to my own father, I can answer for the per- girl, who is dearer to me than all my children, remained fect truth of it. About the year 1731, imy father, Mr a trouble upon my spirits. Suddenly I saw two by me, D. of K-, in the County of Cumberland, came to clothed in long white garments, and methought I fell Edinburgh to attend the classes, having the advantage down upon my face upon the dust; and they asked of an uncle in the regiment then in the Castle, and re- ~ Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine,' vol. xix. p. 73. 22 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. why I was so troubled in so great happiness. I re- Edinburgh, who was affected with an aneurism of the plied, 0 let me have the same grant given to Hezekiah, popliteal artery, for which he was under the care of two that I may live fifteen years to see my daughter a eminent surgeons. About two days before the time woman: to which they answered, It is done: and appointed for the operation, his wife dreamed that a then, at that instant, I awoke out of my trance!' and change had taken place in the disease, in consequence Dr Howlsworth did there affirm, that that day she died of which an operation would not be required.' On made just fifteen years from that time.' examining the tumor in the morning, the gentleman A sufficiently striking instance of such coincidence was astonished to find that the pulsation had entirely occurs in the case of Dr Donne, the metaphysical ceased; and, in short, this turned out to be a spontanepoet; but I believe that, in this case, it was a spectral ous cure. To persons not professional, it may be right illusion rather than a common dream. Two days after to mention that the cure of popliteal aneurism, without he had arrived in Paris, he was left alone in a room an operation, is a very uncommon occurrence, not hapwhere he had been dining with Sir Robert Druiy and pening, perhaps, in one out of numerous instances, and a few companions.' Sir Robert returned about an never to be looked upon as probable in any individual hour afterwards. He found his friend in a state of case. It is likely, however, that the lady had heard of ecstacy, and so altered in his countenance, that he the possibility of such a termination, and that her anxcould not look upon him without amazement. The iety had very naturally embodied this into a dream: the Doctor was not able for some time to answer the ques- fillfilment of it, at the very time when the event took tion, what had befallen him?-but a long and perplexed place, is certainly a very remarkable coincidence.'* pause, at last said,' I have seen a dreadful vision Persons are said to have had the period of their own since I saw you; I have seen my dear wife pass twice death pointed out to them in dreams. I have often by me through this room, with her hair hanging about heard the case of the late Mr M. of D related in her shoulders, and a dead child in her arms. This I support of this statement. It is certainly worth telling, have seen since I saw you.' To which Sir Robert not on account of any supernatural character belonging answered,'Sure, Sir, you have slept since I went out; to it, but simply from the extraordinary coincidence and this is the result of some melancholy dream, between the dream and the subsequent event. This which I desire you to forget, for you are now awake.' gentleman dreamed one night that he was out riding, Donne replied,' I cannot be more sure that I now live, when he stopped at an inn on the road side for refreshthan that I have not slept since I saw you; and am as ment, where he saw several people whom he had known sure that at her second appearing she stopped, looked some years before, but who were all dead. He was me in in the face and vanished.'"* It is certainly very received kindly by them, and desired to sit down and curious that Mrs Donne, who was then in England, drink, which he accordingly did. On quitting this was at this time sick in bed, and had been delivered strange company, they exacted a promise from him that of a dead child, on the same day, and about the same he would visit them that day six weeks. This he hour, that the vision occurred. There were distressing promised faithfully to do; and, bidding them farewell, circumstances in the marriage of. Dr Donne which ac- he rode homewards. Such was the substance of his count for his mind being strongly impressed with the dream, which he related ill a jocular way to his friends, image of his wife, to whom he was exceedingly at- but thought no more about it, for he was a person above tached; but these do not render the coincidence above all kind of superstition. The event, however, was cerrelated less remarkable. tainly curious enough, as well as melancholy; for on I do not doubt that the apparition of Julius Coesar, that very day six weeks on which he had engaged to which appeared to Brutus, and declared it would meet meet his friends at the inn, he was killed in attempting him at Philippi, was either a dream or a spectral illu- to spring his horse over a five-barred gate. The famous sion-probably the latter. Brutus, in all likelihood, case of Lord Lyttletont is also cited as an example of had some idea that the battle which was to decide his, a similar kind, but with less show of reason, for this fate would be fought at Philippi: probably it was a case is now very generally supposed to be an imposigood military position, which he had fixed upon as a fit tion; and so will almost every other of the same kind, place to make a final stand; and he had done enough if narrowly investigated. At the same time, I do not to Casar to account for his own mind being painfully mean to doubt that such an event, foretold in a dream, and constantly engrossed with the image of the assasin- may occasionally come to pass; but I would refer the ated Dictator. Hence the verification of this supposed whole to fortuitous coincidence. Men dream, every warning-hence the easy explanation of a supposed now and then, that they will die on a certain day, yet supernatural event. how seldom do we see those predictions fulfiled by the At Newark-upon-Trent, a curious custom, founded result! In very delicate people, indeed, such a visionupon the preservation of Alderman Clay and his family ary communication, by acting fatally upon the mind, by a dream, has prevailed since the days of Cromwell. might be the means of occasioning its own fulfilment. On the 11th March, every year, penny loaves are given In such cases, it has been customary for the friends of away to any one who chooses to appear at the town the individual to put back the clock an hour or two, so hall and apply for them, in commemoration of the al- as to let the fatal period pass by without his being aware derman's deliverance, during the siege of Newark by of it; and as soon as it was fairly passed, to inform the parliamentary forces. This gentleman, by will, him of the circumstance, and laugh him out of his apdated 11th December, 1694, gave to the mayor and al- prehension. dermen one hundred pounds, the interest of which was There is another way in which the apparent fulfilto be given to the vicar yearly, on condition of his ment of a dream maybe brought about. A good illuspreaching an annual sermon. Another hundred pounds tration in point is given by Mr Combe. The subject were also appropriated for the behoof of the poor, in the of it was one Scott, executed in 1823, at Jedburg, for way above mentioned. The origin of this bequest is murder.'It is stated in his life, that some years besingular. During the bombardment of Newark by Oliver Cromwell's forces, the b alderman dreamed three O * Abercrombie's Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powver Cromwell's forces, the alderman dreamed three ers, p. 2S2,1st edit. nights successively that his house had taken fire, which t' Of late it has been said and published, that the unfortuproduced such a vivid impression upon his mind, that nate nobleman had previously determined to take poison, and of he and his family left it; and in a few days the cir- course had it in his own power to ascertain the executa man, wh of the prediction. it was, no doubt, singular that a man, whio medicumstances of his vision actually took place, by the tated his exit from the world, should have chosen to play such a house being burned down by the besiegers. trick upon his friends. But it is still more credible that a whimsiDr Abercrombie relates the case of a gentleman in cal man should do so wild a thing, than that a messenger should be sent from the dead, to tell a libertine at what precise hour he * Hibbert's Philosophy of Apparitions, p. 354. should expire.' —Scottll's Letters on Demonology, p. 361 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 23 fore the fatal event, he had dreamed that he had cornm- But after an industrious search among his father's pamltted a mui der, and was greatly impressed, with the pers, an investigation of the public records, and a careidea. He frequently spoke of it, and recurred to it as ful inquiry among all persons who had transacted law something ominous, till at last it was realized. The business for his father, no evidence could be recovered organ of Destructiveness was large in the head, and so to support his defence. The period was now near at active that he was an enthusiast in poaching, and prone hand when he conceived the loss of his lawsuit to be to outrage and violence in his habitual conduct. This inevitable, and he had formed the determination to ride activity of the organ might take place during sleep, and to Edinburgh next day, and make the best bargain he then it would inspire his mind with destructive feelings, could in the way of compromise. 1A went to bed with and the dream of murder would be the consequence. this resolution, and, with all the circumstances of the From the great natural strength of the propensity, he case floating upon his mind, had a dream to the followprobably may have felt, when awake, an inward ten- ing purpose. His father, who had been many years dency to this crime; and, joining this and the dream dead, appeared to him, he thought, and asked him why together, we can easily account for the strong impres- he was disturbed in his mind. In dreams, men are not sion left by the latter on the mind.' * surprised at such apparitions. Mr R-d thought One method in which death may appear to be foretold that he informed his father of the cause of his distress, is, by the accession of frightful visions immediately be- adding, that the payment of a considerable sum of mofore the fatal illnesses. This, however, goes for nothing ney was the more unpleasant to him, because he had a in the way of argument, for it was the state of the sys- strong consciousness that it was not due, though he tem shortly before the attack of disease which induced was unable to recover any evidence in support of his such dreams. According to Silamachus, the epidemic belief.'You are right, my son,' replied the paternal fever which prevailed at Rome was ushered in by at- shade;'I did acquire right to these tiends, for paytacks of nightmare; and Sylvius Deleboe, who de- ment of which you are now prosecuted. The papers scribes the epidemic which raged at Leyden in 1669, relating to the transaction are now in the hands of Mr states, that previous to each paroxysm of the fever, the --, a writer, (or attorney,) who is now retired from patient fell asleep, and suffered a severe attack of night- professional business, and resides at Inveresk, near mare. The vulgar belief, therefore, that unpleasant Edinburgh. He was a person whom I employed on dreams are ominous of death, is not destitute of founda- that occasion for a particular reason, but who never on tion; but the cause why they should be so is perfectly any other occasion transacted business on my account. natural. JIt is the incipitent disease which produces the It is very possible,' pursued the vision,' that Mr dreams, and the fatal event which often follows, is a may have forgotten a matter which is now of a very old natural consequence of that disease. date; but you may call it to his recollection by this It is undoubtedly owing to the faculty possessed by token, that when I came to pay his account, there was sleep, of renewing long-forgotten ideas, that persons difficulty in getting change for a Portugal piece of gold, have had important facts communicated to them in and we were forced to drink out the balance at a dreams. There have been instances, for example, tavern.' where valuable documents, sums of money, &c, have' Mr R- d awoke in the morning with all the words been concealed, and where either the person who se- of the vision imprinted on his mind, and thought it creted them or he who had the place of their conceal- worth while to walk across the country to Inveresk, inment communicated to him, may.have forgotten every stead of going straight to Edinburgh. When he came thing therewith connected. He may then torture his there, he waited on the gentleman mention6d in the mind in vain, during the walking state, to recollect the dream, a very old man. Without saying anything of event; and it may be brought to his remembrance, at the vision, he inquired whether he remembered having once, in a dream. in' such cases, an apparition is gen- conducted such a matter for his diseased father. The erally the medium through which the seemingly myste- old gentleman could not at first bring the circumstance rious knowledge is communicated. The imagination to his recollection, but on mention of the Portugal piece conjures up some phantom that discloses the secret; of gold, the whole returned upon his memory; he made which circumstance, proceeding, in reality, from a sim- an immediate search for the papers, and recovered ple operation of the mind, is straightway converted in- them-so that MIr R- d carried to Edinburgh the to something supernatural, and invested with all the documents necessary to gain the cause which he was attributes of wonder and awe. When such spectral on the verge of losing. forms appear, and communicate some fact which turns' The author has often heard this story told by perout to be founded on truth, the person is not always solls who had the best access to know the facts, who aware that the whole occurred in a dream, but often were not likely themselves to be deceived, and were fancies that he was broad awake when the apparition certainly incapable of deception. He cannot, thereappeared to him and communicated the particular intel- fore, refuse to give it credit, however extraordinary the ligence. Whenwe hear, therefore, of hidden treasures, circumstances may appear. The circumstantial chawills, &c, being disclosed in such a manner, we are racter of the information given in the dream, takes it not always to scout the report as false. The spectre out of the general class of impressions of the kind, divulging the intelligence was certainly themere chim- which are occasioned by the fortuitous coincidence of era of the dreamer's brain, but the facts revealed, ap- actual events with our sleeping thoughts. On the othparently by this phantom, may, from the above circum- er hand, few will suppose that the laws of nature were stance, be substantially true. The following curious suspended, and a special communication from the dead case is strikingly in point, and is given by Sir Walter to the living permitted, for the purpose of saving Mr. Scott in his notes to the new edition of'The Anti- R-d a certain number of hundred pounds. The quary' author's theory is, that the dream was only the recapitua-'Mr R-d of Bowland, a gentleman of landed lation of information which Mr R - d had really reproperty in the Vale of Gala, was prosecuted for a very ceived from his father while in life, but which at first considerable sum, the accumulated arrears of tiend, (or he merely recalled as a general impression that the tithe,) for which he was said to be indebted to a noble claim was settled. It is not uncommon for persons to family, the titulars (lay impropriators of the tithes.) Mr recover, during sleep, the thread of ideas which they R-~.d was strongly impressed with the belief that his have lost during their waking hours. It may be added, father had, by a form of process peculiar to the law of that this remarkable circumstance was attended with Scotland, purchased these lands from the titular, and, bad consequences to Mr R d; whose health and therefore, that the present prosecution was groundless. spirits were afterwards impaired, by the attention which * Combe's System of Phrenology, p. 511, 3d edit. he thought himself obliged to pay to the visions of the 24 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. night.' This result is a melancholy proof of the effect helplessness; and the extent to which these are carrie,l sometimes produced by ignorance of the natural laws. varies according to the violence of the paroxysm. Had Mr R- d been acquainted with the nature of The individual never feels himself a free agent; on the brain, and of the manner in which it is affected in the contrary he is spell-bound by some enchantment, sleep, the circumstance above related would have given and remains an unresisting victim for malice to work him no annoyance. He would have traced the whole its will upon. He can neither breathe, nor walk, noi chain of events to their true source; but, being ignorant run, with his wonted facility. If pursued by an immiof this, he became the victim of superstition, and his nent danger, he can hardly drag one limb after another; life was rendered mhiserable. if engaged in combat, his blows are utterly ineffective; if involved in the fangs of any animal, or in the grasp of an enemy, extrication is impossible. He struggles, he pants, he toils, but it is all in vain: his muscles are CHAPTER V. rebels to the will, and refuse to obey-its calls. In no case is there a sense of complete freedom: the benumbing stupor never departs from him; and his whole Nightmare may be defined a painful dream, accom- being is locked up in one mighty spasm. Sometimes panied with difficult respiratory action, and a torpor in he is forcing himself through an aperture too small for the powers of volition. The reflecting organs are gen- the reception of his body, and is there arrested and torerally more or less awake; and, in this respect, night- tured by the pangs of suffocation pipduced by the presmare differs from simple dreaming, where they are sure to which he is exposed; or he loses his way in a mostly quiescent. narrow labyrinth, and gets involved in its contracted and This affection, the EPHIALTES of the Greeks, and inextricable mazes; or he is entombed alive in a seINCUBUS of the Romans, is one of the most distressing pulchre, beside the mouldering dead. There is, in to which human nature is subject. Imagination cannot most cases, an intense reality in all that he sees, or conceive the horrors it frequently gives rise to, or lan- hears, or feels. The aspects of the hideous phantoms guage describe them in adequate terms. They are a which harass his imagination are bold and defined; the thousand times more frightful than the visions conjured sounds which greet his ear appalling distinct; and up by necromancy or diablere; and far transcend every when any dimness or confusion of imagery does pro thing in history or romance, from the fable of the vail, it is of the most fearful kind, leaving nothing but writhing and asp-encircled Laocoon to Dante's appal- dreary and miserable impressions behind it. ling picture of Ugolino and his famished offspring, or the Much of the horror experienced in nightmare will hidden tortures of the Spanish inquisition. The whole depend upon the natural activity of the imagination, mind, during the paroxysm, is wrought up to a pitch of upon the condition of the body, and upon the state ot unutterable despair: a spell is laid upon the faculties, mental exertion before going to sleep. -If, for instance, which freezes them into inaction; and the wretched we have been engaged in the perusal of such works as victim feels as if pent alive in his coffin, or overpowered' The Monk,'' The Mysteries of Udolpho,' or' Satan's by resistless and immitigable pressure. Invisible World Discovered;' and if an attack of The modifications which nightmare assumes are in- nightmare should supervene, it will be aggravated intc finite; but one passion is almost never absent-that of sevenfold horror by the spectral phantoms with which utter and incomprehensible dread. Sometimes the suf- our minds have been thereby fillled. We will enter ferer is buried beneath overwhelming rocks, which into all the fearful mysteries of these writings, which, crush him on all sides, but still leave him with a miser- instead of being mitigated by slumber, acquire an inable consciousness of his situation. Sometimes he is tensity which they never could have possessed in the involved in the coils of a horrid, slimy monster, whose waking state. The apparitions of murdered victims, eyes have the phosphorescent glare of the sepulchre, like the form of Banquo, which wrung the guilty conand whose breath is poisonous as the marsh of Lerna. science of Macbeth, will stalk before us; we are surEvery thing horrible, disgusting, or terriffic in the phy- rounded by sheeted ghosts, which glare upon us with sical or moral world, is brought before him in fearful their cold sepulchral eyes; our habitation is among the array; he is hissed at by serpents, tortured by demons, vaults of ancient cathedrals, or among the dungeons stunned by the hollow voices and cold touch of appari- of ruined monasteries, and our companions are the tions. A mighty stone is laid upon his breast, and dead. crushes him to the ground in helpless agony; mad At other times, an association of ludicrous images bulls and tigers pursue his palsied footsteps: the un- passes through the mind: every thing becomes inconearthly shrieks and gibberish of hags, witches, and gruous, ridiculous, and absurd. But even in the midst fiends float around him. In whatever situation he may of such preposterous fancies, the passion of mirth is be placed, he feels superlatively wretched; he is Ixion never for one moment excited: the same blank despair, working for ages at his wheel: he is Sisyphus rolling the same freezing inertia, the same stifling tortures, his eternal stone: he is stretched upon the iron bed of still harass us; and so far from being amused by the Procrustes: he is prostrated by inevitable destiny be- laughable drama enacted before us, we behold it with neath the approaching wheels of the car of Juggernaut. sensations of undefined horror and disgust. At one moment, he may have the consciousness of In general, during an attack, the person has the cona malignant demon being at his side: then to shun the sciousuess of an utter inability to express his horror by sight of so appalling an object, he will close his eyes, cries. He feels that his voice is half choked by imbut still the fearful being makes its presence known; pending suffocation, and that any exertion of it, farther for its icy breath is felt diffusing itself over his visage, than a deep sigh or groan, is impossible, Sometimes, and heknows thathe isface to face with a fiend. Then, however, he conceives that he is bellowing with proif he look up, he beholds horrid eyes glaring upon him, digious energy, and wonders that the household are pct and an aspect of hell grinning at him with even more alarmed by his noise. But this is an illusion: thcse than hellish malice. Or, he may have the idea of a outcries which he fancies himself uttering, are merely monstrous hag squatted upon his breast-mute, motion- obscure moans, forced with difficulty and pain from the less, and malignant; an incarnation of the evil spirit- stifled penetralia of his bosom. whose intolerable weight crushes the breath out of his Nightmare takes place under various circumstances. body, and whose fixed, deadly, incessant stare petrifies Sometimes, from a state of perfect sleep, we glide into him with horror and makes his very existence insuffer- it, and feel ourselves unconsciously overtaken by its able. attendant horrors: at other times, we experience it In every instance, there is a sense of oppression and stealing upon us like a thief, at a period when we are PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 25 all but awake, and aware of its approach. We have standing will convince us that these are merely the then our senses about us, only, perhaps a little dead- chimeras of sleep. We regard them as events of ac ened and confused by incipient slumber; and we feel tual occurrence, and will not be persuaded to the the gradual advance of the fiend, without arousing our- contrary. With some, such a belief has gone down to selves, and scaring him away, althongh we appear to the grave: and others have maintained it strenuously possess the full ability of doing so. Some persons, im- for years, till a recurrence of the illusions under circummediately previous to an attack, have sensations of ver- stances which rendered their real existence impossible, tigo and ringing in the ears. has shown them that the whole was a dream. Many a At one time, nightmare melts into unbroken sleep good ghost story has had its source in the illusions of or pleasing dreams; and when we awake in the morn- nightmare. ing with merely the remembrance of having had one of The following case related by Mr Waller gives a its attacks; at another, it arouses us by its violence, good idea of the strength of such illusive feelings. and we start out of it with a convulsive shudder. At' In the month of February, 1814, I was living in the the moment of throwing off the fit, we seem to turn same house with a young gentlemen, the son of a peer round upon the side with a mighty effort, as if from of the United Kingdom, who was at that time under my beneath the pressure of a superincumbent weight; and, care, in a very alarming state of health; and who had the more thoroughly to awake ourselves, we generally been, for several days, in a state of violent delirium. kick violently, beat the breast, rise up in bed, and cry The close attention which his case required from me, out once or twice. As soon as we are able to exercise together with a degree of personal attachment to him, the voice or voluntary muscles with freedom, the pa- had rendered me extremely anxious about him; and as roxysm is at an end; but for some time after, we ex- my usual hours of sleep suffered a great degree of inperience extreme terror, and often cold shivering, while terruption from the attendance given to him, I was from the heart throbs violently, and the respiration is hur- that cause alone, rendered more than usually liable to ried These two latter circumstances are doubted by the attacks of nightmare, which consequently intruded Dr Darwvin, but I am convinced of their existence, itself every night upon my slumbers. The young genboth from what I have experienced in my own per- tleman in question, from the violence of his delirium, son, and from what I have been told by others: in- was with great difiuiculty kept in bed; and had one or deed, analogy would irresistibly lead us to conclude twice eluded the vigilance of his attendants, and jumpthat they must exist; and whoever carefully in- ed out of bed, an accident of which I was every moment vestigates the subject, will find that they do almost dreading a repetition. I awoke from one sleep one universally. morning about four o'clock-at least it apppeared to me An opinion prevails, that during incubus the person that I awoke-and heard distinctly the voice of this is always upon his back; and the circumstances of his young gentleman, who seemed to be coming hastily up usually feeling as if in that posture, together with the the stairs leading to my apartment, calling me by name relief which he experiences on turning round upon his in the manner he was accustomed to do in his delirium; side, are certainly strong presumptions in favour of its and, immediately after, I saw him standing by my bedaccuracy. The sensations, however, which occur, in side, holding the curtains open, expressing all that wildthis state, are fallacious in the highest degree. We ness in his looks which accompanies a violent delirium have seldom any evidence either that he was on his At the same moment, I heard the voices of his two atback, or that he turned round at all. The fact, that he tendants coming up the stairs in search of him, who supposed himself in the above position during the fit, likewise came into the room and took him away. During and the other fact, that, on recovering from it, he was all this scene I was attempting to speak, but could not lying on his side, may have produced the illusioa; and, articulate; I thought, however, that I succeeded in where he never moved a single muscle, he may con- attempting to get out of bed, and assisting his atendants ceive that he turned round after a prodigious effort. I in removing him out of the room; after which, I rehave had an attack of this disorder while sitting in an turned to bed, and instantly fell asleep. Wrhen I waitarm-chair, or with my head leaning against a table. In ed upon my patient in the morning, I was not a little fact, these are the most likely positions to bring it on, surprised to find that he was asleep; and was uttterly the lungs being then more completely compressed confounded on being told that he had been so all night; than in almost any other posture. I have also had it and as this was the first sleep he had enjoyed for three most distinctly while lying on the side, and I know or four days, the attendants were very minute in demany cases of a similar description in others. Al- tailing the whole particulars of it. Athough this acthough, therefore, nightmare may take place more count appeared inconsistent with what I conceived I frequently upon the back than upon the side, the had seen, and with what I concluded they knew as opinion that it occurs only in the former of these pos- well as myself, I did not, for some time, perceive the tures, is altogether incorrect; and where we are much error into which I had been led, till I observed that addicted to its attacks,; no posture whatever will pro- some of my questions and remarks were not intelligitect us. ble; then I began to suspect the true source of the Persons not particulary subject to incubus, feel no error, which I should never have discovered had not inconvenience, save temporary terror or fatigue, from experience rendered these hallucinations familiar to me. any occasional attack which they may have; but those But the whole of this transaction had so much consistwith whom it is habitual, are apt to experience a cer- ency and probability in it, that I might, under different tain degree of giddiness, ringing in the ears, tension eircumstances, have remained forever ignorant of of the forehead, flashing of light before the eyes, and having been imposed upon in this instance, by my other symptoms of cerebral congestion. A bad taste senses.'* in the mouth, and more or less fulness about the During nightmare, the deepness of the slumber vapit of the stomach, are sometimes experienced after an ries much at different times. Sometimes we are in a attack. state closely approximating upon perfect sleep; at other The illusions which occur, are perhaps the most ex- times we are almost completely awake; and it will be traordinary phenomena of nightmare; and so strongly remarked, that the more awake we are, the greater is are they often impressed upon the mind, that, even on the violence of the paroxysm. I have experienced the awaking, we find it impossible not to believe them real. affection stealing upon me while in perfect possession We may, for example, be sensible of knockings at the of my faculties, and have undergone the greatest tordoor of our apartment, hear familiar voices calling upon tures, being haunted by spectres, hags, and every sort as, and see individuals passing through the chamber. of phantom-having, at the same time, a full conscious. [n many cases, no arguments, no efforts of the under. * Waller's Treatise. 26 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. ness that I was labouring under incubus, and that all but it will be found that, whatever they may be, thei the terrifying objects around me were the creations of ultimate operation is upon the lungs. my own brain. This shows that the judgment is often We have already seen that, in ordinary sleep, par only very partially affected, and proves also that night- ticular states of the body are apt to induce visions: it mare is not merely a disagreeable dream, but a painful is, therefore easily conceivable that a sense of suflobcabodily affection. Were it nothing more than the for- tion, such as occurs in nightmare, may give birth to all mer, we could rarely possess a knowledge of our con- the horrid phantoms seen in that distemper. The phydition; for, in simple visions, the reflecting organs are sical sufferings in such a case, exalts the imagination to almost uniformly quiescent, and we scarcely ever, for a its utmost pitch: fills it with spectres and chimeras; moment, doubt the reality of our impressions. In night- and plants an immovable weight or malignant fiend upmare, this is often, perhaps generally, the case; but on the bosom to crush us into agony. Let us see how we frequently meet with instances, in which, during such physical sufferings is brought about. the worst periods of the fit, consciousness remains al- Any disordered state of the stomach may produce it. most unimpaired. This organ may be so distended with food or wind as There are great differences in the duration of the to press upon the diaphragm, lessen the dimensions paroxysm, and also in the facility with which it is broken. of the chest, obstruct the movements of the heart, and I know not of any method by whimeh the period to which thereby impede respiration. Circumstances likethese it extends can be estimated, for the sufferer has no data alone are sufficient to produce nightmare; and the to go by, and time, as in all modifications of dreaming, Se from the first is purely mechanical. is subjected to the most capricious laws-an actual Secondly. The state of the stomach may call forth minute often appearing to embrace a whole hour. Of incubus by means circuitous or indirect. In this case this point, therefore, we must be contented to remain the viscus is unequal to the task imposed upon it of diin ignorance; but it may be conceived that the attack gesting the food, either from an unusual quantity being will be as various in its duration, as in the characters thrown upon it, from the food being of an indigestible which it assumes-in one case being ten times as long nature, or from actualweakness. Here the sensorial as in another. With regard to the breaking of the fit, power latent in this organ, is insufficient to carry it the differences are equally great. At one time, the through with its operations, and it is obliged to draw slightest agitation of the body, the opening of the chainm- upon the rest of the body-upon the brain, the respiraber door, or calling softly to the sufferer, will arouse tory muscles, &c, for the supply of which it is deficient. him; at another, he requires to be shaken violently, The muscles of respiration, in giving their portion, reand called upon long and loudly, before he is released. duce themselves to a state of temporary debility, and do not retain a sufficient share to execute their own acSome people are much more prone to incubus than tions with due vigour. The pectorels, the intercostals, others. Those whose, digestion is healthy, whose tions with due vigour. The pectorels, theintercostals, others. Thoe whose digestion is healthy, whose v and the diaphragm became thus paralyzed; and, the minds are at ease, and who go supperless to bed, will chest not being sufficiently dilated for perfect breathing, seldom be troubled with it. Those, again, who keep a feeling of suffocation inevitably insues. In like manlate hours, study hard, eat heavy suppers, and are sub- ner, the muscles of volition, rendered inert by the subject to bile, acid, or hypochondria, are almost sure to traction of their quota of sensorial power, are unable to be more or less its victims. There are particular exercise their functions, and remain, during the parkinds of food, which pretty constantly lead to the same in a state of immovable torpor. This unequal result, such as cheese, cucumbers, almonds, and what- distribution of nervous energy continues till, by proever is hard to be digested. Hildesheim, In his' De ducing some excessive uneasiness, it stimulates the Affectibus Capitis,' justly remarks, that' he who wishes will to a violent effort, and breaks the fit; and so soon to know what nightmare is, let him eat chestnuts be- as this takes place, the balance becomes redressed, and fore going to sleep, and drink feculent wine after them.' the sensorial equilibrium restored. Certain diseases, also, are apt to induce it, such as Physical suffering of that kind which impedes breathasthma, hydrothorax, agina pectoris, and other varie- ing, may also be occasioned by many other causesties of dyspncea. Men are more subject to it than wo- by pneuomonia, by empyema, by aneurism of the aorta, men, probably from their stomachs being more fre- by laryngitis by croup, by external pressure; and, acqueutly disordered by intemperance, and their minds cordingly, either of these may give rise to nightmare. more closely occupied. Sailors, owing to the hard and If we chance to lie down with a pillow or heavy cloak indigestible nature of their food, are very frequently its upon the breast, or to sleep with the body bent forward, victims; and it is a general remark that it oftener oc- and the head supported upon a table, as already mencurs at sea than on shore. It seems probable that tioned, we may be seized with it; and, in truth, whatmuch of the superstitious belief of these men, in appari- ever, either directly or indirectly, acts upon the respirations, proceeds from the phantoms which nightmare calls tory muscles, and impedes their operation, is pretty into existence. Unmarried women are more annoyed sure to bring it on. Even a weak or disordered sto by it than those who are married; and the latter, when mach,'in which there is no food, by attracting to itself pregnant, have it oftener than at other times. Persons a portion of their sensorial power to aid its own inadewho were extremely subject to the complaint in their quacies, may induce it. The disorder, therefore, takes youth, sometimes get rid of it when they reach the age place under various circumstances-either by direct of puberty, owing, probably, to some change in the con- pressure upon the lungs, as in distended stomach, or stitution which occurs at this period. hydrothorax; or by partial torpor of the stomach or There have been different opinions with regard to muscles of respiration, owing to a deficiency of nervous the proximate cause of incubus, and authors have gen- energy. These physical impediments coexisting with, erally looked upon it as involved in considerable obscu- or giving rise to a distempered state of the brain, suffirity. An impeded circulation of blood in the pulmo- ciently account for the horrors of nightmare. nary arteries, compression of the diaphragm by a full Why are hard students, deep thinkers, and hypostomach, and torpor of the intercostal muscles, are all chondriacs unusually subject to incubus? The cause mentioned as contributing wholly, or partially, to the is obvious. Such individuals have often a bad digesevent. I am of opinion that either of these states may tion: their stomachs are subject to acidity, and other cause nightmare*but that, in most cases, they are all functional derangements, and therefore, peculiarly apt combined. Any thing, in fact, which impedes respira- to generate the complaint. The sedentary life, and tion, may give rise to the disorder, whether it be asthma, habits of intellectual or nlelancholy reflection in which hydrothorax, distended stomach, muscular torpor, or they indulge, have a tendency not merely to disturb external compression. The causes, then, are various, the digestive apparatus, but to act upon the whole cere PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 27 bral system: hence, they are far more liable to dreams brought on by plethora. With regard to the other of every kind than other people, in so far as their minds causes of nightmare, such as asthma, hydrothorax, &c., are more intently employed; and when, in sleep, they these must be treated on general principles, and it, are pained by any physical endurance, the activity of as one of their symptoms, will depart so soon as they their mental powers will naturally associate the most are removed. horrible ideas with such suffering, and produce incubus, Some persons recommend opium for the cure of and all its frightful accompaniments. nightmare, but this medicine I should think more likely Nightmare is sometimes attended with danger, when to aggrave than relieve the complaint. The late Dr it becomes habitual. It may then give rise to apoplexy, Polydori, author of' The Vampyre,' and of an' Esand destroy life; or, in very nervous subjects, may say on Positive Pleasure,' was much subject to incubus, occasion epileptic and hysterical affections, which prove and in the habit of using opium for its removal. One extremely harassing. According to Ccelius Aurelianus, morning he was found dead, and on the table beside many people die of this complaint. Probably some of him stood a glass, which had evidently contained those who are found dead in bed have lost their lives laudanum and water. From this, it was supposed he in a fit of incubus, the circumstance being imputed to had killed himself by his own treatment; but whether some other cause. Nightmare is thus, in sonime cases the quantity of laudanum taken by him would have dedangerous: and in all, when it becomes habitual, is stroyed life in ordinary circumstances, has never been such a source of misery, that sleep, instead of being ascertained. courted as a period of blissful repose, is looked upon with horror, as the appointed season of inexpressible suffering and dread. It becomes, on this account, a matter of importance to contrive some method for preventing the CHAPTER VI. attacks of so distressful a malady. The cause, whatever it may be, must, if practicable, be removed, and DAYMARE. the symptoms thence arising will naturally disappear. If the disorder proceed from heavy suppers, or indiges- I have strong doubts as to the propriety of considertible food, these things ought to be given up, and the ing this affection in any way different from the incubus, person should either go supperless to bed, or with such or nightmare. It seems merely a modification of the a light meal as wvill not hurt his digestion. Salted latter, only accompanied by no aberration of the judgprovisions of all kinds must be abandoned, nor should ment. The person endures precisely many of the he taste any thing which will lie heavily upon the same feelings, such as difficult respiration, torpor of stomach, or run into fermentation. For this reason, the voluntary muscles, deep sighing, extreme terror, nuts, cucumbers, cheese, ham, and fruits are all preju- and inability to speak. The only difference which dicial. If he be subject to heart-burn, flatulence, and seem to exist between the two states is, that in dayother dyspeptic symptoms, he should make use of oc- mare, the reason is always unclouded-whereas in incasional doses of magnesia, or carbonate of. potash or cubus it is generally more or less disturbed. soda. I have known a tea-spoonful of either of the Dr Mason Good, in his' Study of Mediciue,' takes two latter, or three times that quantity of the former, notice of a case, recorded by Forestus,' that returned taken before stepping into bed, prevent an attack, periodically every third day, like an intermittent fever. where, from the previous state of the stomach, I am The patient was a girl, nine years of age, and at these convinced it would have taken place, had those medi- times was suddenly attacked with great terror, a concines not been used. Great attention must be paid to striction of both the lower and upper belly, with urthe state of the bowels. For this purpose, the colo- gent difficulty of breathing. Her eyes continued open, cynth, the compound rhubarb, or the common aloetic and were permanently continued to one spot; with her pill, should be made use of, in doses of one, two, or hands she forcibly grasped hold of things, that she three, according to circumstances, till the digestive or- might breathe the more easily. When spoken to, she gans are brought into proper play. The common blue returned no answer. In the meantime, the mind seem pill, used with proper caution, is also an excellent ed to be collected; she was without sleep; sighed remedicine. In all cases, the patient should take abun- peatedly; the abdomen was elevated, the thorax still dant exercise, shun late hours, or too much study, and violently contracted, and oppressed with laborious rekeep his mind in as cheerful a state as possible. The spiration and heavy panting: she was incapable of utbed he lies on ought to be hard, and the pillow not very terance.' high. When the attacks are frequent, and extremely During the intensely hot summer of 1825, I expesevere, Dr Darwin recommends that an alarm clock rienced an attack of daymare. Immediately after might be hung up in the room, so that the repose may dining, I threw myself on my back upon a sofa, and, be interrupted at short intervals. It is a good plan to before I was aware, was seized with difficult respiration, have another person to sleep in the same bed, who extreme dread, and utter incapability of motion or might arouse him from the paroxysm; and he should speech. I could neither move nor cry, while the breath be directed to lie as little as possible upon the back. came from my chest in broken and suffocating parThese points comprehend the principal treatment, oxysms. During all this time, I was perfectly awake: and when persevered in, will rarely fail to mitigate or I saw the light glaring in at the windows in broad sulremove the disease. Sometimes, however, owing to try streams; I felt the intense heat of the day pervading certain peculiarities of constitution, it may be neces- my frame; and heard distinctly the different noises in sary to adopt a different plan, or combine other means the street, and even the ticking of my own watch, which along with the above: thus, Whyatt, who was subject I had placed on the cushion beside me. I had, at the to nightmare, could only insure himself against an at- same time, the consciousness of flies buzzing around, tack, by taking a small glassful of brandy, just before and settling with annoying pertinacity upon my face. going to bed; and some individuals find that a light During the whole fit, judgment was never for a moment supper prevents the fit, while it is sure to occur if no suspended. I felt assured that I laboured under a spesupper at all be taken. But these are rare exceptions cies of incubus. I even endeavouredto reason myself to the general rule, and,,when they do occur, must be out of the feeling of dread which filled my mind, and treated in that manner which experience proves most longed with insufferable ardour for some one to open effectual, without being bound too nicely by the ordi- the door, and dissolve the spell which bound me in its nary modes of cure. Blood-letting, which some writers fetters. The fit did not continue above five minutes: recommend, is useless or hurtful, except in cases by degrees I recovered the use of speech and motion: where there is reason to suppose that the affection is and as soon as they were so far restored as to enable P 28 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. me to call out and move my limbs, it wore insensibly are subject, without any apparent cause, to frequent away. attacks of cold perspiration. Somnambulism, I have Upon the whole, I consider daymare and nightmare had occasion to remark, is very common among chilidentical. They proceed from the same causes, and dren; and I believe that it more frequently affects must be treated in a similar manner. childhood than any other age. In females, it sometimes arises from amenorrhcea; and any source of bodily or mental irritation may produce it. It is a curious, and not easily explained fact, that the aged, though they CHAPTER VII. dream more than the middle-aged, are less addicted to somnambulism and sleep-talking. Indeed, these pheSLEEP-WALKING. nomena are seldom noticed in old people. It has been matter of surprise to many, that somnamIn simple dreaming, as I have already stated, some bulists often get into the rost langerous situations bulists often get into the most tangerous situations of the cerebral organs are awake, while others continue without experiencing terror. But the explanation of in the quiescence of sleep. Such, also, is the case in this ought not to be attended with any real difficulty; somnambulism, but with this addition, that the dream for we must reflect, that alarm cannot be felt unless we is of so forcible a nature as to stimulate into actionthe apprehend danger, and that the latter, however great it muscular system as well as, in most cases, one or more may be, cannot excite emotion of any kind, so long as of the organs of the senses. If we dream that we are we are ignorant of its existence. This is the situation walking, and the vision possesses such a degree of in which sleep-walkers, in a great majority of cases, vividness and exciting energy as to arouse the muscles stand. The reasoning faculties, which point out the of locomotion, we naturally get up and walk. Should existence of danger, are generally in a state of comwe dream that we hear or see, and the impression be so plete slumber, and unable to produce corresponding vivid as to stimulate the eyes and ears, or, more pro- emotions in the mind. And even if danger should be perly speaking, those parts of the brain which take perceived by a sleep-walker and avoided, as is somecog~nizance of sights and sounds, then we both see. any times the case, his want of terror is to be imputed to a objects, or hear any sounds, which may occur, just as quiescent state of the organ of cautiousness; the sense if we were awake. In some cases, the muscles only of fear originating in high excitement of this particular are excited, and then we simply walk, without either part of the brain. That the reasoning faculties, howseeing or hearing. In others, both the muscles and or- ever, are sometimes only very partially suspended we ever, are sometimes only very partially suspended we gans of sight are stimulated, and we not only walk, but have abundant evidence, in the fact of the individual have the use of our eyes. In a third variety, the activity only now and then studiously avoiding dalger, but of hearing is added, and we both walk, and see, and ming offices which require no small degree of near. Should the senses of smell, taste, and touch be judgment. In the higher ranks of somnambulism, so stimulated into activity, and relieved from the torpor many of the organs of the brain are in activity, and there into which they were thrown by sleep, we have them is such perfect wakefulness of the external senses and also brought into operation. If, to all this, we add an locomotive powers, that the person may almost be said active state of the organs of speech, inducing us to tobe awake. talk, we are then brought as nearly as the slumbering Somnambulism bears a closer analogy than a coIstate admits, into the condition of perfect wakefulness. mon dream to madness.' Like madness, it is accomThe following passage from Dr Mason Good will illus-panied with muscular action, with coherent and incotrate some of the foregoing points more fully. herent conduct, and with that complete oblivion (in'If,' observes he,' the external organ of sense thus most cases) of both, which takes place in the worst stimulated be that of sight, the dreamer may perceive of madness.'* objects around him, and be able to distinguish them; Somnambulists generally walk with their eyes open and if the tenor of the dreaming ideas should as power- but these organs are, nevertheless frequently asleep, fully operate upon the musclesof locomotion, these also and do not exercise their functions. This fact was may be thrown into their accustomed state of action, well known to Shakspeare, as;s apparent in the fearand he may rise from his bed, and make his way to ful instance of Lady Macbeth: whatever place the drift of his dream may direct him,'Doctor. You see her eyes are open.' with perfect ease, and free from danger. He will see Gentleman. Ay, but their sense is shut.' more or less distinctly, in proportion as the organ of The following is a remarkable instance in point, and sight is more or less awake: yet, from the increased shows that though the power of vision was suspended,.exhaustion, and, of course, increased torpor of the other that of hearing continued in full operation. organs, in consequence of an increased demand of sen- A female servant in the town of Chelmsford, sursorial power from the common stock, to supply the ac- prised the family, at four o'clock one morning, by walktion of the sense and muscles immediately engaged, ing down a flight of stairs in her sleep, and rapping at every other sense will probably be thrown into a deeper the bed-room door of her master, who inquired what sleep or torpor than if the whole had been quiescent. she wanted. when, in her usual tone of voice, she reHence, the ears may not be ronlsed even by a sound lquested some cotton, saying that she had torn her gown, that might otherwise awake the sleeper. He may be but hoped that her mistress would forgive her: at the insensible not only to a slight touch, but a severe same time bursting into tears. Her fellow-servant, shaking of the limbs; and may even cough violently, with whom she had been conversing for some time, obwithout being recalled from his dream. Having ac- o without being recalled from his dream. Haviur bng ac-y served her get out of bed, and quickly followed her, but complished the object of his visionary pursuit, he may not before she had related the pitiful story. She then safely return, even over the most dangerous precipices returned to her room, and a light having been procured, -for he sees them distinctly-to his bed: and the organ she was found groping to find her cotton-box. Anof sight being now quite exhausted, or there being no ther person went to her, when, perceivino a difference longer any occasion for its use, it may once more as- in the voice, she called out,'That is a different voice, sociate in the general inactivity, and the dream take a that is my mistress,' which was not the case-thus new turn, and consist of a new combination of images.'* clearly showing, that she did not see the object before I suspect that sleep-walkingis sometimes hereditary, her, although her eyes were wide open. Upon inquiry at least I have known instances which gave countenance as to what was the matter, she only said that she wanted to such a supposition. Its victims are generally pale, same cotton, but that her fellow-servant had been to nervous, irritable persons; and it is remarked that they her master and mistress, making a fuss abrutl it It * 3ood's Study of Medicine, vol. iv. p. 175, 3d edit. * Rush's Medical Inquiries. PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 29 was now thought prudent that she should be allowed ing that the house was broken into by thieves, got out to remain quiet for some short time, and she was per- of bed, dropped from the window (fortunately a low suaded to lie down with her fellow-servant, until the one) into the street; and was a considerable distance usual hour of rising, thinking that she might then awake on his way to warn the police, when he was discovered in her accustomed manner. This failing in effect, her by one of them, who awoke him, and conducted him mistress went up to her room, and rather angrily de- home. sired her to get up, and go to her work, as it was now A case is related of an English clergyman who used six o'clock; this she refused, telling her mistress that to get up in the night, light his candle, write sermons, ifad:o did not please her, she might look out for another correct them with interlineations, and retire to bed servant, at the same time saying, that she would not again; being all the time asleep. The Archbishop of rise up at two o'clock, (pointing to the window,) to in- Bourdeaux mentions a similar case of a student, who jure her health for any one. For the sake of a joke, got up to compose a sermon while asleep, wrote it corshe was told to pack up her things, and start off irn- rectly, read it over from one end to the other, or at mediately, but to this she madeno reply. She rebuked least appeared to read it, made corrections on it, her fellow-servant for not remaining longer in bed, and scratched out lines, and substituted others, put in its shortly after this became quiet. She was afterwards place a word which had been omitted, composed music, shaken violently, and awoke. She then rose, and see- wrote it accurately down, and performed other things ing the cotton-box disturbed, demanded to know why equally surprising. Dr Gall takes notice of a miller it had been meddled with, not knowing that she alone who was in the habit of getting up every night and atwas the cause of it. In the course of the day, several tending to his usual avocations at the mill, then returnquestions were put to her in order to try her recollec- ing to bed; on awaking in the morning, he recollected tion, but the real fact of her walking, was not made nothing of what passed during night. Martinet speaks known to her; and she is still quite unconscious of of a saddler who was accustomed to rise in his sleep what has transpired. and work at his trade; and Dr Pritchard of a farmer The next case is of a different description, and ex- who got out of bed, dressed himself, saddled his horse, hibits a dormant state of the sense of hearing, while and rode to the market, being all the while asleep. Dr sight appears, throughout, to have been in active ope- Blacklock, on one occasion, rose from bed, to which he ration. had retired at an early hour, came into the room where'A young man named Johns, who works at Cardrew, his family were assembled, conversed with them, and near Redruth, being asleep in the sump-house of that afterwards entertained them with a pleasant song, withmine, was observed by two boys to rise and walk to the out any of them suspecting he was asleep, and withdoor, against which he leaned; shortly after, quitting out his retaining after he awoke, the least recollection that position, he walked to the engine-shaft, and safely of what he had done. It is a singular, yet well audescended to the depth of twenty fathoms, where he thenticated fact, that in the disastrous retreat of Sir was found by his comrades soon after. with his back John Moore, many of the soldiers fell asleep, yet conresting on the ladder. Th.ey called to him, to apprize tinued to march along with their comrades. him of the perilous situation in which he was, but he The stories related of sleep-walkers are, indeed, of did not hear them, and they were obliged to shake him so extraordinary a kind, that they would almost seem roughly till he awoke, when he appeared totally at a fictitious, were they not supported by the most incon- i loss to account for his being so situated. trovertible evidence. To walk on the house-top, to In Lodge's' Historical Portraits,' there is a likeness, scale precipices, and descend to the bottom of frightby Sir Peter Lely, of Lord Culpepper's brother, so fa- ful ravines, are common exploits with the somnambulist; mous as a dreamer. In 1686, he was indicted at the and he performs them with a facility far beyond the power Old Bailey, for shooting one of the Guards, and his of any man who is completely awake. A story is told horse to boot. He pleaded somnambulism, and was of a boy, who dreamed that he got out of bed, and as acquitted on producing nearly fifty witnesses, to prove cended to the summit of an enormous rock, where he the extraordinary things he did in his sleep. found an eagle's nest, which he brought away with him, A very curious circumstance is related of Dr Frank- and placed beneath his bed. Now, the whole of these lin, in the memoirs of that eminent philosopher, pub- events actually took place; and what he conceived on lished by his grandson.' I went out,' said the Doctor, awaking to be a mere vision, was proved to have had' to bathe in Martin's salt water hot bath, in Southamp- an actual existence, by the nest being found in the pre ton, and, floating on my back, fell asleep, and slept cise spot where he imagined he had put it, and by the nearly an hour, by my watch, without sinking or turning evidence of the spectators who beheld his perilous ad— a thing I never did before, and should hardly have venture. The precipice which he ascended, was of a thought possible.' nature that must have baffled the most expert mounA case still more extraordinary occurred some time taineer, and such as, at other times, he never could ago in one of the towns on the coast of Ireland. About have scaled. In this instance, the individual was as two o'clock in the morning, the watchmen on the Reve- nearly as possible, without actually being so, awake. nue quay, were much surprised at descrying a man dis- All his bodily, and almost the whole of his mental porting himself in the water, about a hundred yards powers, appear to have been in full activity. So far as from the shore. Intimation having been given to the the latter are concerned, we can only conceive a parRevenue boat's crew, they pushed off and succeeded tial defect of the judgment to have existed, for that it in picking him up, but strange to say, he had no idea was altogether abolished is pretty evident from the fact whatever of his perilous situation: and it was with the of his proceeding to work precisely as he would have utmost difficulty they could persuade him he was not done, had he, in his waking hours, seriously resolved to still in bed. But the most singular part of this novel make such an attempt; the defect lay in making the adventure, and which was afterwards ascertained, was attempt at all; and still more in getting out of bed that the man had left his house at twelve o'clock that to do so in the middle of the night. night, and walked through a difficult, and, to him, dan- Somnambulism, as well as lunacy, sometimes begerous road, a distance of nearly two miles, and had stows supernatural strength upon the individual. Mr actually swum one mile and a half when he was for- Dubrie, a musician in Bath, affords an instance of this tunately discovered and picked up. kind. One Sunday, while awake, he attempted in vair Not very long ago a boy was seen fishing off Brest, to force open the window of his bed-room, which up to the middle in water. On coming up to him, he chanced to be nailed down; but having got up in his was found to be fast asleep. sleep, he repeated the attempt successfully, and threw I know a gentleman who, in consequence of dream- himself out, by which he unfortunately broke his leg. 30 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. Sleep-walking is sometimes periodical. Martinet his ordinary life. When this sleep is dissolved, he gets describes the case of a watchmaker's apprentice who into his usual state of feeling ahd recollection, but forhad an attack of it every fortnight. In this state, gets every thing that happened during the sleep; being though insensible to all external impressions, he would again magnetized, however, the remembrance of all perform his work with his usual accuracy, and was al- that occurred in the previous sleep is brought back to ways astonished, on awaking, at the progress he had his mind. In one of the cases above related, the pamade. The paroxysm began with a sense of heat in tient, a lady of sixty-four years, had an ulcerated cancer the epigastrium extending to the head, followed by in the right breast. She had been magnetized for the confusion of ideas and complete insensibility, the eyes purpose of dissolving the tumor, but no other effect was remaining open with a fixed and vacant stare. This produced than that of throwing her into a species of case, which undoubtedly originated in some diseased somnambulic sleep, in which sensibility was annihilated, state of the brain, terminated in epilepsy. Dr Gall re- while her ideas retained all their clearness. In this state lates that he saw at Berlin a young man, sixteen years her surgeon, M. Chapelain, disposed her to submit to an of age, who had, from time to time, very extraordinary operation, the idea of which she rejected with horror fits. He moved about unconsciously in bed, and had when awake. Having formally given her consent she no perception of any thing that was done to him; at undressed herself, sat down upon a chair, and the dislast he would jump out of bed, and walk with rapid eased glands were carefully and deliberately dissected steps about the room, his eyes being fixed and open. out, the patient conversing all the time and being perSeveral obstacles which were placed by Dr Gall in his fectly insensible of pain. On awaking, she had no way, he either removed or cautiously avoided. He consciousnes whatever of having been operated upon; then threw himself suddenly again upon bed, moved but being informed of the circumstance, and seeing her about for some time, and finished by jumping up awake, children around her, she experienced the most lively not a little surprised at the number of curious people emotion, which the magnetizer instantly checked by about him. again setting her asleep. These facts appear startling The facilitywithwhich somnambulists are awakened and incredible. I can give no opinion upon the subfrom the paroxysm, differs extremely in different cases. ject from any thing I have seen myself; but the testiOne man is aroused by being gently touched or called mony of such men as Cloquet, Georget, and Itard, is upon, by a flash of light, by stumbling in his peregrina- not to be received lightly on any physiological point; tions, or by setting his foot in water. Another re- and they all concur in bearing witness to such facts mains so heavily asleep, that it is necessary to shout as the above. In the present state of knowledge loudly, to shake him with violence, and make use of and opinion, with regard to animal magnetism, other excitations equally powerful. In this condition, and the sleep occasioned by it, I shall not say more when the sense of vision chances to be dormant, it is at present, but refer the reader to the ample details curious to look at his eyes. Sometimes they are shut; contained in the Parisian Report; an able translaat other times wide open; and when the latter is the tion of which into English has been made by by Mr case, they are observed to be fixed and inexpressive, Colquhoun.'without speculation,' or energy, while the pupil, is When a person is addicted to somnambulism, great contracted, as in the case of perfect sleep. care should be taken to have the door and windows of It is not always safe to arouse a sleep walker; and his sleeping apartment, secured, so as to prevent the many cases of the fatal effects thence arising have been possibility of egress, as he sometimes forces his way detailed by authors. Nor is it at all unlikely that a through the panes of glass: this should be put out of person, even of strong nerves, might be violently agi- his power, by having the shutters closed, and bolted, in tated by awaking in a situation so different from that such a way that they cannot be opened without the aid in which he lay down. Among other examples, that of a key or screw, or some such instrument, which of a young lady, who was addicted to this affection, should never be left in the room where he sleeps, but may be mentioned. Knowing her failing, her friends, carried away, while the door is secured on the outside. made a point of locking the door, and securing the win- Some have recommended that a tub of water should be dow of her chamber in such a manner that she could put by the bedside, that, on getting out, he might step not possibly get out. One night, these precautions into it, arid be awaked by the cold; but this, from the were, unfortunately overlooked; and in a paroxysm of suddenness of its operation, might be attended with somnambulism, she walked into the garden behind the bad consequences in very nervous and delicate subhouse. While there, she was recognised by some of jects. It is a good plan to fix a cord to the bedpost, the family, who were warned by the noise she made on and tie the other end of it securely round the person's opening the door, and they followed and awoke her; wrist. This will effectually prevent mischief if he atbut such was the effect produced upon her nervous tempt to get up. Whenever it can bo managed, it will system, that she almost instantly expired. be prudent for another person to sleep along with him. The remote causes of sleep walking are so obscure, In all cases, care should be taken to arouse him sudthat it is seldom we are able to ascertain them. Gene- deiily. This must be done as gently as possible, and ral irritability of frame, a nervous temperament, and when he can be conducted to bed without being awakbad digestion, will dispose to the affection. Being a ened at all, it is still better. Should he be perceived in modification of dreaming, those who are much troubled any dangerous situation as on the house-top, or the with the latter will, consequently be most prone to its brink of a precipice, the utmost caution is requisite; attacks. The causes, however, are, in a great majority for, if we call loudly upon him, his dread, on recoverof cases, so completely unknown, that any attempt to ing, at finding himself in such a predicament, may investigate them would be fruitless; and we are actually occasion him to fall, where, if he had been compelled to refer the complaint to some idiosyncracy left to himself, he would have escaped without injury. of constitution beyond the reach of human knowledge. To prevent a recurrence of somnambulism, we should According to the report made by a Committee of the remove, if possible, the cause which gave rise to it. Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris, animal magnet- Thus, if it proceed from a disordered state or the ism appears to have the power of inducing a peculiar stomach, or biliary system, we must employ the various species of somnambulism. The circumstances seem medicines used in such cases. Plenty of exercise so curious, that, even authenticated as they are by men should be taken, and late hours and much study avoided. of iundoubted integrity and talent, it is extremely diffi- If it arises from plethora, he must be blooded, and livo cult to place reliance upon them. The person who is low; should hysteria produce it, antispasmodics, such thrown into the magnetic sleep is said to a acquire a as valerian, ammonia, assafcetida, and opium may be new consciousness, and entirely to forget all the events of necessary. PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 31 But, unfortunately, we can often refer sleep-walking But fever'd in her sleep she seems, to no complaint whatever. In this case, all that can And red her cheek with troubled dreams, be done is to carry the individual as safely as possible And mutters she in her unrest through the paroxysm, and prevent him from injury by A name she dare not breathe by day, the means we have mentioned. In many instances, And casps her lord unto her breast te enw hvnmanyiWhich pants for one away.' the affection will wear spontaneously away: in others, WhFch pants for one ai a m.' it will continue in spite of every remedy. From what has been said of somnambulism, the reader will be prepared for phenomena equally curious as regards sleep-talking. Persons have been known, for instance, who delivered sermons and prayers during CHAPTER VIII. sleep; among others, Dr Haycock, Professor of Medicine in Oxford. He would give out a text in his sleep, SLEEP-TALKING. and deliver a good sermon upon it; nor could all the pinching and pulling of his friends prevent nlm.' One This closely resembles somnambulism, and proceeds of the most remarkable cases of speaking during sleep,' from similar causes. In somnambulism, those parts of observes a writer in Frazer's Magazine,' is that of an the brain which are awake call the muscles of the American lady, now (we believe) alive, who preached limbs into activity; while, in sleep-talking, it is the during her sleep, performing regularly every part of the muscles necessary for the production of speech which Presbyterian service, from the psalm to the blessing. are animated by the waking cerebral organs. During This lady was the daughter of respectable and even sleep, the organ of languamge may be active, either sin- wealthy parents; she fell into bad health, and, under its gly or in combination with other parts of the brain; and influence, she disturbed and annoyed her family by her of this activity sleep-talking is the result.* If, while nocturnal eloquence. Her unhappy parents, though at we dream that we are conversing with some one, the first surprised, and perhaps flattered by the exhibition organ of language is in such a high state of activity as in their family of so extraordinary a gift, were at last to rouse the muscles of speech, we are sure to talk. It convinced that it was the result of disease; and, in the often happens, however, that the cerebral parts, though expectation that their daughter might derive benefit sufficiently active to make us dream that we are speak- from change of scene, as well as from medical skill, ing, are not excited so much as to make us actually they made a tour with her of some length, and visited speak. We only suppose we are carrying on a conver- New York and some of the other great cities of the sation, while, in reality, we are completely silent. To Union. We know individuals who have heard her produce sleep-talking, therefore, the brain, in some of preach during the night in steamboats; and it was cusits functions, must be so much awake as to put into tomary, at tea parties in New York, (at the houses of action the voluntary muscles by which speech is pro- medical practitioners,) to put the lady to bed in a room duced. adjacent to the drawing-room, in order that the dilleThe conversation in this state, is of such subjects as tanti might witness so extraordinary a phenomenon. our thoughts are most immediately occupied with; and We have been told by ear-witnesses, that her sermons, its consistency or incongruity depends upon that of the though they had the appearance of connected discourses, prevailing ideas-being sometimes perfectly rational and consisted chiefly of texts of scripture strung together. coherent; at other times, full of absurdity. The voice It is strongly impressed upon our memory, that some is seldom the same as in the Cvaking state. This I of her sermons were published in America.' would impute to the organs of hearing being mostly In the Edinburgh Journal of science, a lady who was dormant, and consequently unable to guide the modu- subject to spectral illusions, is described as being sublations of sound. The same fact is observable in very ject to talk in her sleep with great fluency, to repeat deaf persons, whose speech is usually harsh, unvaried, great portions of poetry, especially when unwell, and and monotonous. Sometimes the faculties are so far even to cap verses for half an hour at a time, never awake, that we can manage to converse with the indi- failing to quote lines beginning with the final letter of vidual, and extract from him the most hidden secrets of the preceding till her memory was exhausted. his soul: circumstances have thus been ascertained Dr Dyce, in the Edinburgh Philosophical Transacwhich would otherwise have remained in perpetual ob- tions, relates the case of Maria C, who, during one scurity. By a little address in this way, a gentleman paroxysm of somnambulism, recollected what took lately detected the infidelity of his wife from some ex- place in a preceding one, without having any such repressions which escaped her while asleep, and succeed- collection during the interval of wakefulness. One of ed in finding out that she had a meeting arranged with the occasions in which this young woman manifested her paramour for the following day. Lord Byron de- the power in question, was of a very melancholy nature. scribes a similar scene in his' Parisina:' Her fellow-servant, a female of abandoned character,'And Hugo is gone to his lonely bed, having found out that, on awaking, she entirely forgot To covet there another's bride; every thing which occurred during the fit, introduced But she must lay her conscious head A hushbald's trusting heart beside, by stealth into the house, a young man of her acquain* Among the insane, the organ just mentioned is occasionally tance, and obtained for him an opportunity of treating excited to such a degree that even, in the waking state, the pa- Maria in the most brutal and treacherous manner. The tient, however desirous, is literally unable to refrain from speak- wretches succeeded in their object by stopping her ing. Mr. WV. A. F. Browne has reported two cases of this na- mouth with the bed-clothes, by which and other means, ture in the 37th No. of the Phrenological Journal. The first is that of a woman in the hospital of' La Salpetrihre' in Paris. they overcame the vigorous resistance she was enabled Whenever she encounters the physician or other of the attend. to make to their villany, even in her somnolent state. ants, she bursts forth into an address which is delivered with On awaking she had no consciousness whatever of the incredible rapidity and vehemence, and is generally an abusive or ironical declamation against the tyranny, cruelty, and injus-outrage; but some days afterwards, having fallen into tice to which she is exposed. In the midst of her harangues, the same state, it recurred to her memory, and she rehowever, she introduces frequent and earnest parenthetical de. lated to her mother all the revolting particulars. The clarations' that she does not mean what she says; that though state of mind in this case was perfectly analagous to she vows vengeance and showers imprecations on her medical attendant, she loves him, and feels grateful for his kindness and that which is said to occur in the magnetic sleep; but forbearance; and that, though anxious to evince her gratitude the particular state of the brain which induces such and obedience by silence, she is constrained by an invisible conditions will, I believe, ever remain a nmystery.* agency to speak' In the other case, the individual speaks constantly;' sleep itself does not yield an intermission; and there * A case, in some respects similar, was published in the Med. is strong reason to believe that a part, at least of his waking ical Repository, by Dr Mitchell, who received the particulars of orations is delivered either without the cognizance of the other it from Major Ellicot, Professor of Mathematics in the United powers, or without coiscionsness on the part of the speaker.' States Military Academy at West Point. The subject was a 32 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. The following singular case of sleep-talking, cor- pressed some suspicion that a medicine was put into bined with somnambulism, will prove interesting to the it; and once seemed to smell at a tuberose, which was reader:- in flower in her chamber, and deliberated aloud about' A very ingenious and elegant young lady, with light breaking it for the stem, saying,' It would make her eyes and hair, about the age of seventeen, in other re- sister so charmingly angry.' At another time,:in her spects well, was suddenly seized with this very wonder- melancholy moments, she heard the bell, and then takful malady. The disease began with violent convul- ing off one of her shoes as she sat upon the bed,' I love sions of almost every muscle of her body, with great, the color black,' says she;'a little wider and a little but vain efforts to -vomit, and the most violent hiccoughs longer, and even this might make me a coffin!' Yet that can be conceived: these were succeeded in about it is evident she was not sensible at this time, any more an hour with a fixed spasm; in which, one hand was than formerly, of seeing or hearing any person about applied to her head, and the other to support it: in her; indeed, when great light was thrown upon her by about half an hour these ceased, and the reverie began opening the shutters of the window; she seemed less suddenly, and was at first manifest by the look of her melancholy: and when I have forcibly held her hands, eyes and countenance, which seemed to express atten- or covered her eyes, she appeared to grow impatient, tion. Then she conversed aloud with imaginary per- and would say, she could not tell what to do, for she sons, with her eyes open, and could not, for about an could neither see nor move. In all these circumstances, hour, he brought to attend to the stimulus of external her pulse continued unaffected, as in health. And when objects by any kind of violence which it was possible the paroxysm was over, she could never recollect a sinto use: these symptoms returned in this order every gle idea of what had passed.' day.for five or six weeks. Equally extraordinary is the following instance of'These conversations were quite consistent, and we combined sleep-talking and somnambulism: could understand what she supposed her imaginary' A remarkable instance of this affection occurred to companions to answer, by the continuation of her part a lad named George David, sixteen years and a half of the discourse. Sometimes she was angry, at other old, in the service of Mr Hewson, butcher, of Bridgetimes showed much wit and vivacity, but was most Road, Lambeth. At about twenty minutes after nine frequently inclined to melancholy. In these reveries, o'clock, the lad bent forward in his chair, and rested. she sometimes sung over some music with accuracy, his forehead on his hands, and in ten minutes started and repeated whole passages from tbe English poets. up, went for his whip, put on his one spur, and went In repeating some lines from Mr Pope's works, she had thence to the stable; not finding his own saddle in the forgot one word, and began again, endeavouring to re- proper place, he returned to the house and asked for it. collect it; when she came to the forgotten word, it Being asked what he wanted with it, he replied, to go was shouted aloud in her ears, and this repeatedly, to his rounds. He returned to the stable, got on the no purpose; but by many trials she at length regained horse without the saddle, and was proceeding to leave it herself. the stable: it was with much difficulty and force that' Those paroxysms were terminated with the appear- Mr Hewson, junior, assisted by the other lad, could reance of inexpressible surprise and great fear, froin which'move him from the horse; his strength was great, and she was some minutes in recovering herself, calling on it was with difficulty he was brought in doors. Mr her sister with great agitation, and very frequently un- Hewson, senior, coming home at this time, sent for derwent a repetition of convulsions, apparently from Mr Benjamin Ridge, an eminent practitioner, in Bridgethe pain of fear. Road, who stood by him for a quarter of an hour,'during' After having thus returned for alout an hour a-day, which time the lad considered himself as stopped at the for two or three weeks, the reveries seemed to become turnpike-gate, and took sixpence out of his pocket to less complete, and some of the circumstances varied, be changed; and holding out his hand for the change, so that she could walk about the room in them, with- the sixpence was returned to him. He immediately out running against any of the furniture; though these observed,' None of your nonsense-that is the sixmotions were at first very unsteady and tottering. And pence again; give me my change;' when two pence afterwards, she once, drank a dish of tea, and the whole halfpenny was given to him, he counted it over, and apparatus of the tea-table was set before her, and ex- said,' None of your gammon; that is not right; I want a penny more;' making the three pence halfpenny, young lady, of a good constitution, excellent capacity, and well which was his proper change. He then said,'Give educated.' Her memory was capacious and well stored with a copious stock of ideas. Unexpectedly, and without any fore- me my castor, (meaning his hat,) which slang term he warning, she fell into a profound sleep, which continued several had been in the habit of using, and then began to whip hours beyond the ordinary term. On waking, she was discov- and spur to get his horse on. His pulse at this time ered to have lost every trait of acquired knowledge. Her mem- was 136, full and hard; no change of countenance ory was tabula rasa- all vestiges, both of words and things were obliterated and gone. It was found necessary for her to could be observed, nor any spasmodic affection of the learn every thing again. She even acquired, by new efforts, the muscles, the eyes remaining close the whole of the time. art ofspelling, reading, writing, and calculating, and gradualIyHis coat was takan off his arm, shirt sleeves tuckedup became acquainted with the persons and objects around, like a being for the first time brought into the world. In these exer- and Mr Ridge bled him to 32 ounces; no alteration cises she made considerable proficiency. But after a few months had taken place in him during the first part of the time another fit ofsomnolency invaded her. On rousing from it, she the blood was flowing; at about 24 ounces, the pulse found herself restored to the state she was in before the first paroxysm; but was wholly ignorant of every event and occurrence began to decrease; and when the full quantity named thathad befallen her afterwards. The former condition of her above had been taken, it was at 80-a slight perspiraexistence she now calls the Old State, and the latter the New tion on the forehead. During the time of bleeding, Mr State; and she is as unconscious of her double character as two Hewson related a circumstance of a Mr Harris, optidistinct persons are of their respective natures. For example, in her old state, she possesses all the original knowledge; in cian, in Holborn, whose son, some years since, walked her new state, only what she acquired since. If a lady or gen- out on the parapet of the house in his sleep. The boy tleman be introduced to her in the old state, and vice versa,(and joinedthe conversation, and observed, so of all other matters) to know them satisfactorily, she must the conversation, and observed,'He lived at the learn them in both states. In the old state, she possesses fine corner of Brownlow-Street.' After the arm was tied powers of penmanship, while in the new, she writes a poor, up, he unlaced one boot, and said he would go to bed: awkward hand, having not had time or means to become expert, in three minutes from this time, he awoke, got up, and During four years and upwards, she has had periodical transite t tions from one of these states to the other. The alterations are asked what was the matter, (having then been one hour always consequent upon a long and sound sleep- Both the lady in the trance,) not having the slightest recollection of and her family are now capable of conducting the affair without any thing that had passed, and wondered at his arm beembarrassment By simply knowing whether she is in the old or new state, they regulate the intercourse and govern them- ing tied up, and at the blood, &c. A strong aperient selves accordingly.' * Darwin's'Zoonomia.' PHILO sOPPHY OF SLEEP. 33 medicine was then administered: he went to bed, slept of preventing sleep. I would impute this to their irriwell, and the next day appeared perfectly well, except- tative properties, which, by supplying the brain with ing debility from the bleeding, and operation of the fresh sensorial power, enable it to carry on uninterruptmedicine, and has no recollection whatever of what had edly all its functions longer than it would otherwise do, taken place. None of his family or himself were ever and consequently prevent it from relapsing into slum.affected in this way before.'- bei at the usual period. Sleep-talking is generally such a trivial affection as Any uneasy bodily feeling has the same effect-both not to require any treatment whatever. In every case preventing the accession of sleep, and arousing us from the digestive organs must be attended to, and, if dis- it when it has fairly taken place. Thus, while moderate ordered, put to rights by suitable medicines. And fatigue provoke slumber, excessive fatigue, owing to should the affection proceed, or be supposed to proceed the pain and irritation it necessarily occasions, drives from hypochondria, hysteria, or the prevalence of any it away. Sickness, cold, heat, pregnancy, the ordinary strong' mental emotion, these states must be treated calls of nature, a disagreeable bed, the want of an acaccording to general principles. When it arises from customed supper, too heavy a supper, or uneasiness of idiosyncrasy, and becomes habitual, I believe that no any kind, have the same result. Cold is most apt to means which can be adopted will be of much avail. As, induce sleeplessness, when partial, especially if it bc in the case of somnambulism, it very frequently hap- confined to the feet; for when general and sufficiently pens that the affection, after continuing for a long time, intense, it has the opposite effect, and give rise to and baffling every species of treatment, disappears drowsiness. Certain diseases, such as hemicrania, tic spontaneously. dolourcux, &c., have actually kept the person awake for three successive months; and all painful affections prevent sleep more or less. But the most violent tor-e tures cannot altogether banish, however much they' CHAPTER IX. may retard it. Sooner or later the fatigue, which a want of it occasions, prevails, and slumber ultimately SLEEPLESSNESS. ensues. Sleeplessness is sometimes produced by a sense of Sleep takes place as soon as the sensorial power burning heat in the soles of the feet and palms of the that keeps the brain awake is expended, which, under hands, to which certain individuals are subject some common circumstances, occurs at our ordinary hour of time after lying down. This seems to proceed from a going to rest, or even sooner, if any sophorific cause want of perspiration in these parts; owing generally sufficiently strong should chance to operate. But the to impaired digestion. above power may be increased by various means, as in Mental emotions, of every description, are unfavorcases of physical' suffering, or excited imagination, and, able to repose. If a man, as soon as he lays his head consequently, is not expended at the usual time. In upon a pillow, can banish thinking, he is morally certhis case, the person remains awake, and continues so tain to fall asleep. There are many individuals so con till the period of its expenditure, which may not happen stituted, that they can do this without effort, and the for several hours after he lies down, or even not at all, consequence is, they are excellent sleepers. It is very during the whole of that night. Now, whatever in- different with those whose minds are oppressed by care, creases the sensorial power, whether it be balls, con- or over stimulated by excessive study. The sorrowful certs, grief, joy, or bodily pain, is prejudicial to repose. man, above all others, has the most need of sleep; but, By them the mind is exalted to a pitch of unnatural far from shedding its benignant influence over him, it action, from which it is necessary it should descend flies away, and leaves him to the communionship of his before it can roll into the calm channel of sleep. own sad thoughts: Whatever stimulates the external senses, however' His slumbers-if he slumber-are not sleep, slightly, may prevent sleep. Thus, the ticking of a But a continuance of enduring thought.' clock has this effect with very sensitive people; and a It is the same with the man of vivid imagination. candle burning in the chamber is attended with the His fancy, instead of being subdued by the spell of same result. Even when the eyes are shut this may sleep, becomes more active than ever. Thoughts in a take place, for the eye-lids are sufficiently transparent thousand fantastic forms-myriads of waking dreamsto transmit a sense of light to the retina. For the pass through his mind, whose excessive activity spurns same reason, the light of day peering in at the window at repose, and mocks all his endeavors to reduce it to may awake us from or prevent slumber. It is said that quiescence. Great joy will often scare away sleep for Napoleon could never sleep if exposed to the influence many nights; but, in this respect, it is far inferior to of light, although, in other circumstances, slumber ap- grief, a fixed attack of which has been known to keep peared at his bidding with surprising readiness. the sufferer awake for several months. Those who A constitutional restlessness is sometimes brought meditate much, seldom sleep well in the early part of on by habitually neglecting to solicit sleep when we lie the night: they lie awake, for perhaps two or three down, by which means the brain is brought into such a hours, after going to bed, and do not fall into slumber state of irritability, that we can hardly sleep at all. till towards morning. Persons of this description often Chronic wakefulness, originating from any mental or lie long, and are reputed lazy by early risers, although, bodily affection, sometimes degenerates into a habit, in it is probable, they actually sleep less than these early which the sufferer will remain for weeks, months, or risers themselves. Long continued study is highly preeven years, if authors are to be believed, awake. In judicial to repose. Boerbaave mentions that, on one the disease called delirium tremens, wakefulness is a occasion, owing to this circumstance, he did not close constant symptom, and frequently continues for many his eyes for six weeks. successive days and nights. It is also an attendant Nothing is so hurtful both to the mind and body as upon all disorders accompanied by acute suffering, es- want of sleep. Deprived of the necessary portion, the pecially when the brain is affected, as in phrenitis, or person gets wan, emaciated and listless, and very soon fever. Maniacs, from the excited state of their sen- falls intobadhealth; the spiritbecomesentirely broken, sorium, are reniarkably subject to want of sleep; and and the fire of even the most ardent dispositions is this symptom is often so obstinate as to resist the most quenched. Nor is this law peculiar to the human race, powerful remedies we can venture to prescribe. for it operates with similar power upon the lower aniCertain stimulating agents, such as tea or coffee, mals, and deprives them of much of their natural taken shortly before going to bed, have often the effect ferocity. An illustration of this fact is afforded in the *' Lancet,' vol i. taming of wild elephants. These animals, when first 34 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. caught, are studiously prevented from sleeping; in to the state of sleep, which is the total absence of all consequence of which, they become, in a few days, impressions. People should never go to bed immedicomparatively mild and harmless. Restlessness, when ately after studying hard, as the brain is precisely in long protracted, may terminate in delirium, or confirm- that state of excitement which must prevent sleep. ed insanity; and in many diseases, it is the most obsti- The mind ought previously to be relaxed by light connate symptom we have to struggle against. By it versation, music, or any thing which requires little alone, all the existing bad symptoms are aggravated; thought. and as soon as we can succeed in overcoming it, every In some cases of restlessness, sleep may be procured thing disagreeable and dangerous frequently wears by the person getting up, and walking for a few minutes away, and the person is restored to health. about the room. It is not easy to explain on what In restlessness, both the perspiration and urinary se- principle this acts, but it is certain, that by such means ~retions are usually much increased; there is also an ac- sleep sometimes follows, where previously it had been cession of heat in the system, and a general feverish solicited in vain. It is customary with some people to tendency, unless the want of sleep should proceed from read themselves into slumber, but dangerous accidents cold. have arisen from this habit, in consequence of the lightWith regard to the treatment of sleeplessness, a very ed candle setting fire to the bed curtains. A safer and few words will suffice: in fact, upon this head little more effectual way is to get another person to read; in more can be said, than a recommendation to obviate the which case, sleep will very generally take place, especauses from whence it proceeds, and it will naturally cially if the subject in question is not one of much indisappear. I may mention, however, that when there terest, or read in a dry monotonous manner. When is no specific disease, either of body or mind, to which sleeplessness proceeds from the heat of the weather, the want of sleep can be imputed, the person should the person should lie very lightly covered, and let the keep himself in as cheerful a mood as possible-should air circulate freely through his room. A cold bath:rise early, if his strength permits it, and take such ex- taken shortly before going to bed, or sponging the ercise as to fatigue himself moderately; and if all these body with cold water, will often ensure a comfortable means fail, that he ought to make use of opium. In night's rest in the hot season of the year. When it all cases of restlessness, indeed, this medicine must be arises from heat in the soles or palms, these parts had recourse to, if the affection resists every other should be bathed with cold vinegar and water, before remedy, and continues so long as to endanger health. lying down, and, if necessary, occasionally afterwards Those preparations of opium, the acetate and muriate till the heat abates, which usually occurs in two or three of morphia, have latterly been a good deal used, and hours. Attention must also be paid to the stomach and with excellent effect, for the same purpose. VWhen bowels. neither opium nor its preparations agrees with the con- An easy mind, a good digestion, and plenty of exerstitution, it becomes necessary to employ other narco- cise in the open air, are the grand conducives to sound tics, especially hyosciamus or hop. A pillow of hops sleep;-and, accordingly, every man whose repose is sometimes succeeds in inducing sleep when other indifferent, should endeavour to make them his own as means fail. Such was the case with his late majesty, soon as possible. When sleeplessness becomes habituGeorge III., who, by this contrivance, was relieved al, the utmost care ought to be taken to overcome the from the protracted wakefulness under which he labour- habit, by the removal of every thing that has a tendency ed for so long a time. In giving medicines to produce to cherish it. sleep, great attention must be paid to the disease which occasions the restlessness; for, in phrenitis, high fever, and some other disorders, it would be most injurious to administer anodynes of any kind. In such cases, as CHAPTER X. the restlessness is merely a symptom of the general disease, its removal will depend upon that of the latter. DROWSINESS. When, however, the acute symptoms have been overcome, and nothing but chronic wakefulness, the result Drowsiness is symptomatic of apoplexy and some of debility, remains behind, it then becomes necessary other diseases, but sometimes it exists as an idiopathic to have recourse to opium, or such other remedies as affection. There are persons who have a disposition may be considered applicable to the particular case. to sleep on every occasion. They do so at all times, Studious men ought to avoid late reading; and, on go- and in all places. They sleep after dinner; they sleep ing to bed, endeavour to abstract their minds from all in the theatre; they sleep in church. It is the sameto intrusive ideas. They should try to circumscribe their them in what situation they may be placed: sleep is the thoughts within the narrowest possible circle, and pre- great end of their existence-their occupation-their vent them from becoming rambling or excursive. I sole employment. Morpheus is the deity at whose hlave often coaxed myself asleep by internally repeating shrine they worship —the only god whose influence over half a dozen of times, any well known rhyme. While them is omnipotent. Let them be placed in almost any doing so, the ideas must be strictly directed to this par- circumstances, and their constitutional failing prevails. ticular theme, and prevented from wandering; for It falls upon them in the midst of mirth; it assails them sometimes, during the process of repetition, the nmind when travelling. Let them sail, or ride, or sit, or lie, takes a strange turn, and performs two offices at the or walk, sleep overtakes them-binds their faculties irn same time, being directed to the rhyme on the one torpor; and makes them dead to all that is passing hand, and to something else on the other; and it will around. Such are our dull, heavy-headed, drowsy be found that the hold it has of the former, is often- mortals, those sons and daughters of phlegm-with tines much weaker than of the latter. The great se- passions as inert as a Dutch fog, and intellects as slugcret is, by a strong effort of the will to compel the gish as the movements of the hippopotamus or the lemind to depart from the favourite train of thought into viathan. No class of society is so insufferable as this. which it has run, and address itself solely to the inter- There is a torpor and obtuseness about their faculties, aialrepetition of what is substituted inits place. If this which render them dead to every impression. They is persevered in, it will generally be found to succeed; have eyes and ears, yet they neither see nor hear; and and I would recommend all those who are prevented the most exhilarating scenes may be passing before from sleeping, in consequence of too active a flow of them without once attracting their notice. It is not ideas, to try the experiment. As has been already re- uncommon for persons of this stamp to fall asleep in the marked, the more the mind is made to turn upon a sin- midst of a party to which' they have been invited; Mm Agl impression, the more closely it is made to approach Mackenzie, inl one of his papers, speaks of an honest PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 35 farmer having done so alongside of a young lady, who i hand; and, by pointing to her mouth, signified a wish was playing on the harp for his amusement. The cause for food. She took readily what was given to her; of this constitutional disposition to doze upon every oc- still she discovered no symptoms of hearing, and made casion. seems to be a certain want of activity in the no other kind of bodily movement than of her left brain, the result of which is, that the individual is sin- hand. Her right hand and arm, particularly, appeared gularly void of fire, energy, and passion. He is of a completely dead, and bereft of feeling; and even when phlegmatic temperament, generally a great eater, and pricked with a pin, so as to draw blood, never shrunk very destitute of imagination. Such are the general in the least degree. At the same time, she instantly characteristics of those who are predisposed to drowsi- drew back her left arm whenever it was touched by the ness: the cases where such a state coexists with intel- point of the pin. She continued to take food whentectual energy are few in number. ever it was offered to her. For the first two weeks, Boerhaave speaks of an eccentric physician who took her pulse generally stood at 50, during the third and it into his head that sleep was the natural state of man, fourth week, about 60; and on the day before her reand accordingly slept eighteen hours out of the twenty- covery, at 70 or 72. Her breathing was soft and alfour-till he died of apoplexy, a disease which is al- most imperceptible, but during the night-time she ocways apt to be produced by excessive sleep. casionally drew it more strongly, like a person who has Cases of constitutional drowsiness are in a great first fallen asleep. She evinced no symptom of hearmeasure without remedy, for the soporific tendency ing, till about four days before her recovery. Onbeing springs from some natural defect, which no medicinal interrogated, after this event, upon her extraordinary means can overcome. state, she mentioned that she had no knowledge of any Equally impossible of cure is the affection when it thing that had happened-that she had never been conarises, as it very often does, from old age. Even long scious of either having needed or received food, or of before this period of life, as at the age of fifty or sixty, having been blistered; and expressed much surprise on people very often get into somnolent habits, and are finding her head shaved. She had merely the idea of pretty sure to fall asleep if they attempt to read, or having passed a long night in sleep. even if they place themselves in an easy chair before The case of Elizabeth Perkins is also remarkable. the fire. I know of no cure for this indolent propen- In the year 1788, she fell into a profound slumber, from sity, unless indeed the habits arise, as it sometimes which nothing could arouse her, and remained in this.does, from corpulency, in which case it is more man- state for between eleven and twelve days, when she ageable, in so far as its cause is occasionally capable awoke of her own accord, to the great joy of her relaof being removed. tives, and wonder of the neighbourhood. On recoverDrowsiness sometimes proceeds from a fulness of ing, she went about her usual business; but this was blood in the head, or a disordered state of the digestive only for a short period, for in a week after she relapsed organs. When it originates from the former cause, it again into a sleep which lasted some days. She conbecomes necessary to have recourse to general or local tinued, with occasional intervals of wakefulness, in a blood-letting. The person, likewise, should use, from dozing state for several months, when she expired. time to time, mild laxatives, live temperately, and take There was lately at Kirkheaton a remarkable inabundance of exercise. Medicines of a similar kind stance of excessive sleep. A poor paralytic, twenty are necessary when the affection arises from the state years of age, was seldom, for the period of twelve of the stomach and bowels: so soon as these organs months, awake more than three hours in the twentyare restored to health, the symptomatic drowsiness will four. On one occasion, he slept for three weeks; he naturally disappear. took not a particle of either food or drink; nothing Persons who feel the disposition to drowsiness gain- could rouse him, even for a moment; yet his sleep aping upon them, should struggle vigorously against it; peared to be calm and natural. for when once the habit is fairly established, its eradi- The case of Elizabeth Armitage of Woodhouse, near cation is very difficult. Exercise of body and mind, Leeds, may also be mentioned. The age of this perearly rising and the cold bath, are among the best son was sixty-nine years. She had been for several means for this purpose. months in a decline, during which she had taken very little sustenance, when she fell into a state of lethargic stupor, on the morning of the 1st of July, 1827, in which condition she remained, without uttering one word; reCHAPTER XI. ceiving any food, or showing any signs of life, except PROTRACTED SLEEP. breathing, which was at times almost imperceptible. In this state she continued for eight days, when she exI have already mentioned a few instances of indivi- pired without a groan. duals remaining for days or weeks in a state of pro- Excessively protracted sleep may ensue from the infound sleep. The nature of this extraordinary affection judicious use of narcotics. A very striking instance of is in a great measure, unknown; it arises, in most this kind occurred on 17th February, 1816, near Lymcases, without any obvious cause, generally resists ington. In consequence of a complaint with which a every method that can be adopted for removing it, and child had been painfully afflicted for some time previdisappears of its own accord. ous, its mother gave it an anodyne, (probably laudaThe case of Mary Lyall, related in the 8th vo- num,) for the purpose of procuring it rest. The conmine of the'Transactions of the Royal Society of sequence was, that it fell into a profound sleep, which Edinbtrgh,' is one of the most remarkable instances continued for three weeks. In this case, in addition to of excessive somnolency on record. This woman an excessive dose, the child must have possessed some fell asleep on the rriorning of the 27th of June, and constitutional idiosyncrasy, which favoured the operacontinued in that state till the evening of the 30th tion of the medicine in a very powerful manner. of the same month, when she awoke, and remained One of the most extraordinary instances of excessive in her usual way till the 1st of July, when she again sleep, is that of the lady of Nismes, published in 1777, fell asleep, and continued so till the the 8th of in the'Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at August. She was bled, blistered, immersed in the Berlin.' Her attacks of sleep took place periodically, hot and cold bath, and stimulated in almost every at sunrise and about noon. The first continued till possible way, without having any consciousness of within a short time of the accession of the second, and what was going on. For the first seven days she con- the second till between seven and eight in the evening tinued motionless, and exhibited no inclination to eat. -when she awoke, and continued so till the next sunAt the end of this time she began to nrilve her left rise. The most extraordinary fact connected with this 86 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. case is, that the first attack commenced always at day- tain Franklin,' as fast as they were taken out of the break, whatever might be the season of the year, and nets, and in a short time became a solid mass of ice, and the other always immediately' after twelve o'clock. by a blow or two of the hatchet were easily split open, During the brief interval of wakefulness which ensued when the intestines might be removed in one lump. If, shortly before noon, she took a little broth, which she in this completely frozen state, they were thawed behad only time to do, when the second attack returned fore the fire, they recovered their animation.' Sheep upon her, and kept her asleep till the evening. Her sometimes remain for several weeks in a state of torsleep was remarkably profound, and had all the charac- pitude, buried beneath wreaths of snow. Swallows ters of complete insensibility, with the exception of a are occasionally in the same state, being found torpid feeble respiration, and a weak but regular movement of and insensible in the hollows of trees, and among the the pulse. The most singular fact connected with her ruins of old houses during the winter season; but with remains to be mentioned. When the disorder had birds this -more rarely happens, owing, probably, to the lasted six months, and then ceased, she had an interval temperature of their blood being higher than that of of perfect health for the same length of time. When other animals, and thereby better enabling them to reit lasted one year, the subsequent interval was of equal sist the cold. Almost all insects sleep in winter. This duration. The affection at last wore gradually away; is particularly the case with the crysalis, and such and she lived, entirely free of it, for many years after. grubs as cannot, at that season, procure their food. In She died in the eighty-first year of her age, of dropsy, hybernating animals, it is impossible to trace any a complaint which had no connexion with her preceding peculiarity of structure which disposes them to hyberdisorder. nate, and enables life to be sustained during that peThere are a good many varieties in the phenomena riod. So far the subject is involved in deep obscuriof protracted sleep. In some cases, the individual re- ty. According to Dr Edwards, the temperature of mains for many days without eating or drinking; in such animal sinks considerably during sleep, even in others, the necessity for these natural wants arouses summer. him for a short time from his slumber, which time he Want of moisture produces torpor in some animals. employs in satisfying hunger and thirst, and then in- This is the case with the garden snail, which revives if stantly gets into his usual state of lethargy. The lat- a little *ater is thrown on it. Snails, indeed, have ter kind of somnolency is sometimes feigned by impos- revived after being dried for fifteen years. iMr Baucer tors for the purpose of extorting charity; on this ac- has restored the vibris tritici (a species of worm) after count, when an instance of the kind occurs, it should perfect torpitude and apparent death for five years and be narrowly looked into, to see that there is no decep- eight months by merely soaking it in water. The tion. furcularia anostobea, a small microscopic animal, may The power possessed by the body of subsisting for be killed and revived a dozen times by drying it and such a length of time in protracted sleep, is most re- then applying moisture. According to Spallanzani, markable, and bears some analogy to the abstinence of animalculi have been recovered by moisture after a the polar bear in the winter season. It is to be ob- torpor of twenty-seven years. Larger animals are served, however, that during slumber, life can be sup- thrown into the same state from want of moisture. Such ported by a much smaller portion of food than when we according to Humboldt, is the case with the alligator are awake, in consequence of the diminished expendi- and boa constrictor during the dry season in the plains ture of the vital energy which takes place in the former of Venezuela, and with the centenes solosous, a species state. of hedge hog found in Madagascar; so that dryness as All that can be done for the cure of protracted som- well as cold, produces hybernation, if, in such a case, nolency, is to attempt to rouse the person by the use of we may use that term. stimuli, such as blistering, pinching, the warm or cold The power of intense cold in producing sleep, is very bath, the application of sternutatories to the nose, &c. great in the human subject, and nothing in the winter Blooding should be had recourse to, if we suspect season is more common than to find people lying dead any apopletic tendency to exist. Every means must' in fields and on the high highways from such a cause. be employed to get nourishment introduced into the An overpowering drowsiness steals upon them, and stomach; for this purpose, if the sleeper cannot if they yield to its influence death is almost uneviswallow, nutritious fluids should be forced, from time table. This is the particularly the case in snowto time, into this organ by means of Jukes' pump, storms, in which it is often impossible to get a place of which answers the purpose of filling as well as evacu- shelter. ating it. r This state of torpor, with the exception perhaps of catalepsy, is the most perfect sleep that can be imagined: it approaches almost to death in its apparent annihilation of the animal functions. Digestion is at an end, and the secretions and excretions suspended: nothing seems to go on but circulation, respiration and SLEEP FRODM COLD. absorption. The two former are extremely languid,* but the latter tolerably vigorous, if we may judge from This kind of sleep is so peculiar, that it requires to be the quantity of fat which the animal loses its considered separately. The power ofcoldinoccasion- torpid state. The bear, for example, on going to its ing slumber, is not confined to man, but pervades a wintry rest, is remarkably corpulent on awaking froI very extensive class of animals. The hybernation, or it, quite emaciated; in which state, inspired by the winter torpitude of the brown and Polar bear, results pangs of hunger, it sallies forth with redoubled fury from this cause. Those animals continue asleep for upon its prey. Life is sustained by the absorption of months; and do not awake from their apathy till re- this fat, which for months serves the animal as provivived by the genial temperature of spring. The same sion. Such emaciation, however, is not common to all is the-case with the hedgehog, the badger, the squirrel, hybernating animals, some of whom lose little or nothand several species of the mouse and rat tribes, such as ing by their winter torpttude. f the dormouse and marmot: as also with the land tor- Hybernation may be prevented. Thus the polr toise, the frog, and almost all the individuals of the bear in the menagerie at Paris never hybernated; and lizard, insect, and serpent tribes. Fishes are often found imbedded in the ice, and though in a state of' The extremely languid, or almost suspended state of these apparent death, become at once lively and animated on two functijns, is demonstrated by the fact, that an animal in a state of e ybernation may be placed for an hour in a jar of hy being exposed to heat. "The fish froze." says Cap- drogen without suffering death, PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 37 in the marmot and hedgehog hybernation is prevented It is hardly necessary to say any thing about the treatif the animals be kept in a higher temperature. It is ment of such cases. If a person is found in a state of also a curious fact, that an animal, if exposed to a more torpor from cold, common sense points out the necesintense cold, while hybernating, is awaked from its sity of bringing him within the influence of warmth. lethargy. Exposing a hybernating animal to light has When, however, the limbs, &c., are frost-bitten, heat also, in many cases the same effect. must be very cautiously applied, lest reaction, ensuing Some writers, and Buffon among the rest, deny that in such debilitated parts, might induce gangrene. Brisk such a state of torpor as we have here described, can be friction with a cold towel, or even with snow, as is looked upon as sleep. This is a question into which the custom in Russia, should, in the first instance, be it is not necessary at present to enter. All I contend had recourse to. When by this means the circulation for is, that the state of the mind is precisely the same is restored, and motion and feeling communicated to here as in the ordinary sleep-that, in both cases, the the parts, the heat may be gradually increased, and the organs of the senses and of volition are equally inert; person wrapped in blankets, and allowed some stimuand that though the. condition of the secretive and cir- lus internally, such as a little negus, or spirits and culating systems are different, so many circumstances water. This practice should be adopted from the very are nevertheless identical, that we become justified in first, when the parts are not frost-bitten; but when considering the one in a work which professes to treat such is the case, the stimulating system requires to be of the other. used with great caution, and we must proceed carefully, In Captain Cook's first voyage, a memqrable instance proportioning the stimulus to the particular cir cumstance is given of the power of intense cold in producing of the case. sleep. It occurred in the island of Terra del Fuego. If a person is unfortunate enough to be overtaken Dr Solander, Mr Banks, and several other gentlemen in a snow storm, and has no immediate prospect of had ascended the mountains of that cold region, for the extrication, he should, if the cold is very great, and purpose of botanizing and exploring the country.' Dr the snow deep, sink his body as much as possible in Solander, who had more than once crossed the moun- the latter, leaving only room for respiration. By this tains which divide Sweden from Norway, well knew plan, the heat of the body is much better preserved that extreme cold, especially when joined with fatigue, than when exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, produces a torpor and sleepinesss that are almost irre- and life has a greater chance of being saved; for the sistible. He, therefore, conjured the company to keep temperature of the snow is not lower than that of the riovihg whatever pain it might cost them, and whatever surrounding air, while its power of absorbing caloric is relief they might be promised by an inclination to rest. much less. It is on this principle that sheep live for'Whoever sits down,' said he,'will sleep; and such a length of time enveloped in snow wreaths, whoever sleeps, will wake no more,' Thus at once while, had they been openly exposed, for a much less admonished and alarmed, they set forward; but while period, to a similar degree of cold, death would inevithey were still upon the naked rock, and before they tably have ensjued. had got among the bushes, the cold became suddenly One of the best methods to prevent the limbs from so intense as to produce the effects that had been most being frost-bitten in intensely cold weather, is to keep dreaded. Dr Solander himself was the first who felt them continually in motion. Such was the method rethe inclination, against which he had warned others, commended by Xenophon to the Greek troops, in the irresistible; and insisted upon being suffered to lie memorable' retreat of the ten thousand,' conducted by down. Mr Banks entreated and remonstrated in vain; that distinguished soldier and historian down he lay upon tbe ground, although it was covered with snow, and it was with great difficulty that his friend kept him from sleeping. Richmond, also, one of the black servants, began to linger, having suffered CHAPTER XIII from the cold in the same manner as the Doctor. Mr Banks, therefore, sent five of the company, among TRANCE. whom was Buchan, forward, to get a fire ready at the first convenient place they could find; and himself, There is some analogy between suspended animation with four others remained with the Doctor and Rich- and sleep. It is not so striking, however, as to require mond, whom, partly by persuasion and entreaty, and any thing like a lengthened discussion of the former, partly by force, they brought on; but when they had got which I shall only consider in so far as the resemblance through the greatest part of the birch and swamp, they holds good between it and sleep. I have already Spoboth declared they could go no farther. Mr Banks ken of that suspension of the mind, and of some of the again had recourse to entreaty and expostulation, but vital functions, which occurs in consequence of intense they produced no effect. When Richmond was told cold; but there are other varieties, not less singular in that, if he did not go on, he would in a short time be their nature. The principal of these are, fainting, apofrozen to death, he answered, that he desired nothing plexy, hanging, suffocation, drowning and especially, but to lie down and die. The Doctor did not so ex- trance. When complete fainting takes place, it has plicitly renounce his life; he said he was willing to go many of the characters of death-the countenance beon, but that he must first take some sleep, though he ing pail, moist, and clammy; the body cold; the rehad before told the company, to sleep was to perish. spiration extremely feeble; the pulsation of the heart Mr Banks and the rest found it impossible to carry apparently at an end; while the mind is in a state of them; and there being no remedy, they were both suf- utter abeyance. It is in the latter respect only that the fered to sit down, being partly supported by the bushes; resemblance exists between syncope and sleep; in and ill a few minutes they fell into a profound sleep. every other they are widely different. The same rule Soon after, some of the people who had been sent for- holds with regard to apoplexy, in which a total insensiward, returned, with the welcome news that a fire was bility, even to the. strongest stimuli, takes place, accomkindled about a quarter of a mile farther on the way. panied also with mental torpor. In recoverable cases Mr Banks then endeavored to awake Dr Solander, and of drowning, hanging, and suffocation, a similar analogy happily succeeded. But though he had not slept five prevails, only in a much feebler degree; the faculties minutes, he had almost lost the use of his limbs, and of the mind being for the time suspended, and the acthe muscles were so shrunk, that the shoes fell from his tual existence of the vital spark only proved by the subfeet: he consented to go forward with such assistance sequent restoration of the individual to consciousness as could be given him, but no attempts to relieve poor and feeling. Richmond were successful. The most singular species, however, of suspended 38 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. animation is that denominated catalepsy, or trance. alive, and a great many persons who saw her while she No affection, to which the animal frame is subject, is was in the state df apathy described, are ready to satisfy more remarkable than this. During its continuance, the doubts of any one who will take the trouble to inthe whole body is cold, rigid, and inflexible; the coun- quire.'* tenance without color; the eyes fixed and motionless; The case which follows is from the Canton Gazette, while breathing and the pulsation of the heart are, to all and is not less curious:appearance, at an end. The mental powers, also, are' On the western suburbs of Canton, a person named generally suspended, and participate in the universal Le, bought as a slave-woman a girl named Leaning. torpor which pervades the frame. In this extraordi- At the age of twenty-one, he sold her to be a concunary condition, the person may remain for several days, bine to a man named Wong. She had lived with him having all, or nearly all, the characteristics of death three years. About six months ago she became ill, in impressed upon him. Such was the case with the consequence of a large imposthume on her side, andon celebrated Lady Russel, who only escaped premature the 25th of the present moon died. She was placed in interment by the affectionate prudence of her husband; a coffin, the lid of which remained unfastened, to wait and other well authenticated instances of similar preser- for her parents to come and see the corpse, that they vation from burying alive, have been recorded. might be satisfied she died a natural death. On the The nature of this peculiar species of suspended ani- 28th, while carrying the remains to be interred in the mation, seems to be totally unknown; for there is north side of Canton, a noise or voice was heard prosuch an apparent extinction of every faculty essential ceeding from the coffin; and, on removing the coverto life, that it is inconceivable how existence should go ing, it wasturhd the woman had come to life again. on during the continuance of the fit. There can be no She had been supposed dead for three days.' doubt, however, that the suspension of the heart and The case of Colonel Townsend, however, is much lungs is more apparent than real. It is quite certain more extraordinary than either of the above mentioned. that the functions of these organs must continue, so as This gentleman possessed the remarkable faculty of to sustain life although in so feeble a manner as not to throwing himself into a trance at pleasure. The heart come under the cognizance of our senses. The respi- ceased, apparently, to throb at his bidding, respiration ration, in particular, is exceedingly slight; for a mirror, seemed at an end, his whole frame assumed the icy held to the mouth of the individual, receives no tarnish chill and rigidity of death; while his face became colwhatever from his breath. One fact seems certain, ourless and shrunk, and his dye fixed, glazed, and that the functions of the nervous system are wholly ghastly: even his mind ceased to manifest itself; for suspended, with the exception of such a faint portion during the trance it was utterly devoid of consciousof energy, as to keep up the circulatory and respiratory ness as his body of animation. In this state he would phenomena: consciousness, in a great majority of cases, remain for hours, when these singular phenomena wove is abolished; and there is nothing wanting to indicate away, and he returned to his usual condition. Medithe unquestionable presence of death, but that decom- cal annals furnish no parallel to this extraordinary case. position of the body which invariably fbllows this state, Considered whether in a physiological or metaphysical and which never attends the presence of vitality. point of view, it is equally astonishing and inexplicable. The remote causes of trance are hidden in much ob- A variety of stories are related of people having had scuritv; and, generally, we are unable to trace the af- circumstances revealed to them in a trance, of which fection to any external circumstance. It has been they were ignorant when awake: most of these tales known to follow a fit of terror. Sometimes it ensues have their origin in fiction, although there is no reason after hysteria, epilepsy, or other spasmodic diseases, why thev may not be occasionally true; as the mind, and is occasionally an accompaniment of menorrhagia instead of being in torpor, as is very generally the case, and intestinal worms. Nervous and hypochondriac may exist in a state analogous to that of dreaming, and patients are the most subject to its attacks; but some- may thus, as in a common dream, have long forgotten times it occurs when there is no disposition of the kind, events impressed upon it. and when the person is in a state of the most seeming The following case exhibits a very singular instance, good health. in which the usual characteristic —a suspension of the' A girl named Shorigny, about twenty-five years mental faculties-was wanting. It seems to have been old, residing at Paris, had been for two years past sub- a most complete instance of suspended volition, wherein ject to hysteria. On the twenty-eighth day after she the mind was active, while the body refused to obey its was first attacked, the physician who came to visit her impulses, and continued in a state of apparent death. was informed that she had died duringthe night, which' A young lady, an attendant on the Princess, much surprised him, as when he had left her the night after having been confined to her bed, for a great length before, she was better than usual. He went to see of time, with a violent nervous disorder, was at last, to her, in order to convince himself of the fact; and, on all appearance, deprived of life. Her lips were quite raising the cloth with which she was covered, he per- pale, her face resembled the countenance of a dead perceived that though her face was very pale, and her lips son, and the body grew cold. discoloured, her features were not otherwise in the' She was removed from the room in which she died, least altered. Her mouth was open, her eyes shut, and was laid in a coffin, and the day of her funeral fixed on. the pupils very much dilated; the light of the candle The day arrived, and, according to the custom of the made no impression on them. There was no sensible country, funeral songs and hymns were sung before the heat in her body; but it was not cold and flabby like door. Just as the people were about to nail on the lid corpses in general. The physician returned the next., of the coffin, a kind of perspiration was observed to apday, determined on seeing her again before she was bu- pear on the surface of her body. It grew greater every ried; and, finding that she had not become cold, he gave moment; and at last a kind of convulsive motion was orders that the coffin should not be soldered down until observed in the hands and feet of the corpse. A few putrefaction had commenced. He continued to ob- minutes after, during which time fresh signs of returnserve her during five days, and at the end of that peri- ing life appeared, she at once opened her eyes and utod, a slight movement was observed in the cloth which tered a most pitiable shriek. Physicians were quickly covered her. In two hours, it was found that the arm procured, and in the course of a few days she was conhad contracted itself; she began to move; and it was siderably restored, and is probably alive at this day. clear that it had only been an apparent death. The'The description which she gave of her situation is eyes soon after were seen opened, the senses returned, extremely remarkable, and forms a curious and authen. and the girl began gradually to recover. This is an tic addition to psychology. extraordinary, but incontestible fact: the girl is still * Mentor. PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 39'She said it seemed to her, as if in a dream, that she dulge most frequently in'waking dreams. The scenes wras really dead; yet she was perfectly conscious of all which life presents do not come up to the desires of that happened around her in this dreadful state. She the heart; and the pencil of fancy is accordingly emdistinctly heard her friends speaking and lamenting her ployed in depicting others more in harmony with its death, at the side of her coffin. She felt them pull on own designs. Awayinto the gloomyback-ground goes the dead-clothes, and lay her in it. This feeling pro- reality with its stern and forbidding hues, and forward, luced a mental anxiety, which is indescribable. She in colours more dazzling than those of the rainbow, tried to cry, but her soul was without power, and could start the bright and airy phantoms of imagination. aot act on her body. She had the contradictory feel-' How often,' observes Dr Good,*'waking to the roar ing as if she were in her body, and yet not in it, at one of the midnight tempest, while dull and gluttonous inand the same time. It was equally impossible for her dolence snores in happy forgetfulness, does the imaLo stretch out her arm, or to open her eyes, or to cry, gination of those who are thus divinely gifted mount although she continually endeavored to do so. The the dizzy chariot of the whirlwind, and picture evils internal anguish of her mind was, however, at its ut- that have no real existence; now figuring to herself most height when the funeral hymns began to be sung, some neat and thrifty cottage where virtue delights to and when the lid of the coffin was about to be nailed reside, she sees it swept away in a moment by the torDn. The thought that she was to be buried alive, was rent, and despoiled of the little harvest just gathered the one that gave activity to her soul, and caused it to in; now following the lone traveller in some narrow operate on her corporeal frame.'* and venturous pathway, over the edge of the Alpine The following is different from either of the forego- precipices, where a single slip is instant destruction, ing; I have given it on account of its singularity, al- she tracks him alone by fitful flashes of lightning; and though it does not altogether come under the denomi- at length, struck by the flash, she beholds him tumnbling aation of trance. headlong from rock to rock, to the bottom of the dread' George Grokatzhi, a Polish soldier, deserted from abyss, the victim of a double death. Or possibly she his regiment in the harvest of the year 1677. He was takes her stand on the jutting foreland of some bold discovered, a few days after, drinking and making merry terrific coast, and eyes the foundering vessel straight *n a common ale-house. The moment he was appre- below; she mixes with the spent and despairing crew; lended, he was so much terrified, that he gave a loud she dives into the cabin, and singles out, perhaps from;hriek, and was immediately deprived of the power of the rest, some lovely maid, who, in all the bloom of repoeech. When brought to a court martial, it was im- covered beauty, is voyaging back to her native land nossible to make him articulate a word; nay, he then from the healing airs of a foreign climate, in thought _ecame as immovable as a statue, and appeared not to just bounding over the scenes of her youth, or panting )e conscious of any thing that was going forward. In in the warm embraces of a father's arms.' Such are;he prison, to which he was conducted, he neither ate waking dreams; and there are few who, at some happy lor drank. The officers and priests at first threatened moment or other, have not yielded to their influence. lim, and afterwards endeavored to soothe and calm Often under the burning clime of India, or upon the uim, but all their efforts were in vain. He remained lonely banks of the Mississippi, has the stranger let;enseless and immovable. His irons were struck off, loose the reins of his imagination, calling up before him Lnid he was taken out of the prison, but he did not the mountains of his own beloved country, his native nove. Twenty days and nights were passed in this streams, and rocks, and valleys, so vividly, that he was say, during which he took no kind of nourishment: transported back into the midst of them, and lived over me then gradually sunk and died.'t again the days of his youth. Or the waking dream It would be out of place to enter here into a detail of may assume a more selfish character. If the individual;he medical management of the first mentioned varie- pines after wealth, his mind may be filled with visions;ies of suspended animation; such as drowning, stran- of future opulence. If he is young and unmarried, he rulation, &c., &c.; and with regard to the treatment of may conjure up the form of a lovely female, may place;rance, properly so called, a very few words will suffice. her in a beautiful cottage by the banks of some romanIf we have reason to suppose that we know the cause tic stream, may love her with unfathomable affection, )f the affection, that, of course, must be removed when- and become the fondest and most happy of husbands. wver practicable. We must then' employ stimuli to The more completely a person is left to solitude, the Lrouse the person from his torpor, such as friction, the more likely is his imagination to indulge in such fanupplication of sternutatories and volatile agents to the cies. WsVe seldom build castles inl the air in the midst lostrils, and electricity. The latter remedy is likely to of bustle, or when we have any thing else to think of. )rove a very powerful one, and should always be had Wraking dreams are the luxuries of an otherwise un~ecourse to when other means fail. I should think the employed mind-the aristocratic indulgences of the inNarm bath might be advantageously employed. When tellect. As people get older and more coversant with even these remedies do not succeed, we must trust to life in all its diversified features, they are little inclined ime. So long as the body does not run into decay, to indulge in such visions. They survey events with ffter a case of suspended animation arising without any the eye of severe trutih, amuse themselves with no imrery obvious cause, interment should not take place; practicable notions of fanlcied happiness, and are in-.or it is possible that life may exist, although, for the dined to take a gloomy, rather than a flattering, view;ine being, there is every appearance of its utter ex- of the future. With youthful and poetical minds, howdinction. By neglecting this rule, a person may be in- ever, the case is widely different. Much of that por-;erred alive; nor can there be a doubt that such dread- tion of their existence, not devoted to occupation, is a.ul mistakes have occasionally been committed, espe- constant dream. They lull themselves into temporary:ially ii France, where it is customary to inter the body happiness with scenes which they know only to exist;wenty-four hours after death. Decomposition is the in their own imagination; but which are nevertheless:mly infallible mark that existence is at an end, and that so beautiful, and so much in harmony with every thing;he grave has triumphed. their souls desire, that they fondly clasp at the illusion, and submit themselves unhesitatingly to its spell. CHAPTER XIV. These curious states of mind may occur at any time; but the most common periods of their accession are shortly after lying down, and shortly before getting up. The young and the imaginative are those who in- Men, especially young men, of vivid, sanguine, imagina. a:'Psychological Magazine,' vol. v. part iii. page 15. tive temperaments, have dreams of this kind almost d Bonetus,' Medic Septentrion.' lib. i. sec. xvi. cap. 6. * Book of Nature, vol. iii. p. 422. 40 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. every morning and night. Instead of submitting to the other words, the brain, in a certain state, perceives exsceptre of sleep, they amuse themselves with creating ternal bodies; and any cause which induces that state, a thousand visionary scenes. Though broad awake, gives rise to a like perception, independently of the their judgment does not exercise the slightest sway, usual cause-the presence of external bodies themand fancy is allowed to become lord of the ascendant. selves. The chief of these internal causes is inflamPoets are notorious castle-builders, and poems are, in mation of the brain: and when the organs of the perfact, merely waking dreans —at least their authors ceptive faculties are so excited-put into a state simiwere under the hallucination of such dreams while com- lar to that which follows actual impressions from withposing. Milton's mind, during the composition of out-the result is a series of false images or sounds, Paradise Lost, must have existed chiefly in the state of which are often so vivid as to be'mistaken for realities. a sublime waking dream; so must Raphael's, while During sleep, the perceptive organs seem to be pecupainting the Sistine Chapel; and, Thorwaldson's, while liarly susceptible of such excitement. In dreaming, for designing the triumphs of Alexander. In waking instance, the external world, is inwardly represented to dreams, whatever emotion prevails has a character of our minds with all the force of reality: we speak and exaggeration, at least in reference to the existing con- hear as if we were in communication with actual existdition of the individual. He sees every thing through ences. Spectral illusions are phenomena strictly analothe serene atmosphere of imagination, and imbues the gous; indeed, they are literally nothing else than inmost trite circumstances with poetical colouring. The voluntary waking dreams. aspect, in short, which things assume, bears a strong In addition to the occasional cause of excitement of resemblance to that impressed upon them by ordinary the perceptive organs above alluded to, there is another, dreams, and differs chiefly in this, that, though verging the existence of' which is proved by numerous facts, continually on the limits of extravagance, they seldom though its mode of action is somewhat obscure. I altranscend possibility. lude to a large development of the organ of Wonder. Individuals with such a development are both strongly inclined to believe in the supernaturality of ghosts, and peculiarly liable to be visited by them. This organ is CHAPTER XV. large in the head of Earl Grey, and he is said to be haunted by the apparition of a bloody head. Dr Gall SPECTRAL ILLUSIONS. mentions, that in the head of Dr Jung Stilling, who saw visions, the organ was very largely developed. A Of the various faculties with which man is endowed, gentleman who moves in the best society in Paris, once those which bring him into communication with the asked Gall to examine his head. The doctor's first rematerial world, constitute an important class. The or- mark was,' You sometimes see visions, and believe in gans of these faculties-termed perceptive-are situ- apparitions.' The gentleman started from this in astonishated in the middle and lower parts of the forehead. ment, and said that he had frequent visions: but never Their function is to perceive and remember the exist- till that moment had he spoken on the subject to ally ence, phenomena, qualities, and relations of external human being, through fear of being set down as ab.objects. Individuality takes cognizance of the exist- surdly credulous. How a large development of Wonence of material bodies; Eventuality, of their motions der produces the necessary excitement of the perceptive or actions; Forms, of their shape; Size, of their mag- organs is unknown, but the fact seems indisputable. nitude and proportions; Weight, of the resistance which In former times, individuals who beheld visions, inthey offer to a moving or restraining power; Colour- stead of ascribing them to a disordered state of the ing, of their colours; and Locality, of their relative brain, referred them to outward impressions, and had a position. Time and Number perceive and remember false conviction of the presence of supernatural beings. duration and numbers; Language takes cognizance of Hence the universal belief in ghosts which in these artificial signs of feeling and thought; and Order de- periods prevailed, even among the learned, and from lights in regularity and arrangement. In ordinary cir- which the illiterate are not yet entirely exempt. cumstances, the mode of action of these organs is this. We read in history of people being attended by faIf any object-a horse for example-be placed before miliar spirits; such was the case with Socrates in anus, the rays of light reflected from its surface to our cient, and with the poet Tasso, in modern times: their eye, form a picture of the animal upon the retina or familiar spirits were mere spectral illusions.'At Biback part of that organ. This picture gives rise to saccio, near Naples,' says Mr Hoole, in ihis account of what, for want of more precise language, is called an the illustrious author of the Jerusalem Delivered,' Manimpression, which is conveyed by the optic nerve to so had an opportuuity of examining the singnlar effects the cerebral organs already mentioned; and by them, of Tasso's melancholy, and often disputed him conin reality, the horse is perceived. The eye and optic cerning afamiliar spirit which he pretended conversed nerve, it will be observed, do no more than transmit with him: Manso endeavoured in vain to persuade his the impression,from without, so as to produce that state friend that the whole was the illusion of a disturbed of the internal organs which is accompanied by what is imagination; but the latter was strenuous in maintaintermed perception or sensation. When the horse is ing the reality of what he asserted, and to convince withdrawn, the impression still remains, to a certain Manso, desired him to be present at one of the mysteextent, in the brain; and though the animal is not ac- rious conversations. Manso had the complaisance to tually perceived, we still remember its appearance, and meet him the next day, and while they were engaged can almost imagine that it is before us. This faint in discourse, on a sudden he observed that Tasso kept semi-perception is called an idea, and differs from sen- his eyes fixed on a window, and remained in a manner sation only in being less vivid. The brain is more immovable; he called him by his name, but received highly excited when it perceives a sensation, than when no answer; at last Tasso cried out,' There is the an idea only is present; because, in the former case, friendly spirit that is come to converse with me; look! there is applied, through the medium of the senses, a and you will be convinced of all I have said.' stimulus from without, which, in the latter case, is not Manso heard him with surprise; he looked, but saw present. If, however, the brain be brought by internal nothing except the sunbeams darting through the wincauses to a degree of excitement, which, in general, is dow; he cast his eyes all over the room, but could the result only of external impressions, ideas not less perceive nothing; and was just going to ask where the vivid than sensations ensue; and the individual has the pretended spirit was, when he heard Tasso speak with same consciousness as if an impression were trans- great earnestness, sometimes putting questions to the neitted from an actual object through the senses. In spirit, sometimes giving answers delivering the whole PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 41 in such a pleasing manner, and in such elevated ex- C. jocularly that he had seen his wraith, and that, as a pressions, that he listened with admiration, and had not natural consequence, he would soon be a dead man. the least inclination to interrupt him. At last the uncom- The person addressed laughed heartily, as did the rest mon conversation ended with the departure of the spirit, of the company, but the result turned out to be no as appeared by Tasso's own words, who, turning to laughing matter; for, in a very few days, Mr C. was Manso, asked him if his doubts were removed. Manso attacked with putrid sore throat, and died; and within was more amazed than ever; he scarce knew what to a very short period of his death Mr H. was also in the think of his friend's situation, and waived any farther grave. conversation on the subject.' Some of the most vivid instances of spectral illusion The visions of angels, and the communications from are those induced by opium. Several of the' English above, with which religious enthusiasts are often im- Opium-Eater's' visions were doubtless of this nature. pressed, arise from the operation of spectral illusions. Dr Abercrombie relates a striking instance of the kind They see forms and hear sounds which have no exist- which occurred to the late Dr Gregory.' He had gone ence; and, believing in the reality of such impressions, to the north country by sea to visit a lady, a near reconsider themselves highly favored by the almighty. lation, in whom he felt deeply interested, and who was These feelings prevailed very much during the perse- in an advanced state of consumption. In returning cutions in Scotland. Nothing was more common than from the visit, he had taken a moderate dose of laudafor the Covenanter by the lonely hill side to have what num, with the view of preventing sea-sickness, and he supposed a special message from God, and even to was lying on a couch in the cabin, when the figure of see the angel who brought it, standing before him, and the lady appeared before him in so distinct a manner encouraging him to steadfastness in his religious prin- that her actual presence could not have been more vivid. ciples. Much of the crazy fanaticism exhibited by the He was quite awake, and fuilly sensible that it was a disciples of Campbell and Irving, undoubtedly arises phantasm produced by the opiate, along with his intense from a similar cause; and it is probable that both of mental feeling; but he was unable by any effort to these individuals see visions and hear supernatural banish the vision.'* Indeed, any thing on which the voices, as well as many of their infatuated followers. mind dwells excessively, may by exciting the perceptive Various causes may so excite the brain as to produce organs, give rise to spectral illusions. It is to this cirthese phantasmata, such as great mental distress, cumstance that the bereaved husband sees the image sleeplessness, nervous irritation, religious excitement, of a departed wife, to whom he was fondly attachedfever, epilepsy, opium, delirium tremens, excessive that the murderer is hauntld by the apparition of his study, and dyspepsia. I have known them to arise victim-and that the living with whom we are familiar. without the apparent concurrence of any mental or seem to be presented before our eyes, although at a bodily distemper. I say apparent, forit is very evident distance from us. Dr Conolly relates the case of a there must be some functional derangement, however gentleman, who, when in danger of being wrecked much it may be hidden from observation. An ingeni- near the Eddystone lighthouse, saw the images of his ous friend has related to me a case of this kind which whole family. occurred in his own person. One morning, while ly- These illusive appearance sometimes occur during ing in bed broad awake, and, as he supposed, in perfect convalescence from diseases. In the summer of 1832, health, the wall opposite to him appeared to open at its a gentleman in Glasgow, of dissipated habits, was junction with the ceiling, and out of the aperture came seized with cholera, from which he recovered. His rea iittle uncouth, outlandish figure, which descended covery was unattended with any thing particular, exfrom the roof, squatted upon his breast, grinned at him cept the presence of a phantasmata-consisting of humaliciously, and seemed as if pinching and pummelling man figures about three feet high, neatly dressed in his sides. This illusion continued for some time, and pea-green jackets, and knee-breeches of the same color. with a timorous subject might have been attended with Being a person of a superior mind, and knowing the bad consequences; but he referred it at once to some cause of the illusions, they gave him no alarm, although disordered state of the stomach under which he imagined he was very often haunted by them. As he advanced he must have labored at the time, althongh he had no in strength the phantoms appeared less frequently, and direct consciousness of any such derangement of this diminished in size, till at last they were not taller than organ. The same gentleman has related to me the his finger. One night, while seated alone, a multitude case of one of his friends which attracted much notice of these Lilliputian gentlemen made their appearance at the tune it happened, from the melancholy circum- on his table, and favored him with a dance; but being stance that attended it. It is an equally marked in- at the time otherwise engaged, and in no mood to enjoy stance of hallucination arising without the individual such an amusement, he lost temper at the unwelcome being conscious of any physical cause by which it intrusion of his pigmy visiters, and striking his fist viomight be occasioned. It is as follows:- lently upon the table, he exclaimed in a violent passion, Mr H. was one day walking along the street, appar-' Get about your business you little impertinent rascals! ently in perfect health, when he saw, or supposed he What the devil are you doing here?' when the whole saw his acquaintance, Mr C., walking before him. He assembly instantly vanished, and he was never troubled called aloud to the latter, who, however, did not seem with them more. to hear him, but continued moving on. Mr H. then It generally happens that the figures are no less visiquickened his pace for the purpose of overtaking him; ble when the eyes are closed than when they are open. the other increased his also, as if to keen ahead of lis An individual in the west of Scotland, whose case is pursuer, and proceeded at such a rate that Mr H.. found related in the Phrenological Journal,t whenever he shut it impossible to make up to him. This continued for his eyes or was in darkness, saw a procession move some time, till, on Mr C. coming to a gate he opened before his mind as distinctly as it had previously done it, passed in, and slammed it violently in Mr H.'s face. before his eyes. Some years ago, a farmer from the Confounded at such treatment, the latter instantly neighbourhood of Hamilton, informed me, with feelings opened the gate, looked down the long lane into which of great horror, that he had frequently the vision of a it led, and, to his astonishment, no one was visible. hearse drawn by four black horses, which were driven Determined to unravel the mystery, he went to Mr C.'s by a black driver. Not knowing the source of this ilhouse; and what was his surprise when he learned lusion he was rendered extremely miserable by it; and, that he was confined to his bed, and had been so for to aggravate his unhappiness, was regarded by the igseveral days. A week or twoafterwards, these gentle- norant country people, to whom he told his story, as men chanced to meet in the house of a common friend, * Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers, P. 357. when Mr H. mentioned the circumstance, and told Mr t Vol. ii. p. 111. 42 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. having been guilty of some grievous crime. This vi- are eager to press through the crowd; at times, howsion was apparent to him chiefly by night, and the effect ever, they seemed to be transacting business with each was the same whether his eyes were open or shut. other. I also saw, several times, people on horseback, Indeed, so little are these illusions dependant on sight, dogs, and birds. All these phantasms appeared to mhe that the blind are frequently subject to them. A re- in their natural size, and as distinct as if alive, exhibispected elderly gentleman, a patient of my own, who ting different shades of carnation in the uncovered parts, was afflicted with loss of sight, accompanied by violent as well as in different colours' and fashions in their headaches, and severe dispeptic symptoms, used to -dresses, though the colours seemed somewhat paler have the image of a black cat presented before him, as than in real nature; none of the figures appeared pardistinctly as he could have seen it before he became ticularly comical, terrible, or disgusting, most of them blind. He was troubled with various other spectral being of an indifferent shape, and some presenting a appearances, besides being subject to illusions of sound pleasing aspect.' equally remarkable; for he had often the consciousness Perhaps the most remarkable visionary, of whom we of hearing music so strongly impressed upon him, that have any detailed account, was Blake the painter. This it was with difficulty his friends could convince him it extraordinary man not only believed in his visions, but was purely ideal. could often call up at pleasure whatever phantasms he Considering the age in which Bayle lived, his notions wished to see; and so far from their being objects of of the true nature of spectral illusions were wonderfully annoyance, he rather solicited than wished to avoid acute and philosophical. Indeed, he has so well de- their presence. He was in the habit of conversing with scribed the theory of apparitions, that the modern phre- angels, demons, and heroes, and taking their likenesses; nological doctrine on this point seems little more than for they proyed most obedient sitters, and never showan expanded version of his own.' A man,' says he, ed any aversion to allow him to transfer them to paper.'would not only be very rash, but also very extrava-' His mind;' says Mr Cunningham,' could convert the gant, who should pretend to prove that there never most ordinary occurrences into something mystical and was any person that imagined he saw a spectre; and I supernatural.'''Did you ever see a fairy's funeral, do not think that the most obstinate and extravagant madam' he once said to a lady who happened to sit unbelievers have maintained this. All they say, comes by him in company,' never, sir!' was the answer.' I to this: that the persons who have thought themselves have,' said Blake,'but not before last night. I was eye-witnesses of the apparition of spirits had a disturbed walking alone in my garden, there was great stillness imagination. They confess that there are certain among the branches and flowers, and more than complaces in our brain that, being affected in a certain mon sweetness in the air; I heard a low and pleasant manner, excite the image of an object which has no real sound, and knew not whence it came. At last I saw existence out of ourselves, and make the man, whose the broad leaf of a flower move, and underneath I saw brain is thus modified, believe he sees, at two paces a procession of creatures of the size and color of the distant, a frightful spectre, a hobgoblin, a threatening green and grey grasshoppers, bearing a body laid out phantom. The like happens in the heads of the most on a rose leaf, which they buried with songs, and then incredulous, either in their sleep, or in the paroxysms disappeared. It was a fairy fineral.'' On being asked of a violent fever. Will they maintain after this, that to draw the likeness of Sir William Wallace, that hero it is impossible for a man awake, and not in a delirium, immediately stood before him, and he commenced takto receive, in certain places of his brain, an impression ing his portrait.' Having drawn for some time with the almost like that which, by the law of nature, is con- same care of hand and steadiness of eye, as if a living nected with the appearance of a phantom.' In one of sitter had been before him, Blake stoped suddenly and Shenstone's Essays, entitled'An Opinion of Ghosts,' said,'I cannot finish him —Edward the first has stepthe same theory is clearly enunciated. ed in between him and me.''That's lucky,' said his It is worthy of remark, that the phenomena of appa- friend,' for I want the portrait of Edward too.' Blake ritions are inconsistent with the prevalent theory that took another sheet of paper and sketched the features the brain is a single organ, with every part of which of Plantagenet; upon which his majesty politely vaneach faculty is connected. Were this theory sound, ished, and the artist finished the head of Wailace.'*. The the same cause that vivifies the perceptive faculties greater part of his life was passed in beholding visions must also vivify, or excite to increased action, the pro- and in drawing them. On one occasion he saw the pensities, sentiments, and reflecting powers. This, ghost of a flea and took a sketch of it. No conception however, is by no means the case. was too strange or incongruous for his wild imagination, The case of Nicolai, the Prussian bookseller, which which totally overmastered his judgmnent, and made him occurred in the beginning of 1791, is one of the most mistake the chimeras of an excited brain for realities. remarkable instances of spectral illusion on record.' I What is called the Second sight originated, in most saw,' says he,'in a state of mind completely sound, cases, from spectral illusions; and the seers of whom and-after the first terror was over-with perfect calm- we so often read, were merely individuals visited by ness, for nearly two months, almost constantly and in- these phantoms. The Highland mountains, and the voluntarily, a vast number of human and other forms, wild lawless habits of those who inhabited them, were and even heard their voices, though all this was merely peculiarly adapted to foster the growth of such impresthe consequence of a diseased state of the nerves, and sions in imaginative minds; and, accordingly, nothing an irregular circulation of the blood.'' When I shut was more common than to meet with persons who not my eyes, these phantoms would sometimes vanish en- only fancied they saw visions, but, on the strength of tirely, though there were instances when I beheld them this belief, laid claim to the gift of prophesy. The with my eyes closed; yet when they disappeared on more completely the mind is abstracted from the bussuch occasions, they generally returned when I opened tle of life; the more solitary the district in which the my eyes. I conversed sometimes with my physician individual resides; and the more romantic and awe-inand my wife of the phantasms which at the moment spring the scenes that pass before his eyes, the greater surrounded me; they appeared more frequently walking is his tendency to see visions, and to place faith in what than at rest; nor were they constantly present. They he sees. A man, for instance, with the peculiar temfrequently did not come for some time, but always re- perament which predisposes to see, and believe in, specappeared for a longer or shorter period either singly or tral illusions, is informed that his chieftain and clan have in company, the latter, however, being most frequently set out on a dangerous expedition. Full of the subject, the case. I generally saw human forms of both sexes; he forces their images before him-sees them engaged but they usually seemed not to take the smallest notice * Cunningham's Lives of the British Painters, Sculptors, and of each other, moving as in a market-place, where all Architects, vol. ii., Life of Blake. PHILOSOPHY, OF SLEEP. 43 in fight-beholds his chieftian cut down by the clay- sent themselves, though not always, above the size of more. of an enemy-the clansmen routed and dispers- life.'' Colouring being over-excited, began to occased, their houses destroyed, their cattle carried off. This sion its specifie and fantastical illusions. Bright spots, vision he relates to certain individuals. If, as is not like stars on a back ground, filled the room in the dark, anlikely, it is borne out by the event, his prophecy is and even in day-light; and sudderl, and sometimes spread far and wide, and looked upon as an instance gradual, illumination of the room during the night took of the second sight; while, should nothing happen, the place, so that the firnitnre in it became visible. In. story is so more thought of by those to whom it was com- numerable balls of fire seemed one day to pour like a municated. In some instances, it is probable that the torrent out of one of the rooms of the house down the accidental fulfilment of an ordinary dream was regard- staircase. On one occasion, the pain between the ed as second sight. eyes, and along the lower ridge of the brow, struck her The belief in fairies, no doubt, had also its origin in suddenly with great violence-when, instantly, the spectral illusions. In the days of ignorance and su- room filled with stars and bright spots. On attemptperstition nothing was more easy than for an excited ing, on that occasion, to go to bed, she said she was brain to conjure up those tiny forms, and see them per- conscious of an inability to balance herself, as if she form their gambols upon the greensward beneath the had been tipsy, and she fell, having made repeated eflight of the moon. forts to seize the bed-post; which, in the most unaoThe dimensions of the figures which are exhibited in countable manner eluded her grasp by shifting its spectral illusions vary exceedingly. Sometimes they place, and also by presenting her with a number of bedappear as miniatures, sometimes of the size of life, at posts instead of one. If the organ of Weight situated other times of colossal proportions. The same differ- between Size and Colouring, be the organ of the inences apply to their colour. In one case they are pale, stinct to preserve, and power of preserving equilibrium, mnisty, transparent; in another black, red, blue, or green. it must be the necessary consequence of the derangeSometimes we have them' fantastically clothed in the ment of that organ to overset the balance of the percostume of a former age, sometimes in that of our own. son. Over-excited Number we should expect to proNow they are represented grinning, now weeping, now duce multiplication of objects, and the first experience in smiles.' White or grey Ghosts,' says Mr Simpson she had of this illusion, was the multiplication of the' result from excited Form, with quiescent Colouring, bed-posts, and subsequently of any inanimate object the transparent cobweb effect being colourless. Pale she looked at.' ~spectres, and shadowyyet coloured forms, are the effect' For nearly two years, Miss S. L. was free from her of partially excited Colourzng. Tall ghosts and frontal headaches, and-mark the coincidence-untroudwarf goblins, are the illusions of over-excited Size.' bled by visions or any other illusive perceptions. Some The jabbering of apparitions arises from an excited months ago, however, all her distressing symptoms restate of that part of the brain which gives us cogni- turned in great aggravation, when she was conscious of zance of sounds. This explanation seems highly pro- a want of health. The pain was more acute than bebable, or rather quite satisfactory. There are points, fore along the frontal bone, and round and in the eyehowever, which it is likely no one will ever be able to balls; and all the organs there situated recommenced explain. Why, for instance should the disordered their game of illusion. Single figures of absent and brain conjure up persons and faces rather than trees deceased friends were terribly real to her, both in the and houses? why should a ghost be dressed in red day and in the night, sometimes cobweb, but generally rather than blue, and why should it smile rather than coloured. She sometimes saw friends on the street, grin? These are minutiw beyond the reach of in- who proved phantotns when she approached to speak to vestigation at least in the present state of our know- them; and instances occurred, where, from not having ledge. thus satisfied herself of the illusion, she affirmed to Mr Simpson, in the second volume of the Phrenolo- such friends that she had seen them in certain places, gical Journal, has published a case of spectral illusion, at certain times, when they proved to her the clearest which, for singularity and interest, equals any thing of alibi. The confusion of her spectral forms now disthe same kind which has hitherto been recorded. The tressed her.-(Order affected.) The oppression and subject of it was a young lady under twenty years of perplexity were intolerable, when figures presented age, of good family, well educated, free from any su- themselves before her in inextricable disorder, and still perstitious fears, in perfect bodily health and of sound more when they changed-as with Nicolai-from whole mind. She was early subject to occasional attacks of figures to parts of figures-faces and half faces, and such illusions, and the first she remembered was limbs-sometimes of inordinate size and dreadful dethat of a carpet which descended in the air before her, formity. One instance of illusive Disorder, which she then vanished away. After an interval of some years, mentioned, is curious; and has the farther effect of she began to see human figures in her room as she lay exhibiting (what cannot be put in terms except those wide awake in bed. These figures were whitish or of) the derangement of the just perception of gravitarather grey, and transparent like cobweb, and generally tion or equilibrium. (Weight.) One night as she sat above the size of life. At this time she had acute in her bed-room, and was about to go to bed, a stream headaches, very singularly confined to one small spot of spectreg, persons' faces, limbs, in the most shocking of the head. On being asked to indicate the spot, she confision, seemed to her to pour into her room from the touched, with her, fore-finger and thumb, each side of window, in the manner of a cascade! Although the the root of the nose, the commencement of the eye- cascade continued, apparently, in rapid descending mobrows, and the spot immediately over the top of the tion; there was no accumulation bf figures in the room, nose, the ascertained seats of Form, Size, and Lower the supply unaccountably vanishing, after having formed Individuality. On being asked if the pain was confined the cascade. Colossal figures are her frequent visit to thbse spots, she answered that some time afterwards ers. (Size.)' it extended to the right and left, aldng the eyebrows, In the fifth volume of the Phrenolagical Journal, and a little above themn, and completely round the eyes, page 319, a case is mentioned where the patient was which felt as if they would burst from their sockets. tortured with horrid faces glaring at her, and approach On this taking place the visions varied. The organs ing close to her in every possible aggravation of hor of Weight, Colou.ring, Order, Number, and Locality, ror.' She- was making a tedious recovery in child-bed were affected, and the phantasmata assumed a change when these symptoms troubled her. Besides the forms, corresponding to the irritated condition of these parts. which were of natural colour, though often bloody, site The whitish or cobweb spectres assumed the natural was perplexed by their variation in size, from colos.sa' colour of the objects, I ut they continued often to pre- to minute. She saw also entire human figures, but Q 44 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. they were always as minute as pins, or even pin-heads, appearances always followed the motion of the eyes; and were in great confusion and numbers.'' She de- and, secondly, that the objects which were the best described the pain which accompanied her illusions, viz. fined and remained the longest visible, were such as I acute pain in the upper part or root of the nose, the had no recollection of ever having previously seen. seat of the organ of Form, and all along the eyebrows, For about twenty-four hours I had constantly before which takes in Individuality, Form, Size, Weight, me a human figure, the features and dress of which Order and Number.' In the same volume, page 430, were as distinctly visible as that of any real existence, Mr Levison relates, that on asking an individual who and of which, after an interval of many years, I still saw apparitions, whether or not he felt pain at any part retain the most lively impression; yet, neither at the of his head, he answered,' that every time before he time nor since have I been able to discover any person experienced this peculiar power of seeing figures, he whom I had previously seen who resembled it. invariably felt pain in and between his eyes, and, in'During one part of this disease, after the disapshort, all over the eyebrows.' It does not appear, how- pearance of this stationary phantom, I had a very sinever, that pain is universally felt in such cases in the gular and amusing imagery presented to me. It aplower part of the forehead. Dr Andrew Combe in- peared as if a number of objects, principally human forms me that, so far as he has observed, the pain, when faces or figures on a small scale, were placed before it does ~exist, is more frequently in the exciting organ, me, and gradually removed like a succession of megenerally Wonder. dallions. They were all of the same, size, and appeared Spectral illusions constitute the great pathognomonic to be all situated at the same distance from the face. sign of delirium tremens. In this disease they are usu- After one had been seen fof a few minutes, it became ally of a horrible, a disgusting, or a frightful nature; fainter, and then another, which was more vivid, seemed the person being irresistibly impressed with the notion to be laid upon it or substituted in its place, which, in that reptiles, insects, and d11 manner of vermin are its turn, was superseded by a new appearance. During crawling upon him, which he is constantly endeavoring all this succession of scenery, I do not recollect that, to pick off-that he is haunted by hideous apparitions in a single instance, I saw any object with which I had -that people are in the room preparing to murder and been previously acquainted; nor, as far as I am aware, rob him, and so forth. In the following case, with were the representations of any of those objects, with which I have been favored by Dr Combe, the illusive which my mind was the most occupied at other times, appearances were of a more pleasing kind than gene- presented to me; they appeared to be invariably new rally happen.'In a case,' says he,'of delirium tre- creations, or, at least, new combinations of which I mens in an inn-keeper, about whom I was consulted, could not trace the original materials.'* the spectral illusions continued several days, and had a The following very curious instance, is not less indistinct reference to a large and active cerebullum, teresting: the subject of it was a member of the (the organ of Amativeness) conjoined with Wonder. English bar. The man refused to allow me to look at a blister which' In December, 1823, A. was confined to his bed by had been placed between his shoulders,'because he inflammation of the chest, and was supposed by his could not take off his coat before the ladies who were in medical attendant to be in considerable danger. One the room!' When I assured him that there was nobody night, while unable to sleep from pain and fever, he in the room, he smiled at the joke, as he conceived it saw sitting on a chair, on the left side of his bed, a feto be, and, in answer to my questions, described them male figure which he immediately recognised to be as several in number, well dressed, and good-looking. that of a young lady who died about two years before. At my request he rose up to shake hands with them, His first feeling was surprise, and perhaps a little alarm; and was astonished at finding them elude his grasp, and his second, that he was suffering from delirium. With his hand strike the wall. This, however, convinced this impression, he put his head under the bed-clothes, him that it was an illusion, and he forthwith took off and, after trying in vain to sleep, as a test of the soundhis coat, but was unwilling to converse longer on the ness of his mind, he went through a long and complisubject. In a few days the ladies vanished from his cated process of metaphysical reasoning. He then sight.' peeped out and saw the figure in the same situation Spectral illusions are more frequently induced by and position. He had a fire, but would not allow a fever than by any other cause. Indeed, the premoni- candle or nurse in the room. A stick was kept by his tory stages of most fevers are accompanied by illusive side to knock for the nurse when he required her atappearances of one kind or another, such as luminous tendance. Being too weak to move his body, he enbodies, especially when the eyes are shut, hideous faces, deavored to touch the figure with the stick, but, on a streaks of fire, &c.; and,'n the advanced stages, they real object being put on the chair, the imaginary one are not uncommon. A medical friend has informed disappeared, and was not visible again that night. me, that when ill of fever in Portugal, he was terribly The next day he thought of little but the vision, and harrassed by the vision of a soldier, whose picture was expected' its return without alarm, and with some hanging in the room. Removing the picture failed to pleasure. He was not disappointed. It took the dissipate the illusion, which did not disappear till he same place as before, and he employed himself in obwas conveyed to another apartment. Dr Bostock, servations. When he shut his eyes or turned his head, while under a febrile attack, was visited by spectral il- he ceased to see the figure; by interposing his hand lusions of an unusual kind. The following are the par- he could hide part of it; and it was shown, like any ticulars of his case, as described by himself:- mere material substance, by the rays of the fire which'I was laboring,' says he,' under a fever, attended fell upon and were reflected from it. As the fire dewith symptoms of general debility, especially of the dined it became less perceptible, and as it went out, nervous system, and with a severe pain of the head, invisible. A similar appearance took place on several which was confined to a small spot situated above the other nights; but it became less perceptible, and its right temple. After having passed a sleepless night, visits less frequent, as the patient recovered from his and being reduced to a state of considerable exhaustion, fever. I first perceived figures presenting themselves before' He says the impressions on his mind were always me, which I immediately recognised. as similar to those pleasing, as the spectre looked at him with calmness described by Nicolai, and upon which, as I was free and regard. He never supposed it real; but was unfrom delirium, and as they were visible about three days able to account for it on any philosophical principles and nights with little intermission, I was able to make within his knowledge. my observations. There were two circumstance which In the autumn of 1825. A.'s health was perfectly appeared to movery remarkable; first, that the spectral * Bostock's Physiology, vol. iii. p. 204. PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 45 restored, and he had been free from any waking vision proceeded from such an excited state of some parts of for nearly eighteen months. Some circumstances oc- the brain, as I have already alluded to. Ideality, Woncurred which produced in him great mental excitement. der, Form, Colour, and Size, were all in intensely acOne morning he dreamed of the figure, which stood by tive operation, while the state of the reflecting organs his side in an angry posture, and asked for a locket was unchanged. Had the latter participated in the genwhich he usually wore. He awoke and saw it at the eral excitement, to such an extent as to be unable to toilet, with the locket in its hand. He rushed out of rectify the false impressions of the other organs, the bed and it instantly disappeared. During the next six case would have been one of pure delirium. weeis ts visits were incessant, and the sensations Spectral illusions can only be cured by removing the which they produced were invariably horrible. Some causes which give rise to them. If they proceed from years before, he had attended the dissection of a wo- the state of the stomach, this must be rectified by means man in a state of rapid decomposition. Though much of purgatives and alterative medicines. Should pledisgusted at the time, the subject had been long for- thora induce them, local or general blood-letting and gotten; but was recalled by the union of its putrescent other antiphlogistic means are requisite. If they acbody with the spectre's features. The visits were not company fever or delirium tremens, their removal will, confined to the night, but frequently occurred while of course, depend upon that of these diseases. Arising several persons were in the same room. They were from sleeplessness, they will sometimes be cured by repeated at intervals during the winter; but he was anodynes; and from nervous irritation, by the showerable to get rid of them by moving or sitting in an bath and tonics. Where they seem to arise without erect position. Though well, his pulse was hard, and any apparent cause, our attention should be directed generally from 90 to 100.'* to the state of the bowels, and blood-letting had reIn March, 1829, during an attack of fever, accom- course to panied with *iolent action in the brain, I experienced. illusions of a very peculiar kind. They did not appear except when the eyes were shut or the room perfectly dark; and this was one of the most distressing things CHAPTER XVI. connected with my illness; for it obliged me either to keep my eyes open or to admit more light into the REVERIE..chamber than they could well tolerate. I had the consciousness of shining and hideous faces grinning at me A state of mind somewhat analogous to that which in the midst of profound darkness, from which they prevails in dreaming, also takes place during reverie. glared forth in horrid and diabolical relief. They were There is the same want of balance in the faculties, never stationary, but kept moving in the gloomy back- which are almost equally ill regulated, and disposed to ground: sometimes they approached within an inch or indulge in similar extravagancies.'Reverie proceeds two of my face: at other times, they receded several from an unusual quiescence of the brain, and inability feet or yards from it. They would frequently break of the mind to direct itself strongly to any one point: into fragments, which after floating about would unite it is often the prelude of sleep. There is a defect in -portions of one face coalescing with those of another, the attention, which, instead of being fixed on one suband thus forming still more uncouth and abominable ject, wanders over a thousand, and even on these is images. The only way I could get rid of those phan- feebly and ineffectively directed. We sometimes see toms was by admitting more light into the chamber and this while reading, or, rather, while attempting to read. opening my eyes, when they instantly vanished; but We get over page after page, but the ideas take no only to reappear when the room was darkened or the hold whatever upon us; we are in truth ignorant of eyes closed. One night, when the fever was at its what we peruse, and the mind is either an absolute height, I had a splendid vision of a theatre, in the arena blank, or vaguely addressed to something else. This of which Ducrow, the celebrated equestrian, was per- feeling every person must have occasionally noticed in forming. On this occasion, I had no consciousness of taking out his watch, looking at it, and replacing it a dark back ground like to that on which the monstrous without knowing what the hour was, In like manner images floated; but every thing was gay, bright, and he may hear what is said to him without attaching any beautiful. I was broad awake, my eyes were closed, meaning to the words, which strike his ear, yet comand yet I saw with perfect distinctness the whole scene municate no definite idea to the sensorium. Persons going on in the theatre, Ducrow performing his wonders in this mood may, from some ludicrous ideas flashing of horsemanship-and the assembled multitude, among across them, burst into a loud fit of laughter during serwhom I recognized several intimate friends; in short, mon or at a funeral, and thus get the reputation of being the whole process of the entertainment as clearly as if I either grossly irreverent or deranged. That kind of rewere present at it. When I opened my eyes the whole verie in which the mind is nearly divested of all ideas, and scene vanished like the enchanted palace of the necro- approximates closely to the state of sleep, I have somemancer; when I closed them, it as instantly returned. times experienced while gazing long and intently upon a But though I could thus dissipate the spectacle, I found river. The thoughts seem to glide away, one by one, upon it impossible to get rid of the accompanying music. the surface of the stream, till the mind is emptied of This was the grand march in the Opera of Aladdin, and them altogether. In this state we see the glassy vowas performed by the orchestra with more superb and lume of the water moving past us, and hear its murimposing effect, and with greater loudness, than I ever mur, but lose all power of fixing our attention definiheard it before ~ it was executed, indeed, with tre- tively upon any subject: and either fall asleep, or are mendous energy. This air I tried every effort to dis- aroused by some spontaneous reaction of the mind, or sipate, by forcibly endeavouring to call other tunes to by some appeal to the senses sufficiently strong to starmind, but it was in vain. However completely the vi- tie us from our reverie. Grave, monotonous, slowly sion might be dispelled, the music remained in spite of repeated sounds-as of a mill, a waterfall, an Eolian every effort to banish it. During the whole of this sin- harp, or the voice of a dull orator, have the: effect of gular state, I was perfectly aware of the illusiveness of lulling the brain into repose, and giving rise to a pleamy feelings, and, though labouring under violent head- sing melancholy, and to calmness and inanity of mind. ache, could not help speculating upon them and endeav- Uniform gentle motions have a tendency to produce a orillg to trace them to their proper cause. This theatri- similar state of reverie, which is also very apt to ensue cal vision continued for about five hours; the previous in the midst of perfect silence; hence, in walling alone delusions for a couple of days. The whole evidently in the country, where there is no sound to distract our * Phrenological Journal, vol. v. p. 210. meditations, we frequently get into this state. It is 46 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. also apt to take place whenwe are seated without books, of religion, of conscience, and of future expectation, companions, or amusement of any kind, by the hearth these I found equally correct, and fixed as before. on a winter evening, especially when the fire is begin- There was no deception in my external senses, for I ning to burn out, when the candles are becoming faint saw and knew every thing around me; but I could not for want of topping, and a dim religious light, like that free myself from the strange ideas which existed in my filling a hermit's cell from his solitary lamp, is diffused head. I endeavoured to speak in order to discover over the apartment. This is the situation most favour- whether I was capable of saying any thing that was able for reveries, waking dreams, and all kinds of brown connected; but although I made the greatest efforts of study, abstraction, ennui, and hypochondria. attention, and proceeded, with the utmost caution, I Reverie has been known to arise from the mind sus- perceived that I uniformly spoke other words than those taining temporary weakness, in consequence of long I intended. My soul was at present as little master of and excessive application to one subject. It is also, I the organs of speech, as it had been before of my hand believe, frequently induced by forcing young people to in writing. Thank God, this state did not continue learn what they dislike. In this case, the mind, finding very long, for, in about half an hour, my head began to it impossible to direct itself to the hated task, goes grow clearer, the strange and tiresome ideas became wandering off in another direction, and thus acquires a less vivid and turbulent, and I could command my own habit of inattention, which, in extreme cases, may ter- thoughts with less interruption. minate in imbecility. Sometimes reveries arise from'I now wished to ring for my servant, and desire him peculiarity of temperament, either natural or induced by to inform my wife to come to me; but I found it still mental or bodily weakness. The best regulated minds necessary to wait a little longer to exercise myself in and strongest bodies, may, however, and, in fact, often the right pronunciation of the few words I had to say: have, occasional attacks: but when the feeling grows and the first half hour's conversation I had with her into a habit, and is too much indulged in, it is apt to was, on my part, preserved with a slow and anxious injure the usefulness of the individual, and impair the circumspection, until at last I gradually found myself whole fabric of his understanding.' It is,' says Dr as clear and serene as in the beginning of the day, all Good,' upon the faculty of attention that every other that now remained was a slight headache. I recollectfaculty is dependent for its vigour and expansion: with- ed the receipt I had begun to write, and in which I out it, the perception exercises itself in vain; the mem- knew I had blundered; and upon examining it, I obory can lay up no store of ideas; the judgment draw served to my great astonishment, that instead of the forth no comparisons; the imagination must become words fifty dollars, being one half year's rate, which I blighted and barren; and where there is no attention ought to have written, the words were fifty dollars whatever, the case must necessarily verge upon fatuity.' through the salvation of Bra-, with a break after it, I conceive that persons in whom the organ of Concen- for the word Bra was at the end of a line. I cannot trativeness is very small, are peculiarly apt to fall into recollect any perception, or business which I had to reverie. transact, that could, by means of an obscure influence, The following is a remarkable instance of reverie have produced this phenomenon.' arising from excessive application:-The subject of it Reverie, when proceeding, as in this case, from exwas Mr Spalding, a gentleman well known as an emi- cessive application, will seldom be difficult of cure; nent literary character in Germany, and much respected the removal of the exciting cause will of itself naturally by those who knew him. The case was drawn up by constitute the remedy. When it arises from such a himself, and published in the Psychological Magazine. defect in education as that already mentioned, the cure' I was this morning engaged with a great number will be more difficult, although even then it is not alof people who followed each other quickly, and to each ways impracticable. In such a case, the person should of whom I was obliged to give my attention. I was be strongly directed to those subjects in which he feels also under the necessity of writing much; but the sub- most interest, and never be made to study what he has jects, which were various and of a trivial and uninter- not a positive liking for. Active employment and gay esting nature, had no connexion the one with the oth- and pleasant society, may effect much in restoring the er; my attention, therefore, was constantly kept on the intellectual balance. In all cases, whatever, he should stretch, and was continually shifting from one subject never be left long alone; as nothing has such a tendento another. At last it became necessary that I should cy to foster this state of mind as solitude. write a receipt for some money I had received on account of the poor. I seated myself and wrote the two first words, but in a moment found that I was incapable of proceeding, for I could not recollect the words CHAPTER XVII. which belonged to the ideas that were present in my mind. I strained my attentionr as much as possible, ABSTRACTION. and tried to write one letter slowly after the other, always having an eye to the preceding one, in order to Abstraction, or absence of mind, has been confounded observe whether they had the usual relationship to each with reverie, but it is, in reality, a different intellectual other; but I remarked, and said to myself at the time, operation; for as in the latter a difficulty is experienced that the characters I was writing were not those which in making the mind bear strongly on any one point, in I wished to write, and yet I could not discover where the former its whole energies are concentrated towards the fault lay. I therefore desisted, and partly by broken a single focus, and every other circumstance is, for the words and syllables, and partly by gesture, I made the time, utterly forgotten. Such was the case with Sir person who waited for the receipt understand he should Isaac Newton when, in a fit of absence, he made a toleave me. For about half an hour there reigned a kind bacco stopper of the lady's finger, and with Archimedes, of tumultuary disorder in my senses, in which I was who remained unconscious and unrroved during the incapable of remarking any thing very particular, ex- noise and slaughter of captured Syrac'se. Though, in cept that one series of ideas forced themselves involun- general, abstraction is easily broken by outwald imtarily on my mind. The trifling nature of these thoughts pressions, there have been instances where it has been I was perfectly aware of, and was also conscious that I so powerful as to render the individuals labouring unmade several efforts to goet rid of them, and supply their der it insensible to pain. Pinel in his Nosogreopbie place with better ones, which lay at the bottom of my Philosophiqzue speaks of a priest who inl a fit of mental soul. I endeavoured as much as lay in my power, con- absence was unconscious of the pain of burning; and sidering the great crowd of confused images which pre- Cardan brought himself into such a z;tate as to ba in sented themselves to my mind, to recall my princiles sensible to all external impression PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 47 Some men are naturally very absent; others acquire himself.'' To one who asked him, on some occasion, this habit from particular pursuits, such as mathema- by what means he had arrived at his discoveries, he retics, and other studies demanding much calculation. plied,'By always thinking unto them.' And at anIndeed, all studies which require deep thinking, are apt other time, he thus expressed his method of proceeding, to induce mental absence, in consequence of the sen- -' I keep the subject constantly before me, and wait sorial power being drained from the general circum- tlll the first dawning opens slowly, by little and little, ference of the mind, and directed strongly to a certain into a full and clear light.' Again, in a letter to Dr point. This draining, while it invigorates the organ of Bentley, he says,' If I have done the public any serthe particular faculty towards which the sensorial en- vice this way, it is due to nothing but industry and paergy is concentrated, leaves the others in an inanimate tient thought.' Biot mentions farther, that,'in genstate, and incapacitates them from performing their pro- eral, the intensity of thinking was with him so great per functions; hence persons subject to abstraction that it entirely abstracted his attention from other matare apt to commit a thousand ludicrous errors; they ters, and confined him exclusively to one object. Thus, are perpetually blundering-committing a multitude of we see that he never was occupied at the same time petty, yet harmless offences against established rules, with two different scientific investigations.' and for ever getting into scrapes and absurd situations. The instances of abstraction upon record are so nuNothing is more common than for an absent man to merous that a volume might easily be filled with them. take the hat of another person instead of his own, to Hogarth, the illustrious painter, affords a good specigive away a guinea for a shilling, to mistake his lodg- men. Having got a new carriage, he went in it to the ings, forget invitations, and so forth. When the fit of Mansion-House, for the purpose of paying a visit to the abstraction is very strong, he neither hears what is said Lord Mayor. On leaving the house he went out by a to him, nor sees what is passing around.' While you different door from that by which he entered, and found fancy,' says Budgell, in the 77th No. of the Spectator, that it rained hard. Notwithstanding this, he walked'he is admiring a beautiful woman, it is an even wager homewards, and reached his own dwelling drenched to that he is solving a proposition in Euclid; and while the skin. His wife seeing him in this state, asked him you imagine he is reading the Paris Gazette, it is far how it happened, and what had become of his carriage from being impossible that he is pulling down and re- since he had not returned home in it. The truth was, building his country house.' In some cases the indi- that he had actually forgotten he had a carriage, or had vidual requires to be shaken before he can be brought gone in one at all. -.o take notice of any occurrence; and it is often diffl- The following case, from the pleasant style in which cult to make him comprehend even the simplest propo- it is told, will amuse the reader. sition..bstraction, therefore, bears an analogy to' It is a case of one of the most profound and cleardreaming, inasmuch as, in each of these states, some headed philosophical thinkers, and one of the most amifacul.es Ire active, while others are at rest. In dream- able of men, becoming so completely absorbed in his ing, however, the organs of the quiescent faculties are own reflections, as to loose the perception of external in a much deeper slumber, and less easily roused into things, and almost that of his own identity and existactivity than in abstraction; hence in the great majority ence. There are few that have paid any attention to of cases, abstraction is broken with greater facility than the finance of this country, but must have heard of Dr sleep. Robert Hamilton's' essay on the National debt,' which It appears from the observations of the Edinburgh fell on the houses of parliament like a bombshell, or, phrenologists, that individuals who have a large develop-. rather, which rose and illuminated their darkness like ment of the organ of Concentrativeness are peculiarly an orient sun. There are other writings of his in which liable to fall into a state of abstraction. The effect of one knows not which most to admire-the profound such a development is fixity of ideas-the power and and accurate, science, the beautiful arrangement, or the tendency to think consecutively and steadily upon one clear expression. Yet, in public, the man was a shad subject.'In conversing with some individuals,' says dow; pulled off his hat to his own wife in the streets, Mr Combe,*' we find them fall naturally into a con- and apologized for not having the pleasure of her acnected train of thinking; either dwelling on a subject quaintance; went to his classes in the college on the which interests them, till they have placed it clearly be- dark mornings, with one of her white stockings on the fore the mind, or passing naturally and gracefully to a one leg, and one of his own black ones on the other, connected topic. Such persons uniformly have this often spent the whole time of the meeting in moving organ large. We meet with others, who in similar cir- from the table the hats of the students, which they as cumstances, never pursue one idea for two consecutive constantly returned; sometimes invited them to call seconds, who shift from topic to topic, without regard on him, and then fined them for coming to insult him. to natural connexion, and leave no distinct impression He would run against a cow in the road, turn round, on the mind of the listener; and this happens even with beg her pardon,' madam,' and hope she was not hurt. individuals in whom reflection is not deficient; but this at other times he would run against posts, and chide organ (Concentrativeness) is, in such persons, uniformly them for not getting out of his way; and yet his con. small.' A gooq endowment of the power in question versation at the same time, if any body happened to be adds very much to the efficiency of the intellect, by with him, was perfect logic and perfect music. Were eriabling its possessor to apply his mind continuously it not that there may be a little poetic license in Aberto a particular investigation, unannoyed by the intru- deen story-telling, a volume might be filled with anecsion of foreign and irrelevant ideas. It seems to have dotes of this amiable and excellent man, all tending, to been very strong in Sir Isaac Newton, whose liability prove how wide the distinction is between first rate to abstraction has already been alluded to.'During thought and that merely animal use of the organs of the two years,' says Biot,' which he spent in preparing sense which prevents ungifted mortals from walking into and developing his immortal work, PhilosophleNaturalis wells. The fish-market at Aberdeen, if still where it Principia Mathematica, he lived only to calculate and used to be, is near the Dee, and has a stream passing to think. Oftentimes lost in the contemplation of these through it that falls into that river. The fish women grand objects, he acted unconsciously; his thoughts expose their wares in large baskets. The doctor one appearing to preserve no connexion with the ordinary day marched into that place, where his attention was affairs of life. It is said, that frequently, on rising in attracted by a curiously figured stone in a stack of the riiorning, he would sit down on his bedside, arrested chimneys. He advanced towards it, till he was interby some new conception, and would remain for hours rupted by one of the benches, from which, however, together engaged in tracing it out, without dressing he tumbled one of the baskets into the stream, which * System of Phrenology, p. 135. was bearing the fish to their native element. The 48 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. visage of the lady was instantly in lightning, and her Thus attired, he one day called at St. Paul's, shortly voice in thunder; but the object of her wrath was deaf after having erected the statue of the benevolent to the loudest sounds, and blind to -the most alarming Howard, aud before the boarding which enclosed the colors. She stamped, gesticulated, scolded, brought a statue had been removed. One of his sons was emcrowd that filled the place; but the philosopher turned ployed, at this time, in finishing the statue. After renot from his eager gaze and his inward meditations on maining a short time, he complained of feeling somethe stone. While the woman's breath held good, she what cold, on which the son proposed, as no one could did not seem to heed, but when that began to fail, and overlook them, that he should put on, as a kind ot the violence of the act moved not one muscle of the temporary spencer, anold torn, green shag waistcoat, object, her rage felt no bounds: she seized him by the with a red stuff back, which had been left there by one breast, and yelling, in an effort of despair,' spagh ta of the workmen. He said it was a'good thought,' and ma, or I'll burst,' sank down among the remnant of her accordingly buttoned the waistcoat over his handsome fish in a state of complete exhaustion; and before she new coat. Shortly afterwards, he was missing, but had recovered, the doctor's reverie was over, and he returned in about an hour, stating that he had been to had taken his departure.'" call on a gentleman in Doctor's Commons, and had sat Many curious anecdotes of a similar kind are related chatting with his wife and daughters, whom he had of the Rev Dr George Harvest, one of the ministers never seen before; that he found them to be exceedingly of Thames Ditton. So confused on some occasion, pleasant women, though perhaps a little disposed to were the ideas of this singular man, that he has been laugh and titter about he knew not what.' Sir,' said known to write a letter to one person, address it to a the son,'I am afraid I can explain their mysterious second, and send it to a third. He was once on the behavior; surely you have not kept on that waistcoat eve of being married to the bishop's daughter, when all the time?''But, as sure as I am a living man, I having gone a gudgeon-fishing, he forgot the circum- have,' said he, laughing heartily,'and I can now acstance,,and overstaid the canonical hour, which so of- count not only for the strange behavior of the ladies, fended the lady, that she indignantly broke off the but for all the jokes that have been cracked about me match. If a beggar happened to take off his hat to as I walked along the street-some crying let him him on the streets, in hopes of receiving alms, he would alone, he does it for a wager, &c. &c.; all which, from make him a bow, tell him he was his most humble ser- being quite unconscious of my appearance, I thought vant, and walk on. He has been known on Sunday to was levelled at some other quiz that might be following forget the days on which he was to officiate, and would near me; and I now recollect that, whenever I looked walk into church with his gun under his arm, to ascer- round for the object of their pleasantry, the people tain what the people wanted there. Once, when he laughed, and the more so, as, by the merry force of was playing at backgammon, he poured out a glass of sympathy, I laughed also, although I could not cornwine, and it being his turn to throw, having the box in prehend what it all meant.' one hand and the glass in the other, and being extreme- I shall conclude by mentioning an anecdote of Mr ly dry, and unwilling to lose any time, he swallowed Warton, the accomplished Professor of Poetry in the down both the dice, and discharged the wine upon the University of Oxford.' This good divine having dined dice-board.'Another time,' says the amusing narrative' with some jolly company at a gentleman's house in that which has been published of his peculiarities, in one of city, passing through the streets to the church, it being his absent fits, he mistoook his friend's house, and summer-time, his ears were loudly saluted with the went into another, the door of which happened to stand cry of' Live mackerel!' This so much dwelt upon open; and no servant being in the way, he rambled the Doctor's mind, that after a nap while the psalm all over the house, till, coming into a middle room, was performing, as soon as the organ ceased playing, where there was an old lady ill in bed of the quincy, he got up in the pulpit, and with eyes half open, cried he stumbled over the night stool, threw a close-horse out'All alive, alive oh!' thus inadvertently keeping down, and might not have ended there, had not the af- up the reputation of a Latin proverb, which is transfrighted patient made a noise at his intrusion, which lated in the following lines:brought up the servants, who, on finding Dr Harvest in'Great wits to madness nearly are allied, the room, instead of the apothecary that was moment- And thin partitions do their bounds divide.' arily expected, quieted the lady's fears, who by this time was taken with such an immoderate fit of laughter The Professor of Poetry perhaps supposed himself at his confusion, that it broke the quincy in her throat, yet with his companions at the convivial table.' and she lived many years afterwards to thank Dr Har- Mental absence is generally incurable. In stout vest for his unlucky nmistake.'His notorious heed- subjects, depletion, purging, and low diet, will somethat no one would lend him times be of use. Where the affection seems to arise lesa horse, as sohe frequapparently ost his beast from under him, from torpor of the nervous system, blistering the head a horse, as he frequently lost his beast from under him, and internal stimuli afford the most probable means of or, at least from out of his hands, it being his frequent relief. The person should associate as much as possipractice to dismount and lead the horse, putting the ble The person should associate as much as possibridlactie tounder hismount and leadwhich the horse someputtingmes shook ble with noisy, bustling people, and shun solitude and bridle under his arm, which the horse sometimes shook off, or the intervention of a post occasioned it to fall all such studies as have a tendency to produce abstrac sometimes it was taken off by the boys, when the parson was seen drawing his bridle after him; and if any one asked him after the animal, he could not give the least account of it, or how he had lost it.' In short the CHAPTER XVIII. blunders which he committed were endless, and would be considered incredible, were they not authenticated by SLEEP OF PLANTS. incontestible evidence. Yet, notwithstanding all this, Harvest was a man of uncommon abilities, and an ex- During night, plants seem to exist m a state analocellent scholar. gous to sleep. At this period they get relaxed, while Bacon, the celebrated sculptor, exhibited on one oc- their leaves droop and become folded together. Such casion, a laughable instance of absence of mind.' Ba- is peculiarly the case with the tamarind tree, and the con was remarkably neat in his dress, and, according leguminous plants with pinnated leaves; but with alto the costume of the old school, wore, in fine weather, most all plants it takes place in a greater or lesser dea powdered wig, ruffles, silver buckles, with silk stock- gree, although in some the change is much more strikings, &c., and walked with his gold-headed cane. ing than in others. The trefoil, the Oxalis, and other *'New Monthly Magazine,' vol. xxxviii. p. 510. herbs with ternate leaves, sleep with their leaflets fold PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 49 ed together in the erect posture. The cause of the animals, however, there is this difference: that while different states in which plants exist during the day most plants become torpid in winter, only a smaU and night has never been correctly ascertained-some number of animals get into that state; but even ip attributing it to the influence of light, some to the vicis- such dissimilitude we can trace an analogy; for as situdes of temperature, and others to atmospherical there are animals upon which winter has no torpifying humidity. Probably the whole of these influences are influence, so are there likewise plants. The Helloboconcerned. It is very evident that the presence of rus hymalis or christmas rose, flowers at the end of Decertain stimuli during the day puts the leaves in astate cember, and the Galanthlus nivilis, or snow-drop, in of activity, and excites their development; while the the month of February. want of such stimuli in the night time throws them into repose, relaxes them, and occasions them to be weighed down, as If the sustaining principle which kept CHAPTER XIX. them in energy was suspended in the torpor of sleep. The principal of these stimuli is unquestionably light; GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF SLEEP. indeed, Linnmus, from the observation of stove plants, seems to have demonstrated that it is the withdrawing In the foregoing pages, I have detailed at length all cf light, and not of heat, which produces the relaxation, the principal phenomena of sleep; and it now only reor Sleep of Plants, as it is commonly denominated. mains to state such circumstances as affect the comThe effect of light upon the leaves of the Acacia is fort and healthfulness of the individual while in that peculiarly striking. At sunrise they spread themselves condition. The first I shall mention is the nature of out horizontally; as the heat increases they become the chamber in which we sleep; this should be always elevated, and at noon shoot vertically upwards: but as large and airy. In modern houses, these requisites are soon as the sun declines they get languid and droop, too much overlooked; and, while the public rooms are and during night are quite pendant and relaxed. Du- of great dimensions, those appropriated for sleeping are ring day, the leaves of some plants are spread out, and little better than closets. This error is exceedingly displayed, and at the same time inclined towards the detrimental to health. The apartments wherein so sun. Those of the Helianthus annuius, the Helianthe- great a portion of life is passed, should always be mum annuum, and Croton tinctorium follow the course roomy, and, if possible, not placed upon the groundof the sun in their position; and most buds and flow- floor, because such a situation is more apt to be damp ers have a tendency to turn their heads in the direction and ill ventilated than higher up. of the great luminary of day. As an instance of this The next consideration applies to the bed itself, let us look at the sun flower, which confronts the which ought to be large, and not placed close to the source of light with its broad yellow expansion of as- wall, but at some distance from it, both to avoid any pect, and hangs its gorgeons head droopingly so soon dampness which may exist in the wall, and admit a as the object of its worship declines. The leaves of freer circulation of air. The curtains should never be a great number of vegetables present changes in their drawn closely together, even in the coldest weather; position corresponding to the different hours of the and when the season is not severe, it is a good plan to day.' Who does not know,' says Wildenow,' that remove them altogether. The bed or mattress ought the species of Lupinus, especially Lupinus luteus turn, to be rather hard. Nothing is more injurious to health m the open air, their leaves and stalks towards the sun, than soft beds; they effeminate the individual, render and follow its course in so steady a manner, as to en- his flesh soft and flabby, and incapacitate him from unable us to specify the hour of the day from their direc- dergoing any privation. The texture of which the tion.' Such phenomena were not unknown to Pliny couch is made, is not of much consequence, provided it and Theophrastus. is not too soft: hence, feather-beds, or mattresses of The analogy between animal and vegetable life is hair or straw are almost equally good, if suitable in this still farther demonstrated by the well known fact, that particular. I may mention, however, that the hair while some creatures, such as the cat and owl, sleep mattress, from being cooler, and less apt to imbibe during the day, and continue awake at night, certain moisture, is preferable during the summer season, to a plants do the same thing. Such is the case with the bed of feathers. Those soft yielding feather-beds, in Tragopogon luteum, which becomes closed, or in other which the body sinks deeply, are highly improper, from words, goes to sleep at nine in the morning, and opens the unnatural heat and perspiration which they are sure at night. Every hour of the day, indeed, has some to induce. Air-beds have been lately recommended, particular plant which then shuts itself up: hence the but I can assert, from personal experience, that they idea of the Flower Dial by means of which the ho.ur of are the worst that can possibly be employed. They the day can be told with tolerable accuracy. Some become very soon heated to such an unpleasant degree plants, which shut themselves up in the day time, as to render it impossible to repose upon them with any flower at night. The night-flowering Cereus, a species comfort. For bed-ridden persons, whose skin has beof Cactus, is a beautiful instance of the kind; and come irritated by long lying, the hydrostatic bed, lately there are other plants which exhibit the same interest- brought into use in some of the public hospitals, is the ing phenomenon. Nothing, indeed, can be more beau- best. tiful than the nocturnal flowering of certain members of The pillow as well as the bed, should be pretty hard. the vegetable world. Linnaus used to go out at night When very soft, the head soon sinks in it, and becomes with a lantern into his garden to have an opportunity of unpleasantly heated. The objection made to air-beds witnessing this remarkable peculiarity in the plants by applies with equal force to air-pillows, which I several which it is exhibited. times attempted to use, but was compelled to abandon, The analogy between the two kingdoms is rendered owing to the disagreeable heat that was generated in a yet more striking, when it is recollected that (with such few minutes. exceptions as the above,) plants increase much more With regard to the covering, there can be no doubt rapidly during night, which is their time of sleep, than in that it is more wholesome to lie between sheets than the day-time, which may be considered the period of blankets. For the same reason, people should avoid their active or waking existence. sleeping in flannel nightshirts. Such a degree of The state in which plants exists in the winter season warmth as is communicated by those means is only resembles the hybernation of animals: there is the justifiable in infancy and childhood, or when there is same torpor and apparent extinction of vitality. Heat actual disease or weakness of constitution. Parents and light have the power of both reviving plants and often commit a great error in bringing up their young.putting an end to hybernation. Between plants and people under so effeminate a system. 22" 50 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. A common custom prevails of warming the bed be- net-work. Some persons wear worsted, or flannel caps, fore going to sleep. This enervating practice should but these are never proper, except in old or.rheumatic be abandoned except with delicate people, of when the subjects. The grand rule of health is to keep the head cold is very intense. It is far better to let the bed be cool, and the feet warm; hence, the night-cap cannot chafed by the natural heat of the body, which, even, in be too thin. In fact, the chief use of this piece of severe weather, will be sufficient for the purpose, pro- clothing is to preserve the hair, and preserve it from vided the clothing is abundant. being disordered and matted together. WVe ought never to sleep overloaded with clothes, Sleeping in stockings is a bad and uncleanly habit. but have merely what is sufficient to maintain a com- By accustoming ourselves to do without any covering fortable warmth. upon the feet, we shall seldom experience cold in these When a person is in health, the atmosphere of his parts, if we have clothing enough to keep the rest of apartment should be cool; on this account, fires are the system comfortable; and should they still remain exceedingly hurtful, and should never be had recourse cold, this can easily be obviated by wrapping a warm to, except when the individual is delicate, or the weather flannel cloth around them, or by applying to them, for intolerably severe. When they become requisite, a few minutes, a heated iron, or a bottle of warm water. smoke must be carefully guarded against, as fatal acci- The posture of the body must be attended to. The dents have arisen from this cause. head should be tolerably elevated, especially in plethoThe window-shutters ought never to he entirely ric subjects; and the position, from the neck downclosed, neither ought they to be kept altogether open. wards, as nearly as possible horizontal. The half-sitIn the first case, we are apt to oversleep ourselves, ting posture, with the shoulders considerably raised, is owing to the prevailing darkness with which we are injurious, as the thoracric and abdominal viscrea are surrounded; and in the second, the light which fills the thereby compressed, aud respiration, digestion, and cirapartment, especially if it be in the summer season, may culation, materially impeded. Lying upon the back is disturb our repose, and waken us at an earlier hour also improper, in consequence of its tendency to prothan there is any occasion for. Under both circum- duce nightmare. Most people pass the greater part of stances, the eyes are liable to suffer; the darkness in the night upon the side, which is certainly the most the one instance, disposes them to be painfully affect- comfortable position that can be assumed in sleep. Aced, on exposure to the brilliant light of day, besides di- cording to Dr A. Hunter, women who love their husrectly debilitating them-for, in remaining too much in bands generally lie upon the right side. This interestthe gloom, whether we be asleep or awake, these or- ing point I have no means of ascertaining, although, gans are sure to be more or less weakened. In the doubtless, the ladies are qualified to speak decidedly other case, the fierce glare of the morning sun acting upon the subject. I have known individuals who could upon them, perhaps for several hours before we get up, not sleep except upon the back; but these are rare cases. does equal injury, making them tender and easily affect- I have mentioned the necessity of a free circulation ed by the light. The extremes of too much and too of air. On this account, it is more wholesome to sleep little light must, therefore, be avoided, and such a single, than double, for there is then less destruction of moderate portion admitted into the chamber as not to oxygen; and the atmosphere is much purer and cooler. hurt the eyes, or act as too strong a stimulus in break- For the same reason, the practice, so common in pubing our slumbers. lic schools, of having several beds in one room, and During the summer heats, the covering requires to two or three individuals in each bed, must be deleteribe diminished, so as to suit the atmospheric tempera- ous. When more than one sleep in a single bed, they ture; and a small portion of the window drawn down should take care to place themselves in such a position from the top, to promote a circulation of air; but this as not to breath in each other's faces. Some persons must be done cautiously, and the current prevented have a dangerous custom of covering their heads with from coming directly upon the sleeper, as it might give the bedclothes. The absurdity of this practice needs rise to colds, and other bad consequences. The late no comment. Dr Gregory was in the habit of sleeping with the win- Before going to bed, the body should be brought into dow drawn slightly down during the whole year: and that state which gives us the surest chance of dropping there can be no doubt that a gentle current pervading speedily asleep. If too hot, its temperature ought to our sleeping apartments, is in the highest degree essen- be reduced by cooling drinks, exposure to the open air, tial to health. sponging, or even the cold bath; if too cold, it must Nothing is so injurious as damp beds. It becomes be brought into a comfortable state by warmth; for every person, whether at home or abroad, to look to this both cold and heat act as stimuli, and their removal is matter, and see that the bedding on which he lies is necessary before slumber can ensue. A full stomach, thoroughly dry, and free from even the slightest moist- also, though it sometimes promotes, generally prevents ure. By neglecting such a precaution, rheumatism, sleep; consequently, supper ought to be dispensed colds, inflammations, and death itself may ensue. In- with, except by those who, having been long used to deed these calamities are very frequently traced to this meal, cannot sleep without it. As a general rule, sleeping incautiously upon damp beds. For the same the person who eats nothing for two or three hours bereason, the walls and floor should be dry, and wet fore going to rest, will sleep better. than he who does. clothes never hung up in the room. His sleep will also be more refreshing, and his sensaWe should avoid sleeping in a bed that has been oc- tions upon waking much more gratifying. The Chinese cupied by the sick, till the bedding has been cleansed recommended brushing the teeth previous to lying and thoroughly aired. When a person has died of any down: this is a good custom. infectious disease, not only the clothes in which he lay, Sleeping after dinner is pernicious. On awaking but the couch itself ought to be burned. Even the from such indulgence, there is generally some degree bed-stead should be carefully washed and fumigated. of febrile excitement, in consequence of the latter stages Delicate persons who have been accustomed to sleep of digestion being hurried on: it is only useful in old upon feather-beds, must be cautious not to exchange people, and in some cases of disease. them rashly for any other. The weak, and those recovering from protracted illOn going to sleep, all sorts of restraints must be re- nesses, must be indulged with more sleep than such as moved from the body; the collar of the night-shirt are vigorous. Sleep, in them, supplies, in some meashould be unbuttoned and'the neckcloth taken off. sure, the place of nourishment, and thus becomes a With regard to the head, the more lightly it is covered most powerful auxiliary for restoring them to health. the better: on this account, we should wear a thin cot- Much repose is likewise necessary to enable the system ton or silk night-cap; and this is still better if made of to recover from the effects of dissipation. PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 51 Too. little and too much sleep are equally injurious. At whatever period we go to sleep, one fact is cerExcessive wakefulness, according to Hippocrates, pre- tain, that we can never with impunity convert day into vents the aliment from being digested, and generates night. Even in the most scorching seasons of the crude humours. Too much sleep produces lassitude year, it is better to travel under the burning sunshine, and corpulency, and utterly debases and stupifies the than in the cool of the evening, when the dews are mind. Corpulent people being apt to indulge in ex- falling and the air is damp. A case in support of this cessive sleep, they should break this habit at on*al, as, statement, is given by Valangin in his work on Diet. in their case, it is peculiarly unwholesome. They ought Two colonels in the French army had a dispute to sleep little, and that little upon hard beds. whether it was not most safe to march in the heat of The practice of sleeping in the open air, cannot be the day, or in the evening. To ascertain this point, too strongly reprobated. It is at all times dangerous, they got permission from the commanding officer to especially when carried into effect under aburning sun, put their respective plans into execution. Accordingly, or amid the damps of night. In tropical climates, where the one with his division marched during the day, althis custom is indulged in during the day, it is not un- though it was in the heat of summer, and rested all usual for the person to be struck with a coup-de-soleil, night-the other slept in the day-time, and marched or some violent fever; and in our own country, nothing during the evening and part of the night. The result is more common than inflammations, rheumatisms, and was that the first performed a journey of six hundred dangerous colds, originating from sleeping upon the miles, without losing a single man or horse, while the ground, either during the heat of the day, or when the latter lost most of his horses, and several of his men. evening has set in with its attendant dews and vapours. It now becomes a question at what hour we should As respects the repose of children it may be remark- retire to rest, how long our rest ought to continue, and ed that the custom of rocking them asleep in the cra- when it should be broken in the morning. These dle, is not to be recommended, sanctioned though it be points I shall briefly discuss, in the order in which they by the voice of ages. This method of procuring slum- stand. ber, not only heats the infant unnecessarily, but, in It is not very easy to ascertain the most appropriate some cases, disorders the digestive organs, and, in hour for going to bed, as this depends very much upon most, produces a sort of artificial sleep, far less con- the habits and occupation of the individual. Laborers ducive to health, than that brought on by more natural and all hard wrought people, who are obliged to get up means. According to some writers, it has also a ten- betimes, require to go to rest early; and in their case, dency to induce water in the head, a circumstance nine o'clock may be the best hour. Those who are which I think possible, although I never knew a case not obliged to rise early, may delay the period of reof that disease which could be traced to such a source. tiring to rest for an hour or two longer; and may thus the cradle, then, should be abandoned, so far as the go to bed at ten or eleven. These are the usual rocking is concerned, and the child simply lulled to re- periods allotted among the middle ranks of life for this pose in the nurse's arms, and then deposited quietly in purpose; and it may be laid down as a rule, that to bed. Sleep will often be induced by gently scratching make a custom of remaining up for a later period than or rubbing the top of the child's head. This fact is eleven,must be prejudicial. Those, therefore, who well known to some nurses, by whom the practice is habitually delay going to bed.till twelve, or one, or two, had recourse to for the purpose of provoking slumber are acting in direct opposition to the laws of health, in in restless children. For the first month of their ex- so far as they are compelled to pass in sleep a portion istence, children sleep almost continually, and they of the ensuing day, which ought to be appropriated to should be permitted to do so, for at this early age they wakefulness and exertion. Late hours are in every cannot slumber too much: calm and long-continued respect hurtful, whether they be employed in study or sleep is a favourable symptom, and ought to be cher- amusement. A fresh supply of stimulus is thrown ished rather than prevented, during the whole period of upon the mind, which prevents it from sinking into infancy. When, however, a child attains the age of slumber at the proper period, and restlessness, dream.. three or four months, we should endeavour to manage ing, and disturbed repose inevitably ensue. Among so that its periods of wakefulness may occur in the day- other things, the eyes are injured, those organs suffertime, instead of at night. By proper care, a child ing much more from the candle-light, to which they are may be made to sleep at almost any hour; and, as this necessarily exposed, than from the natural light of day. is always an object of importance, it should be sedul- With regard to the necessary quantity of sleep, so ously attended to in the rearing of children. Until much depends upon age, constitution, and employment, about the third year, they require a little sleep in the that it is impossible to lay down any fixed rule which middle of the day, and pass half their time in sleep. will apply to all cases. Jeremy Taylor states that Every succeeding year, till they attain the age of seven, three hours only in the twenty-four should be devoted the period allotted to repose should be shortened one to sleep. Baxter extends the period to four hours, hour, so that a child of that age may pass nine hours or Wesley to six, Lord Coke and Sir William Jones to thereabouts, out of the twenty-four, in a state of sleep. seven, and Sir John Sinclair to eight. With the latter Children should never be awakened suddenly, or with I am disposed to coincide. Taking the average of a noise, in consequence of the terror and starting which mankind, we shall come as nearly as possible to the such a method of arousing them produces: neither truth when we say that nearly one-third part of life should they be brought all at once from a dark room ought to be spent in sleep: in some cases, even more into a strong' glare of light, lest their eyes be weaken- may be necessary, and in few, can a much smaller portion ed, and permanent injury inflicted upon these organs. be safely dispensed with. When a person in young, The position in which children sleep requires to be strong, and healthy, an hour or two less may be sufficarefully attended to. Sir Charles Bell mentions that cient; but childhood and extreme old age require a still the eneuresis infantum, with which they are so often greater portion. No person who passes only eight affected, frequently arises from lying upon the back, hours in bed, can be said to waste his time in sleep. and that it will be removed or prevented by accustom- If, however, he exceeds this, and is, at the same time, ing them to lie on the side. It is also of the greatest in possession of vigor and youth, ne lays himself open importance, that they be kept sufficiently warm. I be- to the charge of slumbering away those hours which lieve that many infantile diseases arise from the neglect should be devoted to some other purpose. According of this precaution. Children have little power of evol- to Georget, women should sleep a couple of hours ving heat; on this account, when delicate they should longer than men. For the former he allows six or never be permitted to sleep alone, but made to lie with seven hours, for the latter eight or nine. I doubt, howthe nurse, that they may receive warmth from her bcly. ever, if the female constitution, generally speaking, re. 52 PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. quires more sleep than the male; at least it is certain in truth, is almost every one distinguished for energy that women endure protracted wakefulness better than and indefatigability of mind. men, but whether this may result from custom is a Every circumstance contributes to render early question worthy of being considered. rising advisable to those who are in the enjoyment Barry, in his work on Digestion, has made an inge- of health. There is no time equal in beauty and nious, but somewhat whimsical, calculation on the ten- freshness to the morning, when nature has just parted dency of sleep to prolong life. He asserts, that the with"he gloomy mantle which night had flung over her, duration of human life may be ascertained by the num- and stands before us like a young bride, from whose ber of pulsations which the individual is able to per- aspect the veil which covered her loveliness, has been form. Thus, if a man's life extends to 70 years, and withdrawn. The whole material world has a vivifying his heart throbs 60 times each minute, the whole num- appearance. The husbandman is up at his labour, the ber of its pulsations will amount to 2,207,520,000; but forest leaves sparkle with drops of crystal dew, the flowif, by intemperance, or any other cause, he raises the ers raise their rejoicing heads towards the sun, the birds pulse to 75 in the minute, the same number of pulsa- pour forth their anthems of gladness; and the wide face of tions would be completed in 56 years, and the duration creation itself seems as if awakened and refreshed from of life abbreviated 14 years. Arguing from these data, a mighty slumber. All these things, however, are hid he alleges, that sleep has a tendency to prolong life, as, from the eyes of the sluggard; nature, in her most gloduring its continuance, the pulsations are less numerous rious aspect, is, to him, a sealed book; and while every than in the waking state. There is a sort of theoreti- scene around him is full of beauty, interest, and animacal truth in this statement, but it is liable to be modified tion, he alone is passionless and uninspired. Behold by so many circumstances, that its application can him stretched upon his couch of rest! In vain does never become general. If this were not the case, it the clock proclaim that the reign of day has commenced-! would be natural to infer that the length of a man's In vain does the morning light stream fiercely in by the life would correspond with that of his slumbers; chinks of his window, as if to startle him from his rewhereas it is well known, that too much sleep debili- pose! He hears not-he, sees not, for blindness and tates the frame, and lays the foundation of various dis- deafness rule over him with despotic sway, and lay a eases, which tend to shorten rather than extend the deadening spell upon his faculties. And when he does duration of life. at length awake-far on in the day-from the torpor of Those who indulge most in sleep, generally require this benumbing sleep, he is not refreshed. He does the least of it. Such are the wealthy and luxurious, not start at once into new life-an altered man, with who pass nearly the half of their existence in slumber, joy in his mind, and vigour in his frame. On the conwhile the hard-working peasant and mechanic, who trary, he is dull, languid, and stupid, as if half recoverwould seem, at first sight, to require more than any ed from a paroxysm of drunkenness. He yawns, other class of society, are contented with seven or eight stretches himself, and stalks into the breakfast parlour, hours of repose-a period brief in proportion to that ex- to partake in solitude, and without appetite, of his unpended by them in toil, yet sufficiently long for the refreshing meal-while his eyes are red and gummy, wants of nature, as is proved by the strength and health his beard unshorn, his face unwashed, and his clothes which they almost uniformly enjoy. disorderly, and ill put on. Uncleanliness and sluggishFor reasons already stated, more sleep is requisite in ness generally go hand in hand; for the obtuseness of winter than in summer. Were there even no consti- mind which disposes a man to waste the most precious tutional causes for this difference, we should be disposed hours of existence in debasng sleep, will naturally to sleep longer in the one than in the other, as some of make him neglect his person. the circumstances which induce us to sit up late and rise The character of the early riser is the very reverse early in summer, are wanting during winter; and we of the sloven's. His countenance is ruddy, his eye consequently feel disposed to lie longer in bed during joyous and serene, and his frame full of vigour and acthe latter season of the year. tivity. His mind, also, is clear and unclouded, and free The hour of getting up in the morning is not of less from that oppressive languor which weighs like a nightimportance than that at which we ought to lie down at mare upon the spirit of the sluggard. The man who night. There can be no doubt that one of the most rises betimes, is in the fair way of laying in both health admirable conducives to health is early rising.' Let and wealth; while he who dozes away his existence in us,' says Solomon,' go forth into the fields; let us unnecessary sleep, will acquire neither. On the conlodge in the villages; let us get up early to the vine- trary, he runs every chance of losing whatever portion yards; let us see if the vine flourish-if the tender of them he may yet be in possession of, and of sinking grape appear-if the pomegranates bud forth.' fast in the grade of society-a bankrupt both in person Almost all men who have distinguished themselves and in purse.* in science, literature, and the arts, have been early ris- The most striking instances of the good effects of ers. The industrions, the active-minded, the enthu- early rising, are to be found in our peasantry and farm. siast in the pursuit of knowledge or gain, are up be- ers, whose hale complexions, good appetites, and vigtimes at their respective occupations; while the slug- ourous persons, are evidences of the benefit derived gard wastes the most beautiful period of life in perni- from this custom, conjoined with labour; while the cious slumber. Homer, Virgil, and Horace are all re- wan, unhealthy countenances and enfeebled frames of presented as carly risers: the same was the case with those who keep late hours, lie long in bed, and pass the Paley, Franklin, Priestly, Parkhurst, and Buffon, the night in dissipation, study, or pleasure, are equally conlatter of whom ordered his valet de chambre to awaken him every morning, and compel him to get up by force * In the will of the late Mr James Sergeant of the borough of if he evinced any reluctance: for this service the valet LeiceAs my nephews thare folnd owing dulgiaungsein bed ofa mo rning, and was rewarded with a crown each day, which recop- as I wish them to improve the time while they are young, I di, pense he forfeited if he did not oblige his master to get rect that they shall prove to the satisfaction of my executors, out of bed before the clock struck six. Bishops Jewel that have got out of bed in the morning, and either employed themselves in business, or taken exercise in the open air, from and Burnet rose regularly every morning at four o'- five o'ciock every morning, from the 5th of April, to the clock. Sir Thomas More did the same thing; and so o10th of October, being three hours each day, and from seven convinced was he of the beneficial effects of getting up o'clock in the morning from the 10th of October to the 5th ot s to April, being two hours every morning for two whole years; this betimes, that, in his' Utopia,' he represented the inha- to be done for some two years during the first seven years, to the bitants attending lectures before sunrise. Napoleon satisfaction of my executors, who may excuse them in case of was an early riser; so was Frederick the Great and, illness, but the task must be made up when they are well, and Charles XII; so is the Duke of Wellington; and so if they will not do this, they shall not receive any share of my Charles XII; so is the 3Duke of Wellington; and so property., PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 3 elusive proofs of the pernicious consequences resulting to be ascertained by which system the eyes are least from an opposite practice. likely to be affected. Early rising, therefore, is highly beneficial; but care Dr Franklin in one of his ingenious Essays, has some should be taken not to carry it to excess. It can never fine observations on early rising; and makes an amusing be healthful to rise torill the sun has been for some calculation of the saving that might be made in the city be healthful to rise till the sun has been for some time above the horizon; for until this is the case, there of Paris alone, by using the sunshine instead of candles. is a dampness in the air which must prove injurious to This saving he estimates at 96,000,000 of livres, or the constitution, especially when it is not naturally very ~4,000,000 sterling. This is mentioned in a satirical strong. Owing to this, early rising is injurious to most vein, but probably there is a great deal of truth in the delicate people; and, in all cases, the heat of the sun statement. Indeed, if people were to go sooner to bed, should be allowed to have acquired some strength be- and get up etarlier, it is inconceivable what sums might fore we think of getting out of doors. No healthy man be saved; but according to the absurd custom of polishin the summer, should lie longer in bed than six ed society, day is, in a great measure, converted into o'clock. If he does so, he loses the most valuable part night, and the order of things reversed in a manner at of the day, and injures his own constitution. Persons once capricious and hurtful. subject to gout, should always go to sleep early, and To conclude. The same law which regulates our rsubject to gout, forme mitiats th vilene ofly the desire for food, also governs sleep. As we indulge in rise early. The former mitigates the violence of the evening paroxysm, which is always increased by wake- sleep to moderation or excess, it becomes a blessing or fulness and the latter lessens the tendency to plethora, a curse-in the one case recruiting the energies of nafulnewhich is favoured by long protracted sleep. ture, and diffusing vigour alike over the mind and which is favoured by long protracted sleep. frame: in the other, debasing the character of man, It is common in some of the foreign universities to stupifying his intellect, enfeebling his body, and rendergo to bed at eight, and rise at three or four in the ing him useless alike to others and himself. The glutmorning; and this plan is recommended by Willich in ton, the drunkard, and the sloven bear the strictest afhis'Lectures on Diet and Regimen.' Sir John Sin- finity to each other, both in the violation of nature's clair, in allusion to it, judiciously observes,' I have no laws, and in the consequences thence entailed upon doubt of the superior healthiness, in the winter time, of themselves. What in moderation is harmless or benerising by day-light, and using candle-light at the close ficial, in excess is a curse; and sleep carried to thelatof the day, than rising by candle-light, and using it ter extreme, may be pronounced an act of intemsome hours before day-light approaches. It remains perancealmost asmuch as excessive eatingordrinking. THE END. CONTENTS OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. CHAPTER I. CHAPTER XI. PaG: PABu Introduction,.s Protracted Sleep, S CHAPTER II. CHAPTER XII. Sleep in General,...;., 4 SleepFrom Cold.. 36 CHAPTER III., CHAPTER XIII. Dreaming, 9 Trance, S 7 CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER XIV. Prophetic Power of Dreams, 20 - ~CHAPTER V ~ Voluntary WakingDreams,. CHAPTER V. Nightmare,...... 24 CHAPTER XV. CHAPTER VI. Spectral Illusions, 40 Daymare, 27 CHAPTER XVI. CHAPTER VII. Reverie, 43 Sleep-Walkina,.... 28 CHAPTER XVII. CHAPTER VIII Abstraction,.... 40 Sleep-Talking, 3,. 1 CHAPTER XVIII. CHAPTER IX. Sleep of Plants, 48 Sleeplessness,...., 33 CHAPTER XIX. CHAPTER X. General Management of Sleep,.. 9 Drowsiness, w... 34 INDEX TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. PAGE pati, Abercrombie, Dr, case related by, o the veri- Coleridge, Mr, account by, of the origin of fication of a dream, -22 Cubla Khan, -, — - -, his distinction between Colquhoun,Mr,the Parisian report translatedby, 30 dreaming and insanity - - - 9 Combe, Mr, cases mentioned by,. - - 23 Absorption, increased by sleep, - -- 6, his remarks on concentrativeness, 47 Animal life, - 3 Combe, Dr, case of spectral illusion by, - 44 magnetism, - -, 30 Concentrativeness, effect of a large developAristotle, his account of the sleep of fishes, 4 ment of, in inducing abstraction, - 47 Armitage, Elizabeth, a great sleeper, - 35 Condorcet, fact concerning, - - 13 Awaking, phenomena of, -. _ 9 Conolly, Dr, case related by, - - 41 Cook, Captain, extracted from his'Voyages,' 37 Bacon the sculptor, anecdote of, - - 48 Cullen, his remark on the effect of monotony, 5 Barclay, Captain, anecdote of, - - 8 Culpepper, Lord trial of his brother, - 29 Barry, curious calculation by, - - 52 Cumin, Dr, case related by, - - 16 Baxter, his theory of dreaming, - - 9 Currie Dr, his remarks on the visions of hypoBayle. his account of spectral illusions, - 42 chondria, - - - - 11 Beattle, Dr, facts concerning, - - - 11-12 Darwin, Dr, fact noticed by, - - 15 Bed, directions with regard to the, - 45, method recommended by, to Bell, Sir Charles, on the eneuresis infantunm, 51 prevent attacks of nightmare, - - - 27 Bichat, his division of life, - - - 3, case of sleep-talking describe'd Birds, sleep of, 4 by, 32 Blacklock, Dr, the peculiarity of his dreams, 17 Daymare, -27, curious anecdote of, - - 29 Dead, visions of the, 16 Blake the painter, extraordinary case of, 42 Deafness,dreams modified by, - 17 Blindness, dreams modified by, - - - 16 Democritus, his theory of dreaming, - 9 Boerhaave, anecdote of, - - 5 Dogs, dreams of, 10 -, case spoken of by, - - 35 Donne, Dr, his case of spectral illusion, 22 Bostock, Dr, his case, - - - 44 Dreaming, - - 10 Bourdeaux, Archbishop of, case of somnambu- Dreams, causes of, - 11 lism related by, -29, management of, - - 19 Brain, effects of its size in reference to sleep, 4 t, prophetic power of, - - 20 -, determination of blood to the, induces Dwning, 12 sleep, 5 Drowsiness, - 24 Browne, Mr W. A. F., cases by, - 31 Drunkenness, analogybetweenit and dreaming, 16-18 Buffon denies any affinity between hyberna-.nature of the dreams induced by, 18 tion and sleep, 37 Dubrie, Mr, anecdote of, - - - 29 Buzareinguez, M. Giron de, experiments by, Dull sermon, the effect of a, m inducing sleep, 5 to produce dreams at will, - - 11 Dumbness, case of, cured by a frightful dream, 14 Byron, Lord, scene described by, in his'Para- Dyce, Dr, remarkable case of somnambulism, sina,' - - - - - - 31 related by, 31 Early rising, benefits of, 52 Cabanis, fact concerning, - - 13 Edwards, Dr, fact by, concerning hybernaCaisar, Julius, the apparition of, which appeared ting animals, -36 to Brutes, accounted.for, - - - 22 Ellicot, Major remarkable case related by - 31 Caligula tormented by frightful dreams, - 17 Fairies, belief in accounted for, - - 42 Cardan, fact concerning, - - - 47 Familiar spirits, - - 40 Carmichael, Mr, his explanation of the pro- Fanshawe, Lady, case from her' Memoirs,' - 21 cess of waking, - - _ 9 Fish, sleep of, - 4.....-, supposes sleep to be the pe- Forestus, case of daymare related by, - - 27 riod when assimilation goes on in the brain, 9 Feetus, state of, - - - 8 Castel, Mr, observation by, 7 Franklin, Dr, his case of somnambulism, 29 Catalepsy, 20, amusing calculation by, 53 Chapelain, M, operation performed by, upon a ~, Captain, fact stated by, conlady under the magnetic influence, -,- cerning the freezing of fish, - - 36 Children, dreams of, - 10 Gall, Dr, cases of somnambulism related by, - 29 - -—, sleep of, - -- on spectral illusions, - - 40 directions regarding the sleep of,-* 50 George IIl, method employed to procure him Circulation, its rapidity diminished by sleep, - 6 sleep, -34 -Cold produces sleep, - - - - 36 Georget on the sleep of woman, - - 52 ---—, sleep from, - - - - 36 Gooch, curious case related by, - - 8 INDEX TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP. 55 PAGE PGE Good, Dr, his remarks on sleep-walking, - 28 Perspiration increased by sleep, - - - 6 ---—, his description of waking dreams, 39 Pichegru, General, curious fact concerning, - 8 Goose, the, a very light sleeper, - - - 4 Pillow, directions with regard to the, -' - 49 Gordon, John, E.sq, case mentioned by, - 8 Plants, sleep of, - 48 Gregory, Dr, case of, - 41 Polydori, Dr, subject to nightmare, 27 Grey Earl, haunted by a bloody head, - 49 Positions assumed in sleep, - - - 6-7-50 Griffith's, Mrs, verification of her dreams, - 21 Pritchard, Dr, case of somnambulism spoken Crokatzhi, George, case of, - - - 39 of by, 29 Guilty, dreams of the, - - - 19 Profoundness of sleep, varieties of, - 7 Habit, sleep modified by, - - - 7 Protracted sleep, -25 Hamilton, Dr Robert, anecdote of, - - 47 Pulse, state of the, in sleep, - - - 6 Hare sleeps with its eyes open, - - - 7 Quin, the celebrated player, fact concerning, 8 Harvest, Dr George, anecdotes of, - - 48 Harvest, Dr George, anecdotes of, - 48 Reid, Dr, curious facts concerning, - - 8-10 Haycock, Dr, delivered sermons and prayers Reverie, 45 in his slee- - p, - - - - - 31 R-d of Bowland, case of, - - - 23 Hazlitt, his opinion, that in sleep we are al- Rush, r, his distinction between dreaming ways thinking, disputed, - - - 9 delirium10 Heat produces sleep, - an de 4u Heat produces sleep, 4 Russel, Lady, narrowly escaped premature inHildesheim, his remark concerning nightmare, 26 Russel, Lady, narrowly escaped premature inHoffbauer, case related by him of murder ocoasioned by a frightful dream, - - 14 Sanctorius, his remarks on perspiration, - 6 Hogarth anecdote of, - 47 Schidmnaizig, Bernard, case of, - - - 14 Hood, Mr, incongruous dream related by, - 17 Scott, Sir Walter, remarks by, on the case of Hoole, Mr, his account of Tasso's familiar spirit, 40 Lord Lyttleton, - - - - 22 Horror, a frequent accompaniment of dreams, 15, curious case of a verified Horses dream, -10 dream related by him in the Antiquary, - 23 Hunter, Dr A, his remark on the position of Scott, executed for murder, case of, - - 23 women,- 50 Sergeant, James, Mr, his will, - - - 52 Hybernation, - 36 Second Sight accounted for, - - - 42 Hypochondriac, visions of the, - - 12 Secretions, effect of sleep on the, - - 6 Sensorial power, the, - - Illusion of dreams, 17 Sherigny, case of, - - -38 Insanity, curious case of, occasioned by a fright- Simpson, Mr, case of spectral illusion related by, 43 ful dream, - 14 Sinelair, Sir John, his remarks on early rising, 53, analogy between it and dreaming, 10-18 Sleep of plants, 48 Irish porter, case of, -16 Sleep, general management of, - - - 49 Sleep-walking, - - 28 Kubla Khan composed by Mr'Coleridge in a Sleep in general, - _ 4 dream, - 13 Sleep-talking, - 32 Sleeplessness, - - - - 33 Lady of Nismes, extraordinary case of, - 35 Sleep from cold, -36 Levison, Mr, case of spectral illusion by, - 44 Sluggard, picture of the, - - - - 52 Life, definition of, - 3 Snoring, 6 Love as experienced in dreams, - - 16 Sormnambulism, analogy between it and. madLucretius, his theory of dreaming, - 9 ness, -28 Lyall, Mary, a great sleeper, - - 8-35 Spalding, Mr, his case, - - 46 Lyttleton, Lord, case of, - - - 22 Spectral Illusions, 40 Squire, Archdeacon, case related by, - - 14 M ——, Miss, verification of her dream, 20 Stewart Dougal, Mr, facts related by, - - 11 Mackay, James, anecdote of, - - 8 Stewart, Mr, the pedestrian, statement by, - 20 Martinet, cases of somnambulism described by, 29 Stilling, Jung, Dr, saw visions, - - 40 Meal, a heavy, induces sleep, - - - 5 Stupor, difference between it and sleep, 3 Moisture, torpor produced by a want of, - 36 Suetonius, his picture of the tyrant Caligula, 19 Moivre, De, a sleeper, - - - 8 Surprise, absence of, in dreams, - 15 Murder, case of, occasioned by a frightful Tasso, his familiar spirit, - -. - 40 dream, -14 Time, perception of curiosity affected by dreaming, -...12 Narcotics, the manner in which they induce Townsend, Colonel, extraordinary case of, 38 sleep,- 5Trance,.. 37 nature of the visions induced by, 11-18 Nervous energy, how its distribution occasions Vision, effect of sleep on the organs of, - 6 sleep, - 5 Voluntary walking dreams, - - - 39 Newton, Sir Isaac, anecdotes of, - 4647 Waller, Mr, cases of dreaming illusion related Nicolai, case of, - 42 by, -17-26 Night, the time for sleep, - - 3 Warton, Mr, anecdote of, - 48 Nightmare, - 24 Wasse, Mr, on the effect of rest upon the staOld age, sleep greatly modified in, - -11 ture,- 9'Opium Eater,' extracts from his'Confes- Welsh girl, curious case of a, - - 15 sions,' 12-18 Wonder, effect of a large developement of, in Organic life, - 3 inducing apparitions, 40 Orvin, Elizabeth, a great sleeper, - 8 Parr, Pr, remarks on dreaming by,. 13 Xenophon, his recommendation to the Greek Parrot, the, said to dream, - - - 10 troops,37 Past and forgot-ten events relewed by dreams, 15 Yawning, - Perkins, Elizabeth, a great si.eeper, 8-25 Young lady, tl-reaan related by a, - 18 T n ANATOMY DRUNKENNESS. BY, ROBERT MACNISH'UJIOR OF "THE PHILOSOPHY OF SLEEP," AND MEMBER OF THE FACULTY OF PHYSICL[.Ne AND SURGEONS OF GLASGOW. FROM THE FIFTH GLASGOW EDITION. HARTFORD: PUBLISHED BY SILAS ANDRUS & SON. 1850. ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. ADVERTISEMENT. IN preparing the present edition of the ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS for the press, I have spared no pains to render the work as complete as possible. Some parts have been re-written, some new facts added, and several inaccuracies, which had crept into the former edition, rectified. Altogether, I am in hopes that this impression will be considered an improvement upon its predecessors, and that no fact of any importance has been overlooked or treated more slightly than it deserves. R. M. SEPTEMBER 20th, 1834. CHAPTER 1. and fever into the brain of the Hindoo. Even in Earope, the inhabitants of the south are far less adapted PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. to sustain intoxicating agents than those of the north. Much of this depends upon the coldness of the climate, Drunkenness is not, like some other vices, peculiar and much also upon the peculiar physical and moral to modern times. It is handed down to us from' hoar frame to which that coldness gives rise. The natives, antiquity;' and, if the records of the antediluvian era of the south are a lively, versatile people; sanguine in were more complete, we should probably find that it their temperaments, and susceptible, to an extraordiwas not unknown to the remotest ages of the world. nary degree, of every impression. Their minds seem The cases of Noah and Lot, recorded in the sacred to inherit the brilliancy of their climate, and are rich writings, are the earliest of which tradition or history with sparkling thoughts and beautiful imagery. The has left any record; and both occurred in the infancy northern nations are the reverse of all this. With more of society. Indeed, wherever the grape flourished, in- intensity of purpose, with greater depth e.f reasoning ebriation prevailed. The formation of wine from powers, and superior solidity of judgment, they are in this fruit, was among the earliest discoveries of man, a great measure destitute of that sportive and creative and the bad consequences thence resulting, seem to brilliancy which hangs like a rainhow over the spirits have been almost coeval with the discovery. Those of the south, and clothes them in a perpetual sunshine regions whose ungenial latitudes indisposed them to of delight. The one is chiefly led by the heart, the yield the vine, gave birth to other products which serv- other by the head. The one possesses the beauty of a ed as substititutes; and the inhabitants rivalled or sur- flower-garden, the other the sternness of the rock, mixpassed those of the south in all kinds of Bacchanalian ed with its severe and naked hardihood. Upon constiindulgence-the pleasures of drinkmg constituting one tutions so differently organized, it cannot be expected of the most fertile themes of their poetry, in the same that a given portion of stimulus will operate with manner as, in other climates, they gave inspiration to equal power. The airy inflamable nature of the first, the souls of Anacreon and Hafiz. is easily roused to excitation, and manifests feelings Drunkenness has varied greatly at different times and which the second does not experience till he has paramong different nations. There can be no doubt that taken much more largely of the stimulating cause. On it prevails more in a rude than in a civilized society. this account, the one may be inebriated, and the other This is so much the case, that as men get more refin- remain comparatively sober upon a similar quantity. In ed, the vice will gradually be found to soften down, speaking of this subject, it is always to be remembered and assume a less revolting character. Nor can there that a person is not to be considered a drunkard because be a doubt that it prevails to a much greater extent in he consumes a certain portion of liquor; but because northern than in southern latitudes." The nature of what he dloes consumes produces certain effects upon the climate renders this inevitable, and gives to the hu- his system. The Russian, therefore, may take six man frame its capabilities of withstanding liquor: glasses a-day, and be as temperate as the Italian who hence a quantity which scarcely ruffles the frozen cur- takes four, or the Indian who takes two. But even when rent of a Norwegian's blood, would scatter madness this is acceded to, the balallnce of sobriety will be found in favourof the south: the inhabitants there not only * In making this observation, I have onlyin view the countries drink less, but are, bonawfAd, more seldom intoxicated north ol the quatlor; for as we proceed to the south of that line, than the others. Those who have contrasted Londo the vice increases precisely in the same manner as in the oppo- than the others. Those who have contrasted London site direction. To use the words of Montesquieu,' Go from the and Paris, may easily verify this fact; and those who equatior to our pole, and you will find drunkenness increasing to. have done the same to the cfties of Moscow and'Rome, gether with the degree of lattude. Go fiom the same equator to gcther with the dlegree of Iltadue. Go from the same eqeamor to can bear still stronger testimony. Who evor heard of the opposite pole, an(l you will find drunkenness travelling uth, as on this side it travels towards the north.' an Englishman sipping eau sueree, and treating his ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 59 friends to a glass of lemonade? Yet such things are Hannibal's army fell leqs by the arms of Scipio than by common in France; and, of all the practices of that the wines of Capua; and the inebriated hero of Macecountry, they are those most thoroughly visited by the don after slaying his friend Clytus, and burning the contemptuous malisons of John Bull. palace of Persepolis, expired at last of a fit of intoxicaIt is a common belief that wine was the only inebri- tion, in his thirty-third year. A volume might be writating liquor known to antiquity; but this is a mistake. ten in illustration of the evil effects of dissipation; but Tacitus mentions the use of ale or beer as common this is unnecessary to those who look carefully around among the Germans of his time. By the Egyptians, them, and more especially to those who are conversant likewise, whose country was ill adapted to the cultiva- with the history of mankind. At the same time, when tion of the grape, it was employed as a substitute for we speak of drunkenness as occurring in antiquity, it is wine. Ale was common in the middle ages; and Mr proper to remark, that there were certain countries in Park states that very good beer is made, by tle usual which it was viewed in a much more dishonourable process of brewing and malting, in the interior of Af- light than by any modern nation. The Nervii refused rica. The favourite drink of our Saxora ancestors was to drink wine, alleging that it made them cowardly and ale or mead. Those worshippers ot Odin were so no- effeminate: these simple people had no idea of what toriously addicted to drunkenness, that it was regarded by our seamen is called Dutch courage; they did not.as honourable rather than otherwise; and the man who feel the necessity of elevating their native valour by an could withstand the greatest quantity was looked upon artificial excitement. The ancient Spartans held ebriwith admiration and respect: whence the drunken ety in such abhorrence, that, with a view to inspire the songs of the Scandinavian scalds; whence the glories rising generation with a due contempt of the vice, it of Valhalla, the fancied happiness of whose inhabitants was customary to intoxicate the slaves and exhibit them consisted in quaffing draughts from the skulls of their publicly in this degraded condition. By the Indians, enemies stiain in battle. Even ardent spirit, which is drunkenness is looked upon as a species of insanity; generally supposed to be a modern discovery, existed and, in their language, the word ramgam, signifying a from a very early period. It is said to have been first drunkard, signifies also a madman. Both the ancients made by the Arabians in the middle ages, and in all and moderns could jest as well as moralize upon this likelihood may lay claim to a still remoter origin. Al- subject.' There hangs a bottle of wine,' was the dericohol was known to the alchemists as early as the mid- sive exclamation of the Roman soldiery, as they pointed dle of the twelfth century, although the process of pre- to the body of the drunken Bonosus, who, in a fit of paring it was by them, at that time, kept a profound despair, suspended himself upon a tree.' If you wish secret. The spirituous liquor called arrack, has been to have a shoe of durable materials,' exclaims the facemanufactured in the island of Java, as well as in the tious Matthew Langsberg,'you should make the upper continent of Hindostan, from time immemorial. Brandy leather of the mouth of a hard drinker-for that never appears to have been known to-Galen, who recommends lets in water.' it for the cure of voracious appetite;* and its distilla- If we turn from antiquity to our own times, we shall tion was common in Sicily at the commencement of the find little cause to congratulate ourselves upon any fourteenth century. As to wine, it was so common in improvement. The vice has certainly diminished ancient times as to have a tutelar god appropriated to among the higher orders of society, but there is every it: Bacchus and his companion Silenus are as house- reason to fear that, of late, it has made fearful strides nold words in the mouths of all, and constituted most among the lower. Thirty or forty years ago, a landimportant features of the heathen mythology. We lord did not conceive he had done justice to his guests have all heard of the Falernian and Campanian wines, unless he sent them from his table in a state of intoxiand of the wines of Cyprus and Shiraz. Indeed, there cation. This practice still prevails pretty generally in is reason to believe that the ancients were in no respect Ireland and in the highlands of Scotland, but in other inferior to the moderns in the excellence of their vinous parts of the kingdom it is fast giving way: and it is to liquors, whatever they may have been in the variety. be hoped that the day is not far distant when greater Wine was so common in the eastern nations, that Ma- temperance will extend to these jovial districts, and hornet, foreseeing the baleful effects of its propagation, render theirshospitality a little more consonant with forbade it to his followers, who, to compensate them- prudence and moderation. The increase of drunkenselves, had recourse to opium. The Gothic or dark ness among the lower classes may be imputed to variages seem to have been those in which it was least ous causes, and chiefly to the late abandonment of part common: in proof of this it may be mentioned, that in of the duty on rum anid whiskey. This was done with 1298 it was vended as a cordial by the English apothe- a double motive of benefiting agriculture and comcaries. At the present day it is little drunk, except by merce, and of driving the' giant smuggler' from the the upper classes, in those countries which do not field. The latter object it hasin agreatmeasurefailed naturally furnish the grape. In those that do, it is so of effecting.. The smuggler still plies his trade to a cheap as to come within the reach of even the lowest.t considerable extent, and brings his commodity to the In speaking of drunkenness, it is impossible not to market with nearly the same certainty of acquiring probe struck with the physical and moral degradation which fit as ever. It would be well if the liquor vended to it has spread over the world. Wherever intoxicating the poor possessed the qualities of that furnished by the liquors become general, morality has been found on the contraband dealer; but, instead of that, it is usually a decline. They seem to act like the simoom of the de- vile compound of every thing spurious and pestilent, sert, and scatter destruction and misery around their and seems expressly contrived for preying upon the vipath. The ruin of Rome was owing to luxury, of tals of the unfortunate victims who partake of it. The which indulgence in wine was tlhe principal ingredient. extent to which adulteration has been carried in all kinds of liquor, is indeed such as to ifterest every class ~ Good's Study of Medicine, vol. i. p. 113, 2d edit. of society. Wine, for instance, is often impregnated i The quantity of wine raised in France alone is almost incred. with alum and sugar of lead, the latter dangerous ini le. The vineyards in that countty are saidl to occupy five mil. lions of acree, or a twenty-sixth part of the whole territory. Paris gredient being resorted to by innkeepers and others, to alone consumes more than three times the quantity of wine con- take away the sour taste so common in bad wines. sumed In the British Isles. It is true that mich ofthe wine drank Even the colour of these liquids is frequently artificial; in the French capital is ofa weak quality, being used as a sub. stitutefor small beer. But after every allowance ismade,enough and the deeprich complexion so greatly admired by remains to show clearly, if other proofs were wanting, how persons not in the secrets of the trade, is often caused, much use of wine here is restricted by our exorbitant duties. It or at least heightened, by factitious additions, such as would be well for the morals of this country it' the people aban-. Alum and doned the use of ardent spirits, and were enabled to resort to elder-berries, bilberries, red-woods, &c. Alum and such wines as the French are in the habit of drinking. sugar of lead are also common in spirituous liquors; R ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. En:l, in any cases, oil of vitriol, turpentine, and other' of coarse unintellectual minds, and of low and animal materials equally abominable, are to be found in coin- propensities. They have, in general, a certain rigidity bination with them. That detestable liquor called I of fibre, and a flow of animal spirits which other people British gin, is literally compounded of thehe ingredients: are without. They delight in the roar and riot ol nor are malt liquors, with their multifarious narcotic ad- drinking clubs; and with them, in particular, all the ditions, less thoroughly sophisticated or less detrimental miseries of life may be referred to the bottle. to the health. From these circumstances, two conclu- The drunkard by necessity was never meant by na sions must naturally be drawn; viz. that inebriating ture to be dissipated. He is perhaps a person ol agents often contain elements of disease foreign to amiable disposition, whom misfortune has overtaken, themselves; and that all persons purchasing them and who, instead of bearing up manfully angainst it, should endeavour to ascertain the state of their purity, endeavours to drown his sorrows in liquor. It is an exand employ no dealer whose honour and honesty are cess of sensibility, a partial mental weakness, an absolnot known to be unimpeachable. Liquors, even in their lute misery of the heart, which drives him on. Drunkpurest state, are too often injurious to the constitution enness, with him, is a consequence of misfortune; it is without the admixture of poisons.* a solitary dissipation preying upon him in silence. The varieties of wine are so numerous as almost to Such a man frequently dies broken-hearted, even bedefy calculation. Mr Brande, in his table, gives a list fore his excesses have had time to destroy himI by their of no less than forty-four different kinds, and there are own unassisted agency.,others which he has not enumerated. Ardent spirits Some become drunkards from excess of indulgence are fewer in number, and may be mostly comprised un- in youth. There are parents who have a common cus der thenames of rum, gin, brandy, and whiskey. The tom of treating their childern to wine, punch, anM first is the prevailing drink over the West Indies, North other intoxicating liquors. This, in reality, is regu. America, and such cities of Great Britain as are in- larly bringing them up in an apprenticeship to drunken. timately connected with these regions by commerce. ness. Others are taught the vice by frequenting drink The second is extensively used in Holland and Swit- ing clubs and masonic lodges. These are the genuine zerland, the countries which principally furnish it, and academies of tippling. Two-thirds of the drunkards has found its way pretty generally over the whole of we meet with, have been there initiated in that love of Europe. The third is chiefly produced in Charente intemperance and boisterous irregularity which distinand Languedoc, and is the spirit most commonly found guish their future lives. Men who are good singers in the south. The fourth is confined in a great mea- are very apt to become drunkards and, in truth, most sure to Ireland and Scotland, in which latter country of them are so, more or less, especially if they have the best has always been made. Of malt liquors we naturally much joviality or warmth of temperament. have many varieties. Britain, especially England, is A fine voice to such men is a fatal accomplishment. the country which furnishes them in greatest perfection Ebriety prevails to an alarming degree among the They are the natural drinks of Englishmen-the vinum lower orders of society. It exists more in towns than Anglicor'as, as foreigners have often remarked. Every in the country, and more among mechanics than hustown of any consequence in the empire has its brewery; bandmnen. Most of the misery to be observed among and in almost every one is there some difference in the the working classes spring from this source. No perquality of the liquor. Brown stout, London and Scotch sons are more addicted to the habit, and all its attendant porters, Burton, Dorchester, Edinburgh and Alloa ales, vices than the pampered servants of the great. Innare only a few of the endless varieties of these widely- keepers, musicians, actors, and men who lead a rambling circulated fluids. and eccentric life, are exposed to a similar hazard. Besides wines, ardent spirits, and malt liquors, there Husbands sometimes teach their wives to be drunkards are many other agents possessing inebriating properties. by indulging them in toddy and such fluids, every time Among others, the Peganum Harmala or Syrian rue, they themselves sit down to their libations. so often used by the sultan Solyman; the Hibiscus Women frequently acquire the vice by drinking porSaldarissa, which furnishes the Indian bangue, and ter and ale while nursing. These stimulants are usually from which the Nepenthes of the ancients is supposed recommended to them from well-meant but mistaken to have been made; the Balsac, or Turkish bangue, motives, by their female attendants. Many fine young found on the shores of the Levant; the Penang, or In- women are ruined by this pernicious practice. Their dian betle; the Hyoscyamnus Niger; and the Atropa persons become gross, their milk unhealthy, and a Belladonna. In addition to these, and many more, foundation is too often laid for future indulgence in there are opium, tobacco, Cocculus Indicus, and the liquor. innumerable tribes of liqueurs and ethers, together with The frequent use of cordials, such as noyeau, shrub, other agents of a less potent nature, such as clary, dar- kirsch-wasser, curacoa, and anissette, sometimes leads nel, and saffron. The variety of agents capable of ex- to the practice. The active principle of these liqueurs citing drunkenness is indeed surprising, and in propor- is neither more nor less than ardent spirits.* tion to their number seems the prevalence of that fatal Among other causes, may be mentioned the excesvice to which an improper use of them gives rise. sive use of spiritous tinctures for the cure of hypochondria and indigestion. Persons who use strong tea, especially green, run the same risk. The latter CHAPTER II. species is singularly hurtful to the constitution, producing hysteria, heartburn, and general debility of the chyloCAUSES OF DRUNKENNESS. poetic viscera. Some of these bad effects are relieved for a time by the use of spirits; and what was at first The causes 6odrunkenness are so obviouis, that few employed as a medicine, soon becomes an essential reauthors have thought it necessary to point them out: quisite. we shall merely say a few words upon the subject. Certain occupations have a tendency to induce There are some persons who will never be drunkards, drunkenness. Innkeepers, recruiting-sergeants, pugiand others who will be so in spite of all that can be done lists, &c., are all exposed in a great decree to temptato previent them. Some are drunkards by choice, and tion in this respect; and intemperance is a vice which others by necessity. The former have an innate and may be very often justly charged against them Comconstitutional fondness for liquor, and drink con aunore. mercial travellers, also, taken as a body, are open to Such men are usually of a sanguineous temperament, the accusation of indulging too freely in the bottle, al* See Accum's Treatise on the Adulteration oflFood; Child on * Liqueurs often contain narcotic principles; therefore their Brewing Porter; and Shannon on Brewing and Distillation. use is doubly improper. ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 61 though I am not aware that they carry it to such excess become hereditary, even to the third generation, graduas to entitle many of them to be ranked as drunkards. ally increasing, if the cause be continued, till the' Well fed, riding from town to town, and walking to family becomes extinct.'* the houses of the several tradesmen, they have an em- We need not endeavour to trace farther the remote ployment not only more agreeable, but more conducive causes of drunkenness. A drunkard is rarely able to to health than almost any other dependant on traffic. recall the particular circumstances which made him so. But they destroy t.z: i constitutions by intemperance; The vice creeps upon him insensibly, and he is involved not generally by d;ankenness, but by taking more li- in its fetters before he is aware. It is enough that we quor than nature requires. Dining at the traveller's know the proximate cause, and also the certain consetable, each drinks his pint or bottle of wine; he then quences. One thing is certain, that a man who addicts takes negus or spirit with several of his customers; himself to intemperance, can never be said to be sound and at night he must have a glass or two of brandy in mind or body. The former is a state of partial inand water. Few commercial travellers bear the em- sanity, while the effects of the liquor remain; and the ploy for thirty years —the majority not twenty.'* latter is always more or less diseased in its actions. Some waiters allege that unmarried women, especially if somewhat advanced in life, are more given to liquor than those who are married. This point I am unable from my own observation to decide. Women CHAPTER III. who indulge in this way, are solitary dram-drinkers, and so would men be, had not the arbitrary opinions of PHENOMENA OF DRUNKENNESS. the world invested the practice in them with much less moral turpitude than in the opposite sex. Of the two The consequences of drunkenness are dreadful, but sexes, there can he no doubt that men are much the the pleasures of getting drunk are certainly ecstatic. inore addicted to all sorts of intemperance. While the illusion lasts, happiness is complete; care Drunkenness appears to be in some measure heredi- and melancholy are thrown to the wind: and Elysium, tary. We frequently see it descending from parents with all its glories, descends upon the dazzled imagito their children. This may undoubtedly often arise nation of the drinker. from bad example and imitation, but there can be little Some authors have spoken of the pleasure of being question that, in many instances at least, it exists as a completely drunk; this, however, is not the most exfamily predisposition. quisite period. The time is when a person is neither Men of genius are often unfortunately addicted to'drunken nor sober, but neighbor to both,' as Bishop drinking. Nature, as she has gifted them with greater Andrews says in his''Ex-ale-tation of Ale.' The powers than their fellows, seemn also to have mingled moment is when the ethereal emanations begin to float with their cup of life more bitterness. There is a around the brain —when the soul is commencingtoexme.ancholy which is apt to come like a cloud over the pand its wings and rise from earth-when the tongue imaginations of such characters. Their minds possess feels itself somewhat loosened in the mouth, and breaks a susceptibility and delicacy of structure which unfit the previous taciturnity, if any such existed. them for the,gross atmosphere of human nature; What are the sensations of incipient drunkenness? wherefore, high talent has eaer been distinguished for First, an unusual serenity prevails over the mind, and sadness and gloom. Genius lives in a world of its the soul of the votary is filled with a placid satisfaction: own: it is the essence of a superior nature-the loftier By degrees he is sensible of a soft and not unmusical imaginings of the mind, clothed with a more spiritual humming i his ears, at every pause of the conversaand refined verdure. Few men endowed with such tion. He seems, to himself, to wear his head lighter faculties enjoy the ordinary happiness of humanity. than usual upon his shoulders. Then a species of obThe stream of their lives runs harsh and broken. scurity, thinner than the finest mist, passes before his Melancholy thoughts sweep perpetually across their eyes, and makes him see objects rather indistinctly. soul; and if these be heightened by misfortune, they The lights begin to dance and appear double. A are plunged into the deepest misery. gayety and warmth are felt at the same time about the To relieve these feelings, many plans have been heart. The imagination is expanded, and filled with a adopted. Dr Johnson fled for years to wine under his thousand delightful images. He becomes loquacious, habitual gloom. He found that the pangs were re- and pours forth, in enthusiastic language, the thoughts moved while its immediate influence lasted, but he also which are born, as it were, within him. found that they returned with double force when that Now comes a spirit of universal contentment with influence passed away. He saw the dangerous preci-himself and all the world. He thinks no more of pice on which he stood, and, by an unusual effort of misery; it is dissolved in the bliss of the moment volition, gave it over. In its stead he substitlted tea; *This is the acme of the fit-the ecstacy is now perfect. and to this milder stimulus had recourse in his melan-As yet the sensorium is in tolerable order; it is only choly. Voltaire and Fontenelle, for the same purpose, shaken, but the capability of thh accuracy used coffee. The excitements of Newton and Hobbes still remains. About this time, the drunkard pours out were the fumes of tobacco, while Demosthenes and all the secrets of his soul. His qualities, good or bad, Haller were sufficiently stimulated by drinking freely come forth without reserve; and now, if at any time, of cold water. Such are the differences of constitu- the human heart may be seen into. In a short period, tion. he is seized with a most inordinate propensity to talk'As good be melancholy still, as drunken beasts and nonsense, though he is perfectly conscious of doing so. beggars.' So says old Burton, in his Anatomy of He also commits many foolish things, knowing them to 1Melancholy, and there are few who will not subscribe be foolish. The power of volition, that faculty which to his creed. The same author quaintly, but justly re- keeps the will subordinate to the judgment, seems tomarks,'If a drunken man gets a child, it will never, tally weakened. The most delightful time seems to likely, have a good brain.' Dr Darwin, a great authori- be that immediately before becoming very talkative. ty on all subjects connected with life, says, that he When this takes place, a man turns ridiculous, and his never knew a glutton affected with the gout, who was mirth, though more boisterous, is not so exquisite. At not at the same time addicted to liquor. He also ob- first the intoxication partakes of sentiment, but latterly, serves,'it is remarkable that all the diseases from it becomes mere animal. drinking spirituous or fermented liquors are liable to After this the scene thickens. The runkard's * Thackrah on the Effects of the Principal Arts, Trades an agination gets disordered with the most grotesque con Professions, p. 83. * Botanic Garden. 62 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. ceptions. Instead of moderating his drink, he pours the proceedings of the previous night are painfully reit down more rapidly than ever; glass follows glass membered. He is sorry for his conduct, promises with reckless energy. His head becomes perfectly solemnly never again so to commit himself, and calls giddy. The candles burn blue, or green, or yellow; impatiently for something to quench his thirst. Such and where there are perhaps only three on the table, he are the usual phenomena of a fit of drunkenness. sees a dozen. According to his temperament, he is In the beginning of intoxication we are inclined amorous, or musical. or quarrelsome. Many possess to sleep, especially if we indulge alone. In companies, a most extraordinary wit; and a great flow of spirits is the noise and opportunity of conversing prevent this; a general attendant. In the latter stages, the speech and when a certain quantity has been drunk, the drowsy is thick, and the use of the tongue in a great measure tendency wears away. A person who wishes to stand lost. His mouth is half open, and idiotic in the ex- out well, should never talk much. This increases the pression; while his eyes are glazed, wavering, and effects of the liquor, and hurries on intoxication. watery. He is apt to fancy that he has offended some Hence, every experienced drunkard holds it to be a one of the company, and is ridiculously profuse with niece of prudence to keep his tongue under restraint. his apologies. Frequently he mistakes one person for The giddiness of intoxication is always greater in another, and imagines that some of those before him darkness than in the light. I know of no rational way are individuals who are, in reality, absent or even dead. by which this can be explained; but, certain it is, the The muscular powers are, all along, much affected: drunkard never so well knows his true condition as this indeed happens before any great change takes place when alone and in darkness. Possibly the noise and in the mind, and goes on progressively increasing. He light distracted the mind, and made the bodily sensacan no longer walk with steadiness, but totters from tions be, for the time, in some measure unfelt. side to side. The limbs become powerless, and inade- There are some persons who get sick from drinking quate to sustain his weight. He is, however, not al- even a small quantity; and this sickness is, upon the ways sensible of any deficiency in this respect: and whole, a favourable circumstance, as it proves an efWhile exciting mirth by his eccentric motions, imagines fectual curb upon them, however much they may be that he walks with the most perfect steadiness. In at- disposed to intemperance. In such cases, it will gentempting to run, he conceives that he passes over the erally be found that the sickness takes place as soon as grcund with astonishing rapidity. To his distorted vertigo makes its appearance: it seems, in reality, to eyes, all men, and even inanimate nature itself, seem be produced by this sensation. This, however, is a to be drunken, while he alone is sober. Houses reel rare circumstance, for though vertigo from ordinary from side to side as if they had lost their balance; causes has a strong tendency to produce sickness, that trees and steeples nod like tipsy Bacchanals; and the arising from drunkenness has seldom this effect. The very earth seems to slip from under his feet, and leave nausea and sickness sometimes occurring in intoxicahim walking and floundering upon the air. The last tion, proceed almost always from the surcharged and stage of drunkenness is total insensibility. The mail disordered state of the stomach, and very seldom from tumbles perhaps beneath the table, and is carried away the accompanying giddiness. in a state of stupor to his couch. In this condition he Intoxication, before it proceeds too far, has a poweris said to be dead drunk. ful tendency to increase the appetite. Perhaps it would When the drunkard is put to bed, let us suppose be more correct to say, that inebriating liquors, by that his faculties are not totally absorbed in apoplectic stimulating the stomach, have this power. We often stupor; let us suppose that he still possesses conscious- see gluttony and drunkenness combined together at ness and feeling, though these are both disordered; the same time. This continues till the last stage, then begins' the tug of war;' then comes the misery when, from overloading and excess of irritation, the which is doomed to succeed his previous raptures. No stomach expels its contents by vomiting. sooner is his head laid upon the pillow, than it is seized All along, the action of the kidneys is much inwith the strengest throbbing. His heart beats quick creased, especially at the commencement of intoxicaand hard against,the ribs. A noise like the distant fall tion. When a large quantity of intoxicating fluid has of a cascade, or rushing of a river, is heard in his ears: been suddenly taken into the stomach, the usual presough-sough-sough, goes the sound. His senses liminary symptoms of drunkenness do not appear. An now become more drowned and stupified. A dim re- instantaneous stupefaction ensues; and the person is collection of his carousals, like a shadowy and indis- at once knocked down. This cannot be imputed to tinct dream, passes before the mind. He still hears, distention of the cerebral vessels, but to a sudden opeas in echo, the cries and laughter of his companions. ration on the nervous branches of the stomach. The Wild fantastic fancies accumulate thickly around the brain is thrown into a state of collapse, and many of its brain. His giddiness isgreater than ever; andhe feels functions suspended. In such cases the face is not at as if in a ship tossed upon a heaving sea. At last he first tumid and ruddy, but pale and contracted. The drops insensibly into a profound slumber. pulse is likewise feeble, and the body cold and powerIn the morning he awakes in a high fever. The less. When re-action takes place, these symptoms whole body is parched; the palms of the hands in par- wear off, and those of sanguineous apoplexy succeed; ticular, are like leather. His head is often violently such as turgid countenance, full but slow pulse, and painful. He feels excessive thirst; while his tongue strong stertorous breathing. The vessels of the brain is white, dry, and stiff. The whole inside of the mouth have now become filled, and there is a strong determinais likewise hot' and constricted, and the throat often tion to that organ. sore. Then look at his eyes-how sickly, dull, and Persons of tender or compassionate minds are parlanguid! The fire, which first lighted them up the eve- ticularly subject, during intoxication, to be affected to ning before, is all gone. A stupor like that of the last tears at the sight of any distressing object, or even on stage of drunkenness still clings about them, and they hearing an affecting tale. Drunkenness in such characare disagreeably affected by the light. The complex- ters, may be said to melt the heart, and open up the ion sustains as great a chauge: it is no longer flushed fountains of sorrow. Their sympathy is often ridicuwith the gayety and excitation, but pale and wayworn, lous, and aroused by the most trifling causes. Those indicating a profound mental and bodily exhaustion, who have a living imagination, combined with this tenThere is probably sickness, and the appetite is totally derness of heart, sometimes conceives fictitious causes gone. Even yet the delirium of intoxication has not of distress, and weep bitterly at the woe of their own eft him, for his head still rings, his heart still throbs creating.'violently; and if he attempt getting up, he stumbles There are some persons in whom drunkenness calls with giddiness. The mind also is sadly depressed, and forth a spirit of piety, or rather of religious hypocrisy,, ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 63 which is both ludicrous and disgusting. They become lus, and resist it powerfully, while it yields to one much sentimental over their cups; and, while in a state of weaker. I have known people who could drink eight debasement most offensive to God and man, they will or ten glasses of raw spirits at a sitting without feeling weep at the wickedness of the human heart, entreat them much, become perfectly intoxicated by half the you to eschew swearing and profane company, and have quantity made into toddy. In like manner, he who is a greater regard for the welfare of your immortal soul. in the constant habit of using one spirit,-rum, for inThese sanctimonious drunkards seem to consider ebri- stance,-cannot, for the most part, indulge to an equal ety as the most venial of offences. extent in another, without experiencing more severe During a paroxysm of drunkenness, the body is much effects than if he had partaken of his usual beverage. less sensible to external stimuli than at other times: This happens even when the strength of the two liquors it is particularly capable of resisting cold. Seamen, is the same. when absent on shore, are prone to get intoxicated; The mind exercises a considerable effect upon drunkand they will frequently lie for hours on the highway, enness, and may often control it powerfully. When in even in the depth of winter, without any bad conse- the company of a superior whom we respect, or of a quences. A drunk man seldom shivers from cold. female in whose presence it would be indelicate to get His frame seems steeled against it, and he holds out intoxicated, a much greater portion of liquor may be with an apathy which is astonishing. The body is, in withstood than in societies where no such restraints like manner, insensible to injuries, such as cuts, operate. bruises, &c. He' frequently receives, in fighting, the Drunkenness has sometimes a curious effect upon most severe blows, without seemingly feeling them, the memory. Actions committed during intoxication and without, ill fact, being aware of the matter, till so- may be forgotten on a recovery from this state, and rebered. Persons in intoxication have been known to membered distinctly when the person becomes again chop off their fingers, and otherwise disfigure them- intoxicated. Drunkenness has thus an analogy to selves, laughing all the while at the action. But when dreaming, in which state circumstances are occasionally the paroxysm is off, and the frame weakened, things brought to mind which had entirely been forgotten. are changed. External agents are then withstood with The same thing may also occur in fevers, wherein even little vigour, with even less than in the natural state of languages with which we were familiar in childhood or the body. The person shivers on the slightest chill, youth, but had forgotten, are renewed upon the memand is more than usually subject to fevers and all sorts ory and pass away from it again when the disease which of contagion. recalled them is remoyed. External stimuli frequently break the fit. Men have With most people intoxication is a gradual process, been instantly sobered by having a bucket of cold wa- and increases progressively as they pour down the ter thrown upon them, or by falling into a stream. liquor; but there are some individuals in whom it takes Strong emotions of the mind produce the same effect, place suddenly, and without any previous indication of such as the sense of danger, or a piece of good or bad its approach. It is not uncommon to see such persons news, suddenly communicated. sit for hours at the bottle without experiencing any There are particular situations and circumstances in thing beyond a moderate elevation of spirits, yet aswhich a man can stand liquor better than in others. In sume all at once the outrage and boisterous irregularity the close atmosphere of a large town, he is soon over- of the most decided drunkenness. powered; and it is here that the genuine drunkard is Some drunkards retain their senses after the physical to bep.et within the greatest perfection. In thecoun- powers are quite exhausted. Others, even when the try, especially in a mountainous district, or on the sea- mind is wrought to a pitch leading to the most absurd shore, where the air is cold and piercing, a great quan- actions, preserve a degree of cunning and observation tity may be taken with impunity. The highlanders which enables them to elude the tricks which their Irink largely of ardent spirits, and they are often in- companions are preparing to play upon them. In such toxicated, yet, among them, there are comparatively cases, they display great address, and take the first Few who can be called habitual drunkards. A keen opportunity of retaliating; or, if such does not occur, air seems to deaden its effects, and it soon evaporates of slipping out of the room unobserved and getting From their constitutions. Sailors and soldiers who are away. Some, while the whole mind seems locked up aard wrought, also consume enormous quantities with- in the stupor of forgetfulness, hear all that is going on.:ut injury; porters and all sorts of labourers do the No one should ever presume on the intoxicated state same. With these men exercise is a corrective; but of another to talk of him detractingly in his presence. n towns, where no counteracting agency is employed, While apparently deprived of all sensation, he may be t acts with irresistible power upon the frame, and soon an attentive listener; and whatever is said, though un)roves destructive. heeded at the moment, is not forgotten afterwards, but A great quantity of liquors may also be taken with- treasured carefully up in the memory. Much discord )ut inebriating, in certain diseases, such as spasm te- and ill-will frequently arise from such imprudence.;anus, gangrene, and retrocedent gout. There are persons who are exceedingly profuse, and Certain circumstances of constitution maae one per- fond of giving away their money, watches, rings, &c.,;on naturally more apt to get intoxicated than another. to the company: This peculiarity will never, I believe Mr Pitt,' says a modern writer,' would retire in the be found in a miser: avarice is a passion strong under nidst of a warm debate, and enliven his faculties with every circumstance. Drinking does not loosen the grasp L couple of bottles of Port. Pitt's constitution ena- of the covetous man, or open his heart: he is for ever )led him to do this with impunity. He was afflicted the same. vith what is called a coldness of stomach; and the The generality of people are apt to talk of their priluantity of wine that would have closed the oratory of vate affairs when intoxicated. They then reveal the;o professed a Bacchanalian as Sheridan, scarcely ex- most deeply-hidden secrets to their companions. Others;ited the son of Chatham.'* have their minds so happily constituted that nothing esAll kinds of intoxicating agents act much more rapidly capes them. They are, even in their most unguarded Lnd powerfully upon an empty than a full stomach. In moments, secret and close as the grave. ike manner, when the stomach is disordered, and sub- The natural disposition may be better discovered in ect to weakness, heartburn, or disease of any kind, drunkenness than at any other time. In modern society,,briety is more rapidly produced than when this organ life is all a disguise. Almost every man walks in s sound and healthy. masquerade, and his most intimate friend very often The stomach may get accustomed to a strong stimu- does not know his real character. Many wear smiles * Rede's Memoir of the right Hon. George Canning. constantly upon their cheeks, whose hearts are unprin 64 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. cipled and treacherous. Many with violent tempers II. Melancholy Drunkard.-Melancholy, in drunkhave all the external calm and softness of charity itself. ards, sometimes arises from temperament, but more Some speak always with sympathy, who, at soul, are frequently from habitual intoxication or misfortune, full of gall and bitterness. Intoxication tears off the Some men are melancholy by nature, but become veil, and sets each in his true light, whatever they may highly mirthful when they have drunk a considerable be. The combative man will quarrel, the amorous quantity. Men of this tone of mind seem to enjoy the will love, the detractor will abuse his neighbour. I bottle more exquisitely than even the sanguineous have known exceptions, but they are few in number. class. The joyousness which it excites breaks in At one time they seemed more numerous, but closer upon their gloom like sunshine up/on darkness. Above observation convinced me that most of those whom I all, the sensations, of the moment when mirth begins thought drunkenness had libelled, inherited at bottom the with its magic to charm away care, are inexpressible. genuine dispositions which it brought forth. The ex- Pleasure falls in showers of fragrance upon their souls; ceptions, however, which now and then occur, are they are at peace with themselves and all mankind, and sufficiently striking, and point out the injustice of al- enjoy, as it were, a foretaste of paradise. Robert ways judging of a man's real disposition from his Burns was an example of this variety. His melancholy drunken moments. To use the words of Addison, was constitutional, but heightened by misfortune. The' Not only does this vice betray the hidden faults of a bottle commonly dispelled it, and gave rise to the most man, and show them in the most odious colours, but delightful images; sometimes, however, it only aggraoften occasions faults to which he is not naturally vated the gloom. subject. Wine throws a man out of himself, and in- III. Surly Drunkard.-Some men are not excited fuses qualities into the mind which she is a stranger to to mirth by intoxication: on the contrary, it renders in his sober moments.' The well known maxim them gloomy and discontented. Even those who in' in vino veritas,' therefore, though very generally true, the sober state are sufficiently gay, become, occasionis to be received with some restrictions, although, these ally thus altered. A great propensity to take offence I am satisfied, are by no means so numerous, as many is a characteristic among persons of this temperament. authors would have us to belive. They are suspicious, and very often mischievous. If at some former period they have had a difference with any of the company, they are sure to revive it, although, probably, it has been long ago cemented on both sides, CHAPTER IV and even forgotten by the other party. People of this description are very unpleasant companions. They DRUNKENNESS MODIFIED BY TEMPERAMENT. are in general so foul-tongued, quarrelsome, and indecent in conversation, that established clubs of drinkers Under the last head I have described the usual phe- have made it a practice to exclude them from their sonomena of intoxication; but it is necessary to remark ciety. that these are apt to be modified by the physical and IV. Phlegmatic Drunkard.-Persons of this temmoral frame of the drinker. Great diversity of opinion perament are heavy-rolling machines, and, like the exists with regard to the doctrine of the temperaments; above, are not roused to mirth by liquor. Their vital some authors affirming, and others denying their exist- actions are dull and spiritless-the blood in their veins ence. Into this controversy it is needless to enter. All as sluggish as the river Jordan, and their energies stagI contend for is, that the bodily and mental constitution nant as the Dead Sea. They are altogether a negative of every man is not alike, and that on these peculiari- sort of beings, with passions too inert to lead them to ties depend certain differences during a paroxysm of any thing very good or very bad. They are a species drunkenness. of animated clods, but not thoroughly animated-for 1. Sanguineous Drunkard.-The sanguine temper- the vital fire of feeling has got cooled in penetrating ament seems to feel most intensely the excitement of their frozen frames. A new prometheus would require the bottle. Persons of this stamp have usually a ruddy to breathe into their nostrils, to give them the ordinary complexion, thick neck, small head, and strong muscu- glow and warmth of humanity. Look at a phlegmatic lar fibre. Their intellect is in general mediocre, for man-how dead, passionless and uninspired is the exgreat bodily strength and corresponding mental powers pression of his clammy lips and vacant eye! Spea] are rarely united together. In such people, the animal to him-how cold, slow, and tame is his conversation! propensities prevail over the moral and intellectual ones. the words come forth as if they were drawn from hi, They are prone to combativeness and sensuality, and mouth.with a pair of pincers: and the ideas are as froare either very good-natured or extremely quarrelsome. zen as if concocted in the bowels of Lapland. Liquoi All their passions are keen: like the Irish women, produces no effect upon his mental powers; or, if ii they will fight for their friends or with them as occasion does, it is a smothering one. The whole energies o! requires. They are talkative from the beginning, and, the drink fall on his almost impassive frame. Froer during confirmed intoxication, perfectly obstreporous. the first, his drunkenness is stupifying; he is seizec It is men of this class who are the heroes of all drunk- with a kind of lethargy, the white of his eyes turns up. en companies, the patron of masonic lodges, the presi- he breathes loud and harshly, and sinks into an apoplec. dents and getters-up of jovial meetings. With them, tic stupor. Yet all this is perfectly harmless, and wearn eating and drinking are the grand ends of human life. away without leaving any mark behind it. Look at their eyes, how they sparkle at the sight of Such persons are very apt to be played upon by thei wine, and how their lips smack and their teeth water in companions. There are few men who, in their younge! the neighbourhood of a good dinner: they would scent days who have not assisted in shaving the heads ani out a banquet in Siberia. When intoxicated, their painting'the faces of these lethargic drunkards. passions are highly excited: the energies of a hundred V. Nervous Drunkard.-This is a very harmless an( minds then seem concentrated into one focus. Their very tiresome personage. Generally of a weak min( mirth, -their anger, their love, their folly, are all equally and irritable constitution, he does not become boister intense and unquenchable. Such men-cannot conceal ous with mirth, and rarely shows the least glimmering their feelings. In drunkenness, the veil is removcd of wit or mental energy. He is talkative and fond o: from them, and their characters stand revealed, as in a long winded stories, which he tells in a drivelling, sill5 glass to the eye of the beholder. The Roderick Ran- manner. Never warmed into enthusiasm by liquor he aom of Smollett had much of this temperament, blend- keeps chatting at some ridiculous tale, very much ir ed, however, with more intellect than usually belongs the way of a garrulous old man in his dotage.* to it. * The old gentleman who is represented as speaking, in Bun ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 6$ VI. Choleric Drunzkard.-There are a variety of but by the nature of the agent which produces it. Thus, drunkards whom I can only class under the above title. ebriety from ardent spirits differs in some particularl They seem to possess few of the qualities of the other from that brought on by opium or malt liquors, such as races,and are chiefly distinguished by an uncommon tes- porter and ale. tiness of disposition. They are quick, irritable, and impa- I. Modified by Ardent Spirits.-Alcohol is tlhe print. tient, but withal good at heart, and, when in humour, ciple of intoxication in all liquors. It is this whicls very pleasant and generous. They are easily put out of gives to wine,* ale, and spirits, their characteristic pro. temper, but it returns almost immediately. This dis- perties. In the natural state, however, it is so p0r0-. position is very prevalent among Welshmen and High- gent, that it could not be received into the stomacel land lairds. Mountaineers are usually quick tempered: even in a moderate quantity, without producing deatsi but such men are not the worst or most unpleasant. It can, therefore, only be used in dilution; and in thils Sterne is undoubtedly right when he says that more vir- state we have it, from the strongest ardent spirits, t;a tue is to be found in warm than cold dispositions. Cor- simple small beer. The first (ardent spirits) being tha modore Trunnion is a marked example of this tempera- most concentrated of its combinations, act most rapidly ment; and Captain Fluellen, who compelled the heroic upon the constitution. They are more inflammatory, Pistol to eat the leek, is another. and intoxicate sooner than any of the others. Swa.'VII. Periodical Drunkard.-There are persons lowed in an overdose, they act almost instantaneously — whose temperaments are so peculiarly constituted, that extinguishing the senses and overcoming the wholIe they indulge to excess periodically, and are, in the in- body with a sudden stupor. When spirits are swal — tervals of these indulgences, remarkably sober. This lowed raw, as in the form of a dram, they excite a glew is not a very common case, but I have known more of heat in the throat and stomach, succeeded, in those than one instance of it; and a gentleman, distinguish- who are not much accustomed to their use, by a flush ed by the power of his eloquence in the senate and at ing of the countenance, and a copious discharge of the bar, is said to furnish another. In the cases which tears. They are strongly diuretic. I have known, the drunken mania, for it can get no Persons who indulge too much in spirits rarely go.t other name, came on three or four time a-year. The corpulent, unless their indulgence be coupled with good persons from a state of complete sobriety, felt the most living. Their bodies become emaciated; they get spinintense desire for drink; and no power, short of abso- dle-shanked; their eyes are glazed and hollow; their lule force or confinement, could restrain them from the cheeks fall in; and a premature old age overtakes. indulgence. In every case they seemed to be quite them. They do not eat so well as their brother drunk-, aware of the uncontrollable nature of their passion, and ards. An insatiable desire for a morning drain makes proceeded systematically by confining themselves to them early risers, and their breakfast amounts to almost their room, and procuring a large quantity of ardent nothing. spirits. As soon as this was done, they commenced The principal varieties of spirits, as already menr and drank to excess till vomiting ensued, and the tioned, are rum, brandy, whiskey, and gin. It isneedstomach absolutely refused to receive another drop of less to enter into any detail of the history of these liquor. This state may last a few days or a few weeks fluids. Brandy kills soonest; it takes most rapidly to according to constitutional strength, or the rapidity the head, and, more readily than the others, tinges the with which the libations are poured down. During face to a crimson or livid hue. Rum is probably the the continuance of the attack, the individual exhibits next in point of fatality; and, after that, whiskey andT such a state of mind as may be looked for from his pe- gin. The superior diuretic qualities of the two latter, culiar temperament; he may be sanguineous, or melan- and the less luscious sources from whence they ate) choly, or surly, or phlegmatic, or nervous, or choleric. procured, may possibly account for such differences. Fi So soon as the stomach rejects enery thing that is am at the same time aware that some persons entertain swallowed, and severe sickness comes on, the fit ceases. a different idea of the relative danger of these liquors" From that moment recovery takes place, and the for- some, for instance, conceive that gin is more rapidly mer fondness for liquor is succeeded by aversion or dis- fatal than any of them; but it is to be remembered, that gust. This gains such ascendency over him, that he it, more than any other ardent spirit, is liable to adu~l abstains religiously from it for weeks, or months, or teration. That, from this circumstance, more lives. even for a year, as the case may be. During this inter- may be lost by its use, I do not deny. In speaking of val he leads a life of the most exemplary temperance, gin, however, and comparing its effects with those of drinking nothing but cold water, and probably shunning the rest of the class to which it belongs, I must be u-.every society where he is likely to be exposed to in- derstood to speak of it in its pure condition, and not in dulgence. So soon as this period of sobriety has ex- that detestable state of sophistication in which such vast; pired, the fit again comes on; and he continues play- quantities of it are drunk in London and elsewhere.. ing the same game for perhaps the better part of a When pure, I have no hesitation in affirming that it iCs long life. This class of persons I would call periodical decidedly more wholesome than either brandy or rumidrunkards. and that the popular belief of its greater tendency to: These different varieties are sometimes found strong- produce dropsy, is quite unfounded. ly marked; at other times so blended together that it An experiment has lately been made for the purpose is not easy to say which predominates. The most of ascertaining the comparative powers of gin, brandyagreeable drunkard is he whose temperament lies be- and rum upon the human body, which is not less rea tween the sanguineous and the melancholic. The markable for the inconsequent conclusions deduced genuine sanguineous is a sad noisy dog, and so com- from it, than for the ignorance it displays in confoundmon that every person must have met with him. The ing dead animal matter with the living fibre. It worso naval service furnishes a great many gentlemen of this made as follows:description. The phlegmatic, I think, is rarer, but both A piece of raw liver was put into a glass of gin, etm the nervous and the surly are not unusual. other into a glass of rum, and a third into & glass of brandy. That in the gin was, in a given timn, partially CHAPTER V. decomposed; that in the rum, in the same time, not DRUNKENNESS MODIFIED BY THE INEBRIATING AGENT. diminished; and that in the brandy quite dissolved. it Intoxication is not only influenced by temperament, was concluded from these results, that rum was tie bury's admirable caricature of the'Long Story,' furnishes one wholesome spirit of the three, and brandy t of the best illustrations I have ever seen of this variety. It is * Alcohol appears to exist in wines,j.i a very peculiar state of' worth consulting, both on account of the story-teller, and the ef- combination. In the Appendix, I h4 availed myself of Dr' feet his tedious garrulity produced upon the company. Paris's valuable remarks on this subject. 66 B~SANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS least. The inferences deduced from these premises in bulk. They become loaded with fat; their chin are not only erroneous, but glaringly absurd; the pre- gets double or triple, the eye prominent, and the whole mises would even afford grounds for drawing results of face bloated and stupid. Their circulation is clogged, the very opposite nature: it might be said, for instance, while the pulse feels like a cord, and is full and laboring, that though brandy be capable of dissolving dead ani- but not quick. During sleep, the breathing is stertomal matter, there is no evidence that it can do the same rous. Every thing indicates an excess of blood; and to the living stomach, and that it would in reality prove when a pound or two is taken away, immense relief is less hurtful than the others, in so far as it would, more obtained. The blood, in such cases, is more dark and effectually than they, dissolve the food contained in sizy than in the others. In seven cases out of ten, that organ. These experiments, in fact, prove nothing; malt liquor drunkards die of apoplexy or palsy. If and could only have been suggested by one completely they escape this hazard, swelled liver or dropsy carries ignorant of the functions of the animal economy. There them off. The abdomen seldom loses its proininency, is a power inherent in the vital principle which resists but the lower extremities get ultimately emaciated. the laws that operate upon dead matter. This is known Profuse bleedings frequently ensue from the nose, and to every practitioner, and is the reason why the most save life, by emptying the blood-vessels of the brain. plausible and recondite speculations of chemistry have The drunkenness in question is peculiarly of British come to naught in their trials upon the living frame. growth. The most noted examples of it are to be The only way to judge of the respective effects of ar- found ill innkeepers and their wives, recruiting serdent spirits, is by experience and physiological reason- geants, guards of stage-coaches, &c. The quantity of ing, both of which inform us that the spirit most power- malt liquors which such persons will consume in a day fully diuretic must rank highest in the scale of safety. is prodigious. Seven English pints is quite a common Now and then persons are met with on whose frames allowance, and not unfrequently twice that quantity is both gin and whiskey have a much more heating effect taken without any perceptible effect. Many of the than the two other varieties of spirits. This, however, coal-heavers on the Thames think nothing of drinking is not common, and when it does occur, can only be daily two gallons of porter, especially in the summer referred to some accountable idiosyncrasy of constitu- season, when they labor under profuse perspiration. tion. A friend has informed me that he knew an instance of II. Modified by Wines.-Drunkenness from wines one of them having consumed eighteen pints in one closely resembles that from ardent spirits. It is equally day, and he states that there are many such instances.* airy and volatile, more especially if the light wines, The effects of malt liquors on the body, if not so such as Champagne, Claret, Chambertin, or Volnay, be immediately rapid as those of ardent spirits, are more drunk. On the former, a person may get tipsy several stupifying, more lasting, and less easily removed. The times of a night. The fixed air evolved from it pro- last are particularly prone to produce levity and mirth, duces a feeling analogous to ebriety, independent of but the first have a stunning influence on the brain, and, the spirit it contains. Port, Sherry, and Madeira are in a short time, render dull and sluggish the gayest disheavier wines, and have a stronger tendency to excite position. They also produce sickness and vomiting headache and fever. more readily than either spirits or wine. The wine-bidder has usually an ominous rotundity Both wine and malt liquors have a greater tendency of face, and, not unfrequently, of corporation. His to swell the bodythan ardent spirits. Theyformblood nose is well studded over with carbuncles of the claret with greater rapidity, and are altogether more nourishcomplexion; and the red of his cheeks resembles very ing. The most dreadful effects, upon the whole, are closely the hue of that wine. The drunkard from ar- brought on by spirits, but drunkenness from malt lident spirits is apt to be poor, miserable, emaciated quors is the most speedily fatal. The former break figure, broken in mind and in fortune; but the votary down the body by degrees, the latter operate by some of the juice of the grape may usually boast the instantaneous apoplexy or rapid inflammation.'paunch well lined with capon,' and calls to recollec- No one has ever given the respective characters of tion the bluff figure of Sir John Falstaff over his pota- the malt liquor and ardent spirit drunkard with greater tions of sack.* truth than Hogarth, in his Beer Alley and Gin Lane. III. Modified by Malt Liquors.-Malt liquors under The first is represented as plump, rubicund, and bloatwhich title we include all kinds of porter and ales, pro- ed; the second as pale, tottering, and emaciated, and duce the worst species of drunkenness; as, in addition dashed over with the aspect of blank despair. to the intoxicating principle, some noxious ingredients IV. Modified by Opium.-The drunkenness proare usually added, for the purpose of preserving them duced by opium has also some characteristics which it and giving them their bitter. The hop of these fluids is necessary to mention. The drug is principally emis highly narcotic, and brewers often add other sub- ployed by the Mahometans., By their religion, these stances, to heighten its effect, such as hyoscyamus, people are forbidden the use of wine,lt and use opium opium, belladonna, cocculus Indicus, lauro cerasus, &c. as a substitute. And a delightful substitute it is while Malt liquors, therefore, act in two ways upon the body, the first excitation continues; for images it occasions partly by the alcohol they contain, and partly by the in the mind are more exquisite than any produced even narcotic principle. In addition to this, the fermenta- by wine. tion which they undergo is much less perfect than that There is reason to believe that the use of this mediof spirits or wine. After being swallowed, this process cine has, of late years, gained ground in Great Britain. is carried on in the stomach, by which fixed air is co- We are told by the' English Opium-Eater,' whose piously liberated, and the digestion of delicate stomachs powerful and interesting' Confessions' have excited so materially impaired. Cider, spruce, ginger, and table deep an interest, that the practice exists among the beers, in consequence of their imperfect fermentation, work people at Manchester. Many of our fashionable often produce the same bad effects, long after their first ladies have recourse to it when troubled with vapours, briskne has vanished. or low spirits; some of them even carry it about with Persons addicted to maltliquorsincrease enormously them for the purpose: This practice is most perni* There is reason to believe that the Sack of Shakspeare was *' It is recorded of a Welsh squire, William Ilewis, who Sherry.-' Falstaff. You rogue! here's lime in this Sack too. died in 1793, that he drank eight gallons of ale per diem, and There is nothing but roguery to be found in villanous mai. weighed forty stones.'- -Yadd's Commlents on Corpulency. Yet a coward is worse than a cup of Sack with lime in it.' —'The law of Mahomet which prohibits the (drinking of wine, Lime, it is well known, is added to the grapes in the manufac- is a law fitted to the climate of Arabia; and, indeed, before Ma ture of Sherry. This;Qt only gives the wine what is called its homet's time, water was the common drink of the Arabs. The dry quality, but probat' nets by neutralizing a portion of the law which forbade the Carthaginians to drink wine, was also a rtalic or tartaric acid, law of the climate.'-Montesquieti, Boosc, xiv..'Chap. x. ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 67 cious, and no way different from that of drunkards, and becomes one vast Eden of pleasure. Such are the who swallow wi'.e and other liquors to drive away care. first effects of opium; but in proportion as they are'While the first effects continue, the intended purpose great, so is the depression which succeeds them. Lanis sufficiently gained, but the melancholy which follows guor and exhaustion invariably come after; to remove is infinitely greater than can be compensated by the which, the drug is again had recourse to, and becomes previous exhilaration. almost an essential of existence. Opium acts differently on different constitutions. Opium retains at all times its power of exciting the While it disposes some to calm, it arouses others to imagination, provided suffidient doses are taken. But, fury. Whatever passion predominates at the time, it when it has been continued so long as to bring disease increases; whether it be rove, or hatred, or revenge, upon the constitution, the pleasurable feelings wear or benevolence. Lord Kames, in his Sketches of away, and are succeeded by others of a very different Man, speaks of the fanatical Faquirs, who, when ex- kind. Instead of disposing the mind to be happy, it cited oy this drug, have been known, with poisoned now acts upon it like the spell of a demon, and calls up daggers, to assail and butcher every European whom phantoms of horror and disgust. The fancy is still as they could overcome. In the century before last, one powerful as ever, but it is turned in another direction. of this nation attacked a body of Dutch sailors, and Formerly it clothed all objects with the light of heaven; murdered seventeen of them in one minute. The now it invests them with the attributes of hell. GobMalays are strongly addicted to opium. VWhen vio- lins, spectres, and every kind of distempered vision lently aroused by it, they sometimes perform what is haunt the mind, peopling it with dreary and revolting called Running-a-Muck, which consists in rushing out imagery. The sleep is no longer cheered with its forin a state of phrensied excitement, heightened by fanati- mer sights of happiness. Frightful dreams usurp their cism, and murdering every one who comes in their place, till, at last, the person becomes the victim of an way. The Turkish commanders are well aware of the almost perpetual misery.* Nor is this confined to the powers of this drug in inspiring an artificial courage; mind alone, for the body suffers in an equal degree. and frequently give it to their men when they put them Emaciation, loss of appetite, sickness, vomiting, and a on any enterprise of great danger. total disorganization of the digestive functions, as well Some minds are rendered melancholy by opium. Its as of the mfental powers, are sure to ensue, and nevei usual effect, however, is to give rise to lively and happy fail to terminate in death, if the evil habit which brings sensations. The late Duchess of Gordon *is said to them on is continued. have used it freely, previous to appearing in great par- Opium resembles the other agents of intoxication in ties,. where she wished to shine by the gayety of her this, that the fondness for it increases with use, and conversation and brilliancy of her wit. A celebrated that a't last, it becomes nearly essential for bodily cornmpleader at the Scotch bar is reported to do the same fort and peace of mind. The quantity which may be thing, and always with a happy effect. taken varies exceedingly, and depends wholly upon In this country opium is much used, but seldom with age, constitution, and habit. A single drop of laudathe view of producing intoxication. Some, indeed, num has been known to kill a new-born child; and deny that it can do so, strictly speaking. If by intoxi- four grains of solid opium have'destroyed an adult. cation is meant a state precisely similar to that from Certain diseases such as fevers, phrensies, &c., faciliover-indulgence in vinous or spiritous liquors, they are tate the action of opium upon the system; others, such undoubtedly right; but drunkenness merits a wider as diarrhcea, cramp, &c., resist it; and a quantity which latitude of signification. The ecstacies of opium are would destroy life in the former, would have little permuch inmore entrancing than those of wine. There is ceptible effect in the latter. By habit, enormous quanmore poetry in its visions-more mental aggrandize- tlties of the drug may be taken with comparative imment-more range of imagination. Wine, in common punity. There are many persons in this country who with it, invigorates the animal powers and propensities, make a practice of swallowing half an ounce of laudabut opimn, in a more peculiar manner, strengthens those num night and morning, and some will even take from proper to man, and gives, for a period amounting to one to two drachms daily of solid opium. The Teriahours, a higher tone to the intellectual faculties. It in- kis, or opium-eaters of Constantinople, will sometimes spires the mind with a thousand delightful images, lifts swallow a hundred grains at a single dose. Nay, it is the soul from earth, and casts a halo of poetic thought confidently affirmed that some of them will take at and feeling over the spirits of the most unimaginative. once three drachms in the morning, and repeat the Under its influence, the mind wears no longer that same dose at night, with no other effect than a pleasing blank passionless aspect which, even in gifted natures, exhilaration of spirits. The'English Opium-Eater' it is apt to assume. On the contrary; it is clothed with himself, furnishes one of the most extraordinary inbeauty' as with a garment,' and colours every thought stances on record of the power of habit in bringing the that passes through it with the hues of wonder and ro- body to withstand this drug. He took daily eight mance. Such are the feelings which the luxurious and thousand drops of laudanum, containing three hundred opulent mussulinan seeks to enjoy. To stir up the and twenty grains of opium. This enormous quantity languid current of his'mind, satiated with excess of * The following description, by a modern traveller, of a scene pleasure and rendered sluggish by indolence, he has re- witnessed by him in the East, gives a lively'picture of the effects course to that remedy which his own genial climate of this drug:roducesin greatest perfection. Seated perhaps amid' There is a decoction of the head and seeds of the poppy, which they call Coquenar, for the sale of which there are tavthe luxuries of Oriental splendour-with fountains bub- erns in every quarter of the town,similar to our coffee.houses. It bling around, and the citron shading him with its canopy, is extremely amusing to visit these houses, and to observe care. and scattering perfume on all siese ets loose the flly those who resort there for the purpose of drinking it, both rendsofaiiimaginatioe onversantfrm i c wethe before they have taken the dose, before it begins to operate, and reins of an imagination conversant from infancy with while it is operating. On entering the tavern, they are dejected every thing gorgeous and magnificent. The veil which and languishing soon after they have taken two or three cups shades the world of fancy is withdrawn, and the veon- of this beverage, they are peevish, and asit were enraged; every ders lying behid itfan e sewithrd to; he se thing displeases them. They find fault with every thing, and ders lyin behind it exposed to viewt he sees palaces quarrel with one another, but in the course of its operation they and temples in the clouds; or the Paradise of Ma- make it up again;-and. each one giving himself up to his prehornet, with its houris and bowers of amaranth, may dominant passion, the lover speaks sweet things to his idol-anther, half asleep, laughs in his sleeps —a third talks big and stand revealed to his excited senses. Every thing is ohe, lf aslec, ag his slep- third talks bi blusters —a fourth tells ridiculous stories. In a word, a person steeped in poetic exaggeration. The zephyrs seem would believe hlimnseli to be really in a mad-house. A kind of converted into aerial music, the trees bear golden fruit, lethergy and stupidity succeed to this isiiorder y gayety;but the,olerinsfr fromt lthreaigy i si e(~vs li and estuadiy, andC the rose blushes with unaccustomed beauty and per- Persians, far frone trecting it as it deserves, call it an eestacy, and maintain that there us somnetlhing exquisite and heavenly in thii fume. Earth, in a word, is brought nearer to the sky, I state.'-Chardin. 68 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. he reduced suddenly, and without any considerable ef- child who was the subject of this investigation. The fort, to one thousand drops, or forty grains.' in- mother is under thirty: she was severely censured by stantaneously,' says he,' and as if by magic, the cloud the coroner for indulging in so pernicious a practice.' of profoundest melancholy which rested upon my brain, V. Modified by Tobacco.-A variety of drunkenness like some black vapours which I have seen roll away is excited by tobacco. This luxury was introduced from the summits of the mountains, drew of in one into Enrope from the new world, in 1559, by a Spanisb day-passed off with its murky banners, as simultane- gentleman, named Hernandez de Toledo, who brought ously as a ship that has been stranded, and is floated a small quantity into Spain and Portugal. From off by the spring-tide.' thence, by the agency of the French ambassador at The circumstance of the body being brought by de- Lisbon, it found its way to Paris, where it was used grees to withstand a great quantity of opium is not in the form of powder by Catherine de Medicis, the solitary, but exists as a general rule with regard to all abandoned instigator of the massacre of the Protestants stimulants and narcotics. A person who is in the on St. Bartholomew's day. This woman, therefore, habit of drinking ale, wine, or spirits, will take much may be considered the inventor of snuflf; as well as the more with impunity than one who is not; and the contriver of that most atrocious transaction. It then faculty of withstanding these agents goes on strength- came under the patronage of the Cardinal Santa Croc6, ening till it acquires a certain point, after which it be- the Pope's nuncio, who, returning from his embassy at comes weakened. When this takes place, their is the Spanish and Portuguese courts, carried the plant either organic disease or general debility. A confirmed to his own country, and thus acquired a fame little indrunkard, whose constitution has suffered from indul- ferior to that which, at another period, he had won by gence, can not take so much liquor, without feeling it, piously bringing a portion of the real cross froln the as one who is in the habit of taking his glass, but Holy Land. It was received with general enthusiasm whose strength is yet unimpaired. It is, I suspect, the in the Papal States, and hardly less favorably in Engsame, though probably in a less degree, with regard to land, into which it was introduced by Sir Walter opium. Raleigh, in 1585. It was not, however, without oppoMithridates, king of Pontus, affords an instance of sition that it gained a footing either in this country or the effects of habit in enabling the body to withstand in the rest of Europe. Its principal opponents were poisons: and on the same principle, we find that phy- the priests, the physicians, and the sovereign princes; sicians and nurses who are much exposed to infection, by the former, its use was declared sinful; and in 1624, are less liable than those persons whose frames are not Pope Urban VIII. published a bull, excommunicating similarly fortified. all persons found guilty of taking snuff when in church. Opium resembles wine, spirit, and ales, in effecting This bull was renewed in 1690 by Pope Innocent; and the brain and disposing to apoplexy. Taken in an about twenty-nine years afterwards, the Sultan Amuover-dose, it is fatal in from six to twenty-four hours, rath IV. made smoking a capital offence, on the ground according to the quantity swallowed, and the constitu- of its producing infertility. For a long time smoking tion, habits, &c., of the persons submitted to its opera- was forbidden in Russia, under the pain of having the tion. The following are the principal symptoms of nose cut off: and in some parts of Switzerland, it was poisoning from opium. Giddiness succeeded by stu- likewise made a subject of public prosecution-the per; insensibility to light, while the eyes are closed, public regulations of the Canton of Berne, in 1661, and the pupil immoveable, and sometimes dilated. placing the prohibition of smoking in the list of the ten The pulse is generally small and feeble, but, occasion- commandments, immediately under that against adulally, slow and full, as in common apoplexy. The tery. Nay, that British Solomon James I. did not breathing at first is scarcely perceptible, but is apt to think it beneath the royal dignity to take up his pen become stertorous. Foam sometimes issues from the upon the subject. He accordingly, in 1603, published mouth: in other cases there is vomiting. The coun- his famous'Counterblaste to Tobacco,' in which the tenance is cadaverous and pale or livid. A narcotic following remarkable passage occurs:-' It is a custom odour is often perceptible in the breath. The skin is loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to cold, and the body exceedingly relaxed; now and then the brain, dangerous to the lungs, and, in the black it is convulsed. By being struck shaken, or ex- stinking fume thereof, nearest resembling the horrible cited any way, the person sometimes recovers for a Stygian smoke of the pit that is bottomless.'* But short period from his stupor, and stares wildly around notwithstanding this regal and sacerdotal wrath, the him, but only to relapse into lethargy. At last death plant extended itself far and wide, and is at this moensues, but shortly before this event, a deceitful show ment the most universal luxury in existence. of animation occasionally makes its appearance, and The effects of tobacco are considerably different may impose upon superficial observers. from those of any other inebriating agent. Instead of I extract the following interesting case of opium- quickening, it lowers the pulse, and, when used to exeating from a London paper:- cess, produces languor, depression of the system, gid-'An inquest was held at Walpole lately, on the body diness, confusion of ideas, violent pain in the stomach, of Rebecca Eason, aged five years, who had been dis- vomiting, convulsions, and even death. Its essential eased from her birth, was unable to walk or articulate, oil is so intensely powerful, that two or three drops inand from her size, did not appear to be more than five serted into a raw wound, would prove almost instantly weeks old. The mother had for many years been in fatal.* AIr Barrow, in his travels, speaks of the use the habit of taking opium in large quantities, (nearly a quarter of an ounce a day;*) and, it is supposed, had *'Tobacco,' King James farther observes,' is the lively imentailed a disease an her child which caused its death; age and pattern of hell, for it hath, by allusion, in it all the dparts and vices of the world, whereby hell may be gained; to it was reduced to a mere skeleton, and had been in wit, first, it is a smoke; so are all the vanities of this world. that state from birth. Verdict;' Died by the visitation Secondly, it delightest them that take it; so do all the pleasures of God; but from the great quantity of opium taken by ofthe world delight the men of the world. Thirdly, it maketh men druneken and light in the head 5 so do all the vanities of the the mother during her pregnancy of the said child, and world, men are drunken therewith. Four ly, a he the vat takeofth of sucking it, she had greatly injured its health.' It tobacco cannot leave it; it doth bewitch him; even so the plea appeared that the mother of the deceased had had five sures of the world make men loath to leave them; they are, for the most part, enchanted with them. And, fartimer, besides all children; that she began to take opium after the birth this, it is like hell in the very substance of it, for it is a stinking and weaning of her first child, which was and is re- loathsome thing, and so is hell.' And, moreover, his majesty markably healthy; and that the other children have all declares, that' were he to invite the devil to a dinner, he should and died in the same emaciated stae as the have three dishes; first, a pig; second, a poll of ling and muslingered and died in the same emaciated state as the tard; and, third, a pipe of tobacco for digestion.' * Equal to nearly three thousand drops of laudanum. t It appears from Mr. Brodie's experiments, that the essential ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 69 made by the Hottentots of this plant, for the purpose of forth volumes of fragrance, he seems to dwell in an at destroying snakes.' A Hottentot,' says he,'applied mosphere of contented happiness. His illusions have some of it from the short end of his wooden tobacco not the elevated and magnificent character of those pipe to the mouth of a snake while darting out his brought on by opium or wine. There is nothing of tongue. The effect was as instantaneous as an electric Raphael or Michael Angelo in their composition-noshock; with a convulsive motion that was momentary, thing of the Roman or Venitian schools-nothing of the snake half untwisted itself, and never stirred more; Milton's sublimity, or Ariosto's dazzling romance; but and the muscles were so contracted, that the whole there is something equally delightful, and in its way, animal felt hard and rigid, as if dried in the sun.' equally perfect. His visions stand in the same relation When used in moderation, tobacco has a soothing effect to those of opium or wine, as the Dutch pictures of upon the mind, disposing to placid enjoyment, andmel- Ostade to the Italian ones of Paul Veronese-as lowing every passion into repose. Its effects, there- Washington Irving to Lord Byron-or as Izaak Walfore, are inebriating; and those who habitually indulge ton to Froissart. There is an air of delightful homein it may with propriety be denominated drunkards. In liness about them. He does not let his imagination whatever form it is used, it produces sickness, stupor, run riot in the clouds, but restrains it to the lower bewilderment, and staggering, in those unaccustomed sphere of earth, and meditates delightfully in this less to its use. There is no form in which it can be taken elevated region. If his fancy be unusually brilliant, or that is not decidedly injurious and disgusting. The somewhat heated by previous drinking, he may see whole, from snuffing to plugging, are at once so utterly thousands of strange forms floating in the tobacco uncleanly and unnatural, that it is incredible in what man- smoke. He may people it, according to his temperaner they ever insinuated themselves into civilized so- ment, with agreeable or revolting images-with flowers ciety. A vast quantity of valuable time is wasted by and gems springing up, as in dreams before him-or:he votaries of tobacco, especially by the smokers; and with reptiles, serpents, and the whole host of diablerie, that the devotees of snuff are not greatly behind in this skimming, like motes in the sunshine, amid its curling respect, will be shown by the following singular calcu- wreaths. lation of Lord Stanhope:- This all that can be said in favour of smoking, and'Every professed, inveterate, incurable snuff-taker,' quite enough to render the habit too common to leave says his Lordship,' at a moderate computation, takes any hope of its suppression, either by the weapons of one pinch in ten minutes. Every pinch, with the ridicule, or the more summary plan of the Sultan Amuagreeable ceremony of blowing and wiping the nose, rath. In no sense, except as affording a temporary and other incidental circumstances, consumes a minute gratification, can it be justified or defended. It poland a half. One minute and a half out of every ten, lutes the breath, blackens the teeth, wastes the saliva allowing sixteen hours to a snuff-taking day, amounts which is required for digestion, and injures the corn to two hours and twenty-four minutes out of every na- plexion. In ad4ition to this, it is apt to produce dystural day, or one day out of ten. One day out of every pepsia, and other disorders of the stomach; and in ten amounts to thirty-six days and a half in a year. corpulent subjects, it disposes to apoplexy. At the Hence, if we suppose the practice to be persisted in present moment, smoking is fashionable, and crowds of forty years, two entire years of the snuff-taker's life young men are to be seen at all hours walking the will be dedicated to tickling his nose and two more to streets with cigars in their mouths, annoying the pasblowing it. The expense of snuff, snuff-boxes, and sengers. They seem to consider it manly to be able handkerchiefs, will be the subject of a second essay, in to smoke a certain number, without reflecting that which it will appear that this luxury encroaches as much there is scarcely an old woman in the country who on the income of the snuff-taker as it does on his time; would not beat them to naught with their own weapand that by proper application of the time and money ons, and that they would gain no sort of honour were thus lost to the public, a fund might be constituted for they able to outsmoke all the burgomasters of Amsterthe discharge of the national debt.' dam. As the practice, however, seems more resorted But this is not the worst of snuffing, for though a to by these young gentlemen for the sake of effect, and moderate quantity taken now and then, may do no of exhibiting a little of the haut ton, than for any thing harm, yet, in the extent to which habitual snuffers carry else, it is likely soon to die a natural death among them; it, it is positively pernicious. The membrane which particularly as jockeys andporters have lately taken the lines the nose gets thickened, the olfactory nerves field in the same way, being determined that no class of blunted, and the sense of smell consequently impaired. the community shall enjoy the exclusive monopoly of Nor is this all, for, by the strong inspirations which are street smoking. made when the powder is drawn up, some of the latter The observatians made upon the effects of snuffing is pretty sure to escape into the stomach. This organ and snloking, apply in a still stronger degree to chewis thence directly subjected to a powerful medicine, ing. This is the worst way for the health in which towhich not only acts as a narcotic, but produces heart- bacco can be used. The waste of saliva is greater thaml burn and every other symptom of indigestion. It is even in smoking, and the derangements of the digesgenerally believed that Napoleon owed his death to the tive organs proportionably severe. All confirmed morbid state of his stomach produced by excessive chewers are more than usually subject to dyspepsia snuffing. Snuffing has also a strong tendency to give and hypochondriasis: and many of them are afflicted a determination to the head, and on this account pleth- with liver complaint, brought on by their imprudent oric subjects should be the very last ever to enter upon habit. the habit. If it were attended with n6 other inconve- The most innocent, and at the same time most disnience, the black loathsome discharge from the nose, gusting way of using tobacco, is plugging, which conand swelling and rubicundity of this organ, with other sists in inserting a short roll of the plant in the nostril, circumstances equally disagreeable, ought to deter and allowing it to remain there so long as the person every man from becoming a snuffer. feels disposed. Fortunately this habit is as rare as it is The smoker, while engaged at his occupation, is even abominable; and it is to be hoped that it will neverbea happier man than the snuffer. An air of peculiar come common in Great Britain. satisfaction beams upon his countenance; and as he puffs I have observed, that persons who are much addicted to liquor have an inordinate liking to tobacco in all its oil of tobacco operates very differently from the infusion. The different forms: and it is remarkable that in the early former acts instantly on the heart, suspending its action, even stages of ebriety alnost every man is desirous of having while the animal continues to inspire, and destroying life by p. a pinch ofsnuff. This last fact it is not easy to exlain, ducing syncope. The latter appears to operate solely on the a pinch of snu This last fact it is not easy to exilain, brain, leaving the circulation unaffected. but the former may be accounted for by that incessant 70 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. craving after excitement which cling to the system of judgment. In a word, the gas produced precisely a the confirmed drunkard. temporary paroxysm of drunkenness, and such a deterFrom several of the foregoing circumstances, we are mination of blood upwards as rendered the complexion justified in considering tobacco closely allied to intoxi- livid, and left behind some degree of headache. Such cating liquor, and its confirmed votaries as a species of are the effects upon myself, but with most people, there drunkards. At least, it is tertain that when used to is a total unconsciousness of the part they are acting. excess, it gives birth to many of the corporeal and men- They perform the most extravagant pranks, and on retal manifestations of ebriety. covering their self-possession are totally ignorant of the VI. Modified by Nitrous Oxide.-The drunkenness, circumstance. Sometimes the gas has an opposite efif it merit that name, from inhaling nitrous oxide, is feet, and the person instantly drops down insensible, as likewise of a character widely differing from intoxica- if struck by lightning: he recovers, however, immedition in general. This gas was discovered by Dr Priest- ately. Those who wish to know more of this curious ley, but its peculiar effects upon the human body were subject, should read Sir H. Davy's work, but, above all, first perceived in 1799, by Sir Humphrey Davy, who, in they should try the gas upon themselves. In the mean the following year, published a very elaborate account time I shall lay before the reader the details, in their of its nature and properties, interspersed with details by own words, of the sensations experienced by Messrs some of the most eminent literary and scientific charac- Edgeworth and Coleridge, and by Dr Kinglake. ters of the sensations they experienced on receiving it Mr EDGEWORTH'S CASE.-' My first sensation was into their lungs. an universal and considerable tremor. I then perceived According to these statements, on breathing the gas some giddiness in my head, and a violent dizziness in the pulse is accelerated, and a feeling of heat and ex- my sight; these sensations by degrees subsided, and I pansion pervades the chest. The most vivid and high- felt a great propensity to bite through the wooden ly pleasurable ideas pass, at the same time, through the mouth-piece, or the tube of the bag through which I inmind; and the imagination is exalted to a pitch of en- spired the air. After I had breathed all the air that trancing ectascy. The hearing is rendered more acute, was in the bag, I ea gerly wished for more. I then felt the face is flushed, and the body seems so light thatthe a strong propensity to laugh, and did burst into a vioperson conceives himself capable of rising up and lent fit of laughter, and capered about the room without mounting into the air. Some assume theatrical attitudes; having the power of restraining myself. By degrees, others laugh immoderately, and stamp upon the ground. these feelings subsided, except the tremor, which lasted There is an universal increase of muscular power, at- for an hour after I had breathed the air, and I felt a tended with the most exquisite delight. In a few cases weakness in my knees. The principal feeling through there are melancholy, giddiness, and indistinct vi- the whole of the time, or what I should call the characsion but generally the feelings are those of perfect plea- teristical part of the effect, was a total difficulty of resure. After these strange effects have ceased, no de- straining my feelings, both corporeal and mental, or, in bility ensues, like that which commonly follows high other words, not having any command of myself.' excitement. On the contrary, the mind is strong and Mr COLERIDGE'S CASE. —'The first time I inspired collected, and the body unusually vigorous for some the nitrous oxide, I felt an highly pleasurable sensation hours after the operation. of warmth over my whole frame, resembling that which At the time of the discovery of the effects of nitrous I once remember to have experienced after returning oxide strong hopes were excited that it might prove from a walk in the snow into a warm room. The only useful in various diseases. These, unfortunately have motion which I felt inclined to make, was that of laughnot been realized. Even the alleged properties of the ing at those who were looking at me. My eyes felt gas have now fallen into some discredit. That it has distended, and, towards the last, my heart beat as if it produced remarkable effects cannot be denied, but were leaping up and down. On removing the mouththere is much reason for thinking that, in many cases, piece, the whole sensation went off almost instantly.. these were in a great measure brought about by the'The second time, I felt the same pleasurable sensainfluence of imagination. Philosophers seem to be tion of warmth, but not, I think, in quite so great a dedivided on this point and their conflicting testimo- gree. I wished to know what effect it would have on nies it is not easy to reconcile. Having tried the ex- my impressions: I fixed my eye on some trees in the periment of inhaling the gas myself, and having seen distance, but I did not find any other effect, except it tried upon others, I have no doubt that there is that they became dimmer and dimmer, and looked at much truth in the reports generally published of its last as if I had seen them through tears. My heart properties, although in many cases, imagination has beat more violently than the first time. This was after made these appear greater than they really are. a hearty dinner. The intoxication which it produces is entirely one sui'The third time, I was more violently acted on than generis, and differs so much from that produced by in the two former. Towards the last, I could not other agents, that it can hardly be looked upon as the avoid, nor indeed felt any wish to avoid, beating the same thing. ground with my feet; and, after the mouth-piece was The effects of nitrous oxide upon myself, though con- removed, I remained for a few seconds motionless, in siderable, were not so striking as I have seen upon great ecstacy. others. The principal feelings produced, were giddi-'The fourth time was immediately after breakfast. ness and violent beating in the head, such as occur in The first few inspirations affected me so little, that I the acme of drunkenness. There was also a strong thought Mr Davy had given me atmospheric air; but propensity to laugh: it occurs to me, however, that in soon felt the warmth beginning about my chest, and my own case, and probably in some others, the risible spreading upward and downward, so that I could feel tendency might be controlled by a strong effort of roli- its progress over my whole frame. My heart did not tion, in the same way as in most cases of drunkenness, beat so violently; my sensations were highly pleasurawere the effort imperatively requisite. Altogether I ble, not so intense or apparently local, but of more unexperienced nearly the sensations of highly excited mingled pleasure than I had ever before experienced.' ebriety. There was the same seeming lightness and Dr KINGLAKE'S CASE. —' My first inspiration of it expansion of the head, the same mirthfulness of spirit, was limited to four quarts, diluted with an equal quanand the same inordinate propensity to do foolish things, tity of atmospheric air. After a few inspirations, a knowing them to be foolish, as occur in drunkenness sense of additional freedom and power (call it energy, in general. I was perfectly aware what I was about, if you please) agreeably pervaded the region of the and could, I am persuaded, with some effort, have sub- lungs; this was quickly succeeded by an almost deliripected the whimsies cf fancy to the sober dictates of ous but highly pleasurable sensation in the brain, which ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 71 was soon diffused over the whole frame, imparting to Bangue. —This is the leaf of a species of wild hemp, the muscular power at once an increased disposition growing on the shores of Turkey, and of the Grecian and tone for action; but the mental effect of the ex- Archipelago. It possesses many of the properties of citeinent was such as to absorb in a sort of intoxicating opium, and is used by the poorer classes of Mussulmen placidity and delight, volition, or rather the power of as a substitute for this drug. Before being used, it is voluntary motion. These effects were in a greater or dried, and the excissated leaves are either chewed enless degree protracted during about five minutes, when tire, or reduced into a fine powder, andmade intopills. the former state returned,,with the difference however Its effects are to elevate the,pirits, dispel melancholy, of feeling more cheerful and alert, for several hours after. and give increased energy to,he corporeal faculties-' It seemed also to have had the farther effect of re- followed by languor both of body and mind. viving rheumatic irritations in the shoulder and knee- Hop.-Similar in its effects to opium, only inferior joints, which had not been previously felt for many in degree. Used in porter brewing. months. No perceptible change was induced in the W/oljfs-bane.-(Aconitum napellus.)-A most deadly pulse, either at or subsequent to the time of inhaling narcotic, producing, in small doses, the usual symptoms the gas. of ebriety, such as giddiness, elevation of spirits, &c. *'The effects produced by a second trial of its powers, When taken to excess it is inevitably fatal. were more extensive, and concentrated on the brain. Cocculus Indicus.-The intoxicating powers of this In this instance, nearly six quarts undiluted, were ac- berry are considerable. It is used by the brewers to curately and fully inhaled. As on the former occasion, increase the strength of porter and ales; and is someit immediately proved agreeably respirable, but before times thrown into ponds for the purpose of intoxicatthe whole quantity was quite exhausted, its agency was ing the fishes, but they may thereby be more easily exerted so strongly on the brain, as progressively to caught. suspend the senses of seeing, hearing, feeling, and ul- Foaiglove.-(Digitalis.)-Likewise a powerful nartimiately the power of volition itself. At this period, cotic, and capable of producing many of the symptoms the pulse was much augmented both in force and fre- of drunkenness. It has the peculiar effect of lowering, quency; slight convulsive twitches of muscles of the instead of raising the pulse. arms were aiso induced; no painful sensation, nausea, Nightshade.-(Belladonna.)-This is one of the or languor, however, either preceded, accompanied or most virulent narcotics we possess. Like opium, hop, -followed this state, nor did a minute elapse before the and cocculus Indicus, it is used by brewers to augment brain rallied, and resumed its wonted faculties, when a the intoxicating properties of malt liquors.'The sense of glowing warmth extended over the system, Scots,' says Buchanan,'mixed a quantity of the juice asa speedily succeeded by a re-instatement of the of the belladonna with the bread and drink with which, equilibrium of health. by their truce, they were bound to supply the Danes,'The more permanent effects were (as in the first which so intoxicated them, that the Scots killed the experiment) an invigorated -feel of vital power, im- greater part of Sweno's army.' froved spirits, transient irritations in different parts,'Some children ate, in a garden, the fruit of the but not so characteristically rheumatic as in the former belladonna, (deadly nightshade.) Shortly after, they instance. had burning fever, with convulsions, and very strong'Among the circumstances most worthy of regard palpitations of the heart; they lost their senses, and in considering the properties and administration of this became completely delirious: one of them, four years powerful aerial agent, may be ranked, the fact of its of age, died the next day: the stomach contained some being contrary to the prevailing opinion, both respirable, berries of the belladonna crushed, and some seeds; it and salutary; that it impresses the brain and system exhibited three ulcers; the heart was livid, and the at large with a more or less strong and durable degree pericardlum without serosity.'* of pleasurable sensation; that unlike the effect of other' One child ate four ripe berries of the belladonna, violently exciting agents, no sensible exhaustion or di- another ate six. Both one and the other were guilty munition of vital power accrues from the exertions of of extravagancies which astonished the mother; their its stmulant property; that its most excessive opera- pupils were dilated; their countenances no longer re tion even, is neither permanently nor transiently de- mained the same; they had a cheerful delirium, ac bilitating; and finally, that it fairly promises, under ju- companied with fever. The physician being called in, dicious application, to prove an extremely efficient found them in a state of great agitation, talking at ranremedy, as well in the vast tribe of diseases originating dom, running, jumping, laughing sardonically; their from deficient irritability and sensibility, as in those pro- countenances purple, and pulse hurried. IHe adininceeding from morbid associations, and modifications of istered to each of them half a grain of emetic tartar those vital principles.'" and a drachm of glauber salt, in four or five ounces of water: they had copious evacuations during seven or eight hours, and the symptoms disappeared.'t Henbane.-(Hyoscyamus.)-Similar in its properties CHAPTER VI. to nightshade and opium. The intoxicating properties of hyoscyamus appear to have been known from a very ENUMERATION OF THE LESS COMMON INTOXICATING early period. It was with this plant that the Assassin AGENTS. Prince, commonly called the' Old Man of the Mountain,' inebriated his followers preparatory to installing In this chapter, I shall content myself with the en- them into his service. The following eloquent pasumeration of a few of the less common intoxicating sage from a modern writer will prove interesting:agents. To detail all the productions of nature which' There was at Alamoot, and also at Masiat, in Syria, have the power of inebriating, would be an endless and a delicious garden, encompassed with lofty walls, uninteresting topic. adorned with trees and flowers of every kind-with Hemlock.-A powerful narcotic, producing giddiness, murmuring brooks and translucent lakes-with bowers elevation of spirits, and other symptoms of ebriety. It of roses and trellises of the vine-airy halls and splenwas by an effusion of the leaf of this plant that Socrates did kiosks, furnished with carpets of Persia and silks was poisoned. of Byzantium. Beautiful maidens and blooming boys Leopard's-bane.-(Arnica monta.na.)-Properties an- were the inhabitants of this delicious spot, which realogous to those of hemlock and other narcotics. sounded with the melody of birds, the murmur of * The doses in these experiments, were from five to seven * Journal G6n6rale de MWdecine, lix. xxiv. p. 224. quarts t Gazette de Sant6. 11 Thellrmidor, an xv. p. 508 72 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. streams, and the tones and voices of instruments-all rational answer to any of our questions. After being respired contentment and pleasure. When the chief on board for a short time, the mental faculties appeared had noticed any youth to be distinguished for strength gradually to return, and it was not till then that a and resolution, he invited him to a banquet, where he looker-on could easily persuade himself that they had placed him beside himself, conversed with him on the not been drinking too freely.' happiness reserved for the faithful, and contrived to administer to him an intoxicating draught, prepared from the hyoscyamus. While insensible, he was conveyed to CHAPTER VII. the garden of delight, and there awakened by the application of vinegar. On opening his eyes, all Paradise DIFFERENCES IN THE ACTION OF OPIUM AND ALCOHOL. met his view; the black-eyed and blue-robed houris surrounded him, obedient to his wishes; sweet music The modus operandi of opium upon the body is confilled his ears; the richest viands were served up in siderably different from that of alcohol. The latter the most costly vessels, and the choicest wines sparkled intoxicates chiefly by acting directly upon the nerves, in golden cups. The fortunate youth believed himself the former by acting secondarily upon them, through really in the Paradise of the Prophet, and the language the medium of absorption. This is easily proved by of his attendants confirmed the delusion. WVhen he injecting a quantity of each into the cellular tissue of had had his filled enjoyment, and nature was yielding any animal, and comparing the effects with those proto exhaustion, the opiate was again administered, and duced when either is received into the stomach. M. the sleeper transported back io the side of the chief, to Orfila* details some interesting experiments which he whom he communicated what had passed, and who as- made upon dogs. In applying the watery extract of sured him of the truth and reality of all he had ex- opium to them in the first manner, (by injection into perienced, telling him such was the bliss reserved for the cellular tissue,) immediate stupor, convulsions, and the obedient servants of the Imaum, and enjoining, at debility ensue, and proved fatal in an hour or two. the same time, the strictest secrecy. Ever after, the \When, on the contrary, even alargerquantity was introrapturous vision possessed the imagination of the de- duced into the stomach of the animal, it survived ten, luded enthusiast, and he panted for the hour when twelve, or eighteen hours, although the cesophagus was death, received in obeying the commands of his su- purposely tied to prevent vomiting. The operation of perior, should-dismiss him to the bowers of Paradise.'* alcohol was the reverse of this; for, when injected Palm Wieze.-This is prepared from the juice which into the cellular substance, the effects were slight; but exudes from the palm tree. Its properties are very when carried into the stomach, they were powerful and inebriating; and it is an amusing fact to witness the almost instantaneous. This proves that opium acts stupor and giddiness into which the lizards frequenting chiefly by being taken up by the absorbents, as this is these trees are thrown, by partaking of the juice which done much more rapidly by the drug being directly apyields it. They exhibit all the usual phenomena of plied to a raw surface than in the stomach, where the intoxication. various secretions and processes of digestion retard its Camphor.-The intoxicating properties of camphor absorption. Besides, alcoholtaken in quantity produces are considerable. It elevates the spirits, increases instant stupefaction. It is no sooner swallowed than voluntary motion, and gives rise to vertigo; and these the person drops down insensible. Here is no time effects, as in the case of all narcotics, are succeeded for absorption; the whole energies of the spirit are by drowsiness, lassitude, and general depression. In exerted against the nervous system. The same rapid large doses, syncope, convulsions, delirium, and even privation of power never occurs after swallowing opium. death, take place. It is sometimes used as a substi- There is always an interval, and generally one of some tute for opium in cases of delirium, where, from parti- extent, between the swallowing and the stupor which cular circumstances, the latter either cannot be taken, succeeds. Another proof that opium acts in this or does not produce its usual effects. The common manner, is the circumstance of its being much more belief, however, of camphor being an antidote to this speedily fatal than alcohol, when injected into the bloodmedicine, is quite unfounded. It neither decomposes vessels. Three or four grains in solution, forced into opium, nor prevents it from acting poisonously upon the carotid artery of a dog, will kill him in a few the system: but, in consequence of its stimulating minutes. Alcohol, used in the same manner, would properties, it may be advantageously given in small not bring on death for several hours. doses to remove the stupor and coma produced by In addition it maybe stated, that a species of drunkopium. enness is produced by inhaling the gas of intoxicating Saffron.-This aromatic possesses moderate intoxi- liquors. Those employed in bottling spirits from the cating properties. Taken in sufficient doses, it accel- cask, feel it frequently with great severity. This proves erates the pulse, produces giddiness, raises the'spirits, that there is a close sympathy between the nerves of and gives rise to paroxysms of laughter. In a word, it the nose and lungs, and those of the stomach. From exhibits many of the phenomena occasioned by over- all these circumstances, it is pretty evident that intoxiindulgence in liquors, only in a very inferior degree. cation from spirits is produced more by the direct acDarnel.-Possesses slight intoxicating properties. tion of the fluid upon the nerves of the latter organ, Clary.-Possesses slight intoxicating properties. than by absorption. Carbonic Acid.-Carbonic acid partially inebriates, Mr Brodie supposes that there is no absorption as is seen in drinking ginger beer, cider, Champagne, or whatever of alcohol, and supports his views with a numeven soda water, in which no alcoholic principle exists. ber of striking facts.* This, however, is a length to Ethers.-Ethers, when taken in quantity, give rise.Toxiologi Gnrale. to a species of intoxication, which resembles that from t The following are the grounds on which he supports his ardent' spirits in all respects, except in being more doctrine:-' 1. In experiments where animals have been killed fugacious. by the injection of spirits into the stomach,I have found this organ to bear the marks of great inflammation, but never any preter Intense Cold.-Intense cold produces giddiness, natural appearances whatever in the brain. 2. The effects of thickness of speech, confusion of ideas, and other spirits taken into the stomach, in the last experiment, were so insymnptoms of drunkenness. Captain Parry speaks of stanltaneous, that it appears impossible that absorlotion should ythe effects so produced upon two young gentlemen have taken place before they were produced. 3. A person who the effects so produced upon two young gentlemen is intoxicated fiequently becomes suddenly sober after vomiting. who were exposed to an extremely low temperature. 4. In the experiments which I have just related, I mixed tincture'They looked wild,' says he,' spoke thick and indis- of rhubarb with the spirits, knowing, from the experiments o, tinctly, and it was impossible to draw from them a Mr Home and Mr William Brande, that this (rhubar;;) when tinctly, and it was impossible to draw from them a absorbed into the circulation, was readily separated from the, * Von Hammers Hist, of the Assassins. blood by the kidneys, and that very small quantities might be ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 73 which I cannot go. I am inclined to think that though I. Vertigo. —This is partly produced by the occular such absorption is not necessary to produce drunken- delusions under which the drunkard labours, but it is ness, it generally takes place to a greater or lesser de- principally owing to other causes; as it is actually gree; nor can I conceive any reason why alcohol may greater when the eyes are shut than when they are not be taken into the circulation as well as any other open-these causes, by the exclusion of light, being fluid. My reasons for supposing that it is absorbed are unaccountably increased. Vertigo, from intoxication, the following:-1. The blood, breath, and perspiration is far less liable to produce sickness and vomiting than of a confirmed drunkard differ from those of a sober from any other cause; and when it does produce them, man; the former being darker, and the two latter itis to a very inconsiderable degree. These symptoms, strongly impregnated with a spiritous odour. 2. The in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, arise from the perspiration of the wine-drinker is often of the hue of disordered state of the stomach, and not, as we have his favourite liquor; after a debauch on Port, Burgun- elsewhere mentioned, from the accompanying giddiness. dy, or Claret, it is not uncommon to see the shirt or There are, indeed, a certain class of subjects who vomit sheets in which he lies, tinted to a rosy colour by the and become pale, as soon as vertigo comes over them, moisture which exudes from his body. 2. Madder, but such are few in number compared with those mercury, and sulphur, are received into the circulation whose stomachs are unaffected by this sensation. In unchanged; the former dyeing the bones, and the others swinging, smoking, sailing at sea, on turning rapidly exhaling through the pores of the skin, so as to com- round, sickness and vomiting are apt to occur; and municate their peculiar odours to the person, and even there seems no doubt that they proceed in a great meadiscolour coins and other metallic substances in his sure from the vertigo brought on bythese actions. The pockets. The first of these reasons is a direct proof of giddiness of drunkenness, therefore, as it very rarely absorption: the second shows, that as wine is received sickens, must be presumed to have some characters into the circulation, and passes throught it, alcohol may peculiar to itself. In this, as well as in some other do the same; and the third furnishes collateral evidence affections, it seems to be the consequence of a close of other agents exhibiting this phenomenon as well as sympathy between the brain and nerves of the stomach; spiritous liquors. The doctrine of absorption is sup- and whatever affects the latter organ, or any other viscus ported by Dr Trotter,* who conceives that alcohol de- sympathizing with it, may bring it on equally with inoxygenizes the blood, and causes it to give out an un- ebriating agents: calculi in the ureters or biliary ducts usual portion of hydrogen gas. The quantity of this are illustrations of this fact. In intoxication, the gid*gas in the bodies of drunkards is so great, that many diness is more strongly marked, because the powers have attempted to explain from it the circumstances of both of body and mind are temporarily impaired, and Spontaneous Combustion, by which it is alleged, the the sensoriunm so'disordered as to be unable to regulate human frame has been sometimes destroyed, by being the conduct. burned to ashes. A degree of vertigo may be produced by loading the stomach too rapidly and copiously after a long fast. Common food, in this instance, amounts to a strong CHAPTER VIII. stimulus in consequence of the state of the stomach, in which there was an unnatural want of exciten.ent. PHYSIOLOGY OF DRUNKENNESS. This organ was in a state of torpor; and a stimulus which, in ordinary circumstances, would hardly have In administering medicines, the practitioner has a been felt, proves, in reality, highly exciting. For the natural desire to learn the means by which they produce same reason, e an unnatural luminousness same reason, objects have an unnatural luminousness their effects upon the body. Thus, heis not contented when a person is suddenly bro when a person is suddenly brought from intense darkwith knowing that squill acts as a diuretic, and that ess to a brilliant light. mercury increases the secretion of the bile. He in- I. Double Vision-The double vision which occurs quires by what process they do so; and understandsy be readily accounted fo that the first excites into increased action the secretory fluence of increased circulation in the brain upon the fluence of increased circulation in the brain upon the arteries of the kidneys, and the last the secretory veins I X, #. nerves of slght. In frenzy, and various fevers, the same of the liver. In like manner, he does not rest satisfied phenomenon occurs. Every nerve is supplied with with the trite knowledge that winles, and spirits, and vessels; and it is conceivable that any unusual impulse ales, produce intoxication: he extends his researches of blood into the optics may so far affect that pair as to beyond this point, and is naturally anxious to ascertain derange their actions. Whence, they convey false imby what peculiar action of the system these agents give pressions to the brain, which is itself too much thrown rise to so extraordinary an effect. off its just equilibrium to remedy, even if that under All the agents of which we have spoken, with th:e any circumstances were possible, the distorted images exception of tobacco, whose action from the first is de- of the retina. The refraction of light in the tears, which cidedly sedative, operate partly by stimulating the are secreted more copiously than usual during intoxiframe. They cause the heart to throb more vigorous- cation, may also assist in multiplying objects to the eye. ly, and the blood to circulate freer, while, at the same III. Staggering and Stammering.These symptime, they exert a peculiar action upon the nervous toms are, in like manner, to be explained from the dissystem. The nature of this action, it is probable, will ordered state of the brain and nervous system. When never be satisfactorily explained. If mere stimulation never be satisfactorily explained. If mere stimulation the organ of sensation is affected, it is impossible that were all that was wanted, drunkenness ought to be pre- it sEn mEt w.,, o parts whose actions depend upon it can perform their sent in many cases where it is never met with. It, or functions well. The nervous fluid is probably carried more properly speaking, its symptoms, ought to exist to the muscles in a broken and irregular current, and in inflammatory fever, and after violent exercise, such the filaments which are scattered over the body are as running or hard walking. Inebriating agents, there- themselves directly stunned and paralyzed; hence, the fore, with few exceptions, have a twofold action. They insensibility to pain, and other external impressions. both act by increasing the circulation, and by influencing This insensibility extends everywhere, even to the orthe nerves; and the latter operation, there can be no gans of diglutition and speech. The utterance is thick doubt, is the more important of the two. Having stated and indistinct, indicating a loss of power in the lingual this general fact, it will be better to consider the cause nerves which give action to the tongue; and the same of each individual symptom in detail. want of energy seems to prevail in the gustatory detected in the urine by the addition of potash; but though I branches which give it tase. never failed to find urine in the bladder, I never detected rhubarb IV. Heat and Flushing..-Theee result from the in it.'-Phil. Trans. of thle Roy. Soc, of Lond. 1S11. partI. p. 178. * Essay on Drunkenness, strong determination of blood to the surface of the Ts ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. body. This reddens and turnefies the face and eyes, date some of the more prominent phenomena of drunkand excites an universal glow of heat. Blood is the enness. Some are omitted as being too obvious cause of animal heat, and the more it is determined to to require explanation, and others have been elseany part, the greater is the quantity of caloric evolved where cursorily accounted for in differents parts of tRh therefrom. word. V. Ringing in the Ears.-This is accounted for by the generally increased action within the head, and more particularly by the throbbing of the internal carotid arteries which run in the immediate neighbourhood of CHAPTER IX the ears. VI. Elevation of Spirits.-The mental pleasure of METHOD OF CURING THE FIT OF DRUNKENNESS. intoxication is not easily explained on physiological principles. We feel a delight in being rocked gently, 1. From Liquors.-Generally speaking, there is no in swinging on a chair, or in being tickled. These un- emedy for drunkenness equal to vomiting. The soondoubtedly act upon the nerves, but in what manner, it er the stomach is emptied of its contents the better, would be idle to attempt investigating. Intoxicating and this may, in most cases be accomplished by drinkagents no doubt do the same thing. The mental mani- ing freely of tepid water, and tickling the fauces. On festations produced by their influence depend almost more obstinate occasions, powerful emetics will be neentirely upon the nerves, and are, unlike the corporeal essary. The best for the purpose, are ten grains of ones, in a great measure independent of vascular ex- sulphate of copper, half a drachm of sulphate of zinc, citement. The power of exciting the feelings inherent or five grains of tartar emetic. Either of these should in these principles, can only be accounted for by sup- be dissolved in a small quantity of tepid water, and posing a most intimate relation to subsist between the instantly swallowed. Should this treatment fail in efbody and the mind. The brain, through. the medium fecting vomiting, and dangerous symptoms supervene, of its nervous branches, is the source of all this excite- the stomach pump should be employed. Cold appliment. These branches receive the impressions and cations to the head are likewise useful. In all cases convey them to their fountain-head, whence they are the head ought to be well elevated, and the neckcloth showered like sparkling rain-drops over the mind, in a removed, that there may be no impediment to the circuthousand fantastic varieties. No bodily affection ever lation. VWhere there is total insensibility, where the influences the mind but through the remote or proxi- pulse is slow and full, the pupils dilated, the face flushmate agency of this organ. It sits enthroned in the ed, and the breathing stertorous, it becomes a question citadel of thought, and, though material itself, acts with whether blooding might be useful. Darwin* and Trotwizard power both upon matter and spirit. No other ter speak discouragingly of the practice. As a general texture has the same pervading principle. If the lungs rule I think it is bad, and that many persons who be diseased, we have expectoration and cough; if the would have recovered, if left to themselves, have lost liver, jaundice or dropsy; if the stomach, indigestion' their lives by being prematurely bled. In all cases it but when the brain is affected, we have not merely many hould be done cautiously, and not for a considerable bodily symptoms, but severe affections of the mind; time. Vomiting and other means should invariably be nor are such affections ever produced by any organ but first had recourse to, and if they fail, and nature is unthrough the agency of the brain. It therefore acts in a able of her own power to overcome the stupor, blooding double capacity upon the frame, being both the source may be tried. In this respect, liquors differ from opium of the corporeal feelings, and of the mental manifesta- the insensibility from which is benefitted by abstraction tions. Admitting this truth, there can be little diffi- of blood. culty in- apprehending why intoxication produces so There is one variety of drunkenness in which both powerful a mental influence. This must proceed from blooding and cold are inadmissible. This is when a a resistless impulse being given to the brain, by virtue person is struck down, as it were, by drinking suddenof the peculiar action of inebriating agents upon the ly a great quantity of ardent spirits. Here he is overnerves. That organ of the mind is suddenly en- come by an instantaneous stupor: his countenance is dowed with increased energy. Not only does the blood ghastly and pale, his pulse feeble, and his body cold, circulate through it more rapidly, but an action, sui While these symptoms continue, there is no remedy generis, is given to its whole substance. Mere in- but vomiting. When, however, they wear off, and crease of circulation, as we have already stated, is not are succeeded, as they usually are by flushing, beat, sufficient: there must be some other principle at work and general excitement, the case is changed, and upon its texture; and it is this principle, whatever it must be treated as any other where such symptoms may be, which is the main cause of drunkenness. At exist. first, ebriety has a soothing effect, and falls over the The acetate of ammonia is said to possess singular spirit like the hum of bees, or the distant murmur of a properties in restoring from intoxication. This fact cascade. Then to these soft dreams of Elysium suc- was ascertained by M. Masurer, a French chemist. Acceed a state of maddening energy and excitement in the cording to him, from twenty to thirty drops in a glass brain. The thoughts which emanate from its prolific of water, will, in most cases, relieve the patient from tabernacle, are more fervid and original than ever- the sense of giddiness and oppression of the brain; or, they rush out with augmented copiousness, and sparkle if that quantity should be insufficient, half the same may over the understanding like the aurora borealis, or the be again given in eight or ten minutes after. In some eccentric scintillations of light upon a summer cloud. csses the remedy will occasion nausea or vomiting, In a word, the organ is excited to a high, but not a dis- which, however, will be salutary to the patient, as the eased action, for this is coupled with pain, and, instead state of the brain is much aggravated by the load on the of pleasurable, produces afflicting ideas. But its ener- stomach and subsequent indigestion. It is also farther gies, like those of any other part, are apt tf be over- stated that the value of this medicine is greatly enhancexcited. WVhen this takes place, the balance is broken; ed from its not occasioning that heat of the stomach the mind gets tumultuous and disordered, and the ideas and subsequent inflammation which are apt to be proinconsistenit, wavering, and absurd. Then come the duced by pure ammonia. Whether it possesses all the torpor and exhaustion subsequent on such excessive virtues attributed to it, I cannot say from personal obstimulus. The person falls into drowsiness or stupor, servation, having never had occasion to usre it in any and his mind, as well as his body, is followed by lan- case which came under my management; but I think guor corresponding to the previous excitation. it at least promises to be useful, and is, at all events, Such is a slight and unsatisfactory attempt to eluci- * Zoonomia. ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 75 worthy of a trial. I must mention, however, that the should be light and unirritating, consisting principally acetate of ammonia is seldom to be procured in the of vegetables. Animal food is apt to heat the body highly concentrated state in which it is used by M. and dispose it to inflammatory complaints.* Masurer. Owing to the great difficulty of crystalliz- II. From Opium.-When a dangerous quantity ol ing it, it is rarely seen except in the fluid state, in opium has been taken, the treatment, in the first in which condition it is recommended by the French che- stance is the same as with regard to spirits, or any mist. The form in which it is almost always used in this other intoxicating fluid. Immediate vomiting, by the country is that of the Aq. Acet. Ammon. or Spirit of administration of similar emetics, is to be attempted, Mindeierus, in doses of half an ounce or an ounce, but and when it has taken place, it should be encouraged whether in this shape it would be equally effectual by warm drinks till there is reason to believe that the in obviating the effects of drunkenness, remains to be stomach has been freed of the poison. These drinks, seen. however, should not be given before vomiting is proMr Broomley of Deptford recommends a draught duced, for, in the event of their failing to excite it, composed of two drachms of Aq. Ammon. Aromat. in they remain upon the stomach, and thus dissolve the two ounces of water, is an effectual remedy in drunk- opium and promote its absorption. But when vomiting enness. occurs from the action of the emetics, it will in all proThe carbonate of ammonia might be used with a bability be encouraged by warm drinks, and the stomach good effect. M. Dupuy, director to the veterinary thus more effectually cleared of the poison. Large school at Toulonse; tried a curious experiment with quantities of a strong infusion of coffee ought then to this medicine upon a horse. Having previously intoxi- be given, or the vegetable acids, such as vinegar or cated the animal by injecting a demiletre of alcohol into lemon-juice, mixed with water. These serve to mitithe jugular vein, he injected five grains of the carbo- gate the bad consequences which often follow, even nate of ammonia, dissolved in an ounce of water, into after the opium has been brought completely up. If the same vein, when the effects of the alcohol immedi- the person show signs of apoplexy, more especially if ately ceased. he be of a plethoric habit, the jugular vein, or temporal We have already mentioned that the excitement of artery should be opened, and a considerable quantity of drunkenness is succeeded by universal languor. In the blood taken away. Indeed, it may be laid down as a first stage, the drunkard is full of energy, and capable general rule, that as soon as the poison is rejected, the of withstanding vigorously all external influences. In patient ought to be bled, and the operation should be the second, there is general torpor and exhaustion, and repeated according to circumstances. Every means he is more than usually subject to every impression, must be used to arouse him from stupor. He must be whether of cold or contagion. Persons are often pick- moved about, if possible, from room to room, hartshorn ed up half dead in the second stage. The stimulus of applied to his nostrils, and all plans adopted to prevent" intoxication had enabled them to endure the chill of him from sinking into lethargy. For this purpose, camthe atmosphere, but the succeeding weakness left them phor, assafcetida, or musk, might be administered with more susceptible than before of its severity. In this advantage. It is also a good practice to sponge the state the body will not sustain any farther abstraction body well with cold water; and the effusion of cold of stimuli; and blooding and cold would be highly in- water on the head and over the body, is still more effecjurious. Vomiting is here equally necessary, as in tual. In cases where vomiting cannot be brought all other instances; but the person must be kept in a about by the ordinary means, M. Orfila suggests that warm temperature, and cherished with light and nour- one or tvwo grains of tartar emetic, dissolved in an ishing food-with soups, if such can be procured, and ounce or two of water, might be injected into the veins. even with negus, if the protrastration of strength is In desperate cases, the stomach pump must be had revery great. course to. Purgatives are latterly necessary. A paroxysm of periodical drunkenness may be some- Many practitioners consider vinegar and the other times shortened by putting such small quantities of tar- vegetable acids antidotes to opium. This opinion M. tar emetic into the liquor which the person indulges in, Orfila has most satisfactorily shown to be erroneous. as to King on nausea. This, however, must be done In a series of well-conducted and conclusive experiwith secrecy and caution. ments made by him, it appears that the vegetable acids It may here be mentioned, though not with a view aggravate the symptoms of poisoning by opium, whenof recommending the practice, that the vegetable acids ever they are not vomited. They hurry them on more have a strong effect both in counteracting and remov- rapidly, render them more violent, produce death at an ing drunkenness. To illustrate this fact, the following earlier period, and give rise to an inflammation of the circumstance may be mentioned:-About twenty years stomach-an event which hardly ever occurs when they ago, an English regiment was stationed in Glasgow, are not employed. These effects, it would appear, are the men of which, as is common in all regiments, be- partly produced by their power of dissolving opium, came enamoured of whskey. This liquor, to which which they do better than the mere unassisted fluids of they gave the whimsical denomination of white ale, was the stomach; consequently the absorption is more ennew to them —being nearly unknown in England: and ergetic. The only time when acids can be of any use, they soon indulged in it to such an extent, as to attract is after the person has brought up the poison by vomitthe censure of their officers. Being obliged to be at ing. They then mitigate the subsequent symptoms, quarters by a certain hour, they found out the plan of and promote recovery; but if they be swallowed before sobering themselves by drinking large quantities of vine- vomiting takes place, and if this act cannot by any gar, perhaps a gill or two at a draught. This, except means be brought about, they aggravate the disorder, in very bad cases, had the desired effect, and enabled * In speaking of the treatment, it is necessary to guard against them to enter the barrack-court, or appear on parade, confounding other affections with drunkenness: —' There is a in a state of tolerable sobriety. The power of the vege- species of delirium that often attends the accession of typLhus fe table acids in resisting intoxication, is well shown in ver, from contagion. that I have known to be mistaken fol ebri~he case of cold puch —a lare f cTOX* rs ety. Among seamen and soldiers, whose habits of intoxication the case of cold punch-a larger portion of which can are common, it will sotnetimes require nice discernment to (le be withstood than of either grog or toddy, even when cide; for the vacant stare in the countenance, the look of idiot the quantity of spirit is precisely the same. ism, incoherent speech, faltering voice, and tottering walk, are so alike in both cases, that the naval and military surgeon outht There is nothing which has so strong a tendency to at all times to be very cautious how he gives up a man to plnishdispel the effects of a debauch as hard exercise especial- ment, under these suspicious circumstances. Nay, the appearly if the air be cold. Aperients and diaphoretics are aces of ilis having come fiom a tavern, with even the ellilvium of liquor about him, are sigos not always to be trusted; for these also extremely useful for the same purpose. haunts of seamen and soldiers are often the sources of infection. For some days after drinking too much, the food — Trotter. CS1 76 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. and death ensues more rapidly than if they had not in favour of the accuracy of ancient knowledge, we been taken. shall simply proceed to detail the effects of drunkenness Coffee has likewise a good effect when taken after so far as the medical practitioner is professionally interfthe opium is got off the stomach; but it differs from ested in knowing them. The moral consequences the acids in this, that it does not, under any circum- belong more properly to the legislator and divine, and stances, increase the danger. While the opium is do not require to be here particularly considered. still unremoved, the coffee may be considered merely I. State of the Liver.-One of the most commor. inert; and it is, therefore, a matter of indifference consequences of drunkenness is acute inflammation. whether at this time it be taken or not. Afterwards, This may affect any organ, but its attacks are princihowever, it produces the same beneficial effects as pally confined to the brain, the stomlach, and the liver. lemonade, tartaric acid, or vinegar. According to It is unnecessary to enter into any detail of its nature Orfila, the infusion is more powerful as an antidote and treatment. These are precisely the same as when than the decoction. Drunkenness or poisoning from it proceeds from ally other cause. The inflammation the other narcotics, such as hemlock, belladonna, of drunkenness is, il a great majority of cases, chronic; aconite, hyoscyamus, &c., is treated precisely in the and the viscus which, in nine cases out of ten, sufflrs, same manner as that from opium. is the liver. III. Froom Tobacco.-If a person feel giddy or Liquors, from the earliest ages, have been known to languid from the use of this luxury, he should lay affect this organ. Probably the story of Prometheus himself down on his back, exposed to a current of stealing fire from heaven anld animating clay, alluded cool air. Should this fail of reviving him, let him to the effects. of wine upon the human'body; and the either swallow twenty or thirty drops of hartshorn, punishment of having his liver devoured by a vulture. mixed with a glass of cold water, or an ounce of may be supposed to refer to the consequences whict vinegar moderately diluted. When tobacco has been men draw upon themselves, by over-indulgence-thls received into the stomach, so as to produce danger- organ becoming thereby highly diseased. 3]Man is not ous symptoms, a powerful emetic must immediately the only animal so aflectea. Swine who are fed or. be given, and vomiting encouraged by copious drinks, the refuse of breweries, have their livers enlarged in the till the poison is brought up.:. After this, vinegar same manner. Their other viscera become also induought to be freely exhibited, and lethargy prevented rated, and their flesh so tough, that unless killed early, by the external and internal use of stimuli. If apo- they are unfit to be eaten. Some fowl-dealers in Lonplectic symintoms appear, blooding must be had re- don are said to mix gin with the food of the birds, by course to. The same rule applies here, with regard which means they are fattened, and their livers swelled to acids, as in the case of opium. They should never to a great size. The French manage to enlarge this be given till the stomach is thoroughly liberated of organ in geese, by piercing it shortly after the creaits contents by previous vomiting. tures are fledged.* Accidents happen oftener with tobacco than is com- Neither malt liquors nor wine have so rapid and monly supposed. Severe languor, retching, and con- decided an effect upon the liver as ardent spirits. Invulsive attacks sometimes ensue from the application deed, it is alleged, although I cannot go this length, of ointment made with this plant, for the cure of the that the wine that is peefectly pture does not affect ring-worm; and Santeuil, the celebrated French poet, the liver; and the fact of our continental neighbours lost his life in consequence of having unknowingly being much less troibled with hepatic complaints drunk a glass of wine, into which had been put some than the wine-drinkers among ourselves. gives some Spanish snuff. countenance to the allegation; for it is well known IV. P'rom Nitrous Oxide. Though the inhalation that to suit the British market, the vinous liquors of this gas is seldom attended with any risk, yet, in very used in this country are sophisticated with brandy. plethoric habits, there might be a determination of In wine that is perfectly pure the alcohol exists in blood to the head, sufficient to produce apoplexy. If such a state of chemical combination, as greatly a person therefore becomes after the experiment, con- to modify its effects upon the system. In the wine vulsed, stupified, and livid in the countenance, and if generally to be met with, much of it exists me-these symptons do not soon wear away, some means chanically or uncombined, and all this portion of must be adopted for their removal. In general, a free spirit acts precisely in the same manner as if sepaexposure to fresh air, and dashing cold water over the rately used.t face, will be quite sufficient; but if the affection is so The liver is a viscus which, in confirmed tqpers, obstinateas to resist this plan, it will then be necessary never escapes; and it withstands disease betterhan to draw some blood from the arm, or, what is still bet- any other vital part, except, perhaps, the spleen. ter, from the jugular vein. When, in delicate subjects, Sometimes, by a slow chronic action, it is enlarged hysteria and other nervous symptoms are produced, to double its usual size, and totally disorganized, and blooding is not necessary; all thait is requisite to be yet the person suffers comparatively little. The disdone being the application of cold water to the brow or ease frequently arises in tropical climates, from temples, and ofhartshorn to the nostrils. In obstinate warmth and other natural causes, but an excess in cases, twenty or thirty drops of the latter in a glass spirituous liquors is more frequently the cause than of water, may be administered with advantage. is generally imagined. The consequences which follow chronic inflammation of the liver, are very extensive. The bile, in general, is not secreted in due quantity or quality, consequently digestion is defective, the bowels, from want of their usual stimulus, become torpid. The CHAPTER X. person gets jaundiced, his skin becoming yellow, dry, and rough, and the white of his eyes discoloured. As the enlargement goes on, the free passage of blood PATHOLOGY OF DRUNKENNESS. in the veins is impeded, and their extremities throw out lymph: this accumulating, forms dropsy, a dis ease with which a great proportion of drunkards art The evil consequences of drinking, both in a physi- ultimately more or less affected. cal and moral point ofview, seem to have been known The jaundice of drunkenness is not an original dis from the most remote antiquity. They are expressly mentioned in Scripture; nor can there be a doubt that *'They have a custom of fostering a liver complaint is the Homeric fiction of the companions of Ulysses being their geese, which encourages its growth to the enormouI turned into swineby the enchanted cup of Circe, plainly veiglitof some pounds; and this diseased viscus is con 7-t l 7 *. a... 1 ) 1 riderea a great delicacy.'-Matthew's Diary of an in implied the bestial degradation into which men bring sidred a great d.ticacy-Matthes's Diarll of as in themselves by coming under the dominion of so detestable habit. Having mentioned these circumstances t Vide Appendix No. I. ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 77 ease, but merely a symptom of the one under consider- In the latter stages of a drunkard's life, though he ation. A very slight cause will often bring it on; it has still the relish for liquor as strongly as ever, he no is, consequently, not always dangerous. Dropsy is, for longer enjoys his former power of withstanding it. the most part, also symptomatic of diseased liver, but This proceeds from general weakness of the system, sometimes, more especially in dram-drinkers, it arises and more particularly of the stomach. This organ gets from general debilit, of the system. In the former debilitated, and soon gives way, while the person is incase, effusion always takes place in the cavity of the toxicated much easier, and often vomits what he has abdomen. In the latter, there is general anasarca swallowed. His appetite likewise fails; and, to rethroughout the body, usually coupled with more or less store it, he has recourse to various bitters, which only topical affection. In every instance, dropsy, whether aggravate the matter, especially as they are in most general or local, is a very dangerous disease. cases taken under the medium of ardent spirits. BitII. State of the Stomach, 4rc.-Like the liver, the ters are often dangerous remedies. When used mostomach is more subject to chronic than acute inflam- derately, and in cases of weak digestion from natural mation. It is also apt to get indurated, from long- causes, they frequently produce the best effec'ts; but a continued, slow action going on within its substance. long continuance of them is invariably injurious. There This disease is extremely insidious, frequently proceed- is a narcotic principle residing in most bitters, which ing great lengths before it is discovered. The organ is physicians have too much overlooked. It destroys the often thickened to half an inch, or even an inch; and sensibility of the stomach, determines to the head, and its different tunics so matted together that they cannot predisposes to apoplexy and palsy. This was the effects be separated. The pyloric orifice becomes, in many of the famous Portland powder,* so celebrated many cases, contracted. The cardiac may suffer the same years ago for the cure of gout; and similar consedisorganization, and so may the cesophagus; but these quences will, in the long run, follow bitters as they are are less common, and, it must be admitted, more commonly administered. Persons addicted to intemperrapidly fatal. When the stomach is much thickened, ance, have an inordinate liking for these substances; it may sometimes be felt like a hard ball below the left let them be ever so nauseous, they are swallowed greedribs. At this poillt there is also a dull uneasy pain, ily, especially if dissolved in spirits. Their fondness which is augmented upon pressure. for purl, herb-ale, and other pernicious morning drinks, Indigestion or spasm may arise from a mere imper- is equally striking. fect action of this organ, without any disease of its There is nothing more characteristic of a tippler structure; but when organic derangement takes place, than an indifference.to tea, and beverages of a like nathey are constant attendants. In the latter case it is ture. When a woman exhibits this quality, we may extremely difficult for any food to remain on the stom- reasonably suspect her of indulging in liquor. If drunkach; it is speedily vomited. What little is retained ards partake of tea, they usually saturate it largely undergoes a painful fermentation, which produces sick- with ardent spirits. The unadulterated fluid is too ness and heartburn. There is, at the same time, much weak a stiinulous for unnatural appetites. obstinacy in the bowels, and the body becomes ema- III. State of the Brain.-Inflammation of this organ ciated. is often a consequence of intemperance. It may fol This disease, though generally produced by dissipa- low immediately after a debauch, or it may arise secondtion, originates sometimes from other causes, and af- arily from an excess of irritation being applied to the fects the soberest people. Whenever the stomach is body during the stage of debility. Even an abstraction neglected, when acidity is allowed to become habitual, of stimulus, as by applying too much cold to the head, or indigestible food too much made use of, the founda- may bring it on ii this latter state. tion may be laid for slow inflammation, terminating in Dr Armstrong, in his lectures, speaks of a chronic in. schirrus and all its bad consequences. flammation of the brain and its membranes, proceeding, Vomiting of bilious matter in the mornings, is a very among other causes, from the free use of strong wines common circumstance among all classes of drunkards. and liquors. According to him, it is much more comBut there is another kind of vomiting, much more dan- mont after, than before, forty years of age, although he gerous, to which they are subject; and that is when in- has seen several instances occurring in young persons. flammation of the villous coat of the stomach takes The brain gets diseased, the diameter of the vessels place. In such a state there is not much acute pain, being diminished, while their coats are thickened and but rather a dull feeling of uneasiness over the abdo- less transparent than usual. In some places they swell men, attended with the throwing up of a dark, crude out and assume a varicose appearance. The organ itmatter, resembling coffee grounds. I have seen two self has no longer the same delicate and elastic texcases in which the vomiting stopped suddenly, in con- ture, becoming either unnaturally hard, or of a morbid sequence of metastasis to the head. In these, the af. softness. Slight effusions in the various cavities are fection soon proved fatal, the persons being seized with apt to take place. Under these cirunmstances, there indistinctness of vision, low delirium, and general want is a strong risk of apoplexy. To this structure is to be of muscular power: the action of the kidneys was also ascribed the mental debasement, the loss of memory, totally suspended for three days before death. On ex- and gradual extinction of the intellectual powers. I amination, post mortem, there was effusion in the ven- believe that the brains of all confirmed drunkards extricles of the brain, besides extensive inflammation hibit more or less of the above appearances. along the inner surface of the upper portion of the ali- IV. State of the Kidneys.-During intoxication the mentary canal. action of the kidneys is always much increased; and Bilious complaints, which were formerly in a great this is a favourable circumstance, as, more than any measure unknown to the common people, are now ex- thing else, it carries off the bad effects of drinking. ceedingly common among them, and proceed in a great The kidney, however, in confirmed drunkards, is apt to measure from the indulgence in ardent spirits to which become permanently diseased, and secrets its accusthat class of society is so much addicted. tomed fluid with unusual activity, not only in the moThere is nothing more indicative of health, than a ments of drunkenness, when such an increase is useful, good appetite for breakfast; but confirmed topers, from but at all periods, even when the persons abstains from the'depraved state of their stomachs, lose all relish for every sort of indulgence. The disease called diabetes this meal. * The Portland Powder consisted of equal parts of the roots of Persons of this description are generally of a costive round birthwort and gentian, of the leaves of germander and habit of body, but a debauch, with those who are con- ground pine, and of the tops of the lesser centamry, all dried. a bit of body, but a debauch, with those who are con- Drs Cullen, Darwin, and Murray of Gottingen, with many other stitutionally sober is, for the most part, followed by eminent physicians, bear testimony to the pernicious effects eo more or less diarrhcea. this compound. 78 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. is thus produced, which consists in a morbid increase plaint than those who are free from snch eruptions. In of the secretion, accompanied with a diseased state of this casc the determination of blood to the surface of the texture of the kidneys. This affection is mostly the body seems to prevent that fluid from being directed fatal. so forcibly to the viscera as it otherwise would be. V. State of the Bladder.-Drunkenness affects this The same fact is sometimes observed in sober persons organ in common with almost every other; hence it is who are troubled with hepatic affetion. While there sublect to paralysis, spasm, induration, &c., and to all is a copious rush upon the face or body, they are combad consequences thence resulting-such as pain, in- paratively well, but no sooner does it go in than they continence, and retention of urine. are annoyed by the liver getting into disorder. VI. State of the Blood and Breath.-The blood of a pro- IX. State of the Skin.-The skin of a drunkard, fessed drunkard, as already stated, differs from that of especially if he be advanced in life, has seldom the apa sober man. It is more dark, and approaches to the pearance of health. It is apt to become either livid or character of venous. The ruddy tint of those carbun- jaundiced in its complexion, and feels rough and scaly. cles which are apt to form upon the face, is no proof There is a disease spoken of by Dr Darwin, under "he to the contrary, as the blood which supplies them crim- title of Psora Ebriorum, which is peculiar to people soned by exposure to the air, on the same principle as of this description.' Elderly people,' says he,'who that by which the blood in the pulmonary arteries re- have been much addicted to spiritous drinks, as beer, ceives purificatien by the process of breathing. The wine, or alcohol, are liable to an eruption all over their blood of a malt-liquor drinker is not merely darker, but bodies; which is attended with very afflicting itching, also more thick and sizy than in other cases, owing, no and which they probably propagate from one part of doubt, to the very nutritious nature of his habitual their bodies to another with their own nails by scratchbeverage. ing themselves.' I have met with several cases of The breath of a drunkard is disgustingly bad, and this disease, which is only one of the many forms of has always a spiritous odour. This is partly owing to morbid action, which the skin is apt to assume in the stomach, which communicates the flavour of its drunkards. customary contents to respiration; and partly, also, X. State of the Hair. —The hair of drunkards is there can be little doubt, to the absorption of the liquor generally dry, slow of growth, and liable to come out; by the blood, through the medium of the lacteals. they are consequently more subject to baldness than VII. State of the Perspiration.-The perspiration of other people. At the same time, it would be exceeda confirmed drunkard is as offensive as his breath, and ingly unjust to suspect any one, whose hair was of this has often a strong spiritous odour. I have met with description, of indulgence in liquors, for we frequently two instances, the one in a Claret, the other in a Port find in the soberest persons that the hairs are arid, few drinker, in which the moisture which exuded from in number, and prone to decay. Baldness with such their bodies had a ruddy complexion, similar to that of persons is merely a local affection, but in drunkards it the wine on which they had committed their debauch. is constitutional, and proceeds from that general defect VIII. State of the Eyes, c~.- The eyes may be of vital energy which pervades their whole system. affected with acute or chronic inflammation. Almost XI. Inflammations.-Drunkards are exceedingly suball drunkards have the latter more or less. Their eyes ject to all kinds of inflammation, both from the direct are red and watery, and have an expression so peculiar, excitement of the liquor, and from their often remainthat the cause can never be mistaken. This, and a ing out in a state of intoxication, exposed to cold and certain want of firmness about the lips, which are loose, damp. Hence inflammatory affections of the lungs, gross, and sensual, betray at once the topor. Drunken- intestine, bladder, kidneys, brain, &c., arising from ness impairs vision. The delicacy of the retina is these sources. Rheumatism is often traced to the negprobably affected; and it is evident, that, from long- lect and exposure of a fit of drunkenness. continued inflammation, the tunica adnata which covers XII. Gout. —Gout is the offspring of gluttony, the cornea must lose its original clearness and trans- drunkenness, or sensuality, or of them all put together. parency. It occurs most frequently with the wine-bibber. A Most drunkards have a constant tenderness and red- very slight cause may bring it on when hereditary preness of the nostrils. This, I conceive, arises from the disposition exists; but in other circumstances constate of the stomach and cesophagus. The same mem- siderable excess will be required before it makes its apDrane which lines them is prolonged upwards to the pearance. It is one of the most afflicting consenose and mouth, and carries thus far its irritability. quences of intemperance, and seems to have been There is no organ which so rapidly betrays the known as such from an early age-mention being made Bacchanalian propensities of its owner as the nose. of it by Hippocrates, Aretaus, and Galen. Among It not only becomes red and fiery, like that of Bar- the Roman ladies gout was very prevalent during the dolph,* but acquires a general increase of size-dis- latter times of the empire; and, at the present day, playing upon its surface various small pimples, either there are few noblemen who have it not to hand down wholly of a deep crimson hue, or tipped with yellow, to their offspring as a portion of their heritage. in consequence of an accumulation of viscid matter XIII. Tremors.-A general tremor is an attendant within them. The rest of the face often presents the upon almost all drunkards. This proceeds from nervsame carbuncled appearance. ous irritability. Even those who are habitually temI have remarked that drunkards who have a foul, perate, have a quivering in their hands next morning, if livid, and pimpled face, are less subject to liver com- they indulge over night in a debauch. While it lasts, *'Falstaff. Thou art our admiral: thou bearest the lanthorn a person cannot hold any thing without shaking, neither in the poop; but'tis in the nose of thee: thou art the knight of can he write steadily. Among those who have long the burning lamp. devoted themselves to the mysteries of Silenus, this'Bardolph. Why, Sir John, my face does you no harm. amounts to a species of palsy, affecting the whole body,' Falstaff. No, I'll be sworn! I make as good use of it s ma- and even the lips, with asort of paralytic trembling. ny a man doth of a death's head or a memento mori. I never and even the lips, with a sort of paralytic trembling. see thy face but I think of hell-fire., —' When thou rann'st up On awaking from sleep, they frequently feel it so Gads-hill in the.night to catch my horse. if I did not think thou strongly, as to seem in the cold fit of an ague, being hadst been an ignis!thus, ort a balel of wildfire, tha everes neither able to walk steadily, nor articulate distinctly. purchase in money. 0!thou art a perpetual triumph —an everlasting bofire light: thou hast saved me a thousand marks in It is singular that the very cause of this distemper links and torches, walking with me in the night betwixt tavern should be employed for its cure. When the confirmed and tavern; but the Sack thou hast drunk me would have drunkard awakes with tremor, he immediately swallows bought nime lights as good cheap, at the dlearest chandler's in Europe. I have maintained that salamander of yours with fire a dram: the most -violent shaking is quieted by this awy time this two and thirty years —heaven reward me for it' means. The opiuml-eater has recourse to the same ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 79 method: to remove the agitation produced by one dose warmth, and the hand is usually covered with a chill of opium, he takes another. This, in both cases, is clammy perspiration. only adding fuel to the fire-the tremors coming on at The occurrence of emaciation is not to be wondered shorter intervals, and larger doses being required for at in persons who are much addicted to ardent spirits, their removal. for alcohol, besides being possessed of no nutritive Drunkards are more subject than any other class of properties, prevents the due chymification of the food, people to apoplexy and palsy. and consequently deteriorates the quality, besides XIV. Palpitation of the Heart.-This is a very dis- diminishing the quantity of the chyle. The principle tressing consequence of drunkenness, producing diffi- of nutrition being thus affected, the person becomes cult breathing, and such a determination to the head emaciated as a natural consequence. as often brings on giddiness. Drunkards are apt to XIX. Corpulency. —Malt liquor and wine drinkers feel it as they step out of bed, and the vertigo is fre- are, for the most part, corpulent, a state of body which quently so great as to make them stumble. There rarely attends the spirit drinker, unless he be, at the are some sober persons who are much annoyed by same time, a bon vivant. Both wines and malt liquors this affection. In them it may arise from spasmodic are more nourishing than spirits. Under their use, the action of the fibres of the heart, nervous irritability, blood becomes, as it were, enriched, and an universal or organic disease, such as aneurism, or angina pec- deposition of fat takes place throughout the system. toris. The omentum and muscles of the belly are, in a parXV. Hysteria.-Female drunkards are very subject ticular manner, loaded with this secretion; whence the to hysterical affections. There is a delicacy of fibre in abdominal protuberance so remarkable in persons who women, and a susceptibility of mind, which makes them indulge themselves in wines and ales. As the abdofeel more acutely than the other sex all external influ- men is the part which becomes most enlarged, so is it ences. Hence their whole system is often violently that which longest retains its enlargement. It seldom affected with hysterics and other varieties of nervous parts with it, indeed, even in the last stages, when the weakness. These affections are not always traced to rest of the body is in the state of emaciation. There their true cause, which is often neither more nor less can be no doubt that the parts which first lose their than dram-drinking. When a woman's nose be- corpulency are the lower extemities. Nothing is more comes crimsoned at the point, her eyes somewhat common than to see a pair of spindle-shanks tottering red, and more watery than before, and her lips under the weight of an enormous corporation, to which full and less firm and intellectual in their expres- they seem attached more like artificial appendages, than sion, we may suspect that something wrong is go- natural members. The next parts which give way are ing on. the shoulders. They fall flat, and lose their former XVI. Epilepsy.-Drunkenness may bring on epi- firmness and rotundity of organization. After this, the lepsy, or falling sickness, and may excite it into action whole body becomes loose, flabby, and enelastic; and in those who have the disease from other causes. Many five years do as much to the constitution as fifteen persons cannot get slightly intoxicated without having would have done under a system of strict teman epileptic or other convulsive attack. These fits perance and sobriety. The worst system that can begenerally arise in the early stages before drunkenness has fall a corpulent man, is the decline of his lower exgot to a height. If they do not occur early the indi-tremities.* So long as they continue firm, and corvidual will probably escape them altogether for the respondent with the rest of the body, it is a proof that time. there is still vigor remaining; but when they gradually get attenuated, while other parts retain their original XVII. Sterility.-This is a state to which confirm- fullness, there can be no sign more sure that his constied drunkards are very subject. The children of such tution is breaking down, and that he will never again persons are, in general, neither numerous nor healthy. enjoy his wonted strength. From the general defect of vital power in the parental XX. Premature OldAge.-Drunkenness has a dreadsysteni they are apt to be puny and emaciated, and.........ful effect in anticipating the effects of age. It causes more than ordinarily liable to inherit all the diseases ofuth from thosefromwhomtheyare sprung. Onthioms account, the constitution of its victims-and clothes them prethe chances of long life are much diminished among the maturely with the gray garniture of years. How often children of such parents. In proof of this, it is only do we see th sunken eye, the shvelled cheek, the necessary to remark, that according to the London bills feeble, tottering step, and hoary head, in men who have of mortality one-half of the children born in the metro- scarcely entered into the autumn of their existence. polls die before attaining their third year; while of the this distressing picture, we have only to To witness this distressing picture, we have only to children of the Society of Friends, a class remarkable walk out early in the mornings, and see those gaunt, for sobriety and regularity of all kinds one-half actually melancholy shadows of mortality, betaking themselves attain the age of forty-seven years. Much of this dif- to the gin-shops, as to the altar of some dreadful ference, doubtless, originates in the superior degree of demon, and quaffing the poisoned cup to his honor, as comfort, and correct general habits of the Quakers, the Carthaginians propitiated the deity of their worship, which incline them to bestow every care in the rearing by flinging their children into the fire which burned of their offspring, and put it in their power to obtain his brazen image. Most of these unhappy perthe means of combating disease; but the mainspring sons are young, or middle-aged men; and though some of this superior comfort and regularity is doubtless drunkards attain a green old age, they are few in numtemperance-a virtue which this class of people possess ber compared with those who sink untimely into the in an eminent degree. grave ere the days of their youth have well passed by.t XVIII. Emaciation.-Emaciation is peculiarly char- * This circumstance has not escaped the observation of acteristic of the spirit drinker. He wears away, be- Shakspeare;-' Chief Justice. Do you set down your name in fore his time, into the' lean and slippered pantaloon' the scroll of youth that are written down old, with all the characters ot age! Have you not a moist eye, a dry hand, and a spoken of by Shakspeare in his'Stages of Human yellow cheek, a white beard, a decreasing lega, an increasing life.' All drunkards, however, if they live long enough, belly? Is not your voice broken, your wind short, your chia become emaciated. The eyes get hollow, the cheeks double, your wit single, and every part of you blasted with an. fall in, and wrinkles soon furrow the countenance with tiquityh; and will you yet call yourself young? Fie, fie, fie, fall in; and wrinkles soon furrow the countenance with Sir John!' the marks of age. The fat is absorbed from every t' Let nobody tell me that there are numbers who, though part, and the rounded plumpness which formerly char- they live most irregularly, attain, in health, and spirits, those reacterized the body soon wears away. The whole form mote periods of life attained by the most sober; for this arge ment being grounded on a case full of uncertainty and hazard, gets lank and debilitated. There is a want of due and which, besides, so seldom occurs as to look more like a mi 80 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS.. Nothing is more common than to see a man of fifty as never get drunk without being insanely outrageous: hoary, emaciated, and wrinkled, as if he stood on the, they attack, without distinction, all who come in their borders of fourscore. way, foam at the mouth, and lose all sense of danger. The effect of intemperance in shortening life is I This fit either goes off in a few hours, or degenerates strikingly exemplified in the contrast afforded by other into a confirmed attack of lunacy. Miore generally, classes of society to the Quakers, a set of people of however, the madness of intoxication is of another whom I must again speak favorably. It appears from character, partaking of the nature of idiotism, into accurate calculation, that in London only one person in which state the mind resolves itself, in consequence of forty attains the age of four-score, while among a long-continued falling off in the intellectual powers. Quakers, whose sobriety is proverbial, and who have Drunkenness, according to the reports of Bethlehem long set themselves against the use of ardent spirits, Hospital, and other similar institutions for the insane, not less than one in ten reaches that age-a most is one of the most common causes of lunacy. In supstriking difference, and one which carries its own in- port of this fact, it may be mentioned that of two hunference along with it. dred and eighty-six lunatics now in the Richmond AsyIt is remarked by an eminent practitioner, that of lum, Dublin, one half owe their madness to drinking; more than a hundred men in a glass manufactory, three and there are few but must -have witnessed the wreck drank nothing but water, and these three appeared to of the most powerful minds by this destructive habit. be of their proper age, while the rest who indulged in It has a more deplorable effect upon posterity than any strong drinks seemed ten or twelve years olders than other practice, for it entails, not only bodily disease they proved to be. This is conclusive.* upon the innocent offspring, but also the more afflicting XXI. Ulcers.- Ulcers often break out on the bodies diseases of the mind.'Madness of late years has been of drunkards. Sometimes they are fiery and irritable, greatly on the increase among the lower classes, and but in general they possess an indolent character. Of can only be referred to the alarming progress of drunkwhatever kind they may be, they are always aggravated enness, which prevails now to a much greater extent in such constitutions. A slight cause gives rise to them; among the poor than ever it did at any former period.* and a cut or bruise which, in health, would have XXIV. Delirium Tremnens.-Both the symptoms and healed in a few days, frequently degenerates into a foul treatment of this affection require to be mentioned, besloughy sore. When drunkards are affected with cause, unlike the diseases already enumerated, it invascrofula, scurvy, or any cutaneous disease whatever, riably originates in the abuse of stimuli, and is cured in they always, ceeteris paribus, suffer more than other a manner peculiar to itself. people. ~ Those who indulge in spirits, especially raw, are XXII. Melancholy.-Though drunkards over their most subject to delirium tremens, although wine, malt cups are the happiest of mankind, yet, in their solitary liquor, opium, and even ether, may give rise to it, if hours, they are the most wretched. Gnawing care, used in immoderate quantities. The sudden cessation heightened perhaps by remorse, preys upon their con- of drinking in a confirmed toper, or a course of violent science. While sober, they are distressed both in body or long protracted intemperance may equally occasion and mind, and fly to the bowl to drown their misery the disease. A man, for instance, of the former dein oblivion. Those, especially, whom hard fate drove scription, breaks his leg, or is seized with some comto this desperate remedy, feel the pangs of low spirits plaint, which compels him to abandon his potations. with seven-fold force. The weapon they employ to This man in consequence of such abstinence is attackdrive away care is turned upon themselves. Every edwith delirium tremens. In another man, it isinduced time it is used, it becomes less capable of scaring the by a long course of tippling, or by a hard drinking-bout fiend of melancholy, and more effectual in wounding of several days' continuance. him that uses it. The disease generally comes on with lassitude, loss All drunkards are apt to become peevish and dis- of appetite, and frequent exacerbations of cold. The contented with the world. They turn enemies to the pulse is weak and quick, and the body covered with a established order of things, and, instead of looking to chilly moisture. The countenance is pale, there are themselves, absurdly blame the government as the ori- usually tremors of the limbs, anxiety, and a total disgin of their misfortunes. relish for the common amusements of life. Then sucXXIII. Madness.-This terrible infliction often pro- ceed retching, vomiting, and much oppression at the ceeds from drunkenness. When there is hereditary pit of the stomach, with sometimes slimy stools. When predisposition, indulgence in liquor is more apt to call the person sleeps, which is but seldom, he frequently it into action than when there is none. The mind and starts in the utmost terror, having his imagination body act reciprocally upon one another; and when the one haunted by frightful dreams. To the first coldness, is injured the other must suffer more or less. In in- glows of heat succeed, and the slightest renewed agitempirance, the structure of the brain is no longer the tation of body or mind, sends out a profuse perspiration. same as in health; and the mind, that immortal part of The tongue is dry and furred. Every object appears man, whose manifestions depend upon this organ, suffers unnatural and hideous. There is a constant dread of a corresponding injury. being haunted by spectres. Black or luminous bodies Intoxication may effect the mind in two ways. A seem to float before the person: he conceives that verperson, after excessive indulgence in liquor, may be mill and all sorts of impure things are crawling upon seized with delirium, and run into a state of violent him, and is constantly endeavouring to pick them off. outrage and madness. In this case the disease comes His ideas are wholly confined to himself and his own suddenly on: the man is fierce and intractable, and re- affairs, of which he entertains the most disordered noquires a strait jacket to keep him in order. Some tions. He imagines that he is away from home, forgets racle than the work of nature, men should not suffer themselves those who are around him, frequently abuses his attendto be thereby persuaded to live irregularly, nature having been ants, and is irritated beyond measure by the slightest too liberal to those who did so without suffering by it; a favour contradiction. Calculations, buildings, and other fan which very few have any right to expect.' — Carnero on Health. *' The workmen in provision stores have large allowances tastic schemes often occupy his mind; and a belief that of whiskey bound to them in their engagements. These are * It has been considered unnecessary to enter into any tetail served out to them daily by their employers, for the purpose of of the nature and treatment of the foregoing diseases, because urging them, by excitement, to extraordinaty exertion. And they may originate from many other causes besides drunkenwhat is the effect of this murderous system? The men are ruin. ness; and when they do arise from this source, they acquire no ed, scarcely one ofthem being capable of work beyond fifty years peculiarity of character. Their treatment is also precisely the of age, though none but the most able-bodied men can enter such same as in ordinary cases-it being always understood, that the employment.' —[Beecher's Sermons on Intemperance, with an bad habit which brought them on must be abandoned before any Introductory Essay by John Edgar. This is an excellent little good can result from medicine. The disease, however, which work, which I cordially recommend to the perusal of the reader. follows is different, and requires particular consideration. ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 81 -every person is confederated to ruin him, is commonly three, or four times in the twenty-four hours, as occaentertained. Towards morning there is often much sion requires, The mind is, at the same time, to be sickness and sometimes vomiting. This state generally soothed in the gentlest manner, the whimsical ideas of lasts from four to ten days, and goes off after a refresh- the patient to be humoured, and his fancies indulged as ing sleep; but sometimes, either from the original vio- far as possible. All kinds of restraint or contradiction lence of the disease, or from improper treatment, it are most hurtful. Some recommend blisters to the proves fatal. head, but these are, in every case, injurious. So soon Such, in nine cases out of ten, is the character of de- as all the symptoms of the disease have disappeared lirium tremens. Sometimes, however, the symptoms some purgative should be administered, but during its vary, and instead of a weak there is a full pulse; in- progress we must rely almost wholly upon stimulants. stead of the face being pallid, it is flushed, and the eyes To cure, by means of stimuli, a complaint which arose fiery; instead of a cold clammy skin, the surface is hot from an over-indulgence in such agents, is apparently and dry. This state only occurs in vigorous plethoric paradoxical; but experience confirms the propriety of subjects. A habitually sober man who has thought- the practice where, a priori, we might expect the conlessly rushed into a debauch, is more likely to be at- trary. tacked in this manner than a professed drunkard. In- In the second variety of the disease, the same objecdeed, I never met with an instance of the latter having tions do not apply to blood-letting as in the first, but this modification of the disease. even there, great caution is necessary, especially if the When the patient perishes from delirium tremens, he disease has gone on for any length of time, if the pulse is generally carried off in convulsions. There is an- is quick and feeble or the tongue foul. At first, gene-. other termination which the disease sometimes assumes: ral blooding will often have an excellent effect, but it may run into madness or confirmed idiotism. In- should we not be called till after this stage it will prove deed, when it continues much beyond the time men- a hazardous experiment. Local blooding will thein tioned, there is danger of the mind becoming perman- sometimes be serviceable where general blooding could ently alienated, not be safely attempted. The patient should be purged Subsultus, low delirium, very cold skin, short dis- well with calomel, have his head shaved, and kept cool turbed sleep, contracted pupil, strabismus, rapid inter- with wet cloths, and sinapisms applied to his feet. mittent pulse, and frequent vomiting, are indications of When the bowels are well evacuated, and no symlp great danger. When the patient is affected with sub- toms of coma exist, opiates must be given as in the sultus from which he recovers in terror, the danger is first variety, but in smaller and less frequently repeated extreme. doses. In treating delirium tremens, particular attention Much yet remains to be known with reguard to the must be paid to the nature of the disease, and consti- pathology of delirium tremens. I believe that physitution of the patient. In the first mentioned, and by cians have committed a dangerous error, in considering far the most frequent variety, blooding, which some these two varieties as modifications of the same disease. physicians foolishly recommend, is most pernicious. I In my opinion they are distinct affections and ought to have- known more than one instance where life was be known under different names.. This cannot be betdestroyed by this practice. As there is generally much ter shown than in the conflicting opinions with regard gastric irritation, as is indicated by the foul tongue, to the real nature of the disease. Dr Clutterbuck, hayblack and viscid evacuations and irritable state of the ing apparently the second variety in his eye, conceives stomach, I commence the treatment by administering that delirium tremens arises from congestion or inflame a. smart dose of calomel. As soon as this has operated, mation of the brain; while Dr Ryan, referring to the I direct tepid-water strongly impregnated with salt, to first, considers it a nervous affection, originating in that be dashed over the body, and the patient immediately species of excitement often accompanying debility. It thereafter to be well dried and put to bed. I then ad- is very evident, that such different conditions require minister laudanum in doses of from forty to sixty drops, different curative means. The genuine delirium treaccording to circumstances, combining with each dose mens is that described under the first variety, and I from six to twelve grains of the carbonate of ammonia: agree with Dr Ryan in the view he takes of the char — this I repeat every now and then till sleep is procured. acter of this singular disease. It may sometimes be necessary to give such doses every GENERAL REMARKS.-Such are the principal distwo hours, or even every hour, for twelve or twenty eases brought on by drunkenness. There are still sesuccessive hours, before the effect is produced. The veral others-which have not been enumerated-nor is black drop in doses proportioned to its strength, which there any affection incident to either the body or mind is more than three times that of laudanum, may be used which the voice does not aggravate into double activias a substitute for the latter; the acetate or muriate of ty, The number of persons who die in consequence morphia in doses of a quarter or half a grain, is also a of complaints so produecd, is much greater than ungood medicine, having less tendency to produce stupor professional people imagine. This fact is well known or headache than laudanum, and therefore preferable in to medical men, who are aware that many of the cases cases where the patient is of a plethoric habit of body. they are called upon to attend, originate in liquor, al — It must be admitted, however, that their effects are less though very often the circumstance is totally unknown to be depended upon than those of laudanum, which, in either to the patient or his friends. This is particularly all common cases will, I believe, be found the best the case with regard to affections of the liver, stomach, remedy. The great object of the treatment is to soothe and other viscera concerned in digestion. Dr Willan, the apprehensions of the patient, and procure him rest. in his reports of the diseases of London, states his conSo soon as a sound sleep takes place there is generally viction that considerably more than one-eight of atop a crisis, and the disease begins to give way; but till the deaths which take place in persons above twenty this occurs it is impossible to arrest its progress and years old, happen prematurely through excess in drinkeffect a cure. A moderate quantity of wine will be ne- ing spirits. Nor are the moral consequences less strikcessary, especially if he has been a confirmed drinker, ing: Mr Poynter, for three years Under-Sheriff of Losnand labours under much weakness. Perhaps the best don and Westminster, made the following declaration way of administering wine is along with the laudanum, before a committee of the House of Commons:-' I the latter being dropped into the wine. Where wine have long been in the habit of hearing criminals refer cannot be had, porter may be advantageously given in all their misery to drinking, so that I now almost cease combination with laudanum. The principal means, in- to ask fhem the cause of their ruin. This evil lies at deed, after the first purging, are opium, wine, ammo- the root of all other evils of this city and elsewhere. nia, and tepid effusions: the latter may be tried two, Nearly all the convicts for murder with whom I have 82 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. conversed, have admitted themselves to have been un- ever, to be remarked, that while the waking thoughts of der the influence of liquor at the time of the act.''By the drunkard are full of sprightly images, those of hiss due observation for nearly twenty years,' says the great sleep are usually tinged with a shade of perplexing Judge Hales,'I have found that if the murders and melancholy. manslaughters, the burglaries and robberies, and riots II. Nightma.re.-Drunkards are more afflicted than and tumults, and adulteries, fornications, rapes, and other people with this disorder, in so far as they other great enormities, they have happened in that time, are equally subject to all the ordinary causes, and were divided into five parts, four of them have been liable to others from which sober people are exemptthe issues and product of excessive drinking-of tavern ed. Intoxication is fertile in producing reveries and ale-house meetings.' According to the Cale- and dreams, those playthings of the fancy and donian Mercury of October 26, 1829, no fewer than it may also give rise to such a distortion of idea, ninety males, and one hundred and thirty females, in a as to call up incubus, and all its frightful accompanistate of intoxication, were brought to the different ments. police watch-houses of Edinburgh, in the course of the III. Sleep-walking. - Somnambulism is another week-being the greatest number for many years. Nor affection to which drunkards are more liable than their is Glasgow, in this respect, a whit better than Edin- neighbours. I apprehend that the slumber is never burgh. On March 1, 1830, of forty-five cases brought profound when this takes place, and that, in drunkenbefore the police magistrate in Glasgow, forty were for ness in particular, it may occur in a state of very inmdrunkenness; and it is correctly ascertained that more perfect sleep. Drunkards, even when consciousness is than nine thousand cases of drunkenness are annually not quite abolished, frequently leave their beds and brought before the police, from this city and suburbs- walk about the room. They know perfectly well what a frightful picture of vice. In the ingenuous Introduc- they are about, and recollect it afterwards. but if questory Essay attached to the Rev Dr Beecher's sermons tioned, either at the moment or at any future period, on Intemperance, the following passage occurs, and I they are totally unable to give any reason for their con think, instead of exaggerating it rather underrates the duct. Sometimes after getting up, they stand a little number of drunkards in the quarter alluded to.' Sup- time and endeavour to account for rising, then go again posing that one-half of the eighteen hundred licensed deliberately to bed. There is often, in the behaviour houses for the sale of spirits which are in that city, send of these individuals, a strange mixture of folly and raforth each a drunken man every day, there are, in Glas- tionalitv. Persons half tipsy have been known to arise gow, nine hundred drunken men, day after day, spread- and go out of doors in their night-dress, being all the. ing around them beggary, and wretchedness, and while sensible of what they were doing, and aware of crime!' Had the author given to each licensed house, its absurdity. The drunken somnambulism has not one drunkard, on an average, I do not think he would always this character. Sometimes the reflecting faculhave overstepped the bounds of truth. As it is, what ties are so absorbed in slumber, that the person has no a picture of demoralization and wretchedness does it consciousness of what he does. From drinking, the not exhibit! affection is always more dangerous than from any other cause, as the muscles have no longer their former strength and are unable to support the person in his hazardous expeditions. If he gets upon a house-top, he does CHAPTER XI. not balance himself properly, from giddiness; he is consequently liable to falls and accidents of every kind. It is SLEEP OF DRUNKARDS. considered, with justice, dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker In a drunken fit, there is less risk than under To enter at large upon the subject of sleep would re- other circumstances, the mind being so far confused by quire a volume. At present I shall only consider it so intoxication, as to be, in some measure, insensible to far as it is modified by drunkenness. the shock. The drunkard seldom knows the delicious and re- IV. Slcep-talking. —For the same reason that drunkfreshingslumbers of the temperate man. He is restless, ards are peculiarly prone to somnambulism are they suband tosses in bed for an hour or two before falling asleep. ject to sleep-talking, which is merely a modification of the Even then, his rest is not comfortable. He awakes other. The imagination, being vehemently excited by frequently during night, and each time his mouth is dry, the drunken dream, embodies itself often in speech, his skin parched, and his head, for the most part, painful which however is, in almost every case, extremely inand throbbing. These symptoms from the irritable coherent, and wants the rationality sometimes possesstate of his constitution, occur even when he goes so- sed by the conversation of sleep-talkers under other cirberly to bed; but if he lie down heated with liquor, he cumstances. feels them with double force. Most persons who fall asleep in a state of intoxication, have much headach, exhaustion and general fever, on awaking. Some constitutions are lulled to rest by liquors, and others ren- CHAPTER XII. dered excessively restless; but the first are no gainers by the difference, as they suffer abundantly afterwards. SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION OF DRUNKARDS. Phlegmatic drunkards drop into slumber more readily than the others: their sleep is, in reality a sort of apo- Whether such a quantity of hydrogen may accumu pletic stupor. late in the bodies of drunkards' as to sustain coinbusI. Dreams.-Dreams maybe readily supposed to be tion, is not easy to determine. This subject is, indeed, common, from the deranged manifestations of the stom- one which has never been satisfactorily investigated; ach and brain which occur in intoxication. They are and, notwithstanding the cases brought forward in supusually of a painful nature, and leave a gloomy impres- port of the doctrine, the general opinion seems to be, sion upon the mind. In general, they are less palpable that the whole is fable, or at least so much involved in to the understanding than those which occur in sober- obscurity as to afford no just grounds for belief. The ness. They come like painful grotesque conceptions principal information on this point is in the Journal de across the imagination; and though this faculty can Physique, in an article by Pierre Aime Lair, a copy of embody nothing into shape, meaning, or consistence, it which was published in the sixth volume of the Philois yet~haunted with melancholy ideas. These visions sophical Transactions, by Mr. Alexander Tilloch. A depend much on the mental constiution of the person, and number of cases are there given: and it is not a little are molified by his habitual tone of thinking. It is, how- singular that the whole of them are those of women in ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 83 advanced life. When we consider that writers like and the upper extremities, were entirely calcined, and Vicq d'Azyr, Le Cat, Maffei, JacobReus, Rolli, Bian- covered with a whitish efflorescence. The people were ehini, and Mason Good, have given their testimony in much surprised that the furniture had sustained so litsupport of such facts, it requires some effort to believe tle injury. The side of the bed which was next the them unfounded in truth. At the same time, in peru- chimney had suffered most; the wood of it was slightly sing the case themselves, it is difficult to divest the burned, but the feather-bed, the clothes, and covering mind of an idea that some misstatement or other exists, were safe. I entered the apartment about two hours either as to their alleged cause or their actual nature- after'-it had been opened, and observed that the walls and that their relaters have been led into an unintention- and every thing in it were blackened; that it was filled al misrepresentation. The most curious fact connected with a very disagreeable vapour; but that nothing exwith this subject is, that the combustion appears sel- cept the body exhibited any very strong traces of fire.' dom to be sufficiently strong to inflame combustible This case first appeared in the Annual Register for substances with which it comes in contact, such as 1773, and is a fair specimen of the cases collected in woollen or cotton, while it destroys the body, which in the Journal de Physique. There is no evidence that other circumstances is hardly combustible at all.* Some- the combustion was spontaneous, as it may have been times the body is consumed by an open flame flicker- occasioned either by lightning, or by contact with the ing over it-at other times there is merely a smothered fire. The only circumstance which militates against heat or fire, without any visible flame. It is farther the latter supposition, is the very trifling degree of alleged that water, instead of allaying, aggravates the burning that was found in the apartment. combustion. This species of burning, indeed, is per- CASE OF GRACE PITT.-' Grace Pitt, the wife of a fectly sui generis, and bears no resemblance to any fishmonger in the Parish of St. Clement, Ipswich, aged species of combustion with which we are acquainted. about sixty, had contracted a habit, which she continuIn most cases it breaks out spontaneously, although it ed for several years, of coming down every night from may be occasioned by a candle, a fire, or a stroke of her bed-room, half-dressed, to smoke a pipe. On the lightning; but in every case it is wholly peculiar to it- night of the 9th of April, 1744, she got up from her bed self M. Fodere remarks, that hydrogen gas is devel- as usual. Her daughter, who slept with her, did not oped in certain cases of disease, even in the living perceive she was absent till next morning when she body; and he seems inclined to join with M. Mere in awoke, soon after which she put on her clothes, and attributing what is called spontaneous combustion, to going down into the kitchen, found her mother stretched the united action of hydrogen and electricity in the first out on the right side, with her head near the grate; the instance, favoured by the accumulation of animal oil, body extended on the hearth, with the legs on the floor, and the impregnation of spiritous liquors. In the pre- which was of deal, having the appearance of a log of sent state of our knowledge, it is needless to hazard any wood, consumed by a fire without apparent flame. On conjectures upon this mysterious subject. The best beholding this spectacle, the girl ran in great haste and way is to give a case or two, and let the reader judge poured over her mother's body some water contained in for himself. two large vessels in order to extinguish the fire; while CASE OF MARY CLUES. —' This woman, aged fifty, the -ietid odour and smoke which exhaled from the was much addicted to intoxication. Her propensity to body, almost suffocated some of the neighbours who this vice had increased after the death of her husband, had hastened to the girl's assistance. The trunk was which happened a year and a half before: for about a in some measure incinerated, and resembled a heap of year, scarcely a day had passed in the course of which coals covered with white ashes. The head, the arms, she did not drink at least half a pint of rum or aniseed the legs, and the thighs, had also participated in the water. Her health gradually declined, and about the burning. This woman, it is said, had drunk a large beginning of February she was attacked by the jaundice quantity of spiritous liquors in consequence of being and confined to her bed. Though she was incapable of overjoyed to hear that one of her daughters had returned much action, and not in a condition to work, she still from Gibraltar. There was no fire in the grate, and continued her old habit of drinking every day, and the candle had burned entirely out in the socket of the smoking a pipe of tobacco. The bed in which she lay candlestick, which was close to her. Besides, there stood parallel to the chimney of the apartment, at the were found near the consumed body, the clothes of a distance from it of about three feet. On Saturday child and a paper screen, which had sustained no injury morning, the 1st of March, she fell on the floor, and her by the fire. The dress of this woman consisted of a extreme weakness having prevented her from getting cotton gown.' up, she remained in that state till some one entered and This case is to be found in the Transactions of the put her to bed. The following night she wished to be Royal Society of London, and is one of the most deleft alone: a woman quitted her at half past eleven, cided, and least equivocal instances of this species of and, according to custom, shut the door and locked it. combustion to be met with. It was mentioned at the She had put on the fire two large pieces of coal, and time in all the journals, and was the subject of much placed a light in a candlestick on a chair at the head of speculation and remark. The reality of its occurrence the bed. At half past five in the morning, smoke was was attested by many witnesses, and three several acseen issuing through the window, and the door being counts of it, by different hands, all nearly coincide. speedily broken open, some flames which were in the CASE OF DON GIO MARIA BERTHOLI.-' Having room were soon extinguished. Between the bed and spent the day in travelling about the country, he arrived the chimney were found the remains of the unfortunate in the evening at the house of his brother-in-law. He Clues; one leg and a thigh were still entire, but there immnediately requested to be shown to his destined remained nothing of the skin, the muscles, and the vis- apartment, where he had a handkerchief placed between cera. The bones of the cranium, the breast, the spine, his shirt and shoulders; and, being left alone, betook *' At aperiod when criminals were condemned to expiate himself to his devotions. A few minutes had scarcely their crimes in the flames, it is well known what a large quantity elapsed when an extraordinary noise was heard in the of combustible materials was required for burning their bodies. A baker's boy named Renaud being several years ago condemn- chamber, and the cries of the unfortunate man were ed to be burned at Caen, two large cart loads of fagots were re- particularly distinguished: the people of the house, quired to consume the body; and at the end of more than ten hastily entering the room, found him extended on the hours some remains were still visible. In this country, the extreme incombustibility of the human body was exemplified in the floor, and surrounded by a light flame, which receded case of' Mrs King, who, having been murdered by a foreigner, (a mesure) as they approached, and finally vanished. was afterwards burned by him; but in the execution of this plan On the following morning, the patient was examined he was engaged for several wee Li, and, after all, did not su -b t ceed in its completion.'-Paris and Fonblanques Meicl by Mr Battlagiia, who found the integuments of the pmrudence. right arm almost entirely detached, and pendant from 84 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. the flesh; from the shoulders to the thighs, the integu- law; and though, by an appeal to a superior and very ments were equally injured; and on the right hand, the I enlightened court, which discovered the cause of the part most injured, mortification had already commenced, combustion, he came off victorious, he suffering so which, notwithstanding immediate scarification, rapidly much from uneasiness of mind, that he was obliged to extended itself. The patient complained of burning pass the remainder of his days in an hospital.' thirst, was horribly convulsed, and was exhausted by The above case has a peculiar importance attached continual vomiting, accompanied by fever and delirium. to it, for it shows that, in consequence of combustion, On the fourth day, after two hours of comatose insen- possibly spontaneous, persons have been accused of sibility, he expired. During the whole period of his murder. Forder6, in his work, alludes to several cases sufferings, it was impossible to trace any symptomatic of this kind. affection. A short time previous to his death, M. Bat- Some chemists have attemptcd to account for this tlaglia observed with astonishment that putrefaction kind of combustion, by the formation of phosphuretted had made so much progress; the body already exhaled hydrogen in the body. This gas, as is well known, inan insufferable odour; worms crawled from it on the flames on exposure to the air; nor can there be a doubt bed, and the nails had become detached from the left that if a sufficient quantity were generated, the body hand. might be easily enough consumed. If such an accu-' The account given by the unhappy patient was, that mulation can be proved ever to take place, there is an he felt a stroke like the blow of a cudgel on the right end to conjecture; and we have before us a cause sufhand, and at the same time he saw a lambent flame at- ficiently potent to account for the burning. Altogether tach itself to his shirt,.which was immediately reduced I am inclined to think, that although most of the reto ashes, his wristbands, at the same time, being utterly lated cases rest on vague report, and are unsupported untouched. The handkerchief which, as before men- by such proofs as would warrant us in placing much tioned, was placed between his shoulders and his shirt, reliance upon them, yet sufficient evidence nevertheless was entire, and free from any traces of burning; his exists, to show that such a phenomenon as spontaneous breeches were equally uninjured, but though not a hair combustion has actually taken place, althongh doubtlessof his head was burned, his coif was totally consumed. the number of cases has been much exaggerated. Dr The weather, on the night of the accident, was calm, Mason Good, justly observes,'There may be some and the air very pure; no empyreumatic or bituminous difficulty in giving credit to so marvellous a diathesis' odour was perceived in the room, which was also free yet, examples of its existence, and of its leading to a from smoke; there was no vestige of fire, except that migratory and fatal cor:lbustion are so numerous, and the lamp which had been full of oil, was found dry, and so well authenticated, and press upon us from so many the wick reduced to a cinder.' different countries and eras, that it would be absurd to This case is from the work of Foder, -and is given withhold our assent.''It can no longer be doubted,' as abridged by Paris and Fonblanque, in their excellent says Dr Gordon Smith,' that persons have retired to treatise on Medical Jurisprudence. It occurred in their chambers in the usual manner, and in place of the 1776, and is one of the best authenticated to be met individual, a few cinders, and perhaps part of his bones, with. I am not aware that the subject of it was a were found.' Inflammable eructations are said to ocdrunkard: if he were not, and if the facts be really cur occasionally in northern latitudes, when the body true, we must conclude that spontaneous combustion has been exposed to intense cold after excessive inmay occur in sober persons as well as in the dissipated. dulgence in spiritous liquors; and the case of a BoheCASE OF MADAME MILLET.-'Having,' says Le mian peasant is narrated, who lost his life in conseCat,'spent several months at Rheims, in the years quence of a column of ignited inflammable air issuing 1724 and 1725, I lodged at the house of Sieur Millet, from his mouth, and baffling extinction. This case, as whose wife got intoxicated every day. The domestic well as others of the same kind, is alleged to have economy of the family was managed by a pretty young arisen from phosphuretted hydrogen, generated by girl, which I must not omit to remark, in order that all some chemical combination of alcohol and animal subthe circumstances which accompanied the fact I am stances in the stomach. What truth there may be in about to relate, may be better understood. This wo- these relations I do not pretend to say. They wear man was found consumed on the 20th of February, unquestionably the aspect of a fiction; and are, not1725, at the distance of a foot and a half from the withstanding, repeated from so many quarters, that it hearth in her kitchen. A part of the head only, with a is nearly as difficult to doubt them altogether as to give portion of the lower extremities, and a few of the ver- them our entire belief. There is one thing, however, tebras, had escaped combustion. A foot and a half of which may be safely denied; and that is the fact of the flooring under the body had been consumed, but a drunkards having been blown up in consequence of kneading trough and a powdering tub, which were very their breath or eructations catching fire from the appli. near the body, sustained no injury. M. Chriteen, a cation of a lighted candle. These tales are principally surgeon, examined the remains of the body, with every of American extraction; and seem elaborated by that judicial formality. Jean Millet, the husband, being in- propensity for the marvellous for which our transatlantic terrogated by the judges who instituted the inquiry into brethren have, of late years, been distinguished. the affair, declared, that about eight in the evening, on Upon the whole, this subject is extremely obscure, the 19th of February, he had retired to rest with his and has never been satisfactorily treated by any writer. wife who not being able to sleep, went into the kitchen, Sufficient evidence appears to me to exist in support of where he thought she was warming herself; that, hav- the occurrence, but any information as to the remote or ing fallen asleep, he was awakened about two o'clock proximate cause of this singular malady, is as yet exby an infectious odour, and that, having run to the ceedingly defective and unsatisfactory. kitchen, he found the remains of his wife in the state In a memoir lately read before the Acaddmie des described in the report of the physicians and surgeons. Sciences, the following are stated to be the chief cirThe judges, having no suspicion of the real cause of cumstances connected with spontaneous combustion: this event prosecuted the affair with the utmost dilli-'1. The greater part of the persons who have fallen gence. It was very unfortunate for Millet that he had victims to it, have made an imz'moderate use of alcoholic a handsome servant-maid, for neither his probity nor liquors. 2. The combustion is almost always general, innocence were able to save him from the suspicion of but sometimnes is only partial. 3. It is much rarer among having got rid of his wife by a concerted plot, and of men than among women, and they are principally old having arranged the rest of the circumstances in such woman. There is but one case of the combustion of a manner as to give it the appearance of an accident. a girl seventeen years of age, anrd that was only partial. He experienced, therefore, the whole severity of the 4. The body and the viscera are invariably burnt, while ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 85 the feet, the hands, and the top of the skull almost al- by way of indictment: and this act remained in operaways escape combustion. 5. Although it requires tion' till the 10th of October, 1828, at which time, by several fagots to burn a common corpse, incineration the act of the 9 Geo. IV. c. 61, ~ 35, the law for the takes place in these spontaneous combustions without suppression of drunkenness was repealed, without proany effect on the most combustible matters in the viding any punishment for offenders in this respect. neighborhood. In an extraordinary instance of a double Previous to this period, the ecclesiastical courts could combustion operating upon two persons in one room, take cognizance of the offence, and punish it accordneither the apartment nor the furniture was burnt. 6. ingly. As the law stands at present, therefore drunkIt has not been at all proved that the presence of an enness, per se, is not punishable, but acts of violence inflamed body is necessary to develope spontaneous committed under its influence are held to be aggravated human combustions. 7. Water, so far from extinguish- rather than otherwise; nor can the person bring it for-. ing the flame, seems to give it more activity; and when ward as an extenuation of any folly or misdemeanor the flame has disappeared, secret combustion goes on. which he may chance to commit. In proof of this, it 8. Spontaneous combustions are more frequent in may be stated, that a bond signed in a fit of intoxicawinter than in summer. 9. General combustions are tion, holds in law, and is perfectly binding, unless it not susceptible of cure, only partial. 10. Those who can be shown that the person who signed it was inebriundergo spontaneous combustions are the prey of a ated by the collusion or contrivance of those to whom very strong internal heat. 11. The combustion bursts the bond was given. A judge or magistrate found out all at once, and consumes the body in a few hours. drunk upon the bench, is liable to removal from his office 12. The parts of the body not attacked are struck with and decisions pronounced by him in that state are held mortification. 13. In persons who have been attacked to be null and void. Such persons cannot, while actwith spontaneous combustion, a putrid degeneracy ing ex officio, claim the benefit of the repeal in the takes place which soon leads to gangrene.' ancient law-their offence being in itself an outrage on In this singular malady medicine is of no avail. The justice, and, therefore, a misdemeanor. Even in combustion is kept up by causes apparently beyond the blasphemy, uttered in a state of ebriety, the defence reach of remedy, and in almost every case, life is ex- goes for nothing, as is manifest from the following case, tinct before the phenomenon is perceived. given in Maclaurin's Arguments and Decisions, p. 731.'Nov. 22, 1694. Patrick Kinninmouth, of that Ilk, was brought to trial for blasphemy and adultery. The indictment alleged, he had affirmed Christ was a basCHAPTER XIII. tard. And that he had said,' If any woman had God on one side, and Christ on the other, he would stow DRUNKENNESS JUDICIALLY CONSIDERED. [cut] the lugs [ears] out of her head in spite of them both.' He pleaded chiefly that he was drunk or mad Not only does the drunkard draw down upon himself when he uttered these expressions, if he did uitter them. many diseases, both of body and mind, but if, in his The court found the libel relevant to infer the pains liintoxication, he commit any crime or misdemeanor, he belled, i. e. death; and found the defence, that the becomes, like other subjects, amenable to the pains of pannel was furious or distracted in his wits relevant: law. In this respect, indeed, he is worse off than but repelled the alledgance of fury or distraction arissober persons, for drunkenness, far from palliating, is ingfrom drunkenness.' held to aggravate every offence: the law does not re- It thus appears that the laws both of Scotland and gard it as any extenuation of crime.' A drunkard,' England agree in considering drunkenness no palliasays Sir Edward Coke,'who is voluntarius demon, tion of crime, but rather the reverse; and it is well hath no privilege thereby; but what hurt or ill soever that it is so, seeing that ebriety could be easily counterhe doeth, his drunkenness doth aggravate it.' In the feited, and made a cloak for the commission of atrocicase of the King versus Maclauchlin, March, 1737, the ous offences. By the laws, drunkenness is looked upon plea of drunkenness, set up in mitigation of punish- as criminal, and this being the case, they could not ment, was not allowed by the court. Sir George Mac- consistently allow one crime to mitigate the penalties kenzie says he never found it sustained, and that in a due to another. case of murder it was repelled-Spott versusDouglass, There is only one case where drunkenness can ever 1667. Sir Matthew Hales, c. 4. is clear against the be alleged in mitigation of punishment-that is, where validity of the defence, and all agree that levis et it has induced' a state of mind perfectly akin to insanity.' modica ebrietas non excusat nec minuit deliclum.' It It is, in fact, one of the common causes of that disease. is a maxim in legal practice, that' those who pre- The partition line between intoxication and insanity, sume to commit crimes when drunk, must submit to may hence become a subject of discussion. punishment when sober.' This state of the law is not' William M'Donough was indicted and tried for the peculiar to modern times. In ancient Greece it was nmurder of his wife, before the supreme court of the decreed by Pittacus, that'he who committed a crime State of Massachusetts, in November, 1817. It apwhen intoxicated, should receive a double punishment,' peared in testimony, that several years previous he had viz. one for the crime itself, and the other for the received a severe injury of the head; that although reebriety which prompted him to commit it. The Athe- lieved of this, yet its effects were such as occasionally nians not only punished offences done in drunkenness to render him insane. At these periods he complained with increased severity, but, by an enactment of Solon, greatly of his head. The use of spiritous liquors irninebriation in a magistrate was made capital. The mediately induced a return of the paroxysms, and in Roman law was in some measure, an exception, and one of them, thus induced he murdered his wife. He admitted ebriety as a plea for any misdeeds committed was with great propriety found guilty. The voluntary under its influence: per vinum delapsis capitalis pexna use of a stimulus which, he was fiully aware, would re-nittituer. Notwithstanding this tenderness to offences disorder his mind, fully placed him under the power of by drunkards, the Romans, at one period, were incon- the law,'* sistent enough to punish the vice itself with death, if' In the state of New-York, we have a statue which found occurring in a woman. By two acts passed in places the property of habitual drunkards under the the reign of James I., drunkenness was punishable care of the chancellor, in the same manner as that of with a fine, and, failing payment, with sitting publicly lunatics. The overseer if the poor in each town may, for six hours in the stocks; 4 Jac. I. c. 5, and 21 Jac. when they discover a person to be an habitual drunkard, I. c. 7. By the first of these acts, Justices of the apply to the chancellor for the exercise of his Fower Peace may proceed against drunkards at the Sessions, * Beck on Medical Jurisprudenrce. 86 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. and jurisdiction. And in certain cases, when the per- nature, and is not to be rapidly changed with impunity, son considers himself aggrieved. it may be investigated more than other natures. Spurzheim* advances the by six freeholders, whether he is actually what he is de- same opinion.' Drunkards,' says he,' cannot leave off scribed to be, and their declaration is, prima facie, evi- their bad habits suddenly, without injuring their health.' dence of th'e fact.'* [This act was passed March 16, Dr Darwin speaks in like terms of the injurious effects 1821.] of too sudden a change; and for these, and other rea-'In Rydgway v. Darwin, Lord Eldon cites a case sons about to be detailed, I am disposed, upon the where a commission of lunacy was supported against a whole, to coincide with them. person, who, when sober, was a very sensible man, but If we consider attentively the system of man, we will being in a constant state of intoxication, he was inca- be satisfied that it accommodates itself to various states pable of managing his property.'t of action. It will perform a healthy action, of which there is only one state, or a diseased action, of which there are a hundred. The former is uniform, and homogeneous. It may be raised or lowered, according to CHAPTER XIV. the state of the circulation, but its nature is ever the same: when that changes-when it assumes new charMETHOD OF, CURING THE HABIT OF DRUNKENNESS. acters-it is no longer the action of health, but of disease. The latter may be multiplied to infinity, and To remove the habit of drunkenness from any one varies with a thousand circumstances; such as the orin whom it has been long established, is a task of pecu- gan which is affected, and the substance which is taken. liar difficulty. We have not only to contend against Now, drunkenness in the long run, is one of those disthe cravings of the body, but against those of the mind; eased actions. The system no longer acts with its and in struggling with both, we are, in reality, carrying original purity: it is operated upon by a fictitious ex on a combat with nature herself. The system no long- citement, and, in the course of time, assumes a state er performs its functions in the usual manner; and to quite foreign to its original constitution-an action restore these functions to their previous tone of action, which, however unhealthy, becomes, ultimately, in is more difficult than it would be to give them an action some measure, natural. When we use opium for a altogether the reverse of nature and of health. long time, we cannot immediately get rid of it, because The first step to be adopted, is the discontinuance of it has given rise to a false action in the system-which all liquors or substances which have the power of in- would suffer a sudden disorder if deprived of its accustoxicating. The only question is-should they be tomed stimulus. To illustrate this, it maybe mentiondropped at once, or by degrees l Dr Trotter, in his Es- ed, that when Abbas the Great published an edict to say on Drunkenness, has entered into a long train of prohibit the use of coquenar, (the juice of boiled popargument, to prove that, in all cases, they ought to be pies,) on account of its dismal effects on the constitugiven up instanter. He contends, that, being in them- tion, a great mortality followed, which was only stopped selves injurious, their sudden discontinuance cannot at last by restoring the use of the prohibited beverage. possibly be attended with harm. But his reasonings on Disease, under such circumstances, triumphs over this point, though ingenious, are not conclusive. A health, and has established so strong a hold upon the dark unwholesome dungeon is a bad thing, but it has body, that it is dislodged with difficulty by its lawful been remarked, that those who have been long confined possessor. When we wish to get rid of opium, or any to such a place, have become sick if suddenly exposed other narcotic to which we are accustomed, we must to the light and pure air, on recovering their liberty: do so by degrees, and let the healthy action gradually had this been done by degrees, no evil effects would expel the diseased one. Place spirits or wine in the have ensued. A removal from an unhealthy climate situation of opium, and the results will be the same. (to which years had habituated a man) to a healthy one, For these reasons, I am inclined to think, that, in many has sometimes been attended with similar consequences. cases at least, it would be improper and dangerous to Even old ulcers cannot always be quickly healed up remove intoxicating liquors all at once from the drunkwith safety. Inebriation becomes, asit were, a second ard. Such a proceeding seems at variance with the * Beck on Medical Jurisprudence. established actions of the human body, and as injudit Collinson on Lunacy. cious as unphilosophical.'The laws against intoxication are enforced with great rig. I do not, however, mean to say, that there are no our in Sweden. Whoever is seen drunk, is fined, for the first offence, three dollars; for the second, six, for the third ant cases in which it would be necessary to drop liquors fourth, a still larger sum, and is also deprived of the right of all at once. When much bodily vigour remains-when voting at elections, and of being appointed a representative. He the morning cravings for the bottle are not irresistible, is, besides, publicly exposed in the parish church on the follow- nor the appetite altogether broken, the person should ing Sunday. If the same individual is found committing the same offence a fifth time, he is shut up in a house of correction, give over his bad habits instantly. This is a state of and condemned to six months' hard labour; and if he is again incipient drunkenness. He has not yet acquired the guilty, of a twelvemonths' punishment of a similar description. constitution of a confirmed sot, and the sooner he If the offence has been committed in public, such as at a fair, an auction, &c., the fine is doubled; and if the offender has made ceases the better. The immediate abandonment of his appearance in a church, the punishment is still more severe. drinking may also, in general, take place when there is Whoever is convicted of having induced another to intoxicate any organic disease, such as enlarged liver, dropsy, or himself, is fined three dollars, which sum is doubled if the per. schirrus stomach. Under these circumstances, the sason is a minor. An ecclesiastic who falls into this offence loses rus stomach. his benefice: if it is a layman who occupies any considerable crifice is much less than at a previous period, as the post, his functions are suspended, and perhaps he is dismissed. frame has, in a great measure, lost its power of withDrunkenness is never admitted as an excuse for any crime; and stading liquors, and the relish for them is also consiwhoever dies when drunk is buried ignominiously, and deprived of the prayers of the church. It is forbidden to give and more derably lessened. But even then, the sudden deprivaexplicitly to sell, any spirituous liquors to students, workmen, tion of the accustomed stimulus has been known to servants, apprentices, and private soldiers. Whoever is observ- produce dangerous exhaustion; and it has heen found ed drunk in the streets, or making a noise in a tavern, is sure to be taken to prison and detained till sober, without, however, be- necessary to give it again, though in more moderate ingon that account exempted from the fines. Halfofthese fines quantities. Those drunkards who have no particular goes to tie informers, (who are generally police omficers,) the disease, unless a tremor and loss of appetite be so de other half to the poor. If the delinquent has no money, he is kept in prison until some one pays for him, or until he has work. nominated, require to be deprived of the bottle by de. ed out his enlargement. Twice a-year these ordinances are grees. Their system would be apt to fall into a state read aloud from the pulpit by the clergy; and every tavern, of torpor if it were suddenly taken away, and various keeper is bound under the penalty of a heavy fine, to have a mental diseases, such as melancholy, madness, and decopy of them hung up in the principal rooms of his house.'- mental diseases, such as melancholy. madness, and deSchubert's Travels in Sweden. View of the Elementary Principles of Education. ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 87 lirium tremens, might even be the result. With such cular fibre becoming, like the hands of a labouring man persons, however, it must be acknowledged that there hardened and blu Ited in its sensibilities. Such are the is very great difficulty in getting their potations dimin- effects brought on by a frequent use of inebriating ished. Few have fortitude to submit to any reduction. agents, but an excessive use in every case gives rise to There is, as the period of the accustomed indulgence weakness. This the system can only escape by a proarrives, an oppression and faintness at the proecordia, per interval being allowed to elapse between our indulwhich human nature can scarcely endure, together with gences. But if dose be heaped on dose, before it has a gnawing desire, infinitely more insatiable than the time to rally from former exhaustion, it becomes more longings of a pregnant woman. and more debilitated; the blood ceases to circulate To prove the intensity of the desire for the bottle, with its wonted force; the secretions get defective, and the difficulty, often insurmountable, of overcoming and the tone of the living fibre daily enfeebled. A deit, I extract the following interesting and highly char- bauch fevers the system, and no man can stand a peracteristic anecdote from a recent publication: —' A petual succession of fevers without injuring himself, and gentleman of very amiable dispositions, and justly popu- at last destroying life. lar, contracted habits of intemperance: his friends ar- Drunkenness, in the long run changes its character. gued, implored, remonstrated; at last he put an end to The sensations of the confirmed tippler, when intoxiall importunity in this manner:-To a friend who was cated, are nothing, in point of pleasure, to those of the addressing him in the following strain —'Dear Sir habitually temperate man, in the same condition. We George, your family are in the utmost distress on ac- drink at first for the serenity which is diffused over the count of this unfortunate habit; they perceive that mind, and not from any positive love we bear to the business is neglected; your moral influence is gone; liquor. But, in the course of time, the influence ol your health is ruined; and, depend upon it, the coats of the latter, in producing gay images, is deadened. It is your stomach will soon give way, and then a change then chiefly a mere animal fondness for drink which will come too late.' The poor victim, deeply convinced actuates us. We like the taste of it, as a child likes of the hopelessness of his case, replied thus: —' My sweetmeats; and the stomach, for a series of years, good friend, your remarks are just; they are, indeed, has been so accumstomed to an unnatural stimulus, too true; but I can no longer resist temptation: if a that it cannot perform its functions properly withbottle of brandy stood at one hand, and the pit of hell out it. In such a case, it may readily be believyawned at the other, and if 1 were convinced I would ed that liquor could not be suddenly removed with be pushed in as sure as I took one glass, I could not safety. refrain. You are very kind. I ought to be grateful for The habit will sometimes be checked by operating so many kind good friends, but you may spare your- skilfully upon the mind. If the person has a feeling selves the trouble of trying to reform me: the thing is heart, much may be done by representing to him the impossible.'' state of misery into which he will plunge himself, his The observation of almost every man must have fur- family, and his friends. Some men by a strong effort, nished him with cases not less striking than the above. have given up liquors at once, in consequence of such I could relate many such which have occurred in my representations. own practice, but shall at present content myself with Some drunkards have attempted to cure themselves one. I was lately consulted by a young gentleman of by the assumption of voluntary oaths. They go before fortune from the north of England. He was aged a magistrate, and swear that, for a certain period, they twenty-six, and was one of the most lamentable in- shall not taste liquors of any kind; and it is but just to stances of the resistless tyranny of this wretched habit state, that these oaths are sometimes strictly enough kept that can possibly be imagined. Every morning, before They are, however, much oftenerbrokenr-the physical breakfast, he drank a bottle of brandy: another he cravings for the bottle prevailing over whatever religious consumed between breakfast and dinner; and a third obligation may have been entered into. Such a proceedshortly before going to bed. Independently of this, he ing is as absurd as it is immoral, and never answer the indulged in wine and whatever liquor came within his purpose of effecting any thing like a radical cure; for, reach. Even during the hours usually appropriated to although the person abides by his solemn engagement, it sleep, the same system was pursued-brandy being is only to resume his old habits more inveterately than placed at the bed side for his use in the night-time. To ever, the moment it expires. this destructive vice he had been addicted since his Many men become drunkards from family broils. sixteenth year and it had gone on increasing from day They find no comfort at home, and gladly seek for it to day, till it had acquired its then alarming and almost out of doors. In such cases, it will be almost imposincredible magnitude. In vain did he try to resist the sible to break the habit. The domestic sympathies insidious poison. With the perfect consciousness that and affections, which oppose a barrier to dissipation, he was rapidly destroying himself, and with every de- and wean away the mind from the bottle, have here no sire to struggle against the insatiable cravings of his room to act. When the mother of a family becomes diseased appetite, he found it utterly impossible to of- addicted to liquor, the case is very afflicting. Home fer the slightest opposition to them. Intolerable sick- instead of being the seat of comfort and order, becomes ness, faintings, and tremors, followed every attempt a species of Pandemonium: the social circle is broken to abandon his Notations; and had they been taken up, and all its happiness destroyed. In this case there suddenly away from him, it cannot be doubted that is no remedy but the removal of the drunkard. A feeldelirium tremens and death would have been the' re- ing of perversity has been known to effect a cure sult., among the fair sex. A man of Philadelphia, who was There are many persons that cannot be called drunk- afflicted with a drunken wife, put a cask of rum in her ards, who, nevertheless, indulge pretty freely in the way, in the charitable hope that she would drink herbottle, though after reasonable intervals. Such persons self to death. She suspected the scheme, and, from, usually possess abundance of health, and resist intoxi- a mere principle of contradiction, abstained in all time cation powerfully. Here the stomach and system in coming, from any sort of indulgence in the bottle. I general lose their irritability, in the same way as in con- may mention another American anecdote of a person firmed topors, but this is more from torpor than from reclaimed from drunkenness, by means not less singular. weakness. The springs of life become less delicate; A man in Maryland, notoriously addicted to this vice, the pivots on which they move get, as it were, clogged, hearing an uproar in his kitchen one evening, felt the and, though existence goes on with vigour, it is not curiosity to step without noise to the door, to know the bounding and elastic vigour of perfect health. This what was the matter, when he beheld his servants injp-oceeds, not from debility but from torpor; the mus- dulging in the most unbounded roar of lughter at a 88 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. couple of his negro boys, who were mimicking himself If the quantity be forcibly diminished against the perin his drunken fits, showing how he reeled and stagger- son's will, no good can be done; he will only seize the ed-how he looked and nodded, and hiccupped and first opportunity to remunerate himself for what he has tumbled. The picture which these children of nature been deprived of, and proceed to greater excesses than drew of him, and which had filled the rest with so much before. If his mind can be brought, by calm reflection, merriment, struck him so forcibly, that he became a to submit to the decrease, much may be accomplished perfectly sober man, to the unspeakable joy of his wife in the way of reformation. Many difficulties undoubtand children. edly attend this gradual process, and no ordinary Man is very much the creature of habit. By drink- strength of mind is required for its completion. It is, ing regularly at certain times, he feels the longing for however, less dangerous than the method recommended liquor at the stated return of those periods-as after by Dr Trotter, and ultimately much more effectual. dinner, or immediately before going to bed, or whatever Even although his plan were free of hazard, its effects the period may be. He even feels it in certain com- are not likely to be lasting. The unnatural action, to panles, or in a particular tavern at which he is in the which long intemperance had given rise, clings to the habit of taking his libations. We have all heard the system with pertinacious adherence. The remembrance story of the man who could never pass an inn on the of liquor, like a delightful vision, still attaches itself to roadside without entering it and taking a glass, and the drunkard's mind; and he longs with insufferable who, when, after a violent effort, he succeeded in get- ardour, to feel once more the ecstacies to which it gave ting beyond the spot, straightway returned to reward birth. This is the consequence of a too rapid separa.himself with a bumper for his resolution. It is a good tion. Had the sympathies of nature been gradually rule for drunkards to break all such habits. Let the operated upon, there would have been less violence, frequenter of drinking clubs, masohic lodges, and other and the longings had a better chance of wearing insenBacchanalian assemblages, leave off attending these sibly away. places; and if he must drink, let him do so at home, Among the great authorities for acting in this manwhere there is every likelihood his potations will be mer, may be mentioned the celebrated Dr Pitcairn. In less liberal. Let him also forswear the society of boon attempting to break the habit in a Highland chieftain, companions, either in his own habitation or in theirs. one of his patients, he exacted a promise that the latter Let him, if he can manage it, remove from the place of would every day drop as much sealing-wax into his his usual residence, and go somewhere else. Let him glass as would receive the impression of his seal. He also take abundance of exercise. court the society of in- did so, and as the wax accumnulated, the capacity of the tellectual and sober persons, and turn his attention to glass diminished, anl, consequently, the quantity of reading, or gardening, or sailing, or whatever other whiskey it was capable of containing. By this plan he amusement he has a fancy for. By following this ad- was cured of his bad habit altogether. In mentioning vice rigidly, he will get rid of that baleful habit which such a whimsical proceeding, I do not mean particularhaunts him like his shadow, and intrudes itself by day ly to recommend it for adoption although I am satisand by night into the sanctuary of his thoughts. And fled that the principle on which its eccentric contriver if he refuses to lay aside the Circean cup, let him re- proceeded was substantially correct. flect that Disease waits upon his steps-that Dropsy, A strong argument against too sudden a change is Palsy, Emaciation, Poverty, and Idiotism, followed by afforded in the case of food. I have remarked that the pale phantom, Death, pursue him like attendant pt solns who are in the daily habit of eating animal spirits, and claim him as their prey. food feel a sense of weakness about the stomach if Sometimes an attack.of disease has the effect of so- they suddenly discontinue it, and live for a few days bering drunkards for the rest of their lives. I knew a entirely upon vegetables. This I have experienced gentleman who had apoplexy in consequence of dissi- personally, in various trials made for the purpose; and pation. He fortunately recovered, but the danger every person in health, and accustomed to good living, which he had escaped made such an impression upon will, I am persuaded, feel the same thing. The his mind, that he never, till his dying day, tasted any stomach, from want of stimulus, loses its tone; the liquor stronger than simple water. Many persons, after craving for animal food is strong and ~cessant; and, if such changes, become remarkably lean; but this is not it be resisted, heart-burn, water-brash, and other forms an unhealthy emaciation. Their mental powers also of indigestion, are sure to ensue. In such a case suffer a very material improvement-the intellect be- ve etables are loathed as intolerably insipid, and even coming more powerful, and the moral feelings more soft bread is looked upon with disrelish and aversion. It is and refined. precisely the same with liquors. Their sudden disIn a small treatise on Naval Discipline, lately pub- continuance, where they have been long made use of, lished, the following whimsical and ingenious mode of is almost sure to produce the same, and even worse punishing drunken seamen is recommended:-' Sepa- consequences to the individual. rate for one month every man who was found drunk, I cannot give any directions with regard to the regifrom the rest of the crew: mark his clothes' drunkard;' men of a reformed drunkard. This will depend upon give him six-water grog, or, if beer, mixed one- different circumstances, such as age, constitution, dishalf water; let them dine when the crew had fin- eases, and manner of living. It may be laid down as ished; employ them in every dirty and disgraceful a general rule, that it ought to be as little heating as work, &c. This had such a salutary effect, that in less possible. A milk or vegetable diet will commnonly be than six months not a drunken man was to be found in preferable to every other. But there are cases in the ship. The same system was introduced by the which food of a richer quality is requisite, as when writer into every ship on board which he subsequently there is much emaciation and debility. Here it may served. When first lieutenant of the Victory and Dio- even be necessary to give a moderate quantity of wine. mede, the beneficial consequences were acknowledged In gout, likewise, too great a change of living is not -the culprits were heard to say that they would rather always salutary, more especially in advanced years, receive six dozen lashes at the gangway, and be done where there is weakness of the digestive organs, with it, than be put into the' drunken mess' (for so it brought on by the disease. In old age, wine is often was named) for a month.' useful to sustain the system, more especially when Those persons who have been for many years in the sinking by the process of natural decay. The older a habit of indulging largely in drink, and to whom it has person is, the greater the inconvenience of abstaining become an elixir vitae indispensable to their happiness, all at once from liquors, and the more slowly ought they cannot be suddenly deprived of it. This should be done to be taken away. I cannot bring myself to believe by slow degrees, and must be the result of conviction. that a man whio for half a century has drunk freely, ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 89 can suddenly discontinue this ancient habit without a according to its effects. Tn one instance, in a patient c:ertain degree of risk; the idea is opposed to all that who lived ten miles from me, severe vomiting was prowe know of the bodily and mental functions. duced, more, I think, from excessive drinking, than the In attempting to cure the habit of drunkenness, use of the remedy. He recovered from it, however, opium may sometimes be used with advantage. By without any bad effects. In some cases, the change giving it in moderate quantities, the liquor which the suddenly produced ill the patient's habits, has brought person is in the habit of taking, may be diminished to on cousiderable lassitude and debility, which were of a considerable extent and he may thus be enabled to but short duration. In a majority of cases, no other leave them off altogether. There is only one risk, and it effect has been perceptible than slight nausea, some is this-that he may become as confirmed a votary of diarrhcea, and a gradual, but very uniform, distaste to opium as he was before of strong liquors. Of two the menstruum.'* evils, however, we should always choose the least: and Having tried tartar emetic in several instances, I can it is certain that however perniciously opium may act bear testimony to its good effects in habitual drunkenupon the system, its moral effects and its power of in- iess. The active ingredient in Chambers's celebrated juring reputation are decidedly less formidable than nostrum for the cure of ebriety, was this medicine. those of the ordinary intoxicating agents. Tartar emetic, however, must always be used with cauThe following anecdote has been communicated to tion, and never except under the eye of a medical man, me by the late Mr Alexander Balfour, (author of as the worst consequences might ensue from the indis" Contemplation,''Weeds and Wildflowers,' and other creet employment of so active an agent. ingenious works,) and exhibts a mode of curing dram- It seems probable that, in plethoric subjects the hadrinking equally novel and effective: bit of drunkenness might be attacked with some sucAbout the middle of last century, in a provincial cess by the application of leeches, cold applications and townr on the east coast of Scotland, where smuggling blisters to the head, accompanied by purgatives and was common, it was the practice for two respectable nauseating doses of tartar emetic. Dr Caldwell of merchants to gratify themselves with a social glass of Lexington, conceives drunkenness to be entirely a disgood Hollands, for which purpose they regularly ad- ease of the brain, especially of the animal compartments journed at a certain hour, to a neighboring gin-shop. of this viscus, and more especially of that portion calIt happened one morning that something prevented one led by phenologists the organ of alimentiveness, on which of them from calling on his neighbor at the usual time. the appetite for food and drink is supposed mainly to Many a wistful and longing look was cast for the friend depend. Should his views be correct, the above treatso unaccountably absent, but lie came not. His dis- ment seems eligible, at least in drunkards of a full habit appointed companion would not go to the drain-shop of body, and in such cases it is certainly worthy of a alone; but he afterwards acknowledged that the want full trial. I refer the reader to Dr Caldwell's Essay, of his accustomed cordial.rendered him uneasy the in which both the above doctrine and the practice whole day. However, this feeling induced him to re- founded upon it are very ably discussed. It is. indeed, fleet on the bad habit he was acquiring, and the conse- one of the ablest papers which has hitherto appeared quences which were likely to follow. He therefore re- upon the subject of drunkenness.t solved to discontinue dram-drinking entirely, but found It very often happens, after a long course of dissipait difficult to put his resolution into practice, until, tion, and that the stomach loses its tone, and rejects after some deliberation, he hit upon the following expe- almost every thing that is swallowed. The remedy, in dient:-Filling a bottle with excellent Hollands, he this case, is opium, which should be given in the solid lodged it in his back-shop, and the first morning taking form in preference to any other. Smqall quantities of his dram, he replaced it with simple water. Next negus are also beneficial; and the carboniate of ammorning he took a second dram, replacing it with water; monia, combined with some aromatic, is frequently atand in this manner he went on, replacing the fluid sub- tended with the best effects. When there is much tracted from the bottle with water, till at last the mix- prostration of strength, wine should always be given. ture became insipid and ultimately nauseous, which had In such a case, the entire removal of the long-accussuch an effect upon his palate, that he was completely tomed stimulus would be attended with the worst efcured of his bad habit, and continued to live in exemp- fects. This must be done gradually. lary soberness till his death, which happened in ex- Enervated drunkards will reap mulch benefit by retreme old age. moving to the country, if their usual residence is iII Dr Kain, an American physician, recommends tartar town. The free air and exercise renovate their enemetic for the cure of habitual drunkenness.' Pos- feebled frames; new scenes are presented to occupy sessing,' he observes,'no positive taste itself, it com- their attention; and, the mind being withdrawn from municates a disgusting quality to those fluids in which former scenes, the chain of past associations is broken it is dissolved. I have often seen persons who, from in two. taking a medicine in the form of antimonial wine, could WVarm and cold bathing will occasionally be useful, never afterwards drink wine. Nothing, therefore, seems according to circumstances. Bitters are not to be rebetter calculated to form our indication of breaking up commended, especially if employed under the medium the association, in the patient's feelings, between his of spirits. When there is much debility, chalybeates disease and the relief to be obtained from stimulating will prove serviceable. A visit to places where there liquors. These liquors, with the addition of a very are mineral springs is of use, not only from the waters, small quantity of emetic tartar, instead of relieving, in- but from the agreeable society to be met with at such crease the sensation of loathing of food, and quickly quarters. The great art of breaking the habit consists produce in the patient an indomitable repugnance to in managing the drunkard with kindness and address. the vehicle of its administration.''Mvy method of pre- This managment must, of course, be modified by the scribing it, has varied accordingly to the habits, age, events which present themselves, and which will vary and constitution of the patient. I give it only in alter- in different cases. ative slightly nauseating doses. A convenient pre- Persons residing in tropical climates ought, more paration of the medicine is eight grains dissolved in than others, to avoid intoxicating liquors. It is too four ounces of boiling water-half an ounce of the much the practice in the West Indies to allay thirst by solution to be put into half-pint, pint, or quart of the copious draughts of rum punch. In the East Indies, patient's favorite liquor, and to be taken daily in divided the natives, with great propriety, principally use riceportions. If severe vomiting and purging ensue, I n o ervmi npg eu * American Journal of the Medical Sciences, No. IV. should direct laudanum to allay the irritation, and * Americansvvirl Journal oftleedicne iences, No. IV. diminish the dose. In every patient it should be varied Scienes, for ly, Auust, and September,'1832. 4iminish the dose. ~~~~~~~Sciences, for JulAgsad etme,13 90 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS.,_ water, (csngee;) while the Europeans residing there, reformation from drunkenness, and improving the whole are in the habit of indulging in Champagne, Madeira, face of society, by introducing a purer morality, and and other rich wines, which may in a great measure banishing the hundred-headed monster, intemperance, account for the mortality prevailing among them in and all its accompanying vices, from the world. By that region. A fearful demoralization, as well as loss of their opponents, they have been ridiculed as visionary life, is occasioned among the British troops in the East and impracticable-as, at best, but temporary in their and West Indies, from the cheapness of spiritous liquors, influence-as erroneous in many of their leading views which enables them to indulge in them to excess. -as tyrannical, unsocial,, and hypocritical. Their'Since the institution of the recorder's and supreme members are represented as enthusiasts and fanatics; courts at Madras,' says Sir Thomas Hislop,'no less and the more active portion of them,-those who lecthan thirty-four British soldiers have forfeited their lives ture on the subject, and go about founding societies,for murder, and most of them were committed in their traduced as fools or impostors. Such are the various intoxicated moments.' Dr Rollo relates, that the 45th views entertained by different minds of temperance sociregiment, while stationed in Grenada, lost within a very eties; but, leaving it to others to argue the point, for few weeks, twenty-six men out of ninety-six; at a or against, according to their inclinations, I shall simply time, too, when the island was remarkably healthy. On state what I think myself of these institutions-how far inquiry, it was found that the common breakfast of the they do good or harm —and under what circumstances men was raw spirits and pork. It is remarked by Des- they ought to be thought favourable of, or the reverse. gennetts, in his medical history of the French army- in Truth generally lies in mediis rebus, and I suspect they Egypt, that,' daily experience demonstrates that almost will not form an exception to the rule. all the soldiers who indulge in intemperate habits, and Temperance societies proceed upon the belief that are attacked with fevers, neverrecover.' In countries ardent spirits are, under all circumstances, injurious to where the solar influence is felt with such force, we people in health, and that, therefore, they ought to be cannot be too temperate. The food should be chiefly altogether abandoned. I am anxious to think favourvegetable, and the drink as unirritating as possible. It ably of any plan which has for its object the eradication may be laid down as an axiom, that in these regions, of drunkenness; and shall therefore simply express my wine and ardent spirits are invariably hurtful; not only belief that those societies have done good, and ought in immediately heating the body, but in exposing it to therefore to be regarded with a favourable eye. That the influence of other diseases.* A great portion of they have succeeded, or ever will succeed, in reclaimthe deaths which occur among Europeans in the tro- ing any considerable number of drunkards, I have great pies, are brought on by excess. Instead of suiting doubts; but that they may have the effect of preventing their regimen to the climate, they persist in the habits many individuals from becoming drunkards, is exceedof their own country, without reflecting that what is ingly probable. If this can be proved,-which I think comparatively harmless in one region, is most destruc- it may without much difficulty,-it follows that they are tive in another. There cannot be a stronger proof of beneficial in their nature, and, consequently, deserving this than the French troops in the West Indies having of encouragement. That they are wrong in supposing almost always suffered less in proportion to their num- ardent spirits invariably hurtful in health, and they are bers than the British, who are unquestionably more also in error in advocating the instant abandonment, in addicted to intemperance.'I aver, from my own all cases, of intoxicating liquors, I have little doubt; knowledge and custom,' observes Dr Mosely,' as from but that they are correct in their great leading views of the custom and observation of others, that those who the pernicious effects of spirits to mankind in general, drink nothing but water, are but little affected by the and that their principles, if carried into effect, will proclimate, and can undergo the greatest fatigue without duce good, is self-evident. Spirits when used in modinconvenience.'t eration, cannot be looked upon as pernicious; nay, in It is a common practice in the west of Scotland to certain cases, even in health, they are beneficial and send persons who are excessively addicted to drunk- necessary. In countries subject to intermittents, it is enness, to rusticate and learn sobriety on the islands of very well known that those who indulge moderately in Loch Lomond. There are, I believe, two islands ap spirits are much less subject to these diseases than the propriated for the purpose, where the convicts meet strictly abstinent.' At Walcheren it was remarked with due attention, and whatever indulgences their that those officers and soldiers who took schnaps, alias friends choose to extend towards them. Whether such drams, in the morning, and smoked, escaped the fever a proceeding is consistent with law, or well adapted to which was so destructive to the Britisb troops; and the answer the end in view, may be reasonably doubted; natives generally insisted upon doing so before going out of its severity, as a punishment, there can be no out in the morning.'* The following anecdote is question. It is indeed impossible to inflict any penalty equally in point.' It took place on the Niagara fronupon drunkards so great as that of absolutely debarring tier of Upper Canada, in the year 1813. A British them from indulging in liquor. regiment, from some accident, was prevented from reIn the next chapter, I shall consider the method of ceiving the usual supply of spirits, and in a very short curing and preventing drunkenness by means of term- time, more than two-thirds of the men were on the sick perance societies. list from ague or dysentey y; while, the very next year, on the same ground, and in almost every respect under the same circumstances, except that the men had their usual allowance of spirits, the sickness was extremely CHAPTER XV. trifling. Every person acquainted with the circumstances believed that the diminution of the sick, during TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. the latter period, was attributable to the men having received the quantity of spirits to which they had been Much has been said and written of late concerning habituated.'t Indeed, I am persuaded that while, in temperance societies. They have been represented by the tropics, stimulating liquors are highly prejudicial, their friends as powerful engines for effecting a total and often occasion, while they never prevent, disease, * In warm countries, the acqueous part of the blood loses it- t are frequntly of great service in accomplishing self greatly by perspiration; it must therefore be supplie(l by a the latter object in damp foggy countries, especially like liquid. Water is there of admirable use; strong liquors when fatigue, poor diet, agues, dygenteries, and othei would coagulate the globules of blood that remain after the diseases of debility are to be contended against. transuding of th acquous luluou.-lu~tesq4.xiv.diseases of debility are to be contended against. It transuding of the acqueous humour.-Montesquieu, Book xiv. Chap. x. * Glasgow Medical Journal, No. XV. t Tropical Diseases. t Ibid. ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 91 has been stated, and, I believe with much truth, that Temperance societies have had one effect: they the dystentery which has prevailed so much of late have lessened the consumption of spiritous liquors to a among the poorer classes in this country, has been in vast extent, and have left that of wines and malt many cases occasioned, and in others aggravated, in liquors undiminished, or rather increased it; for consequence of the want of spirits, which, from the de- although the more strict members avoid even them, pressed state of trade, the working classes are unable their use is not interdicted by the rules of the societies. to procure; aid should this assertion turn out to be By thus diminishing the consumption of spirits, they correct, it follows, that temperance societies, by the have been the means of shutting up many small public rigid abstinence urged upon their members, have con- houses; of keeping numerous tradesmen and laborers tributed to increase the evil. The system is fortified from the tavern; of encouraging such persons to sober against this disorder, as well as various others, by a habits, by recommending coffee instead of strong proper use of stimuli; while excess in the indulgence liquor; and, generally speaking, of promoting industry of these agents exposes it to the attack of every dis- and temperance. ease, and invariably aggravates the danger. Water is If a person were disposed to be very censorious, he unquestionably the natural drink of man, but in the ex- might object to some other things connected with them, isting condition of things, we are no longer in a state such as the inconsistency of allowing their members to of nature, and cases consequently often occur wherein drink wine and malt liquors, while they debar them from we must depart from her original principles. There are ardent spirits. They do this on the ground that on the many persons who find a moderate use of spirits neces- two first a man is much less likely to become a drunksary to the enjoyment of health. In these cases it ard than upon spirits-a fact which may be fairly adwould be idle to abandon them. They ought only to mitted, but which, I believe, arises, in some measure, be given up when their use is not required by the sys- from its requiring more money to get drunk upon tem. That such is the case in a great majority of in- malt liquors and wine than upon spirits. In abandonstances, must be fully admitted; and it is to these that ing the latter, however, and having recourse to the the principles of temperance societies can be applied others, it is proper to state, that the person often with advantage. Considering the matter in this light, practices a delusion upon himself; for in drinking wine, the conclusion we must come to is simply that ardent such at least as it is prcszured in this country, he in respirits sometimes do good, but much oftener mischief. ality consumes a large proportion of pure spirits; and By abandoning them altogether, we escape the mis- malt liquors contain not only the alcoholic principle of chief and lose the good. Such is the inevitable effect, intoxication, but are often sophisticated, as we have supposing temperance societies to come into general already seen, with narcotics. I believe that, though operation. It remains, therefore, with people them- not in the majority of cases, yet. in some, spirits in selves to determine whether they are capable of using moderation are better for the system than malt liquors; spirits only when they are beneficial, and then with a this is especially the case in plethoric and dyspeptic due regard to moderation. If they have so little self- subjects. Independently of this, it is much more difcommand, the sooner they connect themselves with ficult to get rid of the effects of the latter. Much extemperance societies the better. I believe that by a ercise is required for this purpose; and if such is negmoderate indulgence in spirits no man can be injured, lected, and the person is of full habit of body, it would and that many will often be benefited. It is their have been better if he had stuck by his toddy than run abuse which renders them a curse rather than a blessing the risk of getting overloaded with fat, and dropping to mankind; and it is with this abuse alone I find fault, down in a fit of apoplexy. in the same way as I would object to excess in eating, I know several members of the temperance society or any other excess. People, therefore, would do well who are practising upon themselves the delusion in to draw a distinction between the proper use and the question. They shun spirits, but indulge largely in abuse of these stimulants, and regulate themselves porter-to the extent perhaps of a bottle a-day. Noaccordingly. body can deny that by this practice they will suffer a Temperance societies, however, though erroneous great deal more than if they took a tumbler or so of in some of their principles, and injurious as applied to toddy daily; and the consequences are the more perparticular cases, may be of great use towards society nicious, because, while indulging in these libations, in general. Proceeding upon the well-known fact that they imagine themselves to be all the while paragons of ardent spirits are peculiarly apt to be abused, and sobriety. Rather than have permitted such a license habitual drunkenness to ensue, they place these agents to their members, temperance societies should have under the ban of total interdiction, and thus arrest the proscribed malt liquors as they have done spirits. As march of that baneful evil occasioned by their excessive it is, a person may be a member, and follow the rules use. So far, therefore, as the individual members of of the societies, while he is all the time habituating these institutions are concerned, a great good is effect- himself to drunkenness. These facts, with all my reud at the sacrifice of comparatively little. On such spect for temperance societies, and firm belief in their grounds, I fully admit their beneficial effects, and wish utility, I am compelled to mention; and I do so the them all success. At the same time, many sober per- more readily, as there is a large balance of good in sons would not wish to connect themselves with them, their favour, to overweigh whatever bad may be brought for the plain reason-that having never felt any bad against them. effects from the small quantity of ardent spirits they But notwithstanding this, the fact that a habit of are in the habit of taking, but, on" the contrary, some- drunkenness is far more likely to be caused by indulgtimes been the better for it-they would feel averse to ing habitually in spirits than ill any thing else, is undecome under any obligation to abstain from these liquors niable; and temperance societies, in lessening the conaltogether. Such, I confess, are my own feelings on sumrnption of spirits, have accomplished a certain good, in this subject; and in stating them I am fully aware that so far as they have thus been the means of diminishing, the advocates of the societies will answer-that a man's to a considerable extent, the vice of drunkenness, of private inclinations should be sacrificed to public good, reclaiming a few topers, and preventing many from beand that, for the sake of a general example, he should coming so who would certainly have fallen into the abandon that which. though harmless to him, in the snare, had they not been timely checked by their inlimited extent to which he indulges in it, is pernicious fluence and example. to the mass of mankind. This argument is not with- In conclusion, I have to repeat that I do not agree out point, and upon many will tell with good effect, with the societies in considering ardent spirits always though, I believe, people in general wiil either not hurtful in health, or in recommending the instant disacknowledge its force, or, at least, refuse to act up to it. use of liquor in all cases of drunkenness. The reasonr T ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. for entertaining my own opinions on these points are CHAPTER XVI. given in the work, and they are satisfactory to myself, whatever they may be to others. At the same time, I ADVICE TO INVETERATE DRUNKARDS. fully admit that these institutions may often prove eminently useful, and that the cases wherein they may If a man is resolved to continue a drunkard, it may be injurious to those connected with them, are not here be proper to mention in what manner he can do many, compared to the'mass of good which they are so with least risk to himself. One of the principal rules capable of effecting. The man, therefore, who feels to be observed, not only by him, but by habitually sober the appetite for liquor stealing upon him, cannot adopt people, is never to take any inebriating liquor, especiala wiser plan than to connect himself with a body, the ly spirits, upon an empty stomach. There is no habit members of which will keep him in countenance in so- more common or more destructive than this: it not briety, and, by their example, perhaps wean him away only intoxicates readier than when food has been prefrom the bottle, and thus arrest him on the road to viously taken, but it has a much greater tendency to ruin.* impair the functions of the digestive organs. In addiThe follwin account of temperance societies is by Pro tion, drunkards should shun raw spirits, which more I: The following account of temperance societies is by Pro- rapidly bring;n. disease of the stomach, th~an when fessor Edgar, one of their most enthusiastic advocates: rapidly bring on disease of the stomach, than when Temperance societies direct their chief exertions against the used in a diluted state. These fluids are safe in prouse of distilled spirits, conceiving them to be the great bane of portion to the state of their dilution; but to this genethe community; but they do not exclude these to introduce other ral rule there is one exception, viz, punch. This, intoxicating liquors in their room. Their object is to disabuse the public mind respecting, the erroneous opinions and evil practices thoughthe most diluted form in whjch they are used, which produce and perpetuate intemperance; and though they is, I suspect, nearly the very worst-not from the do not hold it to be sinful to drink wine, yet they are cheerfully weakness of the mixture, but from the acid which is willing to accord with the sentiment of inspiration, —' It is good This acid, although for the time neither to drink wine nor any thing whereby thy brother stum- combined with it. This acid, although for the time bleth, or is offended, or is made weak.' Were the wine spoken being, it braces the stomach, and enables it to withof in Scripture alone used in these countries, they do not believe stand a greater portion of liquor than it would otherthat there would be a necessity for temperance societies; yet d g tepo ti o rniou oer even from such wine, so different from that commonly in use, wise do, has ultimately the most pernicious effect upor the Scriptures gave them the fullest liberty to refrain. Avoid- this organ-giving rise to thickening of its coats, hearting, however, all appearance of rigorous abstinence, they leave burn, and all the usual distressing phenomena of di0 ~~~~~~burn, and all the usual distressing phenomena of indito every man's judgment and conscience, how far he shall feel gestion. Other organs, such as the kidneys, also sufhimself warranted in the use of fermented liquors, and only in- gestion. Other organs, such as the kidneys, also sufsist, as their fundamental principle, on an abstinence from distil- fer, and gravelly complaints are apt to be induced. A led spirits, and a discounteniancing of the causes and practices of common belief prevails that punch is more salubrious intemperance. Their regulations respect persons in health than any other sirituous compound, ut this is groundalone; with the prescriptions ofphysicians they do not interfere. than any other spirituous compound, but this is groundEven the moderate use of distilled spirits they consider to be in- ed on erroneous premises. When people sit down to jurious; and they call upon their brethren for their own sake, drink punch they are not so apt-owig to the great to renounce it. The great mass of excellences attributed to in. lngth of time whic "-length of time which elapses ere such a weak fluid protoxicating liquors, they believe to be fictitious; and though all the virtues attributed to them were real, they are cheerfully wil- duces intoxication-to bebetrayed into excess as when ling to sacrifice them, while they have the remotest hope of thus indulging in toddy. In this point of view it may be cutting off even one of the sources of drunkenness, or arresting said to be les nurious but let the same quantity of? ~~~~~~~~~~~~said to be less injurious; but let the same quantity of one friend or neighbor on the road to ruin. They do not look on the use of intoxicating liquors as necessary either to their health spirits be taken in the form of punch, as in that of grog or happiness; they do not love them, and therefore, they do not or toddy, and there can be no doubt that in the long wish to represent an abstinence from them as, on their part, a run the consequences will be far more fatal to the congreat sacrifice; and they trust that they only require to be convinced that the good of their brother demands it, to induce them stitution. If we commit a debauch on punch, the bad to do much more than they have yet d(lone. They know that the consequences cling much longer to the system than only prospect of reformation for the intemperate is immediate those proceeding from a similar debauch upon any othand complete abstinence, and they joyfully contribute their in- er co fluence and example to save him. They know that the present r combination of ardent spirits. In my opinion, the customs and practices of the temperate, are now preparing a safest way of using those liquids is in the shape of generation for occupying the room of those who shall soon sleep r.* Coid of spirits, cold water in drunkards' graves, and it is their earnest wish to exercise gog tddy, or a mixture such a redeeming influence on the public mind, that should the and sugar, ranks next in the scale of safety; then warm present race of drunkards refuse to be saved, there may be none toddy; then cold punch-and raw spirit ismthe most to fill their place when they are no more. The abstinence of pernicious of all. the temperate, they are convinced, will accomplish this, and The malt-liquor drunkard should, as a generla rule, that.bstinence it is their business to promote by those means The malt-liquor drunkard should, as a generla rule, witn which the God of truth has furnished them. They believe prefer porter to strong ale. Herb ale and purl are very that such abstinence, instead of being productive of any injury pernicious, but the lighter varities, such as small beer to the community, will greatly benefit it; and already there are and home-brewed, are not only harmless but even usethe fairest prospects of the great objects of such voluntary abstinence being effected, by associations sustaining one another ful. The person who indulges in malt liquor should in new habits, to make them reputable and common. They re. take much exercise. If he neglects this, and yields to quire nlo oaths, no vows; their bond of obligation is a sense of the indolence apt to be induced by these fluids, he beC, ~~~the indolence apt to be induced by these fluids, he beduty, and subscription to their fundamental principle, is merely an expression of present conviction and determination. The comes fat and stupid, and has a stong tendency to apolaw of temperance societies, like the Gospel is the law of lib. plexy, and other diseases of plethora. erty-the law which binds to do that which is considered a de. As to the wine-bibber, no directions can he given light and a privilege. They look forward to the time as not far distant, when the temperate, having withdrawn their support which will prove very satisfactory. The varities of from the trade in ardent spirits, it shall be deserted by all respec. wines are so numerous, that any complete estimate of table men, and shall gradually die away, as premature death their respective powers is here impossible. It may, thins the ranks of drunkards; they trust that the falsehoods by however, be laid down as a general rule, that those which temperate men have been cheated into the ordinary use however, be laid down as a general rule, that those of ardent spirits, will soon be completely exposed; and that full which are most diuretic, and excite least headach and information and proper feeling being extended, respecting the fever are the safest for the constitution. The light 31ature and effects of intoxicating liquors they will occupy their dry wines, such as Hock, Claret, Burgundy, Bucellas, proper place, and the unnumbered blessings of temperance on dry wines, a Ho, are, gn y uel, individuals and families, and the whole community, will uni. Rhenish, and Hermitage, are, generally speaking, more versally prevail. Not only will temperance societies cut off the salubrious than the stronger varieties, such as Port, resources of drunkenness, but to the reformed drunkard, they Sherry, or Madeira. Claret, in particular, is the will open a refuge from the tyranny of evil customs, and *hey will support and encourage him in his new habits. To promote * The origin of the term' grog' is curious. Before the time these invaluable objects, they call for the united efforus of all of Admiral Vernon, rum was given in its raw state to the seatemperate men; they earnestly solicit the assistance of physi- men; but he ordered it to be diluted, previous to delivery, with clans, of clergymen, of the conductors of publicjournals. of all a certain quantity of water. So iicensed were the tars at this men possessing authority and influence; and by every thing watering of their favourite liquor, that they nicknamed the Adsacred and good, they beseech drunkards to turn from the wick- miral Old grog, in allusion to a grogram coat which he was in edness oftheir ways and live.' habit of wearing: hence the name. ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. 93 most wholesome wine that is known. Tokay,* Fron- liquor, there can be no doubt that they are thereby extignac, Malmsey, Vino Tinto, Montifiascone, Canary, posed to risk, and that they would have had a much and other sweet wines, are apt, in consequence of better chance of doing well, if the same quantity of their imperfect fermentation, to produce acid upon milk had been furnished by natural means. If a woweak stomachs; but in other cases they are delightful man cannot afford the necessary supply without these drinks; and when there is no tendency to acidi~tin indulgences, she should give over the infant to some the system, they may be taken with comparative safety one who can, and drop nursing altogether. The only to a considerable extent. Whenever there is disease, cases in which a moderate portion of malt liquor is attention must be paid to the wines best adapted to justifiable, are when the milk is deficient, and the nurse its particular nature. For instance, in gout, the aces- averse or unable to put another in her place. Here, of cent wines, such as Hock and Claret, must be avoid- two evils, we choose the least, and rather give the ined, and Sherry, or Madeira substituted in their room; fant milk of an inferior quality, than endanger its health, and should even this run into the acetous fermentation, by weaning it prematurely, or stinting it of its accusit must be laid aside, and replaced by weak brandy tomed nourishment. and water. Champagne, except in cases of weak Connected with this subject is the practice of addigestion, is one of the safest wines that can be ministering stimulating liquors to children. This habit drunk. Its intoxicating effects are rapid, but exceed- is so common in some parts of Scotland, that infants of ingly transient, and depend partly upon the carbonic a few days old are often forced to swallow raw whisacid which is evolved from it, and partly upon the key. In like manner, great injury is often inflicted alcohol which is suspended in this gas, being ap- upon children by the frequent administration of laudaplied rapidly and extensively to a large surface of the num, paregoric, Godfrey's cordial, and other preparastomach. tions of opium. The child in a short time becomes Drunkards will do well to follow the maxim of the pallid, emaciated, and fretful, and is subject to convulfacetious Morgan Odoherty, and.never mix their sive attacks, and every variety of disorder in the stomwines. Whatever wine they commence with, to ach and bowels. Vomiting, diarrhcea, and other affecthat let them adhere throughout the evening. If tions of the digestive system ensue, and atrophy, folthere be any case where this rule may be transgressed lowed by death, is too often the consequence. with safety, it is perhaps in favour of Claret, a mod- An experiment made by Dr Hunter upon two of his erate quantity of which is both pleasant and refresk- children, illustrates in a striking manner the pernicious ing after a course of Port or Madeira. Nor is the effects of even a small portion of intoxicating liquors, advice of the same eccentric authority with regard to in persons of that tender age. To one of the children malt liquors, less just or less worthy of observance he gave, every day after dinner, a full glass of Sherry: -the toper being recommended to abstain scrupulous- the child was five years of age, and unaccustomed to ly from such fluids when he means beforehand to'make the use of wine. To the other child, of nearly the an evening of it,' and sit long at the bottle. The mix- same age, and equally unused to wine, he gave an ture, unquestionably, not only disorders the stomach, orange. In the course of a week, a very marked difbut effectually weakens the ability of the person to ference was perceptible in the pulse, urine, and evacui withstand the forthcoming debauch. ations from the bowels of the two children. The pulse of the first child was raised, the urine high coloured, and the evacuations destitute of their usual quantity of bile. In the other child, no change whatever was proCHAPTER XVII. duced. He then reversed the experiment, giving to the first the orange, and to the second the wine, and EFFECTS OF INTOXICATING AGENTS ON NURSES AND the results corresponded: the child who had the orange CHILDREN. continued well, and the system of the other got straightway into disorder, as in the first experiment. Parents Women, especially in a low station, who act as should therefore be careful not to allow their youthful nurses, are strongly addicted to the practice of drinking offspring stimulating liquors of any kind, except in cases porter and ales, for the purpose of augmenttng their of disease, and then only under the guidance of a milk. This very common custom cannot be sufficiently medical attendant. The earlier persons are initiated deprecated. It is often pernicious to both parties, and in the use of liquor, the more completely does it gain may lay the foundation of a multitude of diseases in dominion over them, and the more difficult is the pasthe infant. The milk, which ought to be bland and un- sion for it to be eradicated. Children naturally dislike irritating, acquires certain heating qualities, and be- liquors —apretty convincing proof that in early life they comes deteriorated to a degree of which those unac- are totally uncalled for, and that they only become customed to investigate such matters have little con- agreeable by habit. It is, in general, long before the ception. The child nursed by a drunkard is hardly palate is reconciled to malt liquors; and most young ever healthy. It is, in a particular manner, subject to persons prefer the sweet home-made wines of their derangements of the digestive organs, or convulsive own country, to the richer varieties imported from affections. TWith regard to the latter, Dr Northt re- abroad. This shows that the love of such stimulants marks, that he has seen them almost instantly removed is in a great measure acquired, and also points out the, by the child being transferred to a temperate woman. necessity of guarding youth as much as possible from I have observed the same thing, not only in convulsive the acquisition of so unnatural a taste. cases, but many others. Nor are liquors the only agents whose properties are communicable to the nursling. It is the same with regard to opium, tobacco, CHAFTER XVIII. and other narcotics. Purgatives transmit their powers in a similar manner, so much so, that nothing is more LIQUORS NOT ALWAYS HURTFUL. common than for the.hiid suckled by a woman who has taken physic, to be affected with bowel complaint. Thougn drunkenness is always injurious, it does not No w.oman is qualified to be a nurse, unless strictly,so- follow that a moderate and proper use of those agents ber; and though stout children are sometimes reared which produce it is so. These facts have been so fully by persons who indulge to a considerable extent in illustratated that it is unnecessary to dwell longer upon * Catherine I. of Russia was intemperately addicted to the use them; and I only allude to them at present for the purof Tokay, She died of dropsy, which complaint was probably pose of showing more fully a few circumstances in brought on by such indulgence. t Practical Observ ations on the Coivulsions of Infants. which all kinds of liquors may be indulged in, not only 94 ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. without injury, but with absolute benefit. It is impos- its accuracy. At the same time, I do not mean to desible to deny that in particular situations, as in those of ny that wine or ale might have done the same thing hard-wrought sailors and soldiers, a moderate allowance equally well, and perhaps with less risk of ulterior conis proper. The body, in such cases, would often sink sequences. We had no opportunity of trying their effiunder the accumulation of fatigue and cold, if not re- cacyin these respects, and were compelled, in self-decruited by some artificial excitement. In. both the fence, to have recourse to what, in common cases naval and mercantile service the men are allowed a cer- ought to be shunned, viz. raw spirits. The case was tain quantity of grog, experience having shown the ne- an extreme one, and required an extreme remedy; cessity of this stimulus in such situations. When such, however, as I would advise no one to have reCaptain Bligh and his unfortunate companions were ex- course to without a similar plea of strong necessity to posed to those dreadful privations consequent to their go upon. being set adrift, in an open boat, by the mutineers of It follows, then, that if spirits are often perverted to the Bounty, the few drops of rum which were occa- the worst purposes, and capable of producing the sionally doled out to each individual, proved of such greatest calamities, they are also, on particular occaincalculable service, that, without this providential aid, sions, of unquestionable benefit. In many affections, every one must have perished of absolute cold and ex-~ both they and wine are of more use than any medicine haustion.* The utility of spirits in enabling the frame the phvsician can administer. Wine is indicated in to resist severe cold, I can still farther illustrate by a various diseases of debility. Whenever there is a circumstance personal to myself; and there can be no deficiency of the vital powers, as in the low stages of doubt that the experience of every one must have fur- typhus fever, in gangrene, putrid sore throat, and nished him with similar examples. I was travelling on generally speaking, whenever weakness, unaccompanied the top of the Caledonian coach, during an intensely by acute inflammation, prevails, it is capable of rendercold day, towards the end of November, 1821.. We ing the most important services. Used in moderation, left Inverness at five in the morning, when it was near- it enables the system to resist the attack of malignant ly pitch dark, ants when the thermometer probably and intermittent fevers. It is a promoter of digestion, stood at 18~ of Fahr. I was disappointed of an inside but sometimes produces acidity, in which case, spirits seat, and was obliged to take one on the top, where are preferable. To assist the digestive process in there were nine outside passengers besides myself, weak stomachs, I sometimes prescribe a tumbler of mostly sportsmen returning from their campaigns in the negus or toddy to be taken after dinner, especially if moors. From being obliged to get up so early, and the person be of a studious habit, or otherwise emwithout having taken any refreshment, the cold was ployed in a sedantary occupation. Such individuals truly dreadful, and set fear-noughts, fur-caps, and ho- are often beriefited by the stimulus communicated to siery, alike at defiance. So situated, and whirling the frame by these cordials. In diarrhcoa, dysentery, along at the rate of nearly nine miles an hour, with a cholera, cramps, tremors, and many other diseases, keen east wind blowing upon us from the snow-covered both spirits and wine often tell with admirable effect, hills, I do not exaggerate when I say, that some of us while they are contra-indicated in all inflammatory afat least owed our lives to ardent spirits. The cold was fections. Malt liquors also, when used in moderation, so insufferable, that, on arriving at the first stage, we are often beneficial. Though the drunkenness prowere nearly frozen to death. Our feet were perfectly duced by their excessive use is of the most stupifying benumbed, and our hands, fortified as they were with and disgusting kind, yet, when under temperate warm gloves, little better. Under such circumstances, management, and accompanied by sufficient exercise, we all instinctively called for spirits, and took a glass they are more wholesome than either spirits or wine. each of raw whiskey, and a little bread. The effect They abound in nourishment, and are well adapted tc was perfectly magical: heat diffused itself over the sys- the laboring man, whose food is usually not of a very tem, and we continued comparativeiv warm and com- nutritive character. The only regret is, that they fortable till our arrival at Aviemore Inn, where we are much adulterated by narcotics. This renders them breakfasted. This practice was repeated several times peculiarly improper for persons of a plethoric habit, during the journey, and always with the same good ef- and also prevents them from being employed in other feet. When at any time the cold became excessive, cases where they might be useful. Persons of a spare we had recourse to our dram, which insured us warmth habit of body, are those likely to derive most benefit and comfort for the next twelve or fourteen miles, with- from malt liquors. I often recommend them to delicate out, or. any occasion, producing the slightest feeling youths and young girls who are just shooting into of intoxication. Nor had the spirits which we took maturity, and often with the best effect. Lusty, fullany bad effects either upon the other passengers or bodied, plethoric people, should abstain from them, at myself. On the contrary, we were all, so far as I could least from porter and strong ale, which are much too learn, much the better of it; nor can there be a doubt, fattening and nutritious for persons of this description. that without spirits, or some other stimulating liquor, They are also, generally speaking, injurious to indithe consequences of such severe weather would have gestion and bowel complaints, owing to their tendency been highly prejudicial to most of us. Some persons to produce flatulence. Ini such cases, they yield the deny that spirits possess the property of enabling the palm to wine and spirits. It is to be regretted that body to resist cold, but, in the face of such evidence, I the system of making home-brewed ale, common can never agree with them. That, under these circum- among the English, has made so little progress in stances, they steel the systeti, at least for a consider- Scotland. This excellent beverage is free from those able time, against the effects of a low temperature, I dangerous combinations employed by the brewers, and am perfectly satisfied. Analogy is in favour of this as- to the laboring classes in particular, is a most nourishsertion, and the experience of every man must prove ing and salubrious drink. I fully agree with Sir John *' At day-break,' says Captain Bligh,' I served to every per. Sinclair in thinking, that in no respect is the alteration son a tea-spoonful of rum, our limbs being so much cramped in diet more injurious than in substituting ardent spirits that we could scarcely move them.'' Being unusually wet and cold, I served to the people a tea- for ale-the ancient drink of the common people. spoonfulof rum each, to enable themrto bear with their distres. Though an occasional and moderate allowance of sing situation.' spirits will often benefit a working man, still the ten-'Our situation was miserable: always wet, and suffering ex- dewy of pole to drin these fluids to excess renders treme cold in the night, without the least shelter from the weath.dency of p to drink these fluids to excess renders er. Thelittle rum we had was of the greatest service -when even their moderate indulgence often hazardous; and our nights were particularly distressing, I generally served a hence, in one respect, the superiority possessed over tea-spoonful or two to each person, and it was always joyful malt liquors. tidings when they heard of my intention,'-Fanmily ibrary, them by malt liquors, tol. xxv.'Mutiny of the Bounty. In higher circles, where there is good living and ANATOMY OF DRUJNKENNESS. 95 little work, liquors of any kind are far less neces- to it; for, in the practice of many, moderation, (so eary; and, till a man gets into the decline of life, they called) is intemperance, and perhaps of the most danare, except under such circumstances as have been de- gerous species, in so far as it becomes a daily practice, tailed, absolutely useless. When he attains that age, and insinuates itself under a false character, into the he will be the better of a moderate allowance to re- habits of life. Men thus indulge habitually, day by day, cruit the vigor which approaching years steal from the not perhaps to the extent of producing any evident frame. For young and middle-aged men, in good cir- effect either upon the body or mind at the time, and cumstances and vigorous health, water is the best fancy themselves all the while strictly temperate, while. drink; the food they eat being sufficiently nutritious they are, in reality, undermining their constitution by and stimulating without any assistance from liquor. slow degrees-killing themselves by inches, and shortFor young people, in particular, liquors of all kinds ening their existence several years. The quantity are, under common circumstances, not only unneces- such persons take at a time, is perhaps moderate and sary in health, but exceedingly pernicious, even in beneficial, if only occasionally indulged in, but, being what the world denominate moderate quantities. This habitually taken, it injures the health, and thus amounts is especially the case when the habit is daily in- to actual intemperance.'It is,' says Dr Beecher, and dulged in. One of the first physicians in Ireland has I fully concur with him,' a matter of unwonted cerpublished his conviction on the result of twenty years' tainty, that habitual tippling is worse than periodical observation-' That were ten young men on their twenty- drunkenness. The poor Indian who once a-month first birth day, to begin to drink one glass (equal to two drinks himself dead, all but simple breathing, will outounces) of ardent spirits, or a pint of Port wine or live for years the man who drinks little and often, and Sherry, and were they to drink this supposed moderate is not perhaps suspected of intemperance. The use quantity of strong liquor daily, the lives of eight out of ardent spirits daily as ministering to cheerfulness of the ten would be abridged by twelve or fifteen years.' or bodily vigour, ought to be regarded as intemper-'An American clergyman,' says Professor Edgar,' lately ance. No person probably ever did or ever will receive told me that one of his parishoners was in the habit of ardents spirits into his system'once a-day and fortify sending to his son at school a daily allowance of brandy his constitution against its deleterious effects, or exand water, before the boy was twelve years of age. ercise such discretion and self-government, as that the The consequence was, that his son, before the age of quantity will not be increased, and bodily infirmities seventeen, was a confirmed drunkard, and he is now and mental imbecility be the result; and, in more confined in a public hospital.' The force of this anec- than half the instances, inebriation. Nature may dote must come home to every one. Nothing is more hold out long against this sapping and mining of the common, even in the best society, than the practice of constitution which daily tippling is carrying on, but, administering wine, punch, &c., even to children- first, or last, this foe of life will bring to the assault thus not only injuring their health, and predisposing enemies of its own formation, before whose power them to disease, but laying the foundation for intem- the feeble and the mighty will be alike unable to perance in their maturer years. stand. Having stated thus much, it is not to be inferred that Let those, therefore, who will not abandon liquors, I advocate the banishment of liquors of any kind from use them in moderation, and not habitually or day by society. Though I believe mankind would be benefit- day, unless the health should require it, for cases of ed upon the whole, were stimulants to be utterly pro- this kind we sometimes do meet with, though by no scribed, yet, in the present state of things, and know- means so often as many would believe. Abstractly ing the fruitlessness of any such recommendation, I do considered, liquors are not injurious. It is their abuse not go the length of urging their total disuse. I only that makes them so, in the same manner as the most would wish to inculcate moderation, and that in'its wholesome food becomes pernicious when taken to an proper meaning, and not in the sense too often applied' improper excess. A.PPENDIX. der, then, that such results should stagger the philosopher, who is naturally unwilling to accept any tests of Excerpt from Parts' Pharmacologia. difference from the nervous system, which elude the ordinary resources of analytical chemistry; the conclu-' The characteristic ingredient of all wines is alco- scion was therefore drawn, that alcohol must necessarily hol, and the quantity of this, and the condition or state exist in wine, in a far different condition from that in of combination in which it exists, are the circumstances which we know it in a separate state, or, in other words, that include all the interesting and disputed points of that its elements only could exist in the vinous liquor, medical inquiry. Daily experience convinces us that and that their union was determined, and, consequentthe same quantity of alcohol, applied to the stomach ly, alcohol produced by the action of distillation. That under the form of natural wine, and in a state of mix- it was the product and not the educt of distillation, was ture with water, will produce very different effects upon an opinion which originated with Rouelle, who asserted the body, and to an extent which it is difficult to com- that alcohol was not completely formed until the temprehend: it has for instance, been demonstrated that perature was raised to the point of distillation: more Port, Madeira, and Sherry, contain from one-fourth to lately, the same doctrine was revived and promulgated one-fifth of their bulk of alcohol, so that a person who by Fabbronni, in the memoirs of the Florentine Acadtakes a bottle of either of them, will thus take nearly emy. Gay-Lussac has, however, silenced the clamorhalf a pint of alcohol, or almost a pint of pure brandy! ous partisans of this theory, by separating the alcohol and moreover, that different wines, although of the by distillation at the temperature of 660 Fah., and by same specific gravity, and consequently containing the the aid of a vacuum, it has since been effected at 560; same absolute proportion of spirit, will be found to vary besides, it has been shown that by precipitating the covery considerably in their intoxicating powers; no won- louring matter, and some of the other elements of the 96 APPENDIX TO TEiE ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. wine, by sub-acetate of lead, and then saturating the quantity added, because, at the period of its admixture, clear liquor with sub-carbonate of potass, the alcohol a renewed fermentation is produced by the scientific may be completely separated without any elevation of vintner, which will assimilate and combine a certain portemperature; and this ingenious expedient, Mr Brande tion of the foreign spirit with the wine: this manipulahas been enabled to construct a table, exhibiting the tion, in technical language, is called fretting-in. The proportions of combined alcoholwhich exist in the sev- free alcohol may, according to the experiments of Fabral kinds of wine: no doubt, therefore, can remain broni, be immediately separated by saturating the vinous upon this subject, and the fact of the difference of effect, fluid with sub-carbonate of potass, while the combined produced by the same bulk of alcohol, when presented portion will remain undisturbed: in ascertaining the to the stomach in different states of combination, adds fabrication and salubrity of a wine, this circumstance another striking and instructive illustration to those al- ought always to constitute a leading feature in the inready enumerated in the course of this work, of the quiry; and the tables of Mr Brande would have been extraordinary powers of chemical combination in modi- greatly enhanced in practical value, had the relative fying the activity of substances upon the living system. proportions of uncombined spirit been appreciated in his In the present instance, the alcohol is so combined experiments, since it is to this, and not to the combined with the extractive matter of the wine, that it is proba- alcohol, that the injurious effects of wine are to be atbly incapable of exerting its full specific effects upon tributed.' It is well known,' observes Dr Macculloch. the stomach, before it becomes altered in its properties,' that diseases of the liver are the most common, and or, in other words, digested; and this view of the sub- the most formidable of those produced by the use of ject may be fairly urged in explanation of the reason ardent spirits; it is equally certain that no such disorwhy the intoxicating effects of the same wine are so ders follow the intemperate use of pure wine, however liable to vary, in degree, in the same individual, from long indulged in: to the concealed and unwitting conthe peculiar state of his digestive organs at the time of sumption of spirit, therefore, as contained in the wines his potation. Hitherto we have only spoken of pure commonly drunk in this country, is to be attributed the wine, but it is essential to state, that the stronger wines excessive prevalence of those hepatic affections, which of Spain, Portugal, and Sicily, are rendered remarkable are comparatively little known to our continental neighin this country by the addition of brandy, and must con- bors.' Thus much is certain, that their ordinary wines sequently contain uncombined alcohol, the proportion of contain no alcohol but what is disarmed of its virulence which, however, will not necessarily bear a ratio to the by the prophylactic energies of combination.' TEH END. CONTENTS OF THE ANATOMY OF DRUNKENNESS. ~~~~PAGQ~E ~PAGE CHAPTER I. CHAPTER XI. Presainary Observations,. 68 Sleep of Drunkards,.,. 82 tCHAPTER II. CHAPTER XII. Causes of Drankenness,... 60 Spontaneous Combustion of Drunkards, 82 CHAPTER III. CHAPTER XIII. Phenomena of Drunkenness, 61 X P Drunkenness Judicially Considered,.. 85 CHAPTER IV. s CHAPTER XIV. Drunkenness Modified by Temperament,. 64 Method of Curing the Habit of Drunkenness, 86 CHAPTER V. CHAPTER XV. Drunkenness Modified by the Inebriating Agent, 65 Temperance Societies,.... 90 CHAPTER VI. CHAPTER XVI. Enumeration of the Less Common Intoxicating Agents,. 71 Advice to Inveterate Drunkards,...3:92 CHAPTER VII. CHAPTER XVII. Differences in the Action of Opium and Alcohol, 72 Effects of Intoxicating Agents on Nurses and Children,. 9 CHAPTER VIII. CHAPTER XVIII. Physiology of Drunkenenness,.. 73 Liquors not always Hurtful,.93 CHAPTER IX. APPENDIX.:Method of Curing the fit of Drunkenness,. 74 CHAPTER X. Excerpt from Paris' Pharmacologia,. 96 Pathology of Drunkenness, 76 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE SO C I ETY. T RANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF MADAME DE STAEL-HOLSTEIN TO WHICH IS PREFIXED, A MEMOIR OF THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF THE AUTI:f HARTFORD: PUBLISHED BY SILAS ANDRUS & SON 1 850. CONTENTS OF THE INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE PAGE P&AE Life of the Author,.... 3 CHAP. XII.-Of the principal faults which the Introduction,..8 French complain of in the Literature of the Of the importance of Literature, as it concerns North,.48 and is connected with Virtue,. 9 CHAP. XIII.-Of the Tragedies of Shakspeare, 49 Of Literature, as it concerns and is connected CHAP. XIV.-Of English Pleasantry, 51 with Glory,..10 CHAP. XV.-Of the imagination of the English Of Literature, as it relates to Liberty, 11 in their Poetry and Novels,.53 Of Literature, as it is connected with Happiness, 13 CHAP. XVI.-Of the Philosophy and Eloquence Plan of the Work,.14 of the English,... 55 CHAP. XVII. —Of German Literature,. 57 CHAP. XVIII.-Why are the French possessed PART FIRST. of more grace, taste, and gayety than any other European nation. 61 OF THE STATE OF LITERATURE AMONG THE ANCIENTS CHAP. XIX.-Of Literature in the age of Louis AND THE MODERNS. XIV., 63 CHAP. XX. —From the eighteenth century to the CHAP. I.-The first Era of Greclan Literature, 16 year 1789,. 65 CHAP. II.-Of the Grecian Tragedies,. 20 CHAP. II1.-Of the Greek Comedies,. 23 PART SECOND. CHAP. IV.-Of the Philosophy and Eloquence of the Greeks, 24 OF THE PRESENT STATE OF MENTAL IMPROVEMENT IN CHAP. V.-Of the Latin Literature, while the FRANCE, AND OF ITS FUTURE PROGRESS. Roman Repiblic still existed,.. 27 CHAP. VI. —Of the Latin Literature during the CHAP. I.-General Plan of the Second Part,. 68 reign of Augustus, 31 CHAP. II.-Of Taste and urbanity of Manners; CHAP. VII. Of the Latin Literature, from the and of their influence in Literature and Podeath of Augustus down to the reign of the litics,..69 Antonines,... 33 CHAP. III.-Of Emulation,. 74 CRHAP. VIII. —The invasion of the people of the CHAP. IV.-Of Female Literature,... 77 North; the establishment of the Christian CHAP. V.-Of Works of Imagination, 80 Religion; and the revival of Letters, 35 CHAP. VI. -Of Philosophy,.... 89 CHAP. IX.-Of the general spirit of Modern Lite- CHAP. VII.-Of the style ofAuthors, and that of rature,..40 Magistrates..90 CHAP. X.-Of the Spanish and Italian Literature, 42 CHAP. VIII. —Of Eloquence,.... 92 CHAP. XI.-Of the Literature of the North, 46 CHAP. IX.-Conclusion,.... 96 REFLECTIONS ON SUICIDE,.. 99 A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THE PRIVATE AND LITERARY LIFE OF THE BARONESS DE STAEL-HOLSTEIN. To become the depositary of those literary produc- The account which I am attempting to give of the tions which the conscience of tyrants might be anxious private and literary life of Madame de Stael, will no to destroy, is one of the many eminent prerogatives of doubt appear unsatisfactory to those who are desirous a free people living in the midst of nations that are en- of being acquainted with the most minute biographical slaved; and of all the works which England has details of a lady whose writings have justly conferred snatched from the unjust condemnation of the atrocious on their author a great degree of celebrity. But, indefactions and oppressive violence under which France pendently of the regard due to every living author, I has groaned these twenty years, there are few more have been prevented, by the present restrained comworthy of being preserved than the Essay of the munication with the continent, from obtaining that deBaroness de Stael-Holstein on Literature, considered in gree of information which might throw some interest its relations to social institutions. Having witnessed upon this memoir. the fatal consequences of a revolution, the storms of Wilhelmina Necker is the daughter of James Necker which were experienced alike by social institutions and and Susan Curchod. She was born in 1768, at Paris, literature, Madame de Stael was led to examine the where she was educated under the immediate superinmutual influence of. religion, morals, and laws upon tendance of her parents. She had not reached her literature, and of literature upon religion, morals, and tenth year, when her father, who had acquired a conlaws; and while she traced the progressive advances of siderable fortune as a partner in the house of a banker nations towards literary eminence, she established the named Thellusson, and who, by some political pamdegree of perfection which this twofold influence has phlets, particularly an eulogy of Colbert, which was allowed them to attain. crowned by the French Academy, had acquired an inThe most enlightened philosophers have acknow- cipient celebrity, was appointed to the directorship of ledged perfectibility to be the lot of man in general; the finances of France under Lewis XVI. Her but none before Madame de Stael had ever applied it mother, whose virtues and talents had attracted the adto literature in particular. This prudent restriction miration of Gibbon during his residence in Switzerproved, however, inefficient to guard her against the land, was the daughter of a Protestant clergyman. As unjust attacks of the feeble or wicked minds of those he had endowed her with learning superior to her sex, by whom the tenet is reprobated, because their foolish she had, before her marriage, been a governess in the vanity or their criminal ambition represent the princi- family of Madame de Vermenoux. Unacquainted ples by which they are influenced, and the measures with the Parisian manners, Madame Necker possessed which they order, as absolutely perfect. They stigma- none of the attractions of French women: but modesty, tize as presumptuous those who believe in the possi- candor, and good-nature gave her charms of greater bility of doing better than has been done hitherto; value. A virtuous education and solitary studies, says while they themselves have the arrogance to fancy they Marmontel, adorned her mind with all that instruction are patterns of perfection. Dazzled by their vain errors can add to an excellent natural understanding. She they do not perceive that those who adopt the system had no fault but a too passionate attachment to literaof perfectibility, found it upon the principle that per- ture and an unbounded desire of obtaining a great fection is not within the reach of man, but that it is celebrity for herself and for her husband. A kind the object, to which religion and morality teach him to mother, a faithful friend, a most affectionate wife, she aspire. It is this object, which is never attained, that united all the true characteristics of virtue, a firm redistinguishes mankind from the brute creation, and ligious belief, and a great elevation of soul. Her constitutes individuality. He who is nearest to per- thoughts were pure: meditation, however, did not tend fection may still be excelled by those who follow: but to enlighten her ideas; in amplifying them she thought of all the competitors that press forward in the same to improve them, but in extending them she lost hercareer, none ever stop precisely at the same point. self in hyperboles and metaphysical abstractions. She Were it not for perfectibility all men would be alike. seemed to behold certain objects through a mist which 4 LIFE OF THE AUTHOR magnified them to her eyes; her expressions, on such truly his, and not the friends of his situation, visited his occasions, became so bombastic, that their meaning house as they had done while he was in office. Count would have appeared ridiculous, had it not been known de Creutz introduced to him the Baron de Stael Holto be ingenuous. It might be truly said of her, that stein, who had just been sent to him from Sweden, as religion and justice formed the ground-work of all her one of the Swedish embassy, and the latter was imineduties. Her conduct provedat all times irreproachable diately admitted into Mr Necker's society. Young, and exemplary. and of a handsome figure, he had the good fortune to No sooner was Mir Necker appointed to the manage- please Miss Necker. As the king of Sweden shortly ment of the finances, than Madame Necker made his after recalled Count de Creutz, in order to place him power serve to enlarge the exercise of her active at the head of the department of foreign affairs,:n his benevolence. She contributed to the improvement of own country, he was succeeded by the Baron de Stael the internal regulations of the infirmaries of the me- Holstein. Invested with the dignity of a Swedish amtropolis, and undertook the special superintendence bassador at the court of France, and professing the of an hospital which she founded at her own expense, Protestant religion, Baron de Stael soon became the near Paris, and which became the model of founda- envied husband of a rich heiress who had been courted tions of that kind. All her literary productions attest in vain by many French noblemen. His happiness her care for suffering humanity. Her Essay on too however was not much to be envied; not that Madame precipitate Burials, her Observations on the founding of de Stael was without attractions. Her appearance, Hospitals, and her Thoughts on Divorce, breathe an though not handsome, was agreeable; her deportment ardent zeal for the happiness of her fellow-creatures; noble. She was of the middle size, graceful in her exand her sentiments were always in unison with her pressions and in her manners. She had much vivacity writings. in her eyes, and much acuteness in her countenance, To make her husband known, to gain him the favour which seemed to heighten the pointed wit of her reof literary men, the dispensers of fame, and to cause marks. Her faults consisted in too great a carelesshim to be handsomely spoken of in the highest circles, ness in her dress and an extreme desire of shining in Madame Necker had formed a literary society, which conversation. She spoke little, but in aphorisms, and used to meet once a week at her house. Along with with the evident intention to produce effect. The unThomas, Buffon, Diderot, Marmontel, Saint Lambert, happy anxiety to become renowned, which she derived and other celebrated writers, who attended these meet- from her father, and the pedantic tone which she could ings, they were honoured by the most distinguished re- not help contracting in the society of her mother and sidents of foreign courts, especially the Marquis de Mr Thomas, must no doubt have been disagreeable to Caraccioli, ambassador of Naples, Lord Stormont, the a man, simple and unaffected in his words and actions. ambassador of Great Britain, and'Count de Creutz, the But it was chiefly the great superiority of her talents Swedish ambassador, whose mild philosophy, modest over those of the Baron, that soon destroyed that happy virtue, and: eminent talents, received every where an harmony which reigns among couples more equally alequal share of esteem and admiration. lied in this respect., The distance was indeed imBut, of all the academicians with whom Madame mense. The Baron had even few of those light graces Necker had associated, in order to strengthen her mind by means of which French vivacity frequently conceals by the: aid of their genius, she placed none upon a level a want of intellectual resources. with Thomas and Buffon. The former she used to call It was, however, in consequence of this marriage, the man of the age, and the latter the man of all ages. that Mr Necker settled again in France, at a time when The veneration and attachment which she felt for these the prodigality of his successor in the financial departtwo persons, bordered on adoration; she considered ment must necessarily have increased his reputation. their authority as part of her creed. It was particu- But as Mr de Calonne had attacked the veracity of his larly in the school of Thomas, a school so fertile in tin- Account presented to the king, in the speech he prosel wit and confused metaphysics, that she became a nounced at the opening of the meeting of the Notables slave to that affected style which, as it is continually in 1787, Mr Necker sent a justification of this account aiming at elevation and grandeur, conceals her amiable to Louis XVI; and although the monarch expressly mind, and fatigues, without interesting the reader. desired that it might not become known, his love of Under the guidance of such a mother, Miss Necker importance and glory could not keep him from publishacquired with ease that immense variety of knowledge ing it. As soon as the king was informed that his anwhich astonishes in her writings, and that brilliant su- swer to the speech of Mr de Calonne was printed, he periority of style which renders their study so delight- banished him to the distance of forty leagues from Paful, notwithstanding a degree of affectation which they ris. The Baroness de Stael, who in the month of Auoccasionally betray, though much less frequently than gust of the same year had given birth to a daughter, the works of Madame Necker. Charmed with their accompanied her father in his exile. It lasted only four early display, her parents neglected nothing to culti- months. On the 25th of August, 1788, the king revate her talents. They were soon enabled to devote called Mr Necker into administration immediately after.all their time to this object in a rural retreat. he had published his work On the Importance of ReliMiss Necker was scarcely thirteen years old, when gious Opinions. her father, impelled by an eager desire of praise, which The period of this second ministerial reign, which on tormented him during the whole course of his life, pub- the 11th of July, 1789, ended in a second exile, is the lished the Account rendered to the king of his adminis- time when Madame de Stael entered the thorny path tration, and availing himself of the unexampled success of literature. She began with some Letters on the with which it was received throughout France, de- Writings and Character of J. J. Rousseau, which met manded to be admitted into the privy council. It was with deserved applause. The third edition is enrichin vain that his religion was urged as an obstacle. He ed with a letter of Madame de Vassy, and an answer flattered himself that the fear of losing him would over- to it by Madame de Stael. But prior to this time, and come this religious scruple: he persisted, and threat- ere she had reached the age of twenty, she had tried ened to resign; but he became the victim of his pre- her talents -in writing three short novels, which she sumption. His resignation was accepted on the 25th printed at Lausanne in 1795, with an Essay on Ficof May, 1781. He retired to Switzerland, where he tions and a poetic Epistle to Misfortune, composed bought the baronial manor of Copet, and he there pub- during the tyranny of Robespierre and his infamous lished his work on the administration of the finances. coadjutors;,the whole under the title of a Collection of At the end of a few years, Mr Necker re-appeared detached Pieces, the second edition of which was puboccasionally at Paris those of his friends who were lished, with corrections and additions, at Leipzic in LIFE OF THE AUTHOR. 5 1796. In one of these short novels,. called Mirza, their agitation, they had silently quitted France, their Madame de Stael appears to have anticipated the plan home, and their friends. MrNecker set off from Bruswhich the African society of London is now endeav- sels accompanied only by the Baron de Stael, to go to ouring to realize. She makes a traveller in Senegal Basle through Germany. Madame Necker and the relate that' the governor had induced a negro family to Baroness de Stael followed with a little less precipitasettle at the distance of a few leagues, in order to estab- tion. They were overtaken at Frankfort by the bearer lish a plantation similar to those of St Domingo; hop- of letters from the king and the national assembly, ing, no doubt, that such an example would excite the which recalled Mr Necker for a third time into adminAfricans to raise sugar, and that a free trade with this istration. As soon as Madame de Stael and her mocommodity in their own country would leave no induce- ther had joined him at Basle, he resolved to return to ment to Europeans to snatch them from their native France. This journey from Basle, to Paris was the soil, in order to submit them to the dreadful yoke of most interesting moment of Madame de Stael's life. slavery.' Her father was as it were borne in triumph, and she In her Essay on Fictions, Madame de Stael has en- anticipated for the future none but happy days. deavored to prove th-'at-ioels, which should give a But these deceitful hopes were very soon banished. sagacious, eloquent, profound, and moral picture of During the fifteen months of his being in office for the real life, would be the most useful of all kinds of tic- last time, Mr Necker was constantly involved in a tions. Tlhe imitation of truth constantly produces fruitless struggle in behalf of the executive power, and greater effects than are produced by supernatural as he saw no prospect of being useful, he retired to his means. Those protracted allegories, wherein, as in estate at Copet towards the end of 1790. Madame de Spenser's Fairy Queen, each canto relates the battle Stael shortly after followed him thither. She returned of a knight representing a virtue against a vice his ad- to Paris in the first months of 1791, and took perhaps a versary, can never be interesting, whatever be the tal- more lively concern in the political events of the day ent by which they are embellished. The reader ar- than became the wife of a foreign ambassador. It has rives at the end, so fatigued with the romantic part of even been asserted, that, movea by the misfortunes the allegory, that he has no strength left to understand with which Louis XVI. was threatened, she formed the its philosophical meaning. As for these allegories project of saving him by affording him a secret retreat which aim at mingling jocular wit with moral ideas, at an estate of the Duke of Orleans in Normandy, which Madame de Stael thinks that they attain their philoso- was then to be disposed of: but the king preferred to phical object but very imperfectly. When the allegory entrust himself to Count de Fersen, and took the road is really entertaining, most men remember its fable to Montmidi. She has also been reproached for her better than its result. Gulliver has afforded more intimacy with M. de Talleyrand Perigord, at that time amusement as a tale, than instruction as a moral com- bishop of Autun, Viscount Noailles, the Lameths, Barposition. nave, Count Louis de Narbonne, Vergniaud, and other Madame de Stael disapproves of novels founded up- distinguished members of the constituent and first legon hioical faac.. She pleads' Tdfri'tatuial fictions, islative assemblies; and it has been said that she accom/nd wishes to see the gift of exciting emotions applied panied Count Narbonne on his circuit to inspect the to the passions of all ages, to the duties of all situa- fortresses of the frontiers, immediately after his having tions. Among the works of this kind, Tom Jones is been called to the head of the war department towards that of which the moral is the most general. Love, in the end of 1791. Be this as it may, it is certain that this novel, is introduced merely to heighten the philo- she continued at Paris with her husband until the reign sophical result. To demonstrate the uncertainty of of terror. It was only in 1793 that she fled with him judgments built upon appearances, to show the superi- to Copet, and thence went over to England, where she ority of natural and, as it were, involuntary qualities resided several months. They did not return to France over reputations grounded on the mere respect of out- till the year 1795, after the Duke of Sudermannia, reward decorum, is the true object of Tom Jones. Good- gent of the kingdom of Sweden, during the minority of wn's Caleb Williams, with all its tedious details and the unfortunate Gustavus Adolphus IV., had appointed negligences, appears likewise to answer Madame de Baron de Stael his ambassador with the French repubStael's ideas of the inexhaustible kind of novels to lic. It was also nearly about this time that Madame de which she alludes. Love has no share in the ground- Stael published her Thoughts on Peace, addressed to work of his fiction. The unbridled passion of the hero Mr Pitt and the French People, which the illustrious of the novel for a distinguished reputation, and the in- Fox quoted in the House of Commons in support of his satiable curiosity of Caleb that leads him to ascertain arguments for peace, and to which Sir Francis d'Iverwhether Falkland deserves the esteem which he enjoys, nois replied by his Thoughts on War. are the only supports of the interest of the narrative. It is possible that, born with a lively disposition, and These correct views show how intimately Madame anxiously wishing for the return of order and tranquilde Stael was acquainted with English Literature even lity, Madame de Stael: frequently armed herself with all in her younger years. Bit he was'not iongheriiiit- her eloquence to animate her friends, in those disasted to enjoy her first literary successes in peace. The trous times, to put an end to troubles that were continucrisis of the revolution, which embittered her life, was ally renewed. In 1795, Legendre, that Parisian fast approaching. butcher, who was the friend of Marat, Danton, and On the 11th of July, 1789, her father was going to Robespierre, declaimed more than once against her as sit down to table with several guests, when the Secre- being at the head of the intrigues that had a tendency tary of state for the naval department came to him, took to moderation. She says somewhere in her work on him aside, and delivered to him a letter from the king, literature:' If, to heighten her misfortune, it were in which commanded him to resign and to quit the French the midst of political dissentions that a female should territory in silence. Madame Necker, whose health acquire a remarkable celebrity, her influence would be was rather precarious, did not take with her any domes- supposed unbounded, though null in reality; she would tic, nor any change of apparel, that their departure be accused of the deeds of her friends; she would be might not be suspected. They made use of the car- hated for whatever is dear to her, and the defenceless iiage in which they generally took a ride in the even- objects would be attacked in preference to those who mg and hastened onwards night and day to Brussels. might yet be feared:' and it is her own experience When the Baroness de Stael joined them three days which suggested these expressions. Madamede Stael afterwards with her husband, they were still wearing has felt what she complains of; during the internal disthe same dress in which they were habited, when, after sentions of France she has been crushed by all parties, the grand dinner, during which no one had suspected astonished to find her an interested bystander during the 6 LIFE OF THE AUTHOR. conflict of their passions. Her having said, along with French generals showed him the most respectful regard, the Abbe Sieyes, that the constitution of 1795'was not and the Directory afterwards erased his name from the yet the good one,' has been imputed to her as a crime. list. While calumny was embittering her days, her feeling This moderation induced Madame de Stael to reheart was doomed to a more severe misfortune. Mr pair once more to her husband in France. But at the Necker having informed her that there was no hope of end of a few months she grew tired of the various perhis wife's recovery from a long illness, which actually secutions to which she was unceasingly exposed, and terminated her life shortly after, Madame de Stael ea- hastened.back to her father, upbraiding herself for gerly hastened to her dying mother. She fond her ex- being unable to live like him in solitude, and to exist tremely weak. Madame Necker was fond of hearing without that competition of thoughts and glory which music during her illness: every evening she sent for doubles our existence and our powers. some musicians, in order that the impression she re- In 1798, the declining health of Baron de Stael agaii ceived from harmonious sounds might keep her soul called Madame de Stael to Paris, where he expired it alive to those sublime thoughts from which alone death her arms. About this time she published a work Os derives a character of melancholy and tranquillity, the influence of Revolutions upon Literature, of whici Once, during the last days of her sufferings, the musi- I have not been able to procure a copy; nor have cians having neglected coming, Mr Necker requested seen a dramatic piece of her composition called Thhis daughter to perform on the piano. After having Secret Sentiment. Madame de Stael, after the deati played a few sonatas, she began to sing a song of Sac- of her husband, spent the greatest part of her tirm chini's composition, in his CEdipus at Colonna, the with her father at Copet and at Lausanne. words of which recall the cares of Antigone.* Her In 1800, when Buonaparte passed through Geneva father, on hearing this, shed a flood of tears, and threw he had the curiosity to visit Mr Necker at Copet himself at the feet of his dying consort. His profound where Madame de Stael happened to be with her father emotion caused Madame de Stael to give over singing. The interview was not long, but it has been reportag4 On the very last day of Madame Necker's life, wind- that Madame de Stael requested a private audience, instruments were still heard in a room close to her bed- during which she spoke to the First Consul of the chamber when she had already ceased to live.' To powerful means which his situation afforded him to prodescribe,' says Madame de Stael,' the melancholy con- vide for the happiness of France, and made an eloquent Wtast between the varied expressions of the musical display of some plans of her own, which she thought sounds, and the uniform feeling of sadness with which particularly calculated to accomplish this object. Buonadeath filled the heart, is impossible.' Thomas, who has parte appeared to give her an attentive hearing: but celebrated Madame Necker in his verses addressed to when she ceased to speak, he coldly asked,'Who Susanna, has left an indirect eulogy of her in his Essay educates your children, madame' on Women.' Truly estimable,' says this academician, It was chiefly in Switzerland that Madame de Stael' is the female who, though she has imbibed in the great wrote the novel called Delphine, the first edition of world the charms of society, such as good taste, grace which was printed at Geneva in 1802. The moral oband wit, knows how to preserve her heart and her un- ject of this novel has been equally mistaken in France, derstanding from that unfeeling vanity and that false sensibility, the offspring of the higher circles.; who, re- England, and Germany, and yet it has been read every to submit to social forms and usages, where with the same eagerness. It has had four or ~~~~~luctantly obligi~ed tfive editions in France, and has been translated in never loses sight of nature, and by whom nature is yet fish and German, while the Ani-Delphine of a regretted; who, forced by her rank to expense and very sensible English young lady, which has drawn luxury, prefers at least useful expenses, and enables in- er sensible English young lady, which has drawn dustrious poverty to share in her wealth; who, while with few readers in England, where Madame d Stael's she cultivates literature and philosophy, loves these with fewhas been loudly condemned.Madame de pursuits for their own sake and not for a vain reputation; she in fine who, in the midst of levity, does not The severity of the criticisms which from every corlose her natural character; who, in the bustle of the ner of Europe were directed against a work written with world, retains a firm mind; who owns her friend in the a captivating energy of style, drew from the author an midst of those by whom he is slandered; who boldly ingenious defence:'In most novels, which have a undertakes his defence, though he is never to know it; moral object,' says Madame de Stael,'personages that and who at home and abroad reserves her esteem for are perfect are contrasted with others who are completely virtue, her contempt for vice, and her heart for friend- odious. Such writillgs, I think, leave no impression ship.' In order to assuage her grief for the loss of a on the only class of readers that are capable of amendparent, in every respect entitled to the most poignant ment, namely, those who are both weak and honest. regret, and to repel the malicious attacks to which she Utility consists in inspiring the dread of faults committed was exposed for opinions which were not hers, Madame by beings that are naturally virtuous, delicate, and fee'qde Stael composed at Lausanne the first part of a philo- ing; to these alone good advice ma be serviceable sophical Essay on the influence of the passions upon the they alone may be deterred by a fatal example.happiness of indivsduals and- tation;s, which she pub- The vicious are, by their nature, so different from us fished at Paris in 1796, and of which she printed the that whatever we may write effects no conviction in second part in 1797. The merit of this work has been their minds: their language, sentiments, hopes and acknowledged alike in France, in England and in Ger- fears are so different; and nothing can have any effect many. It abounds in interesting remarks, and views upon them except the events of their own life. I need manyobjects in a novel and striking manner. Its style not observe, I hope, that a dramatic writer does not is elegant throughout, and but very rarely obscure. It approve of the characters he delineates, and that, was translated int~ojE:xlnglishf~in-l7 98. whether he paints a train of error and their fatal conMasdamnede'Stael was with her father at Copet when sequences, or a series of good actions and their rewards, e t e Switzerland. By one of he is still a severe moralist. I am almost ashamed to the derenhes passed during the te reign of terror, Mr be obliged to repeat notions which are every where so the decrees passed during the reign of terror, Mr Necker, although an alien, had-been placed on the list fully acknowledged that they are deemed superfluous.' of emigrants, and any one, whose name was on that One day Mr Necker, in a conversation with his fatal list, was to be condemned to death if found on a daughter, respecting the novel of Delphine, which had territory occupied by the French armies. But the been so much criticised, maintained, that domestic * Elle m'a prodigu8 sa tendresse et ses soins, affections alone were capable of affording scenes as Son zAle dans mes maux m'a fait trouver des charmes tragioal as the passion of love; and to prove his LIFE OF THE AUTHOR. 7 assertion, he composed a tale, entitled The Fatal Con- 1804, together with a short account of the character sequences of a Single Error, which Madame de Stael and private life of her father, under the title of Manuhas inserted in the manuscripts of her father published scripts of Mr Necker, published by his daughter. She at Geneva in 1804. took care to insert in them a compliment paid to the In the mean time, Madame de Stael could not habi- character of Buonaparte in these words:' The first tuate herself to live in a country which is not her native consul is eminently distinguished by his firm and deone, and where sciences are much more cultivated than cisive character; it is a splendid will which seizes literature. Her father perceived her struggles between every thing, regulates every thing, fixes every thing, her predilection for the brilliant societies at Paris and and which always moves and stops at the proper time. the sorrow she felt at the idea of leaving him. Though, This faculty, which I describe after a great model, is in his character of a wise parent, he ought to have the first quality for the chief rulerof a great empire. In condemned, in a widow, the mother of three children, the end, it is considered as a law of nature, and all opthis fatal propensity for seeking happiness only in the position vanishes.' This mean flattery on the part of crowded assemblies of the great world, whose votaries a man who had ruined France, to introduce republican alike extol the sallies of false wit and the effusions of forms, produced no alteration in the disposition of the genius, to be applauded in their turn, Mr Necker, who First Consul towards Madame de Stael. The senhimself was not yet cured of the same disease, en- tence of her banishment was not revoked, and the novcouraged her partiality for France. Fond of the re- el of Corinna, which appeared soon after Buonaparte membrance which he had left behind in that country, had been raised to the imperial throne, has probably he endeavored with all his might to preserve its affec- rendered it irrevocable. tion for his family. As Madame de Stael was perhaps To dispel her sadness and gloom, Madame de Stael actuated by the secret desire of shining at the court of determined to travel over the fine countries of Italy. the First Consul, or at least of collecting in the me- The constant serenity of the sky, the variety of landtropolis of the French republic the flattering meed of scapes, a delightful music, and the contemplation of praise due to her last literary successes, she easily the ruins of that superb Rome, formerly mistress of yielded to the persuasions of her father, and he appeared the world, insensibly revived her talents and her enat Paris in 1803. But her residence in that city was thusiasm, and even gave renewed elasticity to her not of long duration. Whether the watchful activity genius. It is to this journey that learned Europe is of her superior genius, was still feared, or that she indebted for Corinna or Italy, that splendid monument had ventured too sarcastic observations upon the events of the fine taste, the profound erudition, the lively senof the day, or whether the First Consul had so little sibility and the ardent imagination of its author. The generosity as to be revenged on the daughter for a mind finds some difficulty in conceiving the combina. work published against the consular government by the tion of talents which that work possesses. It is writfather, Buonaparte soon pronouuced against her a sen- ten with an eloquence bordering on the sublime; it tence of banishment to the distance of forty leagues breathes throughout the purest attachment to the true from Paris; and it has been reported that Madame de principles of civil liberty; and England and Italy are Stael had the noble firmness to say to him:' You are contrasted in a manner little calculated to please those giving me a cruel celebrity; I shall occupy a line in who would wish to destroy every free country. The your history.' exclamation of Corinna at the sight of the Roman foMadame de Stael at first retired to Auxerre; but rum:' Honour then, everlasting honour to all cournot meeting with suitable society, she thought she ageous and free nations, since they thus captivate the might settle at Rouen; and as this city is only thirty- attention of posterity!' resounds disagreeably in the two leagues from Paris, she even fancied she might ears of despots. draw a little nearer to the metropolis, and took a house After this effort of genius, Madame de Stael, byway in the valley of Montmorency. But the French gov- of relaxation, amused herself first with performing in ernment ordered her to withdraw within the limits as- tragedy at Geneva, and afterwards assuming the modsigned in the sentence of her exile; she then set out est office of an editor. Some time after the appearfor Frankfort, attended by her eldest daughter, and ac- ance of Corinna, she published two volumes of Letters companied by the ex-tribune Benjamin Constant, her and Reflections of Prince de Ligne, and enriched them faithful protector. From Frankfort Madame de Stael with a short preface worthy of her talents. I have repaired, in the midst of a severe winter, to the do- given an English translation of this work, to which I minions of the king of Prussia, where she formed attach some little value, because it has afforded me an, plans destined to make the French acquainted with opportunity of associating my name with that of such German literature. In the spring of the year 1804 she an editor; it is only in this character that I may be felt herself happy at Berlin, the society of which city allowed to aspire to that honour. The literary world pleased her much; when, on the morning of the 18th is anxiously expecting the work which Madame de of April, a friend brought her letters which informed Stael had commenced in 1804 upon Germany. her of her father's illness. She immediately set off, Far be it from me to imitate the numerous slanderand until she reached Weimar, the idea that she might ers who have taken particular delight in publishing the be deceived, that her father might be no more, had errors of Madame de Stael, and falsely adding to their never entered her mind. Mr Necker had however died number. It belongs only to the pen of history which at Geneva on the 9th of April, 1804, after a short but will immortalize her merit, to reveal the weaknesses painful illness. During his fever he expressed frequent by which that merit may be obscured. It is possible apprehensions that his last work might prove fatal to that Madame de Stael, as has been observed by her his daughter, and in his delirium he often blessed her father, may be' very susceptible of being misled:' she and her three children. may sometimes have been guilty of I an amiable This unexpected blow changed the destiny of Ma- thoughtlessness,' as Marmontel calls it: but she never dame de Stael. After her tears had flown in abund- can be dispossessd of the first rank among female auance upon the grave of a father whom she had affec- thors who, in our times, have shed a lustre on French tioniately loved, she sought for some alleviation to her literature. grief in selecting the most interesting fragments among D. BoILEAn. Mr Necker's papers; and published them at Geneva in Brompton Road, Nov. lst. 1811. INTRODUCTION. The ofJ of the present work is to examine what how much more lively must be the interest with which, influence Religion, Manner s,and Laws, have upon Lit- I flatter myself, the reader will accompany me in reerature; and reciprocally, how far Literature may tracing the progress and observing the predominant effect Laws, Manners, and Religion. On the art of character of the writers who have honoured every councomposition and the principles of taste there are ex- try and graced every age! Oh! that I could win over tant, in the French tongue, treatises* the most accu- every enlightened mind to the pursuit and enjoyment of rate and complete: but it appears to me, that sufficient philosophical meditations! But it frequently happens, pains have not been taken to analyze the moral and that the contemporaries and eye-witnesses of a revolupolitical causes which modify and mark the character of tion cease to take any interest in the investigation of Literature. Neither do I think that any attempt has truth. The issue of so many events decided by force; hitherto been made to consider philosophically the the atrocity of so many crimes wiped off by success; the gradual development of the human faculties, as it dis- lustre of so many virtues tarnished by calumny; the plays itself in the distinguished works that have afford- sacredness of so many misfortunes profaned by the ined delight or instruction to mankind, from the age of solence of power; the dignity of so many generous senHomer down to the present time. timents sunk into objects of ridicule and scorn; the The works of celebrity which have appeared in every meanness of low calculations raised into subjects of age, afford unequivocal proofs of the successive pro- philosophical discussion: —all these things tend to disgress and improvement of the human understanding. I courage and deaden hope, even in the breasts of men have endeavored to explain the slow but unceasing the most zealously devoted to the homage of reason. advance of the mental powers, in the field of Philoso- It should. however, re-animate their desponding spirits, phy, and their rapid but desultory strides in the career to observe, that there is not to be found in the history of the Arts. From a curious observation of the char- of the human mind an useful discovery or a profound acteristic traits which distinguish the contemporary truth that does not carry the marl: of its own age, and writings of the Italians and the English, of the Ger- claim its peculiar admirers. Yet, doubtless, it is a mans and the French, I hold it to be demonstrable, that melancholy reflection, that we must have to wade political and religious institutions had a principal share through futurity, to transfer our interest, and repose in the production of these continual diversities. Final- our hopes on posterity, on foreigners, or strangers, who ly, from contemplating the gloom of despair and the can come in no point of contact with us; in a word, dawn of hope which the French Revolution has, if I on the whole mass of mankind, the recollection or image may be allowed the expression, confounded together; of whom can never come home to our hearts or underI deemed it of some importance to ascertain what de- standings. But, alas! with the exception of a few gree of influence that revolution has exerted upon the select unalterable friends, the majority of those whom state of knowledge, and what are the probable conse- we recall to mind, after ten years of a Revolution, only quences that may hereafter result from it, should liber- sadden the soul, stifle its emotions, and over-awe the ty and order, republican, morality and independence, be talents one may possess, not by any superiority on their wisely and politically combined. part, but by the influence of that malevolence which But before I proceed farther to unfold the plan of the gives pain only to delicate minds, and grieves those present work, it may be proper to touch a little upon only who deserve to be strangers to sorrow. the importance and advantages of literature, considered Let us, then, raise ourselves above the pressures of in its widest acceptation; that is, as it embraces the life: let us not furnish our unmerited enemiies, nor our dogmas of philosophy and the effusions of irnagina- ungrateful friends, with any opportunity to boast of tion;-every thing, in fine, connected with the. opera- having dejected our intellectual powers. Their malitions of thought, with the exclusion only of physical cious attempts will only compel those who would have and experimental science. remained satisfied with cultivating the milder affections, My first object, then, will be to take a general sur- to aspire to the pursuit of glory. Since, then, it must vey of literature as it is connected with virtue, with be so; let us grasp at the bright attainment. These glory, with liberty, and with happiness: and if it be efforts of ambition will, indeed, be of little avail to asacknowledged without the possibility of contradiction, suage the sorrows of the soul; but they will shed a that it has a powerful influence upon these sublime gleam of honour on the career of life. To devote our sentiments, these master-springs of the human soul; days wholly to the ever-deceitful hopes of happiness, * The works of Voltaire, Marmontel, and Laharpe. would only tend to make them more miserable. Bet INTRODUCTION. 9 ter is it to concentrate the whole of our endeavors, that pages of Rousseau, or have our ears saluted, for the we may travel with some dignity, and with some repu- first time, with the modulated periods of Cicero,-the tation, down that road which leads from the morning interest excited by surprise and curiosity would rivet of youth to the night of the grave. our attention upon truths that are now unheeded; and genius, assuming its empire over every mind, would repay to morality something of what it has received from morality: it would re-establish that homage toOF THE IiMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE, AS IT CONCERNS which it owes its inspiration. AND IS CONNECTED WITH VIRTUE. The connexion that exists between all the faculties of man is such, that, even by improving his literary Perfect virtue is the ideal beautiful, of the moral taste, you contribute to raise and dignify his character. world: and there is some similitude and affinity between We experience, within ourselves, a certain impression the impression which virtue makes upon us, and that from the language which we use: the images it calls sentiment which is inspired by whatever is sublime, up in our minds, contribute to the better modification of either amidst the productions of the finer arts or in the our dispositions. Thus, when hesitating between difaspect of the physical world. The regular and grace- ferent expressions, the writer or the orator gives a deful proportions of antique statues, the calm and pure cided preference to that which suggests the most pure expression of certain paintings, the harmony of music, and delicate idea; his taste chooses between these exthe amenity of a beautiful prospect over a fruitful coun- pressions, in the same manner as his mind ought to try, transport us with an enthusiasm by no means un- determine respecting the actions of life; and the forcotgenial to that admiration to which we are raised by mer habit often may cond(uce to the latter. the contemplation of generous and heroic actions. Fan- The sentiment of the intellectual beautiful, while it tastic appearances, whether the result of nature or of is employed upon literary objects, must inspire a reart, may strike the imagination with a momentary sur- pugnance for every thing mean or ferocious: and this prise; but the operations of thought can dwell only involuntary aversion is as sure a guide as the most fixed upon order and regularity. and deeply meditated principles. In endeavoring to convey some idea of a future life, It would be humiliating to attempt the justification it has been said that the soul of man returned into the of wit; its advantages are so evident at the very first bosom of his creator. This was describing in some glance. Though some persons, by a sort of abuse of measure the emotion we feel, when, after being long wit, have amused themselves by attempting to discover bewilderedin the labyrinth of the passions, we suddenly its disadvantages: but this is a paradox to which hear the august and awful voice of virtue, of pride, or nothing but puns or equivocal expressions could have of pity, and when our whole soul becomes alive to the lent the appearance of reason. True genuine wit is call. no other than the faculty of seeing rightly: common Literature can only derive its permanent beauties sense approaches much nearer to it than false ideas. from the most delicate and refined mo'ality.. M.Ien may The more a man is endued with common sense, the devote their actions to vice; but xvice can never con- more wit he possesses. And genius, what is it, but trol their judgment. Never was it in the power of good sense intent upon new ideas. Genius augments any poet, however ardent his fancy or vivid his imagina- the treasure of good sense; it adds its conquests to the tion, to draw forth a tragic effect from an incident dominions of reason. What it explores and discovers which admitted the smallest tendency to an immoral to-day, will soon be generally known; because imporprinciple. Opinion, which fluctuates so much respecting tant truths, when once discovered, strike every mind the events of real life, assumes a character of constancy with equal force. Sophisms, conceits that are called and decision, when it has to pronounce on the produc- ingenious, though they be devoid of justness, in a word, tions of the imagination. Literary. criticism is not un- every thing that diverges from the proper point, should frequently, indeed, a sort of treatise on morality. By invariably be regarded as a defect. But when wit and yielding merely to the impulse and guidance of their genius concur, in all their relations, with the dictates of talents, eminent writers might discover every thing that reason, they are equally incapable of producing any is heroic in self-devotion, and all that is affecting in the evil. ~When wit and genius, therefore, are encouraged sacrifices we make of our interests or passions. By by a nation; when those only who are gifted with those studying the art of moving the affections, we explore faculties are promoted to public stations, the surest the recesses and discover the secrets of virtue. means are employed to make the cause of morality The rnmaster-pieces of literature, independent of the prosper. fine models which they furnish, produce a kind of moral Not unfrequently do we hear imputed to wit the and physical emotion, an agitating transport o'faidilira- very faults that proceed from the absence of it. Your tion, which excites us to the performance of generous half-hints, the mere shadows of ideas, darken the mind deeds. The legislators of Greece attached no mean instead of enlightening it. Virtue is both an affection importance to the effect that might be produced by of the soul, and a demonstrable truth: it must be either music of a martial or a voluptuous strain. Our organs felt or understood. If you derive from reasoning only are also acted upon by eloquence, poetry, the incidents what misleads instinct, without attaining to that which of the dramatic scene, and the gloom of melancholy can supply its place; then it is not the qualities you thoughts, though these are properly the objects of rea- possess that become destructive, but rather those in son and reflection: it is then that virtue becomes a vol- which you are deficient. Of all human calamities the untary impulse, a movement that cornmunicates itself remedy should be looked for from above. If we raise to the blood, and hurries us irresistibly along like the our eves towards heaven, our thoughts swell into a most violent and imperious passions. It is much to be nobler nature: it is by soaring aloft that we breathe a regretted, that the works which appear in our days, do purer air, and are cheered by a brighter light. Man not more frequently kindle that noble enthusiasm: our should, in fine, be prompted to aspire to every kind of taste is, doubtless, formed by the study of the already perfection and superiority: nothing call more contribute received and acknowledged master-pieces of literature: to improve and refine his morals. Superior talents exbut we become accustomed to them from our infacy: cite an admiration, and win an affection, which disposes each of us is struck with their beauties at different pe- the mind of those who possess thenm to gentleness and riods of life, and separately receives the impressions lenity. Observe men of cruel dispositions; you will they should produce. Were we to assist together in generally find they are deficient in intellectual endowcrowds at the first representation of a tragedy worthy ments of the higher order: nature even seems to havey of Racine,-were we to read together the enchanting given thema a cast of countenance that disgusts and ve. 10 INTRODUCTION. pels; and they would fain avenge themselves upon the or of political services which he might render to his social order for what nature has refused them. I would country. There no longer exist any models of those without the smallest fear or suspicion confide in those republics, which allotted to each citizen his share ot whom I find satisfied with their lot, and who, by some influence over the destiny of his country; much talent or other, can claim and do really merit the suf- farther are we removed from that patriarchal mode of frage of mankind. But for the man who is incapable life, in which every family entertained in their own of obtaining from his fellow-men any pledge of volun- bosom such sentiments as they most approved. But tary approbation, what interest can he feel in the con- in the present state of Europe, the progress of literaservation of the human race? To him whom the ture must tend to unfold every species of generous world admires, the happiness of the world must be notions. Were this advancement of literature to be dear. checked, it would not be the cultivation of public virtues It has frequently been remarked, that historians, or of private affections that would be substituted in its dramatic writers, all those, in short, who study men room, but the greedy calculations of selfishness or of with a view to a description of their character, become vanity. themselves indifferent to virtue or to vice. An or- The generality of mankind, dismayed by the frightdinary knowledge of mankind may, indeed, produce ful vicissitudes to which political events have given rise such an effect: but a deeper and more discerning amongst us, seem to have lost all regard for the imknowledge leads to the very opposite result. He who provement of their minds, and are too deeply intimidraws mankind like Saint Simon or Duclos, only con- dated by the hazardous state of things, to allow the tributes to the levity of their opinions and of their intellectual faculties to possess any ascendancy. If morals: but the writer who can observe and appreciate the French- however, were to exert themselves to obmankind like Tacitus, must, of necessity, be useful to tain fresh successes in the career of literature and the age he lives in. The art of distinguishing charac- philosophy, it would be a first step made towards the ters, of unfolding their motives, and of drawing forth improvement of their morals: the very pleasure that their discriminative colors, is armed with such a power is produced by the success of self-love, would be the and ascendant over opinion, that, in every country means of forming some bands of unity betwixt men. where the liberty of the press prevails, no public man, We should gradually emerge from that most degraded no man of consequence enough to be known, could state of public spirit, where the selfishness of the state withstand contempt, if it was inflicted on him by the of nature is combined with the active multiplicity of hand of genius. With what fine bursts of indignation the interests of society; where corruption is without has the aspect of crime filled the mouth of eloquence! politeness, and coarseness without candor; where civHow powerfully and triumphantly does eloquence as- ilization is unaccompanied by knowledge, and ignorsert and avenge the cause of every generous sentiment! ance unprompted by enthusiasm: in a word, we should Nothing can equal the impression that is made by an emerge from that kind of apathy, the distemper of a animating strain of eloquence, or the portrait of a char- few superior men, with which little minds imagine acter boldly drawn. Pictures of vice leave an indeli- themselves to be attacked; while wholly taken up with ble impression, when they are the product of a writer their own interest, they betray a total indifference for of penetration: he analyzes the most secret sentiments the suffering of the others. and seizes the almost imperceptible shades and details of character; and frequently some energetic expression attaches to a bad man through life, and the man and the expression are but one and the same in the judg- OF LITERATURE, AS IT CONCERNS AND IS CONNECTED ment of the public. Here, then, is another moral WITH GLORY. utility resulting from literary talent, which, by the very art of depicting* bad actions, brands them with an in- If it be true, that literature can essentially contribute delible stigma. to the improvement of morals, it must, by that circumI have now to touch upon the objections that have stance alone, have a powerful influence upon glory: been urged against those works, in which genius is em- for there can be no durable glory-enjoyed by a country, ployed in portraying reprehensible morals. It must in which due regard is not paid to the public morals. indeed be confessed, that such writings are of a ten- If a nation did not adopt certain invariable principles dency to injure morality, if they could leave any deep as the basis of its opinion, and if each individual were impression: but the merely superficial marks they not strengthened and confirmed in his judgment by a make are easily effaced by the influence of genuine conviction that that judgment was consentaneous to and generous sentiments. Susceptibility is, with re- the universal assent, distinguished reputations would gard to love, what esteem is with respect to virtue: be nothing more than so many contingencies that sucand as immorality can never gain esteem, so the tear ceeded each other by chance. The splendor of certain of tenderness will never be shed but at the call of deli- actions might dazzle and strike; but there must be a cacy. Sprightly and amorous writings, in general, progression in the sentiments we feel, before we arrive serve only as a transient relaxation of the mind, which at the sublimest of all,-admiration. All our judgments rarely retains any recollection of them. Human na- are formed upon comparison. Esteem, approbation ture is of a serious cast; and, in the silence of medi- and respect, are so many ingredients that are necessary tation, we attach ourselves solely to those works which to the composition of enthusiasm. Morality lays the are calculated to exercise our reason or our own sensi- foundations upon which glory may raise its superstrucbility. It is in in this kind of writing only that literary ture; and literature, independently of its alliance and glory has been acquired, and in it alone can the real connexion with morals, contributes moreover, and in a influence of literature be displayed. manner still more direct, to the production and existWVill it be said, that the pursuit of literary fame may ence of that glory which is the noblest motive and divert a man from the performance of domestic duties, highest incentive to all public virtues. * Most undoubtedly, the advantages that might be hoped for The love of one's country is an affection purely sofrom the publicity of truth, may be counterbalanced by the re- cial. Man, whom nature has adapted for domiestic pulsive libels with which France has been dishonored. But I intercourse, would not carry his ambition farther, if not merely intended speaking of the services that might be expect- urged by the irresis ed from genius; for genius dreads to disgrace itself by flseurged by the irresistible attraction of general esteem: hood; it equally dreads confounding characters, as it would and upon that esteem, which grows out of the public then forfeit the rank which it holds among manlkind. In opinion, literary talents exert the most powerful inall the affairs of men, superiority alone encourages and secures; f ce. At Atens, at Rome, in a and what is most to be apprehended are the vices and defects u. A that are inseparable from littleness of mind and poverty of spirit. cities of the civilized world, the powers of eloquence IN T ROD U CTI ON. 11 displayed in public harangues turned at will the incli- feeling, and for justly appreciating the glory of hero. nations of the people, and decided the general lot. In ism. modern days, reading paves the way for great events, It is by no means true that a great man rises to and by this men's minds are enlightened. What greater eminence by being the only celebrated person, would become of populous nations, if the individuals than when he is surrounded by a number of distinguishwho compose them did not communicate with each ed names that yield to the first of all,-his own. It other by means of the press? Were silence to pre- has been a maxim in politics, that the kingly power vail in large assemblies of men, there never could be cannot support itself without a peerage and a nobility. established any point of contact from which to elicit Opinion, indeed, will not suffice: there must be added light, and the multitude could never enrich ther minds certain gradations of rank in order to secure supremacy. with the. thoughts of superior intellects. But what was a conqueror, who during the night of As the human species is constantly recruiting itself, ignorance, led barbarians against barbarians 1 Is CaOsar an individual can create a void only in opinion; and in so celebrated in history for no other reason than that he order to give existence to that opinion, there must be decided the fate of Rome, while Rome had her Cicesome means of understanding each other at a distance, ros, her Sallusts, her Catos, and because that bright and of uniting themselves in one universal sentiment, host of talents and of virtues bent beneath the sword from a knowledge of the ideas and sentiments that are of a single manl Behind Alexand'er you still disgenerally approved. Poets and moralists previously cover the shade of Greece. It is necessary, then, for characterize the nature of glorions deeds. The study the glory of illustrious warriors, that they subjugate of literature enables a nation to reward its great men, countries that are enriched with all the endowments by teaching it to appreciate their respective deserts. of the human mind. I do not pretend to say, that the Military glory has existed among the most barbarous mental powers may one day free the world from the tribes; but no comparison should ever be instituted scourge of war; but till then, it is mind, it is eloquence, between ignorance and degradation. Should a people imagination, and even philosophy, which alone can give that have once been civilized by the love of letters, re- grace and relief to the achievement of martial exploits. lapse into a state of indifference to genius and philoso- After every thing else has faded away, and sunk into phy, and become drill and cold to every lively and gen- degradation, force may still bear sway over the world; erous sentiment; they then can only be distinguished but it will be surrounded by no real or genuine splenby a spirit that endeavors to debase and vilify, and dor: mankind would be a thousand times more doewhich prompts them under every circumstance to shut graded by the extinction of all emulation, than by all their minds against admiration. They are afraid of tha rageful jealousies of which glory was still the obbeing deceived, should they attempt to bestow praise, ject. and, like young fops who assume the air and tone of fashion, they imagine they distinguish themselves more by an unjust censure, than by too great a facility, to commend. Such a people, under such circumstances, generally sink into apathy and indifference; the frost Liberty, virtue, glory, knowledge, those kindred and of age seems to have benumbed their rational faculties: closely allied ideas which form the proud retinue that they have a sufficient knowledge of things to guard attends on the natural dignity of man, cannot possibly them against surprise, but not enough to qualify them be insulated in a separate state of existence; the perfor discriminating what deserves esteem. They may fection of each of them results from the jnion of them have destroyed a number of illusions, but have not es- all. tablished a single truth; through old age, they have Those minds which indulge in the idea, that the desrelapsed into infancy: and through reasoning, into un- tiny of man is connected with the divine intelligence, certainty: they have become strangers to the glow of behold in this comprehension of beings, in this intimutual interest, and have sunk into that state which mate relation between every thing that is good, a strong DANTE calls the hell of the luke-warm. Whoever aims additional proof of that moral unity, of that uni, at distinction, is sure immediately to raise an unfavor- ty of conception which informs and directs the uniable prejudice against himself; the public is wearied, verse. and sickens at the first appearance of a man who at- The advancement of literature, that is to say, the tempts to win any mark of its favor. ulterior perfection of the art of thinking and of expresWVhen a nation is daily acquiring new lights, it looks sing one's thoughts, is necessary to the establishment with fondness on great men as its precursors in the and to the conservation of liberty. It is manifest, that career which it has to run; but when a nation is consci- the light of knowledge is the more indispensably neous that it retrogades, the small number of superior cessary in a country, as all the citizens who inhabit it minds that escape from the general degeneracy, appear, have a more immediate influence on the character and as it were, enriched with its spoils. It no longer takes conduct of the government: and equally true is it, a common interest in their successes; and the only that politic ality, a principle essentially inherent enrfitions it feels are those that are prompted by envy. in every philosophical institution, cannot possibly The dissemination of knowledge, and the illumina- exist, unless you class the differences of education tion that has been produced in Europe by the destruc- with as minute an attention as was exerted, in feution of slavery and the discovery of printing, must lead dal times, to maintain arbitrary distinctions. Purity of to an unlimited melioration of things, or to a complete language, dignity of expression, that bespeak and picdegradation of society. If the analyzing search of the ture out the nobleness of the soul, are more eminently philosopher ascended to the true principle of social in- necessary in a state that is bottomed on a democratical stitutions, it would add a new degree of strength to the basis. Elsewhere, certain factitiqus barriers prevema truths it may have preserved; but that superficial ana- the total confusion of different educations: but when lysis which decomposes only the first obvious ideas, power is only to be supported and upheld by the supwithout penetrating into the examination of the whole position of personal merit, what care should be taken object, must infallibly tend to weaken and relax the to surround that merit with all the splendor of its exspring of all bold opinions. Amidst a nation whose ternal characteristics! appetites are palled, whose energies are unstrung, the In a democratic state, it is continually to be feared sentiment of an high admiration cannot possibly be that the love of popularity may beget an imitation of found: even the eclat of military triumphs must fail vulgar manners: soon then would a persuasion be to acquire an immortal reputation, if the culture of lite- entertained that it was useless, nay, perhaps prejudicial, rary and philosophical ideas does not befit the mind for to hold out a too strongly marked superiority over the U 12 INTRODUCTION. multitude, whose favor a man may be prompted to I Among the various studies which tend to develop the wish to conciliate for the purpose of gratifying his human mind, it is philosophical literature, it is eloambition. The people would thence become accus- quence and reasoning, which I look upon as the chief tomed to make choice of ignorant and illiberal mag- stay and most permanent pledge of liberty. The istrates: such magistrates would soon put out every sciences and the arts constitute. a very important porlight of knowledge; and, by an inevitable con- tion of our intellectual labours; but the discoveries to sequence, the extinction of knowledge would bring which they lead, and the success with which they are back the degradation and slavery of the people. crowned, exert no immediate influence upon that pubIt is impossible that, in a free state, the public au- lic opinion on which hangs the destiny of nations. thority can stand without the genuine, unbiassed assent Geometricians, natural philosophers, painters, and poets, of the citizens whom it governs. Reasoning and elo- may meet with protection and encouragement unquence are the natural bonds that hold together a re- der the reign of the most potent monarchs: but before publican association. What power can you wield over the eyes of such masters, political and religious phithe free will of men, if you be destitute of that vigour, losophy would rise up in the shape of the most formidthat truth of expression, which penetrates into every able insurrection. soul, and inspires the very sentiments it expresses? Those who devote themselves to the study of the If persons who are called to the helm of the common- abstract sciences; as they have not to encounter, in wealth, do not possess the secret of persuading men's their progress, the passions of mankind: so they gradminds, the nation ceases to acquire lights, and individu- ually get accustomed to take that only into account, als adhere to the opinion upon public affairs which which is susceptible of mathematical demonstration, chance has implanted in their understanding.'Were they almost invariably arrange in the class of delusions eloquence to die away, one of the principal motives for whatever they are unable to submit to the logic of calregretting its extinction would be, that its loss would culation. The strength of government, no matter what tend to insulate mankind from each other, by resigning its form may be, is the first thing they attend to and them wholly and solely to their individual impressions. appreciate: and as they have scarcely any other desire Those who cannot convince, must oppress; and in all than that of prosecuting unmolested the plan of their the different relations between the governing and learned labours, they easily yield obedience to the ruling the governed, the fewer qualities the former pos- authority. The profound meditation so requisitein the sess the more will be their encroachments on the lat- combinations of the abstract sciences, weans the attenter. tion of the learned from the ordinary events of life; The establishment of new institutions must create and nothing so wonderfully suits the views and temper a new spirit in countries that aspire to be free. But of absolute monarchs, as a description of men who are what hold can be laid upon opinion without the aid so wholly engrossed with contemplating the physical and concurrence of able writers In order to call laws of the world, that they readily abandon the care of forth such a spirit, it is not obedience that you are to its moral order to any one who will take the trouble of enforce, but the desire of new institutions that you directing it. It may indeed be true, that discoveries must suggest: and when a government is wisely itn- made in sciences will, in process of time, give a new.clined to promote the establishment of these institu- spring and energy to that higher species of philosophy tions; so tender should be the regard shown to public that sits in judgment on nations and on kings; but a opinion, that government should only seem to antici- futurity so remote can have nothing in it to restrain pate the public wish. There is nothing but the sound and intimidate the audacity of tyrants. WMe have seen writings of accomplished wvits that, for any length of many tyrants who were ostentatious in their protection time, can direct and modify the bent of certain national of the sciences and the arts: but all of them have habitudes. Man, in the secret recesses of his soul, se- dreaded the natural enemies of protection itself,-men cures an asylum for liberty, inaccessible to the attacks who think and philosophize. of force; conquerors have often adopted the manners Poetry, of all the arts, is that which borders most. of the conquered; but conviction alone has been able closely on the province of reasoning. Poetry, howto change ancient customs. The cultivation and im- ever, admits neiheti analysis-nor discussion; which are provemrnent of literature are the best means by which both so conducive to the discovery and dissemination you can effectually combat the obstinacy of inveterate of philosophical ideas. The mind that is anxious to prejudices. In countries newly become free, in order utter any bold and novel truth, would preferably express to extirpate old deep-rooted errors, governments must itself in a style of language that conveys its thoughts employ ridicule, to give youth a disrelish to them; with exactness and precision: it would labour more and conviction, to obliterate them from maturer minds. after the ascendency of conviction than the colorings In order to favor the foundation of new establish- of the imagination. Poetry has more frequently been ments, governments must stimulate hope, excite curio- employed in flattering, than in censuring power; and, in sity, kindle enthusiasm; call forth, in a word, those general, the fine arts may sometimes contribute, through sentiments of creative energy that have given birth the very enjoymeIts they procure, to fashion men to tfiat to every thing.that exists and stability to every thing mould in which tyrants would wish them to be cast. that endures; and by what powers can these sen- By the endless variety of pleasures which they daily timents be inspired, but by the art of eloquence and hold out to enjoyment, the arts have a power to divert of fine composition. The love of activity so ne- the mind from cherishing any predominant idea: they cessary in all free states, breaks out in a spirit of enlist men on the side of their sensations: they breathe faction, unless the acquirement and diffusion of know- into the soul a kind of voluptuous philosophy, a delib4edge be an object of universal interest, and be formed erate unconcernedrless, a passion for the present, an iiiinto an occupation that opens impartially to every tal- difference for the future; than which nothing can be ent a field in which the general ambition may be exer- more favorable to tyranny. By a singular contrast, cised and displayed. It will also ne necessary to en- the arts, while they give a taste and relish for life, rencourage a close and constant study of history and phi- der us rather dull and indifferent to deaths. The paslosophy, which alone can qualify the mind to penetrate sions alone make us cling forcibly to existence, by the into and disseminate the knowledge of the respec- ardent wish they inspire for the accomplishment of their tive rights and duties of nations, and of the mag- object: but a life devoted to mere amusements, diverts istrates who rule them. In despotic empires, reason without captivating; and disposes to intoxication, to can only be of avail to induce the resignation of in- sleep, and to death During those periods which dividua 3; but in free countries, it must watch over sanguinary proscriptions have consigned to infamy, the general tranquillity and protect the general freedom the Romans and the French' indulged themnse v, INTRODUCTION. 13 with extraordinary eagerness in all kinds of public amusements: but in well-constituted republics, grave occupations, domestic affections, the love and pursuit Every idea of happiness has been almost lost sight of glory, not unfrequently alienate the mind even from of amidst the very efforts that seemed at first to have the enjoyments furnished by the fine arts. Indeed, the been made for its attainment; and a sordid selfishness, only literary engine that can be wielded with effect, so by depriving each individual of the support and coas to make all injurious powers tremble, even in the operation of others, has considerably diminished that most elevated sphere, is manly eloquence, independent portion of public happiness which the constitution of philosophy; which, and which alone, can arraign before the social order had so fairly promised. In vain might the tribunal of reason all the opinions and institutions hearts of sensibility endeavor to diffuse around them of mankind. their expansive benevolence; insurmountable obstacles From an undue influence of a military spirit there would obstruct and frustrate theirgenerous intentions; also results very imminent danger to free states: nor they would be censured even by public opinion, which can this danger be averted, but by diffusing the light of iS ready enough to condemn those who would fain deviknowledge and the spirit of philsophy. If militry ate fromthat sphere of self-love, which everyone seems men pretend to look down with disdain on men of let- anxious to secure as an inviolable asylum. A man ters, it is because the latter do not always unite with must, therefore, exist for himself alone, since a reciprotalents a sufficient decision and vigor of character. city of affection is no where to be found, and since it is But the art of composition might also become a weapon, even forbidden to assuage sorrow or alleviate distress. and eloquence might quicken into action, if it displayed He must exist for himself alone, in order to preserve the living energies of the soul; —if the sentiments of in his imagination the model of every thing that is subthe writer soared to the elevation of his thoughts;- lime or beautiful; or to keep alive the sacred fire of and if tyranny beheld itself exposed to the attacks of the genuine enthusiasm, and retain the image of virtue, most formidable of its foes, stern reason and generous such as in the freedom of meditation she always apindignation. Consideration would then no longer be pears, and such as she has been portrayed by those exclusively attached to military talents, nor would liber- exalted minds that have been the ornaments of every ty run the risk to which it must otherwise be neces- age. sarily exposed. What form of character would mankind assume, if From among the troops that compose an army, they were never to hear the language of honest and every thing like opinion is banished by the severity of generous sentiments;-if hearts of sensibility were its discipline. So far this esprit de corps bears some condemned to live among frigid egotists if unbiassed resemblance to that which prevails among the priest- reason was to be waging an ineffectual struggle against hood: it in like anner excludes all reasoning and dis-the sophistries of vice; and if the tender solicitudes of hood: it in like manner excludes all reasoning and discussion, and admits no other guide or rule but the will pity were incessantly exposed to the scorns and mockofsuperiors. The constnt, uninterruped exercise of eries of unfeeling frivolity In the end, perhaps, we thle omnipotence of arms mustn in the endr inSpire should arrive at the total extinction even of self-esteem. the omnipotence of arms must, in the end, inspire Man finds himself necessitated to rely on the opinion nothing but qontempt for the slow and silent progress of his fellow-man: he dreads lest his seoe should of persuasion. of his fellow-man: he dreads lest his self-love should Theof persuasion. c admiration which waits onthebe taken for his conscience: he accuses himself of folThe enthusiastic admiration which waits on the ly, if h sees nothing around him that bears any semglory of triumphant generals, is wholly unconnected blance to himself: and such is the imbecility of human with the justice of.the cause they espouse. The im- natrie, such its dependence upon society, that man agination is struck only with the decision of fortune in would, in some measure, repent of his good qualities, their favor, and the splendor of success which crowns as of involuntary defects, if general opinion concurred their intrepidity. The enemies of liberty, it is true, in censuring them: but, in these moments of disquietmay be overpowered in battle: but, in order to make ude, he has recourse to his books; and they hold up the principles of that liberty take root and flourish in a to him the undisfigured monuments of those refined and country, the military spirit must be done away; thought noble sentiments that have exalted every age. If liber and reasoning must be called in, and these seconded ty be dear to him; if the name of republic, so powerful by the warrior's qualities of courage, artour, and deci- over the feelings of proud unbending minds, associates sion, in order to excite in the souls of its inhabitants in his reflections with the image of all the virtues -- something spontaneous, something voluntary, which some of Plutarch's Lives; a letter from Brutus to dies away within them when they have been long inured Cicero; a few sentences of Cato, in the language of to the triumphant prevalence of mere force. Addison; some of those reflections with which the haIn all ages and in all countries, a military spirit pro- tred of tyranny inspired Tacitus; or, those sentiments, duces the same effects: it stamps no nation with any real or supposed, which historians and poets put into peculiar character; it weds no people to any particular the mouths of their heroes; are sufficient to raise anew institution: it is, indeed, calculated equally to defend the soul after it has shrunk and sickened at the aspect and protect them all. Eloquence and philosophy can of contemporary events. An exalted character is realone give the charms and endearments of country to stored to self-approbation, if he finds his soul in union any extent of territory, by framing the nation that in- with these noble sentiments, and with those lofty virhabits it to a similarity of propensities and habits, of tues which imagination selects and embodies when she customs and sentiments. Force dispenses with the aid aspires to delineate a model for the imitation of every of time, and tramples down will; but by this very age. How abundant are the consolations which we means it is rendered unfit for giving permanency to derive from writings of a certain cast! If the great any thing among men. During the course of the men of early antiquity were exposed, during their lives, French revolution, we have often heard it said,' that a to the shafts of calumny; their only retreat and asylum certain degree of despotism was necessary to the estab- lay within their own breasts: but, in our days, we may lishment of liberty.' This incongruous jumble of words have recourse to the Phaedon of Socrates, to the anipassed into a kind of sentence: but that sentence can mating master-pieces of eloquence that support the make no change in the real nature of things. Institu- mind under the pressure of adversity. The philosotions established by force may, indeed, wear all the phers of every country exhort and encourage us; and features and appearances of liberty, except its natural the persuasive language of morality drawn fromn an inmotion: they may exhibit all its forums, and shock you timate knowledge of the human heart, seems to be by the resemblance;-like those models that retain addressed individually to all those whom it consoles. every thing that constitutes a likeness, but life. How useful, how congenial is it to human nature, to 14 INTRODUCTION. attach an high importance to the influence of reason knowledge of those secrets of the soul, of those unex. and of literature! The type and form of what is vir- pected consolations which parent nature has employed tuous and just, can no longer be destroyed. The man to smooth our way through the rugged paths of life. whom nature destines for virtue, can no longer want a guide: and, finally, (what is of infinite consequence,) grief may be sure always to meet a healing sympathy and condolence. From that arid sadness which we PLAN OF THE WORK. feel when abandoned and forlorn, from that icy hand with which misfortunes presses on us when we imagine After having collected some general ideas which asourselves to be deserted by pity and compassion, we certain the power exerted by literature over the destiny are rescued in some measure by those writings that still of man; I shall now proceed to develop them by a bear the breathing impression of noble thoughts and successive survey of those more enlightened periods virtuous affections. Such writings draw forth tears in that shine so conspicuously in the history of letters. every situation of life: they raise the mind to general The first part of this work will contain a moral and meditations, which divert our attention from personal philosophical analysis of Grecian and Latin literature: sufferings: they create a society for us, and a cor- some reflections on the effects produced upon the humunion both with dead and living authors, and with all man mind by the invasions of the northern nations, by those who concur in admiring the works which we ap- the revival of letters, and by the establishment of the prove. In the desolation of exile, amidst the gloom of Christian religion; a rapid delineation of the discrimdungeons, at the approach of danger and of death, a inative traits of modern literature, with some more departicular passage of an affecting author may have often tailed obsata.s on the master-pieces in Italian, re-animated a prostrate soul: even I, who read, who English, German, and French languages, considered now touch that page, methinks I discover on it the agreeably to the general scope of the work, that is to track of tears; and by indulging in similar emotions, I say, with a view to the relations that subsist between enter into a kind of intercourse and fellowship with the political state of a country and the predominant those whose cruel destiny I so deeply deplore. Amidst spirit of its literature. I will endeavor to show the the calm of ease, the sunshine of happiness, life is an particular character which eloquence assumes under this easy labour: but in the gloominess of misfortune, it is or that form of government; the moral ideas which difficult to conceive how strongly certain reflections this or that religious creed is calculated to beget in the and sentiments, that have sunk deeply into the heart, human mind; the effects of imagination that are promark their era in the history of our solitary impressions. duced by the credulity of the people; the poetical Grief can only be assuaged by the power of weeping beauties that depend upon the influence of climate over our destiny, and of taking that interest in what the degree of civilization that best promotes the concerns ourselves, so as to divide us in some sort into strength and perfection of literature; the various two separate beings, the one of whom commisserates changes that have been introduced into the art of comthe other. But this resource, in misfortune, can only position, as well as into manners, by the different modes be enjoyed by a virtuous man. When adversity as- of existence of women before and after the establishsails the vicious and the profligate, they have no retreat ment of the Christian religion; and, finally, the unileft them in their own reflections: as long as their versal progress of knowledge resulting for the mere criminal habits consign their soul to ferociousness and succession of ages. These considerations will form aridity, and until a sincere repentance re-establishes the subject-matter of the first part. them in a moral disposition, their sufferings must be In the second, I will examine into the state of knowpoignant and excruciating: the dark recesses of such ledge and of literature in France since the revolution; minds can never admit even a gleam of consolation. and I will hazard a few conjectures respecting what The unfortunate man, who, by the malignant misrepre- ought to be, and what certainly will be, their future sentations and aspersions of artful calumny, finds him- state, if we are one day to enjoy the possession of reself suddenly robbed of his reputation, and exposed to publican freedom and morality. In order to attain to general censure and contempt, would likewise sink into some knowledge respecting the unknown events which the situation of the really guilty, were he not able to time has not yet developed, I shall avail myself of an derive some comfort and encouragement from those analogical deduction from past events: and then, by rewritings, which might enable him to behold himself in stating the observations I shall have made in the first his true colours; to confide in those who resemble part of this work, respecting the influence of a particuhim, and harbour the conviction, that in some corners lar religion, a form of government, or particular manof the world there exist persons who would sympathize ners and customs, I shall be enabled to draw some inwith him in his downfal, and affectionately weep with ferences relative to my supposed future state of things him, could he but submit his case to their considera- In this second part will be exhibited, at one view, both tion and compassion. our present degradation and our future attainable perfecHow precious, therefore, are these ever-living lines, tion. This subject rpust sometimes lead me to observawhich supply to us the place of friends, of public es- tions on the political situation of France during the last teem, of country! In an age like the present, when ten years: but I shall touch on it only as far as it is such accumulated calamities have visited the human connected with literature and philosophy, without divergrace, how desirable is it that there should exist a writer, ing into any digression foreign to my general purpose. who, with a taste turned to such pursuits, would select As I survey the revolutions of the globe, and the and treasure up all those care-soothing reflections, all succession of ages, one great idea is ever uppermost those efforts exerted by reason, that have contributed in my mind, from which I never allow my attention to to solace the unfortunate in their miserable career! be diverted; I mean that of the perfectibility of the Such a work at least would open an abundant source of human race. I cannot bring myself to think, that this tears. grand work of moral nature has ever been abandoned; The voyager, whom a storm has cast on an unpeo- in the ages of light, as well as ill those of darkness, pled shore, engraves upon the surrounding rocks the the gradual advancement of the human intellect has names of the aliments he has discovered, and points never been interrupted. out to those who may be involved in a similar fate, the This system of the perfectibility of human nature has, resources which he employed against danger and death. it is true, become odious in the eyes of some persons, on We, whom the chances of this mortal life have reserved account of the atrocious consequences derived from it at for a period of revolution, should also make it our busi- certain disastrous periods of the revolution: nothing, ness to transmit to future generations an intimate however, has less connection with these consequences INTRODUCTION. 15 than that exalted system. As nature sometimes makes Envy is still attracted by that luminous ray which partial evils tend to the general good, a set of besotted beams around the head of the moral man. This lustre, barbarians imagined themselves transformed into su- which the foul breath of their calumnies sometimes preme legislators, while they drew down upon the hu- succeeds in eclipsing and concealing from the eyes of man race a train of calamities, the effects of which the world, never ceases to dazzle and dim their own. they vainly expected to direct; but which were in the What then must be the fate of the worthy man whom end productive of nothing but misery and ruin.. Phi- so many enemies worry and persecute, if his misery losophy may occasionally look back upon past calamities, were accomplished by their success in depriving him and contemplate them as salutary lessons, and as in- of the most consolatory and religious hope, which struments and means of reparation in the hand of earthly existence can enjoy-that of the future imtime; but this observation can never sanction, under provement and perfection of his fellow-creatures. any circumstances whatever, the slightest departure To this philosophical creed do I cling with all the from the positive laws of justice. As the human mind faculties of my mind: I perceive among its chief adcan never arrive at a certain knowledge of futurity, vir- vantages, that it inspires an high sense of self-esteem, tue alone should prompt its divinations. The conse- an elevation of soul; and I appeal to every mind of a quenccs, whatever they may be, of human actions, can certain cast, whether there be in this nether world a never contribute to render them either innocent or purer enjoyment than that conferred by this enlargecriminal: man is to be guided, not by fanciful and ment of mind X To it we are indebted, that there still arbitrary rules, but by fixed unalterable duties; and are moments in which all. these mean groveling beings, experience itself has proved, that we fail in attaining with all their sordid calculations of self-interestedness the moral end we have in view, when guilty means are fade away and sink before their eyes. Our faculties employed for its attainment. Because men of san- are inspired with fresh vigor by contemplating the fuguinary minds have polluted and profaned the language ture state of knowledge, of virtue, and of glory: cerof generous and noble feelings; does it follow that we tain vague impressions crowd in upon us, certain senare to be forbidden to let our breasts expand at the re- timents that we cannot well define, which alleviate the collection of sublime sentiments and thoughts? The load of life; while the whole moral man swells with ruffian might thus tear from the man of virtue the the pride of virtue, and swims in the overflowings of dearest objects of his esteem: for it is ever under the happiness. If allour efforts were to be exerted in vain; name of some virtue that political crimes are perpe- if our intellectual labors were to be employed to no trated. purpose, but irrevocably swallowed up in the oblivious No, never can man's reason be detached from those gulf of time; where is the object which a virtuous ideas that hold out the promise of so many fortunate man could propose to himself in his solitary meditaresults. And, indeed, into what dejection must the tions For my own part, I have, throughout this human mind fall, were it no longer to be cheered with work, incessantly adverted to every circumstance that the hope that every day must add to the mass of know- tends to evince the perfectibility of the human species. ledge,-that every day must more fully unfold the Nor is this to be confounded with visionary theories; truths pf philosophy! Persecutions, calumnies, suf- it is the result of observation, and stands on the eviferings of every hue, would become the lamentable dence of facts. It is wise, indeed, to guard against lot of those who boldly think and soundly moralize; that species of metaphysics which derives no support The votaries of ambition and avarice at one time en- from experience: but at the same time, it should not deavor to deride as fallacious the warnings of con- be forgotten that, in times of degeneracy and corrupscience; at another, they would insinuate that unworthy tion, the name of METAPHYSICS is given to every thing motives are the spring of generous actions. To such that is not circumscribed within the narrow limits of men it is intolerable, that any thing like morality should self-love, or that does not coincide with the calculations exist; and they persecute it with revengeful zeal, even of self-interest to the very heart in which it attemp:s to take refuge. THE INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE UPON SO C I E T Y PART FIRST. OF THE STATE OF LITERATURE AMONG THE ANCIENTS AND THE MODERNS. CHAPTER I. composed of sentiments, it then results from the eloquence of the passions. In poetry, considered in this THE FIRST ERA OF'GRECIAN LITERATURE. first view, or in an animated description of external objects, the Greeks excelled, at the earliest period of The astonishing success which crowned the literary their literature. In our endeavors to express what we labours of the Greeks, more especially in poetry, might feel, a poetical style is easily adopted, or recourse is be urged as an objection against the progressive per- had to imagery, in order to give greater strength to our fectibility of the human mind. It may be said, that the impressions: but poetry, properly so called, is the art first writers with whom we are acquainted, and particu- of painting by words, every thing that attracts and larly the first poet, have not been surpassed during a strikes our eyes, and the connection between sentiperiod of nearly three thousand years; and even that ments and sensations is the first step towards philosothe successors and imitators of the Greeks have fre- phy. Here, however, we shall consider poetry as far quently fallen very far short of the perfection of their only as it is an imitation of physical nature; and in models. that view, poetry is not susceptible of an indefinite perUnder the denomination of literature, I have com- fection. prehended poetry, eloquence, history, and philosophy, The same means may give rise to new effects, if or the study of man as a moral agent. In tracing these they are adapted to different languages. But a pordifferent branches of literature, it may be proper to dis- trait cannot do more than resemble, and our sensations tinguish what appertains to the imagination from that are still limited by our senses. The description of which is the result of thought. It will likewise be ne- spring, of a storm, of night, of beauty, of a battle, may cessary to investigate to what degree both these facul- be susceptible of infinite variety in the details: but the ties are susceptible of perfection: we shall thence be strongest impressions must have been produced by the able to ascertain the principal cause of the superiority first poet who succeeded in painting them. The ele. of the Greeks in the cultivation of the fine arts; and ments may be combined, but cannot be multiplied. we shall farther be helped to discern, whether their Perfection can only be displayed by the shades and graphilosophical acquirements exceeded what the age they dations of light: but he who first of all made himself lived in, what their form of government, and what their master of the primitive colours, will preserve the merit state of civilization, might have led us to expect. It is of invention, and give a brilliancy to his descriptions, very obvious, that some certain limit may be fixed to which his successors will attempt in vain to emulate. the progress of the arts; though the discoveries of a When the contrasts exhibited by nature, and the rethinking mind are without a bound. Now, in moral markable effects which strike alike every beholder, are nature, as soon as some end appears in view, the road first introduced into poetry; they present to the imathat leads to it is speedily travelled over: but where a gination the most energetic pictures, and the most career is boundless, our progress must always appear marked and simple oppositions. The thoughts that are slow. This observation, I think, may apply to a variety infused into poetry, produce an happy development of of other objects besides those that more particularly its beauties; but then it is not mere poetry. Arisrelate to the cultivation of literature. The fine arts are totle, who first defined the term poetry, calls it'an not susceptible of infinite perfection: thus we observe, imitative art.' The powers of reason are daily unthat the imagination which gave them birth, is far more folded, and continually extend themselves to new obbrilliant in its first impressions than in its fairest and jects. In this respect, ages become the inheritors of most feltcitous recollections. ages: generations start from the point at which preModern poetry consists in images and sentiments. ceding generations had stopped; and thinking philoWhen viewed as consisting of imageries, it ranks sophers form, through the lapse of centuries, a chain of among the imitations of nature: when looked upon as ideas which the hand of death does not interrupt. Not INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE, &C. 17 so with poetry. Poetry, at the first outset, may attain imagination, that of Homer, is the production of an to certain beauties that cannot be afterwards surpassed: age renowned for the simplicity of its manners. The and whilst, in the progressive sciences, the last step is progress of poetry is neither accelerated nor retarded the most finished of all; so the power of the imagina- by national virtue or depravity; but it is principally intion is the more prominent, as the exercise of it is the debted to the recent state of nature, and to the infancy more early and fresh. of civilization. The tender years of the poet cannot The ancients were animated and hurried along by an entirely compensate for the juvenile state of the human enthusiastic imagination, the impressions of which they species: those whose ears can be enraptured by poetic were not in the habit of analyzing by patient medita- strains, must be great admirers of the scenes of untion. They took possession of a land hitherto unex- adorned nature: they must feel flexible to her implored, of a country not yet described. Delighted and pressions, and astonishsd at her prodigies. A more surprised with every enjoyment and every production philosophical disposition in an audience, might render which nature held out to them, they placed a god over them more fastidious and nice; but it could never them, to enhance their value, and to secure their dura- contribute to enhance the beauties and charms of tion: their composition was shaped upon no other verse: it is among men-who are easily moved, that modelthan the objects themselves which they were oc- inspiration arms the true poet with the most impressive cupied in delineating; they were guided by no antece- powers. dent system of literature. As long as poetical enthu- The origin of societies, the formation of languages, siasm remains ignorant of its own emotions it derives (the first steps towards the progress of the human from that circumstance alone a strength and a simpli- mind,) are wholly unknown to us; and, in general, city which no effort of study can attain; it is the charm nothing is more wearisome and disgusting than the of a first love. But as soon as the paths of literature metaphysical substitution of facts for the sake of suphave become trodden by the feet of other writers; porting a theory, without ever attempting to lay down then their successors in the same'track cannot be but any positive observation as a fundamental bas:s. But conscious that they are portraying sentiments which here a reflection occurs to me, which, as it is necessariothers had expressed before: they cease to be as- ly connected with the subject I am treating, I will not tonished at what arises in their own minds: they omit to state: namely, that moral nature quickly acknow themselves to be in a phrensy: they judge quires whatever is necessary to the development of themselves to be enthusiasts: and consequently, they itself; in the same manner as physical nature first can no longer indulge the idea of a supernatural inspi- discovers whatever is requisite to its own conservation. ration. The creative power has been prodigal of whatever is With respect to literature, the Greeks may indeed needful. The productions that nourish our bodies, be considered as the first people that ever existed. and the elementary ideas that first form the mind have The Egyptians, who preceded them had undoubtedly in a manner, been holden out spontaneously to man attained much proficiency in'knowledge; but the uni- He speedily came to the knowledge and attainment of formity of the rules to which they adhered, kept them those things which he felt the absolute necessity: but as it were stationary in the field of imagination. The the advancement that followed the discoveries suggestEgyptians certainly did not furnish the Greeks with a ed by this necessity, have, in proportion, been infinitely model for their poetry; the poetry of Greece, is in- more slow. It would seem as.if man, in the researches contestably, the first;* nor is it at all surprising, that necessary to his existence, had been conducted by a the earliest poetry should, perhaps, be that which best divine hand; which delivered him over to his own deserves our praise and approbation: for to that cir- guidance, when he entered upon pursuits of a less cumstance alone does it chiefly owe the superiority it immediate necessity. The theory of a language, for has attained. But this opinion seems to require a farther example the Greek, supposes an infinite variety of corn elucidation. binations far beyond the extent of the metaphysical acAn attentive examination of the three different eras quirements of those writers, who, nevertheless, spoke of Grecian literature, will enable us very distinctly to the language with so much purity and perfection:discover in them the natural progress of the human but language is an instrument indispensably requisite to mind. As faras we are acquainted with the remote pe- the attainment of every other additional light; and riods of Grecian history, we find that the Greeks deri- that instrument by a kind of prodigy, is to be found at ved their first celebrity from their poets. Homer stamp- a period when it'was not in the power of any man to ed the character of his genius on the first epocha of attain, on any other subject whatsoever, to that degree Grecian literature: the age of Pericles was distinguish- of mental abstraction which the composition of a ed by a rapid progress in the drama, in eloquence, in grammar necessarily requires. The Greek writers morality, and by the first dawnings of philosophy. In are not to be looked upon as gifted with that depth of the time of Alexander, a more profound study of the thought which the metaphysical niceties of their lanphilosophical sciences became the principal occupation guage might lead us to suppose: they can be conof those who possessed literary talents. It must in- sidered only as poets; and, as poets, every thing condeed be acknowledged, that the powers of the human spired in their favor. mind require to be unfolded to a certain degree, before The events, the characters, the superstitions, and the it can reach the elevations of poetry; but it must like- customs, which marked the complexion of the hkeroic wise be confessed, that the range of a poetical fancy ages, were peculiarly adapted to the display of poetic must be somewhat checked, when the progress of civi- imaginary. Homer, great and sublime, as he must unblzation and of philosophy has rectified all the errors of doubtedly be acknowledged, is not a man superior to the imagination. all other men: nor does he stand alone in the age he It has been frequently asserted, that the fine arts lived in; nor does he rise so far above those who figurand poetry have most flourished in corrupt ages. This ed many centuries before him. The comprehension of is merely saying, that the greater part of free nations the most exalted genius bears always some proportion have only been employed in the conservation of their to the degree of literary light enjoyed by his contempomorals and of their liberty; while kings and despotic raries; and it may not perhaps be difficult to calculate, chiefs were the voluntary promoters and encouragers of how far the intellectual powers of one man may exceed relaxations and amusements. But the origin of poet- the extent of knowledge, to which the age he lived in ry,-the poem the most remarkable for the display of had attained. Homer carefully collected al the tradiIt is supposed, that the poetry of the Hebrews preceded that of tions that were afloat in his days; and the history of Homer: but it appears that the Greeks were totally unacquaint- the principal events of those days was, in itself, highly ed with it. poetical. The fewer and more abstracted the commu 18 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE nications between different countries were at that time, binations in their writings: they were fond of reciting the more the narrative of facts was emblazoned by the the praise and adulation they were continually receiving. imagination. The ruffian robbers and ferocious ani- Such language by repititon created a degree of enthumal that then infested the earth, gave a higher and siasin, which, heightened by the heat of their climate, more dazzling value to the exploits of heroes, which produced, if the term may be admitted, a poetical dewere found necessary to the individual security of their lirium, that inspired their natural genius with words. fellow-citizens. As the tendency of public events had The Italians derive their divine music from the soula direct influence upon the destiny and happiness of subduing sounds they draw from their own mellifluous each person in particular, gratitude and fear conspired organization; thus it is that the harmony of the Greto kindle enthusiasm. Heroes aud gods were confound- cian language assimilates its poetry to the tones of the ed, because they were each looked up to for the same lyre; by this means uniting music and poetry as necesprotection; and the splendid achievements of war ap- sary and inseparable companions. peared nothing less than supernatural, to the afrighted It has been remarked, that those who are really desenses. Thus the marvellous was mixed with the phy- voted to the science of music, in their admiration of sical as well as with the moral nature. Philosophy, it, seldom, if ever, pay any attention to the words of that is to say, the knowledge of causes and their effects, a fine air; they are more captivated with the undeterstrikes the reflecting mind with admiration, and naturally minate ideas which superior harmony alone inspires. leads the ideas to the great work of creation; but each It is the same with philosophy and poetry; the propart, considered singly, requires a particular description found attention exacted by the former, prevents, in a and explanation. When man acquires the faculty of great measure, that which the latter requires: though foreseeing, be loses in a great measure, his astonish- it certainly does not follow that a poet, in order to inment; enthusiasm, like fear, is generally the effect of dulge his imagination in a favorite pursuit, should resurprise. nounce forever the more abstruse philosophical ideas Bodily strength was by the ancients holden in the he may have acquired: there is little reason to doubt highest veneration; they considered their safety as en- that a mind, sufficiently enlightened to receive perceptirely depending on it. War had not yet become a tions of such a nature, would be continually brought science; and courage with them was much less a back to a retrospect which could not fail to afford satismoral than a physical virtue: the feelings of mankind faction: by the force af such reasoning, it would be with regard to honor, and respect for the aged and de- as impossible for a modern writer to forget what he had fenceless, were the more exalted ideas of the subse- acquired, as it would be for him to see and represent obquent ages. The Grecian heroes publicly accused them- jects in the light in which they were seen and represelves of cowardice: and a beautiful virgin was sacri- sented by the ancients. ficed by the son of Achilles in the eyes of all Greece; Our great writers have united in their poetry all the which, by its applause, declared its approbation of the richness of the language of the present age; but we horrid deed. Poets paint external objects in the most are indebted to ancient literature for the forms that striking point of view; but they cannot draw characters constitute the art of poetry; because it is impossible, where the moral beauty has been kept up without blem- as has been before observed, to pass a certain limit in ish to the conclusion of the poem or tragedy: the rea- the arts,-not even in poetry, esteemed one of the son is plain; Such characters have no existence in na- first amongst them. ture. However sublime Homer may be esteemed in It has been remarked, and with truth, that the greatthe beautiful and regular disposition of events, and the est purity (except in a few instances that will be exgrandeur of his dramatis personae; it has often happen- plained hereafter in speaking of theatrical productions) ed that his commentators have been transported with reigned throughout the first era of literature: but how admiration at some of the most common expressions in could it have been otherwise? It was hardly possible the language: as if the poet had been the first to dis- their taste could have been vitiated whilst they were cover the sense which was attached to them. surrounded by new and pleasing objects; it is the Homer and the other Grecian poets have been holden want of variety that renders the mind whimsical and in high estimation for the variety and splendor of their fastidious: but the Greeks, with the most beautiful imagery, but not for the depth of their reflections. The imagery immediately within their view, and endowed conceptions of a poet should be transmitted in the most with very lively perceptions, gave themselves up to the lively manner to the imagination of his readers, who, it descriptions of what pleased them most; and their fine may be said, must see with his eyes, and commence taste is owing to their pure and uncorrupted enjoyments poets also; they are to journey on with him through of simple nature. Our refined theory, therefore, does immense tracts of space; a rapid succession of events nothing more than analyze their impressions. and imagery, more or less agreeable, is ever passing The Greeks are indebted for their progress in the before their eyes; they believe, they admire, they are fine arts chiefly to their pagan religion: their preastonished, and the curiosity of puerile years is united to tended deities, always near to men, yet at the same the turbulent passions of riper years. Homer describes time always exalted far above them, rendered the every thing with the greatest minuteness, because every beauty and elegance of their paintings a matter of sathing at that period interested his contemporaries: he cred observance: religion also was called to their aid tells you, that' an island is a piece of land surrounded in their master-pieces of literature. The priests and with water;' that corn is the chief support of man;' legislators turned the credulity of the people so entirely and that at mid-day the sun is vertical.' It may be to poetical fiction, that the oracles, and all the mysteries said, that Homer is sometimes given to repetitions; of the Grecian mythology, appeared to be but the creabut he is never tiresome, because he is continually pre- tion of a free and unbiassed imagination. The poets senting new ideas: and he never fatigues his readers and painters also availed themselves of the general beby abstract reasonings. lief, in order to place in the skies the resources and seMetaphysics (the art of generalizing ideas) has great- crets of their art. The habits and customs of the ly aided the progress of the human mind: but, in so Greeks too gave an elevation to their ideas, and a digdoing, the knowledge acquired has lost much of its nity to their manners: the most ordinary employments brilliancy. All objects presented themselves in succes- of their lives were ennobled by the religious ceremonies sion to the eyes of Homer; who however did not make which were mixed with them; their repasts were prehis choice with rigid accuracy, though he never failed ceded by libations of wine offered on the'steps of their to display them to the greatest advantage. doors to render the gods propitious; and they prosThe Grecian poets, in general, gave themselves little trated themselves before Jupiter Hospitalis. The octrouble in connecinmg their ideas, and formed few corn cupations too of agriculture and hunting were much in UPON SOCIETY. 19 fashion with the heroes of antiquity: and these pursuits standing: nor did they belive that, under the influence tended greatly to the advantage of poetry, by cornm- of sincere affection, they could become faithful combining matters of the highest political importance with panions for life; nor, that it would constitute their own the simple images of nature. supreme felicity to devote their time and talents toSlavery, that abominable scourge of the human spe- wards rendering the object of thetr attachment happy. aies, by increasing the power of social distinctions, The total want of this sentiment is discovered, not placed in a still more conspicuous view the grandeur of only in the description of love, but in every circumheroic characters: but the Greeks enjoyed more poeti- stance which regards the delicacy of the heart. cal advantages than any other nation; yet they were Telemachus, when he takes his departure to go in deficient in that which a philosophy more moral and a search of Ulysses, says,' that if he should be apprised sensibility more profound would have added even to of the death of his father, his first care on his return their poetry itself, namely, in the union of ideas and would be to erect a monument to his memory, and pernew impressions. It is a very easy task to follow the suade his mother to take a second husband. The Greeks progress made by the Greeks in philosophy. zEschy- paid all due honor to their dead; the dogmas of their lus, Sophocles, and Euripides, successively introduced religion expressly ordered them to watch over the fu and advanced the moral of dramatic poetry; and the neral pomp; but a melancholy and lasting regret was sole occupation of Socrates, and of Plato, was to in- not in their nature; it is in the hearts of women that culcate virtue and morality. Aristotle made rapid sorrowtakes up its abode. I shall often have occasion strides in the science of analysis; Pindar composed his to remark the changes that have been made in literaodes after the time of Homer and Hesiod, in that period ture since the period when women were admitted to of the age which was most remarkable for superior partake of the moral life of men. compositions in poetry; and even then their ideas of After having attempted to show whence arose the moral virtue were very undecided; they authorized original beauties of the Greek poetry, and the defects anger, revenge, and all the impetuous passions of the which were incident to it at that remote period of civilisoul. Herodotus, who existed about that period, zation; it will remain to examine the extent of influence speaks of virtue and vice with the presaging tongue of the government and the national spirit of Athens had in an oracle: a crime, he declares, appears to him like a the rapid progress of all degrees of literature. It canbad omen; out he never appeals to conscience to prove not be denied, that the legislation of a country is allthat it is actually so. The word virtue had no positive powerful in its influence over the habits, taste, and signification with the Greek writers of that period: talents of its inhabitants; since Lacedaemon existed by Pindar gave the appellation of virtuous to those who the side of Athens, in the same century, under the same excelled and triumphed in the Olympic games, and also climate, with nearly the same religion; and yet nothing, to those who were most skilful in the art of chariot- it must with truth be observed, could be more different racing. Thus were their successes, their pleasures, than their manners and customs. All the institutions the will of their gods, and the duties of man, all con- of Athens were calculated to excite emulation. The founded by their inordinate imaginations; and their Athenians had not always been free: but the spirit of sensitive existence seemed alone capable of making encouragement never ceased to thrive among them in any deep and lasting impression on them. But the in- full vigor: no nation ever paid more homage to discertitude of their morals is no proof of the depravity tinguished talents; and it was the desire of admiration, of that age; it simply. proves how little their ideas that gave birth: to the superior productions which were turned towards philosophy; every thing com- merited it. bined to divert them from meditation, and nothing in- The Greeks, even in their infant state, were the only duced them to return to it. Solid reflections are very civilized country, in the midst of a world of savages; seldom to be met with in the Greek poetry, and much they were few in number, but were looked up to with less do we find a genuine spirit of sensibility. respect by the surrounding nations: they united the Every man, without doubt, at some period of his double advantages of having but a small territory to life, has experienced the painful sensations of a troubled guard, and the great theatre of the world for action. mind, and will feel and acknowledge the energetic de- That emulation which owes its birth to a certainty of scriptions of Homer: but the power of love seems to being known in our own country, excites the ambition have kept pace with the other progresses of the human of immortal honor. Their population was very cirintellect. Certain prostitutes, lost to every sense of cumscribed, and the bonds of slavery, by which nearly shame; slaves, rendered contemptible by their abject one half were kept in subjection, diminished the class state; and women, secluded from the rest of the world, of citizens, and in a still greater degree, restricted the confined within their own houses, entire strangers to the ligfht of knowledge to a small number of competitors, interests of their husbands, and educated in such a who were continually stimulating each other, and mamanner as to render them unfit for comprehending any king comparisons among themselves. idea, any sentiment; these were the only ties of affec- The democratical form of government, which called tion with which the Greeks were acquainted. Little all the men of distinguished talents to situations of or no respect was paid to mothers by their sons. Tel- eminence, naturally occupied their minds with public emachus commands Penelope to keep silence; and affairs: nevertheless, the Athenians did not devote Penelope retires, penetrated with admiration at the themselves entirely to the political interest of their depth of her son's wisdom. country; they loved and cultivated the fine arts. They The Greeks never expressed, nor were they indeed were jealous of preserving their rank as the first among acquainted with, the first and most noble of the senti- the enlightened nations; and the hatred and contempt ments of the human mind,-friendship in love! Nor, in which they held those whom they esteemed the bartill women were called up to share the destiny of their barians, strengthened and confirmed them in their taste husbands, were they supposed by them to be possessed for the fine arts and belles lettres. It would not cerof souls capable of as great and heroic deeds as their tainly be much better for mankind at large, if the light own. Love, as depicted by the ancients, was a dis- of knowledge was more generally spread throughout temper, a spell thrown over them by the gods; it was the world: but the emulation of the favored few who a kind of delirium, whicn sought for no moral perfec- possess it, is heightened by its partial distribution: the tion in the object beloved. What they understood by life of a celebrated man was more glorious in ancient fiendship, existed orly between ien; but the Greeks times; but that of an obscure individual is more happy did not know, and the manners of the age they lived in in this modern period. did not permit them even to imagine, that women were The predominant passion of the Athenians was beings capable of equaling themn iii sense and under- amusement: and so much did they addict themselves 20 INFUENCE OF ft'AT ERATURE to this, that they decreed a sentence of death agains. jI glide imper( eptibly into celebrity, and to steal from any person who should propose to employ, even towar;d; men their admiration:-it is important, not only to the military service of their country, any part of the calm their apprehensions by assuming the greatest humoney appropriated for the public festivals. Thfy mi:ity, but a total indifference to applause must also be were not, like the Romans, inspired with an ardent de- affected, if they wish to obtain it. The comprehensive sire of conquest. They repelled the barbarians indeed; m;nd is wounded by such restraint; elevated genius but this they did merely with a view of preserving their requires more latitude properly to expand itself, and is own superior taste and manners uncontaminated: and therefore disgusted by being thus cramped; and talents, the highest value they set on liberty was, that it pro- which might have proved of the utmost consequence to cured them a free and uninterrupted enjoyment of all mankind, are often crushed before they are sufficiently kinds of pleasures. Neither were they possessed of understood. It is true, that, among the Greeks, envy that abhorrence of tyranny which a certain elevation of sometimes existed between rival candidates for fame: soul, and dignity of manners, gave to the Romans. but in these days it has passed from them to the specThey took no care to secure a permanency in their le- tators, and, by dne of the most unaccountable caprices gislation; they simply wished to lighten it of every that ever affected the mind of man, the bulk of manfatigue, and lay their chiefs under the necessity of kind are jealous of the efforts made with an intention of pleasing, and keeping possession of the affections of adding to their pleasures, and to secure their approba the people. tion. All kinds of talents were applauded with rapture by the Athenians: and the homage paid to their great men, amounted almost to adoration. Nothing serves CHAPTER II. as a greater proof of the distrust with which their insatiable love of admiration and propensity to enthusiasm OF THE GRECIAN TRAGEDIES. inspired them, than their Ostracism, or law of exile. Nothing was left undone that could create a thirst for It is from theatrical productions in particular, that glory, or add brilliancy to fame. The tragic authors, we are enabled to form an accurate idea of the manbefore they commenced their career, offered sacrifices ners, customs, and laws of the country, in which thev on the tomb of.sEschylus. Pindar and Sophocles, with were composed and represented with success. A dratheir lyres in their hands, appeared at the public spec- matic author, to acquire the reward of his merit, must, tacles crowned with laurel, and covered with the desig- independently of his literary abilities, be thoroughly nation of the oracle. acquainted with men, their manners and their prejuThe art of printing, so favorable to the progress and dices; and possess, in a certain degree, a knowledge of diffusion of knowledge, is prejudicial to poetry; which the politics of his co;,ntry. may be studied, analyzed, and corrected, till much of The fundamental bases of tragedy are affliction, and its native beauty is destroyed by refinement:-whereas death, which are always softened and divested of their the Greeks sung their simple harmony, and received its usual terrors by religion. We will now proceed to original impressions accompanied with music, when the examine, how far the tragedies of the Greeks were inheart was exhilarated and expanded by conviviality, fluenced by their notion of religion, and what degree ot which inspired that festivity which men of kindred mind power it possessed over the minds of men. and manners never fail of communicating to each other. The religion of the Greeks was in itself highly theaSome of the characters of the Grecian poetry may be trical: we are told, that the'Eumenides,' a tragedy attributed to the manner of its success; their composi- of 2Eschylus, produced one time so wondrous an imtions were even read in due form to the public: melan- pression, that pregnant woman could not endure the choly and reflection, those solitary occupants of the spectacle: but it was the terrific view of the infernai mind, are little suited to a crowd and the bustle of life. regions, and the power of superstition, more than the When men are assembled together, their spirits are splendor of the drama, that caused these violent emoexhilarated, and the imagination naturally becomes tions. more susceptible of receiving lively and agreeable im- The poet, in exciting the different passions of the pressions; of this truth the poets were sensible, and human mind, disposed of its faith in religious matters turned such knowledge to their own advantage. The at the same time. If this tragedy, which made so deep monotony of the Pindaric hymns, which is so irksome an impression on the minds of the Greeks, had been to us, was esteemed quite the reverse at the Grecian represented in another country, and in the presence of festivals. Some airs, which have produced the greatest an audience of a different persuasion, the effects would effect imaginable on the minds of those inhabiting dreary have been totally changed. We shall have occasion to and mountainous countries, were artless, and composed observe, in examining the state of literature in the of very few notes. It was, perhaps, the same with the northern countries, what kind of emotions were proideas contained in the lyric poetry of the Greeks; for duced by a religion of a different description: and I similar imagery, sentiments, and harmony, were certain shall endeavor to explain, in treating of modern literaof drawing the desired applause from the multitude. ture, that the Christian religion is in itself too awful The approbation of the Greeks was expressed in and mysterious to be introduced with propriety upon much more lively terms than the deliberate commenda- the stage. Our dramatic writers can only hope to extion of the moderns. A great deal of rivalry must ne- cite an interest, and move the passions, by an energetic cessarily exist in a country where such great encourage- representation of them. But I shall at present confine ment was given to distinguished talents; but this myself to a farther description of the Greeks, endeavorcompetition, in itself, contributed to the advancement ing to elucidate what impressions the sight of sufferof the sciences. The most glorious triumph the Greeks ings and death made upon their minds, and in what mancould obtain, excited much less hatred than the limited ner they considered the illicit wanderings of the pasapplause resulting from the niggard hand of modern sions. criticism. The religion of the Greeks attributed to their preAmongst the ancients, genius was allowed a certain tended gods a supreme power of inflicting remorse on degree of self-approbation; and those who fancied they the guilty: and their theatres represented the torments had any claim to renown, were induced without fear to of criminals in so horrid a manner, as to fill the minds announce themselves as candidates for fame; the na- of the spectators with an insuperable terror: by means tion was even pleased to witness what they esteemed also of this sensation, the legislators were enabled to laudable ambition: but at the present period, superior exercise a greater degree of power, and the principles talents are obliged to assume the disguise of mediocrity, of morality were more firmly binding among men. UPON SOCIETY. 21 The image of death presented a much less gloomy gion for the horrific, and by their faith for the wonder. aspect to the ancients than to the moderns: their be- ful. The Greeks had not to encounter the difficullief in paganism calmed their fears, by representing a ties of the dramatic art; they did not attempt to draw future state in the most brilliant and pleasing colors. characters with that philosophical truth attempted by The ancients materialized it by their recitals, their the moderns; the contrast of virtue and vice, the strugdescriptions, and their paintings; and the abyss which gles of conscience, the mixture and opposition of sentinature has placed between our existence and immor- ments, which in these days must be delineated in order tality, was as it were filled up by their mythology. to interest the human heart, was by them hardly underThe Greeks were much less susceptible of calamity stood; the words of an oracle were at all times suffithan any other nation of antiquity; their political in- cient for the Greeks. stitutions, and national spirit, disposed their minds more Orestes murdered his mother, and Electra encouraged to pleasure and contentment; and examples of suicide him without a moment's hesitation or regret; the rewere much less frequent with them than with the Ro- morse of Orestes, after the death of Clytemnestra, did mans; but the fortitude which enabled them to support not arise from the struggles he had experienced before misfortune, is chiefly to be attributed to their supersti- the act was committed: the oracle of Apollo had comtion. Their oracles, their dreams, their presentiments, manded the sacrifice! but when it was accomplished, and every circumstance which throws into the scale of the Furies unrelentingly seized the criminal. The senhuman events the extraordinary and the unforeseen, timents of the man are with difficulty distinguished did not suffer them to credit that any irrevocable ca- through his actions: the reflections, the doubts, the lamity could happen. Thus was despair kept at a dis- deliberations, and the fears, are all left for the chorus tance by hope, which, even in the most perilous situa- to develop: the heroes act only by order of the gods. tions, suggested, that some miracle might still be ex- Racine, in some of his compositions written in imitaerted in their favor. The calculation of moral proba- tion of the Greeks, explains the crimes that were combilities might frequently have destroyed the delusion: mended by the gods, by reasons drawn from the passions but when the mind once imbibes supernatural ideas, of the human mind, and places a moral development by the impossible appears to have no existence. The the side of fatalism: this explanation was certainly Greeks never felt, and could not therefore have ex- necessary in a country whose inhabitants had no belief plained, that dejection and depression of spirits so in paganism; but with the Greeks, the tragic effects mournfully expressed in the writings of Shakspeare. were still more terrible, as they were founded upon suThe great men of antiquity were exposed to severe pernatural causes; and the confidence annexed to them trials; but they were never forgotten or overlooked by by the Greeks rendered the mind effeminate, and detheir country: great misfortunes astonished them, and prived it of its independence. Every sentiment was they imputed their origin to supernatural causes, and decided by a religious dogma, in which they had such the immediate displeasure of their gods. The religion faith, that every tree, and every fountain, was personiof the Greeks is, to us, nothing more than poetry; for fled as a divinity. Nobody could refrain from showing t is impossible that their tragedies can ever inspire us pity to one who might appear before him, bearing an with the same emotions they themselves experienced olive-branch adorned with little fillets, or who could apin hearing them recited. The Greek authors grounded proach near enough to touch the sacred altar: this was the their success on a number of tragical events which co- sole subject of the tragedy of the' Suppliants.' The incided with the dark credulity of the age in which they belief of the Greeks in the fabulous, gave a poetical elewere written; and thus supplied by religious terrors gance to every action of their lives; but it banished their want of more natural emotions. habitually every thing that had in it any irregularity, Almost every circumstance with the Greeks had every thing unforeseen and irresistible, from the heart.* novelty to recommend it; even the passion of grief, if Love, with the Greeks, was like all other violent the term may be admitted, was in its infancy. The passions,-it was nothing more than a fatality. In expression of hope and ardent expectation was always their tragedies, as well as in their poems, we are concertain of exciting a tender compassion; and the assu-tinually struck with observing how lttle they underrance that the audience would take the most lively in- stood of the real affections of the heart, before women terest in every species of distress, gave a confidence to were called upon to feel and to judge. Alcestes gave the poet: he did not apprehend (what ought and would his life for Admetus; but during his indecision, was he be feared in these more enlightened days, even in fic- not urged in the strongest manner by Euripides to en tion,) that he should fatigue his hearers by his plaintive gage the father of Admetus to devote himself in her tale; as if misfortune, represented on the tablets of the place The Greeks could paint a generous action, imagination, were still in the presence of egotism. but they were ignorant of the pleasure derived from The distress of the Greeks wore an august appear- braving death for a beloved object; neither did they ance; it furnished the painter with noble attitudes, and conceive what jealousy may be attached to the being the poets with images which commanded respect; it without a rival in this personal sacrifice. also gave to religion a new and more solemn appearance: also gave to religion a new and more solemn appearance: It has been said with truth, that the greater part of yet with all these advantages, the sentiments inspired It has been said with truth, that the geater part of yet with all these advantages, the sentiments inspired the dramatic writings of the Greeks would be ill adaptby the modern tragedies are more profound and lasting. the dramatic ritings of the Greeks would be ill adaptThe representations of later times do not simply offer ed t he modern theats in France, were they to be a picture of majestic distress, but distress, solitary, and literally translated: notwithstanding, so many original without support,-distress such as nature and socitybeauties would not fail to excite admiration; but the have made it. total want of delicacy in the exceptionable passages The Greeks did not, like us, require a continual could not be endured at this enlightened period. We change of situation and contrast of characters; the ef- may be easily convinced of this truth by the comparison of the two Phawdras. Racine once attempted to introfect of their tragedies was not brightened by the oppo-of the two Phadras. Racine once a ttempted to introsition of shades; their dramatic art resembled their duce love upon the French stage, in imitation of the paintings, where the most vivid colors and the most Greeks; a love that was to be attributed to the vengevarious objects were placed upon the same plan, with- ance of the gods: nevertheless, on the same subject, out any observance of perspective. The greater part how much difference may be observed in the manners of the Grecian tragedies being founded on the action' It happens sometimes, that the mythological dogmnassin and will of the gods, an exact appearance of truth, the the writings of the ancients, add to the effect of moving situa. gradation of natural events, was dispensed with, and tions; but it happens more frequently, that the power of these the greatest effect was produced without any progres- doamas dispenses with the examination of the springs whence arise the emotions of the heart; and the passions are consequent. sive gradation. The mind was prepared by their reli- ly neither developed nor duly considered 22 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE and customs of the age 1 Euripides might have said to Modern literature aimed at greater excellence, or at Phldra, least, to differ from the ancients: it is certain that the' Ce n'est plus une ardeur dans mos veines cach6e, Greeks, as they had nature alone for their model, might' Clest Venus toute entibre B sa prose attachee.' sometimes be accused of inelegance and coarseness of The following lines would never have been thought of expression; but they could not be charged with affecby a Greek: tation. The Greeks pursued the straight path of lite-'Ils ne se verront plus;- rary fame, and their efforts never failed of success' ils s' aimeront toujours.' It may be said, that the productions which they inThe Greek tragedies were at that era much inferior troduced upon the stage were extended to an unreasonto our modern compositions of the same description; able length: but they were perfectly adapted to the because the dramatic talent of this time consists not age in which they were written: the spectators had only of the art of poetry, but a profound knowledge of not as yet learned to become weary at these representthe passions; which clearly discovers that the improve- ations; their attention being kept alive, they were far ment in tragedy arises from the increased progress of from wishing a rapid transition in the scenes presented the human intellect. to them; they were pleased with the details, and would The Greeks are not less admirable in this kind of have been dissatisfied had they been abridged. ambition than other nations: this truth is farther con- The Greeks, according to the system of the present firmed, when we compare their success with the period times, committed many errors with respect to women: in which they flourished. They transferred to their in their tragedies, men appeared in female characters theatres every thing that was beautiful in the imagina- and they were incapable of understanding the force and tion of the poets, with the characters of antiquity and delicacy, annexed to charms, which the moderns attach the worship of their gods. And philosophy was much to the persons of the softer sex. It must however be farther advanced in the time of Pericles, than in that confessed, with the exceptions of a few criticisms, that of Homer: their dramatic writers began also to acquire the Greek tragedies possess, with much beauty, a persome depth. fect regularity. People so impetuous in their political There is a very visible improvement in the three discussions, bad in all their arts, comedy excepted, a great tragedians,.Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides; dignified moderation: it is to their religion that we though there is too much distance between 2Eschylus must attribute their stability in whatever was noble or and the two latter, to be able to account for his superi- sublime. ority by the natural progress of the human mind in so The inhabitants of Athens did not pursue the present short a space of time: but.2Eschylus had witnessed practice of the English theatrical writers; they objected only the prosperity of Athens: Sophocles and Euri- to the grotesque and vulgar scenes of common life being pides beheld the reverse; their dramatic genius was mixed with grand and heroic characters. The Greeks brought forward and ripened: calamity too has its fe- represented their tragedies in those festivals which were,cundity. consecrated to their gods; they were generally founded No moral conclusion can be drawn from the works upon religion, and a pious veneration suggested the of -Eschylus; he scarcely ever unites the sufferings of propriety of separating from their compositions, as they the body with those of the mind by any reflections. A did from their sacred temples, every impure and ignoshriek, a groan, a lamentation without any explanation, ble idea. The heroes, as described by their dramatic expresses the impression of the moment, and presents writers, had not that steady elevation of character which us with a portrait of what the mind was, before reflec- was given them by Racine, but this difference cannot tion had placed within us a witness of our interior be attributed to a popular condescension; all the poets emotions. portrayed their characters in this manner, before monSophocles often mixes philosophical axioms with the archy and chivalry had given another turn to their ideas. language of the heart. Euripides islavish ofhis maxims The greater part of the dramatic character of the in the discourses of his personages, without their al- Greeks was taken from the Iliad, or from the Heroic ways according with their particular situations and history of that period. The impressive idea which character. Homer gave of his heroes, was of singular utility to the In perusing the works of these three great tragic dramatic writers of that age: the names alone of Ajax, writers, we are made acquainted with their personal Achilles, and Agamemnon, produced an emotion with talents, and the development and progress of those of which the remembrance of those heroes always inspired the age they lived in;* but not one of them equaled the the Greeks. The greatest interest was next excited perfection of the English - writers, in displaying melan- by their situations; their fate seemed the fate of each choly sensations, and the extent of human wo. The individual, and their cause was the cause of the nation: modern writers excel in pathetic representation; they the dramatic poets, in representing them, had only to are aware of the tender sources that render men's hearts display the idea already received: they were not under accessible to pity; and it requires a knowledge of cal- the necessity of creating both character and situation; amity to create an interest sufficiently strong to present the greatest respect and interest were previously exit with success to the view of the mind. cited for the personages they wished to introduce. The numerous rewards bestowed by the Greeks on Our modern writers have been indebted to the august those who were possessed of a dramatic genius, en- celebrity of the tragic personages of antiquity; their couraged, in a great measure, the progress of the art; finest and most natural passions are copied from the but the exultation arising from the homage that was Greeks: it is not because they are superior to the paid to them, proved, in a great measure, destructive moderns, but the Greeks certainly first pointed out the to theatrical talents. The poet, rendered vain by ex- predominant affections and passions, the leading featravagant applause, was himself in too tranquil a dis- tures of which must ever remain the same. position of mind to give dignity to distress, and ade- Our tragic representations of maternal tenderness quate strength to melancholy expression. In the mo- have all in some degree a resemblance to that of Clydern tragedies, we are led to perceive by the character temnestra, and every filial sacrifice must bring to our of the style, that the author has himself experienced remembrance that of Antigone. some of the calamities which he represents. In short, there exists in moral nature, as in the light The Grecian tragedies were remarkable for their of the sun, a certain number of rays which will produce purity of language. As they preceded all other writers, either distinct or opposite colors, which you may vary they could not have been imitators; their style at first by mixing them; but a single new one cannot be cremightbe considered as being too simple,rather than too ated. The three tragic authors of Greece wrote all studied. upon the same subject, without giving themselves the UPON SOCIETY. 23 trouble of inventing any thing new; it was neither ex- sive knowledge of the human heart, than tragedy: it pected nor desired by the spectators, nor thought of by is less difficult to portray what so frequently strikes the poet: and had they even attempted it, they might the imagination as the picture of distress: it may not have succeeded. The happy conception of extra- also be admitted, that tragic characters bear a certain ordinary events is much more the production of tradi- resemblance toward each other, which excludes critical tion than of the poets: a connection of ideas may con- observation; and the models of heroic history have duct us to philosophical discoveries; but our first de- clearly pointed out the method which they must purvices and inventions, with regard to poetry, are almost sue. always the effects of chance. But it was the labour of ages to bring the underHistory, customs and manners, and even the popu- standing to that requisite degree of taste and superior lar tales, assist the imagination of the writers. Sopho- philosophy, which justly distinguished the dramatic cles would never have invented the subject of Tancred works of Moliere; and even had as great a genius from his own conceptions, nor Voltaire that of CEdipus. as this author possessed existed among the Athenians Nothing novel in the marvelous can be discovered, they would not have discovered the beauty of his when the credulity of the multitude withdraws its aid. productions, or even have understood his superior The importance given to the chorusses, which stoed merit. forward as the representatives of the people, is almost We look back with astonishment while reading the the only trace of republican spirit which can be re- plays of Aristophanes, and find it difficult to conceive it marked in the Grecian tragedies; their comedies in- possible that productions of such a nature could gain deed frequently recall the recollection of the politics of so great a degree of applause in the age of Pericles; the nation; but their tragedies were always fined with and likewise that the Greeks, who possessed a suthe misfortunes and distresses of kings,* which in- perior taste in the fine arts, could be entertained with terested the spectators in their fate. A parade of re- vulgarity of so disgusting a nature. We must thence gal pomp was still observed at Athens, although they conclude that their taste was only good when it was loved and preferred a republican government. But it annexed to the imagination; but defective in what does not appear that the Greeks were possessed of that arose from morality and sentiment. The Greeks were enthusiasm for liberty by which the Romans were dis- fond of every species of the beautiful, yet they erred tinguished; this arose probably from their having had through want of delicacy, and even of the decency due less difficulties to struggle with in the obtaining it. to society. They had not, like the Romans, to expel a race of cruel The Athenians were ever inspired with more enkings, the very remembrance of whom was capable of thusiasm than respect for great and sublime characters; inspiring them with the greatest horror. The love of religion, power, misfortune genius, and whatever struck liberty was with the Greeks a habit, a manner of exist- the imagination, excited in them a degree of fanaticism; ence, but not a predominant passion. but these impressions were of short duration, and gave The Athenians were partial to their own institutions place with equal facility to any other of as lively deand to their country; though it was not with them as scription. with the Romans, an exclusive sentiment: they re- Whatever requires to be performed by slow and ceived new pleasures in whatever was represented cautious degrees, does not accord with democracy. before them. Their tragedies were a true character- As it was by the spectators that the actors were to be istic of their democracy; their principal subjects were heard and applauded, authors were obliged, in a great filled with reflections upon the rapid reverse of fate, measure, to conform to their taste, and amuse them by and the uncertainty of fortune. The sudden and low incidents and sallies of wit; which, however, too frequent revolutions of a popular government often frequently have a similar effect on those in higher stalead the mind to observations of this nature. tions. Racine did not imitate the Greeks in this respect. Tragedy was less affected by this desire to please the Under the reign of a monarch so arbitrary as Louis multitude: it formed, as has been before observed, a XIV, his own decisions usurped the place of fate, part of their religious festivals. Besides, it is not and consequently no one dared to suppose him necessary to consult either the taste or knowledge guilty of caprice; but in a country where the people of the people in order to touch their feeling; the predominate, that which most impresses the mind, is soft emotion of pity finds the same way to the heart the fate of individuals; their sudden transitions being in all ranks and conditions. It is to mankind at equally rapid and terrible, as they frequently fall from large that tragedy is addressed; but comedy relates the pinnacle of grandeur into the abyss of adversity. only to the precise period in which it is written: —the The Greek tragic authors always endeavor to revive people, the manners, and the customs must be underthose impressions which have been considered as the stood and consulted, in order to obtain popular success. most affecting spectacles to the people who are to listen Mirth is derived from habit: but tears are drawn from to them; -the heart is often sensibly touched by retro- nature. spect, at least such a measure is always a step The principles of morality commonly serve to regutowards it. It is not necessary in sentiment as in late the taste of the lower orders of society, and often the works of lighter fancy, to arrest the attention by to enlighten them even in literature. The people of novelty. No; when an audience is to be melted into Athens did not possess that scrupulous morality which tears, it is the past which must be recalled. can supply the place of the finest principles: they resigned themselves entirely to religious superstitions, CHAPTER III which afforded them a very imperfect idea of the reality of virtue; they transgressed all bounds of principle and decency in the eager pursuit of their amusements. The exclusion of women from the Greek theatres Comedy requires a much deeper and more exten- was one of the chief causes of its imperfections. * Barthelemy in his celebrated travels of the young Anachar- The authors have no motive for concealment, there sis, says, that the Athenians represented the misfortunes of was no restriction of language necessary to be obkings upon their theatres, in order to fortify the republican served; and nothingbeing left to the imagination, they spirit ofthe people; but I cannot think, that to be continually representing the misery and distress of kings. was the most proper were consequently deficient in that grace, elegance, and orlikely method to destroy the love of regal power: great dis. modesty, which is so striking to the modern reader. It asters are in themselves highly dramatic, they affect and take is also a fact, that the masks, speaking-trumpets, and deep root in the imagination; this then cannot be the means all the absurd fantastical customs of the ancient of conquering such prejudices, or indeed those of any other theatres, disposed the mindlike caricaturesi drawing kind. theatres, disposed the mind, like caricatures in drawing 24 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE to study the grotesque and unnatural; but were totally with personalities against existing characters; which contrary to the simplicity of nature. was an attack so gross in its nature, that no man of Aristophanes sometimes availed himself of the gross honor in our times could reconcile it to his feelings. jests and buffoonery of the populace: he likewise pre- In these days, we count too little upon admiration, sented the reverse of what was vulgar and inelegant; not to be apprehensive of slander; and are too readily but it was never a clear representation of situations, forsaken by our friends, not to- guard against the or an accurate description of characters that he ex- machinations of our enemies. In Athens, persons acplained; nor did he point out the irregularities of man- cused could make themselves known, and justify kind to the ridicule of society. themselves before the nation at large: but in our nuThe greater part of the dramatic works of Aristo- merous associations, we could only oppose the tardy phanes were relatively connected with the events of light of literature to the animated ridicule of the the times in which they were written: they had not, at theatre; and against such an unequal contest, no charthat early period, acquired the art of exciting popular acter, no authority, could maintain its ground. curiosity, by a representation of romantic intrigue. The republic of Athens itself owed its subjection The comic art, in its state of Grecian simplicity, cer- entirely to the abuse of the comic powers; and the tainly could not have existed without having recourse excessive love of the Athenians for that species of to allusions; they were not in possession of a suffi- amusement which increased their inordinate desire of cient knowledge of the secret passions of the human procuring constant diversion and frivolous occupations. heart, to create any interest in the recital of them; The comedy of' Nubes' prepared the minds of the but it was always an easy matter to please the people, populace for the accusation of Socrates. Demosthenes, by turning their chiefs into ridicule: thus were com- in the following century, could not draw the attention positions founded on the circumstances of the moment, of the people from their lighter pursuits to engage them and they were certain of being received with applause; against Philip. WAVhat was most seriously feared for but they were not calculated to obtain a lasting repu- the republic, was the too great ascendancy which might tation. be acquired by one of its great men: but that which The portraits of living characters, and the epigrams tended to its overthrow was its total indifference for upon contemporary events, like a family jest, were them all. merely the whim and success of the day, which could After having sacrificed their glory to their amusenot fail to fatigue and disgust the subsequent ages. ments, the Athenians saw even their independence Nothing could he more likely than that representations ravished from them, and with it-those very enjoyments of this nature should annually decrease in the merit which they had preferred to the defence of their ascribed to them; because memory fails in retracing liberties. the subjects therein alluded to, and the judgment by this means is inadequate to unravel the beauty and gaiety of such writtngs: whenever it requires reflection in order to comprehend the point and sense of a CHAPTER IV. jest, the effect of it must be entirely lost. But in tragedy the case is very different; the spec- OF THE PHILOSOPHY AND ELOQUENCE OF THE GROEEKS. tators consider nothing farther than the illusion; they are sufficiently interested in the hero of the piece, to Philosophy and eloquence were often united among understand foreign manners and customs, and to tran- the Athenians; the systems, metaphysics, and politics sport themselves ideally into countries and places en- of Plato, contributed much less to his reputation than tirely new: the emotion of which thev are susceptible, the beauty and grandeur of his style. The Greek inclines them to conceive and adopt every thing pre- philosophers were, generally speaking, extremely elosented to their view. In comedy the imagination of quent upon the subject of abstract ideas. the audience is quiet and tranquil, and therefore does not I must, however, first examine their system of phiafford the least assistance to the author: the impres- losophy, apart from their eloquence: and my design is, sion of mirth is so light and spontaneous, that the most to investigate the progress of the human understanding - feeble efforts, or the slightest absence of mind, is a knowledge of philosophy can alone point this out enough to prevent the effect. with any degree of certainty. Aristophanes grounded his plays on the circum- Whether in the poetical department, or in the instances of the day: because the Greeks were destitute teresting political discussions of a free nation, eloof that philosophical reflection, which admits the ready quence had attained that degree of perfection with the comprehension of characters, and which would have Greeks, which has served for a model to the subsequent enabled them to understand a composition that would ages, even down to the present time: but their phihave proved interesting to men of all ages and nations. losophy appears to me much inferior to that of their The comedies of Menander and the characters of imitators, the Romans. The modern philosophy has Theophrastus made a great progress; the one in still greater superiority over that of the Greeks; and theatrical decency, and the other in the observations of this is no more than might be expected, when we conthe human heart: but both these writers had the ad- sider the advantages that must be derived from the vantage of being in repute a century later than Aristo- lapse of two thousand years. phanes. In a country where democracy is established, The Greeks improved themselves in a most remarkauthors in general are seduced to introduce upon the able manner during the course of three centuries: in stage illusions to public affairs, by the irresistible hope the last, which was that of Alexander, Menander, Theoand charm of popular applause; which will always phrastus, Euclid, and Aristotle, they were evidently prove inimical to the theatrical productions of a free distinguished by their progress, in every species of repeople. I am ignorant whether such representations finement: but one of the principal and final causes of are a sign of liberty; but I am certain they are the de- the great events which are known to us, appears to be struction of the dramatic art. the civilization of the world. I shall explain this asserThe Athenians, as I have before observed, were ex- tion more at large elsewhere: at present, what is im-, tremely inclined to enthusiasm; but they were not the mediately necessary to be observed is, simply, how far less partial to that species of satire which insulted men the Greeks were accessary to the diffusion of knowof superior station and abilities; the comedies of ledge, and the means they pursued in order to excite Athens, like the journals of France, were favorable to that persevering spirit necessary to its attainment. the display of a democratic levelling spirit; but with The Greek philosophers instituted sects;-an expethis difference, that the plays at that period were filled dient which proved as useful to them, as it would be UPs"N SOCIETY. 25 prejudicial to us; their searches after truth included The smaller the progress they had made in science, the every thing that could strike the imagination. The less they were acquainted with the extent of the human walks, beneath the expanse of a serene sky, where the understanding. The philosophers delighted themselves young pupils would gather round their preceptor, and particularly in the unknown, and the inexplicable. listen to the sublime sentiments he uttered;-the har- Pythagoras declared that' there was vothinrg real, but monious language which elevated the soul, even before what was spiritual; and that the material had no existit was fully impressed with the sense of what was ence.'-Plato, that writer whose imagination was so spoken;-the mystery used at Eleusis in the discovery brilliant, is continually reverting to whimsical metaphyand communication of certain principles of morality;- sics relative to the world, to men, and to love; where all these things combined to give the greatest effect to the physical laws of the universe, and the verification their lessons of philosophy. The world, in its infancy, of sentiments, are never observed. There is nothing was taught truth by the assistance of the marvelous in more wearisome than the study of that species of metamythology. Thus was a taste for study produced and physics, which has neither facts for its foundation, nor preserved by a thousand different ways; and the enco- method for its guide: and it is surely impossible not to miums bestowed on the disciples of philosophy, greatly be convinced of this truth, in reading the philosophical augmented their number. writings of the Greeks, notwithstanding we may fully Nothing contributes more to give us an enlarged idea admit the charms of their language. of the reputation of the ancients, than the astonishing The ancients were better skilled in morals than in effect produced by their works; but this is by no means philosophy: an accurate study of the sciences is necesan accurate rule by which they should be judged. The sary to rectify metaphysics: but nature has placed in limited number of enlightened men which Greece held the heart of man a guide to conduct him to virtue: out to the admiration of the rest of the world, the great nevertheless, nothing could be more unsettled and undifficulties attending nautical discoveries, the ignorance connected than the moral code of the ancients. Pythagoin which the chief part of the community remained with ras seems to attach the same importance to proverbs, regard to the reality of facts collected by the authors, to counsels of prudence and of dexterity, as he did to the rarity of their manuscripts, all contributed to inspire the precepts of virtue. Rank and morals were conthe most lively curiosity for works of celebrity. The founded by many of the Greek philosophers: the love multiplied testimonies of the general interest excited of study, and the performance of the first duties, wsere the philosophers to overcome the greatest difficulties classed together. In their enthusiasm for the faculties that were annexed to their studies, before they were of the mind, they allowed them a place of esteem beabridged by method and generalizations. Modern fame yond every thing else: they excited men to the acquirewould not have been considered an adequate compen- ment of admiration; but they never looked with an eye zation, for such extraordinary eflbrts of the mind: no- of penetration into the heart. thing less than the brilliant honors conferred on genius I am doubtful whether the term happinecss occurs by the ancients, could have encouraged them to perse- once in any of the Greek writings, according to the vere in a task so laborious. It is granted, that the an- modern acceptation of the word: nor did they annex cient philosophers acquired a more shining reputation any great importance to private virtues; the political than the moderns; but it is also true, that the moderns, was, with them, a branch of the moral: their meditain metaphysics, in morals, and in most of the sciences, tions on men were made in society; and they seldom are infinitely superior to the ancients. or ever judged them, but with relation to their fellowThe philosophers of antiquity may be said to have citizens: and as the free states were but thinly peopled, refuted some of the errors prevalent at that era; but and the women not considered as forming any part of they were not themselves entirely exempt from many it,* the actual existence of the men consisted in their of them. While we must admit, that the most absurd social relations: it was to complete this political existopinions were generally established, even the writers ence, that the studies of the philosopher were excluwho appeal to the light of reason, cannot entirely divest sively applied. Plato, in his Republic, proposes, as a themselves of the prejudicee by which they are encom- means of promoting the happiness of the human race, passed. Sometimes they substitute one error in the the extirpation of conjugal and paternal affection, by a place of another, which they had successfully combated; community of women and children. A monarchical at other times, in making their attack upon generally government, and the extent of modern powers, have received opinions, they are but too apt to retain a degree disunited the greater part of the inhabitants from the of superstition peculiar to themselves. Casual words interest of public affairs: they have retired into the boappeared very formidable to Pythagoras, Socrates, and som of their families, and have not diminished their Plato, who had faith in the existence of familiar spirits; happiness by the exchange: but every circumstance and Cicero was alarmed at the presages conveyed in excited the ancients to continue in the path of politics, dreams. But when calamity or distress of any descrip- and the very first object of their moral was an encouragetion bears heavily on the human mind, it is difficult, if ment to pursue it. What is truly beautiful in their not impossible, entirely to eradicate the degree of su- doctrine does not contradict the assertion. If it is reperstition it is naturally inclined to admit: the interior quisite, in all situations, for men to exercise a great sensation that should abolish such weakness, is not suf- power over themselves; it is, above all, to those in ficiently strong; and the mind never feels itself secure, public stations that this power is necessary. How adunless depending for support upon something independ- mirably is this moral, which consists in the tranquillity ent of itself. Those who minutely study their own and vigor of mind and the enthusiasm of wisdom, set hearts, will find that, in every calamity of life, they are forth in the apology of Socrates and in the Phoadon. If more inclined to rely on the opinion of others than on it were possible to instill into the mind that accurate their own ideas and reflections; and to seek elsewhere order of ideas, it seems as if it would be invincibly for the motive of their hopes and fears, rather than ap- armed against mankind. ply to a more certain guide,-that of their own reason. The ancients, it is true, often founded part of their A man, however superior his faculties may be, feels it support in error; but after all, they followed what they a difficult task, by his own efforts, to free himself from thought and acknowledged to be right: but what is a portion of the supernatural, which is inherent in his wanting at the present era, is an insurrection against nature: the nation at large must unite with philosophy egotism; for the moral virtue of each individual is against absurd terrors and superstitions, or it would be found to centre in his own personal interest. impossible even for philosophy itself to be successful. The Greek philosophers were very limited in their The minds of the Greeks were foolishly engrossed * There is not to be found, in the characters ofTheophrastu, by researches into the different systems of the world. a single description of a female. '6 INFLUENCE: OF LITERATURE number; and being unable to obtain any assistance inexperience of life rendered them ignorant, whether from the light of former ages, they were compelled to the then state of existence could ever be altered; and make their studies universal: it was therefore impos- they transmitted to posterity moral truths as well as sible for them to proceed to a great length in any par- physical facts, fine discourses as well as bad actions, ticular pursuit; and they wanted that method which and their milde'st laws as well as the commands of can only be acquired by an accurate knowledge of the tyrants, without analyzing either the characters or the sciences. principles: it might almost be said, that they portrayed Plato could not have arranged in his memory that the conduct of men like the vegetation of plants, withwhich the aid of method enables the young men of out bestowing upon them the judgment of reflection.* modern times to do with the greatest facility. Socrates These observations are applicable to the historians of himself, in the dialogues of Plato, in order to confute the first ages of the Greeks. Plutarch, and his conthe Sophists, borrows some of their own defaults; but temporary Tacitus, lived in a different epoch of the admore especially that insufferable procrastination of a vancement of the human understanding. development, which could not be supported in those The eloquence of the Greek philosophers nearly days. We must have recourse to the ancients, for equaled that of the Greek orators. Socrates and their beautiful and simple taste in the fine arts; we Plato preferred speaking to writing; because they felt, must admire their energy and enthusiasm for every without exactly rendering, to themselves an account thing that was good and sublime; but we must consider of their talents, that their ideas belonged more to imiall their philosophical ratiocinations as the scaffolding tation than to analysis. They loved to have recourse of an edifice which the human mind has to raise. to that impulse and elevation of thought which is proAristotle, however, who lived in the third century of duced by the animated language of conversation; and the Greeks, a century consequently superior in the they searched with as much diligence for something efforts of the imagination to the two preceding: Aris- to inflame the imagination, as the metaphysicians totle, I say, substituted the force of observation in the and moralists of our days would employ, to secure place of the energyof theory: and this distinction alone their works from the smallest appearance of the would have been sufficient to have established his poetic. fame; but he did not stop there; he wrote upon litera- The philosophical eloquence of the Greeks has a ture, physic, metaphysics, and these subjects formed stillgreater effect upon us, by the grandeur and purity the analysis of ideas in his own times. Being the his- of the language: their mild yet energetic doctrines torian of the progress of the sciences at that period, he gave to their writings a character which time has not digested and placed them methodically in the very or- impaired. Ancient diction is very congenial to the der in which they were conceived by himself This simple beauties of composition, nevertheless we should man was truly great, considering the age in which he find an insupportable monotony in the discourses of the lived; but it is difficult, if not altogether impossible, Greek philosophers upon the affection, had they been for the human mind to be continually employed in written in these days: they have no power to create searching into antiquity for the truths of philosophy: emotion, but are uniformly remarkable for melancholy this would be to carry the spirit of discovery to a re- and sensibility. trospect of the past, when things present lay claim to Morality and sensibility were not united in the opintheir chief attention. ions of the Stoics. Northern literature did not then The ancients, but more particularly Aristotle, dis- exist, to instil a love of gloomy reflections: the human played a skill and judgment, in some of their political race if, the expression may be allowed, had not then institutions, equal to those of the moderns, but this ex- reached the age of melancholy: men, when struggling ception to the invariable rule of progression is entirely with mental affliction, had recourse to violence, inowing to the republican liberty which was enjoyed by stead of that due resignation which does not endeavor the Greeks, but which is unknown to the moderns. to suppress pain, nor cause a blush at feeling regret: Aristotle remained in the most profound ignorance it is that submission alone, which can turn affliction tc respecting all general questions that had not been ex- our advantage, and make it subservient even to the sub plained by preceding events in the history of his time: limity of our talents, he does not admit of the existence of a natural right to The eloquence of the Tribune, in the republic of slaves; and though an antagonist of Plato in many Athens, was as perfect as was necessary to bring over other respects, he does not appear to imagine it was the opinion of the auditors: and in a country where so possible that slavery could admit of modification. Plato great a political result was produced by rhetoric, this speaks of the causes of revolutions, and the principles talent must necessarily develop itself. Eloquence of government, with a superior penetration and judg- was converted by the Athenians, while they remained ment; but the greater part of his ideas were furnished a free people, into a kind of gymnastic, in which the by the examples of the Greek republic. If a republican orators seemed wrestling with the populace, and government had existed since the time of Plato, the forcing their arguments upon them as if they were moderns would have been as much his superiors in the determined to overcome them. The subject most social arts, as they have been in every other intellectual frequently treated upon by Demosthenes was the study. The ideas must ever be informed by events: indignation with which he was inspired by the Athenthus in examining the labors of the mind, we constantly ians: this wrath against the people, natural enough observe that either time or circumstance is the clue by in a republic, was mixed in all his orations,-when which genius is guided: reflection knows how to draw he speaks of himself, it is with rapidity and indifferconsequences from a single idea; but the first step in ence. every thing is discovered by chance, and not by reflec- In the following chapter, I shall examine, some of tion. the reasons which caused the political distinction that The style of the Greek historians was remarkable for existed between Cicero and Demosthenes. It is creating an interest, while it kept up without diminish- generally remarked of the Greek orators, that they ing that beautiful simplicity so justly admired: their make use of but a very small number of original ideas: descriptions were full of vivacity, but they never in- whether it was owing to their being able to strike the vestigated deeply into characters, nor judged by insti- minds of the people with only a few arguments forcibly tutions: they caught at facts so eagerly, that they expressed and fully explained, or whether the hanever carried their thoughts towards existing causes. In`~keeping pace with the events of their time, the * Thucydides was certainly the most distinguished historian of Greek authors followed a certain impulse without con- the Greeks; all his descriptions are full of imagination, and his Greek authors followed a ce rtain i mpulse wit hout con- harangues, like those of Titus Livy, were composed in a style of sidering whence it arose: it seems indeed, as: if their the fines k eloquence. UPON SOCIETY. 27 rangues of the ancients displayed the same uniformity of the Romans; that which precedes the reign of Auas their writings, it is certain that, generally speaking, gustus; that which bears the name of that emperor; they had not a great variety of ideas: their writings and likewise the term that may be reckoned after his resembled the music of the Scots, who composed death till the reign of the Antonines. The two first their airs of a few fine but simple notes, the per- are in some measure confounded by their dates, but are fect harmony of which, while it defied criticism extremely different in every other respect. Although could not create a very deep interest in the hearers. Cicero died in the reign of the triumvirate of Octavius, We feel little cause of regret in taking leave of the his genius is limited entirely to the republic: and notGreeks, though truly an astonishing people: and the withstanding Ovid, Virgil, and Horace, were born obvious reason for this indifference is, that they were during the time of the republic, their writings bear the the people who merely began the civilization of the character of monarchical influence: and in the reign world. They had, it is true, all the qualities requisite of Augustus, some authors, particularly Titus Livy, to excite the development of the human understanding: discovered very often in their historical writings, that but we do not feel a similar sensation of pain at their they were republicans at heart. But to analyze with disappearance from history, as is caused by the loss of accuracy the distinctions of these three different pethe Romans. The customs and habits, the philosophi- riods, we must examine their general colorings, and not cal knowledge, and the military successes of the dwellupon particular exceptions. Greeks, could be but transitory; they resembled seed The Roman character was never fully displayed but driven by the wind to every corner of the world, till in the time of the republic. A nation indeed has no none remained in the place whence it originally came. character, unless it is free. The aristocracy of Rome The love of fame was the motive that guided every possessed some of the advantages of an aristocracy action of the Greeks: they studied the sciences, in made up of enlightened characters: and though they order to be admired; they supported pain, to create may be justly reproached, with regard to the nominainterest; they adopted opinions, to gain disciples; tion of their senators, it being entirely hereditary; and they defended their country, for the sake of ruling nevertheless the government of Rome, within its own it:* but they had not that internal sentiment, that na- walls, was free and paternal. But their conquests gave tional spirit, that devotion to their country, all which an almost unlimited power to the chiefs of the state; so eminently distinguished the Romans The Greeks and the principal Romans, being freely elected by their gave the first impulse to literature and the fine arts; city, which they looked upon as the queen of the unibut the Romans gave to the world invaluable testi- verse, considered themselves as possessing the governmonies of their genuis. ment of the world. From this aristocratical sentiment in the nobles, and the exclusive superiority in the inhabitants of the city, arose the distinguished character of the Roman writings, their language, their moral CHAPTER V. habits and their dignity. The Romans never displayed, under any circumOF THE LATIN LITERATURE WHILE THE ROMAN RE- stances, the tokens of violent emotion: when they PUBLIC STILL EXISTED. most desired to affect and persuade by their eloquence, they then thought it of the greatest importance to preWe must make a distinction in all the different serve that equanimity of temper and that calm dignity stages of literature; dividing what is national from of manners, which are the symbols of a strong mind; that which belongs to imitation. The Roman empire that they might not bring into question those senti having succeeded to the dominion of Athens, the Latin ments of respect, which served as the basis of their literature followed the track which had been marked political institutions as well as of their social relations. out by the Greeks: at first, because they might have There was in their language an authority of expression, considered it superior in many respects; and therefore a gravity of tone, a regularity of periods, which is selto have swerved from it, would have been to have re- dom, if ever, acquired by the broken accents of an nounced truth and taste; and another probable reason agitated mind, or the lively and rapid sallies of wit why they conformed to it was, that they found a model and gaiety. Their bravery rendered them victorious in which accorded with their own ideas and habits:- battle; but their moral strength consisted in that prowhenever this is the case, the mind is more inclined found and solemn impression which was produced by to adopt than create; necessity alone can produce in- the very name of Romans. They never permitted vention, and mankind apply themselves in preference themselves to be seduced by any consideration; not to improving, when they are saved the trouble of in- even a present triumph could induce them to commit tenting. an action which would in any degree be detrimental to The paganism of the Romans was very similar to their subordination, their respect, or their prudence. that of the Greeks. The precepts of the fine arts and The Romans were a people whose power consisted of literature, a great number of laws, and the greater more in their discretion than in the impetuosity of their part of their philosophical opinions, were transported passions; they were easily persuaded by the voice of successively from Greece into Italy. I shall not there- reason, and restrained by esteem; they were also more fore attempt to analyze effects, which so nearly resem- relieious and less fanatical than the Greeks; they paid ble each other, and which must have arisen from a simi- a greater attention to political authority, and not poslar cause: all that regards the Greek literature, the sessing an equal share of enthusiasm, they were less pagan religion, slavery, the customs and manners of the jealous of the reputation of individuals, and were never east, and the general spirit of antiquity before the in- deprived of the exercise of their reason by any event vasion of the north, and the establishment of the incident to human nature. Christian religion, will be found, with some few re- The Romans, in the early period of their history, strictions, among the Latins. despised the fine arts, and literature more particularly; What are most worthy of observation and remark, but when philosophers, orators, and historians rendered appear to be the different characteristics of the Greek the talent of writing useful to the affairs and morals of and Latin literature, and the progress of the human mind the people, th Romans then were the first to engage in the three successive periods of the literary history in the pursuit f literature: their works, moreover, had * Alcibiades and Themistocles autteinmpted to revenge them- that advantage over those of the Greeks, which must selves of their country by stiring' up foreign enemies against it. always arise fron a practical knowledge and admmisBut a Reman eveeld never have been pilty ef serbn crime; tration: but they were necessarily obliged to use the Coriclanius is the ouly example;-he formed the plot, but couldthey were necessarily obliged to use the not acquire sufficient resolution to paut it into practice. utmost circumspection in the composition of them, It VI 28 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE was with the greatest timidity that Cicero first attacked ful was the first principle of the Latin literature; and the generally received ideas of the Romans: the opin- want of amusement, that of the Greeks. The patri. ions of the nation might not be set at defiance by those cians, in condescension to the people, instituted shows, who wished to obtain their votes for the first places in music, and festivals; but the power was wholly conthe repubic; and therefore the greatest ambition of centrated in the senate. the generality of writers was to defend and preserve The Romans were allowed to be a celebrated nation, the reputation of the statesmen. powerfully constituted, and wisely governed, long beIn such a democracy as that which existed at Athens, fore the existence of any author in the Latin language. the attention to political concerns, and the study of The talent of writing was not developed till a considerphilosophy, were as rarely found united, as the man of able time after action had had its full play; which inreflection and the courtier are in a monarchy. The duces a conclusion, that the Roman literature was of a means by which the people acquired popularity, occu- quite different nature from that of a nation whose imagpied nearly the whole of their time, and seemed to have ination was the first principle that was roused to action. little or no connection with the labor necessary for the poet; public schools were instituted to study the laws, where increase of knowledge: the chiefs of the people had they were analytically explained bythei commentators. Sextus not, so to speak, the smallest idea of posterity; the Porphyrius, Sextus Ccelius, Granius Flaccus, &c., wrote upon storms of the then present times were so terrible, and this subject, in tile third, fourth, and fifth centuries of the republic: to methodize the twelve tablets, some of their people were had such an unlimited power over the posterity and ad- sent by the Romans to consult with the most enlighitened men of versity of every individual, that all their passions were Greece; and it was the decree of the twelve tablets, which treatabsorbed in contemperaneous events. n aristocratical ed of religion and ofthe rights of men, both in public and in priabsorbed in contemperaneous events. An aristocratical: vate; and they are quoted by Cicero, as superior to any the Phigovernment proceeding in a slowerand more measured losophers had ever written on the subject. Paulus Emilius concareer, excites in its subjects a more lively interest for fided the education of his son to the philosopher Metrodon, who the future: the light of philosophy is necessary to the had accompanied him from Athens; and C the Elder, who reflection of a select society of men, while the - disapproved of the Roman taste for Greek literature, and who reection of a select society of men, while the re- expressed in the most pointed manner his contempt for Ennius, sources of the imagination are sufficient to move an on account of his poetical talents, had himself been instructed assembled multitude of the people. by Nearchus, the Pythagorean, and distinguished himself both WVith the exception of Xenophon, who himself took as a writer and as an orator; he entered the lists as an opponent to Carnades, a Greek philosopher of the Academical sect; and an active part in the military history which he related, Diogenes the Stoic, who was sent to Rome at the same time with (but who was never possessed of any power in the in- Carnades, was so kindly received by the Romans, that Scipio, teor of the republic,) not one statesman of Athens Lalius, and many other senators, embraced his doctrines; it even appears that they were known and practised at Rome for was celebrated at the same period for his literary tal- a length of time before that embassy. If reference is to be ob. ents, or even imagined, like Cicero and Casar, that he tained by the philosophy of the sophist it may with truth be could add by his writings to his political consequence. said, that during the existence of the republic, the Romans constantly repulsed those false principles of the Greeks; but if we Scipio and Sallust were suspected, the one of being allow to philosophy the same honorable reception it met with the concealed author of the Comedies of Terence, and from the ancients, we shall perceive that the Romans could not the other to have been covertly engaged in the con- have been good statesmen, profound legislators, or great orators the other to have been covertly engaged in the con-: of which he was the historian: but there is no without philosophy. There were among the Romans many spiracy of which he was the historian: but there is no writers in prose before the time of Ennius; Posthumus Albinus instance, amongst the Athenians, of any individual hav- wrote a history of Rome in Greek; Fabius Pictor wrote one also ing united the study of literature with affairs of state. in Latin before Ennius was known. There were, among the'rho reslt of this nearly absolute distinction between.Romans, many celebrated authors of whom Cicero speaks with The result of this nearly absolute distinction between admiration; the Graccihi and the Appii, some of whose disthe study of philosophy and the occupation of the courses were extant in writing in the time of Cicero; in short, statesman, was, that the Greek writers gave more lati- the republic were in possession of all the great men, before they were advanced in the cultivation of poetry. Is it possible to coin tud ~ to their imagination; and the Latin authors regu- pare the progress of the human understanding in Rome to that lated their ideas by the actual'state of human affairs. which it followed in Greece? Homer, the most sublime of all The Latin literature was the only one which com- poets, existed four centuries before the first composition written menced with philoophy; in every other, especially in prose that we are acquainted with; and Pherycides of Scyros menced with philosophy ~ in every other, especially in existed 300 years before Solon, anil one century before Lycurthat of the Greeks, they were entirely indebted to the gus; when poetry, the first essay of the imagination in Greece, imagination for the first efforts of the mind. The com- had attained to the highest degree of perfection, before thehir edies of Plautus and of Teretce ace entirely the result ideas snre sufficiently enlightened upon other subjects, to es tablish a code of laws or form a political society. In short, to of the ideas of the Greeks..The poets that preceded promote our desire of becoming acquainted with literature, we Cicero, are not worthy of being recorded, for, like Lu- must attentively examine its eneral character. It has been -try.* Theuse-said, that t h talian literatrbeawthpty;btith cretius, they turned philosophy into poetry.* The use- l, tha the Ialian liteatuie be-n with poetry; but in the time of'Petrarch there existed several bad prosaic writers, whose * This opinion having been called in question, I think it ne- names might have been objected to as well, in opposition tc. cessary to pointout a few facts which will prove it. I have said, those of Ennins. Accius, and Pactvius, to the great philoso that the poets who preceded Cicero antd Iucretius were not phers and political orators wvho perpetuate tie glo]ry of the first worthy of being recorded; an objection has been made to En- centuries of the Roman republic. If we were to recollect the tiius, Accius, and Pacuvius Ennius, who in some respects had ereat orator Cicero, only fiom his having attempted a poem on the advantage of the three, was incorrect, obscene, and posses. Moschus, in his juvenile days, it woulhl not be understood who sed but a small share of political imagination; this opinion is was meant by this appellation: it is the same with that shapegrounded upon the fragments of his works, which are still ex- less, cold, andl obscene poetry, which they desire to honor with tant; and itis confirmed by Virgil, whose judgment of Ennius the oriint of the Latin literature. Instruction is sometinmes betwas even proverbial. Horace, in some of his epistles, makes a ter than erudition, because, in the right of antiquity, tie imjest of those who admired the ancient Roman poets, Ennius and agination may easily get bewildered in the detail which will his contemporaries. Ovid forbids the female sex to read the impede the progress of those who search after the truth: of the Annals of Ennius in verse; and, moreover, the greater number vhole. ofthe Latin commentators considered Ennius as a very moderate. The writers who were really celebrated before thi century of not to say an indifferent author. I have advanced, that the Ro: Augustus, were Sallust, Cicero, and Lucretius; to whom may mans had pliilosopnical writers atnonest them, befiore they [adt be nadded Plautus and Terence, who translated the Greek comepoets; for the proofofthis assertion I have the following dates: dies; but it is difficult to determine the original poets in the it was in the year 014 that the first comedies in verse, wnritten by Latin lanuagne that were deserving of any degree of fame before Tituns Andronicus, were represented; and it was in the followivt tihe time of Cicero; and likewise who is the poet that could boast year that Ennius was known; but it was five centuries berire of having at influence over the Latin literature befonre tie cen.that epoch, that Numa wrote upon philosophy; and it was 150 tury of Augustus, which can be in the least compared to that years after Numa, that Pythagoras was receivedl as a citizen of which Homer had overthat of tie Greek. Cicero was consider. Rome; the philosophical sects of higher Greece hadl a continual ed as beins at the heau! of the Latin literatur e; as Homer was conuection with Rome; the Latin lan-t:as borrowed nany of acknowledsed to he if the Grecian; but with this diffrerence, the,rammatical rules of ]Eolic Greece, Which the colonies hadl that a number ofenliihtenedl ages must have taken place before transported into higher Greece. Ennius, before hb dttempted there could have existed a philosopher resembling Cicero; while to comnpose in verse, enmbraced the sect of Pytho,rism; and it is entirely to the mnarvelotis ofthe heroic age, and the imnnagin what still remains of his poems, treat moreofphil, ophical ideas ation of the poet, that we are indebted fur Homer. Should theso than marvelous facts. The legislation which'ught to be con. observntions be found too multiplied, I only beg it nay be re sidered as a branch of philosophy, was carried to the ereatest membered, that they are written in answer to a charge whilI perfection at Rome, before they understood the meaning of a required to e refuted. UPON SOCIETY. 29 A greater refinement in taste, and a more accurate fail to insure popularity in the midst of a sprightly and judgment than that possessed by the Greeks, was the witty nation: but the Romans had evidently the adnatural consequence that arose from the distinction of vantage of possessing real judgment: there was, conclasses at Rome. Those who were highest, ambitious sequently, a closer connection in their ideas, which laid to raise themselves higher, were not long in discover- them to examine with greater minuteness every species ing that a good education and a noble deportment dis- of reflection: and their advancement in philosophy is tinguished the different ranks in a much greater degree very apparent, from the era of Cicero to that of Tacithan the legal gradations could obtain. The Romans tus. The literature of the imagination proceeded with would never have endured on their theatres the coarse a rapid but an unequal step; while the knowledge of jests of Aristophanes; they would never have suffered the human heart, and the morals annexed to it, came their contemporaneous events, and their public charac- by degrees to perfection. The principal foundation of ters, to have been thus given as a spectacle of ridicule the Roman philosophy was borrowed from the Greeks: to the public: they permitted, however, certain theatri- but as the Romans adopted in their conduct in life, the cal jests and manners to be exhibited in their presence, principles of morality which the Greeks had only deveout without the smallest allusion to their domestic vir- loped in their writings, the exercise of virtue rendered tues. Pantomimes or farces, the subjects of which them greatly their superior. Every thing which relates were taken from Greece, and the principal parts per- to the code of moral duties, is explained by Cicero with formed by Greek slaves, were allowed, but nothing more energy, more clearness, and greater force, than that bore the slightest relation to the manners of the by any other who preceded him it was impossible to Romans. The ideas and sentiments expressed in these advance farther in the establishment of a beneficient recomedies were, in the opinion of the Roman spectators, ligion, or in the abolishment of slavery, both political as a fiction more than a work of imagination. Terence, and civil. however, preserved, in the use of those foreign subjects, The ancients did not investigate so deeply into the that style of decency and restraint which are necessary extent of the human passions, as some of the modern to the dignity of mankind, even when there were no wo- moralists have done: their ideas of virtue were in opmen amongst the auditors. position to this examination. Virtue, with the ancients, The condition of the female sex was of much more consisted chiefly in the command they acquired over importance amongst the Romans than amongst the themselves, and the love of fame; which being more Greeks; but it was in their own families they obtained external than internal, did not permit an inquiry into that ascendency, which they had not at that time ac- the secrets of the heart, and therefore moral philosoquired in society. The taste and urbanity of the Ro- phy lost much in many respects. mans was of that masculine order, which borrows no- The opinion of the Stoics was the point of honor with thing from the delicacy of women, but was solely main- the ancients. A predominant virtue sustains every tained by their austerity of manners. political association independent of their principles of Neither the thundering eloquence of the Greeks, nor government; that is to say, amongst all the different the ingenious flattery of the French, were calculated qualifications one must be preferred: unless this were for an aristocratical government; It is neither the in- the case, the others would lose their effect; but this dividual person of the king, nor the people at large, one alone can supply the absence of all the rest; this whose esteem it is the most essential to cultivate; but quality is the tie, the distinguished character which that of a small body of men who unite in common their unites citizens of the same country. separate interest. In this order of things, it behoved The predominant trait in the character of the Lacethe patricians mutually to respect each other, in order demonians, was the contempt in which they held bodily to command the esteem of the nation at large: they pain; that of the Athenians was the distinction of must also apply themselves to obtain a solid and last- talents; that of the Romans was the conquest of the ing reputation: their qualifications must be solemn mind over itself; and that of the French was the splenand grave, but at the same time such as might reflect did display of their valor: and so great was the imporhonor on each individual of their number, and tend to tance which a Roman attached to the exercise of an the support of each separate existence equally with absolute command over himself, that, when alone, he their own. Whatever is singular, or excites too large a would scarcely allow even to himself that he possessed share of applause or envy, is not suitable to the dignity those affections which he was expected to suppress. of an august body of men. The Romans were not am- If the least apprehension of weakness at any time renbitious to distinguish themselves, like the Greeks, by dered him likely to betray it, he repulsed it with so extraordinary systems and useless sophisms, or by a much energy, that he did not indulge his inclination manner of living fantastically philosophical.* What with sufficient latitude to investigate the private emowas most calculated to obtain the esteem of the patri- tions of his own heart. It was much the same with the cians, was the object of general emulation; they might Roman philosophers; the tumultuous sensations of hate them, but they nevertheless wished to imitate them. grief, anger, envy, or regret, and every involuntary feelAlthough the Romans attended less to literary pursuits ing of the soul, were considered as effeminate; and than the Greeks, they were considered superior to them they would have blushed even to have been suspected in their wisdom, and the extent of their moral and phi- of approving of them; they had no desire to study losophical observations: besides, the Romans had the them, either in their own case or that of others. Exadvantage of some centuries over the Greeks in the tremely ambitious of fame, they gave no latitude to progress of the human understanding. their natural character; that which appeared, was alto-. demoeracy inspires a lively and almost universal gether artificial: nevertheless, the Romans were not emulation; but an aristocracy excites to the perfection hypocrites by nature, but they acquired that appearance of what it has begun. The writer who composes, from ostentation. ought ever to have the judges of l-lis performance pre- Cicero is the only philosopher whose real character sent to his imagination; that his works will then com- was evidently portrayed throughout his writings; and bine the genius of the author, and the knowledge of the yet he brought his systems to oppose what his self-love public, which he was selected for his tribunal. had suffered to escape from him; and his philosophy The Greeks had infinitely more practice than the Ro- was entirely composed of precepts without observamans in smart and prompt repartees, which could not tions. Cicero, in his' Offices,' speaks of decorun, that is, of exterior forms of virtue, as if it was a part of ~ What would the Romans have said to the singtlarties of virtue itself; they taught as a moral duty, the several Diogenes? Why, nothing at all; for he never would have com- different methods of imposing respect, by purity of laneitled them in a country where they would not have been suc. cessful in procuring him a reputation. guage, by elegance of pronunciation: in shcrt, every 30 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE circumstance that could add to the dignity of man, was sions, of that sensibility which those affections ought to esteemed a virtue with the Romans. It was philo- have created. The habit of never suffering any persophical enjoyments and not the consolatory ideas of a sonal impressions to appear, and their attention being sublime and elevated religion, which the Romans pro- chiefly engrossed by philosophy, gave an energy to posed as a recompense for their sacrifices. It was not their style; but it was sometimes productive of an unto the consolations of the heart that they appealed to pleasant dryness and irregularity.' As to the sentisustain the man; but to his pride. The more their ment vulgarly termed love,' says Cicero,' it is alnost nature resembled the majestic, the greater care was superfluous to attempt to demonstrate how much it is taken to banish from the mind even the smallest emo- beneath the character of man.' He likewise declares, tion of sensibility, had it eV*n been the sole support of that the tears shed over the tombs of departed friends, their severest morals. and all testimonies of grief, are'supportable only in It does not appear, that in the first epoch of their women:' and he also adds, that'they are a bad omen.' literature there was any work which discovered a pro- Thus was the man who wished to subdue human nafound knowledge of the human heart, the secret springs ture, himself the victim of superstition. which actuate characters, or the numberless diversities Without endeavoring to discuss the advantages of the moral nature. To have investigated the cause which might result to a nation of such moral strength, of those involuntary sensations of the heart, would have and exalted by the united efforts of institutions and manbeen probably an encouragement to them, whilst the ners; I am certain that literature must have less vaRomans wished to remain ignorant even of the possi- riety when the genius of each man has its path marked bility of their existence. Their eloquence, singly con- out by the national spirit, and the exertions of each insidered, did not possess that irresistible emotion; tit dividual tend to one single point of perfection, instead was the light and strength of reason, which never in- of being directed to that for which his natural talents terrupted the tranquillity of the mind. The Romans are best adapted. weIe, nevertheless, possessed of more real sensibility The battles of the gladiators had for their object, than the Greeks; that austerity of manners which they strongly to impress the minds of the people with the imposed upon themselves, was a better preservative to representations of war, and the spectacle of death; but the affections, than that licentiousness to which the the Romans also required, that those unfortunate beings, Greeks abandoned themselves. whom fate had placed in their hands, the slaves of their Plutarch relates that Brutus, when about to quit barbarous amusement, should learn, in the practice of Italy, and just ready to embark, walked by the sea-side those sanguinary games, to triumph over pain: and with Portia, whom he was going to leave; they en- they never omitted an occasion to put them to the tered into one of the temples, and addressed their pray- proof. This continual subjection of their finer feelings ers to the gods of protection; when a painting, which was not favorable to the effect of tragedy, neither does represented the parting scene of Hector and Andro- the Latin literature contain any thing celebrated in that mache, caught their attention. Cato's daughter, who, style.* till that moment, had supported herself with the greatest The Roman character possessed in a high degree the heroism, could no longer suppress the violence of her grandeur of tragedy y; but it was too general to be thegrief. Brutus, moved to pity by her tears, led her to atrical: even the lowest classes of the people were dissome friends who had accompanied them, saying,' I tinguished by a certaiu dignity and gravity of manners. trust to your care this woman, who unites to every vir- But in that derangement occasioned by misfortune, that tue peculiar to her own sex, the intrepidity of ours.' cruel picture of physical nature torn and wrecked by And with these expressive words he went his way. the sufferings of the mind, and from which idea ShakI know not whether our civil commotions, in which speare drew such heart-rending scenes, the Romans the tender farewells of so many friends have proved would have discovered nothing but the degradation of their last, have added to the impression I felt in read- the human species. There is no instance, in their hising this recital; but it appears to me, that there are tory, of any man or woman whose intellects were defew more affecting: it is also true, that the austerity ranged by disappointment in any shape: nevertheless, of the Roman character gives a more brilliant coloring suicide was very frequent amongst them, although the to the feelings it excites. The stoic Brutus, whose exterior signs of grief were rarely to be met with. The rigid virtue n-ever condescended to pity, showed, in his contempt which the language of complaint was sure to last days, and even in those moments which preceded excite, imposed it as a law to conquer such weakness his latest efforts, a sentiment so tender, that it surprises or to die. There is nothing in such a disposition that the heart with an unexpected emotion: the dreadful can furnish any great development of tragedy, neither action and fatal destiny of this last of the Romans, en- would it have been possible to have transported into compass his image with ideas so melancholy which ex- Rome that interest which the Greeks felt in their theatcite a sympathetic concern for the fate of Portia.* rical compositions on national subjects.t The Romans Compare this affecting scene with that of Pericles, would not have permitted, on their stage, any represenpleading before the Areopagus for the accused Aspasia: tations which had the smallest allusion to their history, the splendor of power, the lustre of beauty, and even their affections, or their country: a religious sentiment, love, itself, such as could be excited by seduction, were was what the Romans esteemed above all things. The all lound united in this pleader: and yet they do not Athenians believed in the same religious dogmas as the penetrate to the heart. The sources of tenderness are Romans, and like them defended their country, and also to be found in the secrets of consicience: neither like them were fond of liberty; but that respect which the prejudices of society, nor the opinions of philoso- acts upon the thoughts, and drives from the imagination phers, can dispose of the affections of the heart: but even the probability of committing a prohibited action, virtue, such as it was given by heaven, and whether it was known only to the Romans. At Athens, philosois in love or in the sacrifice of the affections, is ever phy was cultivated as one of the fine arts by their peodeltcate and equally consistent. ple, enamored of every species of celebrity: but at Although the Romans, from the purity of their morals and the progress of their understanding, were bet- * Horace complains, that often, in the midst of a representa. ter qualified for deep and lasting than tion, the Romans interrupted the performance by vociferations ter qualified for deep and lasting affections than the for the ~ladiators. Greeks; yet it was not till the reign of Augustus that t There still exists one tragedy composed upon a Roman subwe could perceive any traces, either in ideas or expres- ject, enttiled the Death of Octavius; but it was written, as the nature of the events will prove, some length of time after the de. -* Elle vint sur ce seuil accompagner ses pas, struction of the republic; and although it is inserted in the works Et ses infortun6s ne se revirent pas. of aeneca, we are ignorant of'the author of it, no, is it clearly [Les Gracques, par M. de Guibert. ascertained if it was ever represented. UPON SOCIETY. 31 Rome it was adopted as the support of virtue; the CHAPTER VI. statesmen studied it as a means of enabling them to form a better code of laws; for the aggrandizement of OF THE LATIN LITERATURE DURING THE REIGN 0w the Roman republic was the sole object to which their AUGUSTUS. labors and their ambition tended, and reflected more glory upon their warriors, their magistrates, and their Cicero and Virgil are generally considered as bewriters, than all the honors which could have been in- longing to that century called the golden age of the dividuallv conferred upon them. The same spirit and Larin literature; but those writers whose genius and the same character, arising from the same cause, shone talents aimed at perfection in the midst of such furious through the literature of the Roman republic; it is by struggles for liberty, should be distinguished by another the perfection and not by the variety, the dignity, and character from those whose abilities were ripened in the not by the ardor, and by the wisdom more than the last years of the peaceable despotism of Augustus: but invention, that the writings of those days were remark- those periods approached so near to each other, that able. There reigned throughout an authority of expres- their dates might be confounded, were it not that the sion, a majesty of character, that commands respect, general spirit of their literature, before and after the and assures the full acceptation of every word; but so loss of their liberty, presents to the eye of observation far is it from suppressing or retrenching any part of the a mI striking difference. signification, that each term, on the contrary, seems to Many of the republican customs were continued from suppose more than it expresses. The Romans gave a habit for some years after the reign of Augustus, the,great scope to the development of their ideas; but proofs of which are visible in many of their historical what belongs to their sentiments, is always expressed writers; but were all recalled by the influence of the in a concise manner. court, the greater part of which desiring to please AuThe first epoch of the Latin literature approaches so gustus, and being situated near him, gave to their wrinear to the close of the Greeks, that it is subject to the tings that turn of character that must be assumed under same imperfections, arising from a similar cause, the reign of a monarch who wishes to conciliate the namely, the infancy of civilization; many of their works good opinion of the people without diminishing in any were pregnant with errors, which evihced their profound degree the power he is possessed of. This is the only ignorance of the subject they attempted to delineate; point of analogy which establishes the least relation bewhile others were extended to an insupportable length. tween the Latin literature and that of the French in the The Romans were nevertheless superior to the Greeks reign of Louis XIV.; in other respects, these differin the connection of their ideas; but in this respect ent periods bear not the least resemblance to each how much inferior are they to the moderns, other. Philosophyj,in Rome, preceded poetry: this was inWhat most excites our admiration in perusing the vehting the common order of things, and was possibly smaller number of writings which remain of the epoch verting the common order of things, and was possibly of the Romanl literature, is the idea which such com-the principal cause of the perfection of the Latin poets. positions afford us of their character and governwent. Emulation was not carried to poetry till the reign of positions afford us of their character and government. Augustus. The enjoyment of power and of political The history of Sallust, the letters of Brutus,* and the Augustus. The enerally preferred to and of political works of Cicero, are recalled most powerfully to the interest as generally preferred to any success that oremembrankce: we feel the strength of mindu throu h might arise purely from literature; and when, by the the beauty of eel the style; we discover the of man through form of government, men of superior talents were calauthor, the nation in the man, and the universe at the led upon to the exercise of public occupations, it was feet of the nation. Neither Sallust nor Cicero were towards eloquence, history, and philosophy, and to the greatest characters of the age in which they lived; to the knowledge of men and events, that their labors to the knowledge of men and events, that their labors but writers that possessed such extraordinary talents, were directed. But under the dominion of an empire must necessarily imbibe the spirit and beauties of so it is quite the reverse; and the only means left, by fine a century, and Rome lives in their writings. When which men of distinguished talents can acquire fame, Cicero pleads before the people,'or the senate, or the is in the exercise of the fine arts: and if their tyrann priests, or before Cesar, his eloquence changes its should be tempered with lenity, the poets are, in genecharacter; in his harangues may be observed, not onl should be tempered with lenity, the poets are iD genecharacter; in hics harangues may be observed, not only ral, too much inclined to illustrate the reign by their that style which was suitable to the Roman nation in masterly pieces of adulation. Nevertheless, Virgil, general; but all his discourses were addressed and pieces of adulation. Nevertheless, Virgil, general; but all his discourses were addressed and Horace, and Ovid, though they were all prodigal of modified to the different tastes and habits of each. their flattery to Augustusthou; yet the were aiting digal of mle parallel which may * e drawn between Ci * * their flattery to Augustus; yet their writing discovered The parallel which may be drawn between Cicero more philosophy and reflection than any other of the and Demosthenes, is most apparent in the comparison Latin poets: they were indebted for this advantage which may be made between the spirit and customs of in part to the sound sense and solid judgment of the the Greeks, and those of the Romans: in comparing writers who preceded them. Every era of literature the ingenious hurror of Demosthenes with the prevail- h; the beauties of imagery and has its epoch of poetry; the beauties of imagery and ing eloquence of Cicero, and the means employed by of harmony have been succesively transplanted into Demosthenes to move the passions which he stands in different and reformed languages; but when need of, with the arguments which Cicero uses to repel the potical talent of a nation unfolds itself as it those he wishes to oppose; his long developments, and did at Rome, in the middle of an enlightened centhe rapid inlpulse of the Greek orator, are all closely tur, it is enriched by its knowledge and experience. connected wit the government and national charact tury, it is enriched by its knowledge and experience. connected with the government and national character rof~ thes~ two 1~~ 1pe~ ~The poets, in the reign of Augustus, adopted in most of their compositions the Epicurean system; which is A private writer is absorbed in his own talents; but favorable to poetry, and appears to give a degree of an orator who wishes to influence political deliberations, consequence to indolence, a luxury to philosophy, and conforms with care to the national spirit, as an able in a manner to dignify even slavery. This system, is general previously surveys the ground on which he is immoral, but it is not servile: it gives up liberty like to give battle. every other good that requires any effort to keep posses* Brutus, in his letters, does not confine himself to the art of sion of; but it does not make despotism a principle, wiiting; his aim was to be useful to the political interests of his nor obedience to resemble fanaticism, as the flatterers country; and yet the letter which he addressed to Cicero, to re- of Louis XIV. were desirous of doing. proach him for flattering the youn.. Octavius, was perhaps one The idea of death, which Horace constantly interof the finest prose comnpositions ever written in the Latin Ian. guage. mixed with the most smiling images, established a kind INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE philosophical equality by the side of flattery; but it The verses of Tibullus to Delia, the fourth book of was not from a virtuous sensibility that the poets por- the z.Eneid, Ceyx aud Alcyone, Baucis and Philemon, trayed the brevity of existence and the certain destiny give a true description of the sentiments of the heart in of man: if they had been really capable of profound the Latin language: their sublime and soft character reflection, they would rather have opposed the tyranny inspires a great degree of respect; such an impression than have celebrated the usurper. But life thus pas- is created from this language which that of reason only sed, is but a representation of the smooth gliding would not be capable of producing with all its strength streams that refreshed theirburning climate, and we are when employed in the expression of tenderness. True almost inclined to forgive their omission of morals and and genuine sensibility is, however, rarely to be met of liberty, when we see them inattentive to time and with during the reign of Augustus; the Epicurean existence. system, the doctrine of fatality, and the manners But notwithstanding the great effeminacy of charac- and customs of antiquity before the establishment ter so remarkably prevalent in most of the poets during of the Christian religion and almost entirely in the reign of Augustus, there are found in them a num- opposition to nature and the effusions of the heart. ber of reflected beauties: they borrowed from the Ovid, in many of his compositions, introduced a porGreeks great part of their poetical inventions, which tion of affectation and antithesis in his language of the moderns have imitated in their turn: and it teems love, which destroyed even the shadow of truth: such as if they would ever remain the standard of the was also the vitiated taste of the age of Louis XIV. art. But whatever is tender or philosophical in This mode of writing with cooldeliberation on the pasthe Latin poets, may be ascribed entirely to them- sions and affections of the heart, must at all times and selves. in all climates have nearly the same effect upon the The love of a pastoral life, which inspired so many readers: but Ovid's affectation was the error of his beautiful ideas, assumes a different character with the imagination, and in no degree connected with the Romans, to that which was understood by the Greeks: general character of antiquity. these nations were both equally pleased with the same The comparison has been so often drawn between imagery, which was suitable to a similar climate. They the age of Louis XIV. and that of Augustus, that it is each invoked the freshness bestowed by nature, and needless, as it is impossible, for me to enter upon it welcomed with delight the shade that screened them here: I shall therefore confine myself to the developfrom a vertical sun: but the Romans required, to ment of one single observation, which is of the greatest heighten the charms of ru'al life, a shelter that could importance to the system of perfectibility, which it is defend them from tyranny; they retired from the my desire to support. Descartes, Boyle, Pascal, Mobustle of inhabited cities, to repose their minds after liere, Labruyere, Bossuet, and the English philosophers, the painful emotions they had been subjected to, and to who were contemporaries at one period of his history lose sight, if possible, of the yoke which goaded and of letters, do not admit of any comparison between degraded them. Such a measure was favorable to the century of Louis XIV. in the advance of the promoral reflections: they were interspersed with their gress of the human understanding. Nevertheless, we descriptive poetry; and we imagine we perceive a are tempted to inquire why amongst the ancients, tender regret, and a melancholy remembrance in all the and more especially amongst the Romans, there were compositions of thatperiod. This circumstance, with- found historians so correct, as never to have been out doubt, is the cause why we feel a greater degree equaled by the moderns; and particularly, why the of interest for the Romans than for the Greeks. The French cannot furnish a single work of tlis description Greeks lived as it were with futurity in view; but the which is complete. Romans, like us, loved to carry their reflections to the In the chapter which treats of the age of Louis past. As long as the republic existed, the Romans XIV., I shall analyze the cause whence arises the; mediscovered a delicacy in their affection for the female diocrity of the French historians: but I ought presex: they had not, it is true, that independent spirit viously to make some reflections on the superiority ol which is rendered permanent by the modern laws: the ancients in history; and I am persuaded those rebut secluded, with their household gods, they breathed, flections will prove, that their superiority was not unlike domestic divinities, certain religious sentiments. favorable to the successive progress of their underThose writers who existed in the period of the republic, standing. There exist some histories, which may never allowed themselves to express the affections justly be entitled philosophical: and there are others which they felt: it was in that short interval betwixt whose sole merit consists in the variety and animated the most rigid austerity of manners and the greatest de- style of their representations, and the energy and gree of depravity, that the Latin poets shoWed a more beauty of their language: it was in the latter period tender sentiment than any we meet with in the that the Greek and Latin historians were illustrious. Greek writings. In the reign of Augustus, they recol- At vos, 0 superi, et divum tu maxime rector lected the republican severity; and their portraits of Jupiter, Arcadii queeso miserescite regis, Et patrias afdite pceces. Si numina vestra love were indebted for a few charms to a virtuous re- Et patrias aldite preces. Si numisa estra trospect. * Incolumen Pallanta mihi, si fata reservant; ~~~~~~~~~trospect.*~ ~~Si visurus eum vive, et venturus in unum Vitam ore; patiar quemvis durare laborem. * I cite at hazard two examples, to substantiate what I have Sin aliquem infandum casum, Fortuna, minaris, advanced concerning the sensibility of the Latin poets. When Nunc o, nunc liceat crudelem abrumpere vitam the travelling gods, in Ovid's Metamorphoses, demanded of Dum curm ambigua, dum spes incerta futuri Philemon, what Baucis and himself would most desire from the Dum te care puer, mea sera et sola voluptas, favor of heaven? Philemon answered: — Complexu teneo: gravior ne nuncius aures Vuineret.Poscimus; et quoniam concordes egimus annos, and mighty Jove, in pity brin Abrerat hora dllos eader, nec conjumflis unquan' Ye gods! and mighty Jove, in pity bring Abferat hora duos eadem, nec conjugis unquam Relief, and hear a father and a king. Busta mewe videarn neu sim. tumula'ndus ab illb, Relief, and hear a father and a king. Busts me videam, na im tumulands ab ill If fate and you reserve these eyes to see As we have lived together many years in iperfect harmony, we My son return with peace and victory; only ask that the same hour should terminate our existence; If the lov'd boy shall bless his father's sight that I may not behold the tomb of my spouse, nor she be left to If we shall meet apain with more delight, sorrow after me.' Then draw my life in length, let me sustain, In hopes of his embrace, the worst of pain. Ihave selected from Virgil, the poet in whose verses is found But ifyour hard decrees, which, or I dread, thS utmost sensibility, especially those in which paternial tender- Have doom'd to death this undeserving head; ness is so forcibly described, to cause that deep affection in the This, 0! this very moment, let me die, mind, witbout making use of the language of love, requires a While hopes and fears in equal balance lie much greater fund of sensibility. Evander on taking leave of While yet possess'd of all his youthful charms, his son Pallas, when he was preparing for battle, addressed Istrain him close within these aged arms; heavea in these words: Before that fatal pews my solll shall wound.' UPON SOCIETY. 33 A much more profound knowledge of mankind is Louis XV., an advanced progress was visible in phinecessary Rn order to become a great moralist, than losophy, without either poetry or literature having acwhat is required to be a good historian. Tacitus is the quired any greater degree of perfection. Nearly the only writer of antiquity who united those qualities; same advancement in the arts may be observed from the apprehension and sufferings which are always at- the period of Augustus to that of Antonines; but with tached to servitude, ripened his reflection, and his ex- this difference, that the emperors who reigned during perience was the result of extended observation. Titus that interval were such atrocious monsters, that the enmLivy, Sallust, and the historians of an inferior order, pire, unable to support itself against despotic tyranny, Florus, Cornelius Nepos, &c., delight us by the gran- sunk under its influence; and the general spirit of the deul and elegance of their recitals, by the beauty nation being thus broken, there was but a very small and eloquence of the harangues which they give to number of men who retained sufficient strength of their characters, and by the dramatic interests which mind to devote themselves to study. they knew how to afford to their representations. But The minds of men, enervated by that inglorious ease those historians portrayed, as it may be said, nothing in which they indulged themselves in the reign of Aumore than the mere externals of life; describing man gustus, lost even the remembrance of those heroic virsuch as he appears, in the light he wishes to display tues to which Rome was indebted for her grandeur. himself. Their coloring was strong, and finely con- Horace blushed not to avow in his verses, that he fled trasted with virtue and vice: but we do not find in the on the day of battle; and Cicero and Ovid both testiancient history either a philosophical analysis of moral fled the greatest impatience at their exile, although impressions, or a profound observation of characters. there is the most striking difference in their manner of Montaigne, in his intellectual review, penetrates much expressing it. The De Tristibus of Ovid are filled farther into that subject, than any other ancient author. with the repinings of despondency, and the most serBut this kind of superiority is not desirable in an his- vile flattery of his prosecutor; while Cicero, even in torian: mankind must be represented at large; their his familiar correspondence with Atticus, contrived to grandeur of character must be left to the heroes, that ennoble, by a thousand different methods, the grief he they may appear great to the subsequent ages. The felt at his unjust banishment. The variation in their moralist may discover the foibles which are the hidden sensations and in their expression is not to be attributed resemblances of one man to another; but the historian entirely to the dissimilarity of their character, but to must be positive in pronouncing the difference. the different periods in which they lived. General The ancients delighted in what excited admiration, opinion may be considered as the centre by which men and were possessed of a quality which was as neces- are united: and if it does not change the character, it sary to the interest of truth as to that of fiction; in some degree modifies the forms in which men chose namely, they were as unbiassed In their contempt, as to appear before the multitude. they were in their enthusiasm; they neither endeavored After the flourishing reign of Augustus, there arose to diminish the odiousness of vice, nor to exalt the a more barbarous and oppressive tyranny, of which an merit of virtue: and we often find characters much tiquity does not furnish a second example. Excess of better supported in their history than in their works of misfortune had in a great measure broken the spirit of imagination. Besides, is it possible to forget the as- the nation; and the slothful indolence into which they tonishing advantage the ancient historians possessed had degenerated since the overthrow of the republic, over the moderns, even from the facts which they re- enervated alike superior minds with those of the vulgar; cited? A republican government produces a dignity while the horrid cruelties which were continually pracaf character in men as well as in events: while a de- tised upon them, rendered the lower classes of the peoa.potic monarchical government, or the history of federal ple still more servile and contemptible:-but in the laws, can never inspire so much interests as the annals midst of these dreadful calamities, a small number of of a free people. enlightened men arose above the general despondency, Suetonis, who was the historian of the reign of the and experienced more strongly the necessity of a social emperors, Ammianus, Marcellinus, and Velleius Pater- philosophy. culus, could not have been compared, in the latter part Seneca (of whom I shall only here form a judgment of his writings, to any of those who wrote in the cen- by his works,) Tacitus, Epictetus, and Marcus Aureturies of the republic; and if Tacitus surpassed his lius, although in different situations, and with characters contemporaries, it was because he still cherished the re- which bore not the least resemblance to each other, publican resentm.ent; and not considering the govern- were all' inspired with the same abhorrence of guilt and ment of the empiTors as legal, nor requiring the per- indignation against vice: their writings in both the mission of any one to publish his works, his spirit was Greek and Latin language are composed of a character not subdued by prejudices, either natural or insisted totally different from the literature of the period of Auon, which has enslaved our modern historians down to gustus; they even possessed more force and energy the present century. than was to be found in the republican philosophers Numerous are the considerations to which we are to themselves. The morals of Cicero are principally diattribute the superiority of the ancients in historical rected to the effect they ought to produce on others; writings. One chief advantage arose from their pe- and those of Seneca express the self-command we culiar art of describing and relating what they con- should endeavor to acquire: the one seeks an honoraceived to be the emotions, the interest, and the effects ble power; the other, an asylum to shelter him from of the imagination, but not from any secret knowledge affliction: the one wishes to support and animate virof the human heart, or the philosophical course of tue; the other, to inspire a contempt of vice. Cicero events. It was not likely that the ancients should considers men only as they are connected with his have possessed this knowledge in an equal degree with country; while Seneca, who had no country, was enthose whom the lapse of centuries and multiplied gen- grossed entirely with what related to private individuerations have instructed by new examples, and who are als. There is a certain vein of melancholy which preinclined to contemplate, in a review of past history, so vails throughout the works of Seneca; while those of many crimes, misfortunes, and sufferings. Cicero are filled with energy and emulation. When despotic tyrants menaced destruction, and CHAPTER VII. philosophers were condermned like the most atrocious OF THE LTN LTERATURE, FROM THE DEATH OF AU- criminals, to sniffer an ignominious death; men, not OF THE LATIDOWN ITO THE TUREIGN OFROM THE DEATOF U- daring to act openly, retired within themselves, and devoted their time to a more minute investigation of After the age of Louis XIV., and during that of the mind. Yet the writers of the third epoch of the 34 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE Latin literature had not arrived at that perfect know- relinquished. The philosophy of Seneca penetrates ledge and philosophical observation of general charac- deeply into the human heart. Pliny the Elder is, of all ters which we find in Montaigne and Labruyere; but the writers of antiquity, the one who approaches the they acquired a more intimate acquaintance with them- nearest to truth in the sciences. Tacitus, in every reselves; and their genius was confined by oppression spect, has an unlimited preference over the greatest to repose in their own bosoms. Latin historians. Tyranny, like other public calamities, may assist the The first authors who wrote and comprehended supedevelopment of philosophy; but it is very destructive rior language, were enraptured by the harmony of to literature, by suppressing emulation and corrupting phrases; and neither Cicero himself, nor his auditors, the taste. felt at that time the want of a style more energetic than It has been maintained, that the decline of the arts, of that which was furnished by their own ideas. But as letters, and of empires, must necessarily happen after they advanced in literature, their taste for the simple they have arrived at a certain degree of splendor: but pleasures of imagination lessened by degrees, and the this idea is not just; for though I firmly believe that mind became more diligent in the search of abstract the arts have their limits, above which they are incapa- ideas. The intercourse between mankind increased ble of rising; it is however very possible they may re- with the progress of ages; their conceptions were betmain at the same height without any retrogression:- ter regulated, and a variety of circumstances produced and in every species of progressive knowledge, the new discoveries and combinations: thus, reflection may moral nature ever tends to perfect itself. Precedent be pronounced the successor of time. It is this promelioration is a cause of future melioration: the link gressive style which is visible in the last epoch of the of connection may be broken by accidental occurrences, Latin literature, notwithstanding the local difficulties which may impede future progress, but which can by which at that time impeded the advancement of the no means be considered as any consequence of prior human understanding. advancement. During the tragical reign of the Emperors, it must Notwithstanding the dreadful nature of the circum- be said, to the honor of the Romans, that most of the stances the writers had to contend with in the period efforts of imagination sunk into oblivion. Lucan wrote of the Emperors, they were much superior in philosophy but to revive the remembrance of the republic; and his to the writers of the age of Augustus: but the style of death sufficiently attests the peril which attended the the Latin authors, in the third epoch of their literature, arduous task. It was in vain that the ferocious Empossessed much less elegance and purity: it was im- perors of Rome testified the greatest partiality for pubpossible that, under such rude and ferocious tyrants, lic amusements; not one theatrical production, worthy they could preserve a delicacy of taste and expression. of any continued success, appeared during their reign; The multitude were rendered contemptible by a servile not one poetical essay remains, to remind us of the imitation of the manners of the reigning tyrant; while disgraceful leisure of servitude: the men of letters did the smaller number of distinguished men found so much not at that period so far degrade their talents, as to emdifficulty in communicating their ideas to each other, ploy them in the decoration of tyranny; their sole octhat it was impracticable for them to establish that cupation. was the study of philosophy and eloquence,critical, that literary legislation, which draws a positive weapons calculated to overthrow even oppression itline between that which is studied and that which is self genuine, and marks likewise the difference between Flattery has tarnished the writings of some phienergy and exaggeration. losophers of that period, and their rhetorical figures Under the tyranny of the Emperors it was not per- were disgraceful: nevertheless, the art of printing mitted, nor would it have been possible, to have moved being then unknown was a circumstance, in some rethe people by eloquence; neither philosophical nor spects, favorable to the freedom of the pen; despotism literary labors tended in the least degree to influence was less watchful over composition, when the means of public events: nor can we discover, in any of the publishing were so extremely limited. Polemical wri-writings of that period, such a character as is marked tings, as well as those which influence temporary Dy the desire of being useful, or any measure for de- opinions and contemporaneous events, could be of no termining particular actions, or for inspiring by words service; neither could they have any power before the an actual and positive result. Amusement must be af- use of the press was discovered; as they could never forded to the mind, in order to induce men who are be sufficiently diffused to produce any popular effect: separated from each other to literary pursuits, whose the tri.bune alone could accomplish this point; but com. ambition is dormant, and who expect nothing from re- position then confined itself to works upon general flection. It is very probable, in such a situation, for ideas, or anterior facts instructive to succeeding generathe writers to be guilty of affectation; because it is of tions. Tyrants at that period were much less solicitthe utmost importance to them, to render the form of ous as to the liberty of the pen, than they are at the their style attractive and pleasing. Seneca, and par- present era; posterity not being under their jurisdiction, ticularly Pliny the Younger, are not entirely free from they willingly left it to the philosophers. that foible. It is also pretty certain that, like Juvenal, We are ready to inquire, how it happened that, at they might have vitiated their taste by their different this period, none of the Romans devoted themselves to modes of trial to inspire the horror of vice in a people the study of the sciences. It has frequently occurred who were hardened by the repetition of crimes; and that, under the yoke of tyranny, men of superior ac the sentiments of authors were so depraved by the pre- quirements were unwilling to render themselves con dominant manners of the times, that they could not re- temptible; but as they did not wish to revolt, they tain that purity of expression which requires greater were employed in independent researches. But it may force when employed in pointing out the most disgust- be apprehended, that the dangers which at the time ing images. But those errors which cannot be denied, threatened men of great talents, were too imminent to ought not to preclude us from acknowledging that the leave them sufficient leisure for the exercise and labors third epoch of the Roman literature was more cele- of genius. It is also possible that the Romans retained brated for men of profound genius, judgment, and solid such a portion of republican indignation, as to withdraw understanding, than any other which preceded it. The entirely their attention from the destiny of their counideas of Quintillan, in his treatise upon the art of rheto- try. Philosophy calls forth the energies of the soulric, are certainly more novel and refined than any which while the sciences transport the ideas into quite a dif. are to be found in the writings of Cicero on the same ferent channel. In short, at that period they had not suoject. Quintilian united his sentiments with those discovered the best method of pursuit in the study of oi Cicero, and took his departure from the point Cicero natural philosophy; neither were they excited by emu UPON SOCIETY.. 35 Cation to proceed with vigor, where no great success zation of Europe, the establishment of the Christian ra thad as yet been obtained. ligion, the discovery of the sciences, and the diffusiot One of the principal causes of the destruction of the of knowledge, were as so many bulwarks against deempires of antiquity, was their ignorance of several im- pravation, and destroyed the ancient causes of barbariportant discoveries in the sciences: which event estab- ty: therefore the fall of nations, and in consequence lished more equality between men and nations. The that of letters, is now much less to be apprehended; — decline of empires is no more in the natural order of a truth which I hope the following chapter will more events, than that of letters and of knowledge. But be- clearly demonstrate. fore the civilization of Europe, before the political and military systems and the use of gunpowder, had placed nations nearer on an equality, and, in short, previous to the establishment of the art of printing, national spirit CHAPTER VIII. and national knowledge must of course have been victims to the barbarians, who were certainly more slkilful THE INVASION OF THE PEOPLE OF THE NORTH; THE as warriors, than other men. However, had the press ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION; AND existed, the acquirements and opinions of the people THE REVIVAL OF LETTERS. would daily have increased in strength, and the Roman character would have been preserved, and with it, the We may reckon in history a lapse of more than ten republic would have continued its superiority: we centuries, during which it is generally that the human should not then have witnessed the banishment of a understanding has been on the decline. It certainly people who were fond of liberty without subordination, would be a great objection to the system of progressive and glory divested of jealousy; a people who, instead knowledge, that such a long course of years, so conof requiring that men should degrade themselves to ob- siderable a portion of the times with which we are actain their favor, had raised their ideas to the true appre- quainted, should have rolled along, and yet the importciation of virtues and talents, in order to honor them ant work of perfectability should have recoiled from the with their esteem; a people, whose admiration was di- grasp of each ardent pursuers: but this objection, rected by their judgment, but in whom judgment was which I should regard as irrefragable, if it had any never biassed by their admiration. foundation in truth, I can confute in a very simple and The genius of mankind, and above all, patriotism, satisfactory manner. I do not conceive that the human would be entirely discouraged, if it could be proved that species have retrograded during this epoch; on the conthere was a moral necessity for the greatest nations to trary, it is admitted that, in the course of the above ten be eclipsed after having enlightened the world for a centuries, great efforts have been made in the propagacertain length of time. But this succession of dethroned tion of knowledge, as well as in the development of the people is not an inevitable fatality. If we study the intellectual faculties. sublikie reflections of Montesquieu on the causes of We are convinced, by the study of history, that all the decline of the Romans, we shall clearly perceive principal events tend towards the same end, namely, that the greatest part of those causes do not exist in the civilization of the world. In each century, we perthe present days. The part of Europe which was not ceive new classes of people admitted to the benefits included in the civilization, was likely to invade the one of social order; and even war, notwithstanding its less enlightened; for nature always inclines towards cruel disasters, has been known to extend the empire of equality: and it was therefore absolutely necessary knowledge. that the advantages of society should be universal; that.The Romans civilized the people whom they con)he diffusion of knowledge, the charms of a domestic quered; but they were indebted to Greece for the ife, and also commercial relations, by establishing more first ray of light, which appeared as a small brilliant surity in their enjoyments, should appease by degrees speck in the midst of a region of darkness. Some A-' rivalry of nations. centuries after, a warlike people united under the same Tbhe crimes scarcely to be credited, of which the laws a part of the world, in order to civilize it, which amai eompire was the theatre, was one of the princi- they had first won by conquest. The people of the -*Ia cauit of their fall; the disorderly lives they led, north, although they banished for a time the arts and aind the 3dicrepancy of public opinions, could alone literature which flourished in the east, nevertheless aclave perrn;ited such horrible excesses.* If we except quired a share of the knowledge possessed by the vanthe reign of torror in France, atrocity is neither inherent quished; and the inhabitants of more than one half of in the nature or the manners of Europeans in the present Europe, who till that period had remained ignorant of era. The state of slavery, which exempted one class the nature of civilized society, participated in the adof men from the performance of any moral duty; the vantages. Time has, therefore, discovered to us a small supply of means which could promote general in- regular design in a series of events, which appeared at struction; the diversity of philosophical sects, which first but the effects of chance. Thus we perceive throw the minds of men into incertitude with respect to thought always predominant in the minutiae of actions what was just or unjust; the indifference relative to and of ages. suffering and death, an indifference which owed its The invasion of the barbarians was, without doubt, a birth to courage, but which terminated by exhausting calamity to the nations that were contemporaries of the the natural sources of sympathy;-these were the revolution; but the reality of the event was necessary several sources of that savage cruelty which existed to the propagation of knowledge. The enervated inamong the Romans. habitants of the east, in associating with the people of A disgusting depravity, which alike infringed upon the north, were indebted to them for a degree of enernature and morality, completed the degradation of a gy: whereas the. people of the north acquired a mildpeople once so great; and their debasement prepared ness and docility that must have been of great service an easy triumph for the Northern people. The civili- in completing their intellectual faculties. Whenever * When Caligula wenttomake warin Britany, he sent Pro- war is declared between two enlightened nations togenes tao the Senate: Scribonius, a senator, approached him simply upon political interest, it may be considered with the intention of addressing him ia some phrase of saluta. as the most fatal scourge that ever resulted from the tion upon his arrival; when Protogenes, raising his voice, said,'Is it possible that an enemy of the Emperors can allow himself human pass: but the brilliant events recorded to pay a compliment to me?' The senators, who heard these in the course of a war may occasionally enforce the words, immediately seized Scribonius, and as they were unarm. adoption of certain ideas by the rapid authority of ed, they massacred him with their penknives. This trait certainly surpasses any instance of base intrepidity related in mod- Dower ern history. It has been asserted by many writers, that the 36 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE Christian religion was the cause of the degradation of winters. The giants of frosts presided over their exletters and of philosophy: but I am fully convinced, ploits. According to their traditions, the deluge of that the Christian religion, at the period of its establish- the earth was a deluge of blood; and they believed ment, was indispensably necessary to civilization, and that Odin looked down from heaven to animate their to the uniting of the spirit of the north with the man- carnage. Their rewards and punishments were all ners of the east; and I am farther of opinion, that the proportioned to their actions in war. Man, with religious contemplations produced by Christianity to them, seemed born but for the destruction of his fellowwhatever object they might be applied developed man. They paid no respect to advanced age: the faculties of the mind, and prepared it for they regarded every species of study with conthe reception of metaphysics, morality, and science. tempt; and were utter strangers to humanity. The There are certain periods in history, in which the faculties of their mind were engrossed by one pursuit: love of glory and every other energetic passion appear -war was their sole occupation, and their only aim was to have been extinct. When calamity becomes gener- conquest. al in a country, egotism is universal: a certain portion Such were the principles from which were to be exof happiness is absolutely necessary to the strength of tracted gentleness, morality, and a taste for letters; a nation; adversity cannot inspire with courage indi- nor was the task to be executed upon the people of the viduals whose spirits have been broken by it, except in east less difficult; the Roman character, so celebrated the midst of a nation who have been so fortunate as to for national pride and political institutions, was totally preserve the sensations of admiration or of pity; but extinct: the inhabitants of Italy were disgusted with when all are equally overcome by affliction, public the very idea of glory; they were entirely devoted to opinion loses its influence, and refuses its accustomed voluptuousness and sensuality; they acknowledged support to individuals: days and years may remain, but plurality of gods, and ordained festivals to their honor; l!ife has no aim, no end in view; emulation has lost its and they acknowledged their sovereigns at the hands of vigor, and voluptuous pleasures become the sole inter- a few soldiers, who elevated or disgraced them agreeaest of an inglorious existence, without honor and bly to their caprice or pleasure: constantly subject to without morals. Such is described to be the state of an arbitrary proscription, they were regardless of death, the people of the east, under the chiefs of the lower not from the ideas inspired by courage, but from the inempire. toxication of vice: death interrupted no brilliant proAnother nation, but who are equally as far from the jects, no progression of useful suggestions; it severed true principles of virtue, made their appearance, and no tender ties, it only interfered with the pleasures and easily achieved a conquest over a people rendered pus- amusements with which possibly they had been preillanimous by indolence and inactivity. The ferocity viously wearied and disgusted. Universal corruption of despotism excited by war, in which ignorance was had destroyed even, the remembrance of virtue; and also predominant, had such an effect on the alarmed had any one showed merely an inclination to have resenses of men as to produce crimes, opposite indeed to called it, he would only have excited astonishment the vile degradation of the people they had conquered, united with censure. The moral virtues of the people but more terrible in their effects. To civilize such of the east were swallowed up by sensual enjoyments; conquerors, and to elevate such a race as had been while those of the people of the north were lost sight conquered, was a task which nothing but enthusiasm of amidst martial exercises. If there still existed could have effected;-that forcible power of the mind among this degenerate people a vestige of that innate which, it is true, sometimes leads it astray, but which taste for the arts, letters, and philosophy, it was direct alone subdues that habitual instinct of self-love and in- ed towards metaphysical subtilties; while the sophis creasing personality, that causes happiness to consist in tical spirit left them in doubt as to the truth of argu an mdlvidual sacrifice. ment, and indifference respecting the affections of the I would have it understood, that I do not mean to heart. weaken the indignation which is inspired by the crimes It was in the midst of this deplorable depression and follies of superstition; but to consider each great into which the people of the east had fallen, that the epoch of the philosophical history of thought, relative Christian religion offered its powerful aid; and taught to the state the human mind was in at that time; them to embrace the rules of duty, a voluntary devoand the Christian religion, when it was firmly establish- tion, and gave them good assurances for the established, was, as it appears to me, necessary to the progress ment of a holy faith. But it may be asked, would it of reason. not have been more desirable that they should have The people of the north esteemed life as of little been recalled to virtue by philosophy? In answer tG value: this disposition, though it inspired them with a which I observe, that it would have been impossible at degree of personal courage, could not but be productive that period to have acquired an influence over the huof cruelty towards others They were possessed of man mind by any other means than the co-operation of genius, melancholy, and an inclination to the mysteri- the passions, which it may be said, are always in oppoous; but at the same time they entertained a profound sition to reason: religion alone is acquainted with the contempt for knowledge of every description, as incom- surest means to apply the passions most effectually to patible with the spirit of a warrior. The women, pos- auswer her own wise ends and purposes. sessing more leisure, were much better instructed than The nations of the earth were all influenced by enthe men; they were beloved, and the men were faith- thusiasm: Mahomet, by fostering this propensity, gave ful to them: their affection naturally produced a de- birth to fanaticism, which advanced with the most asgree of sensibility: but power and the loyal fidelity of tonishing facility. Mahomet was considered as a mar a warrior, and truth as an attribute of power, were certainly great in himself; hut his prodigious success the only ideas they ever ascribed to virtue: the was owing to the moral disposition of the times: his gratification of their vengeance was by them digni- religion, however, was only calculated for the people fled with a place in the heavens. By exhibiting the of the east, as its chief tendency was to revive the scars in the foreparts of their bodies, by reciting the military spirit, by offering pleasures as the recompense numbers of their enemies whose blood they had spilt, of their exploits: —it created warriors, but did not in they thought to captivate the affections of the softer the least assist the intellectual improvement. This asx. They offered human victims to their mistresses, general-prophet employed himself entirely in the disse to their gods. Their gloomy atmosphere pre- cipline of soldiers, and instilling obedience and enforcsented nothing to their imagination but storms and ing it: but the dogma of fatality, which rendered them darkness: they marked the revolution of days by the invincible in war, left them brutal and stupid during calculation of nights, and the progress of years by the the time of peace. The Christian religion, having a UPON SOCIETY. 37 egislator, whose grand aim was the perfection of morals, delay. But eventually the victors and the vanquished and to unite under the same banner nations of different have formed but one united people in the different manners and of a contrary belief, could not fail of being countries of Europe:-to tlis end the Christian relimore favorable to the increase of virtue and the expan- gion has most powerfufly contributed. sion of the faculties of the mind. Many combinations But before I proceed in analyzing some other adwere necessary, in order to secure the confidence of vantages of the Christian religion, I must request pertwo nations so opposite in their manners as the people mission to stop here, to make a few remarks upon what of the north and those of the east. The Christian re- strikes me to be a resemblance between this epoch and ligion was chosen by the people of the north; it was the French revolution. favorable to their melancholy disposition and inclina- The nobility, or those who ranked in the first class tion for gloomy images, and also to their continual and of society, generally united all the advantages of a disprofound contemplation relative to the destination of tinguished education; but they were enervated by prosthe dead. There was nothing in the principles of pa- perity, and by degrees lost those virtues which might ganism which could have rendered it acceptable to the have rendered their social pre-eminence excusable people of this character; the dogmas of the Christian while it may be observed, that the lower orders of the religion, and the exalted spirit of the first secretaries, people had not advanced far in civilization; and their encouraged and directed the habitual depression in- manners, which were restrained by laws, were likely to spired by their cloudy atmosphere. Some of their revert to their natural ferocity on the first dawn of libvirtues, as truth, chastity, and a strict observance of erty: —it may almost be said, that they made an invatheir promises, were consecrated by the divine laws; thus sion upon the superior classes of society; and that religion, without altering the nature of their courage, all we have suffered, and all we condemn in the revocontrived to divert it to another object; their customs lution, arises from that fatal necessity of confiding the required them to support every hardship with magna- direction of affairs to those conquerors of the civil order, nimity, in order to be esteemed illustrious in war: re- whose aim was certainly directed by philosophy, but ligion enjoined them to brave all sufferings, and even whose education was many centuries behind those death itself, in the defence of their faith and the fulfil- whom they conquered. Those who have been conment of their several duties: destructive intrepidity querors in the field, and victorious at home, bear a was changed into an unshaken resolution; and resis- great resemblance in character to the men of the north; tance, which had no other aim but to conquer force, and in the vanquished we acknowledge the analogy to was directed by principles of morality. The errors of the acquirements, the prejudices, the vices, and the sofanaticism have often perverted the judgment and cial description of the people of the east. But due latiruined the principles; but in this instance it caused a tude must be given for the education of conquerors, nation, till then invincible, to understand and acknow- and the knowledge which was formerly confined to a ledge a power superior to their own; to substitute few individuals, must be, expanded before the leading duties for laws, and the terror produced by religion rulers in France will be entirely divested of barbarity proved a restraint on their actions. The man of in- and vulgarity. ferior abilities menaced his superior, and the dawn of We are however led to hope, that the civilization of equality may be said to have first received its existence. our northern nations will not require ten or twelve cenThe people of the east, susceptible of enthusiasm, turies; we make more rapid advances than our ancesreadily devoted themselves to a life of contemplation, tors did, and the reason is obvious. Amongst a peowhich was analogous to their climate and inclinations. ple deriving no advantage from education, men are freThey were the first to receive with ardor the monarchi- quently discovered who possesses a remarkably clear cal institutions. Austerities and mortifications were understanding and quick perception, added to the benequickly adopted by a nation given up to a voluptuous fits resulting from the present enlightened century, the satiety which naturally led to an exaggeration of reli- use of the press, and a knowledge of the surrounding gious observances. A people so ardent, credulous, nations; which must each of them necessarily contriand fanatic, were an easy prey to superstition, and to bute to aid the progress of a class of people newly adcrimes at which nature and humanity shudder; religion mitted to the direction of political affairs. But it is difwas less beneficial to them than to the people of the ficult at present to anticipate what will be the final renorth, on account of their more extended depravity and sult of the war between the ancient possessors and the corruption of morals. The task is easier to civilize an new conquerors. It will be a happy termination, if we ignorant race, than to elevate a corrupted people from shall discover, as at the epoch of the invasion of the their state of depravation. northern nations, a philosphical system, a virtuous enThe Christian religion gave new vigor to the princi- thusiasm, and a solid and equitable legislation, that ples of moral life in a set of men who were without might prove to us the light the Christian religion apconnection, without any direct pursuit in view, or any peared in to the ancients; sentiments in which the contie that could endear their existence. It is true, it was queror and the conquered may be said to have united. incapable of restoring to them their country; but it This reconciliation between the north and the east, elevated their thoughts, polluted with the vices of man- which was so benificial to the world, was not the only kind, to a future state; and they found consolation in advantage which resulted from the Christian religion; the hope of participating in a happy immortality. Thus for it is generally believed, that the abolition of slavery many characters were awakened to energy by religion; was the consequence of its benign precepts: to this deand in consequence of the follies of martyrdom, re- cree of justice we may add other benefits which it consulted a renunciation of self-interest, and an abstraction ferred upon mankind, namely domestic happiness and of thought, which proved very favorable to the human the sympathy of pity. intellect. Every circumstance with the ancients, even their doThe Christian religion became a bond of union be- mestic concerns, bore the marks of that odious institutween the people of the north and those of the east; tion of slavery; the disposal of life and death was vested it blended manners and opinions that were before dia- in parental authority: the repeated instances of that barmetrically opposite; and, by reconciling the most in- barous custom of publicly exposing their children;veterate enemies, formed nations, among whom energy the power of husbands, similar in many respects to that has strengthed talents, and talents have awakened en- of fathers; —in short, all their civil laws bore some ergy. This reciprocal benefit was, nevertheless, pro- analogy to that detestible code which delivered man duced by slow degrees: eternal providence employs into the power of man; and created two classes, the centuries in the accomplishment of its designs; while one of which conceived themselves obliged by no reour finite existence feels irritated and amazed at the lative duties towards the other: and this idea once adopt 38 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE ed, it was only by slow gradations that they could arrive not like the Stoics, to sacrifice every thing to the pride at liberty. The women during the term of their lives, and dignity of our own character. By an attention to and the children in a state of infancy, were subjected the literal sense of the gospel, unsullied by the false mn a certain degree to the conditions of slavery. interpretations wihich have been given of it, we clearly In the degenerate ages of the Roman empire, the wo- perceive that a benevolent spirit of compassion towards men were torn from their servitude by the most un- the unhappy pervades its every page: and we there Dridled licentiousness, and plunged into the abyss of find it is considered as a duty incumbent upon man to degradation; but the introduction of Christianityre- feel deeplyfor the distresses incident to humanity. stored them, in respect to moral and religious duties In order to acquire a knowledge of the human heart, at least, to a state of equality with the men. Christi- it was expedient to adopt a system of morality altoanity, by rendering marriage a sacred institution, secur- gether sympathetic: and although religion in general ed the affection which arose from conjugal attachment; enjoins a subjection of the passions, that of Christianthe dogmas of purgatory exacted the same punishments ity came much nearer than that of the stoics to the from both sexes, and promised the same recompense knowledge of their power. Its peculiar benignity and to each. The Evangelists, who recommended private indulgence gave a greater latitude to the character of virtues, an obscure destiny, and a pious humility, offer- men to develop themselves; and philosophy, whose ed to both sexes the means of obtaining a religious purpose is to study the movements of the human heart, palm. The mind is disposed towards religion by sen- certainly acquired much knowledge by it. sibility; on which account women surpassed men in Literature was also considerably benefited by the that Christian emulation which Europe possessed dur- effects produced by melancholy. It is true, that the ing the first centuries of modern history. religion of the people of the north inspired them at all The roving people of the north were, by the influence times with a similar disposition; but it is to Chrisof religion, brought to a settled state of life and the en- tianity that the French orators were indebted for those joyments of domestic happiness they settled themselves powerful and gloomy ideas which added grandeur to in one country, and dwelt in society; and the legisla- their eloquence. tion of civil life was reformed by an adherence to re- The Christian rcligion has been accused of producing ligious principles. It was at this period that women a degree of relaxation in the human mind: but the inwere admitted to their proper station in life; and from tention of the gospel was to counteract a ferocious and this time the sweets of domestic happiness begun to be cruel disposition: how then is it possible to inspire at experienced. A too great share of power is injurions the same time a great portion of humanity toward our to native goodness, and destroys all delicacy; with one fellow-creatures and a perfect indifference for ourselves. part of the creation, neither virtues nor sentiments could Murder must be represented in sanguinary colors; a resist the exercise of authority; and with the other, they sensation of horror must be excited for bloodshed and would vanish by the means of habitual apprehension. death; and nature itself will not suffer sympathy to The felicity of man arises from the independence of remain entirely exterior. the object of his desires: he may conceive that he is It is admitted, that fanaticism has at different times beloved, when chosen by a free being who makes it obscured the sentiments of humanity which are antheir study to conform to his wishes, to obey him; and nexed to the Christian religion: but it is its general to relinquish her taste, her habits, and her time, to ren- spirit that I wish to examine; and in our own times, der his existence complete. How much the perfec- and in the countries where the reformation has been tions of his mind, and the sentiments of his heart are established, we may remark what salutary effects the increased by the ideas and the impressions of a union gospel has had on the morals. of this description, is obvious: the parties having lan- The toleration of paganism was regretted by the phiguished a length of time in a solitary and joyless state, losophers, when they compared it with the fanaticism now enter, as it were into a new world of their own inspired by the Christian religion. Strong passions creating, by contributing to the moral existence of each frequently precipitate men into the commission of other. crimes which cooler reason would never have permitFew works of real superiority have been written by ted: but there are events in history where the exertion women: nevertheless, they have been eminently use- of such passions invigorate society; reason, assisted ful in the progress of literature, from the number of by time, profits by the effects of great commotions; ideas with which men have been inspired by their con- and many ideas have been discovered by the help of stant intercourse with female delicacy and sensibility. the passions, which would have remained in darkness Productions of every kind have been multiplied, since without them. objects have been considered in a new point of view: The human mind requires a violent concussion, in the confidence inspired by a near and dear connection, order to annex its ideas to novel objects: even earthhas conveyed more instruction to the moral nature quakes and subterraneous fires have presented to manthan all the treatises and systems which have been writ- kind sources of wealth which time alone would not ten by men,-such as they appear to each other, and have been sufficient to have discovered. I think I disnot what they are in reality. cern another proof in favor of this opinion, in the great Commiseration for sufferings must, in every age, influence acquired by the study of theology beyond that have naturally existed in the human heart; neverthe- of metaphysics; this pursuit has often been condemned less, how different are the morals of antiquity from those as a very idle and useless method of employing talents; of Christianity! The one is founded upon violence, and it has also been alleged as one of the principal causes and the other upon sympathy. The warlike spirit of the barbarity of the first qenturies of our era. Nevermust have presided at the origin of societies, is discerni- theless, it is a style of intellectual effort which has ble even in the philosophy of the Stoics: self-command developed, in a singular manner, the faculties of the was exercised, so to speak, with a warlike energy: the mind. If we judge the result of this labor only as conhappiness of others was not the object of ancient mo- nected with the arts suggested by imagination, nothillng rality, the principal aim of the philosophers being to certainly can give a more unfavorable opinion of it. render men independent of each other. The noble elegance and graceful forms of antiquity are The Christian religion also requires self denial: this entirely obscured beneath the pedantic errors of theolovirtue has, by monkish fanaticism, been extended far gical writers; but that degree of understanding which beyond the'austerity of ancient philosophy: but the is adapted to the study of the sciences, is acquired by principles of this sacrifice, so strongly enjoined by disputing upon different opinions, notwithstanding their Christianity, are, perfect submission to the divine will, object is equally puerile and absurd. Attention and and meek humility towards our fellow-creatures;- abstraction are naturally inherent in a mind of deep re UPON SOCIETY. 39 flection; and those faculties are alone sufficient to aid- grossed the spirit of inPenration; and every event that the progress of the human understanding. concerned the ancients, acquired an equal degree of inThe talents and the imagination which are by this terest. means derived, give new vigor to the memory: but it Nevertheless, these different foibles had their separis entirely owing to metaphysical method that we are ate advantages; and we may perceive, on the revival indebted for fresh ideas. The abilities of men are ex- of letters, that those nations which were esteemed barercised by spiritual dogmas in the conception of ab- barous were beneficial as well as others; first, they stract sentiments; and the extended contention of the added to the number of civilized people; and secondly, mind, actuated by the subtle chain of theological con- they were of use in bringing the understanding to persequences, prepares the faculties for the study of the fection. more abstruse sciences. But it may be asked, how can If we consider the revival of letters only in its relaa deep examination into the nature of error be servicea- tion to the works of imagination and taste, we shall ble towards bringing to light the knowledge of truth? find, without doubt, that there have been nearly sixteen It is that art of reasoning, and that strict meditation, by hundred years rost; and that, since the time of Virgil which we are enabled to pursue metaphysical references, to the period of the Catholic mysteries represented on and to create order and method, which is always an the Paris theatres, the human understanding, in the acuseful exercise for the faculties of thought, from what- quirement of arts, has been retrograding towards the ever degree they are taken, and whatever end they most absurd barbarism. But this was not the case with wish to arrive at. philosophical works. Bacon, Machiavel, Montaigne, Without doubt, if the faculties which were thus de- and Galileo, all nearly contemporaries, in three different veloped had not since been directed to other objects, countries, emerged all at once out of general obscurity; much mischief would have been-produced to the human and shew themselves, for many centuries forward, the species; but in the discovery of the revival of letters last writers of ancient literature, and, above all, the last we perceive ideas so quickly arise, and the sciences to philosophers of antiquity. advance in so rapid and extraordinary a manner, that If the human understanding had not made some prowe are led to believe, that even in pursuing a false bias, gress even in those centuries in which we can scarcely the mind acquired the strength and knowledge which discover any traces of it; should we have seen, at the accelerated its progress towards reason and philosophy. period of the revival of letters, men who, in morals, Some men are disposed from inclination to study the politics, and the sciences, surpassed the greatest geabstract; but the greater number are tempted by party- niuses of antiquity If there exists an infinite disinterest. Political knowledge made rapid advances tance between the late celebrated men of antiquity and during the first years of the French revolution; because those who are' illustrious in letters and sciences; and ir it served the ambition of some, and created general agi- Bacon, Machiavel, and Montaigne, possessed ideas and tation. Theological questions, in their time, were ob- knowledge superior to those of Pliny, Marcus Aurelius, jects creative of a lively interest and a profound analy- &c.; is it not evident, that the human reason did not sis: the disputes to which they gave rise, were ani- lie dormant during the centuries which separated the mated by the authority of power and the fear of perse- lives of those celebrated men? We must not lose cut:on. If the spirit of faction had not introduced it- sight of the principle which I enforced at the comself into metaphysics, and if ambition had not been in- mencement of this work, namely, that the most disterested in abstract discussions, men would not have tinguished genius never rises but a very few degrees felt a sufficient motive to have induced them to over- above the knowledge of his own century. The hiscome those difficulties which are necessary to the dis- tory of the human understanding during the interval coveries and progress of the subsequent ages. which elapsed between the time of Pliny and Bacon, Thus instruction makes its way among all ranks of Epictetus and Montaigne, Plutarch and Machiavel, is people. WVhen the professed opinions upon any order very little understood by us; because men and nations, of ideas whatever, become the cause and the weapons generally speaking, were confounded together in the of parties; hatred, and rage, and jealousy, united to single event of war; but military exploits created a each report, engage on every side the objects in discus- very feeble interest after the period of their power was sion, and agitate with violence every question depend- past. There has never, since the commencement of ing: but when the passions have subsided, reason care- the world, been any other standard for enlightened men fully looks round the field of contest for some fragments to abide by, but the advancement of knowledge and of t assist in the researches after truth. reason; nevertheless, let us observe, with the learned Every institution, merely beneficial in the moment man, the secret manner in which nature combines her of danger, may be considered in itself an insupportable developments. The moralist perceives the combinaabuse, after having corrected abuses still more atrocious. tion of causes which, during the space of fourteen Chivalry was necessary to soften military ferocity; and hundred years, have been bringing about the actual tended to the cultivation of female society, and of re- state of the sciences and of philosophy. ligion: but chivalry, as an order, as a sect, as the cause What strength of mind suddenly shone forth in the of separating mankind instead of uniting them, ought middle of the fifteenth century! What important disto have been considered as a fatal evil the moment that coveries were made! New methods were adopted in it ceased to be of any essential utility. a few years! Such a rapid progress, such an astonishThe Roman jurisprudence, which they were happy ing success! must they not have some connection with to have received by a people whose extent of know- something anterior 3 And even in the arts, was not ledge consisted in the right of conquest, became a cun- all false taste quickly expelled? The progress of ning and pedantic study; it occupied the greater part thought in a very short time discovered the principles of the learned men, who had relinquished for it the pur- of the really beautiful; and literature was rapidly suit of theology. The knowledge of the ancient lan- brought to perfection, from the great exercise the mind guages, which revived the true literary taste, inspired had experienced on its return to the path of reason, for some time an absurd mania for erudition; the pre- during which it made speedy advances toward persent and the future were almost annihilated in the pue- fection. rile examination of the most trifling circumstances which One principal cause of the eager emulation which retrospect afforded; commentaries upon the works of was excited by the revival of letters, was the great the ancients preceded philosophical observations:-it splendor it annexed to the name of a good writer. We appeared as if it were ordained that literary productions are in some degree astonished at the homage obtained should interfere with mankind and nature. eThe great by Petrarch, and are equally surprised at the impor~ estimation in which eruldition was holden, entirely en- tance, that was attached to the publication of his soe. 40 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE. nets. Wearied with the absurd military prejudice, the state of nature: it is for this reason that the modern aim of which was to degrade and abolish literature, the moralists have, in general, so much the advantage over people descended into the opposite extreme: it is also the ancients in regard to their subtility in the knowpossible that the parade of recompensing opinions was ledge of mankind. necessary to excite men to the difficult labor required, With the ancients, those who could not acquire three centuries since, to render modern languages per- fame, had no motive for development: but after the fect, to effect the regeneration of philosophical spirit, period when connections were formed in domestic life, and the creation of a new method for metaphysics and the communications of the mind and the exercise of the more difficult sciences. morals always existed, at least in a limited circle; the But let us stop at that period which commences the children became dearer to the parents from reciprocal new era; whence we may reckon, without interruption, tenderness, which more closely united the conjugal tie; the most astonishing conquests of the genius of man- and the different affections assumed the appearance of kind; and in comparing our literary treasures with that divine alliance of friendship in love, of attraction those of antiquity, so far from suffering ourselves to and esteem, of a merited confidence and an involuntary be discouraged by a sterile admiration of the past, let seduction. us encourage ourselves with the fertile enthusiasm of Advanced age that was crowned with glory and virhope; let us unite our efforts; let us spread our sails, tue, although it ceased to hope, might continue to be and catch every breeze that can waft us to futurity. animated by the emotions of the heart, and was consoled with a pensive melancholy which allowed individuals to remember, to regret, and still to regard what had formerly claimed their affection. When moral reCHAPTER IX. flections have been united to the violent passions of youth, they may be extended by an exalted rememOF THE GENERAL SPIRIT OF MODERN LITERATURE. brance to the termination of existence, and present the same pleasing picture through the awful variations of It may be thought, and not to imagination, that we time. are indebted four the. new acquisitions made to litera- A profound and melancholy sensibility is one of the ture in the middle ages. Imitation, the principle of greatest beauties perceptible in some of our modern the fine arts~,as I have before remarked, does-not ad- writings: this, without doubt, is owing to the fair sex, mit of unlimited perfection: the moderns,. in this re- who, being ignorant of most other things in life, except spect, can never proceed farther than by following the the art of pleasing, transmitted the softness of their impath traced out by the ancients. But if the images of pressions to the style of certain authors. In perusing poetry and description always remain nearly the same; those works which were composed since the renewal of more eloquence is added to the passions by a new de- letters, we may in every separate page remark those,velopment of sensibility and a profound knowledge of ideas which were wanting before they accorded to wocharacter, which gives a charm to our superior speci- men a kind of civil equality. mens of literature, which cannot be attributed solely Generosity, courage, and humanity, have in some to poetical imagination. respects a different meaning. The ancients founded The ancients esteemed men as their friends, while the chief of their virtues on the love of their country: they considered women in no other light than as slaves the qualities of women were exercised in a different designed by nature for that unhappy state; and indeed and an independent manner:-a sympathy for misforthe greater part of them were deserving of that ap- tune, a pity for weakness, an elevation of soul, without pellation; their minds were not furnished with a any other aim than the enjoyment of that elevation, is single idea that could distinguish them from the brute much more in their nature than political virtues. The creation, nor were they enlightened by one generous moderns, influenced by women, easily gave way to sentiment: this circumstance, without doubt, was the philanthropy, and the mind acquired a more philosophicause why the ancients represented in their tender cal liberty when theyv were less under the empire of exscenes merely sensations. clusive associations. The preference of the ancients towards the softer The only advantage which the writers of the last sex was solely influenced by their beauty: but the centuries have over the ancients in their works of immoderns acknowledge, that superior talents and ties agination, is the talent of expressing a more delicate can alone insure their happiness or misery, in that pre- sensibility; and that of giving greater variety to situadilection to which they owe the destiny of their lives. tions and characters, from a more intimate knowledge Novels, those varied productions of modern genius, of the human heart. But how much superior are the were almost entirely unknown to the ancients: it is philosophers of the present era in the sciences, in true, they composed a few pastorals in that style, at a method, in analysis, in the arrangement of ideas, and period when the Greeks elideavored to discover some the chain of events. employment as a relaxation during servitude. But be- Mathematical arguments resemble the two great fore women had created an interest in domestic life, ideas of metaphysics, space and eternity; millions of there was nothing sufficiently desirable to excite the leagues may be added, and centuries multiplied; each curiosity of men, whose time was almost entirely oc- calculation is true, yet the term remains indefinite. cupied by political pursuits. The wisest step ever taken by the human understandA greater number of shades were perceptible in the ing was, to renounce all doubtful systems, and adopt characters of women, which their wish to obtain power, methods capable of demonstration. and their fear of subjection, presented to general view; Although modern eloquence may be deficient in the but they were singularly useful in furnishing new se- emulation of a free people; nevertheless it acquires crets of emotion for the exercise of dramatic talents; from philosophy and a melancholy imagination a new their fear of death, their desire of life, the devotion of character, which has a very powerful effect. I do not themselves, their resentments, and in short, every senti- think, that among the ancients, there was one composiment which they were suffered to deliver, embellished tion, or a single orator, that could equal Bossuet, Rousliterature with new expressions. The women, it may seau, or the English, in some of their poetry, or the Gerbe said, not being strictly answerable for their conduct, man in some of their phrases, in the sublime art oi affectdid not scruple to relate what their different sentiments ing the heart. It is to the spirituality of the Christian naturally suggested. A solid understanding, with a ideas, and to the sombre truths of philosophy, that we scrutinizing discernment, may clearly perceive these must attribute the art of introducing, even into private developments of the human heart when it appears in a discussions, general and affecting reflections which UPON SOCIETY. 41 touched the heart, awakened recollection, and induced into a virtue every thing that can be useful to mutual man to consider the interest of his fellow-creatures. happiness; domestic ties are cemented by a rational The ancients knew how to add vigor to the argu- liberty; and no one has an arbitrary power over his ments necessary to be used on every occasion; but, at fellow-creature. the present period, the mind, through a succession of With the ancient people of the north, lessons of pruages, has become so indifferent to the interest of indi- dence, dexterity, and maxims which commanded a suviduals and also to that of nations, that the eloquent pernatural empire over their own afflictions, were placed. writer finds it necessary to adopt a more pathetic style, among the first precepts of virtue: but the importance in order to awaken the feelings which are common to of duties is much better classed by the moderns; the all men. Without doubt, it is requisite to strike the reciprocal obligation from man to man holds the first imagination with a lively and forcible impression of the rank; what regards ourselves, ought to be considered object intended to create an interest; but the appeal to relatively to the influence which we may possess over pity is never irresistible, except when melancholy re- the destiny of others. What each individual is to propresents what the imagination has portrayed. cure, to promote his own happiness, is a counsel and The moderns possess a readiness of expression, the not an order: the strictest moral does not impute to sole aim of which is to engage the eloquence of man as a crime that grief which is natural, and which thought: antiquity presents no model of this kind but his feelings will not allow him to conceal, but that grief Tacitus. Montesquieu, Pascal, and Machiavel, are elo- which he occasions to others. quent by a single expression, by a striking epithet, or In a word, that which both the gospel and philosophy in a rapidity of imagery, the purpose of which is the alike inculcate, is the doctrine of humanity. We are elucidation of an idea, and the endeavor to enlarge and taught to respect the gift of life; and the existence of embellish what is intended to be explained. The im- man is now considered as sacred to man, and is not pression given by this peculiar style, may be compared viewed with that political indifference which some of to the effect produced by the disclosure of an important the ancients believed compatible with the true princisecret: it seems likewise as if a number of thoughts ples of virtue. We now feel a sensation of horror at had preceded that which had just been expressed, and the sight of blood; and the warrior who is entirely ineach separate idea appears connected with the most different to his own personal danger, acquires a degree profound meditations; and that suddenly, and by a sin- of honor when he shudders at being the necessary cause gle word, we are permitted to extend our ideas to those of destruction to another. If any circumstance at this immense regions which have been accurately traced by period gives reason to apprehend, that a condemnation the efforts of genius. has been unjust, that an innocent person has fallen a The ancient philosophers exercised, so to speak, a victim to a supposed justice, nations will listen with magistracy of instruction among men: having always terror to the lamentations which arise from an irreparain view the general benefit, they enforced certain rules, ble misfortune; the sensation caused by an unmerited and left nothing undone that was likely to enlighten death is recorded from one generation to another; and mankind. The knowledge of morals must have ad- even children will listen with horror to the recital of so vanced with the progress of human reason; but philo- great a grievance. W;hen the eloquent Lally, twenty sophical demonstrations are considered more applicable'years after the death of his father, demanded in France to that moral which is of the intellectual order. We the re-establishment of his manes; those young men must not compare modern virtues with those of the who could not have seen or known the victim whom he ancients, as citizens: it is only in a free country where wished to reclaim, felt themselves violently agitated, there can exist that constant duty and that generous re- and shed tears in abundance, as if that fatal day, when lation between the citizens and their country. It is innocence was sacrificed, could never be effaced from true that, in a despotic government, custom or prejudice their remembrance. may still inspire some brilliant acts of military courage; Thus ages rolled on towards the conquest of liberty but the continued and painful attention given to civil for virtue is always its herald. Alas! by what means employments and legislative virtues, added to the dis- shall we banish the painful contrast which so forcibly interested sacrifice of the greater.part of their lives to strikes the imagination? One crime was recollected the public, can only exist where there is a real passion during a long succession of years; but we have since for liberty: it is therefore in private qualities, senti- witnessed cruelties without number committed and forments of philanthropy, and in a few writings of a supe- gotten at the same moment! And it was under the rior order, that we are to examine the progress of shadow of the republic, the noblest, the most glorious, morals. and the proudest institution of the human mind, that The principles of modern philosophy are much more those execrable crimes have been committed! Ah! conducive to happiness than those of the ancients: the how difficult do we find it to repel those melancholy duties imposed by our moralists are courtesy, docility, ideas, every time we reflect upon the destiny of manll pity and affection. Filial reverence was holden in the the horrid phantom of the revolution appears before us: highest estimation by the ancients, and parental attach- in vain we wish to'look back on times that are past; in ment is viewed in the same light by the moderns; but vain we desire to recognise in late events the constant without doubt, in the connection between father and connection of abstract combinations: if in the regions son, it is more advantageous that the benefactor should of metaphysics one word awakens recollection, the emobe the individual whose tenderness is the strongest. tions of the heart resume all their empire, and no longThe ancients could not be exceeded in their love of er supported by reflection, we are suddenly plunged justice, but they did not consider benevolence as a du- into the abyss of despair. ty iustice may be enforced by the laws, notwithstand- Nevertheless, let us not yield to this despondency, irg general opinion is the criterion of beneficence, and but return to general observations and literary ideas; is sufficient to exclude from esteem the being who is to aVy thing and every thing, in short, that can divert insensible to the miseries of his fellow-creatures. our attention from personal sentiments; they are The ancients only required of others to refrain from of too painful a nature to be developed: talents injuring them; and simply desired them not to stand in may be animated by a certain degree of emotion: their sunshine, but that they might be left to nature and but long and heavy affliction stifles the genius of exthemselves. But the moderns, endowed with softer pression; and when sorrow is become habitual to the sentiments, solicit assistance, support, and that interest mind, the imagination loses even the wish to expres which their situation inspires. They have constituted what it feels. 42 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE CHAPTER X. I still more recently, they acquired a number of useful discoveries in nature which associated them for the inOF THE SPANISH AND ITALIAN LITERATURE. tellectual perfection of the human species. Superstition made many attempts to persecute GaliThe greatest part of the ancient manuscripts, the mo- leo; but a number of the Italian princes came to his numents of art, and in short, all the remains of Roman relief. Religious fanaticism is very inimical to the splendor and knowledge, existed ill Italy: and con- arts and sciences, as well as to philosophy; but absoslderable expenses and the authority of public power lute regal power, or federal aristocracy, have often prowere necessary in order to make the researches requi-. tected them, and are only averse to a philosophical insite to bring them to light. It was cohsequently in dependence. this country, where the sources of all scientific pur- In a country where priesthood is predominant, every suits were to be found, that literature first made its re- evil and every prejudice have been often found united: appearance, and commenced its career under the but the diversity of governments in Italy lightened the auspices of princes:- for the different means which are yoke of priesthood, by creating a rivalry between those indispensably necessary to the first progress, are imme- states or princes, who secured the very limited inde diately dependent upon the power and will of govern- pendence necessary to the arts and sciences. ment. After having affirmed, that it was in the sciences only The protection of the Italian princes greatly contri- that the Italians advanced progressively, and furnished buted to the revival of letters: but it must have been their tribute towards the general knowledge of the huan obstacle to the light of philosophy: and those obsta- man species; let us proceed to examine into eactl cles would have existed even if religious superstition branch of intellectual learning, into philosophy, elohad not, in many instances, been detrimental to the quence, and poetry, with the causes of the successes investigation of truth. and failures of the Italian literature. I must once more explain the meaning which I The subdivision of states in the same country is, in have constantly attached to the word philosophy in the general, very favorable to philosophy: this is what I course of this work; what I mean by the use of that have occasion to show in speaking of the Gerrnan liteterm, is a more minute inquiry into the principles of rature. But in Italy, this subdivision did not produce political and religious institutions; the analysis of its natural effect; the despotism of the priests destroyed, characters, and the events of history: in a word, the in a great measure, the happy results which mighthave study of the human heart, and the natural rights of man. arisen from a federal government; it would perhaps Such a philosophy imagines a state of liberty, or must have been better, if the whole nation had been united necessarily lead towards it. under one government; their recollection would have The men of letters in Italy were farther from that been more active, and the sentiments it inspired would independence requisite to this philosophy, than any have produced a retrospect favorable to virtue. other nation; as they required pecuniary means and Principalities, whether under a federal or a theocratithe approbation of princes, in order to discover those cal government, have each of therm been a prey to civil manuscripts of antiquity that were to serve them as wars, parties, and factions; altogether unfavorable to guides. liberty. The minds of men were depraved by mutual There were in all the great cities of Italy numberless hatred, instead of being enlarged by the love of their academies and universities: these associations were country. Even while they submitted to tyranny, they particularly proper for the learned researches that were were familiar with assassination: incredulity was oc to rescue from oblivion so many superior compositions casionally found the companion of fanaticism, but of antiquity. But these public establishments, even sound reason was never t-o be met with. from the nature of their institutions, were entirely The Italians, notwithstanding their general increunder the subjection of government; and the corpo- dulity and their universal professions, were much more rations, like all other orders, classes, and sects, were addicted to pleasantry than reasoning: which led therm extremely useful to one particular ainm, but much less to make a jest of their own existence. When they favorable than the efforts of individual genius to the wished to lay aside their natural talent, the comic, and advancement of philosophy. We must add to these attempted eloquent orations, they were always mixed general reflections, that the long and patient research- with the most absurd affectation. Their recollection of es requisite for the examination of the ancient manu- past grandeur, without one idea of present greatness, scripts, was peculiarly adapted to a monastic life: and must necessarily produce the stupendous. The Italthe monks, in fact, were the most active in the study of ians might possess dignity, if there were any mixture of literature. Thus the same cause which produced the the gloomy or melancholy in their characters; but revival of letters, opposed the development of natural when the successors of the Romans, deprived of all nareason. The Italians took the first steps, and pointed tional splendor, and all political liberty, are yet the out the way in which the human understanding has gayest people on earth, it shows that there is a natural since made such immense progress; but they were walt of elevation of soul. destined never to make any advance in the path which It was perhaps from antipathy to the Italian bombast, they themselves had laid open. that Machiavel used such extreme simplicity when he In Italy, the imagination was intoxicated by the in- analyzed tyranny. It is very probable that he wished, imitable charms of poetry and the fine arts: but the that the horror of crimes should arise from the developwriters in prose were, in general, neither moralists nor ment of their principles; and carrying his contempt philosophers, and their efforts to appear eloquent pro- rather too far even for the appearance of declamation, duced nothing but bombast. Nevertheless, as it is in he left every thing to the imagination of his readers. the nature of the human understanding always to ima- The reflections of of Machiavel upon Titus Livy are far prove; the Italians, to whomn philosophy was interdict- superior to his Prince.'These reflections may be coned, and who could not, in poetry, exceed the limit sidered as one of the works in which the human underprescribed to all arts,-that of perfection the Italians, standing has showed itself to the greatest advantage: I say, rendered themselves illustrious by the astonish- such a production belongs entirely to the genius of the ing progress which, by their perseverence, they affect- author, and has no connection with the general characed in the sciences. After the century of Leo X, after ter of the Italian literature. Ariosto and Tasso, their poetry visibly assumed a re- The troubles of Florence, without doubt, contributed trogradecourse: but, in Galileo, Cassini, and in others to give to the ideas of Machiavel a greater energy: UPON SOCIETY. 43 but it appears to me, that in studying his work, we can world of fancy; and as their imagination was further feel they are the productions of a man who fancied animated by the heat of their climate, there was a himself as standing alone in creation: he writes as if greater variety in the Arabian tales than in the rofor himself solely, w-ithout concerning himself about mances of chivalry. But in Italy they were both united; the effects which his writings might produce on others. the invasion of the people of the north transported into Machiavel may be accused of not having foreseen the east the tradition of the exploits of chivalry; and the bad consequences that might have arisen from his their connection with Spain enriched their poetry with books: but it is not to be credited, that a man of such a number of events taken from the Arabian tales. It extensive genius would have adopted the theory of is to this happy mixture that we are indebted for Arivice; which theory is too brief, and has too little of the osto and Tasso. prospective even in its most profound combinations. The art of exciting pity and terror by developing the Among the number of Italian historians there are passions of the heart, is a talent in which philosophy none, not even Guichardin and F. Paolo, whom they claims a great part: but the effects of the rmarvelous esteem the most, who will in any degree bear a com- upon credulity is more powerful: as the explanation parison with those of antiquity, or with the English cannot be foreseen by any combination, and curiosity historians amongst the moderns; they certainly have cannot be satisfied by the anticipation of any thing proerudition; but they neither examine men nor ideas. bable: all is therefore surprise and astonishment. ~But perhaps it was really dangerous under the Italian In the romances of chivalry, we may perceive a singovernment to judge philosophically of institutions and gular mixture of the Christian religion in which the characters: possibly this people, once so great, and writers believed, and the magic which they feared: now so degraded, were, like Rinaldo in the palace of and in the Oriental writings, a continual combat was visi Armida, importuned by every thought that could inter- ble between the new religion, and the anc;ent idolatry rupt their pleasures and their repose. over which Mahomet triumphed. The Roman and It would have been natural to suppose, that the elo- Grecian mythology was a composition much more quence of the pulpit would have been superior in Italy simple, and was more nearly connected with moral to that of any other nation; because they were under ideas; being generally the emblem or the allegory. the dominion of a positive religion. Nevertheless, this But the wonderful of the Arabians was more attractive country offers nothing celebrated in that style of elo- to curiosity. The one appears like a dream of terror; quence; while France can boast of the greatest talents and the other a happy comparison of the moral and of that description. The Italians, if we except a cer- physical orders. tain number of enlightened men, were alike in religion, The literature of the Spaniards ought to have been in love, and in liberty; fond of the bombast in every more remarkable than that of the Italians it should thing; and felt no real sentiment in any thing. They have united the imagination of the north with that of were vindictive, yet servile; they were slaves to the the east, the Oriental grandeur with the splendor of female sex, yet total strangers to the deep and lasting chivalry, the martial spirit which repeated wars had exseirtiments of the heart: they were the victims of su- alted and the poetry which was inspired by the beauty perstition, strictly adhering to all Catholic ceremonies; of their climate: but regal power, which served as a but they did not believe in an indissoluble alliance be- prop for superstition, stifled in their birth those puerile tween religion and morals. Such is the effect that might dispositions to glory. naturally have been expected from fanaticalprejudices; The subdivision of states, although it precluded Italy from divers governments which never united in the from becoming one nation, gave sufficient liberty for love and defence of their country; and from the heat of the study of the sciences: but the united despotism of their climate, which excited every sensation, and ren- Spain, in encouraging the active power of the Inquisidered them prone to indulge every degree of voluptuouis- tion, left no pursuit for thought, no resource nor means ness, if its effects are not opposed, as with the Romans, of escaping the yoke. We may, however, judge what by the energetic pursuit of politics. In shortl all coun- the Spanish literature might have been, by some essays tries where public authority sets the limits of superstition which may yet be collected. against researches into philosophical truths; when em- The romances of the Moors established in Spain. ulation has exhausted itself on the fine arts; enlighten- borrowed their respect for the fair-sex from chivalry, ed men, having neither path to follow, nor aim or ex- This respect was not to be found in the national manpectation in view, are naturally discouraged, and a total ners of the east. The Arabs who remained in Africa, listlessness takes possession of their faculties, and did not in this instance resemble the Arabs established scarcely leaves to the mind strength sufficient to find in Spain: the Moors inspired the Spaniards with their amusement for itself. spirit of magnificence; and the Spaniards reciprocally After having expressed, perhaps with some degree of taught their love and their chivalric honor to the Moors. severity, what was wanting in the Italian literature, we No mixture could be more favorable to works of immust return to the fascinating charms of their brilliant agination, if literature had been encouraged in Spain. imagination. Amongst their romances, the' Cid' gives us some idea That period of literature is worthy of being remarked, of the grandeur which would have characterized the in which was discovered the secret of exciting the cu- efforts of their genius. In the poem of Camoens, riosity by the invention and recital of private adventures. which is written in the same spirit as many of the The romantic was introduced into tho north and east Spanish productions, we find a most beautiful fiction in by two dist;nct causes. In the north, the spirit of the phantom which defends the entrance of the Indian chivalry often gave rise to extraordinary events; and seas. In the comedies of Calderoni, and of Lopez do in order to make their recitals interesting to the war- Vega, an elevation of sentiment always shines through riors, they were obliged to relate exploits similar to the cloud of faults by which their beauties are veiled. their own: to render literature subservient to the re- The love and jealousy of the Spaniards have quite a cital or the invention of the splendid achievements of different character from the sentiments represented in chivalry was the only means to overcome the repug- the Italian pieces; their expressions are neither very nance in which learning was holden by men who were subtil, though not entirely insipid; they never portray even then but in a state of barbarity. perfidy of character nor depravity of manners:~ it is It may also be farther remarked, that Oriental des- true, they have too much pompousness of style; but potism turned the mind to words of imagination; while we condemn their bombast, we are convinced of moral truths could not be risked but under the formn of the truth of their sentiments. It is not the same in a fable, and talents were exercised to invent and detail Italy: if the affe-tation of certain works were taken fictions: it was natural for slaves to take refuge in a away, there woukii remain nothing at all: while, if we W 44 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE could remove that of the Spaniards, they would shortly Italians into their poems on the subject of love. There attain to the perfection of dignity, courage, and the is some analogy between love and devotion; but there most affecting sensibility, certainly can exist none between theology and the It was not possible that the elements of philosophy sentiments of the heart: nevertheless, at Constantinocould be improved in Spain; the invasion of the north pie they disputed in the same style upon the nature of introduced nothing but the military spirit: and the the divinity, as in Italy upon the partiality or severity of Arabians were altogether enemies to philosophy: their their mistresses.* absolute government, and the fatality of their religion, All Europe, and France in particular,.were in danled them to detest the light of philosophy: this hatred ger of losing the advantages of natural genius by caused them to burn the library of Alexandria. They imitating the writings of the Italians; the beauties however cultivated the sciences and poetry: but they which immortalized their poets, depended upon the studied the former like astrologers, and the latter like imagination, the language, the climate, and a vawarriors. They cultivated their vocal talents, merely riety of circumstances which could not be transto sing their exploits; and they studied nature only ported elsewhere; but their defects were very conwith the hopes of attaining the magic art. They had tagious. no idea of strengthening their reason: and in reality, Affectation is, of all the faults incident to characters to what use could they have applied a faculty which or writings, that which in the most irreparable manner would have overthrown what they most respected, des- checks the source of all good: even truth, when thus potism and superstition? arrayed, sickens the mind, and we turn from it with The Spaniards, strangers like the Italians to the la- disgust. bors of philosophy, were entirely diverted from all lite- The language which has been employed in false rary emulation by the gloomy and oppressive tyranny ideas and cold exaggerations, becomes vapid if continuof the Inquisition. They drew no profit from the in- ed, and may at length lose the power of causing even exhaustible sources of poetic invention which the Ara- the slightest emotion, if too often repeated upon the bians brought with them. Italy was in possession of same subject; for this reason the Italian is, perhaps, the ancient monuments: was also immediately con- of all the European languages, the least adapted nected with the Greeks of Constantinople; and drew for the passionate eloquence of love; as that of from Spain the Oriental style, which the Moors had in~ the French is now exhausted in declamations upon troduced, but which the Spaniards neglected. liberty. We may easily distinguish, in the Italian literature, At the same time that Petrarch introduced into his what has arisen from the influence of the Greeks, and poetry a romantic exaggeration. Boccace adopted anwhat belongs to the poetry and tradition of the Ara- other extreme, and threw into his works the greatest inbians. Pedantry and affectation were derived from the decency: and we may observe, that most of the Italian sophistry and theology of the Greeks, and the picture comedies are infinitely more obscene than any composof poetic invention from the Oriental imagination ed by the French authors. One of the destructive conThese two different characters may be distinctly per- sequences of that affectation of sentiment is to inspire ceived through the general character which the same a taste. for the opposite extreme, in order to rouse the language, the same climate, and similar manners, gave mind from a languor and disgust which this sentimental to the works of the same people. tone never fails to occasion. The affectation of love Boiardo the first author who wrote in that style leads the mind to licentiousness; as hypocrisy in rerendered so celebrated by Ariosto, displayed a great ligion generally ends in atheism: nevertheless, Pesimilarity in his poems to the Oriental tales; the same trarch and a few other celebrated poets who wrote in character of the inventive and the marvelous. Indeed, that style, are worthy of being read from the beauties the spirit of chivalry, and the liberty granted to women of their harmonious language, which recalls to our in the north, constitute the only difference between Boi- minds in a degree the effects of that celestial music, ardo and the' Thousand and One Nights.' with which it is so often accompanied: but it is not Although the Arabians were a warlike people, they affirmed, that these sonorous words would be an adfought for religion much more than for love or honor; vantage to all kinds of style, or to every description of while with the people of the north, whatever might be poetry. their respect for the belief they professed, personal The brilliant consonance of the Italian language is glory was ever their first aim. Ariosto, as well as Boi- not favorable to thought, either in the writer or the ardo, is an imitator of the Oriental style. Ariosto is reader: there is not a sufficient conciseness in the certainly the greatest painter, and consequently, per- ideas, nor enough of gloom to express the melancholy haps, the greatest poet amongst the moderns. One of of sentiment; it is a language whose melody is so the most striking originalities in his works is the art of extraordinary, that even without giving attention to extracting pleasantry from what is not only serious but the sense of the words, it strikes and affects the mind bombastic. Nothing could be more agreeable to the like the chords of a musical instrument. Every Italians than this lively ridicule thrown upon all the one must be transported in reading this verse of serious and elevated notions of chivalry; it is natural Tasso to them to be fond of uniting, even in subjects of the highest importance, an exterior of gravity with levity Chiama gli arbitator del ombre eterne of sentiments: and Ariosto is the most charming Il rauco suon della Tartarea tromba, model of this national taste. Treman le spaziose atre caverne, Tasso borrowed his most brilliant ideas from the E l'aer cieco a quel ramor rimbomba.t Oriental imagination, but often joined with them a charm of sensibility peculiar to himself. Petrarch, the Yet when we examine the sense of it, we cannot first poet of whom the Italians could boast, and one of find any thing sublime. Tasso like an able musician, those who was most admired, introduced that unfortunate style of antithesis adrd concetti, of which the u Among a thousand instances of Italian affectation, I shall tunate. syeoanihiowhct mention one. —Petrarch lost his mother when she was only thir Italian literature in many instances could never after ty-eight years old; he then composed a sonnet in a manner asbe entirely corrected. All the poetical productions of suredly most affecting and natural consisting exactly of thirtythe school of Petrarch and we must admit into the eight verses, ion honor of her memory, as well as to testify his own regret at having lost his mother at that comparatively early number the Aminta of Tasso, and the Pastor Fido of age. Guarini, drew their defects from the sophistry of the t' When the hoarse sound of the Tartarean trumpet called Greeks of the middle century. The spirit with which the inhabitants of the eternal shades, the vast and g'oomy caverns trembled, while the tremendous roar was extended far and they animated their theology, was introduced by the wide through the gloomy air.' UPON SOCIETY. 45 takes possession of the imagination. In this stanza he and variegated picture of the vices of the human heait, makes his hearers tremble by the harmony of numbers, suchas are found in the French comedies. The Italians and the grandeur of sounds; but one of the fine airs simply wished to create laughter; no serious aim can of Jiomelli would produce nearly a similar effect. This be. discovered through the veil of flippancy, and their is the advantage of the Italian language, and we will comedies are not the picture of human life, but its now remark its inconvenience. caricature. The death of Clorinda, murdered by Tancred, The Italians, even in their theatres, have often turned is perhaps the most affecting recital we are ac- their priests into ridicule, although in other respects quainted with in poetry: and the inexpressible they were entirely subjected to them: but it was not beauties of the episode in Tasso, add still more to with a philosophical view that they attacked the abuses the effect; nevertheless the last verse of this compo- of religion: they had not, like some of our writers, a sition, wish to reform the faults they complained of: it was easy to perceive that their real opinions were totally Passa la bella donna, et par che dorma, * opposite to that kind of authority to which they were compelled to submit: but this spirit of opposition incited is too soft and harmonious; it glides too smoothly upon them to nothing more than a contempt for those who the mind to accord with the profound expression such commanded esteem; it was like the cunning of chilan event ought to produce. dren to their teachers; they were willing to obey them The great number who have distinguished them- on condition they might be permitted to make sport of selves by their facility in versification, has been cited them. as a proof of the poetical advantages of the Italian It follows from this, that all the works of the Italians, language; but it appears to me quite the reverse, and except those which treat on physical sciences, have that this its extreme facility is one of its faults: great nothing useful in view; which is absolutely necessary poets must find it an obstacle to the elevation and per- in order to give a real strength and solidity to their refection of their style. The gradations of thought, and flections. The works of Beccaria, Filangieri, and a the shades of sentiment, require a profound medita- few others, make the only exception to what I have now tion; while those agreeable words which offer them- advanced. selves in such crowds to the fancy of the Italian poets, One question more remains to be decided before I like a court of flatterers, dispense with the search, and close this chapter; which is, whether the Italians have by that means preclude the discovery of a real carried the dramatic art to any length in tragedy? friend. For myself, in spite of the charms of Metastasio, and In Italy, every thing conspired to fill the life of man the energy of Alfieri, I do not think they have. The with the agreeable sensations which naturally arise Italians have a lively invention in subjects, and a brilfrom their fine arts and their unclouded sun; but since liancy in expression; but the personages which they this country has lost the empire of the world, it seems represent, are not characterized in a manner to leave as if its inhabitants disdained a political existence; and, any lasting traces on the mind; and the affliction which according to the maxims of Caesar, they aspired to the they portray, excites but little sympathy. This may first rank in pleasure, rather than the second place in be occasioned by their moral and political situation, not the annals of fame, allowing the mind its full display: their sensibility is Dante having, as well as Machiavel, supported a not serious, their sadness is without melancholy, and character in the civil commotions of his country; in their grandeur commands no respect. The Italian some of his poems we observe an energy in no degree author was therefore obliged to have recourse entirely analogous to the literature of his time: but the num- to himself; and, to compose a tragedy, he must not berless faults with which we may reproach him, be- only forget all he sees, but renounce all his habitual longed without doubt to the century he lived in. It is ideas and impressions: and it is very difficult to find only in the time of Leo X. that we remark a decided out the true basis of a tragedy which is so widely difpurity in the Italian literature: the ascendency of this ferent from the general manners and customs of the prince was to the Italian government what unity might time in which it was composed. have been: the rays of knowledge were collected into Vengeance is the passion which is the best described one focus, in which taste also might have been concen- in the Italian tragedies: it is natural to their character trated, and literary judgments have proceeded from the to be suddenly roused by this sentiment in the midst of same tribunal, that habitual indolence in which they spent their lives; After the age of the Medici, the Italian literature and their resentments were naturally expressed, because made no progress of any kind, either because some they really felt them. central point was necessary to rally all the forces of The operas alone were followed, because at the the intellect, or, principally, because philosophy was opera was heard that enchanting music which was the not at all cultivated in Italy. When the literature of glory and pleasure of Italy. The performers did not imagination has attained to the highest possible degree exert themselves in tragedy; fine acting would have of perfection, the subsequent age belongs to philosophy, been thrown away; they were not even heard; and it in order that the human understanding may not cease must ever be thus, when the art of touching the passions in its advancement towards perfection in some way or is not carried to a sufficient length to predominate over other. After Racine, we have seen Voltaire; because, every other pleasure. The Italians did not require to in the eighteenth century, men were more profound be softened, and the authors for want of spectators, and thinkers than in the seventeenth. But what could the spectators for want of authors, did not give themhave been added to the excellence of poetry after selvesuptothe profound impressions of the dramatic art. Racine? Metastasio, however, found out the secret of turning The Italians have no romances like those of the his operas almost into tragedies; and though compelled French and English; because the love which inspired to struggle with all the difficulties imposed by the oblithem, not being a passion of the mind capable of any gation of submitting to music, he still preserved many long continuation, their customs and manners were too beauties of style and situation truly dramatic. It may licentious to preserve any interest in this style. Their be that there exist yet some other exceptions little comedies were filled with that kind of buffoonery which known to strangers; but to draw the principal characarises from the absurdities and vices: but we do not ters of any national literature, it is absolutely necessary find, if we except a few pieces of Goldoni, one striking to lay aside many details; there are no general ideas *' The beauteous nymph expired while seeming only to that are not contradicted by certain exemptions; but *leep.' the mind would be incapable of ever forming any de 46 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE termination, if it were to stop at each particular instead force a mind dissatisfied with its existence here, to of drawing a consequence from a collective whole. look forward to another state. The vivid imagination Melancholy, that sentiment which is so fertile in of the people of the north darting beyond the boundaworks of genius, appears to have belonged almost ex- ries of a world whose confines they inhabited, peneclusively to the people of the North. The Oriental trated through the black cloud that obscured their honstyle, which the Italians have often imitated, had a sort zon, and seemed to represent the dark passage to of melancholy of which we find some traces in the eternity. Arabian poetry, and likewise in the Hebrew psalms; We cannot decide in a general manner between the but it has a character entirely distinct from that we two different styles of poetry, of which we may fairly shall find when we analyze the literature of the north. say Homer and Ossian were the first models: my genThe people of the east, whether Jews or Mahomet- eral impressions, and the force of my ideas, induce me ans, were sustained and directed by their positive reli- to give a preference to the literature of the north; but ance on their religion. It was not that uncertain and my business-ap-~e'nris, o examine the decided difundetermined apprehension which afforded the mind a ference of their characters. more philosophical impression: the melancholy of the The climate is certainly one of the principal causes Orientals was that of men who were happy from every of differhefie"'w'hich existed between the images that enjoyment of nature; they simply reflected with regret pleased in the north and those which were admired in upon the brevity of human life, and the rapid decay of the east. The reveries of poets may produce extraprosperity: while the melancholy of the people of the ordinary objects; but the impressions of habits are ne north was that which is inspired by the sufferings of cessary in their compostions of every kind. To banish the mind, the void which the absence of sensibility the remembrance of those impressions, would be to lose makes in the existence, and that continual musing upon the greatest advantage, namely, that of portraying what the calamities of this life, and the uncertainty of their they had themselves experienced. destiny in a life to come. The poets of the east intermingled with all their sentiments of life the ideas of tufted woods, limpid streams, and cooling zephyrs: they could not even describe the enjoyments of the heart, without introducing the idea CHAPTER XI. of the sequestered bowers which preserved them from the scorching rays of their meridian sun. The bounty OF THE LITERATURE OF THE NORTH. of nature by which they were surrounded, excited more emotion than thought. There appear to be two distinct kinds of literature He who said that the passions were more violent in still extant, one derived from the east, the other from the east than in the north, was, I think, wrong: it is the north; the origin of the first may be traced to Ho- true, we may see a greater variety of interests, but we mer, that of the last to Ossian. The Greeks, the perceive less ardor in the same sentiments. Latins, the Italians, the Spanish, and the French of The people of the north were less engaged in pleasure the century of Louis XIV.; belong to that style of lit- than in its opposite sensation; and this xendered their erature which I shall call eastern. The works of the imagination more fertile: the prospects of nature had English and Germans, with some of the Danish and al'most' ilfibbouaded influence over them; but it affected Swedish writings, may be classed as the literature of them as it appeared in their climate, always dark and the north. But before I attempt to characterize the gloomy. Without doubt, many circumstances in life English and German writers, I think it necessary, in a might sometimes vary this disposition to melancholy; general manner, to consider the principal difference of but that alone stamps the character of the national the twqhemispheres of their literature. spirit. We must look, in a nation, as well as in an inThe English, as well as the Germans, have, without dividual, for the leading characteristic; all others may doubt, often imitated the ancients, and drawn very use- be the effects of chance, and depend on a thousand difful lessons from that fruitful study; but their original ferent circumstances; but this one alone characterizes beauties carry a sort of resemblance, a certain poetic the man. grandeur, of which Ossian is the most splendid example. The northern poetry was much more suitable than It may perhaps be remarked, that the English poets the eastern to the minds of a free people. The Atheare celebrated for the spirit of.philaso phy which ap- nians, who were the first inventors of eastern literature, pears in all their works; alad that the ideas of Ossian were more jealous of their independence than any are not the ideas of reflection, but a series of events nation in the world: nevertheless, they were much and impressions. I answer to this objection, that the more easily subdued to slavery than the people of the most habitual images and ideas of Ossian are those north; their love of the arts, the beauty of their cliwhich recall:the shortness of life, the respect for the mate, and the numberless enjoyments bestowed on the dead, the superstition connected with their memory, Athenians might, in a great measure, recompense for and the duty that remains towards those who are no their want of liberty. But independence was the sole more. If the poet has not united to those- sentiments, happiness of the northern nations: a certain haughtimorals,1maxims, or philosophical reflections; it was ness of soul, and indifference to life, which was inbecause the human understanding, at that period, was spired by their gloomy atmosphere and the rarity of not yet capable of the abstraction necessary to draw their sun, would have rendered servitude insupportable: philosophical inferences; but the emotion caused by and long before the theory of constitutions, and the adthe songs of Ossian, disposed the mind to the most vantages of a representative government were known profound meditations. in England, the warlike spirit which shone with so Melancholy poetry is that which accords best with much enthusiasm in the Erse and Scandinavian poetry, philosophy. Depression of spirits leads us to penetrate inspired man with a prodigious idea of his' own strength more deeply into the character and destiny of man, than and the power of his will. Independence existed for any other disposition of the mind. The English poets each one separately, before liberty was generally conwho succeeded the Scots bards, added to their descrip- stituted. tions those very ideas and reflections which those de- At the revival of letters, philosophy first com-menced scriptions ought to have given birth to: but they have with the northern nations; in whose religious habits preserved, from the fine imagination of the north, that reason found much less superstition to oppose than in go9os which is soothed with the roaring of the sea, those of the southern people. The ancient poetry of and the hollow blast that rages on the barren heath, the north is infected with much less superstition than andk, in short, every thing dark and dismal, which can tho Grecian mythology there are a few absurd fables UPON SOCIETY. 47 in the Edda; but almost all the religious ideas of the produced by the harmonica. When the mind, gently north owe their birth to exalted leason: the ghosts agitated, is willing to prolong the pleasing sensation nending from the clouds, were but animated remem- while it is possible to support it; when we are enerbrances presented by sensibility. rated, the fault is not to be attributed to the poetry, The emotions which are produced by the poems of but to the susceptibility and weakness of our organs; Ossian, may be re-produced in all countries and in all what we experience at that time, is not a disgust at the nations; because the means of awakening them are all monotony, but the fatigue of a pleasure too long contaken from nature: but it must be talents of the tinued. highest order that could without affectation introduce The grand effects of the English dramatics, and after the Grecian mythology into French poetry. There is them that of the German, were not borrowed from nothing, generally speaking, that can appear more cold Grecian subjects, nor from mythological dogmas. The or insipid, than the dogmas of any religion, when trans- English and Germans excite terror by other superstiported into a country where there are only received as tions more suitable to th-credulity'o6f the last centuingeniodf metaphors. ries; above all, they have found the art of exciting it The poetry of the north was.rarely allegoxical; not by the pictures of. distress which was so forcibly felt one of its effects stood in need of local superstition to by energetic minds. The effect which the ideas of strike the imagination. A reflected enthusiasm, and death generally produce in the sentiments of men, dea pure exaltation of mind, might equally be found in pend, in a great measure, as I have observed before, every nation: it is the true poetic inspiration, a senti- upon their religious opinions. The Scottish bards ment which is in every heart, but the expression of have, at all times, had a more spiritual and gloomy dewhich is the gift of genius alone. It creates a kind of votion than those of the east: but the Christian relicelestial musing, which excites a love of solitude and gion, which, when divested of priestcraft, is nearly the country, and often fills the mind with truly religious a-kin to pure Deism, banished that train of terrors with ideas. which imagination had surrounded men in the hour of Whatever is great and.suhblime. weowe4o0- te painful death. The ancients peopled all nature with protecting sentiments of the imperfection of.our-nature: moderate beings: the forests and rivers were filled with inhabiunderstandings are in general satisfied with the cornm- tants, which presided over the night as well as the day; mon occurrences of life; they in a manner bring their nature had retired into solitude, and men's fears were existence to a period, and supply what is wanting by increased. The Christian religion, the most philosothe illusions of vanity. But sublime sentiments and phical of all others, is that which leaves man the most actions spring from the desire which great souls have at his own disposal. of breaking those bounds which circumscribe the im- The tragic writers of the north, not always contented agination. The heroism of morals, the enthusiasm of with the effects which sprung naturally from the repreeloquence, and the ambition of fame, are supernatural, sentation of the affections of thiehea'rt; called to their enjoyments, necessary only to those minds which, at aid ghosts and spectres; a superstition suited to their once exalted and melancholy, are wearied and disgusted gloomy imagination; but however great the terror with every thing transitory, and to which the idea of which may be produced by such means, it is always bounds is insupportable, though placed at ever so great a rather a fault than a beauty. distance. This disposition of the mind, which is the The talent of the dramatic poet augments by existsource of every generous passion and every'philosophi- ing in a nation not too much given to credulity; becal discovery, is excited in the most lively manner cause it is then a matter of necessity to search into the by the poetry of the north. human heart for the source of that emotion which is I am very far from wishing to compare the genius of felt from an elegant expression, a sentiment from the Homer with that of Ossian. What we know of Os- heart: solitary remorse, or any of those frightful phansian's, cannot properly be considered as a work'; it is tomns which strike the imagination, the marvelous may merely a collection of popular songs, which were sung surprise and astonish: but in whatever fashion it may in the mountains of Scotland. Before Homer com- appear, it can never equal the impression of a natural posed his poems, without doubt, some ancient tradi- event, when that event collects all that can move the tions existed in Greece. The poetry of Ossian is no affections of the soul: for example, the furies pursuing farther advanced in the poetic art, than were the songs Orestes is less horrific to the mind than the sleeR of of the Greeks before the time of Homer. No com- Lady Macbeth. parison can, then, with justice be made between the If we are to judge by the traditions in our possession, Iliad and the poem of Fingal. But we may always the southern nations had in all times a respect for judge whether the images of nature, such as they were women, which was entirely unknown to the people of represented in the latter, excited as noble and pure the east: they seem to have enjoyed independence in emotions as those of the north, or whether the imagery the north, while inr other parts of the world they were of the east, more brilliant in many respects, gave birth condemned to slavery:-this most probably is one of to so many ideas, which are immediately connected the principal causes of that sensibility which characterwith the sentiment of the heart. Philosophical ideas izes northern literature: naturally unite themselves to gloomy reflections, and The history of love, in all countries, may be conthe poetry of the east, far from according, like that of sidered in a' philosophical point of view. It seems as the north, with meditation, and inspiring what reflec- if the representation of this passion ought to depend tion ought to feel, excludes almost every idea of a no- entirely on the feelings of..thewrjiter.who expresses it; ble and elevated nature. but such is the ascendency which the reigning manners Ossian is reproached with his monotony: this fault and customs have over the writers, that they submit to exists much less in the different Epnglish and German them even the language of their inmost sentiments. poems which have imitated his style. Cultivation, in- It is possible that Petrarch might have felt this passion dustry, and commerce, have varied the face of the more strongly than the author of" Werter,' or many country in many ways; nevertheless, the northern English poets, for instance, Pope, Tho Msoq,%. Qtway, imagination always preserving nearly the same charac- &c. Nevertheless, in reading the writings of the north, ter, we can still find a sort of uniformity in Young, we might be led to think men were of a different naThomson, Klopstock, and others. ture, and that they lived in another world. The perThere cannot be an endless variety in melancholy fection of some of this poetry proves beyond a doubt poetry: that deep emotion which thrills the blood, is a the genius of its author: but it is not less certain, that sensation that never varies. WThen this emotion is ex- had those authors lived in Italy, their writings would cited by poetry, it has a great analogy to the effects not have been the same, even if they had felt similar 48 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE passions; so true, it is, that in all literary works where and elevate the mind. A negative merit can afford no aim is success, we find much less of the real character enjoyment: but there are many people who require of the writer than the general spirit of his nation, and nothing more in life than to be exempt from painl: or that of the century in which he lived. in writings, but to be exempt from faults; and, in It was the Protestant religion which inspired the short, an exemption in every thing: but strong minds modern people of the north with a more general spirit wish for an active existence; to attain which, in of philosophy than was possessed by those of the east. matters of literature, they must meet with new ideas The reformation was certainly the epoch of history or passionate sentiments. which essentially promoted the perfectibility of the There are some works in the French language, in human species. The Protestant religion contains no which we may find beauties of the first order, without active seeds of superstition; while it gives to virtue the intermixture of bad taste; and those are the every support which can be drawn from wisdom. In only models in which every literary quality is united. those countries where the Protestant religion is pre- Amongst the learned men of the north there existdominant, it maintains purity of manners, and does not ed a sort of caprice, that might be said to belong more in the least retard the progress of philosophy. to their party-spirit than to theirjudgment: they were A greater development of this question would be attached to the saults of their writers almost as much foreign to my subject; but I leave it to the discussion as their beauties: while they might have observed, as of every enlightened thinker, whether, if there could a woman of sense once did in speaking of the weakexist a means of uniting morality with the ideas of a ness of some hero,' It is not the cause of his greatness, god, without this means becoming an instrument of but he is great in spite of it.' power in the hands of men; and whether a religion In works of imagination, men mostly seek for agree. thus founded, would not be the greatest happiness that able impressions: taste then is nothing more than the could be insured to human nature!-to that nature art of knowing and forseeing what may awaken those which is so much to be pitied, and which every day impressions. If you recall disgusting images, you exbreaks some tie formed by affection, delicacy, or good- cite unpleasant sensations, the reality of which every ness one would shun: and when, by the representation of scenes horrible in themselves, you change moral terror into physical fear; you lose all the charm of imitation, and excite nothing but a nervous commotion: and you CHAPTER XII. may lose the power of causing even this painful sensation, if you try to carry it too far. For it is with the OF THE PRINCIPAL. FAULTS WHICH THE FRENCH COM- theatre as it is in life: when the exaggeration is perrLAIN OF IN THE IT'TERATURE OF THE NORTH. ceived, we disregard even the reality. If you lengthen the development, or if you put an obscurity in the disThe French censure the literature of the north as course, and an improbability in the event you suspend deficient in taste. Northern writers reply, that this taste or destroy the interest by fatiguing the attention. If is an arbitrary legislation, which often deprives senti- you represent heroic personages in a base and ignoble ments and ideas of their original beauties. But it ap- point of view, it is to be feared you will find it diffipears to me, that there may exist a medium between cult to resume the theatrical illusion: it is of a these opinions: the rules of taste are not arbitrary, and nature sod extremely delicate, that the lightest cirwe must not confound the principles and basis upon cumstance may awaken the spectators from their which universal truth is founded, with the modifications enchantment. In simplicity, ideas gain rest and caused by local circumstances. The duties of virtue, strength: but what is base and low, may prevent even that code of principles which is supported by the unani- the possibility of again feeling interested in what is nomous consent of the world, experience some small ble and elevated. change from the manners and customs of different na- The beauties.QfShakspeare may triumph in England tions; and although the first principles remain the over his faults: but they are a great drawback to his same, the estimation of many virtues varies according fame with other nations. Surprise is certainly a great to the habits and forms of government. means of adding to theatrical effect: but it would be If it may be permitted to compare taste with what ridiculous to conclude from that, that every tragic scene is greatest among men, we might say it was also fixed should be preceded by a comic scene, in order to in the general principles. heighten the astonishment by the contrast. Surprise It has often been asked, Must genius be sacrificed should spring from grandeur itself, and not from its to taste! Undoubtedly it must not: but taste does opposition to meanness. Shades, but not blemishes, not require the sacrifice of genius. We often find, in are necessary, in every style of painting, to raise the the literature of the north, something ridiculous annex- brilliancy of coloring; and the same principles should ed to something of great beauty: what belongs to be followed in literature: Nature offers us the model taste in such writings, is their beauties; and what and a good taste should be but a reflection from our oh.. ought to have been suppressed, was what taste con- servation of it. demned. There exists no necessary connection be- These developments might be carried much farther tween defects and beauties but what arises from the. but I think they are sufficient to prove that ast- — in weakness of human nature; which does not permit us literature newer exacts the sacrifice of any enjoyment, to remain always at the same pitch of perfection. but, on4hecontrary, it indicates themeans of augmenting Faults are not the natural consequence of beauties: them: and so far from the principles of taste being inand although they may be overlooked; so far from ad- compatible with genius, it is in studying it that they ding any brilliancy to talents, they often weaken the were first-discovered. impression they ought to produce. I will not reproach Shakspeare with having set aside If it was a question, which was most to be preferred, all rules of the art; they are infinitely less important a work in which there were great beauties and great than those of taste; because the one prescribes what faults, or a work of the middling kind perfecty correct; must be done, while the other only forbids what must I would answer without the least hesitation, that we be avoided. It is impossible to prescribe limits to the ought to prefer a work where there existed even one different combinations of a man of genius; he may spark of genius. It is a weakness in any nation to at- perhaps strike into some path entirely new, without mistach itself only to the ridiculous; which is so easy to sing the aim he set out upon. The rules of art are a seize or to avoid; instead of searching into the char- calculation of probabilities upon the means of success: acters of men, which would oDen the understanding and if this success is obtained, it is of little importance UPON SOCIETY. 49 to have submitted to them. But it is not the same with respect to the future, that the scenes of distress painted the rules of taste; to despise them, is to relinquish all by them, could never be so heart-rending as those in beauties, even the beauties of nature; and they can never the English tragedies. be surpassed. The terror of death _was a sentiment, the effects of Let us not then say that Shakspeare knew how to which, whether for religion or from stoicism, was seldom excel without taste, and to show himself superior to the displayed by the ancients. Shakspeare has represented regulations prescribed by his country; but let us ac- it in every point of view: he makes us feel that dreadknowledge, on the contrary, that he displayed his taste ful emotion which chills the blood of him, who, in the in his sublimities, and was most deficient in it when he full enjoyment of life and health, learns that death was least sublime. awaits him. In the tragedies of Shakspeare, the criminal and the virtuous, infancy and old-age are alike conCHAPTER XIII. demned to die, and express every emotion natural to such a situation. What tenderness do we feel, when we hear the complaints of Arthur, a child condemned OF THE TRto death by the order of King John; or when the asThe English entertain as profound veneration and sassin Tirrel comes to relate to Richard III. the peaceenthusiasm for Shakspeare, as any nation perhaps has ful slumber of the children of Edward? When a heever felt for any writer. A free people have a natural ro is painted just going to be deprived of his existence, love for every thing that can do honor to their country; the grandeur of his character, and the recollection of and this sentiment ought to exclude every species of his achievements, excite the greatest interest: but criticism. when men of weak minds, and doomed to an ingloriThere are beauties of the first order to be found in ous destiny, are represented as condemned to perish; Shakspeare, relating to every country and every period such as Henry VI., Richard II., and King Lear; the of time. His faults are those which belonged to great debates of nature between existence and non-exthe times in which'he lived; and the singularities then istence absorb the whole attention of the spectators. so prevalent among the English, are still represent- Shakspeare knew how to point with genius that mixed with the greatest success upon their theatres. ture of physical emotions and moral reflectionis which These beauties and eccentricities I shall proceed to are inspired by the approach of death, when no intoxiexamine, as connected with the national spirit of cating passion deprives man of his intellectual faculties. England, and the genius of the literature of the north. Another sentiment which Shakspeare alone knew Shakspeare did not imitate the ancients; nor, like how to render theatrical, was pity unmixed with admirRacine did he feed his genius upon the Grecian tra- ation for those who suffer;* p'Wtyfor'an insignificant gedies. He composed one piece upon a Greek sub- being,t and'sometimes for a contemptible one.t There ject, Troilus and Cressida; in which the manners in must be infinity of talent to be able to convey this senthe time of Homer are not at all observed. He excel- timent from real life to the stage and to preserve it in led infinitely more in those tragedies which were taken all its force: but when once it is accomplished, the effrom Roman subjects. But history, and the lives of fect which it produces is more nearly allied to reality Plutarch, which Shakspeare appears to have read with than any other. It is for the man alone that we are the utmost attention, are not purely a literary study; interested, and not by sentiments which are often but we may therein trace the man almost to a state of ex- a theatrical romance: it is by a sentiment so nearly apistence. When an author is solely penetrated with proaching the impressions of life, that the illusion is the models of the dramatic art of antiquity, and when still the greater. he imitates imitations, he must of course have less Even when Shakspeare represents personages whose originality: he cannot have that genius which draws career has been illustrious, he draws the interest of from nature; that immediate genius, if I may so ex- the spectators towards them by sentiments purely napress myself, which so particularly characterizes Shak- tural. The circumstances are. grand, but the men difspeare. From the times of the Greeks down to this fer less from other men than those in the French tragetime, we see every species of literature derived one dies. Shakspeare makes you penetrate entirely into from another, and all arising from the same source. the glory which he paints; in listening to him, you Shakspeare opened a new field of literature: it was pass through all the different shades and gradations borrowed, without doubt, from the general spirit and which lead to heroism; and you arrive at the height color of the north: but it was Shakspeare who gave to without perceiving any thing unnatural. the English literature its impulse, and to their dramatic The national pride of the. Engljiah, that sentiment disart its character. played in their jealous love.o Lliberty, disposed them A nation which has carved out its liberty through much less to enthusiasm for their chiefs than that spirit the horrors of civil war, and whose passions have been of chivalry which existed in the French monarchy. In strongly agitated, is much more susceptible of the emo- England, they wish to recompense the services of a tion excited by Shakspeare, than that which is caused good citizen; but they have no turn for that unboundby Racine. When misfortune lies heavy and for a ed ardor which existed in the habits, the institutions, long time upon a nation, it creates a character, which and the character of the French. That haughty repugeven succeeding prosperity can never entirely efface. nance to unlimited obedience, which at all times charShakspeare, although he has since been equalled by both acterized the English nation, was probably what inEnglish and German authors, was the first__who..paint-, spired their national poet with the idea of assailing the ed moral affliction in the highest degree: the bitterness passions of his audience by pity rather than by admiraof those sufferings of which he gives us the idea, might tion. The tears which were given by the French to pass for the phantoms of imagination, if nature did not the sublime characters of their tragedies, the English recognize her own picture in them. author drew forth for private sufferings; for those who rhe ancients believed in a fatality, which came upon were forsaken; and for such a long list of the unforthem with the rapidity of lightning, and destroyed tunate, that we cannot entirely sympathize with Shakthem like a thunderbolt. The moderns, and more es- speare's sufferers without acquiring also some of the bitpecially Shakspeare, found a much deeper source of ter experience of real life. emotion in a philosophical distress, which was often But if he excelled in exciting pity; what energy apcolmnosed of irreparable misfortunes of ineffectual ex- peared in this terror! It was from the crime itself ertions, and blighted hopes. But the ancients inhabited a world yet in its infancy; were in possession of t The Duke of Clarence, in' Richard III. but very few histories; and withal were so sanguine in t Cardinal Wolsey, in' Henry VIII.' 50 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE that he drew dismay and fear. It may be said of I protests before the Senate of Venice, that the only art crimes, painted by Shakspeare, as the bible says of 1 which he had employed to win the affections of Desdedeath, that he is the SING OF TERRORS. How skilfully mona were the perils to which he had been exposed;* eombined are the remorse-'an-e superstition which how every word he utters is felt by the female sex;.ncreases with that remorse in Macbeth. their hearts acknowledge it all to be true. They know Witchcraft is in itself much more terrible in its. that it is not flattery, in which consists the powerful theatrical effect than the most absurd dogmas of reli- art of men to make themselves beloved, but the kind gion. That which is unknown, or created by superna- protection which they may afford the timid object of tural intelligence, awakens fear and terror to the highest their choice; the glory which they may reflect upon degree. In every religious system, terror is carried their feeble life, is their most irresistible charm. only to a certain length, and is always at least founded The manners and customs of the English relating to upon some motive. But the chaos of the magic be- the existence of women, were not yet settled in the wilders the mind. Shakspeare, in' Macbeth,' admits time of Shakspeare; political troubles had been a great of fatality, which was necessary in order to procure a hindrance to social habits. The rank which women pardon for the criminal; but he does not on account of held in tragedy, was then absolutely at the will of the this fatality dispense with the philosophical gradations author: therefore, Shakspeare, in speaking of them, of the sentiments of the mind. This piece would be sometimes uses the most noble language, that can be still more admirable, if its grand effects were produced inspired by love, and at other times the lowest taste without the aid of the marvelous, although this marvel- that was popular. This genius, given by passion, was ous consists, as one may say, only of phaptomsa.of the inspired by it, as the priests were by their gods: they imagination, which are made to appear before the eyes gave out oracles when they were agitated; but were of the spectators. They are not mythological person- no more than men, when calm. ages bringing their fictitious laws or their uninteresting Those pieces taken from the English history, such as nature amongst the interest of men: they are the mar- the two upon Heury IV., that upon Henry V., and the velous effects of dreams, when the passions are strongly three upon Henry VI., have an unlimited success in agitated. There is always something philosophical in England: nevertheless I believe them to be much inthe supernatural employed by Shakspeare. When the ferior in general to his tragedies of invention,'King witches announce to Macbeth, that he is to wear the Lear,''Macbeth,''Hamlet,' Romeo and Juliet,' &c. crown; and when they return to repeat their prediction, The irregularities of time and place are much more reat the very moment when he is hesitating to follow the markable. In short Shakspeare gives up to the popubloody counsel of his wife; who cannot see that it is lar taste in these, more than in any other of his works. the interior struggle of ambition and virtue which the The discovery of the press necessarily diminished the author meant to represent under those hideous forms? condescension of authors to the national taste: they But he had not recourse to these means in' Richard paid more respect to the general opinion of Europe; III;' and yet he has painted him more criminal still and though it was of the greatest importance that those than Macbeth: but his intention was to portray a char- pieces which were to be played should meet with sucacter without any of those involuntary emotions, with- cess at the representation, since a means was found out struggles, without remorse, cruel and ferocious as out of extending their fame to other nations; the the savage beasts which range the forests; and not as writers took more pains to shun those illusions and a man who, though at present guilty, had once been pleasantries which could please only the people of their virtuous. The deep recesses of crimes were opened own nation. The English, however, were very backto the eyes of Shakspeare, and he descended into the ward in submitting to the general good taste; their gloomy abyss to observe their torments. liberty being founded more upon national pride than In England, the troubles and civil.comotions which philosophical ideas, they rejected every thing that came preceded their liberty, and which were always occa- from strangers, both in literature and politics. sioned by their spirit of independence, gave rise much Before it would be possible to judge of the effects of oftener than in France to great crimes and great Virtues. an English tragedy, which might be proper for the There are in the English history many more tragical French stage; an examination remains to be made, situations than in that of the French; and nothing op- which is, to distinguish in the pieces of Shakspeare, poses their exercising their talents upon national sub- that which was written to please the people; the real jects. faults which he committed; and those spirited beauties Almost all the literature of Europe begauadwi th af- wnich the severe rules of the French tragedies exclude fectatlon. The revival of letters having commenced from their stage. in Italy, the countries where they were afterwards in- The crowd of spectators in England require that troduced, naturally imitated the Italian style. The comic scenes should succeed tragic effects. The conpeople of the north were much sooner enfranchised trast- of what is noble with that which is not, as I have than the French in this studied mode of writing; the observed before, always produces a disagreeable imtraces of which may be perceived in some of the an- pression upon men of taste. A noble style must have cient poets, as Waller, Cowley, and others. Civil shades; but a too glaring opposition is nothing more wars and a spirit of philosophy have corrected this false than fantasticalness. That play upon words, those taste, for misfortune, the impressions of which con- licentious equivocations, popular tales, and that string tain but too much variety, excludes all sentiments of of proverbs, which are handed down from generation affectation, and reason banishes all expressions that to generation, and are, as one may say, the patrimonial are deficieint in justness. ideas of the commonl people; all these are applauded Nevertheless, we find in Shakspeare a few of those by the multitude, and censured by reason. These studied turns connected even with the most energetic have no connection with the sublime effects which pictures of the passions. There are some imitations Shakspeare drew from simple words and common cirof the faults of Italian literature in'Romeo and Juliet:' cumstances artfully arranged, which the French most but how nobly the English poet rises from this misera- absurdly would fear to bring upon their stage. ble style!- how well does he know now to describe * What charming verses are thosewhich terminate the justifi. love, even in the true spirit of the north! cation of Othello, and which La harpe has so ably translated In' Othello,' love assumes a very different character into truth! from that which it bears in' Romeo and Juliet.' But' She loved me forthe dangers I had passed how grand, how energetic it appears! how beautifully And I lov'd her that she did lity them.'Shakspeare has represented what forms the tie of the aima mea ma rs, e jaispeae. -{ T rV Elle alma mes malheursr et j'aimai s3 Iz)itie.' different sexes, courage and uweakness! When Othello La Harps La Harpe UPON SOCIETY. 51 Shakspeare, when he wrote the parts of vulgar minds it was the heroic cause of his wounds that fixed the atin his tragedies, sheltered himself from the judgment of tention of the spectators. Physical sufferings may be taste by rendering himself the object ofpopularadmira- related, but cannot be represented. It is not the tion: he then conducted himself like an able chief, but author, but the actor, who cannot express himself not like a good writer. with grandeur; it is not the ideas, but the senses, The people of the north existed during many centu- which refuse to lend their aid to this style of imitation. ries, in a state that was at once both social and barbar- In short, one of the greatest faults which Shakspeare ous; which left for a long time the vestiges of the rude can be accused of, is his want of simplicity in the in and ferocious. Traces of this recollection are to be tervals of his sublime passages. When he is not exfound in many of Shakspeare's characters, which are alted, he is affected; he wanted the art of sustaining painted in the style that was most admired in those himself, that is to say, of being as natural in his scenes ages, in which they only lived for combats, physical of transition, as he was in the grand movements of the power, and military courage. soul. We may also perceive in Shakspeare some of the' Otway, Rowe, and some other English poets, Addiignorance of his century with regard to the principles son excepted, all wrote their tragedies in the style of of literature; his powers are superior to the Greek Shakspeare: and Otway's' Venice Preserved,' almost tragedies for the philosophy of the passions, and the equalled his model. But the two most truly tragical knowledge of mankind:* but he was inferior to many situations ever conceived by men, were first portrayed with regard to the perfection of the art. Shakspeare hy Shakspeare:-madness caused by misfortune, and may be reproached with incoherent images, prolixity, misfortune abandoned to solitude and itself. and useless repetitions: but the attention of the spec- Ajax is furious; Orestes is pursued by the anger o tators in those days was too easily captivated, that the the gods; Phedra is consumed by the fever of love. author should be very strict with himself. A dramatic but Hamlet, Ophelia, and King Lear, with different sitpoet, to attain all the perfection his talents will permit, uations and different characters, have all, nevertheless, must neither be judged by impaired age, nor by youth, the same marks of derangement: it is distress alone who find the source of emotion within themselves. that speaks in them; every idea of common life The French have often condemned the scenes of hor- disappears before this predominant one: they are ror represented by Shakspeare; not because they ex- alive to nothing but affection; and this affecting delicited an emotion too strong, but because they some- rium of a suffering object seems to set it free from that times destroyed the theatrical illusion. They certainly timidity which forbids us to expose ourselves without appear to me susceptible-of criticism. In the first reserve to the eyes of pity. The spectators would place, there are certain situations which are only fright- perhaps refuse their sympathy to voluntary complaints ful; and the bad imitators of Shakspeare wishing to but they readily yield to the emotion which arises from represent them, produced nothing more than a disa- a grief that cannot answer for itself. Insanity, as porgreeable invention, without any of the pleasures which trayed by Shakspeare, is the finest picture of the shipthe tragedy ought to produce: and again, there are wreck of moral nature, when the storm of life surpasses many situations really affecting in themselves, which its strength. nevertheless require stage effect to amuse the attention, It may be a question, whether the theatre of repuband of course the interest. lican France, like the English theatre, will now admit When the governor of the tower, in which the young of their heroes being painted with all their foibles, the Arthur is confined, orders a red-hot iron to be brought, virtues with their inconclusiveness, and common cirto put out his eyes; without speaking of the atrocious- cumstances connected with elevated situations? In ness of such a scene, there must pass upon the stage short, will the tragic characters be taken from recollecan action, the imitation of which is impossible, and the tion, from human life, or from the beautiful ideal?attention of the audience is so much taken up with the This is a question which I propose to discuss after execution of it, that the moral effect is quite forgotten. having spoken of the tragedies of Racine and Voltaire. The character of Caliban, in the' Tempest,' is sin- I shall also examine, in the second part of this work, gularly original: but the almost animal figure, which the influence which the French revolution is likely to his dress must give him, turns the attention from all have upon literature. that is philosophical in the conception of this part. In reading' Richard III.,' one of the beauties is what he himself says of his natural deformity. One can feel that the horror which he causes, ought to act recipro- CHAPTER XIV. cally upon his own mind, and render it yet more atrocious. Nevertheless, can there be any thing difficult in OF ENGLISH PLEASANTRY. an elevated style, or more nearly allied to ridicule, than the imitation of an ill-shaped man upon the stage 1 Every We may distinguish many kinds of pleasantry in the thing in nature may interest the mind; but upon the literature of every country; and nothing is better stage, the illusion of sight must be treated with the most adapted to give an insight into the manners of a nation, scrupulous caution, or every serious effect will be irre- than the character of gayety generally adopted by its parably destroyed. writers. People are serious when alone: and they are Shakspeare also represented physical sufferings much gay for others, especially in their writings; but they too often. Philoctetes is the only example of any the- can excite laughter only by such ideas as are so familatrical effect being produced by it; and in this instance, iar to those who listen to them, that they strike at the I Among the great number of philosophical traits which are first instant, without the least effort of attention. remarked even in the least celebrated works of Shakspeare, Although pleasantry cannot so easily pass in the there is one with which I was singularly struck. In that piece esteem of a nation as a philosophical work; it is necesentitled Measure for Measure, Lucien, the friend of Claudius, sarily submitted, like every thing else appertaining to and brother to Isabella, presses her to go and sue for his pardonsai to the Governor Angelo, who had condemned this brother to die. the mind, to the judgment of universal good taste. It Isabella, young and timid, answers, that she fears it would be requires no little ingenuity to account for the causes of useless; that Angelo was too -much irritated, and would be in- comic effect; but it is by no means less true, that the flexible, &c. Lucien insists, and says to her, general assent must be obtained for chefs-d'ceuvre in --— Our doubts are traitors, this kind, as well as in all others. And make us lose the good we might win By fearing to attempt. The gayety which owes its birth to the inspiration of Who can have lived in a revolution and not be sensible of the taste and genius, and that which is produced by the truth of these words? combination of understanding, and that species of it 52 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE which the English call humor, have scarcely any con- piness of domestic life, that they held them too sacred nection the one with the other; nor have I included to admit of their being lavished upon the stage. constitutional gayety in any of those already mentioned; Congreve, and many of his imitators, heaped up imbecause a great number of examples have proved, that moralities without number, as well as without resemit is no way connected with the talent of lively writing. blance: their pictures are of no consequence with a Sprightliness may be easily assumed by every man who nation such as the English, who amuse themselves with is endowed with wit; but it must be the genius of one them as they would with tales or fantastical images of man, and the good taste of many, to inspire genuine a world that was not their own. But the French comecomedy. dies, in painting the real manners and customs of the I shall, in the subsequent chapter, endeavor to dis- times, might have an influence over them; for which cover why the French only could attain that perfection reason, it becomes of the utmost consequence to imof taste, grace, and quick penetration into the human pose severe rules on authors. heart, which produced the best works of Moliere: but We rarely find, in the English comedies, characters at present let us search into the reason why the man- which truly resemble the English; perhaps the dignity ners of the English are so opposite to the true genius of a free people opposes with the English, as it did of gayety. with the Romans, the representation of their manners -Most part of the inhabitants of England, entirely en- upon the theatre: but the French willingly amuse grossed by business, s _ekpleasure merely as a relaxa- themselves with their own foibles. Shakspeare, and tion: and as hunger that is excited by fatigue, renders some others, represented in their pieces some popular the appetite less difficult to please: so the English characters, such as Falstaff, Pistol, &c.; but they were relish any thing that is presented to them: continual so overcharged as almost entirely to exclude every relabor, whether mental or corporeal, disposes the mind semblance. The common people of all nations are to be contented with every kind of diversion. The amused with vulgar pleasantries; but it is only in severity of their religious ideas, their serious occupa- France where the most satirical gayety is at the same tions, their domestic life, and their heavy atmosphere, time the most delicate. render the English very liable to the malady of ennui:. Mr Sheridan is the author of some comedies, in and it is for this reason, that the delicate amusements which tmUost,:.mbrilliant and original wit appears in alof the mind are not sufficient for them; they require most every scene. But, besides that one exception some animated diversions to rouse them from their de- changes nothing in the general consideration, we must jection:-and their authors either partake of the taste still make a distinction between a lively turn of mind of the spectators, or conform themselves to it. and that species of gavety of which Moliere is the moIt requires an accurate observation of characters, to del. An author of my country who is capable of concompose a good comedy. In order to develop the ceiving a great number of ideas, is sure of acquiring comic genius, it is necessary to live a great deal in so- the art of opposing them in an agreeable manner to each ciety; to attach a great importance to the success they other: but as the antitheses are not composed solely of may meet with, in society: they must also know how eloquence, the contrasts are not the only secrets of to connect that multitude of interests which have their gayety; and there is in the gayety of some of the source in vanity, and which give vigor to every shaft French authors something at once the most natural, of ridicule, as well as to every combination of self-love. and the most inexplicable: the thought may be analyzed, The English are generally retired in their own families, but it is not produced by thought alone; it is a sort of or collected in public assemblies for the discussion of electricity, communicated by the general spirit of the national affairs. The intermediate state called society, nation. hardly exists among them: nevertheless, it is in this Gayety and eloquence are only connected so far as frivolous space of life that the refinements of taste are an involuntary inspiration carries the writer or the formed. speaker to any degree of perfection in the one or the The English have not among themselves one comic other. The spirit of the nation in which we live, deauthor that can be compared to Moliere: and even if velops the power of persuasion or of pleasantry much they did possess one, they would not be able fully to better than study and reflection can do. Sensations appreciate his merit. In such pieces as'L'Avare,' are produced from without; and every talent that de-' Le Tartuffe,''Le Misanthrope,' which represent hu- pends immediately upon the sensations, requires an imman nature as it is in all countries, there are many in- pulse from others. Gayety and eloquence are not the stances of delicate pleasantness and shades of self-love,- simple results of combination: to obtain success in which the English would not even perceive: they talents of this sort, we must be agitated, we must be would not recognize themselves in such a piece, how- modified by the emotion from which either the one or ever natural it might be: they do not even imagine the other might arise. But the disposition of the Engthat they might be thus ninutely described; their lish in general, does not excite their writers to any strong passions and impornt occupations make them species of gayety. consider life more generally. Svwift, in his' Gulliver,' and his' Tale of a Tub,' like There is to be found in Congreve a great deal of Voltaire in his works of philosophy, drew some of his pleasantry and penetrating wit: but we never meet most happy pleasantries from the opposition existing with one natural sentiment. By a most singular con- betwixt received errors and proscribed truths, betwixt tradiction, the more simplicity and purity there are in institutions and the nature of things. The illusions, the private manners of the English; the more they ex- the allegories, the fictions of the mind, and all the disaggerate the picture of vice in their comedies. The guises which it assumes, are so many combinations obscenity of Congreve's plays could never have been from which gayety may be produced; and, in every kind toleratedon the Frencktheatre: we find in the dialogue of style, the efforts of thought go a great way, though many ingenious ideas; but the manners which they they can never amount to the facility of habit, or the represent, were taken from some of the worst kind of unexpected happiness of spontaneous impressions. French novels, which never in the smallest degree Nevertheless, there is in some of the English writings painted the manners of the French. Nothing can re- a sort of gayety which has every character of originality semble the English less than their comedies. One and nature. To express this same gayety, which arises would think that, intending to be gay, they had thought from the constitution nearly as much as from the mind, it necessary to depart as much as possible from their the English language has created a word, and called it natural character; or that such was their profound re- humor: it is entirely dependent upon the climate, and spect for those sentiments which constituted the hap- the national manners; and would be altogether inimit UPON SOCIETY. 53 ble, where the same causes tended to develop it. Cer- sure enter that path in which enlightened rmen are contain pieces of Fielding and Swift,' Peregrine Pickle,' tinually advancing, unless a stop is put to their ca'' Roderick Random,' but more especially Sterne's reer by ignorance and tyranny. works, give a complete idea of the style called humor. The English, separated from the continent, have had There is a moroseness, I could almost say a gloomi- but little connection at any period with the history and ness, in this sort of gayety: the person who makes you manners of their neighbors: they have a character pesmile, does not himself feel the smallest degree of the culiar to themselves in every style; their poetry does pleasure he communicates to others: you may easily not resemble that of the French, nor even that of the perceive that he was melancholy when he wrote, and Germans; but they have not attained.the inventive that he would be almost angry with you for being excellence, both in fable and poetical incident, which amused. But as praise is sometimes the more agree- was the principal glory of the Greek and Italian liteable for being given under a rough form; so the gayety rature. of pleasantry may receive an addition from the gravity The English are accurate observers.f. nature, and of its author. The English very seldom admit upon know how -to paint it *b-ut'- they have not a creative their stage that style of humor: it would not have a genius: their superiority consists in the talent of extheatrical effect. pressing in a lively manner what they see and what There is a degree of misanthropy in the pleasantry they feel; they have the art of uniting philosophical of the English; and a sociability in that of the Frendh: reflections with the feelings excited by the beauties of the one should be read when alone; the other strikes the country. The aspect of the earth and sky, at all most amidst a number of auditors. What thei:English hours of the day or night, awakens in onr minds numhave of gayety, conducts almost always to a philosophi- berless different sensations; and those who give themcal or moral result; that of the French has often no selves up to ideas inspired by nature, will experience a aim but pleasure: the English shine mast in portraying series of the most pure and elevated impressions, always whimsical characters: because there are a great many analogous to those deep reflections on morality and reamongst themselves. Society does away singularities, ligion by which man is connected with futurity. but a retired life preserves them all. At the revival of letters, and at the commencement There is seldom any quickness of perception in minds of English literature, many of the English poets swervthat are constantly employed on some material object. ed from the national character, to imitate the Italians. What is really useful, is easy to comprehend. A Waller and Cowley may be included amongst these: country where equality prevails, is also less sensible to we may also add Donne, Chaucer, &c. The English, the faults of uniformity: the nation being at unity with however, have been less successful in this style than itself, its writers naturally accustom themselves to ad- any other people; they are very deficient in that gracedress their works to the judgment and sentiments of ful ease so essential to light writing; they also want all classes; in short, every free country is and ought to that quickness and facility which are to b- acquired by be serious. being habitually in the society of men whose only aim When the government is founded upon force, it has is pleasure. no occasion to fear a national turn for pleasantry, but Pope's works are peculiarly calculated for models cf when the authority depends upon the general confidence, grace and eloquence; nevertheless there are a great and when the public is the principal spring; the, talent many faults to be found in them, especially in the and gayety which discover the ridicule, and delight in'Rape of the Lock.' There is nothing in the world criticism, become exceedingly dangerous to liberty and can be more tedious than Spenser's' Fairy Queen.' political equality. We have spoken of the misfortunes The poem of' Hudibras,;"although spirited and witty, of the Athenians which resulted from their immoderate is filled with pleasantries which are lengthened out even love of pleasantry; and France would have furnished to satiety. Gay's'Fabies' are witty but not natural another example to the support of the first, if the great Nor can any of the fugitive pieces of the English be events of the revolution had left the national character compared with the writings of Voltaire, Ariosto, or La to its natural development, Fontaine. But it is not enough to know the affecting language of the passions; it is surely unnecessary to set a great value upon the rest. I-ow sublime are the meditations of the English! CHAPTER XV. how fruitful in those sentiments which are developed by solitude! What profound philosophy is found in OF THE IMAGINATION OF THE ENGLISH IN THEIR the'Essay on Man!' It is possible that the mind or POETRY AND NOVELS. the imrag'inatiorIrtan be raised to a higher degree of elevation than in the'Paradice Lost A' It is not the poeThe invention of incidents, and the faculty of feeling tic invention which is the merit of this piece; the suband painting nature, are talents which are absolutely ject is almost entirely taken from the book of Genesis. distinct: the one belongs more particularly to the lite- But the allegory which the author was introduced in rature of the east, and the other to that of the north. many places, is censured by taste; and we may often I have, I think, developed the different causes: what perceive that the poet is restrained and directed by his remains to be examined, is the particular character of submission to orthodoxy. But what rendered Milton the poetic imagination of the English. one of the greatest poets in the world, was the imposThe English have not invented any new subjects of ing grandeur of his character-the poetry we so much poetry, like Tasso and Ariosto; neither are there ro- admire, was inspired by the wish of rendering the immances founded upon marvelous incidents and super- ages equal to the conception of the understanding. It natural events, like the Arabian and Persian tales; was to make his intellectual ideas understood, that the they still preserve a few images indeed of the religion poet had recourse to the most terrible pictures that can of the north, but not a brilliant and various mythology strike the imagination. Before he gave form to Satan, like that of the Greeks: their poets however, have an he conceived him immaterial: he represented to himinexhaustible fund of those sentiments and ideas which self his moral nature; he then accorded it with that arise from the spectacle of nature. Supernatural events gigantic figure, and the horrors of the place he inhabitare limited; and are at most but circumscribed combin- ed. With what an infinity of talent he transports vou ations, not susceptible of the progression which belongs from this hell into paradise! with what art ne conto moral truths of every description. When the poets ducts you through the delightful paths of youth, nature attach themselves to dress their philosophical ideas and innocence! It is not the happiness of animated with thtm colors of the imuagination, they in some ncea- eijoyments; it is tranquillity which lie cmntrasts wit 54 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE crime, and the opposition appears still the greater advantage in poetry: every word that is strongly ac., The piety of Adam and Eve, the primitive difference cented, has an effect upon the mind, because it seems of their characters and their destinies, are painted as to come from a lively impression. The French lanphilosophy and imgination ought to to have character- guage exclude from poetry a number of words as being ized them.* too simple, which are really noble in English, from the G(sa' Elegy in a country church-yard,' the'Epis- manner in which they are articulated. I shall offer tle upon Eaton College,' and Goldsmith's' Deserted one example, When Macbeth, at the moment he is Village,' are filled with that noble melancholy which is going to seat himself at the festive table, sees the place the majesty of sensible philosophy. Where can wefind that was destined for him filled by the shade of Banquo, more poetical enthusiasm than in Dryden's' Ode to whom he had just assassinated, he exclaims with terror, Music.' What passion in the letters of Eloise! Can' The table is full!' and all the spectators tremble. there be a more charming picture of love in marriage, If these same words were to be repeated in French, than that which terminates the first ode of Thomson' La table est remplie;' the greatest actor in the world upon Spring. could not make the audience forget their common acWhat deep awful meditations in Qg's' Night ceptation: —the French pronunciation does not admit Thoughts;' where man is described as reflecting upon of that accent which enobles every word by giving it the progress and termination of his existence; depriv- animation. ed of that happy illusion which leads us to feel an in- The English poets, however, often take an undue terest in the day before us, as well as in a century to advantage of the facility of their language and the genicome; in the events of the present time, as well as in us of tteir nation: they exaggerate their images, they a speculation upon eternity! Young judges of human refine their ideas, they exhaust what they express, and life as if he did not belong to it; his thoughts seem to taste does not warn them when to stop. But much will have risen above himself, to search for an imperceptible be forgiven them on account of the sincerity of their emospot in the immensity of the creation, where he might tions. We judge of the faults of their writings as those observe, himself unseen. of nature, and not as those of art. The English have a great pre-eminence in a style of -— What is the world?-a grave: writing which they call.swdsl; these are entirely works Where is the dust which has not been alive? of the imagination, without historical allusions, and without allegory; founded, in general, upon the And again, characters and events of private life. Love has till now been the subject of this sort of writing; and - -What is life?-a war, the rank which women hold in England, is the prinEternal war with woe, cipal cause of the inexhaustible fertility of these writings,This glQimy imagination, though more apparent in In no country whatever have the women enjoyed so Young, is nevertheless theegenc _eonlor of.the.English much of that happiness which arises from domesticafpoetry. If we find a monotony in Ossian on account fection, as in England. We often find a great purty of his images, which have little variety of themselves, of manners in countries that are poor, and especially not being interspersed with reflections that can interest among the middling class of the-people: but it belongs the mind; we cannot make the same complaint of to the first class to set the example; it is they alone the English poets; they never fatigue, by giving way who can choose their way of life, the others are forced to their philosophical sadness; it perfectly accords to resign themselves to the one which is imposed on with the nature of our being, and even with its desti- them by destiny: and hen the mind is brought to the ny. There is nothing can cause a more agreeable exercise of virtue by unpleasant circumstances, or per-.sensation, than to, be able to read ourselves into the sonal privations, it is never accompanied with all the habitual course of our reflections: and if we were to idea and sentiment which spring from that virtue which recall the particular passages of any writings in any is the effect of choice. It is then, in general, the language, we shall find that they have almost manners of the first class of society which influence all the same character of elevation and melancholy. the literature; and when they are good, they are a It may be asked, why the English, who are so happy preservation to love, and love is the inspirer of noin their government, and in their customs and man- vels. Without stopping here to examine phil6soners, should have so much more melancholy in their phically the destiny of women in the social order; it is disposition than the French 1 The reason is, that certain that, in general, their domestic virtues alone liberty and virtue, the greatest result of the human obtain from the men all the tenderness of which their reason require meditation; and that meditation parts are capable. naturally conducts the mind to serious objects. But although the women in England may be belovIn France, persons distinguished either by their ed, they are very far from enjoying those pleasures of sense or their rank had, in general, a great deal of society which France formerly afforded to the fair sex. gayety: but the gayety of the first classes in society is But it is not from a picture of the enjoyments of selfnot a sign of the happiness of the nation. In order love that an interesting novel can be composed; althat the political and philosophical state of a nation though the history of life too often proves that many should answer the intentions of nature, the lot of the can be contented with such. The English manners middling class should be the happiest; those men who furnish a great number of delicate shades and affecting are superior in style, should be entirely devoted, and situations for novels. One would be apt to imagine at sacrifice every selfish interest, to the general good of first, that immorality, knowing no bounds, would give the human species. a wider scope for romantic invention; but, on the conHappy is the country where the authors are melan- trary, we perceive that unfortunate facility to be barren choly, the merchants satisfied, the rich gloomy, and unfruitful. Passions without opposition sacrifices and where the middling class of people are contented! without regret, and connections without delicacy, take The English language, although not so harmonious from novels their every charm: the small number of or pleasing to the ear as the language of the east, has this kind possessed by the French, had scarcely any nevertheless, by the energy of its sound, a very great success, even in the societies which had served them ~r: _. - though both for models. Not equal, as their sexes not equal: The English novels, like all their other writings, are For contemplation he, and valor form'd; a but they are calculated For softness she, and sweet attractive grace: sp t to a great lengh; but they are calculated He fbr God only, she forG Od in him. for those who have adopted that style of life which UPON SOCIETY. 35 they represent; for those who lived retired in the The writings of Bacon characterize his own genius, country in the bosom of their families, for the leisure but not that of his country. He rushed alone into the which they,:an spare from their regular occupations field of sciences, sometimes obscure, sometimes schoand domestic duties. If it were possible the French lastic: he nevertheless brought to light new ideas upon could support all that useless minuteness which is ac- every subject, but never completed any thing. The cumulated ill those writings, it could only be from that man of genius may take a few steps in unknown paths, curiosity which is inspired by the manners and customs but it requires the united efforts of centuries, and of of foreigners; they never tolerate any thing of that nations, to open the greatroad of science. The religkind in their own works; in fact, those great lengths ious quarrels of the seventeenth century would have kept sometimes destroy the interest. But the English have England in that state from which all Europe had beena method of exciting interest by a series of just and just emancipated, had not the knowledge which already moral observations upon the natural affections of existed in many countries, and even in England itself, life: attention is every thing with them, whether risen in opposition to those vain disputes. Harrington, to describe what tkhy see, or to discover what they Sidney, and others, indifferent to theological questions, seek. strenuously exerted themselves to re-ucite men's minds' Torn JQnes,' cannot be considered simply a novel; to the principles of liberty i and their efforts were not the abundance of philosophical ideas, the hypocrisy of entirely lost upon reason. society, and the contrast of natural qualities, are brought In short, at the end of the seventeenth century, the into action with an infinity of art; and love, as I have English philosophy assumed its real character; which otserved before,* it is only a vehicle to introduce all it has sustained for a hundred years with increasing these. success. But Richardson stands first in rank; and after his The English philosophy is scientific; that is to say, writings are an infinity of novels, the most part of which the writers apply to moral ideas that kind of abstracare the productions of female pens: these give a perfect tion, those calculations and developments, which the idea of this sort of writing which is so inexpressibly in- learned make use of to arrive at discoveries, and to exteresting plain them. The old French novels are filled with the adventures The French philosophy belongs more to the imaginof chivalry, which do not in the least recall the events ation and to sentiment, but without being less profoiul d; of life. Rousseau's' Eloise' is an elegant and eloquent for these two faculties, when directed by reason, encomposition: but it only characterizes the genius of lighten and assist the understanding to penetrate deeper one man, and not the manners of a nation: all the into the knowledge of the human heart. other French nosvels that-we admire,..we owe to the The Christian religion, such as it is professed in imitation of the English; the subjects are not the England, and the constitutional principles, such as they same; but the manner of treating them, and their are established, give a great latitude to the researches general character, belong exclusively to the English of thought, either in morals or in politics: nevertheless, writers. They first ventured to imagine that the pic- the English philosophers in general do not allow themtures of private affections were sufficient to interest the selves to examine every thing; the useful, which is mind and the heart of man; that neither elevation of the main-spring of all their efforts, interdicts to a cercharacter, nor the importance of rank, nor the marvel- tain degree their independence. They have, it is true, ous in events, were necessary to captivate the imagi- developed in a superior manner the metaphysical theory nation: they thought that the power of love was suffi- of the faculties of man; but they have less knowledge cient to renovate incessantly both the picture and the of the character and the passions. Bruyere, the Carsituation without occasioning satiety. In short, it was dinal De Retz, and Montaigne, have no equal among the English who first composed works of morality under the English. the form of novels, where an obscure though virtuous The English have treated politics as a science wholly destiny might find motives of exaltation, and create for intellectual. Hobbes, Fergusson, Locke, and others, itself a sort of heroism. searched, through different systems, to find out what There reigns throughout these writings a calm and was the primitive state of society, in order to arrive at proud sensibility, at once energetic and affecting: the knowledge of what laws should be instituted for we can no where better feel the charm of that protect- men. Smith, Hume, and Shaftesbury, studied sentiing love, which exempts the feeble being from watch- ments and characters in a point of view almost entirely inc over her own destiny, and concentrates all metaphysical; they wrote for instruction and meditaher esteem and affection in the tenderness of her de- tion, but did not seemr to think it necessary to captifender! vate the interest, even while they solicited the attention. Montesquieu seems to give life to ideas, and, amidst the abstractions of the mind, recalls in each line the moral nature of man. The French writers, CHAPTER XVI. having always the tribunal of society present to their imagination, study to obtain the approbation of readers OP THE PHILOSOPHY AND ELOQUENCE OF THE ENGLISH. who are soon fatigued, by uniting the charms of sentiment to the analysis of ideas, and thus exhibit at one The political situation of the English is distinguished view a greater number of truths. by three particular epochs: namely, that preceding the The English have made the same progress in the revolution, the revolution itself, and the constitution philosophical sciences, as they have in their conmnerwhich they have possessed since the year 1688: the cial industry, by the aid of time and patience. The incharacter of their literature must necessarily have va- clination of their philosophers for things in the abstract, ried with circumstances. Prior to the revolution, we might have drawn them into systems contrary to reason, meet with but one philosopher, the great Chancellor had not the spirit of calculation regulated their applicaBacon: Theology entirely absorbed the years during tion to abstract combinations; morality, the most exwhich the revolution actually lasted: and poetry almost perimental of all human ideas, commercial interest, and exclusively occupied the men of genius under the the love of liberty, always brought back the Enlolish despotic and voluptuous reign of Charles II. It is only philosophers to a practical result. How many works from the year 1688, since which time a steady consti- have they undertaken for the servicEof mankind, for tution has given repose and liberty to England, that the education of children, the relief of the unfortu:a.te, we can observe with any certitude the order of events. the criminal legislation, the political economy, for the * Essay on Fic.tions i sciences, for morals, for metaphysics! what philo.soynv f5it INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE in every conception! and what respect for experience of perfection of which it is susceptible. As it has in the choice of the means! more often been employed in commercial affairs than And all this emulation and wisdom was owing to the in literature, it has never been displayed in all its enjoyment of liberty. But in France, the writers could shades of variety: and in any language much more so seldom flatter themselves with influencing the insti- correctness and refinement are required to write well tutions of their country by their writings, that even in in prose, than to write good verse. the most serious discussions, they only thought of Some English authors, however, such asB,;3olipgshowing a superiority of understanding. In consequence broke, Shaftesbhar sdddison, are reputed as good of which, systems that would have been right in some wrters in prose: nevertheless, their images are defirespects, were carried even to paradoxes; and reason cient in energy, and their style in originality. The not being able to produce any useful effect, they wished character of the writer is not imprinted in his style, nor at least that their paradox should be brilliant. Besides, his internal emotions felt by his readers. It seems as under an absolute monarchy, they might have spoken if the English feared to give too much scope to their in praise of pure democracy, like Rousseau in his Social fancy, except in their poetic inspiration: when they Contract; but no one would have dared to have sported write in prose, a sort of modesty or bashfulness seems ideas nearer the reality. All was wit and conceit in to keep their sentiments in capivity. France, except the decrees of the king's council; while, The English transport themselves into the ideal in England, every one might say as he thought proper world of poetry; but we seldom or ever find any aniwith regard to the resolutions of their representatives; mation in their writing upon existing subjects. The and by this habit of comparing thoughts with actions, French authors are justly reproached with their egotism, they accustom themselves to the love of public good, their vanity, and the importance which each one atand to the hopes of being able to contribute towards it. taches to his own person, in a country where the pubThis principle of usefulness, if I may so express my- lic interest holds no place. But it is nevertheless cerself, which gave so much energy to the English litera- tain that an author, in order to acquire eloquence, must ture, was nevertheless an hindrance to their arriving at express his own sentiments: it is not his interest but that conciseness of style justly esteemed one of the his emotion, it is not his self-love but his character, greatest perfections of the art which the French have that must animate his writings. attained. Most of the English works are confused In England, the spirit of business is-appliedto the through prolixity. The patriotism which reigns in principles of literature, and all appeal to the feelings -England, inspires a kind of family-interest for all ques- and every thing that can in the leaistt~-infle ence the tions of general utility. An Englishman feels himself judgment is interdicted in those works of reason. Mr as much interested in them, as in his own private af- Burke, the most violent enemy off France, has, in his fairs, and will be as long entertained in discussing them; work against that country, some resemblance to the butt the authors, confiding in this disposition, often eloquence of the French; and although he had many abuse the liberty which it gives. The English analyze admirers in England, there are some who are tempted all their ideas with as much minuteness as a tutor makes to accuse his style of bombast, as much as his opinions, use of when addressing his pupils. This may possibly and to find his manner of writing incompatible with be the better means of disseminating knowledge among justice. the people in general: but the philosophical method The Letters-of-Junius are the most eloquent procannot in this way attain the summit of its perfection. ductions in the English prose: perhaps too, the princiThe French would compose a better work than the pal cause of the great pleasure attached to this work, English; they would present the same ideas with more is the admiration which is felt for the liberty of a order and precision; and as they suppress much of the country, where the ministry, and even the king himself, intermediate matter, their works require more attention might be thus attacked without disturbing in the least in order to be understood; but the classification of the public tranquillity or the organization of society, or ideas gains as much, whether from the rapidity with yielding to the depositaries of public power the right which they are expressed, or from the direct way to withdraw themselves under the most vehement exthrough which the mind is led on. In England, fame pressions of individual censure. is at first almost always acquired from the suffrages of The parliamentary debates are more animated than the multitude: which afterwards they obtain from the the style of any English author in prose: the necessity superior classes. In France it always began with the of the extempore, the subject of the debates, the opsuperior classes; and from them descended to the position, the retort, and, in short, every thing appermultitude. I shall not examine which is preferable for taining to them excites an interest and causes an agithe happiness of a nation; but I am certain that the tation that may hurry away the orators: nevertheless, art of writing, and the method of composing, cannot argument is always the principal character of parliaarrive to that perfection in England that it ought to mentary discourse. But the popular eloquence of the have done in France, when authors looked almost ex- ancients, and that of the first French orators, would clusively to the first ranks of their country for appro- produce in the House of Commons more astonishment bation. than conviction. We will now take a cursory view of In England, authors either devote themselves to ab- the causes of these differences. stract systems, or researches which have some positive The English revolution, which was occasioned by and practical utility in view; but this intermediate theological disputes, must have set every popular passtyle, which unites reflection and eloquence, instruction sion into motion. Eloquence, therefore, at this period, and interest, fanciful expressions and just ideas, is instead of receiving any great impulse, naturally took scarcely known by the English: their productions have the form of argumentation agreeably to the nature of only a single aim, to be either useful or agreeable. the subjects it treated on. The commercial and finanThe English are great writers in verse, and carry cial intererests were the first objects of all the English eloquence of mind to the highest degree; but their Parliaments; and every time that they were called works in prose scarcely partake of that life and energy upon to discourse with men upon the calculation of which are found in their poetry. Blank-verse present- their interest, it was by argument alone that they obing very little difficulty, the English reserve for their tained their confidence. The diploinatical situation of poetry all that belongs to the imagination; they con- Europe was another subject of parliamentary debate, sider prose but as the language of logic: the only ob- which required the greatest circumspection from its ject of their style is to make their arguments under- importance. The two parties which divided the parstood, and not to create an interest by their expressions. liament, did not contest, like the plebeians and patriThe English language has not yet acquired that degree cians, with all the passions of men; there was gener UPON SOCIETY. 57 ally some rivalry of individuals couched under the am- man passions, and have the art of uniting a greater vabition that excited them. They were debates in which riety of talents in the same discourse. The English the opposition, wishing to give to the king a minister consider the art of speaking in the same point of view of its own party, always, even in their warmest dis- as they consider every other talent, that of usefulness; putes, kept up the respect that was necessary to obtain and this is what must occur in every nation after a certhe aim which they had in view. The point of honor tain time of repose founded upon liberty. also prescribed bounds to the violence of personal at- But the repose founded upon despotism produces a tacks. In short, the moderns have in general a re- contrary effect; it leaves in existence the active prinspect for the laws, which must also in some measure ciples of individual self-love, and renders the mind inchange the character of their eloquence. Although different to nothing but the national interest: while the there were laws enacted in the time of the ancients, political importance of each citizen in a free country: popular authority had often both the will and the power such, that he holds in greater estimation his share of to destroy and create them anew at their pleasure: the public happiness than any personal advantages that while the moderns were generally constrained to com- would not serve to the benefit of the whole. ment upon the laws actually existing. Without pretending to deny the advantage of this constraint, it nevertheless follows that the spirit of discussion and analysis are of less weight in. our present assemblies, CHAPTER XVII. than the talent of persuasion. The logic of the orator, in the room of wrestling OF GERMAN LITERATURE. with men, like Demosthenes, should attack them with more suitable arms, the effect of which would be more The present century, 1800, gave birth to German indirect. A representative government necessarily literature: prior to that period, the Germans had didraws into a narrow compass the objects which are dis- rected their attention very successfully to the sciences cussed, and the number of those who are addressed; and to metaphysics; but their writings, which were the eloquence of Demosthenes would bear no propor- more frequently in the Latin than in their native lantion with the auditory and the topic under discussion. guage, exhibited universally a want of originality of The witnesses known and counted, by which the Eng- character. The same causes that have already conlish orators* are surrounded; the table upon which spired to retard the progress of German literature, still they uniformly mark the repetition of the same argu- oppose themselves in some instances to its perfection.* ments; every thing, in short, must remind them of a And it is, moreover, an evident disadvantage to the council of state rather than a popular assembly; and literature of any nation to be formed at a later period they must feel themselves engaged to make use of no than that of the surrounding countries; as, in such a other weapons than those of cool firmness, argument, case, imitative talents too often usurp the place of naor irony. tional genius. Before we proceed further, it may not Many of the causes which I have mentioned, may be be improper to consider what are the principal causes equally applied to the representative government of that have modified the spirit of literature in Germany, France; but the first epochs of the revolution offered what the peculiar character borne by the works of insubjects of antiquity for the discussion of its orators. trinsic merit it has produced, and to suggest those inMirabeau, and some others after him, used a style of conveniences against which its authors ought to be eloquence more attractive than that of the English: the guarded. habits of business are there less perceptible, and the The division of the country into petty states, to the successes of the mind much more so. Long develop- exclusion, as it were, of a single capital, in which the ments will ever be less tolerated in France than in resources of the whole nation might concentrate; where England. all possessed of distinguished talents might be attracted The English orators, like Cicero, often repeat the to assemble;-must undoubtedly render it more diffisame ideas, and frequently recur to the same eloquence cult to acquire and form a discriminating taste in Gerwhich has been before employed with success: but the many than in France. In a number of small spheres, French are so jealous of the admiration they express, emulation multiplies its endeavors; but neither judgthat if the orator wished to obtain applause twice upon ment nor criticism are exacted with severity, when the same sentiment, or the same happiness of expres- every town can boast of possessing men of talents. It sion, the auditors would reproach him with a conse- must also be difficult to find a standard for the lanquential confidence, and would not only refuse a second guage, when there are divers universities, and divers acknowledgment of his talent, but would almost believe academies, equally authorized to decide in literary conthat they had not given it him at first. troversies: for in this case, many writers believe themThis disposition in the French must elevate real ta- selves privileged incessantly to coin new words; and lents to the highest degree; but it draws mediocrity confusion must necessarily ensue from such an abuninto the most ridiculous and gigantic efforts: it also but dance. too often favors, in a lamentable degree, the success of It is, I believe, generally acknowledged that federathe most absurd assertions. If an argument is pro- tion is a political system very favorable to happiness longed, its errors will be more easily discovered: if it and liberty; but it is almost always prejudicial to the could be refuted by those forms under which elementary greatest possible display of arts and talents; to promote truths are developed, the most common capacity would which, taste must have attained perfection. The haat least understand the object of the question. The glias udiectan i uhe ljess po tha q thof The * I must here call to remembrance the purport of this work; English dialect is much less proper than that of'the by no means do I pretend to write an analysis of all the celebratFrench for the success of sophisms;- the declamatory ed productions comprehended in the term Literature; I have style, which is so favorable to erroneous ideas, is sel- only endeavored to characterize the general principle of its redom admitted by the English, the language of prose spective stages, in their relation to, and influence over laws, arrve aamuhige dre manners. and religion. It will he naturally supposed, that I having arrived at a much higher degree of perfection in culd nolt treat on slich a subject without quoting many writers, France than in England; the French orators who are and many publications; blt this I have done merely in support truly eloquent, have a greater command over the he- of my own arguments, without any intention ofjudging and dis. cussing the merits of each author; a task that could not be per. ~ The orator of the opposition party, not being engaged in the formed without the aid of an universal library. This observa. direction of affairs, is gene.rally more eloquent than the minis- tion applies more especially to the present chapter than to any ter; but at this present time, in England, it would be hard to other. Germany abounds with excellent productions which f decide between two men of such prodigious talents; neverthe- have passed over in silence, those already mentioned bein, alone less the inclination more naturally inclines towards the one who sufficient to demonstrate thie truth of the assertions I have ad akow ofpowor. vanced respecting the general character of German literature 58 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE bitual association of learned men, their union in one any object in view, to the sport of their imaginations: common centre, establishes a kind of literary legisla- and they adopt successively each sect of mystical reliture, well calculated to direct others to the most advan- gion, and beguile, in numberless ways, that time and tageous course of study. life which they can only dedicate to meditation. But The federal government to which Germany is sub- there is no country whose authors have more successjected, deprives that country of the full enjoyment of fully dived into the sentiments of impassioned man, the all the political advantages attached to the federate sys- sorrows of the heart, and the philosophical resources tem: nevertheless the German literature bears that dis- which are best calculated to support them. The gentinguished character which stamps it as the literature eral character of literature is the same in all the northof a free people; and the reason of this is evident. The ern countries; but the distinguishing characteristics of learned there maintain a republic amongst themselves; that of the Germans spring from the political and reliand in proportion to the abuses introduced by the des- gious situation of the country. potism of rank,-they detach themselves from society One of the most excellent works of the German and from public affairs. They consider all ideas in writers, and which they may justly hold up in oppositheir natural relations; the institutions existing amongst tion to the master-pieces of other languages, is' Werthem are too much in opposition to the simple notions ter.' As it is called a romance, many are ignorant that of philosophy, to induce a compliance with them at the it is a work of higher consideration: and indeed, I am expense of their reason. not acquainted with any production that displays a more The Engfiishare Le.ss independent than the Germans striking and natural picture of the wanderings of enthuin their general manner of considering whatever relates siasm; a deeper insight into misfortune; in a word, a to religious or political opinions; they find repose and search into that abyss of nature, where truth displays liberty in the order of things adopted by them, and con- itself at once to the eye that is capable of discerning it. sent to the modification of some philosophical princi- The character of' Werter' cannot be a common one: ples. They respect their own happiness, and dispense it discovers, in all their force, the injuries that may acwith certain prejudices, as a man married to a woman crue to an energetic mind from a bad social order; inwhom he loves, would strenuously maintain the indisso- stances of which are more frequent in Germany than lubility of marriage. The philosophers of Germany, in any other part of the world. encompassed with faulty and imperfect institutions, Some have blamed the author of'Werter' for indevoid equally of reason and advantages, devote them- volving his hero in any other distress than that arising selves entirely to a strict search into natural truths. A from love; for suffering the world to see that he felt divided government, without giving political liberty, al- his humiliation; and that he harbored a deep resentmost necessarily establishes the liberty of the press. ment against that pride of rank which caused it. This There can be no prevailing religion, nor prevailing is however, in my opinion, one of the first traits in the opinion, in a country thus disunited; established pow- work. Goethe wished to depict a being, suffering ers are supported by the protection of higher powers; through all the various affections of a mind exquisitely but the empire of each respective state over its subjects sensible and proud: he wished to describe that cornis extremely limited by opinion: every thing may be- plicated agony which alone can conduct the human come a subject of debate, although the possibility of mind to the deepest gulf of despair. Natural evils may taking active measures may be precluded. still leave us some resource; society must contribute Society also possessing fewer attractions in Germany to infuse its poison into the wound, before our reasor than in England, its philosophers generally live in soli- can be totally subverted, and death become the object tude; and the interest ro warmly excited amongst the of our wishes. English respecting public affairs, is little, if at all, felt What a sublime union do we find, in' Werter,' ot by the Germans. Their princes certainly treat men of thought and of sentiment, of the blind impetuosity of letters with distinction, and frequently grant them to- passion, and the sober reasonings of philosophy! Rouskens of honor: nevertheless the governments, in gen- seau and Goethe alone knew how to paint reflecting eral, appoint only their ancient nobles to political de- passion; passion which judges yet knows that it canpartments; and it is moreover a fact, that none but not subdue itself. This search into his own feelings, representative governments can possibly inspire all made even while he is their victim, would have weakclasses of people with a direct interest in public affairs. ened the interest of the work, if described by any but The minds, therefore, of literary men ought to be di- a man of genius. As it is; nothing can be more afrected to the contemplation of nature, and to a know- fecting than this combination of agony and meditation, ledge of themselves. reasoning and insanity, which portray a miserable man The Germans excel in delineating the tender pas- contemplating and reflecting upon his situation, yet sions of the mind, and in portraying the sombre scenes sinking under affliction; directing his imagination toof melancholy. In this respect they bear a closer re- wards himself, courageously viewing his own sufferings, semblance to the style of Ossian than any other north- yet incapable of affording himself consolation or relief. ern writers; but their meditative habits of life inspire It has been said, that' Werter' is a dangerous work; them with an enthusiasm for the sublime, and an indig- that it exalts the sentiments, instead of directing them, nation against the abuses of social order, which protects and that some instances of fanaticism which it has exthem from that ennui so sensibly felt by the English cited, are proofs of this assertion. The enthusiasm amongst all the vicissitudes of their career. Enlight- which it has awakened, particularly in Germany, proened men, in Germany, live only to study; and their ceeds from its being written entirely in the national minds are self-supported by a kind of internal activity taste. It is not Goethe who has created it, he has only more uniform and more lively than that of the English. painted it from the life. The Germans delight most in the indulgence of their Enthusiasm is universally prevalent in Germany; ideas. There is nothing sufficiently great and free in and'Werter' is favorable to dispositions of that cast. their governments to induce the philosophers to prefer The example of suicide never can become contagious; the enjoyments of power to those of reflection; and the moreover, it is not the mere incident invented in a roardor of their mind is not damped by a too constant in- mance, but the sentiments conveyed through such a tercourse with mankind. medium, that leave a deep impression: and that malady The German productions are less practically useful of the soul which derives its source from too exalted a than those of the English: they indulge themselves mind, and eventually renders life hateful; that malady more in systematic combinations; because, having no of the soul, I repeat, is perfectly described in' Werter' influence whatever over the institutions of their country Every man possessed of sensibility and generosity, by their writings, they abandon themselves, without has at'some period or other felt; himself infected by it UPON SOCIETY. 59 and frequently, perhaps, some excellent beings may sentiments which the regular institutions and ties of have questioned themselves, whether life, under its society have stifled or restrained. These expressions present circumstances, could be supported by the vir- re-animate and transport us; persuade us in a moment tuous, if the entire organization of society had not its that we are about to be lifted above all factitious conweight with candid and affectionate dispositions, and siderations, above all compulsatory forms; and that did not render existence totally impossible. after a long restraint, the first friend we shall find is The perusal of' Werter' teaches that the most ex- our own original character,-is, in fact, ourselves. alted sentiments, even of honor itself, may lead to in- The Germans are highly distinguished as painters of sanity; it shows us at what degree sensibility becomes nature. Gessner, Zacharias, many poets in the pastoral too highly wrought to allow the mind to support even line, excite a love of country, and appear to be inthe most natural occurrences. We are warned from spired with its sweet impressions. They describe it in our wrong propensities by every reflection, every cir- such a manner, as must strike the attentive observer, cumstance, and every moral treatise: but when we when the toils of agriculture and the labors of the field, know our disposition inclined to candor and sensibility, which claim the presence of man and the enjoyments we trust ourselves implicitly to its guidance, and may of tranquil life, are in unison with the disposition of the be led to the lowest depth of misery without feeling or soul. perceiving the succession of errors that have insensi- We must indeed be in this peaceful temper, in order bly conducted us thither. to relish such descriptions. When we are agitated by To characters of this description, the example of the passions, the exterior calm of nature adds to our -' Werter's' fate is useful; it is a work that makes vir- sufferings. Prospects that are wild and gloomy, and tue itself acknowledge the necessity of reason. every melancholy external object that surrounds us, aid Goethe has written many other works of high re- us in the enduring of internal anguish. spect in Germany. Wilhelm Meister's Hermann and The tragedy of Goetz de Berlichingen, as well as Dorothea, &c., the Odes of Klopstock, the Tragedies some other popular romances, are filled with those meof Schiller, the writings of Wieland, the dramatic pro- m1entos of chivalry, which leave so strong an impresductions of Kotzebue, &c., would require many chap- sion on the imagination, and which the Germans are so ters, if we wished to examine their literary merit; but competent to introduce under varied and interesting this task, as I have before observed, cannot enter into forms. the general plan of my work. After this cursory survey of the rrF;cipal beauties of The' Messiah' of Klopstock, notwithstanding innu- the German literature, I feel it incumbent upon me to merable defects, prolixities, mysteries, and inexplicable direct the reader's attention towards the defects of its obscurities, displays beauties of the first magnitude. writers, as well as to the consequences that might reThe character of Abaddon, undergoing the fate of the suit from those errors, if they were suffered to remain guilty, while persevering in the love of virtue, uniting without correction. the faculties of an angel with the sufferings inflicted in The lofty style is, of all others, that in which we the infernal regions, is an idea altogether new. Such may be the most easily deceived. Great talents are conspicuous truth in the expressions of love, and the necessary, to avoid departing from truth when we enpictures of nature, amongst the most whimsical inven- deavor to paint a character raised above habitual pretions of every kind, produces a very singular effect. judices; and in depicting enthusiasm, inferiority is inThe consternation that would be occasioned by the supportable.'Werter' has given rise to a greater idea of death, when thought of for the first time, is number of bad imitations than any other literary chefdescribed with an affecting energy in one of the cantos d'oeuvre: the aiming at an elevated style in a work of of the'Messiah.' An inhabitant of a planet where this kind, is the most ridiculous thing in the world. life is interminable, interrogates an angel who brings Wieland has shown with great success, in his' Perehim intelligence from our globe on the nature of death. grinus Proteus,' the absurdities of that factitious en-' What!' he exclaims,' can it be true that you are ac- thusiasm so widely different from the genuine inspiration quainted with a country where the son may be for ever of genius. The Germans are much more indulgent in separated from her who has lavished upon him the this respect than ourselves; they permit also, and most tender marks of affection during the early years often even applaud, an abundance of trivial notions in of his life — where the mother may see herself de- philosophy, concerning riches, beneficence, birth, merit, prived of the child on whom she had rested all her &c.; common-place subjects, which in France would hopes of future happiness?-a country too where love at once repress and damp every kind of interest. The is known; where two beings devoted to each other, Germans also hear with pleasure the repetition of the live perhaps long together, then learn to exist alone? most hackneyed thoughts, although their genius daily Can it be in that country possible to wish for life, where leads to the discovery of those which are genuine. it serves only to form connections which death must The language of the Germans is not yet determined; dissolve; only to love what must be lost; only to each author has his own peculiar style; and thousands cherish in the heart an image, whose object may disap- in that country look upon themselves as authors. How pear from the world where it leaves its wretched sur- can literature be established in a country where nearly vivor.' When we first begin to read the'Messiah,' three thousand volumes are published annually 1 It is we appear to enter into a gloom in which we are fre- a very easy matter to write the German language sufquently bewildered; where sometimes, indeed, beauti- ficiently well to be printed; too many obscurities are ful objects are distinguishable, but a uniform melan- permitted, too much latitude allowed, common-place choly reigns throughout the whole; which however is ideas are too frequently received, and too great a numnot entirely devoid of sweetness. ber of words united together or newly coined; whereThe German tragedies, and particularly those of as a difficulty of style must naturally discourage men Schiller, contain beauties which always indicate a great of modern abilities. Genuine talent is at a loss to dismind. In France, a delicacy of mind, a feeling for cover itself amidst such a numberless multitude of the reigning customs, and a fear of ridicule, weaken, books; and though at length it may certainly be disin some respects, the vivacity of impressions. Ac- tinguishiable, yet the general taste is more and more customed to watch over ourselves, we necessarily lose, corrupted by insipidities, and literary pursuits must in in the midst of society, those impetuous emotions which course terminate in losing their respectability. develop to every eye the predominant affections of the The Germans are sometimes deficient in taste, in soul. But in reading those German tragedies which writings which are the productions of their natural imhave acquired celebrity, words, expressions, and ideas, agination: they fail of it still more frequently in works may be often found, that awaken in ourselves some of imitation. Amongst their writers, those who ate not X 608 INFLUENCE OF LIT'ERATURE possessed of an original genius, borrow sometimes the the capacities of our readers are inferior to our own defects of English literature, and occasionally those of it is always better to express our thoughts just as we the French. conceived them. We ought to put ourselves upon a I have, endeavored already to make it appear by an- level with the majority' but to aim at the highest posalyzing Shakspeare, that his beauties can only be sible point of perfection: the judgment of the public is equalled by a genius similar to his own; and always, in the end, that of the most distinguished men that his defects ought to be carefully avoided. of the nation. The Germans resemble the English in some res- It is sometimes also through a mistaken wish to pects: for this reason, they lose themselves less fre- please the fair sex, that the Germans endeavor to blend qpently in studying the English authors thanthe Fiench: the serious arid the frivolous. The English never study nevertheless they have also adopted the system of con- the taste of females in their writings: the French, by trasting the vulgar with the heroic character: by which the rank they have granted to them in society, have renmeans they diminish the beauty of numbers of their best dered them excellent judges of genius and taste. The productions. Germans ought to entertain an affection for them, as their To this defect, which they possess in common with ancestors did formerly; who attributed to them some the English, is superadded a taste for metaphysical qualities attached to divinity. They ought to pay them sentiments; which frequently serves to weaken the the tribute of respect without descending too much in effect of the most affecting situations. As they are their correspondences with them. by nature given to thought and meditation, they insert In a word, in order to render philosophical truths the abstract ideas, the explanations and definitions, with admissible in a country where they are not yet publicly which their heads are filled, in the most impassioned adopted, it has been thought necessary to dress them in scenes; and their heroes, their women, the ancients, the garb of tales, dialogues or fables: and Wieland and the moderns, are all made to speak in the language especially has acquired great reputation in this style of of a German philosopher. This is a glaring defect, writing. On some occasions, indeed, some artifice or against which their writers ought to be guarded. disguise may perhaps be necessary in order to introTheir genius frequently inspires them with the most duce truth. What they wished to communicate to the simple expressions for the noblest passions; but when moderns, they might perhaps be obliged to put into the they lose themselves in obscurity, we are no long- mouth of the ancients; and thus recalling the past, er interested, and our reason forbids our approbation. make it serve as an allegory for the use of the present The German writers have been frequently reproach- times. We cannot judge how far the contrivances ed for their want of grace and sprightliness. Some of used by Wieland are politically requisite: but here* them, apprehensive of a censure upon which the it may be repeated, that, with relation to literary merit, English pride themselves endeavor to imitate the it is anerror to believethat philosophical truthsbecome French style; by which means they fall into worse more interesting by a medley of personages and incierrors: because, having once stepped out of their dents which serve merely as a pretext for want of argunative character, they no longer possess those energetic ments. and strikiug beauties which occasion their defects to be The analysis loses its solidity, and the romance its be glossed over and forgotten. Those charms of grace interest, by their being blended. To render fictitious and sprightliness which characterized some of the incidents at all captivating, they ought to succeed each French writers before the revolution, could have birth other with dramatic rapidity: to render arguments cononly from the circumstances peculiar to ancient France; vincing, they must be duly connected, and conclusive. and, even in that nation, could be produced only at When the interest is abridged by discussion, and disParis. There are numbers also amongst us, who cussion by the interest, far from giving a respite to dis have failed in their literary attempts, although sur- criminating minds, their attention becomes wearied e rounded by the best models. The Germans are less execution is required to follow the thread of au by no means to be depended upon for making the best idea as far as reflection can carry it, than incessantly choice of authors for their imitation. to resume and to quit arguments of which the chain is In Germany, perhaps, it may be thought that Crebil- broken, and impressions that are weakened by interIon and Dorat are writers remarkable for grace: ruption. they therefore overcharge the copy of a stvle al- The success of Voltaire has inspired some with a ready so inflated as to be almost insupportable to the wish to follow his example in writing philosophical French. tales: but that animating gayety, that varied grace, The German writers, who within their own minds which characterizes Voltaire in this kind. of composimight find all that could interest men of every coun- tion, defies imitation. There is, without doubt a phitry, by blending the mythology of the Greeks and the losophical inference to be found at the conclusion of gallantry of the French, produce a medley from his tales; but the pleasantry arid the turn that hegives which they seem anxions to banish both nature and to his compositions is such, that his aim is not to be truth. perceived till the catastrophe: like an excellent comedy, In France, the power of ridicule always terminates the moral of which we feel upon reflection, but at its by leading us back to the paths of simplicity: but in a first representation on the stage we are only struck country like Germany, where the tribunal of society with its interest and action. has so little influence, and is so little in unison in itself, nothing ought to be risked in a style which re- loquent sensibilit are the al quires the most constant practice and the finest feelin inled provine of the German literature; its attempts in any other line have always been less successful. of all the powers of the mind. They ought to con- There is no nation more peculiarly adapted to philofine themselves'to the universal principles of the sophicalstudies. Their historians, amonstwhom we higher walks of literature, and write on those sub- st higher walks of iteracture, andl write on those sub-nmust first rank Schiller and Muller. are as distinguished jects in which nature and reason are competent as it is possible to be in writing modern history. A Thguides., feudal government is extremely preiudicial to the inThe Germans have sometimes the fault of intrc- teRist excited by incident and character. In that waring into their philosophical works a sort of pleasantry, like age, our imagination is apt to fancy all great men which is by no means adapted to serious writings, clad in the same armor, and that their characters bear They think by this measure to accommodate themselves to their readers. * But we ought never to imagine thatpes our to their readers.~ I3~/:ut we ought never to imagine that search;' and exaggerating afterwards the properties of another * A German mythologist, descanting in one of his tracts upon stone, he exclaims,' Ah, syren!' a stone which he had not been able to discover, expresses him- * See the Essay on Fictions. UPON SOCIETY. 61 as close a resemblance to each other, as their helmets equitable impartiality would guide the opinions of the and their shields. Germans. How much honor'do the Germans reflect upon their They are more perfect than we are in the art of nation by their persevering labors, by their researches softening the lot of mankind; they enlighten the uninto metaphysics, and into every other science! They derstanding, and lead the way to conviction; while we have not a political country; but they have rendered by force attempt every thing, undertake every thing, it a literary and a philosophical country, and are ani- and in every thing have failed. We lay a foundation mated with the most noble enthusiasm for its glory: only for animosities; and the friends of liberty appear Nevertheless, a voluntary subjection prevents the in the midst of the nation, with down-cast looks, blushGermans from being, in some respects, so enlightened ing for the crimes of some, and calumniated by the a people as they might otherwise become: this subjec- prejudices of others. tion is the spirit of sect, which in a life of indolence, Ye enlightened people! ye inhabitants of Germany! supplies the place of a spirit of party, and partakes of who perhaps will one day be, like us, enthusiasts in some of its inconveniences. Undoubtedly, before the every republican idea; be invariably faithful to one denumber of followers of any sect is increased, individ- termined principle, which is of itself a sufficient prouals apply all their attention to judge of it, and decide tection from all irreparable errors. Never indulge in its favor, or otherwise, by the uncontrolled exercise yourselves in an action which morality can disapprove; of their reason. The first choice is free, but not so its attend not to the pitiful arguments that may be holden consequences. As soon as a person is satisfied with out to you upon the difference that ought to be estabits basis, he adopts, in order to maintain the sect, all'lished between the morality of public and of private the conclusions which the master mnay deduce from his characters. This distinction proceeds from a perverted own principles. A sect, however philosophical it may understanding, and a narrow mind; and if we should be in its aim, is never so in its means to attain that perish, it will be because we have adopted it. end. A blind confidence must always be inspired, to Behold the effect of crimes in the interior of a nacompensate for individual decision: for numbers, tion: —the persecuting always agitated, the persecuted whilst their reason is uncontrolled, never give an assent always implacable; —no opinion can appear innocent, to all the opinions of one man alone. and no argument can be heard;-a multitude of facts, There is yet another important observation that may calumnies, and falsehoods so accumulated nn the heads be made against the new systems of which it is at- of all, that amidst the whole body of people, there tempted to compose a sect; the progress of the hu- scarcely remains one upright consideration, one man to man mind is too gradual to admit of any succession of whom another man will vouchsafe the slightest mark just ideas. A century discovers two or three additional of condescension, nor any one party faithful to the. ideas; and that century is therefore esteemed illustri- same principles: some individuals we see united by the ous. How then can an individual conceive a chain of tie of general consternation, a tie easily broken by the thoughts entirely new? Moreover, all truths are sus- hope of self-preservation: in fine, so terrible a confuceptibie of evidence, and evidence makes no sect. sion between liberal opinions and culpable actions, beCaprice, and mystery above all, are required to excite tween servile opinions and liberal sentiments, that in men thati which gives rise to spirits of sect, an ar- esteem becomes unsettled, and knows not whereon to dent wish to distinguish themselves. This wish be- fix, and conscience hardly dares to confide in itself for comes really useful to the progress of the understand- its own security. ing,, when it excites emulation in every species of One single day, in the course of which we may, in talents; but not when it subjects many minds to de- thought or word, have countenanced and supported pendence upon one only. measures that have led to cruelty and suffering,-that In order to conquer empires, disciplined armies must one day may of itself suffice to embitter life, and fundaacknowledge the authority of a commander-in-chief: mentally to destroy that internal calm, that universal but in order to make a progress in the career of truth, benevolence of heart, which gave birth to hope of our each man must proceed by himself, guided by the light finding friends wherever we found men. Oh! let naof the age he lives in, and not by the documents of t;ons still virtuous, let men gifted with political abiliany party.* ties, who are yet irreproachable, assidiously preserve The enlightened amongst the Germans have generally such blessings! and if a revolution should commence a love of virtue and of the beautiful in all things; a amongst them, let them fear amidst themselves only circumstance which gives great character to their wri- those perfidious friends who advise them to persecute tings. The distinguishing feature of their philosophy the vanquished. is, that they have substitued the austerity of morality Liberty supplies strength for its own defence; the;n lieu of religious superstition. In France, they have concurrence of interest opens all the needful resources; oeen contented to overthrow the empire of opinion. But the impulse of ages overthrows all that would struggle of what utility would knowledge be to the happiness for the past against the future: but inhumanity sows of nations, if that knowledge was only the harbinger discord, perpetuates war, divides a whole nation into df destruction;-if it never opened to the mind any inimical bands; and that offspring of the serpent of principle of life;- if it did not inspire the soul with Cadmus, to whom an avenging god granted life only new sentiments and new virtues, for the support of to condemn them to wage war till death, —that offspring former duties? of the serpent is the people amongst whom injustice The Germans are eminently calculated to be free, has long reigned. since already, in their philosophical revolution, they have substituted in the place of the worn-out barriers of antiquity, the immutable bounds of natural reason. If, by any invincible misfortune, France should ever CHAPTER XVIII. be destined to lose all hope of liberty, Germany would become the central seat of learning: and in its bosom would be established, at some future epoch, the prin-E FRENC POSSESSED OF ORE GRA ciples of political philosophy. Our wars with the TASTE, AND GAYETY, THAN ANY OTIIER EUROPEAN English must have rendered them inimical to every NATION thing that recalls France to their memory: but a more * All EKant's ingenuityofmind and elevation of pri* are * French gayety and Frenca taste, have been proverbial not, I think, sufficienuit objections against what I have just a in all the countries of Europe, and that taste and gay. vanced respecting the spirit of sect. ety have generally been attributed to the national char. 62 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE acter: but what is a national character, if not the result their connection with their master, a spirit of chivalry; of institutions and circumstances which influence the that they should engrave upon their shield,' FOR MY happiness, interests, and customs of a people? Since MISTRESS AND KING,' that they might be thought volunthose circumstances and those institutions have been tarily to choose the yoke which they wore; and thus changed, and even in the most tranquil periods of the blending honor with slavery, they endeavored to bow revolution, the most striking contrasts have not been without debasement. Grace was, if I may be allowed the subject of one single epigram, or of one spirited the expression, in their situation, a necessary policy, pleasantry. Many of those men who have obtained as that only could give the appearance of choice to great ascendency over the destiny of France, were obedience. destitute of everX grace of expression and brilliancy of The king, on his part, duly considering himself, in understanding; perhaps even they were indebted for some instances, as the dispenser of glory, and the resome part of their influence to the gloom, silence, and presentative of public opinion, could recompense only chilling ferocity, that pervaded both their manners and by applause, and punish only by degradation. He was their sentiments. obliged to support his power by a kind of public assent. Religion and laws determine almost entirely the re- which was doubtless principally directed by his will, semblance, or the difference of the genius of nations. but which frequently manifested itself independent of The climate too may occasion some changes; but the that will. Ties of the most delicate nature, and prejugeneral education of the higher ranks of society is al- dices artfully conducted, formed the connection of the ways the result of the prevailing political institutions. first subjects with their governor: these connections The seat of government being the centre of the chief required great art and quickness of mind: grace was interests of the people, their customs and opinions fol- requisite in the monarch, or at least in the dispensers low the lead of their interests. Let us examine what of his power; taste and delicacy were necessary in the advantages arose from the ambition prevalent in France, choice of favors and of favorites, in order that neither to be distinguished by the attractions of grace and gay- the commencement ror the limits of the royal authority sty; that we may learn why this country offered such might be discerned. Some of its rights must be exerperfect models of both. cised without being acknowledged, some acknowledged To please or displease, was the real source of those without being exercised; and moral considerations punishments and rew.rvds which were not inflicted by were embraced by opinion with such subtlety, that one the laws. Other couctries had monarchical govern- bad stroke of politics was universally felt, and might be ments, kings absolute in authority, and magnificent the ruin of a minister, notwithstanding any support that courts; but no where could be found united the same government should be inclined to give him. circumstances which influenced the genius and the The king, of course, must call himself the first genmanners of the French. tleman of his kir!gdom, that he might the more readily Under limited monarchica,-asx-ip England and in Swe- exercise a boundless authority over gentlemen; and to den, the love of1ibrty, "the exercise of political rights, strengthcn that authority over the nobility, a certain and the almost continual civil commotions, are a lesson portion of flattery was necessarily directed to them. to their kings, that it behooved them to choose such fa- Arbitrary power not even then allowing a freedom of vorites as were possessed of certain defensive qualities; opinion, both parties perceived the necessity of pleasing and also teach the courtiers, that, in ordoer-to obtain each other, and the means of succeeding therein were preferments with their respective kings, they must be multiplied. Grace and elegance of manners gradually able to support their authority by means that' are inde- passed from the customs of the court into the writings pendent and personal. of literary men. The most elevated station, the source In Germany, long wars and the federation of its of all favor, is the object of general attention: and as states prolonged the feudal spirit, and presented no in all free countries, the government gives the impulse common centre where all enlightened talents and gene- to public virtue; so in monarchies, the court influences ral interests could unite. the mental genius of the nation, because an universal The despots of the east and of the north were too wish is excited to imitate that which distinguishes the much under the necessity of inspiring fear, to awaken most elevated rank. in any degree the genius of their subjects; and the de- When the government is so moderate, that no cru sire of pleasing their rulers was productive of a kind of elty is apprehended from it, and so arbitrary, that all the familiarity with them, which merely tended to aggra- enjoyments of power and fortune depend only upon its vate their tyranny. favor; all those who aspire to that favor, ought to posIn republics, however constituted they may be, it is sess a sufficient degree of mental tranquillity to render so necessary for men to defend themselves, or to be- themselves amiable, and sufficient dexterity to make come subservient to each other, that neither harmony that frivolous accomplishmcnt conducive to material nor pleasure can be found amongst them. success. Men of the first class of society in France The gallantry of the Moors, and the consequence often aspired to power; but they ran no dangerous hazwhich it gave to their women, would in some respects ards in that career; they gamed without risking the have raised the genius of the Spaniards nearly to a par loss of a large stake, uncertainty turned only upon the with that of the French; but the superstitions to which extent of their advantage; hope alone then animated they are devoted, have totally impeded their progress their exertions. Great perils give additional energy to in any thing amiable or solid; and the indolence of the the soul and to the reflecting powers; but security east has relinquished every exertion of talent to the gives to the mind all the charms of ease and readiness. diligence of the priesthood. The animation of gayety, still more than the polish France, then, was the only country where the author- of grace, banished the remembrance of all distinctions ity of the king being consolidated by the tacit consent of rank without destroying any: by means of this, of the nobility, the monarch possessed an absolute grandees dreamed of equality with kings, and poets power; the right of which, notwithstanding, was in fact with nobles; and inspired even the higher ranks with a undetermined: this situation compelled him to study more refined idea of their advantages, which, after even his courtiers, as constituting a part of that body of a short forgetfulness, were called again to memory with victors which granted and secured to him France, their renewed pleasure; and the highest perfection of taste conquest. and gayety was the result of this universal desire to The delicacy of the point of honor, one of the delu- please. sions of the privileged order, compelled the nobility to The affectation in ideas and sentiments, imported decorate the most abject submission with the forms of from Italy to spoil the taste of all the European nations liberty. It was necessary that they should oreserve, ir. was at first Drejudicial to the grace of the French; but UPON SOCIETY. 63' the understanding being more enlightened, reverted reason as well as the mind was capable of reasonilg; consequently to simplicity. Chaulieu, La Fontaine, and that, if necessary, they could laugh at their own and Madame de Sevigne, were the most unaffected wri- ambition, their pride, and even their rank, although ters, and plainly proved themselves to be possessed of in- they were positively determined not to renounce an imitable grace. The Italians and the Spaniards were atom of any one of them. actuated by a desire to please the softer sex; buthnev- The court wished to please the nation, and the naertheless they were far from equalling the French in the tion the court; the court pretended to philosophy, and delicate art of adulation. The flattery which serves the city to bon ton. The courtiers, when they associambitious purposes, requires much more understanding ated with the inhabitants of the capital, wished to disand skill than that which is addressed only to the fair play a personal merit, a character, and a genius peculiar sex; all the passions of mankind, and all their differ- to themselves; and the inhabitants of the capital exent vanities, must be artfully studied, when the combi- hibited an irresistible attraction to the polished manners nation of the government and the manners is such that of the courtiers. This reciprocal emulation did not the success of men in their dealings with each other accelerate the progress of solid and exalted truth; but depends on their mutual talents of pleasing, and those there was not one ingenious idea, not one delicate talents are the only means to obtain eminent situations shade, that self-interest suffered to remain undiscovered in power. to the mind. In France, grace and taste were not only conducive A very animated work by Agrippa d'Aubigne, more to the highest interests, but both the one and the other than two centuries back, distinguished the real and the were preservatives against the misfortune they most apparent, l'etre et le paroitre, in his delineation of the dreaded, namely, ridicule. Ridicule is, in many re- character of a Frenchman, the Duke d'Epernon. In spects, an aristocratical power; the more ranks there the ancient system of things, all the French were more are in society, the more connections exist between those or less attentively engaged by the apparent, because ranks, and the greater is the necessity to know and to re- the theatre of society inclines particularly to that side. spect them. Among the higher classes are estab- The external appearance, indeed, ought to be attended lished certain customs, certain laws of politeness and to, when there is no opportunity to judge of any thing elegance, which serve, so to speak, as a signal for rally- but the manners; and in France, it was perfectly exing, and to be ignorant of which would betray a habit cusable to wish to succeed in society, since there exof different manners and different society. Those isted no other field for the display of talents, and for men who constitute these first classes, having at gaining the notice of those in power. And, moreover, their disposal all the favors of the state, must ne- what numerous subjects for comedy must be found in cessarily have great sway over the public opinion; for- a nation where the manners, not the actions, are the with the exception of a very few instances, power con- test of reputation! All the studied graces and ridicsists of good taste, interest has a certain portion of ulous pretensions, were inexhaustible sources of humgrace, and the happy are beloved. our and comic scenery. That class which, in France, prevailed over the The influence of women is necessarily very great, whole nation, was privileged to take up the slightest when all events take place in the drawing-room and absurdities; and as the ridiculous had the most strik- when all characters are judged by their conversation; ing effects upon the minds of the people, they were in such a case, women become a supreme power, and universally solicitous to shun the lash of ridicule. The whatever pleases them is assiduously cultivated. The apprehension of it was often an obstacle to originality leisure which monarchy left to the generality of distinof genius; it might also in the political career, be de- guished men in every department, conduced very much trimental to the energy of action; but it developed in to bring the pleasures of the understanding and of conthe minds of the French a kind of perspicacity singu- versation to perfection. larly worthy of observation. Their writers had a great- Power was attained in France neither by labor nor er insight into characters, and more ability to depict by study; a bon mot, some peculiar gracefulness, was them, than any other nation: being obliged in- frequently the occasion of the most rapid promotions: cessantly to study what might give offence or plea- and the frequent examples of this inspired a sort of sure in society, this interest rendered them very ob- careless philosophy, a confidence in fortune, and a conserving. tempt for studious exertions, which led every mind to Moliere, and, even since his time, some other comic be agreeable and accommodating. When diversion is writers, are superior in that walk to all the authors of not only permitted, but often useful, a nation ought to any other nation. The French do not, like the English attain the utmost point of perfection to -which it can be and the Germans, search deeply into the sentiments carried. occasioned, by misery; they accustom themselves so Nothing similar to this will ever be witnessed in much to shun it, that they cannot be well acquainted France whilst under a government of a different nature, with its results: but those characters that give rise to however it may be constituted; which will be a concomic effects, as, for instance, men seduced by vanity, vincing proof, that what was called French genius and deceived by self-love, or deceiving others through French grace, were only the result of monarchical inpride, that multitude of beings subservient and devoted stitutions and manners, such as they have for many to the opinion of others; no nation on earth has ever past ages existed in France. arrived at the skill of painting these so well as the French. Gayety leads us back to natural ideas; and al-e though the bon ton of French society was entirely CHAPTER XIXo formed upon fictitious grounds, it is to the gayety of that society that we must absolutely attribute all that OF LITERATURE IN THE AGE OF LOUIS XIYv. remains of truth in ideas, and in the manner of expressing them. The reign of literature has been revived in Europe There certainly was not much philosophy m the by the study of the ancients; but not till a consideraconduct of the greater part of enlightened characters; ble time after its revival, was an imitation of the anthey were themselves often subject to the very fail- cients the guide of literary taste. The French culti ings which they condemned in their own works: nevertheless, the effect of their writings and conversations * I shall not analyze all the partlcu ars relating to French lit ertheless, the effect of their writings and converstions erature; all that can be interesting, has been already said on was heightened by a sort of homage paid to philoso- this subject. I confine myself simply to trace the path pursued phy; the object of which was to show, that they could by genius from the age of Louis XIV. to the revolution in 1789. 84 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE vated the Spanish style of writing at the commence- worship may, by a combination of ideas, dignify or dement of the seventeenth century; and this style had a base the most natural image. degree of grandeur peculiar to itself, which preserved It is in the narrow circle of a few men superior in the French authors from some faults of Italian taste, education or merit to the rest of the world, that the then diffused all over Europe. Corneille, who first in- rules and elegance of style can be preserved. Surtroduced the era of French genius, was greatly indebted rounded by an unpolished society, how can we create to his study of the Spanish character. in ourselves that delicacy of instinct which repels every The age of Louis XIV., the most remarkable of all thing that carl be offensive to taste, without even having in the annals of literature, is very inferior, in respect of analyzed whence that repugnance proceeded? philosophy, to the succeeding age. The monarchy, and The style in writing represents to the reader, if I above all a monarch who esteemed admiration an act may be allowed the observation, the deportment, the of obedience; religious intolerance; and the supersti- accent, the gesture -of the person who addresses him: tions at that time still prevalent; put a boundary to the and in no case can vulgarity of manners add to the extent of thought: an entire and consistent whole could force either of ideas or of expressions. It is the same not be conceived, nor could any analysis be permitted with style; there must alway be dignity in serious subin a certain order of opinions, neither could an idea be jects. No thought, no sentiment, by this means loses followed up through all its connections and windings. its energy; elevation of language simply preserves that Literature, in the age of Louis XIV., was the highest manly dignity in the presence of men, which he who attainment of the imagination; but even this was not lays himself open to their judgments ought never to a philosophical power, since it was encouraged by an lose sight of. For that assemblage of unknown perabsolute king, and showed no signs of disapprobation sons whom an author, while writing, admits to a knowat his despotism. ledge of himself, await not his familiarity; and the Literature like this, which had no aim but to indulge majesty of the public would be astonished, not without the sportive imaginations of the mind, could not pos-. reason, at the assurance of the author. sess such energy as that which has even gone so far as Republican independence should therefore endeavor to-make the very throne totter. Sometimes indeed, to imitate the correctness of those who wrote in the age authors have been seen, who, like Achilles, have taken of Louis XIV., in order that useful thoughts may be up weapons of war in the midst of frivolous ornaments; diffused, and that works of philosophy may at the same but in general, books at that time did not treat upon time rank as classical works in literature. subjects of real importance; literary men retired to a Many disputes have arisen, whether the imitation of' distance from the active interests of life. An analysis nature, or the beautiful in idea, ought to be preferred of the principles of government, an examination into re- in tragedies. I refer my readers to the second part of ligious opinions, a just appreciation, of men in power, this work, to some reflections upon that system of every thing, in short, that could lead to any applicable tragedy most suitable to a republican state: this disresult, was strictly forbidden them. cussion belongs not to the present chapter. To publish such a work as Telemachus, was then a The author who has attained the highest degree of bold step: yet Telemachus contains only truths modi- perfection in style, in poetry, and in the art of paintfled by a monarchical spirit. Massillon and Flechier ing,-the beautiful in idea, is Racine; a writer who, hazarded some independent' principles under the mask of all others, gives the most competent idea of the in. of religious errors; Pascal lived entirely in the intel- fluence which laws and manners possessed over dralectual world of:science and religious metaphysics; La matic works in the reign of Louis XIV. The spirit of Rochefoucault and Labruyere described men in the cir- chivalry had introduced among the principles of honor cle of private life with prodigious skill and penetration: a sort of delicacy, which necessarily gave rise to a sort but as they touched upon nothing national, those great of compact: that is to say, there existed a certain detraits upon political characters, which are seen only in gree of heroism, indispensable as it were to the free institutions, could not be included in their designs. noblesse, and of which it was not allowable to suppose The tragedies of Corneille, who drew nearer to the that a nobleman couldbe destitute: this point of honor, stormy period of the league, are often tinctured with so susceptible that it could not tolerate even amongst republicanism: but what author in the age, of Louis the nearest relations the slightest expression capable of XIV.' can boast of a philosophical independence worthy wounding the most exalted pride; this point of honor of being compared with that which is so conspicuous gave laws also to theatrical imitations, and to the sports in the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, of the imagination; and the diversity of characters Raynall, &c.' that might be portrayed, were also obliged to be within Purity of style cannot be carried to greater perfec- the prescribed limits. Authors indeed were not allowed tion than it is in the first rate works of the age of Louis to carry that diversity to the full extent of nature; and XIV.: and in this respect they ought always to be con- a certain respect for the higher classes withheld them sidered as the models of French literature. They do from representing any thing that mighttend to degrade not indeed possess, Bossuet excepted, all the beauties them in the public esteem. of eloquence; but they are exempt from all those faults Adulation towards the monarch raised to still greater which destroy the effect of the most striking beauties. perfection the beautiful in idea. A nation is annihilaAn aristocratic society is particularly favorable to the ted when it is composed only of the worshippers of an delicacy and polish of style. The habits of life consti- individual. The factitious greatness which it was netute as essential a part of good writing, as even reflec- cessary to attribute to Louis XIV., inclined the poets tion itself: for although ideas may arise in solitude; alwvays to represent some characters as perfect as that the garb in which those ideas must be dressed, and the which flattery had invented. The imagination of the imagery necessary to illustrate them, depend in a great writer was at least to keep pace with his eulogiums; measure upon the impressions which education has left and the same model was frequently repeated in the on the mind, and upon the society in which life has scenes of the drama. The character of Achilles, in been passed.' Iphigenia,' had some traits of French gallantry; and In every country, but especially in France, words in'Titus' again were found allusions to Louis XIV. have, as it were, each its particular history: one may The greatest genius in the world, Racine, did not alhave been ennobled by some remarkable occurrence, low himself to express such bold conceptions as his whilst another may have been degraded by a similar mind perhaps might have suggested to him; because circumstance. An author may throw a perpetual ridi- those who would be the judges of them, were incescule upon an expression which he has improperly ap- santly in his thoughts. plied: a custom, an opinion, or a mode of religious The formidable, but unknown, public of a tumultu UPON SOCIETY. 65 ous audience inspires less timidity than the Areopagus pose fewer obstacles to tyranny, than the unshaken of a court, of which the author would wish personally belief and the intrepid devotion of religious enthusiasm. to captivate each individual judge. Before such a tribunal, taste appears still more essential than energy. We feel a wish to attain great effects by many gradual shades; and in such a case those methods of which CHAPTER XX. Shakspeare availed himself in order to attract the multitude who were adorers of his productions, would be FROM THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE YEAR 1789. improper and unavailing. The description of love, in the reign of Louis XIV., was also subjected to some In this epoch, literature has given impulse to philosoacknowledged rules. Gallantry towards the women, phy. After the death of Louis XIV., the same abuses introduced by the laws of chivalry, the polish of the being no longer defended by the same power, reflection court, the elegant language which the pride of rank re- turned upon religious and political subjects, and a menserved to itself as an additioal distinction, all served to tal revolution commenced. render the undertaking more arduous. These difficul- The English philosophers known in France, have ties enhanced the reputation of him who had skill suffi- been one of the primary causes of that spirit of analysis cient to overcome them; but at the same time, a far- which has led the French writers to such unusual fetched or affected expresssion frequently chilled his lengths; but independent of this particular cause, the emotion. A taste for madrigals displayed a perfect age immediately succeeding an age of literature, is in sang-froid even whilst attempting to describe the im- all countries, as I have endeavored to prove, that of petuosity of passion; and this of course gave birth to reflection. Happy if the French be so favored by desa language which was neither that of reason, nor of tiny, that the thread of metaphysical progress, of scienlove. tific discoveries, and philosophical ideas, be not yet Even Racine himself was somewhat deficient in the broken in their hands! knowledge of the human heart, under those relations Liberty of opinion commenced in France by attacks which philosophy alone can render evident. But if upon the Catholic religion; at first, because such atdeep reflection was requisite to discern what might tacks were the only daring steps that produced no ill even yet have improved such master-pieces as his were; consequences to their authors and secondly, because the limits of philosophy, in the age of Louis XIV., are Voltaire, the first man who made philosophy popular in discerned much more evidently in those literary works France, found in this subject an inexhaustible fund of which belong not to the drama. These limits are one pleasantries, all in the French taste, and all in the taste of the principal causes of the want of excellence in of those about the court. the historians. The courtiers, not aware of the intimate connection The religious wars had given birth to a spirit of which must exist between all prejudices, hoped at once party, which converts many histories into theological both to maintain their posts in stations founded upon briefs; the spirit of society, although different from the error, and to deck themselves with a spirit of philosospirit of party, is equally far from the trnth, and alters phy: they wished apparently to disdain some of their facts with as unsparing a hand. In fine; the feudal advantages, but nevertheless in reality to preserve code founding all institutions and all power upon them: they thought that only those who profited by pristine rights rendered sacred by time, it was not al- abuses, could clear them up; and that the vulgar at lowable to speak truth in what related to past events, large would continue in their credulity, whilst a small: however remote they might be; present authority de- number of individuals enjoying, as formerly, their expended upon them: errors of every kind impeded his- alted rank, would add a superiority of understanding to torians on all subjects, or, what was still more to be that of their situation in life; they flattered themselves lamented, they themselves adopted those very errors that they might yet for a long time look upon their inas truths. feriors as their dupes; and that those inferiors would never be tired of such a situation. No man was better Man, surrounded by so many long-respected institu- able than Voltaire to profit by this disposition of the tions, so many famous decisions, so many received con- nobles of France; indeed it is not impossible that he formities, could not appeal from them to the indepen- himselfpartook of it. dence of his own reflections; his reason could not exreflections; his reason could not Voltaire loved grandeur and royalty; he wished amine into every thing, and his mind was never freed rather to enlighten society than to change it. The anifrom the yoke of general opinion; even solitude could rat her to enlighten society taste change it. The all his mated grace, the exquisite taste conspicuous in all his not bring it back to natural ideas; the ascendency of works, rendered it almost essential to him to be judged the monarch, and the prevalence of monarchical reverence, had penetrated into the conviction of all. This by the spirit of aristocracyd He i ished learning to become fashionable, and phiIosoph~ to become general; was not a despotism which enslaved either the mind or but he did not call forth the strongest emotions of nathe soul; but it was a despotism that appeared univer- ture; he did not summon from the depth of the forests, sally to be so blended with the nature of things, that like the people conformed to it as they would to that invari- shake the government of prits ancient foundations to able order which must necessarily exist. shake the government upon its ancient foundations. By pleasantry, and the shafts of ridicule, Voltaire graOne asylum yet remained, —religion: sheltered by dually weakened the importance of some errors; he this, one individual, Bossuet, asserted some bold truths. destroyed the roots of that which the subsequent storm All the interests of life were subjected to the monarch; so easily overturned; but he neither foresaw nor wished but, in the name of death, even to him equality might for that revolution to which he prepared the way. be mentioned. These dogmas, these ceremonies, this A republic founded upon a system of philosophical religious pomp, were then oniy barriers against power: equality not even entering into his ideas, could not of this power was cited before eternity; for if men aban- course be his secret aim. There is no distant plan, doned to an individual the disposal of their existence, no concealed design, perceptible in his writings: that they could appeal from him to a God who makes even perspicuity and ease which distinguish his works, dis. kings to tremble. play-every thing to the view, and leave nothing for the In our days, if the absolute power of one individual imagination to divine. were established in France, we could no longer have Rousseau, whose mind was suffering and wounded recourse to those majestic ideas which, levelling all by the injustice, the ingratitude, and the blind contempt human distinctions, offer the only consolation for cas- of careless and frivolous men, worn out moreover by ual misfortunes: for philosophical reasoning would op- the social order then existing, might indeed have re. 66 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE course to ideas purely natural: whereas the fate of embellished the charm of wit by all those truths, the Voltaire was singularly happy in society, in the fine application of which had till then been considered as arts, and in monarchical civilization; he must even impossible. have feared to subvert the object of his attacks. The Voltaire has been the occasion of great improvement merit and the interest felt in most of his sallies of wit, in the dramatic art although he has not equalled the depend upon the very existence of those prejudices poetry of Racine. But without imitating the incowhich he ridicules. herences of the English tragedies, and not even allow Those works, the merit of which depends in any de- ing himself to bring forward all their beauties upon the gree upon temporary circumstances, cannot preserve a French stage, he has portrayed grief with more energy lasting reputation. They may be considered as de- than any of the authors who preceeded him. In his scribing the manners of the day, but not as immortal productions, the incidents are more striking, passion is productions. A writer who searches only into the im- described more naturally, and theatrical style is bought mutable nature of man, into those thoughts and senti- nearer to truth. ments which must enlighten the mind in every age, is When philosophy is progressive, every thing imindependent of events; they can never change the or- proves in proportion, and sentiments are displayed as der of those truths which such a writer unfolds. But well as ideas. A certain servility or subjection of some of the prose works of Voltaire are already in the mind prevents mankind from making observations upon same case with the Provincial Letters; the turn of their own feelings,-from confessing those sentiments them is admired, but the subject is cast off and for- to themselves or expressing them to others: philosophisaken. How is it possible that, in the present day, we eal independence, on the contrary, makes them better should relish pleasantries upon the Jews, or upon the acquainted with themselves, and with human nature in Catholic religion? Their day is past: whereas the general. The tragedies of Voltaire, therefore, are philippics of Demosthenes are always suitable to pre- most felt; those of Racine are most admired. The sent times, because he addresses himself to men; and sentiments, the incidents, the characters, presented to men are the same now as they were then. us by Voltaire, make a deeper impression on my memIn the ace of Louis XIV. to bring the art of writing ory. To promote the perfection of morality itself the itself to perfection was the object of authors in general; theatre ought always to present models above us; but but in the eighteenth century literature has assumed a a much greater degree of sympathy is excited when the very different character. It is no longer an art merely; author brings our own feelings and sentiments to our it is a power; it is become a weapon to the human consideration. mind, which hitherto it had only instructed and amused. What character can be more affecting on the stage, Pleasantry was, in the time of Voltaire, like the fa- than that of Tancred? Phedra inspires astonishment bles in the east, an allegorical manner of making truth and creates enthusiasm; but her character is not that to be heard, even whilst subjected to the dominion of of a woman of sensibility and delicacy. We remember error. Montesquieu attempted this sort of raillery in Tancred as a hero whom we had known, as a friend his Persian Letters; but he had not the natural gayety whom we had regretted. Bravery, melancholy, love, of Voltaire, the want of which, however, was compen- all that can at once make us value, yet sacrifice life,sated by his brilliant understanding. Works of still all the luxurious enjoyments of the mind, are united m greater merit leave proofs of this truth: his reflections this admirable subject. have given birth to thousands of new reflections. He To defend the country from which he is banished; has analyzed political questions without enthusiasm, and to save the woman he loves, even while he believes her without any positive system. He has displayed them guilty; to load her with acts of generosity; to be reall to view; others have made their choice: but should venged of her only by devoting himself to death; how the social art ever attain in France the certainty of sublime, and yet how much in unison with every mind science in its principles and in its application, it is from of sensibility! This heroism, explained by love, does Montesquieu that the commencement of its progress not astonish until reflected upon. The interest which ought to be dated. the piece inspires, so transports the audience, that every To him succeeded Rousseau: he has discovered individual present believes himself capable of the same nothing, but he has set all in a blaze: and the senti- exalted conduct. ment of equality, which is productive of many more The great admiration of Amenaide for Tancred, and disturbances than the love of liberty, and which gives the respectful esteem of Tancred in return, greatly add birth to inquiries of a totally different order, and events to the poignancy of affliction. To Phedra, who is not of a far more terrible nature:-the sentiment of equal- beloved, of what importance can be the loss of life! ity, both in its majesty and in its meanness, is por- But when we see happiness annihilated by fate; mutrayed in every line of the writings of Rous- tual confidence, that first of blessings, destroyed by seau, and gains entire possession of mankind as calumny; the impression we feel, is so strong, that it well by means of the virtues as the vices of his nature. could not be tolerated on the stage, if Tancred were to Voltaire has entirely engrossed to himself that epoch die without an assurance from Amenaide that she had of philosophy when men, like uhildren, must be taught never ceased to love him. to sport with what they fear: then comes the moment, The heart-breaking scene in which we learn the caboldly to examine these formidable objects; and then tastrophe, is a kind of consolation. Tancred expires'finally to conquer and become masters of them. Vol- just at the moment he most wished to live; neverthetaire, MQntesquieu, and Rousseau have traced these less he dies with more consoling reflections. various periods in the progress of reflection, and, like And indeed who is there that would not wish to dethe gods of Olympus, they have gone over the ground scend into the grave with affections that render life an in three steps. object of regret, rather than feel a solitariness of heart The literature of the eighteenth century is enriched that was a death-blow to us even while we lived? In by the philosophical spirit which characterizes it. Pu- that uncertain future, of which we have only a confused rity of style and elegance of expression are incapable idea beyond the term of our existence in this world, of farther progres after Racine and Fenelon: but the we hope perhaps those friends who loved us here may fashion of analyzing, by giving more independence to follow us: but if we have ceased to esteem their virthe mind, has attracted reflection to a multitude of new tues, and to confide in their affection, where then could objects. Philosophical ideas have found admittance in be the solace of such a hope? What emotion would tragedies, in tales, and eve in writings of mere amuse- then remain to direct the mind to heaven? In what ment: and Voltaire, uniting the grace of the preceed- heart would be left any traces of the transitory creature;ng century to the philosophy of that in which he lived, who solicits eternity? What petitions would then ba UPON SOCIETY. 67 offered to the supreme being to entreat him not to would express himself in the very style we so much break the chain of recollection which blends, as it were, admire, if writing under the pressure of deeply felt catwo separate existences together lamity. Those reflections which recall in any shape to the On the plains of Philippi, Brutus exclaimed,'Oh minds of men what is common to them all, must ever Virtue, art thou but a name 3' A tribune of the Roman occasion great emotion; and it is in this point of view soldiers leading them to inevitable death in order to that the philosophical reflections introduced by Voltaire force an important post, thus addressed his followers: in his tragedies, when those reflections are not used too' There is a necessity to go, but there is no necessity freely, occasion an universal interest to be felt through- to return.' Ire illuc necesse est, unde redire non necesse. out the various circumstances he brings forward on the Arria said to Paetus, when she presented him with the stage. I will examine, in the second part of this work, dagger,'Pete non dolet.' Bossuet pronouncing an whether some new beauties may not be adapted to the eulogium on Charles I. in the funeral oration upon the French theatre, that bear a still closer resemblance to death of the Queen, suddenly stops, and pointing to her nature; but it cannot be denied, that in this respect coffin, says,' That heart which existed but for him, Voltaire has gained a step in the dramatic art, and the awakes, dust as it is, and beats again, even under the power of theatrical effect has arisen from it. pall, at the name of a husband so beloved.' Emilius, The literary lustre of the eighteenth century is prin- at the point of avenging himself of his mistress, excipally due to its prose-writers. Bossuet and Fenelon claims,' Malheureux fais lui donc un mal que tu ne ought undoubtedly to be quoted as the first who set the sentes pas.' In these expressions, how are we to disexample of uniting in the same language all prosaic cor- tinguish what ought to be attributed to invention, and rectness and poetical imagination. But how much has what to history; what to imagination, and what to rethe art of writing been enriched in France by Montes- ality 3 Heroism, eloquence, love, all that can exalt quieu's energetic expression of thought, and Rousseau's the soul and raise it above selfish considerations, all eloquent descriptions of passion! The regularity of that aggrandizes and ennobles it, is the result of vioversification inspires a sort of pleasure, to which prose lent emotions. can never attain; it is a physical sensation which ex- From the moment when literature concerned itself cites emotion or enthusiasm; it is a difficulty sur- with matters of serious import; from the moment when mounted, of the merit of which connoisseurs can judge, authors saw a ray of hope that they might influence the but it inspires even the ignorant with a pleasure they fate of their fellow-citizens by the display of some parcannot analyze. ticular principles, and by rendering some truths pecuBut we feel it incumbent upon us also to acknow- liarly interesting; prose-writing gradually rose to perledge all the charms of the poetical images and speci- fection. mens of eloquence witnessed, when prose brought to M. de Buffon took delight in the art of writing, and perfection offers us such fine examples. carried it to a great length; but although he lived in Racine himself sometimes sacrifices style to the rhyme, the eighteenth century, he has not stept into the circle to the hemistich, and to the metre: and if it be true of literary fame: he only aims in good language to write that just expression, that which gives even the most a good work; he asks nothing of mankind but their delicate shade, even the most fugitive trace of the con- approbation; he does not seek to influence them, nor nection of our ideas; if it also be true that this expres- to inspire them with strong emotions; words are his sion is unique in the language, that even to the choice aim, as well as the means to attain that aim; he thereof grammatical transitions of articles between the words, fore has never reached the perfection of eloquence. In all may serve to illustrate an idea, to awaken a remem- countries where talents may change the fate of empires, brance, to discard a useless affinity, to transmit an those talents incwase in proportion to the magnitude emotion just as it is felt, in a word, to bring to perfec- of the object to which they aspire: an aim so exalted tion that sublime talent which makes life communicate incites to eloquent writing, by acting on those feeling with life, and reveals to an isolated being the secrets which also render us capable of magnanimous actions. of another heart, and the deeply felt impressions of All the rewards, all the distinctions which monarchy another mind; if it be true that superior delicacy of can offer, will never inspire that energy which arises style would not allow in eloquent periods even the from the hope of being useful. Philosophy itself is but slightest alteration without offending the ear; if there a frivolous employment in a country where the underbe but one method of composition that can be deemed standing cannot penetrate into the institutions. When perfect, is it possible, that whilst adhering to the pre- reflection cannot amend or soften the lot of mankind, scribed rules of poetry, that one method can always be it becomes unmanly or pedantic. He who writes withfound 3 out having influenced, or without a wish to influence Harmony of style has made a great progress in prose- the destiny of others, has neither character, force, nor writing; but this harmony ought not to imitate the volition in his style. musical effect of fine versification. If it were attempted, Towards the eighteenth century, some French prose would become monotonous, the choice of expres- authors conceived for the first time a hope of usefully sions would no longer be free, and all the advantages propagating their speculative ideas: their style has thence arising would never repay the trouble of the at- consequently assumed a bolder tone, their eloquence a tempt. The harmony of prose is that which nature her- warmth more genuine. A man of letters, living in a self points out to our organs. Under the influence of country where the patriotism of the citizen is only a any emotion, the tone of the voice is softened when barren sentiment, is, if I may be allowed so to express imploring compassion; its accents become more firm myself, obliged to fancy himself under te* influence of when expressing any generous determination; it is passions, in order to describe them; to create fictitious raised and dropped when we wish to bring over to our emotions, to be enabled perfectly to comprehend their own opinions a wavering audience around us: genius, effects; to qualify himself to write, and in short, if or talent, is the power of calling to our aid at pleasure, possible, abstract himself, as it were, from his own exall the resources, all the effects of natural emotions; istence, in order to examine what literary measures it is that susceptibility of soul which makes us feel, may be adopted from his opinions and sentiments. merely from the impressions of the imagination, those Already we may perceive the outline of the great emotions which others experience only in consequence change which political liberty must produce in literaof events that have occurred in their own life. The ture, by comparing the writers of the age of Louis finest specimens of prose at present known, are those XIV., with those of the eighteenth century: but to in which the passions themselves, invoked by genius, what strength would not talents attain in a government become eloquent. A man destitute of literary talents where they are a really existing power? The author, 68 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE or the orator, feels himself ennobled by the moral or defend and protect suffering innocence; man, when political importance of the subject on which he treats: enabled to overthrow despotism; man, in a word, when if he pleads for the victim before the assassin, for he devotes himself to the happiness of the whole hu. liberty in presence of the oppressor; if the unfortu- man race, who then believes and really feels a kind of nate wretches in whose defence he speaks, hear, trem- supernatural inspiration. blingly the sound of his voice, turn pale if he hesitates, And does the revolution inspire France with such and lose all hope if an expression of triumph escapes emulation and such glory. This shall be inquired itoe from the conviction of his mind; if the fate of the in the second part of this work. country itself is confided to him; he ought to endeavor I here end my reflections upon the past, and shal to withdraw the selfish from their own interests and now proceed to examine the general state of things, from their terrors, to excite in his auditors that emotion, and offer some conjectures relative to the future. that frenzy of virtue, which a certain lofty eloquence More lively interests and passions still in existence will may inspire for a moment, even in the bosoms of the judge of this new kind of search; but I feel, nevertheguilty. How is it possible under such circumstances, less, that I cannot analyze the present so impartially, and with such a design, that he should not even sur- as if time had already swallowed up the years of which pass himself. He will find ideas and expressions we treat. which the ambition of doing good can alone inspire; Of all the abstractions arising from solitary maditahe will feel all, the powers of his genius raised; and tion, the most natural apparently is to make general obwhen at some future time he shall read over what he servations upon the scenes passing before our eyes, as has written, or what he recited at such a particular we should do upon the history of preceding centuries. period, he may exclaim with Voltaire, when he heard A habit of reflection, more than any other employment some of his own verses repeated,'No, it could not be in life, detaches us from all personal interests. The I who wrote that.' And in fact it is not man inde- chain of ideas and the gradual progression of philo-.pendently, it is not man aided only by his own individual sophical truths, fix the mind's attention much more faculties, who attains by his own exertions to those than the passing incoherent and partial relations which strokes of eloquence whose irresistible authority dis- may exist between our own private history and the poses of our moral existence entirely at his own plea- events of the time in which we live. sure; but man when he feels himself called upon to ANCIENT AND MODERN LITERATURE, PART SECOND. OF THE PRESENT STrATE OF MENTAL EIPROVEMENT IN FRANCE, AND OF ITS FUTURE PROORESS. CHAPTER I. I think it always interesting to examine what would be the prevailing character of the literature of' a great GENERAL PLAN OF THE SECOND PART. and enlightened people, in whose country should be established liberty, political equality, and manners in f have traced the history of the human mind from unison with its institutions: there is but one nation in the tirme of Homer to the year 1789. National pride the world to whom some of these reflections may be led me to consider the FrbncxL evolution as ajiew.era applmea in the present day — America. The American in the intellectual world. Perhaps it is only a calami- literature, indeed, is not yet formed; but when their tous event! —perhaps the influence of long habits will magistratesare called upon. to address themselves on not for a certain period of time suffer this event to be any subject to the public opinion, they are eminently productive of one profitable institution, or one philo- gifted with the power of touching all the affections of sophical result: but whatever may be the case, as this the heart, by expressing simple truth and pure sentisecond part will contain some general ideas respecting ments; and to do this, is already to be acquainted with the progress of the human mind, it may not be useless the most useful secret of elegant style. Let it be adto develop those ideas, even should the application of mitted then, that the following reflections, although in them be left to another nation or another century. tended for France in particular, are nevertheless sus UPON SOCIETY. 69 ceptible, under various relations, of a more general have traced from the time of the Greeks. It is easy to application. show how much our progress in this line would be ac. Whenever I speak of the modifications and amend- celerated, if all those prejudices which now stand in ment which may be hoped for in the French literature, the way of truth were removed, and if nothingremained I always suppose the existence and the duration of lib- to philosophy, but to proceed directly from demonstraerty and the political equality. Must it then be con- tion to demonstration. cluded, that I believe in the possibility of this liberty, Such is the method adopted by the sciences, which and this equality. I do not undertake to solve such a every day advance to some new discovery, and never problem, still less would I resolve to renounce such a lose what they have gained. Yes,.even if that future, hope: my aim is to endeavor to discover what influ- o. which my imagination delights to dwell, be still far ence over mental improvement and over literature distant; it may nevertheless be useful to inquire into would arise from the institutions necessary to such what it may be. We must overcome the despondency principles, and the manners which such institutions which some terrible epochas have given rise to in the would introduce. public mind: at such periods, the judgment is obscured It is impossible to separate these observations, when by fears or calculations entirely foreign to the immutathey have France for their object, from the effects bility of philosophical ideas. It is to obtain reputation already produced by the revolution itself; those ef- or power, that we study the bias of temporary opinions; fects, it must be allowed, are detrimental to manners, but if we aspire to think or to write, we ought to conto literature, and philosophy. In the course of this sult only the solitary conviction of contemplative work I have shown how the confused mixture of the reason. northern and eastern people had occasioned barbarism We must banish from our minds the ideas which for a time, although the eventual result was a very con- float around us, and which are indeed only the metasiderable progress both in mental improvement and in phorical representations of some personal interests; we civilization. The introduction of a new class into the must alternately take the lead of, or follow the popular French government may probably introduce a similar opinion: this perhaps precedes, rejoins, or abandons us; effect. This revolution may, in the course of time, but immutable truth abides with us. enlighten a larger portion of mankind; but for many Mental conviction cannot, however, be so strong a years vulgarity of manners and opinions must in many support as conscious feeling. The dictates of morality, respects cause both taste and reason to become retro- as to action, are never doubtful; but we often hesitate, grade. and frequently repent of our opinions when ill-disposed No one can deny that literature has suffered greatly men take advantage of them, and make them serve as in France, since the terrific system has swept away an excuse for their crimes, and the glimmering light of men, characters, sentiments, and ideas. But without reason does not yet afford a sufficient solace in the caanalyzing the result of that dreadful period, which lamities of life. Nevertheless, either the understandmust be considered as totally out of the common course ing is a useless faculty, or mankind must be continually of things, —as a prodigious phenomenon which no stat- making some new discoveries which may advance beed or regular custom can either explain or produce, it yond the epocha in which they live. It is impossible is the nature of a revolution to check, for some years, to condemn reflection to retrace its steps with diminthe progress of mental improvement, and to give it after- ished hopes and increased regrets; the human mind, wards a new impulsion. We must then first examine hopeless of futurity, would sink into the most abject the two principal obstacles which oppose the develop- state of degradation. Let us then seek that future in ment of the mind,-the loss of polished manners, and literary productions and philosophical ideas; one day, that of emulation, which the rewards of public: opinion perhaps, those ideas in greater maturity maybe applied might excite. When I shall have laid before my read- to institutions; but in the meantime the faculties of the ers the different ideas arising from this subject, I shall mind may, at least, be usefully directed; they still may consider of what degree of perfectibility literature and be productive of national glory. philosophy are susceptible, if we correct ourselves of Those who, surrounded by human passions and frailrevolutionary errors, withont abjuring with them those ties, are possessed of superior talents, will soon be truths which interest all Europe in its reflections upon persuaded that those very talents are misfortunes; but the foundation of a republic virtuous and free. they will be found so many benefits, if their possessors My conjectures upon the future shall be the result of can believe in the eventual perfectibility of mind; if my observations upon the past. I have endeavored to they can find new relations between ideas and sentiprove that the democracy of Greece, the aristocracy of ments; if they can penetrate more deeply into the Rome, and the paganism of the two nations, gave a knowledge of mankind; if they can add one degree of different character to philosophy and the fine arts; that new force to morality; if, in a word, they can flatter the ferocity of the north being blended with the degen- themselves with the possibility of uniting, by means of crate manners of the east, and both being softened by eloquence, the various opinions of all those who are the the Christian religion, have been the principal cause of friends of liberal truths. the state of the mind in the middle century. I have endeavored to explain the singular inconsistencies in Italian literature by the remembrance of past liberty and habits of present superstition; a monarchy the most CHAPTER II. aristocratic in its manners, and a royal government the most republican in its customs, have appeared to me OF TASTE AND URBANITY OF MANNERS; AND OF THEIR the first source of the striking difference between French INFLUENCE IN LITERATURE AND POLITICS. and English literature. There yet remains to be examined, after the influence which laws, religion, and It has for some time been a prevailing opinioL in manners have at all times exercised over literature, France, that a revolution in literature was necessary, what are the changes which thi new institutions, in and that the laws of taste in every department ought to be France, may occasion in its writings. If such and such indulged with the greatest possible latitude. Nothing political institutions have had certain results; we may could be more inimical to the progress of literature,foresee by analogy, how similar or different causes that progress which so effectually promotes the diffuwould act upon their respective effects. The new sion of philosophicallight, and consequently the support progress in literature and philosophy which I propose of' liberty; nothing can be more fatal to refinement of to point out, will be a continuation of the development manners, one of the first aims that republican instituof perfectibility, the grand advancement of which I tions ought to have in view The fastidious nicety of 70 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE some societies of the ancient system have, undoubtedly, ness divided the people into classes instead of cementno connection with the true principles of taste, which ing a general union amongst them; and all that are always in conformity with reason; but some pre- natural simplicity requisite to be perfectly graceful, scribed laws might be abolished without subverting did not prevent men from growing old either in a those barriers which point out the path of genius, and constant habit of attention, or a pretended inatpreserve both consistency and dignity in oratory as well tention to the observance of the least marks of social as composition. The only motive alleged for an entire distinction. change in the style and forms which preserve respect Nevertheless they wished to establish a sort of equaland promote reflection, is the despotism which the aris- ity which placed all characters and all talents apparenttocratic classes of a monarchy exercise over taste and ly upon the same level; an equality most undesirable customs. It is therefore useful to mark the defects to men of distinguished abilities, but at the same time which may be found in some of the pretensions, plea- most consoling to jealous mediocrity. It was necessantries, and exigencies of the societies of the ancient sary to speak and to be silent exactly like other people system, in order to show afterwards with more effect to know the reigning customs that no innovation might what disgusting consequences, both in literature and be hazarded; and it was only an assiduous imitation politics, have arisen from the boundless audacity, the of received habits, that it was possible to acquire a awkward gayety, and the degrading vulgarity which it reputation peculiar to ourselves. The art of avoiding has been attempted to introduce in some periods of the the dangers of too brilliant an understanding was, in revolution. From the opposition of these two extremes, fact, the only use to which the understanding was apfrom the factitious ideas of monarchy, and the gross plied: and real genius was consequently often smoothsystems of some individuals during the revolution, some ered by all these fashionable restrictions. This sort of just reflections must necessarily accrue respecting the taste, which ought rather to be deemed effeminate than noble simplicity which ought to characterize the ora- refined, which is shocked at any new effort, at any tory, the compositions, and the customs of a republican daring sedition, or even at an energetic expressiongovernment. checked all the flights of fancy; genius cannot The French nation was, in some respects, too much pay a complaisant attention to all these artificial civilized; its institutions and social habits had usurped considerations; fame is impetuous, and its tumult the place of natural affections. In the ancient repub- ous retinue must break through such slight opposilies, and above all at Lacedemon, the laws moulded the tions. individual character of each citizen, formed them all But society, that is to say, relations without any upon the same model, and political sentiments absorbed aim, trifling concerns without subordination, a theatre, all other sentiments. What Lycurgus effected by his where merit was appreciated by marks the most laws in favor of the republican spirit, the French mon- foreign from its intrinsic value; society, I repeat, in archy had done by its powerful prejudices in favor of France had endued ridicule with such power, that even, the vanities of rank. men of the most elevated minds could not brave it. This vanity engaged almost exclusively the minds of Of all the weapons that can destroy the emulation of each class; the life of man seemed dedicated to the de- exalted characters, the most effectual is the aim of risire of making a conspicuous figure, to obtain an ac- dicule. A quick and subtile penetration into the failknowledged superiority over his immediate rival, and ings of an exalted character, the weaknesses of brilliant to excite that envy in others, to which he himself in talents, checks that confidence in its own powers, his turn became a prey. From individual to individ- which is often so essential to genius; and the slightual, from class to class, suffering vanity could be hap- est lasting of cold and unfeeling raillery may, in a py only on the throne; in every other station, from the generous heart, prove a mortal wound to that lively most elevated to the most abject, men wasted their hope which animated it to enthusiasm in glory and fives in comparing themselves with their equals or virtue. their superiors; and far from rating themselves at their Nature has supplied remedies for the great evils to own intrinsic worth, they sought from the opinions of which man is subject; has balanced genius with others to know in what estimation they stood with re- adversity, ambition with perils, and virtue with calumspect to their importance amongst their equals. This ny; but ridicule can insinuate itself into life, can spirit of contention upon subjects totally frivolous, ex- attach itself even to estimable qualities, and secretly cept in their influence over happiness; this ardent de- and imperceptibly undermine them, sire to succeed; this dread of offending; altered and Disdainful indifference has also great power over enoften exaggerated the true principles of natural taste; thusiasm of the most pure kind; grief even loses that there was a fashion of the day, a fashion of some par- eloquence with which nature has endued it, when it ticular class, in a word, that which must arise from the meefs with a spirit of irony; energy of expression, general opinion created by similar relations. Societies an unstudied accent, action itself, freedom of action, then existed, which could by allusions to their customs is inspired by a sort of confidence in the sentiments their interests, or even their caprices, ennoble the most of those around us; one cold pleasantry annihilates it. hacknied phrases, or proscribe the most simple beauties. A spirit of ridicule attaches itself to one who may If we showed ourselves strangers to these manners in hold an object in the world in high estimation: it laughs society, we publicly acknowledged ourselves to be of at all those who, advanced to a serious period of life, an inferior rank; and inferiority of rank is of itself an still confide in unfeigned sentiments and weighty interunsavory mouthful in a country where a distinction ests. In this respect it may not be devoid of a philoof rank exists. Individuals ridicule individuals, where sophical tendency; but this same discouraging spirit the people, are strangers to an education of liberty; and checks the emotions of a soul worked up to enthusiasm; in France, even with the most exalted mind, it would nay, so utterly does it disconcert, as frequently to exhave been only an absurdity in him who should endea- cite the warmest indignation; it blights every youthful vor to emancipate himself from that prevailing style hope; in short, unblushing vice alone is out of the which was established by the ascendency of the highest reach of its shafts; that indeed, ridicule seldom atclass. tempts to attack, but even shows an inclination to reThis 4espotism of opinion being carried too far, spect the character over which it has no power. must eventually be prejudicial to real talents; the This tyranny of ridicule, which particularly characlaws of taste and politeness became daily more refin- terized the latter years of the ancient government, after ed; the manners were continually growing more.dis- having given a polish to taste, terminated in violent similar from the impressions of nature. Ease of ad- measures, and literature must necessarily have felt the dress existed without freedom if sentiments; polite- effects of them. In order, therefore, to give more ele, UPON SOCIETY. 71 vation of style to composition, and more energy to It is a truth generally received, that a spirit of recharacter, we find it requisite that taste should not be publicanism requires a revolution in the character of subordinate to the elegant and studied habits of aristo- literature. I believe this idea true, but in a different cratical societies, however remarkable they may be for acceptation from that generally allowed. A republican the perfection of grace; their despotism would produce spirit requires more correctness in good taste, which is the most serious ill-consequences to liberty, political inseparable from sound morality: it also, undoubtedly, equality, and even to the higher walks of literature: permits more energetic beauties in literature, a more but how greatly would bad taste, carried even to gross- philosophical and more affecting picture of the imness, be prejudicial to literary fame, to morality, to lib- portant events of life. Montesquieu, Rousseau, and erty, to all, in fact, of good and great that can exist in Condillac, belonged by anticipation to the republican the relations and connections between man and man? systems; and they have commenced the so desirable Since the revolution, a disgusting vulgarity of man- revolution in the character of French writings:- this ners has often been found united to the exercise of the revolution must be completed. The republic neceshighest authorities. Now the defects of power are con- sarily drawing forth stronger passions, the art of portagious; in France, above all, power not only influ- traying must improve, while the subject becomes more ences the actions and conversations, but even the se- exalted; but, by a whimsical contrast, it is in- the licencret thoughts of the numerous flatterers who hover tious and frivolous style that authors have most profited aboutmen in power. Courtiers in all governments im- by the liberty which literature is supposed to have acitate those whom they extol; they are penetrated with quired. esteem for those who can be serviceable to them; they The graceful models which the French possess in forget, that even their own interest requires only exte- their language, may serve as a guide to them, but only tior demonstrations, and that it is not necessary to vio- as they will also serve foreign nations: the same spirit late their judgment also, in order to show themselves cannot be renewed in France without the style and what they wish to appear. habits of what was called good company. In a free Bad taste, such as we have seen it to prevail during country, society will be more engaged by political affairs some years of the revolution, is not only prejudicial to than by attention to ceremony, or even the charms of the relations of society and literature, but undermines pleasantry. In a nation where political equality shall morality: men indulge themselves inpleasantries upon subsist, all kinds of merit may gain admission: and their own baseness, their own vices, and shamelessly there will no longer exist an exclusive society, dedicaglory in them in order to ridicule those timid minds ted only to bring itself to perfection, and uniting in itwhich still shrink from this degrading mirth. Those self all the ascendency of fortune and power. Now, free-thinkers of a new description make a boast of their unless such a tribunal constantly exists, the youthful shame, and applaud themselves in proportion to the as- mind cannot be formed to that delicacy of feeling, to tonishment they have excited around them. those fine and correct shades which alone can give to The gross or cruel expressions which some men in the lighter kinds of writing that grace of conformity, power have frequently allowed themselves in conversa- and that finished taste so much admired in some French tio., must in the course of time occasion depravity in authors, and particularly in the fugitive pieces of Voltheir own minds, while they shock the morality of those taire. who hear them. Literature will disgrace itself completely in France, An excellent law in England interdicts men, whose if we multiply those affected attempts at grace and profession obliges them to shed the blood of animals, taste which only serve to render us ridiculous: some from the power of exercising judiciary functions. In- genuine humor may, nevertheless, still be found in deed, independeut of the morality which is founded good comedy; but as to that playful gayety with which upon reason, there is also that of natural instinct,- we have been inundated even amidst all our calamities, that whose impressions are unforeseen and irresistible. if we except some individuals who can still remember When we accustom ourselves to see animals suffer, we the times that are past, all new attempts in this style in time overcome the natural repugnancy of the sense corrupt the taste for literature in France, and place the of anguish, we become less accessible to pity even for French below the level of all the serious nations in our fellow creatures, at least we no longer involuntari- Europe. ly feel its impressions. Vulgar and ferocious expres- Before the revolution it had been frequently resions produce in some respects the same effect as the marked, that a Frenchman, unaccustomed to the sosight of blood, when we accustom ourselves to pronounce ciety of the first class, made known his inferiority of them the ideas which they excite become more familiar. rank the instant he attempted pleasantry: whilst the Men in battle animate each other to those sentiments Englishman, whose manners are always serious and of revenge which ought to inspire them, by an inces- simple, scarcely ever betrayed by his conversation to sant use of the grossest language. The justice and im- what rank in society he belonged. In spite of the dispartiality necessary for civil administration make it tinctions which will long exist between the two natheir duty to employ such forms and expressions as may tions, French writers must shortly perceive that they calm both him who speaks and those who hear. no longer have the same means of succeeding in the Good taste, in the language and in the manners of art of pleasantry; and far from believing that the revothose who govern, by inspiring more respect, renders lution has given them greater latitude in this respect, more terrific measures less necessary. A magistrate they ought more than ever to pay an assiduous attenwhose manners create disgust, can hardly avoid having tion to good taste; since the confusions in societa recourse to persecution in order to obtain obedience. produced by a revolution, no longer offer any good Kings are wrapt in a certain cloud of illusions and models, aud do not inspire those daily habits which recollections; but deputies commanding in the name render grace and taste natural to us without the aid of of their personal superiority, have need of all the ex- reflection to recal them. terior marks of that superiority: and what more evi- The laws of taste, as applied to republican literature, dent mark can be found, than that good taste which, are in their nature more simple, but not less strict than discovering itself in every word, gesture, accent, and those which were adopted by the authors of the age of even in every action, announces a peaceable and stately Louis XIV. Under a monarchical government, a mulmind, which comprehends immediately whatever is titude of customs sometimes substituted conformity for brought before it, and which never loses sight of its reason, and the respect paid to society for the sentiown respectability nor of the respect due to others ments of the heart: but in a republic, taste ought to It is thus that good taste exercises a real influence in consist only in the perfect knowledge of all true and political affairs. -dtr.abT::-eiati;ons to f-il thel.rnCore Hi c mrr';eieles of 72 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE taste, would be nothing less than ignorance of the subjects in literature which belong exclusively to the true nature of things. grace of expression. In the time of the monarchy, it was frequently ne- When we have experienced calamity, we are obliged cessary to disguise a bold censure, to veil a new to reflect; and if national misfortunes exalt the characopinion under the form of received prejudices; and the ters of men, it is by correcting them of frivolity, and taste which it was necessary to introduce in these dif- concentrating in one point, by the terrible power of ferent turns, required a singularly delicate ingenuity of affliction, their scattered faculties. mind: but the garb of truth, in a free country, accords Literary taste ought to be directed to a graceful exwith truth itself:-expression and sentiment ought to pression of ideas: this will not diminish its utility; for spring from the same source. it has been proved, that the most profound reflections, We are not obliged, where liberty reigns, to confine and most noble sentiments, produce no effect, if any ourselves within the circle of the same opinions, neither striking defects in taste divert the attention, break the is a variety of forms necessary to conceal a sameness chain of thought, or interrupt the succession of emoof ideas. The interest of progression always exists, tions which lead the mind to important results and the since prejudices do not limit the career of thought: the soul to durable impressions. mind, therefore, having no longer to struggle against We may perhaps censure the weakness of the human lassitude, acquires more simplicity, and does not hazard, mind in attaching itself to soine misplaced expression, in order to awaken attention, those studied graces rather than being uniformly engrossed by what is really which are repugnant to natural taste. essential: but in the most desperate situation in life, A bold and very difficult stratagem, allowed under nay, even in the hour of death, we frequently see that the ancient government, was the art of offending against the manners without wounding taste, and to sense of its own sufferings. How are we tohope, then, make a mockery of morality by proportioning delicacy that any reflections, or any work can excite so deep an of expressions to indecency of principles. Happily, interest as that the defects of style may not divert the however, this talent is as ill adapted to the virtue as to attention of the reader Wonderful talents are requithe genius of a republic: as soon as one barrier vas site to withdraw readers from their self-love; but if overthrown, the rest would be disregarded, the rela- the defects in style are such as to offer to judges, of lions of society would no longer have the power to whatsoever kind they may be, an opportunity of discurb those whom sacred ties could not restrain, playing their own wit, they seize it immediately, and Moreover, extraordinary quickness of genius is re-no longer regard either the sentiments or ideas of the author. quisite in order to succeed in this dangerous style, Th which unites grace of expression to depravity of senti- e taste necessary for republican literature, in seriments; and by the strong exercise of our faculties, to s orks as well as those of imagination consists not which we are called in a repablic, we lose that ingenu- merely in one talent, but in the perfection of all; and ity. The most delicate touches are necessary to give so far from being inimical to depth of sentiment or ento immorality that grace, without which even t'he most ergy of expression, the simplicity it exacts, and the abandoned of mankind would repel with disgust the ease it inspires, are the only suitable ornaments to.pictures and principles of vice. strength of mind. Urbanity of manners, as well as good taste, (the In another chapter I shall make mention of the Urbanity of manners, as well as good taste, (the gayety..of cmedy-thatwhichiith former of which indeed constitutes a part of the latter,) gayety of comedy-that which is so connected with gayty of comed a w h i so c d are both very Important in the literary and political the knowledge of the human heart: but it appears to world. Although literature may free itself, in a repubme probable, that Frenchmen will no longer be cited lic much more easily than in a monarchy, from the as examples of that turn of mind at once arniable, ele- empire of any fashion generally received in society, yet gant, and gay, which constituted the charm of the it is not possible that the models of the greater number court. Time will sweep away those few who yet re- of works of imagination should be taken from other exmain as models of this kind, and their remembrance amples than from those which we see daily before our will gradually be lost; for books alone will not suffice eyes. Now, what would become of those writings to retain such characters in our view. That which is which necessarily bear the stamp of the maners of of a more delicate nature than thought itself, can only their time, if vulgarity, and that style of behavior which oe acquired by habit: if the society which inspired displays the defects and disadvantages of every characthat kind of instinct, that rapid perception, is annihil- ter, should continue to prevail? ated, the same instinct And perception must also perish The literary men of France would still retain some with it. That which can be taught only by specified ancient works, which might yet have power to afhabits of life, and not by general combinations, can no fect them; but their imagination would not be inlonger be learned when these habits of life are ended. spired by the surrounding objects; it would gain food It has been observed by an eminent man, that'hap- by reading, but never by any impressions which they piness is a serious state:' the same may be said of themselves might feel. They would hardly ever unite, liberty. The dignity of a citizen is more important in their compositions, unaffected observation with nothan that of a subject; for, In a republic, every man of bleness of sentiment. Instead of availing themselves talents is an additional obstacle to political usurpation. of their recollections, they must strive to banish them; Exaltation of character can alone give some weight to nor, scarcely could even a collected mind ever inspire this honorable mission with which we are vested by any truly beautiful ideas. our own conscience. It will be said, perhaps, that politeness is so trifling We have formerly seen men unite dignity of man- an advantage, that even the privation of it would not neig with almost constant habits of pleasantry: but in the least tarnish those great and valuable qualities this union pre-supposes perfection of taste and deli- which constitute strength and elevation of mind. If cacy, a conscious feeling of superiority, power, and the ceremonies of gallantry in the age of Louis XIV. rank, which cannot be excited by an education of are called politeness, most certainly the first-rate men equality. This grace, at once imposing and playful, of antiquity had not the slightest idea of it; yet are cannot accord with republican manners; it character- they not the less to be esteemed, on this account, as izes too distinctly the habits of rank and fortune. Re- the most striking models that history and imagination flection is more democratic; it increases at the will of could offer to the admiration of succeeding ages: but chance amongst all men who are sufficiently inldepend- if politeness is in reality that just propriety of conduct ent to possess any leisure. Reflection therefore ought which ought to be maintained by man to man; if it in. to be encouraged by giving our attention less to those dicates what we thinlk olrselves to be, andt what we UPON SOCIETY. 73 really are; if it teaches others what they are, or what If a want of feeling in him who commands, aggravates they ought to be; a vast number of sentiments and this prejudice, it becomes perfect hatred. Every man reflections are allied to politeness. of taste and possessing an elevated mind, ought to feel Its forms vary, of course, according to characters, almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he and the same good-will may be expressed with gentle- possesses. Political authority is an inconvenience that: ness or with bluntness; but in order to discuss philo- must be submitted to for the sake of prosperity, order sophically the importance of politeness, we must con- and security: but the depository of this authority ought sider the general sense of the word in its most exten- always to justify himself in some measure by his comsive acceptation, without dwelling upon every diversity portment and his actions. that may arise from each character. In the course of the last ten years, we have frequently Politeness is that tie which society has established seen the enlightened governed by the ignorant; whose between men who are strangers to each other. Virtue arrogance of tone, and vulgarity of manners, inspired attaches us to our families, to our friends, and to the more disgust than even the shallowness of their intelunfortunate; but in all those relative connections lects. Many of these people confounded republican which have not assumed the character of duty, ur- opinions with unfeeling speeches and gross pleasantries; banity of manners softens the affections, opens the way and spontaneous affecton was naturally banished from to conviction, and preserves to every man the rank the republic. which his merit ought to obtain from him in society. Manners have a greater power of attracting or repelIt points out the degree of consideration to which ling, than opinions; I will almost venture to assert, each individual has raised himself; and viewed in that even than sentiments. Possessed of a certain liberality light, politeness becomes the dispenser of those re- of mind, we may live agreeably in the midst of a sowards which it has been the object of a whole life to ciety professedly devoted to a different party from gain. And now let us examine under how many dif- that to which we ourselves belong; we may even forferent forms the fatal effects of vulgarity of manners get serious injuries, or fears, perhaps, justly inspired present themselves, and what ought to be the peculiar by the immorality of a man, if the nobleness of his lancharacter of the politeness adapted to a republican spirit. guage lulls us into an illusion as to the purity of his Women and great men, love and glory, are the only mind. But it is impossible to endure that vulgarity of subjects of reflection that can excite any very lively in- education which betrays itself in every expression, terest in the mind: but how are we to find pure and every gesture, in the tone of the voice, the attitude, in exalted models of the female character, in a country short, in all the involuntary marks of the general habits where the connections of society are not guarded with of life. the most unsullied delicacy l Whence can we take I do not here speak of the esteem which arises from the symbol of virtue, when even women themselves, reflection, but of that involuntary impression which is those independent judges of the conflicts of life, have every moment renewed. In great events, sympathetic suffered the noble instinct of elevated sentiments to minds discover each other by the sentiments of the fade away in themselves. A woman loses part of her heart; but in the minutiae of society, we are known to attractions, not only by allowing herself the use of in- each other by our manners; and vulgarity, carried to a delicate expressions, but even by hearing them, or per- certain length, makes the unfortunate object or witness mitting them in her presence. In the bosom of her of it experience a feeling of embarrassment, and ever: family, modesty and simplicity suffice to maintain the of shame which is altogether insupportable. respect which is due to females: but in public life still Happily, we are seldom compelled to endure vulmore is requisite; elegance of language, and polish of garity of manners from a respect to elevation of sentimanners, constitute a part of her dignity, and these ment: strict integrity inspires a confidence so noble alone never fail of inspiring deference. and a tranquillity so pure, that in whatever situation of During the monarchy, a spirit of chivalry, the pomp life we find it, it is easy to discover what a good eduof rank, the splendor of wealth, every thing indeed cation would have produced under the same circumthat struck the imagination, supplied, in some respects, stances. That depraved vulgarity of which the French the place of real merit: but in a republic, women lose have so often been the victims, was almost alway a much of their dignity, if they cannot inspire awe by composition of depraved sentiments; of audacity, cruthose qualities which characterize their natural eleva- elty and insolence, which showed themselves under tion of mind. The instant we banish an allusion, we the most odious forms. Conformity is the image of must substitute a reality; as soon as we eradicate an morality; its representative in allcircumstances which ancient prejudice, we stand in need of a new virtue. A give no opportunity for proof; it preserves man in the republic, far from giving more liberty to the habitual habit of respecting the opinions of man. If the chiefs relations of society, (as all its distinctions are founded of a state neglect or condemn this virtue, they will no solely upon personal qualiites,) requires in us a more longer inspire that consequence of which themselves scrupulous attention to preserve ourselves from fault. are the first to dispense the rudiments. In this form of government, if our reputation is in the Another kind of rudeness may characterize men in slightest degree tarnished, we cannot, as in a monarchy, power: it is not grossness; it is, if I may express myrenew our consequence by rank, by birth, nor by any self so, a kind of political fatuity; the importance which advantage not arising from our own intrinsic worth. a man attaches to his place; the effect which that place What I have said of women is equally applicable to produces on himself, and with which he wishes to inmen engaged in stations of eminence. It will be ne- spire others. Many of these instances must have been cessary for them to keep up their own consequence observed since the revolution. In the ancient govern.. with much more assiduity, than in a period when aris- ment, places of the first importance were filled only by tocratic dignities efficaciously secured to their posses- those individuals who had been accustomed from their sors the esteem and respect of the multitude. Those infancy to the privileges and advantages of high rank; existing opinions, which in a republic will be daily at- power effected no change in their usual habits; but lacked or defended, must give a great importance to since the revolution, eminent magistracies have neen all that can influence the minis or the imaginations of occupied by men of mean condition in life, and whose mankind. character was not naturally elevated: humble then as If from the partiality of opinion we pass to the sup- to their personal merit, but vain of their power, they port of legal power; we shall see, that authority is in have thought themselves obliged to adopt new manners, itself an insupportable weight upon those over whom'because they have obtained new employments. Of all it extends itself. Those minds which are not created the effects of vanity, this is the most contrary to that to be slaves, early experience a preindice, against power. j affection and respect which republican magistrates 74 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE should inspire; affection and respect are attached to ductions of the human mind to perfection, we must lay the individual character; and the man who believes great stress upon the aim and end that are kept in view himself to be another creature when appointed to any by those who devote themselves to intellectual studies. dignity, clearly indicates to you by his own manners, Either an indolent or an active life is more suited to the that if he loses it, your esteem and respect are to be inclination of man, than meditation; and if we would transferred to his successor. have all the powers of his mind consecrated to the reHow can one man possibly recommend himself to search of philosophical truth, his emulation must be another, better than by that dignity of manners and encouraged by the hope of serving his country and insimplicity of expressions, which, brought forward on fluencing the destiny of his fellow-citizens. the stage, or related in history, inspire almost as much Some minds will feed upon the mere pleasure of enthusiasm as magnanimous actions. I will, more- discovering new ideas; and in sciences requiring accuover, observe, that a succession of chances may lead a racy; above all, there are many men for whom this man to make himself conspicuous by some illustrious pleasure suffices: but when the experience of reflection actions, who is, nevertheless, not gifted with a superior tends to moral and political consequences, its object genius or an heroic character: but our words, accents, must necessarily be an influence over the destiny of and comportment to those around us, are alone capa- mankind. The aim of those works which appertain to ble of constituting that true greatness of mind which the higher departments of literature is, to effect useful defies imitation. changes; to accelerate some essential progress; to Some have thought, that reserve and dignity ought modify, in a word, both institutions and laws. But in to be substituted for the once gracious manners of the a country where philosophy cannot be applied to any French. Undoubtedly, the first citizens of a free state real purpose; when eloquence can obtain only literary ought to display more seriousness in their behavior, fame; both one and the other would eventually appear than the flatterers of a monarch; but too much coldness mere occupations for leisure hours, and the incitement would check the spring of all generous emotions. A to pursue them would daily grow weaker. man who is reserved in his manners, necessarily draws I certainly canlnot deny, that the situation of France some importance to himself by showing he attaches for some years past has been more adverse to the denone to you: but the painful sensation which he inspires, velopment of talents and understanding, than most of produces nothing useful in ally shape: it is not familiar the epochs of history: but I believe, that while we insolence, it is true goodness, it is elevation of mind, it examine what is peculiarly necessary to philosophical is real superiority, which is humbled by this chilling emulation, we shall discover why a revolutionary spireserve. Thus we see, manners can never be truly rit, during the time of its influence, is totally disperfect but where they encourage the virtues that each couraging to reflection; how the ancient government individual may possess, and discountenance his vices. humbled those whom it protected; and by what means We must not deceive ourselves as to the exterior the republic might carry to the greatest possible height marks of respect: to smother noble sentiments, or to the noble ambition of mankind to make progressive addry the source of thought, is to produce only the ill ef- vances towards reason. fects of fear; but to elevate the minds of others to the On a first view, we are inclined to think that civil standard of our own, to give to the understanding its commotions, by annihilating ancient rank, must give to full play, to encourage that confidence which all gene- the natural faculties the full use and development of all rous minds feel in each other; such is the art of in- their powers: and in the beginning, this is undoubtedly spiring durable respect. the case; but at the expiration of a very short time, the It is of importance to create in France some ties factious party feel towards the enlightened a hatred at which may connect parties now at variance; and ur- least equal to that felt by the ancient usurpers. Viobanity of manners is an efficacious means to attain this lent spirits make enlightened men subservient to their desirable end. It would unite all enlightened men; purposes, when they wish to triumph over the estaband this class so firmly connected, might form a tribu- lished power: but when they only aim to maintain nal of opinion, which could distribute praise or censure their own ground, they endeavor to testify the most with some justice. sovereign contempt for reason, and stupidly declare, This tribunal might also exercise its influence over that mental faculties and philosophical ideas can belong literature: authors would know where to find taste and only to effeminate minds: and the feudal code appears national spirit, and would strenuously endeavor to de- again, only under new names. scribe and to aggrandize it. But of all confusion, the Every despotic character, in whatsoever situation, most fatal is that which blends all modes of education detests reflection; and if blind fanaticism be the arm without distinction, and separates nothing but the spirit of authority, its most formidable enemy is, undoubt of party. Of what consequence is it to agree in our edly, the man who preserves the faculty of judging. political opinions, if we differ in mind and sentiments? Violent men can only be allied to narrow minds; they How lamentable is the effect of civil commotions to alone can submit or rebel at the will of their chief. attach more importance to a similarity of our views in If revolutionary commotions be prolonged beyond the public affairs, than to all those which constitute the attainment of the object they ostensibly aim at, authorionly system of fraternity, whose impressions are in- ty always descends another step amongst the ignorant delible! classes of society. The greater the mediocrity of men, Urbanity of manners can alone soften the asperities the more assiduous they seem to suit themselves: they of party spirit; it suffers us to see others long before repulse enlightened reason with disdain, as something we begin to esteem them, and to converse with them heterogeneous to their nature, and which must be fatal long before any acquaintance commences; and by de- to their empire. grees, that violent aversion which we might feel towards If any party wish that injustice'should triumph: it a man whom we had never accosted, grows weaker by will, of course, avoid giving any encouragment to mental the influence of respect and of esteem: hence a sympa- improvement; a man may disgrace his abilities by dethy is created, and, in the event, we find our own senti- voting them to the defence of injustice; but if the inments inherent in the person whom we had been accus- fluence of reason is diffused in any nation, it must netomed to consider as an enerny. cessarily tend to bring general morality to perfection. A revolutionary spirit traces out its own path, and.HAPTER III. forms its own language; and if any one should wish to vary, merely for the sake of eloquence, those estab. OF EMULATION. lished phrases introduced by party-interest, he would Ariongos~ the various methods of bringing the pro- alarm his chiefs ~ they would tremble to see new senti UPON SOCIETY. 75 ments and new thoughts advanced, which might serve dignity in a social order of this nature, unless by show. their cause indeed to-day, but which to-morrow might ing themselves adverse to it 1 And what a miserable prove undisciplinable, and take a new direction. There medley of flattery and truth do we find in the writings are, if I may be allowed the expression, certain receiv- of those philosophers, at once incredulous submissive ed formulas of cruelty, from which men, even in whom and protected! the greatest confidence is placed, are never permitted Rousseau has freed himself, in this century, from the to deviate. greater part of prejudices and monarchical consideraSuspicions, jealousies, the calculations of ambition, tions. Montesquieu, although with more caution, all unite to withdraw superior minds from revolutionary knew well enough how, wheni occasion served, to disstruggles; violent and obscure men range themselves Flay the boldness of an independent spirit. But Volin their proper place only when order is established; in taire, who often wished to unite the favors of a court the overthrow of all ideas and sentiments, they think with philosophical independence, shows us the contrast, themselves authorized to perpetuate the confusion and evidences the difficulty of such a design in the most which exists; and having, amidst their Saturnalia (to forcible manner. borrow the term from antiquity,) become masters of What we call encouraging literary men, is to place talent and-of virtue, captive reflection is compelled to them below the power from which they receive their bear all the weight of their ignorance and vanity. recompense; it is to consider literary genius apart In the crisis of popular factions, independence of from the social world, and from political interests; judgment must be banished first of all. Speech serves to treat it in the same manner as we should a talent only to perpetuate anger, and to fix its first emotions for music or painting; or, in a word, for any art in as decrees. The infuriated gave the name of aristo- which reflection, in which the whole mind indeed must cracy to the most republican sentiments in the world, be absorbed. -the love of reason and of virtue. The spirit of cru- But to encourage literature itself in its highest elty struggles'against philosophy, defies education, and walks, and of this I am exclusively speaking in the shows itself more indulgent to the vices of the heart present chapter; to do this, is indeed true glory; the than to the talents of the mind. glory of Cicero, the glory of Caesar also, and of Brutus. If this state of things continue, we shall no longer The first saved his country by his oratorical eloquence possess any distinguished characters except in the and his consular talents; the second, in his commentcareer of arms: nothing can damp the ardor for mili- aries, wrote the history of his exploits; and the third, tary fame: this always attains the end it desires, and by the eloquence of his style, the philosophical elevation demands from the general vcice whatever applause it by which his letters are characterized made himself be-. has a right to expect. But in this free interchange, loved as a man exemplary for the assassination he comwhence results the glory of authors and philosophers, mitted. ideas arise, if I may so say, from that very approbation It is only in free states that the genius of action can which men are disposed to grant them. be united to that-of reflection. In the ancient governBravery may struggle against the ascendency of a ment, literary talents almost always pre-supposed the reigning faction; but the inspiration of talent is smoth- absence of political ones. A turn for public business ered by it. The tyranny of an individual would not cannot be discovered by any given signs, until it is with equal certainty produce such an effect; but the displayed in important posts; men of mediocrity are tyranny of a party, often assuming the form of public interested in persuading others that they alone are opinion, inflicts a much deeper wound upon emulation. possessed of this talent; and in order to gain credit Ift we were to compare the lot of enlightened men for it, they pique themselves upon those qualities of under Louis XIV. with that. in which they have been which they are destitue, upon that energy which they involved by revolutionary violence, every thing would have not, those ideas which they are incapable of appearin favor of the monarchy; but what connection comprehending, and upon the success which they could exist between the patronage of a king and repub- disdain: these are the guarantees of their political calican emulation, when at length it'should assume its pacity. real character 1 It seems a general wish in absolute monarchies, that Strength of mind does not wholly display itself, ex- a sort of mystery should be observed as to the qualities cept in attacks upon power; it ts by opposition that the which are adapted to government, in order that a selfEnglish acquire the talents requisite in a prime minis- importance and cold mediocrity may distance asuperior ter. When, on the contrary, the favors of opinion de- understanding, and declare it incapahle of contemp]apend also upon the favor of one man, reflection cannot tions much more simple than those in which it has been feel itself free in any of its conceptions: far from de- constantly occupied. voting itself to the discovery of truth, itgpowers are In the language adopted by a coalition of certain n every way limited: the mind must incessantly re- men, a knowledge of the human heart consists in coil upon itself. Scarcely is it possible, amidst works never being guided, either in our aversions or our preof imagination, amidst the domain of invention which ferences, by indignation against vice, or enthusiasm in legal power infringes not; scarcely, I say, is it possible the cause of virtue; to be versed in the science of to forget, that the amusement of the sovereign and his business, is to be never influenced in one decision by courtiers is the grand'point of success that is aimed at. any generous or philosophical motive. The republic, In all languages, literature may flourish for a certain discussing at large many of its interests, and submittime withont having recourse to philosophy; but when ting every thing to the general voice, must enfranchise the beauty of expressions images, and political turns, us from that blind faith which was formerly exacted as is no longer new; when all the beauties of antiquity to the secrets of the art of government. are adapted to modern genius; we feel the necessity Undoubtedly, great talents are necessary for a good of that progressive reason, which each day attains some administration; but it was in order to banish talents, useful end, and which offers an unlimited field to im- that people endeavored to inspire a belief that those prove: nevertheless, how'was it possible to write phi- reflections, which serve to form the profound philosolosophically, in a country where the rewards bestowed pher, the eminent author, and the eloquent orator, have by one individual, the king, were the representative no connection with the principles by which the shadows of glory. chiefs of a nation ought to be guided. The great The dependent state of existence of men of literature Chancellor Bacon, Sir William Temple, L' Hopiunder the French monarchy, gave them no authority tal, &c., were philosophers and men of literature, whatever in those important questions which relate to and have shown themselves to be the first of statesmen.* the destiny of mankind. How could they acquire any The Chancellor Bacon was guilty of the most atrocious inY 76 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE Frederic II., Marcus Aurelius, and indeed the gen- esteem of so many different opinions: neither, if I erality of the kings or heroes whose fame has been the may thus express myself, does it sufficiently personify boast of their nation, possessed at the samle time minds the idea which we love to entertain of a celebrated man. enlightened by philosophy; their learning, and their If words have not eloquently instructed us as to the talents in civil matters, rendered them dear to ppsterity, motive of actions, and if actions have not proved the and gained them, during, life, the obedience of admira- truth of words; memory can retain only an isolated tion, —that obedience which gives to absolute power recollection of either words or actions. The soldier the most delightful attribute of free government; the without an enlightened mind, or the orator without voluntary assent of public opinion. bravery, cannot captivate the imagination: certain Certainly there is no career so limited, so confined, sentiments with us still remain uninfluenced, and our as that of literature, if we view it in the light in which own ideas. are still left to decide for ourselves. The it is frequently considered,-as detached from all phi- ancients felt a passionate admiration for their illustrious losophy, having no aim but to amuse the leisure hours chiefs, whose native greatness stamped their characters of life and fill up the void of the mind: such an occu- with divers talents and glory of various kinds. A pation renders us incapable of the least employment variety of superior qualities not only elevates him who that can require positive knowledge, or that obliges us possesses them; but establishes a greater connection to render our ideas applicable. A boundless vanity is between this extraordinary man and his fellow-creatures. generally the attendant of literature thus humbled and Any one faculty out of proportion to the rest, appears confined; its possessor belies his reason by the value a caprice of nature; whilst a union of many tranquilwhich he attaches to words without ideas, and to ideas izes the mind and attracts affection.'The moral charwithout consequences; he is, of all men, the most oc- acter of a great man ought to present to our view that cupied with himself, and the most ignorant of what in- organization, that balance, that perfect justice, which terests others. Literature must often assume such a alone, either in a character or a government, can give character, when it is cultivated by men removed from the idea of repose and stability. all affairs of importance. But perhaps it will be observed, that in a republic The most degrading circumstance to literature was this enthusiasm respecting an individual ought of all its inutility; that which rendered the maxims of gov- things to be feared the most; and far from desiring ernment illiberal, was such an entire disunion of poli- that perfection of character which I have just said is tics and philosophy, that those who had devoted their almost essential, those instruments of success ought talents to instruct and enlighten mankind, were imme- rather to be sought, who compile discourses, make dediately judged incapable of governing them. Traces crees, or gain conquests, in the same manner as men still remain of this absurd prejudice; but they must exercise an exclusive profession, without having one daily become more faint. Philosophy disqualifies us idea beyoud it. only for that arbitrary and despotic method of govern- Nothing can be less philosophical, that is to say, mug, which is degrading to the human species. While nothing can tend less to happiness, than that jealous we bring the ancient spirit of the court into the new system which would deprive nations of their rank in republic, let us not pretend that, in administration, any history, by levelling the reputation of individuals. thing can be more essential than reflection, more cer- General instructions ought to be most assiduously protain than reason, or more impressive than virtue. moted; but in the same level with the interest of the The object of celebrated writers under a free gov- advancement of mental improvement, we must also ernment is not, as in a monarchy, to give vigor to a leave the aim of individual glory. A republic ought state of existence without any fixed aim; but for the to give greater encouragement, than any other governimportant purpose — of giving to truth all its persuasive ment, to the multiplied endeavors which it inspires; a ~expression, when any material resolution may depend small number only reach the goal, but all join in the uponsome acknowledged axiom. Wedevote ourselves race; and although fame rewards nothing but success, to the study of philosophy, not as a consolation for the every attempt is doubtless of some remote utility. prejudices respecting birth, which, under the ancient The love of glory must not be extinguished in great government, might debar us from all future prospects, minds, nor the sentiment of admiration in the people: but in order to render ourselves qualified for the magis- to this sentiment every degree of affection between the tracies of a country where authority is vested only in governors and the governed owes its existence. Of the hands of reason. what benefit is an appreciating and cool judgment in If military power alone prevailed in any state, and our numerous modern associations Can millions of disdained literature and philosophy, mental improve- men decide upon any thing, each according to his resment would take a retrograde course, however great pective understanding? Is it not necessary that a more the influence to which it might previously have attained: animated imIpulse should communicate itself to that such a power would unite itself with some dispicable multitude whRom it is so difficult to unite in one comtalents calculated to throw a veil over authority, with mon opinionS If a nation is cold with respect to men who would boast of their pretended powers of re- worth and merit, its contempt will not be regarded; flection in order to abuse them: but reason would be and if some libellous detractors confound in their writransformed into sophistry, and the mind become cun- tings the virtuous man with the guilty, the citizens will ning and subtle in proportion to the degradation of the no longer feel that emotion of pure affection toward character. their benefactor, which leads them to repel calumny as The tumult inseparable from a republican govern- a sacrilege. ment frequently endangers liberty; and if the chiefs You cannot attach the people even to the idea of do not offer to view the double security of courage and virtue, unless you explain it by the generous actions understanding, ignorant power, or perfidious cunning, and the moral character of some particular individuals. will sooner or later plunge the government into despo- Some think more effectually to secure the independence tism. To promote the happiness of the human race, it of a people by endeavoring to interest it only by abis essential that the great men to whom its destiny is stract principles; but the mriultitude comprehend ideas confided should possess, almost in an equal degree, a only by events; it displays its justice in hatreds and certain number of apposite qualities; as a superiority affections; it will not cease to respect, until it is utterly in one respect only, is not sufficient to captivate the depraved; and by esteeming its magistrates, it learns to love the government., gratitude; and his delicacy in pecuniary matters has been The glory of great men is the patrimony of a free strongly suspected: but here, his talents only are called in ques- country after their death, it becomes te inheritance tion, and not his morality; a distinction which we have but toor death, it becomes the inheritance well learned to make within the last ten years. of the people at large. The love of our country is UPON SOCIETY. 77 constituted by recollections. How is it possible not more exalted: it is then no longera melancholy reverie, to admire, in the eloquence of the ancients, the respect- dwelling upon the calamities incident to human life, ful sentiments which they felt for their illustrious dead; without the ability to relieve them; it is a powerful the homage paid' to their memory; and the' examples weapon bestowed by nature, the liberty of using which offered in their names to their successors Nature must give assurance of its triumph. has given animation to all existence; and would man Conquerors fear even the soldiers who assisted them change that animation for mere abstraction! to gain their empire; priests fear the very fanaticism The principle of a republic where political equality on which their power depends; ambition is suspicious is holden as sacred, ought to be the establishment of of its own instruments: but enlightened men, who have the most marked distinctions amongst men, according obtained places of the highest importance in the state, to their talents and their virtues. Free nations ought can never cease to value and diffuse knowledge. Reato have in their tribunals judges inexorably determined son has nothing to fear from reason, and philosophical to do jnstice to all, without being laid away either by minds establish their own power upon their equals. indignation or enthusiasm; but when such nations After having examined the various principles of have endured their magistrates with the relentless ex- emulation amongst men, it may be useful to consider ecution of the laws, they may abandon themselves to what influence women may have over mental improvethe freedom of approbation and censure: they may of- ment. This shall be the subject of the following fer to their great men that reward to which alone they chapter. aspire,-the opinion of the present time and that of posterity; opinion, the sole recompense, the sole illusion, from which even virtue has never the power to detach itself. CHAPTER IV And Cmesar, and Cromwell, some one perhaps will ask; think you that the enthusiasm which they in- OF FEMALE LITERATURE. spired, did not in the end prove fatal to the liberty of their country? Misfortune resembles the black mountain of Bember, situated The enthusiasm inspired by military glory, is the at the extremity of the burning kingdom of Lahor: while we only kind that can become dangerous to liberty; but ascend it, we see before us only barren rocks; but no sooner do even this is unattended by any fatal consequences, ex- we reach the summit, than we perceive the heavens over our even this is unattended by any fatal consequences, ex- head, and the kingdom of Cachemire at our feet. cept in those countries where divers causes have de- The Indian Cottage: by Bernardin, de St. Pierre stroyed the admiration merited by moral qualities or civil state talents. Thus we have seen a republic over- The rank which women hold in society is still, in thrown at Rome, and in England; each nation being many respects, indeterminate; a desire to please draws wearied of granting its esteem by a long continuance forth their natural understanding, while reason advises of crimes and misfortunes. them to remain unknown, and their success is as abso Yet let us consider what that power was which lute as their failure. struggled singly against Caesar? It was neither the I cannot but think, that a period will arrive, whet political institutions of the lRomans, nor their senate, philosophical legislators will bestow a serious attention nor their armies; it was the greatness of one man; it upon the education of women, upon the civil laws by was the respect which was still universally felt for which they are protected, the duties incumbent upon Cato; this respect balanced the destiny of Caesar and them, and the happiness which may be secured to them: Cato, nor could Coesar feel himself secure in the au- but, in the present state of things, they are placed neither thority, unless his rival should cease to exist. in the order of nature, nor in the order of society; what Cato exemplified the power of virtue on earth; and some succeed in, proves the destruction of others; their Rome testified for him that admiration which is an hon- good qualities are sometimes prejudicial to them, while or to the nation that feels it, and which presents to ty- their faults befriend then: one moment they are every ranny a far more considerable obstacle than all the con- thing, the next perhaps they are nothing. Their destiny fusion of names, actions, and characters. They might is, in some respects, similar to that of freed-men in a endeavor to give to this confusion the name of a philo- monarchy; if they attempt to acquire any ascendency,sophical republic; but, in fact, it would only be com- a power which the laws have not given them, it is imbats without victory, disorders without any object in puted to them as a crime; if they remain slaves, they view, and calamities without end. are persecuted and oppressed. The reputation and the homage constantly attendant Generally speaking, it would certainly be far better upon men who have gone through an honorable career if women would devote themselves wholly to domestic in public affairs, are amongst the first means of pre- virtues: but a strange caprice in the judgment of men serving liberty: but what most effecttally contributes with respect to women is, that they esteem a total into the progress of mental improvement is, as was the attention to essential duties more pardonable in a fecustom amongst the ancients, to blend together military, male, than the crime of attracting attention by distinlegislative, and philosophical pursuits: nothing animates guished talents; even an abasement of the heart is and methodizes intellectual meditations so much as the tolerated in favor of an inferior understanding, whilst hope of being immediately useful to the human race. the most unsullied integrity can scarcely obtain forWhen thought may be the forerunner of action; when giveness for real superiority. a happy reflection may be instantaneously transformed Let us lay open to view the divers causes of this into a beneficent institution; how deep an interest must eccentricity. I shall begin by considering what is the every man feel in communicating the result of his con- fate of literary women in a monarchy, and also what templations: he no longer fears that the light of his awaits them in a republic. My first object must be to reason will be extinguished without having in the least characterize the principal differences which may arise contribted to enlighten the path of active life; he no fromn these two political situations in the destiny of such longer experiences that kind of shame which genius, females as may aspire to literary fame; and afterwards condemned to pursuits merely speculative, must feel in to consider at large, what degree of happiness those the presence of the most inferior person, provided that women who pretend to celebrity may reasonably expect person is vested with a power that may enable him to from it. wipe away a tear, to render a material service, or even In a monarchy they have ridicule to fear, and in a to be useful to any individual in existence. republic, hatred. When reflection can efficaciously contribute to the It is to be expected from the nature of things, that happiness of man, its mission is ennobled and its aim is in a monarchy where a strict conformity to fashion and 78 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE prejudice prevails, every extraordinary action,. every required of them. If, therefore, it is wished that the attempt to move out of the sphere in which you are principal object of the French republic should be emuplaced, must at first appear ridiculous. What is re- lation in mental improvement and philosophy, it would quired of you by your situation in life, or by any pecu- surely be a rational plan to promote the cultivation of liar circumstances in which you may be placed, meets the female mind, in order that men may find companwith general approbation; but inventions that are not ions with whom they may converse on subjects the necessary, or to which you are not compelled, are even most interesting to themselves. anticipated by the severest censure. The jealousy na- Nevertheless, since the revolution, men have thought tural to all men is not to be appeased, unless you apolo- itfpolitically and morally desirable to reduce the female gize, if I may so speak, for your success, by represent- mind to the most absurd mediocrity: the conversation ing it as the result of necessity; but if you will not they have addressed to women, has been in a language veil the reputation you have acquired under the pretence as devoid of delicacy as of sense; and consequently of amending your situation in life and promoting your the latter have had no inducement to excite the powers welfare; if, in fact, you are suspected of only wishing of their understanding. We do not, however, find that to distinguish yourself, you will inevitably become an all this has tended to the improvement of manners. It annoyance to those whose ambition is directed to simi- is not by contracting the sphere of ideas, that the simlar views. plicity of the primitive ages can be restored; and the Indeed, men may always disguise their self-love, and only result of such a system is, that less understanding their desire of applause, under the mask or the reality has produced less delicacy, less respect for public opinof the most energetic and noble passions: but when ion, and fewer means of supporting solitude. What is women take up the pen; as their first motive is gen- applicable to every thing that regards the understanderally supposed to be a wish to display their. abilities, ing, has in this instance come to pass. It has always the public is not easily persuaded to grant them its ap- been thought, that to enlighten the mind has been proprobation, and, knowing this approbation to be essen- ductive of evil consequences; to repair which, reason tial to them, feels still more inclined to withhold it. In has been made to make a retrograde course: whereas every situation of life it may be observed, that no sooner the evil arising from mental improvement can be cordoes a man perceive himself to be eminently necessary rected only by a still farther progress in that very imto you, than his conduct is changed into a cold reserve. provement. Either morality is a fable, or the more Thus it is when a woman publishes any work; she puts enlightened we are, the more attached to it we become. herself so entirely in the power of opinion, that the dis- If, indeed, the French could inspire their women with pAnsers of that opinion fail not to make her painfully all the virtues of the English women, with their modest sensible of her dependence. manners, and their taste for solitude; they would do To, these general causes, which are common to all well to prefer such qualities to all the shining gifts of countries, may be added various circumstances pecu- shining abilities: but probably all they could obtain liar to the French monarchy. A spirit of knight-errantry from their countrywomen would be, to read nothing and which still existed, was in some -instances an obstacle to know nothing; in conversation, to be totally incato the too assiduous cultivation of literature amongst pable of an interesting idea, a happy expression. or an men. This same spirit must also inspire increased elegant diction; and, far from being more domesticated disgust towards those women who suffered themselves by this charming scene ot ignorance, their children to be so exclusively engaged by literary pursuits, as to would become less dear to them in proportion as themdivert their attention from their first interest, the senti- selves were less able to superintend their education. ments of the heart. An honorable delicacy may occa- The world would become at once more necessary sion even men to feel some repugnance to submit to and more dangerous to them, as love would be the only all those criticisms which public notice must draw upon subject of conversation that could be addressed to them; them: how much greater reason, therefore, have they and this subject could no longer be treated with that to be displeased at seeing those beings whom it is their sort of delicacy which has hitherto been a substitute duty to protect, their wives, their sisters, or their daugh- for morality. ters, expose themselves to the public judgment, and Many advantages highly important to the morality boldly render themselves the general topic of conversa- and happiness of a country would be at once lost, if tionq women should ever be rendered totally insipid or frivoGreat talents, undoubtedly, would triumph over all lous: they would possess fewer means to soften the these objections; but, nevertheless, a woman must find irritable passions of men; they would no longer, as it extremely difficult to carry off with credit to herself formerly, maintain a useful ascendency over matters of the reputation of an authoress; to unite it with the in- opinion, which they have ever animated in every thing dependence of elevated rank, and to lose nothing, in that respects humanity, generosity, and delicacy. Weoconsequence of such reputation, of that dignity, that men, only apart from the interests of politics, and the grace, that ease, and those unaffected manners, which pursuits of ambition, cast an odium upon all base acought to characterize her habitual manner and conduct. tions, contemn ingratitude, and honor misfortunes Women are readily alowed to sacrifice their domes- when noble sentiments have brought them on. If in tic pursuits to fashion and dissipation, but every seri- France there no longer existed women sufficiently enous study is treated in them as pedantry; and if they lightened to have their judgment attended to, and suffido not from the first rise superior to the pleasantries cienlly dignified in their manners to inspire real respect, levelled at them from all sides, those very pleasantries the opinion of society would no longer have any influwill in the end discourage genius, and check the course ence over the actions of men. of well-grounded confidence and elevation of mind. I believe firnmly, that in the ancient government, Some of these disadvantages'will not be met with where opinion held so salutary an authority, that an in any republic, and particularly in that where the gen- thority was the work of women distinguished by their eral aim is to promote the progress of mental improve. sense and good character; women who were quoted mnent. Perhaps it may be natural to expect that, in as examples of eloquence, when inspired by some gensuch a state, literature, properly so called, may fall en- erous resolution, when pleading in the cause of misfortirely to:the lot of women; while men devote them- tune, or when boldly expressing some sentiment which selves solely to the higher branches of philosophy, required the courage to offend against power.' Thed education of women has, in all free countries, During the course of the revolution, those same wobeen adapted to the peculiar constitution established in men have given the most numerous and convincing each: at Sparta they were accustomed to the exercise proofs of energy and intrepidity. Frenchmen can never of'war;'at Rome, austere and patriotic virtues were become such absolute republicans, as wholly to anni UPON SOCIETY. 79 hilate.the independence and pride natural to the female her only see how formidable is the.destiny she was character. Women had undoubtedly, under the an- preparing for herself. Look but into.social order, cient government, too much. ascendency in public af- some one might say; and you will soon perceive it is fairs; but will they become. less dangerous, when des- armed at all points against a woman who dares aspire titute of all. mental improvement, and consequently of to raise herself to a reputation on a level with that of reason. From their influence would then arise an im- mren. moderate rage. for wealth; preferences without dis- No sooner is a woman pomted out as a distinguished cernment, and affection without delicacy; andinstead person, than the public is ingeneral prejudiced against of ennobling,. they would degrade the objects of their her. The vulgar can never judge but after certain attachment. Will the state be a gainer by this 3 The rules which may be adhered to without danger. Every rarely-experienced danger of finding a woman whose thing which is out of the common course of events, is superiority is out of proportion to the lot of her sex in at first displeasing to those who consider the beaten general; ought it to deprive the republic of that cele- track of life as the protection for mediocrity; even a brity which France enjoyed by the art of pleasing and man of superior talents somewhat startles them: but of living in society Now, without w vomen, soctety a woman of shining abilities being a still greater phecan be neither agreeable nor interesting; but if they nomenon, astonishes, and consequently incomnmodes be devoid of sense,.or'destitute of that grace in con- them much more. Nevertheless, a distinguished man versation which pre-supposes a distinguished and ele- being almost always destined to pursue some important gant education, such women are a nuisance instead of career, his talents may become useful to those very an ornament to society; they introduce a sort of fool- persons who annex but a trifling value to the charms ery, a party-spirit of slander, a tiresome insipid gayety, of reflection. A man of genius may become a man of which must eventually banish all sensible men from power; and from this consideration the envious and their meetings; and thus the once. brilliant assemblies the weak pay court to him; but a woman of talents of Paris would be reduced to young men who have can only offer them what they feel no interest about, nothing to do, and young women. who have nothing to -new ideas or elevated sentiments; the sound of her say. praise, therefore, only fatigues them. It is true, that inconveniences will arise in all human Fame itself may be even a reproach to a woman; affairs: some undoubtedly may be found in the superi- because fame is the reverse of what nature intended for ority of women, and even in that of men, in the self- her. Severe virtue condemns celebrity even in what is love of people of understanding, in the ambition of really praise-worthy in itself, as being in. some measure heroes,. the imprudence of superior. minds, the irritabil- inimical to perfect modesty. ity of independent character, the impetuosity of courage Men of sense, astonished to find rivals amongst the and in many other' cases. And must we for these fair sex, can neither judge them with the generosity of reasons resist with all our power the natural bent of an adversary, nor with the indulgence of a protector; the mind, and direct all our institutions to discourage and in this new conflict they adhere neither to the laws genius and talents. Indeed it is hardly certain, that of honor nor to those of good nature. such discouragement would be favorable either to If, as the greatest misfortune that could befall her, a domestic or public authority. Those women who woman chanced to acquire remarkable celebrity in a are destitute of conversible powers, and unversed time of political dissension, her influence would be in literature, have generally the most art in fleeing thought boundless, even when she attempted not to from their duty; and unenlightened nations know not exert any; the actions of her friends would be all athow to be free, and therefore perpetually change their tributed to her; she would be hated for whatever sh~ governors. loved; and this poor defenceles object would be atackTo enlighten, to instruct, to perfect the education of ed before those who are really formidable were even women as well as that of men, of nations as well as thought of. that of individuals; such is still the best secret to Nothing gives greater scope to vague conjectures, attain all reasonable ends, all social and political, than the uncertain existence of a woman whose name relations which we wish to be founded on a durable is celebrated, and whose life has been obscure. If the basis. vanity of one man excites derision; if the abhorred The mental improvement of women can surely be- character of another makes him sink under the burden come an object of fear only through a delicate concern of public contempt.; if a man of inferior talents fails of for their happiness. It is possible, that to enlighten some desired success; all are ready to attribute these their reason may be to give them an insight into the events to the invisible agency of female power. The calamities which so frequently fall to their lot: but the ancients persuaded themselves, that fate had thwarted same argument. would be equally applicable to the their designs, when they could not accomplish them; general effect of mental improvement upon the happi- in our days, self-love, in like manner, wishes to ness of the human race; and for my part, I entertain attribute its failures to some secret cause, and not to not a doubt upon the subject. itself; and the supposed influence of celebrated women If the condition of the female world in the civil might in cases of necessity, be a substitute for faorder of things is very defective; surely to alleviate tality. their situation and not to degrade their mind, is the Women have no means of manifesting the truth, nor object most desirable. Assiduously to call forth of explaining the particulars of their life: if any calumfemale sense and reason, is useful both to mental im- ny is spread concerning them, the public hears it provement and the happiness of society; only one se- but their intimate friends alone can judge of the truth. rious misfortune can accru'e from the cultivated educa- What authentic. means can a woman have to prove the tion which they may have received; and this would falsity of scandalous reports. A calumniated man rebe, if by chance any should acquire such distinguished plies by his actions to an accusing world, and may talents, an eager desire of fame: but even this chance justly say, would not be prejudicial to society at large, as it'could affect only that small number of women whom nature'Let th? tenor of my life speak for me.' might devote to the worst of torments,-an importunate thirst for superiority. But of what service is such atestimony to a womant Let us suppose some female existing, who seduced Some private virtues; some good deeds, scarcely by the celebrity of talents, would ardently endeavor to known; some sentiments confined to the narrow circle obtain it: how easy would it be to dissuade her, if in which she was destined to move; some writings she had not already advanced too far, to recede? Let which may render her name celebrated in countries of 80 INFLUENCE OF LITERATUIRE which she is not an inhabitant and at a time when, per- relations established in society. The emotions of the haps, she has ceased to exist. soul have then a permanent cause, which experiences A man may, even in his works, refute the calumnies but few changes from political events; whilst gayety of which he is become the object: but as to women, to is in many respects dependent upon circumstances. defend themselves is an additional disadvantage, to The more we simplify institutions, the more we justify themselves a new alarm. They are conscious efface those contrasts from which a philosophical mind of a purity and a delicacy in their nature, which the can produce striking effects. Voltaire has shown, betaotice even of the public will tarnish; sense, talents, ter than any other author, how many resources pleaan impassioned mind, may induce them to emerge from santry would be deprived of by a reasonable scheme of the cloud in which they ought always to be enveloped; politics. Voltaire incessantly contrasts what ought to be but they never cease to recur to it with regret as their with what really was; exterior pedantry with internal safest asylum. frivolity, the austerity of religious dogmas with the Womel, however distinguished they may be, tremble libertine manners of those who instituted them. In a at the aspect of malevolence; and although courageous word, almost all his writings display institutions the rein adversity, enmity intimidates them: they are exalted verse of every thing that is rational; and institutions, by reflection, but weakness and sensibility must ever moreover, so powerful that the pleasantry which dares be the leading features of their character. The gen- attack them has, at least, the merit of being fearless. erality of those whose superior talents have inspired If such a religion was not sanctioned in such a country, them with a desire of fame, resemble Herminius there would be no more wit in ridiculing it, than there clothed in a coat of mail; the warriors perceive the would be on an European stage to make a jest of the helmet, the lance, and the dazzling plume; they ex- ceremonies of the Bramins. pect,to meet with equal force; they begin the onset The same may be said of the prejudice of rank, and with violence,, and the first wound cuts to the heart. of the disgusting abuses which they may occasion: the Injustice may not only destroy female happiness and inhabitants of a country in which these abuses had no peace, but it may detach the heart from the first object existence, would scarely think any jests on such a subof its affections; who knows whether the effects pro- ject worth a smile. duoed by slander may not sometimes obliterate truth The Americans scarcely perceived the merit of such from the memoryv Who can tell whether the authors comic ddesc'riptions as alluded only to institutions of this calumny, having already embittered life, may foreign to their government: they listened, perhaps, to not even after death deprive an amiable woman of those what might be said of them, on account of'their conregrets which are universally due to her memory? nections with Europe; but their own writers would In this description I have hitherto portrayed only- the assuredly not exercise their genius on such subjects; injustice of men towards any distinguished female:- every pleasantry levelled at irrationality, in civil, and is not that of her own sex equally to be feared! Do political institutions, loses its effect the instant it attains they not secretly endeavor to awaken the ill-will of men its end, the reformation of social order. against her l Will they ever unite, in order to aid, to The Greeks made a jest of their magistrates, but defend, and support her in her path of difficulty. not of their institutions. Their poetical religion had Nor is this all: opinion seems to exempt men from an entire hold of their imagination: they were always all those attentions usually paid to the sex in all that governed either by an authority of their own choice, or concerns an individual whose superior abilities are gen- by a tyrant who had reduced them to the most abject erally allowed; towards such, men may be ungrateful, slavery. They never were, like the French, in that deceitful, and ill designing, without being called to ac- sort of intermediate situation, which is of all others count by the public.' Is she not an extraordinary the most fruitful in animated contrasts. woman!' Every thing is comprised in these words: The French made choice of their -mational hardships she is left to the strength of her own mind, to struggle as the objects of their pleasantries: ridiculed by their as she can with her afflictions. The interest usually wit what they idolized by their ceremonies; affected to inspired by females, the power which is the safeguard appear indifferent to their most important interests; of men, all fail her at once: she drags on her isolated and consented to tolerate even despotism, provided existence like the Parias of India, amongst all those they might make a jest of themselves for having endistinct classes into none of which she can ever be ad- dured it. mitted, and who consider her as fit only to live by her- The Greek philosophers did not, like the philosophers self, as an object of curiosity, perhaps of envy, al- of monarchial governments, set themselves up in oppothough, in fact, deserving of the utmost commiseration. sition to the institutions of their country; they had no idea of those hereditary rights which have, generally speaking, been the foundation of power amongst the modern nations since their invasion from the north. CHAPTER V. The authority of the magistrates, in Greece, owed its strength to the consent of the nation itself; conseOF WORKS OF IMAGINATION. quently, nothing could have appeared more inconsistent than the endeavor to throw ridicule upon a politiIt is easy to point out the defects which are prohibi- cal order which was entirely dependent upon the pubted by the laws of good taste in any literary production; lic will. Moreover, a free people attaches too much but it is not equally so to trace out the path which importance to the institutions by which they are governimagination ought in future to follow in order to pro- ed to abandon them to the chance of thoughtless duce new effects. There are certain methods to at- ridicule. tain literary success, the very foundations of which If the constitution of France be free and its instituhave been destroyed by the revolution. Let us begin tions philosophical; pleasantries upon the government by examining what these methods are; and we shall being no longer of any ability, will cease to create any be naturally led to some information as to the new re- interest; even those which are levelled against the husources which may yet be discovered. man race, as we see them in the' Candid' of Voltaire, Works of imagination operate upon the mind in two are not applicable, in many respects, under a republidifferent ways; by depicting such scenes as excite can government. mirth, or such as awaken the emotion of the soul. When despotism exists, the poor slaves must be These emotions spring from those concatenations which consoled by a belief that the general lot of all mankind are inherent in human nature: gayety is frequently is unhappy; but that elevation of mind essential to reonly the result of the various, and sometime whimsical publican liberty, ought to inspire a disgust towards UPON SOCIETY. 81 every thing that tends to degrade human nature. A The ridicule that attacks the vices of the human disrelish to life does not animate fortitude; the thing heart, is more striking and more bitter than that which most important is, to place the enjoyments of virtue describes mere absurdities or whimsical institutions. above those of life, and to dignify all the sentiments of We feel something like melancholy even in the most the heart in order still more to ennoble that first of sen- comic scenes of'the Tartuffe:' because they bring natiments, a love of goodness and of our fellow-creatures. tural depravity to view. But when pleasantry merely The great secret of pleasantry is, in general, to check sets before us the contradictions arising from certain all enthusiasm; fearlessly to attack every thing, and to prejudices, or perhaps the prejudices themselves; the weaken passion by indifference. This secret is of ma- hope we always entertain of correcting them, diffuses a terial use in opposing pride and prejudice; but liberty more lively gayety over the impression caused by ridiand patriotic virtue must be maintained by an active cule. We can neither have a talent, nor indeed ally interest in the happiness and glory of the nation; and occasion, for that sort of light gayety, in a government the vivacity of this sentiment is destroyed, if distin- founded upon reason, where the mind ought rather to guished men are led so to contemn all human things, be turned towards the highest department of comedy,that they are alike indifferent to good and evil. the most philosophical of all the works of imagination, When society advances progressively in the path of and that which pre-supposes the most profound and exreason, nothing can be so wrong as to dishearten; and tensive knowledge of the human heart. The republic pleasantries which, after having been useful in weaken- may excite a new emulation in this career. ing the power of prejudice, could no longer act, unless In a monarchy, we take pleasure in ridiculing such to diminish the influence of truth;-such pleasantries, manners as do not accord with received customs; in a I repeat, would undermine the principles of moral exist- republic, the proper objects of ridicule are those vices ence which ought to be the support of individuals and of the heart which may be detrimental to the public of mankind at large. Thus' Candid' and all other good. It may not be amiss to quote a remarkable exwritings of the same kind, which indulge their satirical ample of the new subjects which comedy may treat of, philosophy even to make a jest of the importance at- and of the new aim which it may have in view: tached to the most noble interests of life, are hurtful in In the' Misanthrope' of Moliere, Philinte appears the a republic, where it is necessary to esteem our equals, reasonable man, and we laugh at the absurdities of Alto confide in the good we may be able to do, and to ceste. A modern author, developing these two charanimate our minds to make daily sacrifices by the re- acters in their progress in life, has shown Alceste to be ligion of hope. generous and enthusiastic in friendship, and Philinte to In works of invention there may certainly be another be secretly avaricious and selfish, even to tyranny. kind of gayety than that which depends almost entirely This author has, I think, in his productions, taken the on pleasantries upon social order, or upon the lot of exact point of view in which comedy should henceforth humanity: this is a penetrating and delicate observa- be presented: those vices which arise from the abtion of the passions and characters. The genius of sence of virtuous qualities, negative vices, if I may so Moliere presents the most sublime model of this su- call them, are what the stage ought now to attack: it perior talent. Voltaire was unable to produce any the- ought to expose those mere exteriors, under the shelter atrical effect from pleasantry of this description, not- of which so many men set their consciences at ease, withstanding the habitual address and ingenuity of his and indulge themselves in wickedness under the semmind. blance of decency. IX yet remains for us to examine what subjects of A spirit of republicanism requires positive and accomedy may be most successful under a free govern- knowledged virtues. Many vicious men have no other ment. ambition than to escape ridicule: they ought to know, There are two distinct kinds of ridicule amongst and indeed it is necessary to possess sufficient talents mankind: that which is borrowed from nature; and to prove to them, that successful vice affords a wider that which is diversified according to the different modi- field for ridicule, than uncouth virtue. fications of society. This latter kind of ridicule must be For some time past it has been the fashion to give almost without support in a country where political equali- the name of firmness of mind to that perseverance ty is established, where the relations of society are more which will pursue its interest in defiance to all its dunearly allied to those of nature, and a conformity to ties; and to call him a man of sense, who breaks sucthem may exist without offence to reason. A man cessively, but with art, every tie, however solemn, that might be possessed of very great merit under the an- he has formed. Virtue, in short, is represented as a cient government, and yet have rendered himself very hypocrite; and vice passes for the noble assurance of ridiculous by an absolute ignorance of established cus- superior talents. It ought, therefore, to be the aim of toms; whereas, in a free state, the habits of society comedy, to make men feel that immorality is a proof of can be shocked only by real defects in the head or the narrowness of mind; to wound the self-love of the deheart. praved amongst mankind; and to give a new direction During the monarchy, it was frequently necessary to the shafts of ridicule. Formerly it was the foible of to conciliate the jarring claims of dignity and interest, men to take pleasure in representing certain defects as of external courage and imperceptible flattery, an air of even graceful, and every estimable quality as insipid; indifference and a constant attention to self-advance- whereas, in the present day, it is desirable to devote ment, the reality of slavery and an affectation ofindepend- our talents to re-establish every thing according to the ence. So many difficulties to surmount, might readily true meaning of nature; to exhibit stupidity and vice; attach ridicule to him who knew not how to steer clear and to show the near relationship between genius and of them. Greater simplicity, with respect to manners virtue. and situations in life, would furnish authors under a But, it may be asked, what is become of our coir republic, with fewer subjects for conredy. trasts; and how shall we produce effects? Assuredly, Amongst the productions of Moliere, there are. some some very unexpected ones will arise from this prowhich are founded entirely upon established prejudices; posed alteration: for example, the immoral conduct of such as' Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme,''George Dan- men towards the softer sex has been unceasingly redin,' &c.: but there are also some, such as' l'Avare,' presented on the stage with a view to cast a ridicule'le Tartuffe,' &c., which describe man as he is in all upon deluded women. The confidence which women countries and at all periods. Such pieces as these too generally feel in the sentiments they inspire, may would suit a free government, if not in every point of reasonably afford a subject for raillery; but the subject their character, yet at least when the whole is taken would be more worthily treated, and would also afford together. a greater scope for talents, if the deceiver himself were 8' INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE rendered the object of that satire, which would be bet- tune still more acute: they placed between it and the ter directed against the aggressor than the injured. It throne an immense interval which imagination could not is easy to censure gravely what is culpable in itself; clear without trembling. Social order, which amongst but the difficulty is, dexterously to place the fool's cap the ancients created slaves, rendered still deeper and bells upon the head of the guilty; and even this is the abyss of misery, gave greater elevation to fortune, very possible. and rendered the various lots of human destiny truly Those men who would impose their crimes and vices theatrical. It certainly is possible to feel an interest in upon you as additional graces, and whose desire to be situations which have no parallel in our own country; thought clever is such, that they would boast even to but, nevertheless, the philosophical spirit which yourself of having dexterously betrayed you, if they did ought at length to result from free institutions and ponot think that it would sooner or later come to your litical equality diminishes every day the power of social knowledge; men who would conceal their incapacity illusions. by their villainy, flattering themselves that a spirit so Royality had been often banished, often annihilated daring against universal morality will not be suspected in the governments of the ancients: but in our days it of imbecility in its political conceptions;-these minds, has been analyzed: and this at once destroys the efso careless of the opinion of the good, and so anxious fects of imagination. The splendor of power, the to obtain the favor of the powerful; these retailers of respect which it inspires, the pity which we feel for vice, who carp at elevated principles, and trifle with those:who lose it, when we believe they are entitled to sensibility, ought themselves to become the victims of possess it; all these sentiments act upon the mind, inthat ridicule which they prepare for others; the mask dependent of the talents of the author; and theireffect should be torn off, and they should be made the laugh- would be very much weakened in the political order ing stock of children. To direct against such charac- which I am now supposing. Already man has suffered ters, the energetic power of indignation is, in fact, to too much as man only, to feel much additional emotion do nothing; they must be deprived of that reputation for the misfortunes, and other circumstances which are for address and insolence, upon which they pride them- peculiar to the destiny of those individuals who are selves, as a compensation for the loss of esteem. possessed of dignity and power. In countries where the political institutions are ra- Nevertheless, tragedy must not be converted into a tional, ridicule ought to assume the province of con- drama: and in order effectually to avoid a fault of this tempt. Vice, however elegant, circumspect, or dex- nature, we ought carefully to study the difference of terous, ought nevertheless to be abandoned to the these two styles of writing. This difference, perhaps, sarcasms of ridicule,-the sole avenger that dares attack does not consist merely in the rank of the personage successful vice; the sole weapon that has yet the power represented, but in the grandeur of the characters, to wound, where shame and remorse are ineffectual. and the energy of the passions when properly deThe morality of the French is perverted by the ar- cribed. dent desire they feel to distinguish themselves in any Many attempts have been made to introduce on the way; but most by the brilliancy of their wit. When French stage the beauties of the English genius, and the qualities they already possess are insufficient for the effects of the German theatre; blitwlEieexcpthis purpose, they have recourse to vice in order to tion of a very small number,* these attempts have obrender themselves conspicuous: this-gives them that tained success only for the moment, and no lasting reconfident address, that assurance and firmness, at least putation; and for this evident reason, that the emotion against the misfortunes of others, which may occasion produced by tragedy, like the laughter excited by comsome illusion. Comedy ought to oppose this detest- edy is only a passing impression. If the cause of this able disposition of mind, by disappointing it of its ob- impression has not awakened in you one new idea; if ject. Indignation attacks vice as a formidable power; the tragedy at which you have shed tears, has left in comedy ought to represent it as a contemptible weak- your mind neither the remembrance of one moral obness arising from a wretched degradation of the mind. servation, nor of any novelty of situation, drawn from The literature of free countries, as I have already the impulses of the passions; the emotion which observed, has very rarely turned upon good comedy: it has excited in you is a pleasure more innocent the facility of obtaining success by allusions to the ex- certainly than that excited by the combats of glaisting circumstances of the day, and the serious con- diators, but equally unimproving to reflection and sencerns of important political interests, have by turns timent. been equally prejudicial, in various nations, to the art I have met with an observation in some German of comedy. But in France, the power of self-love is work, which appears to me perfectly just: it is, that still in such full vigor, that it will furnish for a long tragedy, when really good, ought to sirengthen the mind time to come many pleasant subjects for comedy. after having weakened it. And indeed, true greatness Horace has described the just man standing firm and of character, however heavy the calamities under which erect upon the ruins of the world: it is the same with it is represented, general y inspires the spectators with the opinion which a Frenchman entertains of himself: an enthusiastic admiration, which renders them more this survives, unmolested, all the faults that he com- capable of enduring misfortune. mits, and becomes superior to all the revolutions of for- A principle of utility is found in this style, as well as tune with which it is encompassed. While this feature in all others. What is truly great, improves the man of the French character remains uneffaced among and withont studying the rules of taste, if we feel them, their comic authors will always have some in- that aly theatrical production acts upon the characteresting subject to treat upon, and ridicule will have ter in any manner that can make it better, we may as much influence in the progress of philosophy, as rea- rest assured that it contains some marks of true geson and sentiment. Those affections which never very, properly come It is not any maxim of morality, it is the developunder the department of tragedy; whose descriptons ment of characters, and the combination of natural being chiefly of the pathetic kind, the source of its events, which produce this effect upon the stage effects are inxhaustible. Nevertheless, like all and by taking this rule as a guide, we may judge other productions of the human mind, it is modi- what foreign productions we may add to our own store. fied by social institutions and the customs dependent on them. * Ducis, in some scenes of all his productions; Ch6nier, in The subjects of the ancients and their imitators, his fourth act of' Charles IX.;' Arnault, in the fifth act of the produce less effect in a republic than in a monarchy * VWnitiens;' have introduced upon the French stage a new and remarkable sort of effect, which belongs more to the genius of the.distinctions of rank rendered the pains of misfor- the northern poets than to that of the French. UPON SOCIETY. 83 It is not enough to affect the heart; we must en- an attempt therefore must be made, under the guidance lighten the mind: and all that stage-scenery which of reason and talents, to introduce more frequently strikes the eyes only, such as tombs, executions, spec- those dramatic arts which awaken and recall individual tres, combats, &c., ought merely to be permitted as recollections: for nothing can excite such deep emotions directly conducive to the portraying of some exalted as these.* character, or some profound sentiment; all the affec- Conformity on the stage is inseparable from aristoctions of a reflecting mind have a rational object in racy in the government; one cannot be supported view. An author merits real fame only when he makes without the other. The dramatic art, deprived of all the power of emotion subservient to some great moral these factitious resources, cannot improve by any truths. means but those of philosophy and sensibility; but, The circumstances of private life suffice for the ef- with these aids, it becomes unlimited; for grief is one fect of the drama; whilst in general, it is necessary of the most powerful methods of developing the huthat the interest of nations should be included in the man mind, events that can be worthy to become the subjects of Life glides away, as it were, unperceived by the tragedy. Nevertheless, it is in lofty ideas and pro- happy; but in affliction, reflection enlarges itself to found sentiments, rather than in historical remem- search for some hope, or to discover a motive for rebrances and illusions, that we must seek for the dignity gret; it examines the past, and tries to drive into the of tragedy. future; and this faculty of observation, which, when Vauvenargue has observed, that' sublime thoughts the mind is at ease, turns entirely upon exterior objects, proceed from the heart.' Tragedy is an exemplifica- in misfortune is exercised only upon the impressions tion of this exalted truth. Fenelon has composed a we feel. The ceaseless operation of uneasiness upon piece founded upon a fact which is entirely within the the mind causes in the heart a fluctuation of ideas and province of the drama. The very name. of M. de sentiments, which agitate our internal feelings, as if Malesherbes, his noble, but dreadful destiny, would, every moment were teeming with some new event. with a serious nation, be a subject for the most affect- What an inexhaustible source of reflection does this ing tragedy in the world. Exalted virtue and extensive afford to genius. genius are the new dignities which ought to character- The rules of the tragic art are not of themselves ize tragedy, and, above all, the sentiments arising from such impediments to the subjects we may choose, as misfortune; such as, in our days, we have learned to are the difficulties attached to the exigencies of poetry. experience. What would be very sensible and true in common lanI am entirely of opinion, that the moral nature is guage, may be even ridiculous in verse: the metre, the more energetic in its expressions, than our French harmony, and the rhyme, interdict expressions which, tragedies, in all other respects admirable, have des- in such a given situation, might produce a fine effect. cribed it. The splendor derived from exalted rank, in- The conformities of the theatre are required by the troduces into tragical subjects a sort of respect which dignity of the -moral nature; poetical, conformity deprevents the characters from meeting on equal terms: pends upon the mere act of versification; and although this respect must sometimes occasion a cold manner of it may often heighten the impression made by some pecharacterizing the emotions of the soul. Expressions culiar style of beauty, it limits the bold career which veiled, sentiments restrained, and proceedings always genius, with a knowledge of the human heart, might cautious, require great talents in this peculiar style; otherwise fearlessly engage in. but the passions cannot, through all these difficulties, And in fact, we should. not think much of the grief,be represented with that heart-rending energy, that of any one who could express in verse his regret for the. deep penetration, which complete independence must loss of some friend whom he had sincerely loved. A inspire. certain degree of grief inspires a turn for poetry; one Under a republican government, the reflection must degree more destroys it. There is, therefore, undoubtbe most deeply affected by virtue; while the imagina- edly, a severity of distress, a style of truth, the effect tion will be powerfully influenced by misfortune. I of which would be weakened by being expressed in know not whether even glory, the only pomp of life poetry: there are also common circumstances in life which can be holden in any estimation by the philo- that may be rendered terrible by the power of afflicsophical mind, would effect a republican spectator so tion; but these cannot be versified and clothed in all deeply, as the representation of those emotions which the imagery which versification requires, without introcorrespond with our inmost feelings, by their analogy ducinf ideas altogether foreign to the natural chain of to human nature. sentiments. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that a That spirit of philosophy which generalizes our ideas, tragedy in prose, however eloquent its language, would together with the system of political equality, must in France excite much less admiration than the capital give'a new character to our tragedies. This indeed is pieces in verse. The merit of a difficulty overcome, no reason why historical subjects should be rejected; and the charm of an harmonious rhyme, served at once but great men ought to be portrayed with such senti- to display the double merit of the poet and the dramatic ments as may awaken in their favor the sympathy of author. The union of these two talents has been one every heart, and set off obscure facts by dignity of of the principal causes of the great difference existing character:-our nature ought to be ennobled instead between the French and English tragedy. of aiming at perfection in ideas of mere conformity. It I II -- of aiming at perfection in ideas of mere conformity. It * A French audience is not generally willing to encourage any is not the irregularity and the iiconclusiveness of the innovation in the theatrical line: justly admiring the master. English and German productions that ought to be the pieces already in its possession, any deviation from the path aobject of our imitation; but it would be a new kind of which Racine has pointed out, appears to be prejudicial to the in t1 h French theatres, as wellasinthoseof1 X.art. I do not however believe, that it is impossible to succeed in beauty in the French theatres, as well as in those ofa new track, i some effects not yet hazarded upon the stage many other nations, could they learn the art of giving were introduced with great caution aud superior talents; but if dignity to common circumstances, and to paint with we would wish this enterprise to succeed, it must be conducted by the most rigid and critical taste. A general knowledge of the simplicity events of the greatest importance. precepts of literature will be sufficient for us, if we submit to reT'he stage is real life, exalted perhaps, but still it ceived rules; but if we wish to triumph over the repugnance ought to be real life: and if the most common circum- which a French audience naturally feel towards the English or stance can serve as a contrast to great effects, we must German style, as they call it, we ought scrupulously to watch stare can serve as a contrastover even the lightest shades which the most delicate taste could know how to introduce it with propriety, in order to reprove. We should be bold in our conceptions, but prudent in enlarge the boundaries of the art without giving of- the execution of them; and in this respect follow, in literature, fence to taste. In the style of the ideal beautiful, the a principle which equally holds good in politics; the more hazardous the project altogether, the more cautions, and even timi first-rate tragedians of the French can ne ver')be equaled wLe ought to b- in the execution of each separate part. $4 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE The inferior characters of Shakspeare speak in prose; their impressions: but when the moderns imitate the his scenes of transition are in prose; and even when he ancients in this particular, we cannot be ignorant that does make use of verse, that verse being generally with- they have sought in books for resources to embellish out rhyme, does not require, as in the French language, those subjects to which sentiment alone would have an almost continual poetic splendor. I do not, how- given sufficient animation. It is always easy to distinever, recommend these prose tragedies to the imita- I guish a labored style, however dexterously an author tion of France, where the ear could hardly be recon- may seek to conceal it; and we are no longel seduced ciled to them; but the art of simple and natural versi- by that involuntary talent, if I may so express myself, fication ought to be brought to such perfection, that it which feels an emotion instead of seeking it, and abandons may not, even by poetical beauties, divert the audience itself to its impressions'instead of selecting the best from those sentiments of emotion which ought to ab- method of producing effects. The true objects of the sorb every other idea. In a word, if we would open a poetical style ought to be, to excite, by images at once new source of theatrical effects, we must find some in- novel and just, an interest in mankind to gain a knowtermediate style between the strict conformity of the ledge of those ideas and sentiments which they uncorlFrench poets, and the defective taste of the northern sciously experience: poetry ought to proceed, like writers. every thing else which is the result of reflection, in the Philosophy extends itself over all the arts of imagi- philosophical steps of its day. nation, as well as over all the works of reason; and The models of antiquity ought to be studied with a man, in this enlightened age, has no longer any curios- view to create and animate our taste and love of simity but that which respects the passions of human na- plicity; but not in order to fill modern productions with ture. Every thing external is known and considered: the ideas and fictions of the ancients: we may attempt the moral being, in his interior sentiments, remains the to mingle invention with mythological imagery, but they sole object of wonder, and can alone excite any deep will never coincide. To whatever perfection we may emotion. The style of tragedy most affecting to the carry our study of the works of the ancienrts, we can human heart, is neither that which retraces the custom- only imitate them, but are unable to create new fictions ary ideas of common life, nor that which portrays char- in their style. If we wish to equal thern, we must not acters and events as much out of nature as the marvel- exactly follow their steps: they have gathered in the ous in a fairy tale; it is that style alone which awakens harvest from their fields,-we had better reap our own. in the mind of man the purest sentiment he has ever ex- The few mythological ideas we find in the northern perienced, and recalls the feelings of an audience to the poets, are more analogous to French poetry; because noblest emotions of their past life. they are more compatible, as I have endeavored to Poetry of the imagination will make no farther pro- prove, with philosophical notions. Imagination, in the gress in France; verse will be filled with philosophical present century, cannot be assisted by illusion; it may ideas, or passionate sentiments; but the human mind indeed give exaltation to sentiments founded on fact; is so enlightened in this century, that it can no longer but it is necessary that reason should always approve admit the illusions, nor the enthusiasm, which create and comprehend what enthusiasm renders charming.* such pictures and tales as are calculated to strike the A new style of poetical composition exists in the imagination. France, indeed, has never excelled in prose works of Rousseau and Bernardinre de St. Pierre: this style of composition; and in the present times, the this arises from the observation of nature, in its relaeffect of poetry cannot be heightened but by expressing, tions to the sentiments with which it inspires man. The in the eloquent language of the French, the new obser- ancients, in personifying flowers, rivers, and trees, had vations with which time may have enriched them. lost sight of simple and natural sensations, and adopted To make use of the mythology of the ancients in in their stead brilliant chimeras: but Providence has these days, would be indeed to become childish through so closely connected physical objects with the moral old age; the poet may indulge himself in all the crea- existence of man, that nothing can be added to the tions arising from a temporary delirium; but still we study of the one, which does not at the same time lead must confide in the sincerity of his feelings. Now my- to a farther knowledge of the other. thology is to a modern neither an invention nor a senti- We cannot but call to mind the roaring of the bilment: he must search his memory for what the an- lows, the gloom of the atmosphere, and the terrified incients found in their habitual impressions. These po- habitants of the air, in the recital of the deep emotions etical forms borrowed from paganism, are, to us, only which filled the souls of Julia and St. Preux, when upon the imitation of an imitation: to use them is, indeed, the lake which they were crossing together,''their hearts to portray nature through the medium of the effect beat in unison for the last time.' which it has produced upon other men. The fertility of the Isle of France, that quick and When the ancients personified love and beauty; far multiplied vegetation prevailing within the tropics, those from weakening the idea which might be conceived of tremendous tempests which suddenly succeed to days them, they gave strength to that idea, and adapted it to of cloudless calm, are all connected in our imagination the capacities of men who had but a confused idea of with the return of Paul and Virginia; who, full of their own sensations. But the moderns have traced youth, of hope, and love, guided by their faithful negro, every emotion of the mind with such accuracy, that confidently look forward to a life of happiness in eacn they need only know how to describe them, to be at other's company, while the unseen tempest is gatheronce eloquent and energetic; and if they adopted fictions ing over their heads, which shortly after is to overwhelm anterior to this profound knowledge of nature and of man, them. their representations would become devoid at once of As soon as we banish the marvelous, we find a conenergy, gradation, and truth. nection throughout all nature; and our writings ought In the works even of the ancients how much do we to imitate its consistency and general appearance. Phiprefer their observations upon the human heart to all losophy, by still more generalizing the ideas, adds grandthe brilliancy of their most splendid fictions! The eur to poetical imagery. A knowledge of logic gives image of love, borrowing the features of Ascanius to to passion a greater facility of speech. A constant proawaken the passions of Dido, is surely less descriptive gression of ideas, an aim at utility, ought to be perof the origin of an impassioned sentiment, than those ceived in all works of imagination. We allow no relafine verses expressive of the affections and emotions tive merit, nor can we even feel an interest in difficulwhich nature has implanted in the hearts of all. ties overcome, when the mind acquires nothing from The ancients being incessantly reminded by every rrouThe ancients being incessantly reminded by every * De Lille, St. Lambert, and Fontanes, the best French poets smurounding objcct, of the gods of paganism, the re- in the descriptive style, have already approached very near to membrance and the image ofthem were blended in all the character of the English poets. UPON SOCIETY. 85 them. Human nature must either be analyzed or im- tion will not produce any great effect, unless they tend proved. Romances, poetry, dramatic productions, and to the honor and exaltation of virtue. all those writings which appear to have no other object We have attained to a period in which the character than to amuse, cannot attainBven to that without some of the people resembles, in some respects, that which philosophical tendency. Romances, containing nothing prevailed at the time of the fall of the Roman empire, but wonderful events, would be soon thrown aside.* and the invasion from the north. At that momentous Poetry also which had nothing to boast but fiction, verse epoch, the human race seemed to stand in need of enwhose harmony was its only merit, must soon become thusiasm and austerity. The more depraved the manwearisome to the mind, which is most desirous of such ners of France are in the present day, the nearer the discoveries as may lay open to view the sentiments and French approach to a disgust at vice, and the more characters of mankind. their feelings are irritated against the endless calamiThe uncontrollable passions excited by civil commo- ties arising from immortality: the restlessness which at tions, annihilate all curiosity, except that which is present torments them, will terminate in an animated awakened by those writings which penetrate into the and desided sentiment of which able writers ought to thoughts and sentiments of man, or which serve to ac- avail themselves beforehand. The period of a return quaint us with the power and the bent of the multitude. to virtue is not far distant; and the heart already pants We are curious respecting those works only, which after uprightness, although reason may not at present portray characters, and put them in action, in some have insured its triumph. shape or other; and we admire only such writings as If we would succeed in works of imagination, we may show the influence of exalted sentiment over the must offer a mild morality in the midst of rigid manheart. ners: but when the manners are corrupt, we must The celebrated German metaphysician, Kant, in his constantly hold up to view an austere morality. This search into the cause of the pleasure arising from elo- general maxim may be more particularly applied to the quence, from the fine arts, and all the finest works of age in which we live. imagination, says, that this pleasure arises from the de- So long as the imagination of a people is inclined to sire we feel to place at a greater distance the limits of fiction, every distant idea is confounded and lost in the human destiny: those limits which painfully contract whimsical flights of a creative reverie, but when all the the heart, are forgotten for a while in a vague emotion, power which is left to imagination, consists in the art or an elevated sentiment; the soul delights in the in- of giving animation to moral and philosophical truths describable sensation it feels from whatever is exalted by sentiments and descriptions; what can be drawn and sublime, and the narrow bounds of earth disappear, from such truths, that can be adapted to high-flown when the glorious career of genius and virtue is opened poetry l One boundless thought, one enthusiastic sento our view. Indeed, a man of superior mind and feel- timent which will stand the test of reason, the love of ings submits with difficulty to the shackles of life, and virtue, that inexhaustible source of all good, can at is glad to solace his melancholy imagination by mo- once bring to perfection every art, and every producmentary visions of eternity. tion of the mind; can unite in the same subject, and A disgust to life, when it does not lead to despair, in the same work, the pleasures of imagination, and but simply produces an indifference to the things of the approbation of reason. this world; such a disgust, together with a love of glory, may inspire great beauty of sentiment; every thing is viewed, as it were, from an eminence, and every object appears in a new strength of coloring. The ancients were better poets in proportion as their imagina- CHAPTER VI. tion was more captivated: amongst the moderns, the imagination ought to be as free from the illusions of hope, as reason itself; for it is thus only that a philo-OF PHILOSOPHY. sophical imagination can produce striking effects. Even when surrounded by pictures of prosperity, We must not ne weary of repeating, that philosophy some appeal to the sentiments of the heart should awaken ought to be considered only as a search into truth by us to the pensive turn of the poet. At the period in the guidance of reason; and viewed in this light, which which we live, melancholy is the genuine inspiration of is the true one conveyed by the primitive sense of the true genius: whoever is not conscious of this affection word, philosophy can be opposed only by those who of the Wnind, must not aspire to any great celebrity as admit of contradictions in ideas, or supernatural causes an author; for this is the price at which such celebrity in events. It may be justly observed, that there are must be purchased. but two methods of supporting our arguments upon exIndeed, even in the most corrupt age of the world, ternal objects-philosophy, or miracles. Now, in our considering morality only in its relation to literature, days, as we do not flatter ourselves that we shall be enit may be with truth asserted, that works of imagina- lightend by miracles; what is there we can substitute for * The romances which have of late been given to the public, philosophy? Reason, perhaps, will be the answer. But in which the aim is to excite terror by descriptions of impenetra- philosophy itself is nothing but reason generalized. We ble darkness, ancient castles, long corridors, and blasts of wind, are clever enough to raise a dispute about two similar are amongst the most useless of all productions, and conse- propositions; and we believe that wehave two distinct quently are in the end more fatiguing to the mind than any others. They are a species of fairy-tales; more monotonous ideas, becanse, by making use of equivocal terms, obindeed than the genuine ones, because they admit of fewer com- jects appear double. binations. But those romances which are descriptive of man Religious ideas are not at variance with philosophy, ters and characters, are frequently the means of conveying hey record with reason; neither cal it be more knowledge respecting the human heart, than history itself. because they record with reason; neither can it be In works of this kind, under the mask of invention, we are told contrary to philosophy to maintain those principles many things which we should never learn from history. Female which are the basis of social order; since those very writers in the present day, both in France and in England have excelled in the style of romance; because women study with principles are at unity with reason: but the partisans care, and characterize with skill the emotions of the heart. of prejudice, that is to say, of unjust claims, superstiMoreover, romances have hitherto been dedicated solely to por- tious doctrines, and oppressive privileges, endeavor traying the passion of love, with the delicate shades of which women alone are acquainted. Amongst the modern French ro to excite an mances written by female authors, we ought to distinguish with philosophy, in order that they may be enabled to sup. particular nottice, Caliste, Claire d'Albe, Adele de Senanges, port their assertion, that arguments may exist, which and especially he works of Madame de Genlis, whose skiiln the investigation of reason; truths which descriptive scenery and observation in sentiment render her dnvestigation of reason; truths whih aerving of a high rank amongst good authors. must be credited unsearched; principles which we are 86 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE compelled to admit, but must not analyze; in a word, quirements, we should think the human mind had gone a sort of exercise of the reflection which can serve back more than a century within the last tea years: only to convince us of its own inutility. For my own but the nature of those arguments which we allege in part, I confess, I shall never be able to comprehend favor even of our prejudices, is an incontestable proof by what operation of the mind we can attain the art of of the progress which reason has made amongst us. giving one half of our faculties the right of prohibiting In order to justify the various kinds of subserviency the use of the other half. If moral organization could towards which divers sentiments may lead, we have oe aptly portrayed by sensible objects, I should think recourse, at least, to general ideas; to motives drawn it would be by representing a man exerting his best from the happiness of nations, and arguments founded endeavors under the guidance of all the powers of his upon the wishes of the people. When the mind has mind and judgment, rather than by the image of a be- once taken this bent; whether it momentarily advances ing who should be laboring with one hand to fetter the or retreats, its future improving progress is secure; it other. Providence surely has not given us any moral can analyze, and therefore cannot long defend what is perception, of which we are forbidden the use; the really erroneous. At the present period, the French more the mind is enlightened, the farther it will pene- have not acquired a perfect acquaintance with political trate into the essence of things; at least, if we suffer and moral truths; but almost all parties, however op. our mental powers to be directed by a method which posite to each other, acknowledge reason as the basis can connect and guide them. This method is in it- of their discussions, and public utility as the only right self no more than the result of the most extensive hu- and sole aim of social institutions. man knowledge and reflection; it is to the study of When this generation which has suffered so many physical science that we owe that justness of discus- cruelties, shall give place to a generation that will not sion and analysis which gives us a certainty of attain- seek to be revenged on mankind for their ideas, it is ing truth when we sincerely deserve it: it is, therefore, impossible but that the human understanding should by applying as much as possible the philosophy of posi- commence a philosophical career. Let us consider this tive sciences to the philosophy of intellectual ideas, career in its proper point of view, that is, as the only that we may be enabled to make a useful progress in hope and support of the mind, ready to be precipitated that moral and political career, where passion inces- into the gulf of despair, by a painful contemplation of santly obstructs the path. the past. In the sciences, and particularly in mathematics, The philosophy of the ancients had in it more imaginaFrance can boast of the greatest men in Europe. The tion, but was less methodical than that of the moderns; civil commotions amongst the French, far from dis- it was also much less susceptible of a certain and posicouraging emulation in this line, have inspired a wish tive progress; and while it made a more lively impresto take refuge in the study of it. Inestimable advan- sion upon the mind, it was more apt to lead it astray tage of the present period! Although every moral idea by the spirit of system. be absorbed in the disorders of intestine tumult, there A chain of principles had not yet been established by yet remain some truths, whose nature is immutable, means of analysis, from the origin of metaphysical ideas and whose paths are known. Men of reflection, dis- to their indefinite term. Locke and Condillac had gusted on all sides by the follies of party-spirit, attach much less imagination than Plato; but they followed themselves to these studies: and as the power of rea- the tract of geometrical demonstration; and that son is always the same, to whatever object it may be method alone can present a regular and unbounded applied; the human mind, which would undoubtedly progress. degenerate, had it no other food than the altercation of In speaking of style, I shall examine whether it be factions, exercises itself upon the accurate sciences, not possible, if not even necessary, that an union should until it regains an opportunity of exerting the powers subsist betwixt what strikes the imagination and what of reflection upon those subjects which are connected acts upon the judgment: but at present I shall only with the glory and happiness of society. consider the possible applications and advantages that Errors of every kind, whether in politics or morals, may result from philosophy as a science. must shortly be dissipated by that prodigious assem- Descartes discovered a method of solving the probblage of knowledge and discoveries which has enlight- lems of geometry by algebra. But if, in the calculaened every subject within the limits of physical order: tion of probabilities, we might one day discover a all superstitions, prejudices, false conclusions, and in- method suitable to objects wholly moral, what an imapplicable principles, will sink into annihilation in the mense step it would be in the career of reason! presence of that calm yet decisive reason, which does A mathematical method has already been applied not concern itself, it is true, in the interests of the with success to the metaphysics of the human undermoral world, but which teaches all mankind the most standing: and it is a great triumph for philosophy, that efficacious method of proceeding in their researches into the forms of demonstration have been employed to extruth. plain the theory of intellectual faculties. For example, An examination into the actual state of mental im- what repose and happiness would it not procure to the provement, will easily prove to us that the sciences are human species, if political questions could arrive to that the only true riches. I have endeavored to show how degree of evidence and clearness, that the majority of much the general taste, with respect to literature, must mea might give their assent as to a calculated truth? have been changed in France: it is the same with pd- Without doubt, it would be very difficult to subject litics; the course of ideas having been rapidly surpassed moral combinations to the rules of calculation; all the by that of events, those ideas must become proportion- foundations ofthe exact sciences are invariable: but in ally retrograde. This is a natural effect of those pre- moral ideas every thing depends upon circumstances - cipitated institutions which are not the result of good nothing can be decided but by a multitude of different instruction, and consequently not according to the considerations, many of which are so fugitive, that they general wish. escape from the mind before they can reach the lip: If the imagination, impressed with a just horror at how much sooner, then, would they escape from calthe crimes which the French have been witnesses of, culations? Nevertheless, M. de Condorcet has clearly should attribute them to any abstract causes; it will demonstrated, in his Essay on Probabilities, that i become inveterate against principles as well as indi- would be possible to know before-hand, almost to a viduals; and this inveteracy, of which a principle per- certainty, what would be the opinions of an assembly haps is the object, will extend itself to every current upon any suibject whatever. The calculation of probawhich flows from it, how distant soever from the source. bilities, when applied to a great number of chances, Did we thus estimate the present state of mental ac- presents a result morally infallible: it serves as a guide UPON SOCIETY. 87 to all gamesters, although their object appears to be One year, all the declamation will be against the exgiven up to every caprice of hazard: and why may it ecutive power: and another year, against the legislanot have the same application to the multitude of facts tive assembly: one year, it will be against the liberty of which the science of politics is composed 1 of the press; and the next, against its subjection. The catalogue of births and deaths will present a As long as this disorder of favorable circumstances certain and invariable result, as long as there subsits a shall exiist, a happy hazard may establish, in some regular order of habitual circumstances: and the num- countries, institutions conformable to reason: but the ber of divorces, of thefts, and murders, that will be general principles of politics will not be fixed, nor will committed in a country where the population and the the application of those principles to the modifications religious and political situation remain the same, may of social order be upon a sure foundation. be calculated with the greatest precision: and thus we It is thus in America, that a great number of politisee those events, which depend upon the daily concur- cal problems appear to be solved, because the citizens rence of all the human passions, arrive as exactly et are happy and independent: but this favorable hazard their stated periods, as those that are subjected only to depends entirely upon particular circumstances, from the laws of nature. which we cannot determine before-hand, what those In calculating the proportion of ten years, it may be principles are, nor what application they are susceptible xnown exactly how many divorces have yearly taken of in other countries. place at Berne, and how many assassinations have been Neither can ihe long duration, and almost indestruccommitted at Rome: if these then can be calculated tible stability of some governments in Europe, be given to a certainty, is it not possible to prove that combina- as a proof of the progress of the human understanding in tions of the moral order are as regular as combinations politics, because supported by their power; and while of the physical order, and to form. a positive calculation maintaining a claim amongst themselves, they have sefrom those combinations cured to men some advantages of association. DesBut these calculations must be founded upon a con- potism dispenses with political science, as force disstant uniformity of the mass and not on the diversity penses with knowledge, and as authority renders persuaof particular examples; all things are different in the sion superfluous: but those means cannot be admitted moral order, if taken separately; but if a hundred when the interests of nations are discussed. Force is thousand chances are admitted, and the calculation is a hazardous combination, and destructive to every thing made from a hundred thousand different men taken that belongs to thought and argument, both of which promiscuously, you will know by a just approximation require the free exercise of liberty. what number of enlightened men, what number of vil- Despotism cannot, then, be an object for the calculains, what number of weak-minded, and what number lations of the human mind: let us therefore examine distinguished by a superior understanding, are contained the natural resources possessed by the understanding, in the whole. This calculation would be still more to avoid going astray in its progressive march; and not exact, if the interest of each class was taken into the those means of violence and brutality, which can only combination; and in joining a calculation of the know- preserve from error by stopping every progress.. ledge derived from any institution whatever, political The analyzing and uniting of ideas in rmathematical power might be founded upon a basis nearly amounting order has this inestimable advantage, that it takes from to certainty. The resistance they were to meet with, the mind even the idea of opposition. Every subject might be measured and balanced betwixt themselves that becomes susceptible of evidence, is out of the from the real action, and obstacles might be influenced dominion of the passions, which then lose the hope of from the very actions themselves. Why should we gaining the ascendency: in the moral, as well as in the Itot be enabled one day to draw up a list that would be physical order, there are already many truths beyond a solution of every political' question, from the positive the reach of their influence. facts which may be collected from each country? We Since the time of Newton, there has been no new might then be enabled to say, the administration of system upon the origin of colors, nor upon the motion such a people requires such a sacrifice of individual of the earth. Since Locke, no one talks of innate liberty: such laws, or such a government, are suitable ideas: it is now universally agreed, that all ideas are to such an empire: such a degree of strength will be;derived from the senses. But to acknowledge the evinecessary, in the executive power, for such an extent dence of political questions, is infinitely more difficult; of country: such a state of authority is proper for such the passions have their interest to render it so: there a country, and tyranny for another: such an equilibrium are, however, some even of those questions already is necessary betwixt different powers for.their mutual solved, and thus leave no farther hopes of debate to defence: such constitutions cannot maintain their the spirit of party. power; and others are despotic from necessity. These The state of slavery, the feudal system, and even examples might be prolonged; but as the real difficulty religious disputes themselves, will never again excite 3f this idea is not in the abstract conception, but to to war: the light of knowledgie is so generally unfoldapply it with precision; the indication of it will suffice. ed upon these objects, that the most vehement spirits I think they were wrong who blamed the French cannot now entertain the least hope of ever being able publicists, when they had it in view to apply calcula- again to represent them under different aspects, and to tions to politics: it was also wrong to have condemned form two parties, founded upon two different manners them for having attempted to generalize causes: but of judging and viewing the same ideas. there has often been reason to accuse them of a want The philosophers ought then, in politics, to submit of observation of those very facts which alone could to positive combination those facts that are known to have conducted to a discovery of causes. them, in order to draw a certair result from the numThe science of politics mist be created: we can only ber and nature of chances. as yet perceive at an obscure distance those principles Algebraists will not tell you that you are going to and combinations of experience which are to lead to a throw such a number; but they will calculate in how result so certain, that the concatenation of most many turns of the dice this number ought to return; sciences may be, as we may say, submitted to the evi- and will not find themselves deceived. It will be the dence of mathematical' conclusions. The elements of same'with politicians: they will be certain of a return sciences'are not fixed; what we call general ideas, are of the same events in a given time, provided the instino niore than special facts, which present only one side tutions remain the same. of'a: question,' without permitting us to see the whole. It is however true, that no calculations require a Thus each new fact gives us a new but confused im- greater multiplicity of different combinations. If the pulsion. effects of a physical experience can be desttoved, only 88 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE because a trifling degree, more or less, of heat or cold, perfect metaphysics; for argument then becomes the had been overlooked in the process; what a profound weapon of folly and criminality, the abuse of abstudy of' the human heart is necessary to determine stract forms is united with the fury of persecution; what influence should be given to government, that it and man, by a monstrous mixture, combines the should be able to enforce obedience without using the frenzy of superstition with all that is arid in philosophy means of becoming unjnst, and the action necessary to It is impossible not to feel the want of a new doctrine be employed by administration, in order to uiite the to throw a light on this frightful mass of shapeless prenation in the same spirit, without shackling the genius tences, which serves as a screen to men of false of individuals 3 How much experience is requisite to principles, the villain and the little-minded; as if transmark the exact point at which the executive power forming error into principle, and sophistry into conwould cease to be an advantage, as that in which its sequence, could change the radical fallacy of a first absence would become an evil' There is no problem assertion, and palliate the detestable effect of this composed of a greater number of terms, or in which an abominable logic' error would be productive of more dangerous conse- This new doctrine may now repose itself on a double quences. basis, morality and calculation: but this principle is inAn abstract opinion that becomes an object of fana- variable, that whenever the calculations do not agree ticism, produces in the minds of men the most remark- with morality, however incontestable their exactitude able effects: ideas diametrically opposite to each oth- may appear at first sight, their result must be erroer admitted, and exist simultaneously: the mind ad- neous. mits, one by one, every proposition, without even at- It has been said, that in the French revolution, bartempting to judge them; it then creates factitious re- barous speculators, founding their bloody laws on ports, the seeming abstraction of which pleases and mathematical calculations, had coldly sacrificed millions exalts it; for the imagination is as easily prepossessed of individuals to promote the supposed happiness of the by the abstract as by the most animated pictures of greater number. truth: the soaring of boundless'ideas is singularly These monsters of human nature might have imagitadapted to the exaltation of the mind. ed, that they could have rendered their calculations'W"hen once the dogmas on metaphysical systems more simple, by striking out sentiment, sufferings, and are adopted, people are then apt to stand up in defence recollection; but they could not have had the nmost disof everything, even of those ideas which they know to tant idea of general truths, those truths which are be false; and by a singular effect of controversy, that composed of every individual existence, and every parwhich they have supported from argument, or from ob- ticular fact. The calculation is neither good nor usestinacy, becomes at last that which they believe: and ful, till it embraces every exception and regulates every by always seeking for arguments to support one side of variety: if you suffer one single circumstance to the question, they entirely lose sight of those by escape, your result must be false; as the smallest error which they can be confuted their vanity is awaken- in arithemetic will render the solution of a problem imed and their passions exalted by the irritation which practicable. their self-love receives from contradiction; and The proof of the combinations of the mind is in the after a series of actions, at first inspired by opinion, sentiment and in the experience: argument, under their interest becomes united with the success of whatever form it may be presented, can never change that opinion, and they find themselves irresistibly nor modify the nature of things; it can only analyze pushed forward by that interest: there pass in the what already exists. interim many combats which they refuse to acknowledge It has been advanced as a mathematical truth, that even to themselves, and which they at last contrive to the smaller number ought to be sacrificed to the good stifle altogether. of the greater: but nothing can be more erroneous, The devotees carry their scruples even to their most even with regard to political combinations: for the efsecret thoughts, and finish by making a crime of those fects of injustice are such, that they must necessarily transient doubts which sometimes shoot across their disorganize a state. If you sacrifice innocence to what imagination; it is the same with all kinds of fanaticism; may be deemed the good of the nation; it is the nation itimagination is as fearful of the return of reason, as of self which you devote to destruction. From action an enemy that would trouble the good understanding to re-action, from vengeance to vengeance, the victims that existed between their chimeras and their weak- that are immolated at the pretended altar of general nesses. good, will rise again from their ashes, and emerge from Fanaticism in politics, as in religion, is agitated by their exile; and such as would have remained in obtbhose rays of truth which appear at intervals even to scurity, if justice had been exercised towards them, the firmest belief; and men persecute in others those will receive a name and a consequence from the very doubts, the very first idea of which arose in their own persecutions of their enemies. It is the same with all minds; and the faculty of belief, fantastical in its ve- political problems in which virtue is Interested; it is hemence, is irritated by its own suspicion, in place of always possible to prove, by simple argument, that the making use of it to arrive at the truth. solutions of those problems are false, if the calculation In this disposition of mind there are found. arguments recedes in the smallest degree from the laws of Irorfor every thing; the most absurd opinions, and the ality. most detestable maxims are received, when they once Morality is to be placed above calculation; for morhave acquired the form of general ideas. The contra- ality is the nature of the intellectual order: and as ic: dictions are reconciled by a sort -of geometrical logic, the physical order, all calculations take their procedure which, if not analyzed with the strictest scrutiny, is apt from the nature of things, upon which they can proto appear like the severity of reason. duce no change; so, in-the intellectual order, it should This law, (said Couthon, when he proposed that of proceed from the same point, that is to say, morality. the twenty-second Praireal,) assigns patriotic judges The cause of those absurd and atrocious errors which for the defence of the innocent; but it assigns nonefor have discredited the use of abstract ideas in politics, conspirators.' Is not every part of the doctrine in is fully exemplified by the reflection, that in lieu of this maxim perfectly correct? And yet is it possible making morality the fundamental basis and supreme to unite more atrocious absurdities in so small a cons- legislator, it was considered, at best, but as one of the pass of words. elements of calculation, and not as its constant rule This flowery style which often seduces the most up- and sometimes onry as an auxiliary, that might be modright minds, and which the strongest reason is hardly ified or sacrificed at pleasure. able to shake -i, is one of the greatest scourges of im- Let us then, in the first place, establish morality as UPON SOCIETY. 89 a fixed point; let us then subject politics to calcula- I because every thing centres in ourselves: and yet no tions that take their procedure from this point; and we one would say, Glory is my interest; heroism is my shall then see, those inconveniences which have attend- interest; the sacrifice of my life is my interest: it ed the application of metaphysics to social institutions would be degrading to virtue to tell a man it was merely and the interest of the human species, and with which his interest; for if you acknowledge that his first mothey are so justly reproached to this day, would totally tive should be honesty, you cannot surely refuse him disappear. some liberty in the judgment of his own concerns: and Politics can be submitted to calculation, because, there are various circumstances in which it is impossi1eing always applied to a community, it is founded upon ble not to believe that morality and interest are at vari general combinations which are abstract, of course; but ance with each other. How then is it possible to conmorality, the aim and end of which is the particular vince a man, that an event entirely new and unexpected conversation of the rights and happiness of each man, had been foreseen by those who had presented him with is absolutely necessary in order to force politics to re- the general rules of conduct! The rules of prudence, spect, in their general combinations, the happiness of (and virtue which is founded solely on interest, amounts individuals. Morality should direct our calculations, to no more,)-even those of its rules that are most and our calculations should direct our politics. known, are subject to a multitude of exceptions: why This place assigned to morality above calculation, is should virtue, when considered as a calculation of perequally suitable both to public and private morals: it is sonal interest, be exempted. There remains, then, no to the omission of it, in the first case, that we are to method of proving that virtue is always in unison with ascribe those innumerable evils, the fatal effects of our interest, except that of returning to the idea of which we have so cruelly experienced. The rendering placing the happiness of man in the peaceful security public morality subordinate to that which it ought itself of his own conscience; which simply signifies, that the to hold in subjection, has often been the ruin of thou- interior enjoyments of virtue are preferable to all the sands of individuals, under pretence of promoting the advantages of egotism. general good. There are likewise certain philosophical It is not true, however, that personal interest is the systems, which threaten private morals with the like most powerful spring of the actions of mankind: for degradation. The completion of every thing must ul- pride, vanity, anger; self-love, and a variety of other timately be submitted to virtue: and although virtue is circumstances, will easily make them sacrifice this insusceptible of a demonstration founded on the calcula- terest; and inr virtuous minds, there exists a principle tion of usefulness; yet this calculation is not sufficient to of action totally different from any single calculation serve it for a basis. As virtue has to encounter nu- whatever. merous obstacles, she has received from nature a vari- I have attempted in this chapter to develop how imety of supports. portant it is to submit all the ideas of the human mind The sciences of morality are only susceptible of the to mathematical demonstration: but although this kind calculation of probabilities: and this calculation can of proof may be applied to morality, it is to the princionly be founded on a very great number of facts, of ples of life that it is more peculiarly attached: its imwhich the approximate result has previously been ex- pulsion precedes every kind of argument. The same amined. As the science of politics is only applicable creative power which sends back the blood towards the to men when united in a community, the probabilities heart, inspires courage and'sensibility, two sensations in that science may almost amount to certainties, through and two enjoyments wholly moral; the empire of which the multitude of chances from which they are taken: you totally destroy, if you analyze them by personal inand the institutions established on this foundation, ap- terest, as you would destroy the charms of beauty by plying likewise of themselves to the happiness of the describing it as an anatomist. multitude, cannot miss their aim. But morality in- The elements of our being, pity, courage, and hucludes each man individually, each fact, and each cir- inmanity, act within us before we are capable of any calcurustance: and although'a great majority of circum- culation. In studying the various parts of nature, we stances prove that a virtuous conduct is the best regard must necessarily suppose some endowments anterior to the interests of this life; yet it cannot be affirmed, to the search of man. The impulse of virtue must that there are no exceptions to this general rule. ever take place of reasoning. Our organization, and If, then, you wish to submit those exceptions to the the developments which the habits of infancy give to same laws; if you wish to inspire each man individu- that organization, are the true causes of whatever is ally with morality, in whatever situation he may be; great in human actions, of the delights which the mind you will find for each individual an animating and con- experiences in doing good. The religious ideas which stant supply, which is renovated every day, yea every pure minds are so fond of indulging, animate and conmoment. secrate this spontaneous elevation, and are the noblest The moral alone, of all the human thoughts, is that and surest guarantees of morality.' In the breast of which stands in need of any other regulator than rea- a virtuous man (says Seneca) there resides a god; but son: all the ideas that inflame the destiny of divers I am ignorant what god.' If this sentiment were transmen at the same time, are founded on their personal lated into the language of the most enlightened egotism, interests: yet if we were to give to each man his own what effect would it produce! personal interest for the guide of his conduct; even It might be said, that this mode of expression beif this guide did not lead him astray, it would al- longs entirely to the imagination, and that the real sense ways result, that the effects of this principle would be of this idea, as of every other, is submitted to argument. to dry up the source of every great and generous Doubtless, reason is the faculty that judges all the other action. faculties: but it is not reason that constitutes the idenDoubtless, it must appear that morality is always tity of the moral being. If we study ourselves, we conformable to the interests of mankind: but to give it shall find that the love of virtue precedes the faculty of this sort of motive for a point of support, is to deprive reflection; that this sentiment is intimately connected the mind of the energy necessary for the sacrifices re- with our physical nature; and that its impressions are quired by virtue. often involuntary. Morality must be considered in There is no reasoning, however subtile, that can man, as an inclination, as an affection, the principle of represent a generous act of self-devotion as a regular which is inherent in himself, and which is guided by his egotism: to do this, the grammatical acceptation of judgment. This principle may be strengthened by the word must be adopted in preference to the senti- whatever enlarges the mind and expands the inteilect. ment which it revives in the hearts of those who listen There certainly exists a method of improving even to it. Every thing brings us back to our own interest, Li:i theory of morality Itself, by caiculatlon and reqee. 90 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE tion: but that method, though useful when considered or his sentiments, but modifies his whole being. Let only as an auxiliary, becomes insufficient and fatal, if us, then, examine what style is most proper for philowe attempt to substitute it in the place of sentiment, sophical minds under a free government. as it would contract the limits of morality, instead of The images, the sentiments, and the ideas, repreextending them. sent the same truths to man under three different forms: Philosophy, among its observations, recognizes primi- and yet there subsist the same connections and the tive causes, pre-existing energies: and in the number same consequences in these three provinces of the unof these, virtue must certainly be counted. Virtue is derstanding. WVhen you discover a new idea, you will the offspring of creation, and not of analysis: it ap- find in nature some image that will serve to depict it, peared almost at the same time with that instinct which and in the heart, a sentiment that corresponds, by a reprompts us to self-preservation: and compassion for semblance which reflection callses you to discover. No others developes itself almost as soon as the dread of writer can carry conviction and enthusiasm to any high any ill that might happen to ourselves. I shall cer- degree, till he has acquired the knowledge of touching tainly not disavow what the wisdom of philosophy may those three chords at the same time, the unison of add to the morality of sentiments: but as we should which is no other than the harmony of the creation. do an injury to national love in believing it to be only It is from the more or less perfect combination o. the result of reason, we must select in every virtue the means of influencing the sentiments, the imaginawhat is purely natural, and reserve to ourselves after- tion, or the judgment, that we may appreciate the merit wards to throw a new light upon the best manner of di- of different authors, There is no style worthy of recting its spontaneous movements. praise, if it do not contain two out of those three quaPhilosophy may discover the cause of the sentiments lities, which, when united, form the perfection of the which we experience; but it should only follow the art of writing. course which those sentiments mark out for it. Instinct Fine conceptions, subtile ideas which do not connect and reason teach us the same moral: thus Providence themselves with the great chain of general truths, and has twice repeated certain important truths to man, that ingenious relations which exercise the genius to detach they may not be lost to him when they especially con- itself from the mind instead of applying to it for its cern his welfare, nor elude his diligent researches. principal support, can never place an author in the first The man who loses himself in physical sciences, is rank. re-conducted into the path of truth, by the applications If you particularize your ideas over-much, they slide he is to make of his combinations with material facts: into mere images and sentiments which conglomerate but the man who devotes himself to the abstract ideas instead of separating. Neither are abstract combinaof which the moral sciences are composed, how can he tions which sentiment repels, and which exhaust the be assured that his conceptions will be either good or imagination, more congenial to this universal nature, just in the execution? How can he dispense with the the sublimity of which is to be represented by the beauknowledge of experience, and carry his views towards ties of style. Images that throw no light on any idea, futurity with any degree of certainty. It can only be are no more than whimsical phantoms, or simply picdone in subjecting reason to morality; without which tures of amusement: sentiments that awake no moral nothing can subsist, nothing can prosper in opposition idea, no general reflection, are most certainly affected, to its injunctions. The consolotary idea of an eternal and can answer to nothing real in any style. Providence can fill the space of every other reflection; Marivaux, for example, presented always the studied but we must be on our guard, and distrust even mo- side of the discoveries of the mind: his writings posrality itself, when it refuses to acknowledge a GoD for sessed neither philosophical ideas, nor lively descripits author. tions. It is impossible that sentiments which do not proceed from just ideas, can be susceptible of natural images. Those thoughts that may be offered under the double aspect of sentiment and imagination, are the CHAPTER VII. first of the moral order: but when the ideas are too much refined, they have no terms of comparison in aniI-OF THE STYLE OF AUTHORS, AND THAT OF MAGISTRATES. mated nature. In the positive sciences, you only need abstract Before the career.of philosophical ideas had excited forms; but when you treat upon other philosophical'the emulation of enlightened men in France, those subjects, you must remain where you can make use at works in which questions of literature and morality once of reason, imagination, and sentiment; faculties were discussed, when they were written with elegance, that all combine, by different means, to the developsublimity, and correctness, were holden -in the highest ment of the same truths. estimation. Before the revolution, there existed a Fenelon joins soft and pure sentiments to the images number of writers who had acquired a prodigious repu- that properly belong to them: Bossuet unites philotation, without ever considering objects in a general sophical ideas with those pictures that command repoint of view, in carrying the ideas, both moral and po- spect. Rousseau combines the passions of the heart litical, entirely to literature, instead of subjecting litera- with the natural effects which produce them: Montesture to the ideas of morality and politics. quieu, in his dialogue of Eucrate and Sylla, comes It is impossible, at this time, to feel any great de- very near to uniting all the qualities of style, connecgree of interest for writings which are only ingenious, tion of ideas, the profundity of sentiment, and the force and do not embrace the whole of the subjects on which of imagery. There are found in those dialogues all they treat, never exhibiting them but on one side, and the grandeur and elevation of fine ideas, with as much by such particulars as are no way connected with the of the figurative as is necessary to the complete developfirst ideas, nor the profound impressions of which the ment of philosophic conception. We do not feel. nature of man is composed. while perusing the beautiful pages of Montes.quieu, that The style must necessarily have undergone some tenderness which an impassioned eloquence ought to changes from the revolution which has taken place in give birth to, but the sensation caused by what is truly the minds of men, as well as in institutions; for style, admirable in every style: it is that kind of emotion felt not consisting in the giammatical turning of a period, by strangers on entering St Peter's, at Rome; where cannot be looked upon as a single form, but as closely every instant they discover some new beauty that abconnected with the ideas and nature of the mind. sorbs, as we may say, the striking effect of the whole. Style in writing, is like the character of a man; and Malbranche endeavored to combine ideas with images, this character cannot be a stranger either to his opinions in his Essay on Metaphysics: but as his ideas wer UPON SOCIETY. 91 not founded on truth, we can but very imperfectly dis- events; which I propose to discuss in speaking cC elocover the union he wished to establish between them quence. and his brilliant images. Garat, in his Lessons to the When philosophy makes a new progress, style must Normal Schools, is a model of perfection in that style: necessarily proceed on to perfection. The literary and Rivarol, in spite of some studied expressions, principles that may be applied to the art of writing, makes you perfectly conceive the possibility of this have been almost all developed; but the know itdge perfect harmony, between the images drawn from na- and study of the human heart ought each day to add to ture, and the ideas which serve to form the chain of the sure and rapid means which have effect upon the principles and their deductions in the moral order. mind. Every time that an impartial public are not Who can tell to what length this power of analysis moved and persuaded by a discourse, or a work, the may be carried, which, when united to imagination, so fault must lie in the author: but it is almost always to far from being destructive to any thing, adds new life what he is deficient in as a moralist, that his fault as a to every thing, and, imitating nature, concentrates the writer must be attributed. divers elements of life in the same focus 1 It often happens in society, when listening to those A work upon the principles of taste, upon music, or who have the desire of persuading their auditors of painting, may become a work of philosophy, if it be their sensibility, or their virtue; that we cannot help addressed to man altogether; if it excite in his breast remarking how little they have observed that nature, those sentiments and thoughts which aggrandize every whose characteristic signs they wish to imitate: and question; while a discourse upon the most important authors are for ever falling in the same error, when interests of human society, may fatigue the mind, if it they wish to develop moral truths or profound senticontain nothing but mere circumstances, or if it pre- ments. Doubtless, there are some subjects in which sent important subjects crowded into a narrow compass, art cannot supply what is really experienced by nature; and does not carry the mind to general considerations but there are others which might be handled with sucby which it is interested. cess, if profound reflections were first made upon the The charm of style dispenses with the efforts re- impressions that are experienced by the greater part of quired by the conception of abstract ideas; figurative mankind, and the means of giving birth to them. expressions rouse every spark of life within; and an It is the gradation of terms, the agreement and animated picture encourages you to pursue a long choice of suitable words, the rapidity of certain forms, chain of ideas and arguments. There is no longer any the development of certain motives, or lastly, the style occasion to struggle with absence of mind, when the itself perhaps, which actuate the opinions, and insinuimagination is captivated; it commands of itself the ate themselves into the persuasion of men. An expower of attention. pression which at the bottom changes nothing of the If works purely literal do not contain that sort of idea, but which has not a natural application, must beanalysis which aggrandizes every object it compre- come an object of speculation to most readers. Too hends; if it does not characterize the particulars with- strong an epithet may entirely destroy the effect of an out losing sight of the whole; and if they do not argument founded on truth; and the slightest shade prove at the same time their knowledge of men, and may entirely turn aside the imagination that was protheir study of life; they must appear but as works of posed to follow you. An obscurity in the arrangepuerility. In a free country, when a man renders him- ment, which reflection might easily have penetrated, self remarkable by his writing, it is required that he takes away, all at once, the interest you have inspired. should indicate, in those writings, the important quali- In short, style requires some of those qualities that are ties that the nation may one day claim from some one necessary to govern mankind: we must know their of her citizens, of whatever class or denomination: faults, sometimes spare, and sometimes subdue them; but a work that is not philosophically written, may class but the utmost care must be taken to guard against that its author among artists, but can never elevate him to pride which, inciting men to accuse a nation rather the rank of thinkers. than themselves, refuse to admit the general opinion, Since the revolution, the French have launched into as the supreme judge of their talents. a fault that is particularly destructive to the beauties of Ideas in themselves are independent of the effects style: they wished, by employing new verbs, to abridge which they produce: but the aim of style being preall their phrases, and render all their expressions ab- cisely to engage mankind to adopt the ideas which it struse:* but nothing can be more contrary to the expresses; if the author does not obtain his aim, it is talent of a great writer. Concision does not consist because his penetration has not yet discovered the road in the art of diminishing the number of words: much which leads to the secrets of the heart, and the princiless does it consist in the privation of images. The ples of judgment; which he must first become master concision which we should be ambitious of attaining, of himself, in order to influence the opinion of others. is such a one as that of Tacitus, which is at once both It is in this style, above all, that we may remark that eloquent and energetic: —energy, so far from being grandeur of soul which distinguishes the character of the prejudicial to that brevity of style we so justly admire, man in the writer. The purity and grandeur of the that figurative expressions are those by which the language add greatly to the consideration of those who greater number of ideas are retraced in the smallest govern, particularly in a country where a political compass. Neither can the invention of new words equality is established. Real dignity of language is contribute towards perfection of style. Masters of the the best method of pronouncing all moral distinctions: art may secure the reception of a few when they are it also inspires a respect that improves those who exinvoluntarily created by a sudden impulse of thought; perience it. In short, it is possible that the art of but in general, the invention of words is a sure symp- writing may one day become one of the principal tom of a sterility of ideas. When an author permits powers of a free state. himself to make use of a new word: the reader, who When the first legislators of a country are possessed is not accustomed to it, stops to judge it; and this of this power, it forms of itself an union betwixt those breaking in upon the attention hurts the general and who govern and those who are governed. Doubtless, continued effect of the stvie. actions are the best guarantees for the morality of All that has been said of bad taste, may be equally mankind: nevertheless, I believe there exists an acapplied to the faults of the language which has been cent in words, and, of course, a character in the forms employed by many writers, for these ten years past. of style, which attests the qualities of the mind with Nevertheless, there are some of those faults which more certitude than even actions themselves. This more particularly belong to the influence of political sort of style is not an art that may be acquired by the * Utiliser, activer, prtciser, &c. understanding; it is the real exhibition of the heart. Z 92 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE Men of imagination, by transporting themselves into that was attempted to rouse in them the wished forenthe character of another, may discover what that other thusiasm; but enthusiasm was farther from reviving might have said: but when they speak in their own than ever, though dften having been solicited in vain. character, it is their own sentiments which appear, even I think I may venture to affirm, that my father was in defiance of their efforts to conceal them. There the first, and hitherto one of the most perfect models never existed an author who, in speaking of himself, of the art of writing, for a man in a public capacity: knew how to give an idea superior to the truth. A he possessed in full the talent of appealing to the opinword, a false transition, an exaggerated expression, ions of mankind, and making them serviceable to the reveals what they most wish to conceal. support of government, and of re-animating the princiIf a man of great talents as an orator, was accused, ples of morality in the breasts of mankind; a power, of and had to plead his own cause before a tribunal; it which the magistrates ought to look upon themselves would be easy to judge, by his manner of defence, as the representatives; a power, which alone can give whether he was innocent or guilty, every time that them the right of demanding any sacrifice of the nation. words are called in testimony. It is not possible to In spite of our losses of every kind, since the time of take from language that character of truth implanted M. Necker, there exists a visible progress in the lanby nature: it is no longer a deceptive art; what they guage used by the chiefs of government: they have feel, escapes in a thousand different ways from what called reason to their discussions, and sometimes senthey relate. timents: but even then, they appear to me much inThe virtuous man has a proof of his innocence ferior in precise eloquence, to M. Necker. which the wicked cannot deprive him of; it is a mark When once the power of words is admitted into poset upon him by his Creator, which his fellow-men litical interests, they become of the highest importance cannot misconstrue. The calm and dignified expres- in those states where despotic law strikes silently on sion of an elevated sentiment, the clear and simple the heads of individuals; the first consideration is then manner of announcing a fact, that style of reason which precisely, that silence which leaves the supposition of belongs only to virtue, cannot be counterfeited: this everything to hope or fear. But when the government language is not only the result of virtuous sentiments, enters with the nation into the examination of its interbut they are also forcibly inspired by it. ests, the grandeur and the simplicity of the expressions The noble and simple beauties of certain expres- which they employ, are the only means of gaining them sions command respect even from those who pronounce the esteem and confidence of the multitude. them; and among other woes attached to self-con- Certainly, all the great men we are acquainted with, tempt, we must also add the loss of this language, have not distinguished themselves as writers; but there which causes the most exalted and pure emotions to are very few who have not exercised the empire of those who are worthy of using it. words: all the grand discourses and celebrated expresThis style of the mind, if I may thus express myself, sions of the heroes of antiquity are models of style; is one of the greatest supports of a free government; they are expressions which were inspired by genius or it arises from such a train of sentiments as must be in by virtue, which talent has collected or imitated. The concordance with those of every honest man, and from laconism of the Spartans, and the energetic expressions such a confidence and respect for the public opinion, of Phocion, harmonized as well, and often better, than that it is a certain proof of much present happiness, and the most regularly sustained discourses, the necessary a sure guarantee of much happiness to come. attributes of the power of language: this manner of When an American, in announcing the death of expression acted on the imaginations of the people, General Washington, said,' Divine Providence hath characterized the motives of the actions of government, been pleased to withdraw from the midst of us this man, and set forth in a conspicuous manner the sentiments the first in war, the first in peace, and the first in the of the legislators. affections of his country!' what sentiments, what ideas Such are the principal aids that political authority are recalled to the mind by those expressions! Does can derive from the art of speaking to mankind; such not this acknowledgment of divine Providence indicate, are the advantages which may be secured to order, to that, in this enlightened country, no ridicule is thrown morality, and to the public spirit, by the measured, soupon religious ideas, nor on those regrets expressed in lemn, and occasionally affecting style of those men who the tenderness of the heart. This simple encomium on a are called to the government of the states. But this is great man, and the gradation which gives for the last as yet only one point gained of the power of language; term of his glory,' the affections of his country,' conveys and the boundaries of the career we now run, will long to the heart a deep and tender emotion. recede before us: we shall see that power rise to a How many virtues, in fact, are comprehended in the much higher degree, if we contemplate it when defendlove of a free nation for their first legislator! for a man ing liberty, protecting innocence, or struggling with who, after twenty years of unblemished reputation in a oppression; if, in one word, we examine it in the appublic character, became, by his own choice, a private pearance of eloquence. individual! It appears as if he had only traversed the fields of power, in the journey of life, as a road that led to retirement; a retirement honored by the most noble, elevating, and pleasing recollections! ~ CHAPTER VII1. Never, in any crisis of the French revolution, was there to be found a man who could have spoken the OF ELOQUENCE. language of which I have recited the above few remarkable words; but in every report that hath reached us In free countries, the political destiny of nations of the connection that subsisted between the American being decided by their own will, men seek and acquire legislators and the citizens, there are to be found this in the highest degree, the means of influencing that purity and grandeur of style, which can only be inspired will; and the first of all is eloquence. Efforts of all by the conscience of an honest man. kinds acquire strength in proportion as they are recomEvery pure government is called, by the form of in- pensed; and when power anld honor are holden out by stitutions, to develop and comment upon the motives government as a reward of genius; those who are of its resolves. When, in the mommnt of peril, the worthy of obtaining the prize, are not tardy ill presentFrench legislators addressed the people in those elo- ing themselves to demand it. Emnulation will develop quent phrases which they were accustomed to use talents, which would have remail;ed unltnown in a state among themselves, they produced no effect on the where nro remuneration could be offered worthy of the mind of a public weakened by every ineffectual effort acceptance of a great mind. UPON SOCIETY. 93 Let us, neverthelesss, examine the reason, why, honored the heart. There is no variety but in nature; since the first years of the revolution, eloquence in and new ideas can only be inspired by just sentiments. France has been altered so much for the worse, instead What effect could be produced by that monotonous of following its natural progress in the deliberating violence, that power of words, which left the mind so assemblies; let us examine how it may revive and langoid. It is time you should be acquainted with the come to perfection; and conclude by a general real truth. The nation was buried in a slumber worse observation upon its utility towards the progress than that of death; but the representatives of the nation of the human understanding and the support of liberty. were there. The people are at last aroused from their Energy in discourse cannot be separated from mea- lethargy, 4-c. Or, in other words, the time of abstracsure. If every thing is permitted, nothing can produce tions is past; social order is re-seated on its basis, 4-c. any great effect. To treat moral confederations with I must stop here, or this imitation would become as caution, is to respect talents, services, and virtues; it tiresome as the reality itself: but there may be extracis to honor, in each man, the rights which his life has ted from journals, from discoursesd and addresses, given him to the public esteem. If you confound by a numberless pages in which we may see words without gross and scrupulous equality what distinguishes the thoughts, without sentiment, and without truth; it inequality of nature; the social state would resemble was a kind of litany as if they wished to exercise the confusion of a battle, in which nothing is to be eloquence and reason, by a certain number of set heard but the shouts of war or fury. What power then phrases. remains to eloquence, and what means can it employ What talent could rise through expressions so abto strike the mind by new ideas or happy expressions, surd, insignificant, false, exaggerated, and vulgar? How by the contrast of vice with virtue, or by praise or blame was it possible that the mind should not be hardened distributed by the hand of justice? In that chaos of against words by such a number of untruths. How sentiment and ideas that existed for some time in France was it possible to convince reason, fatigued by error, no orator could flatter by his esteem, or dishonor by and rendered suspicious by sophisms? Individuals of his contempt: as no man at that time could be either the same party, united by the most important interest, honored or degraded. were accustomed, in France, to look upon discourses In such a state of affairs, what could it avail to ac- only as the order of the day, that was to rally soldiers cuse or defend? Where was the tribunal that could serving under the same banner. It would have been absolve or condemn. What was there that was im- less burdensome to the mind, and eloquence would possible? or what was there that was certain? If you not have been entirely lost, if they had contented them. were audacious, whom would you astonish? and if you selves by commanding in their deliberations, as in batwere peaceable, who would notice it? Where is the tle, by a simple sign of the will. dignity; if nothing is in its proper place? What diffi- But in France, force, while having recourse to terculties are there to overcome, if there exists no obsta- ror, wished, nevertheless, to patch up a species of argucle! But, above all, what monument can be erected mentation; and vanity, uniting itself to vehemence, without a basis? Praise and abuse may be distributed was eager to justify by discourse, the most absurd docin every direction, without creating either enthusiasm trines and unjustifiable actions. But to whom were or hatred. It was no longer known what was to fix those discourses addressed? Not to the victims; it the esteem of man: calumny commanded by the spirit would have been difficult to have convinced them of the of party, and praises excited by terror, rendered usefulness of their misfortunes: it could not have been every thing doubtful; and words, wandering from to the tyrants; for they were not to be brought to a reason, struck upon the ear without aim or effect. decision even by the arguments which they themselves When Cicero defended Murena against the authority made use of: and it could not have been to posterity, of Cato, he was eloquent, because he knew how to whose inflexible judgment is formed on the nature and honor the virtues, while opposing the authority of a man consequence of things. But their aim was to avail like Cato. But in our assemblies, where every kind of themselves of political fanaticism, and to blend, under invective was admitted; who would have noticed the certain heads, the truth of some principles with the delicate shades in the expressions of Cicero 1 or who most iniquitous and ferocious consequences that might would think of imposing an useless restraint upon him- be drawn from them by the passions; and thus to create self, when no one would understand the motive, or re- a reasoning despotism, mortally fatal to the empire of ceive the impression? The voice of a senator shouting knowledge. from the tribunal, Cato is a revolutionary, a stipendiary The voice of truth, which conveys to the mind such of our enemies; I require that the death of this exalted and pleasing sentiments, and those just and noculprit should satisfy the national justice; would ble expressions of a heart at ease and of a character soon have made them forget the eloquence of Cicero. without reproach, were no where to be heard; it was In a country where the ascendancy of moral ideas is not known to whom, or to what opinion they were to annihilated, the mind can only be moved by the fear of be addressed, or under what roof they would have dissolution: words, it is true, still retain the power of been listened to: and that pride which was the naa destructive weapon; but all intellectual force is tural inheritance of a Frenchman, induced them rather gone; they are dreaded as a danger, but not as an in- to be silent than to exhaust themselves in useless sult; they can no longer injure the reputation of any efforts. one. This multitude of calumnious writers blunt even The first of moral truths is that also which is most the resentment which they inspire, and successively fruitful in eloquence: but when a licentious philosophy take their power from every expression they make use delights to debase, in order to confound every thing; of. A delicate mind experiences a sort of disgust for a what virtue can be honored by your voice? what brillanguage, the expressions of which are found in the liancy can you throw upon any object in this universal writings of such men. A contempt of confederation darkness of the mind? or how will you raise enthusiasm deprives eloquence of every effect that is connected ih men who have nothing to hope and nothing to fear with wisdom, sobriety and the knowledge of man- from the voice of fame; and who did not recognize, kind; and reasoning can have no empire in a even amongst themselves, the same principles as judges country where they disdain even the appearance of of the same actions 1 truth. Morality is inexhaustible in sentiments, and fruitful In many periods of the revolution, the discourses in ideas for the man of genius, who can penetrate into were filled with the most abominable sophisms: the and avail himself of them. What was deerned a divine party phrases which the orators repeated, with the de- spirit by the ancients, was doubtless the consciousness sire of excelling each other, fatigued the ear, and dis- of virtue in the mind of the just, the power of truth 94 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE united to a talent of eloquence. But in our days, how steady coolness of vice? could they raise a blush in the many men shrink from morality, lest they should find cheeks of those on whom the presence of an honest in it the accuser of their own lives! how many others man has no effect? Tell those quiet possessors of the will admit no general ideas, till they have compared enjoyments of life, that their interest is at stake; and them with their own private actions and interest! and, you will disquiet their impassibility: but what can they again, how many, though inapprehensive on their own learn from eloquence It would draw upon them the accounts, dare not speak with enthusiasm of justice and contempt of virtue. Alas! have they not known for equity, through fear of galling the recollection of some a long time past, that each one of their days is covered of their auditors, and try to present morality sideways with opprobrium? Would you address yourself to as it were, to give it the form of public utility, to throw men eager in the pursuits of fortune, new as they are a veil upon principle, and to make an agreement with to the habits and the enjoyments which it permits 3 If pride and remorse at the same time, which mutually you could for a moment inspire them with a noble dewarn each other of their irritable interest. sign, they would be deficient in the courage necessary Crimes may cloud the judgment, and turn reason to put it into execution. Would you attempt to preach aside by the force of vehemence; but virtue would not benevolence to hatred and ill-will. You would find dare entirely to unveil herself: though it might wish to yourself equally repulsed. If, indeed, you speak in the convince, it would fear to offend: and it is morally im- name of power; you will be heard with respect, whatpossible for any one to be eloquent, while he is obliged ever may be your language: but if you put in your to abstain from truth. Those barriers that are imposed claim for the weak; if your generosity has made you by respectable convenience, as I have already observed, prefer the cause forsaken by favor and adopted by huare useful even to the successes of eloquence: but manity; you will excite nothing but the resentment of when, by condescension for injustice or egotism, the the predominant faction. You live in an era in which movements of an elevated mind must be repressed; misfortune excites nothing but indignation, and oppreswhen not only facts and their application must be sion nothing but contempt; where anger is inflamed by avoided, but even the general considerations that might the aspect of the vanquished; where tenderness is' offer to the imagination all ideas of truth, and all energy moved, or men exult in power, as soon as it happens arising from sentiments of honesty; no man subjected that they are to become sharers therein. to such restraints, can be eloquent; and the esteemed What would become of eloquence in the midst of orator who is compelled to speak under such circum- such sentiments as these; eloquence, which, to be afstances, naturally chooses those phrases that have been fecting and sublime, must have some peril to brave, most used, upon which the experience of the passions some unfortunate to defend, and glory holden up as the has been already made, and which having been ac- reward of courage! Can it thus make its appeal to knowledged inoffensive, pass through the rage of fury the nation? Alas! has not this unfortunate nation without exciting it. heard the.names of every virtue prostituted in the deFactions are also serviceable to the progress of elo- fence of crimes? Is it possible it could yet recognize quence, while they stand in need of the opinion of im- the voice of truth? The most respectable of our citipartial men, and whilst they dispute betwixt themselves zens repose in the tomb; and the multitude which re the voluntary assent of the nation: but when political main, live neither for enthusiasm, for morality, nor for movements have arrived at that term where force only glory; they live for repose, which is almost equally can decide between the parties; what assistance they disturbed by the fury of crimes, and the generous flights receive from words, of the resources of discussion, of virtue. serve only to the degradation of the mind and the de- These objections might for some time damp the most struction of eloquence, instead of developing it: to sanguine hopes, and discourage expectation; neverthespeak in the midst of unjust power, is to impose on less, it appears to me impossible but that what there is self the most complete servitude. Every absurdity of good in us, should at last acquire an ascendency; must be supported that forms the long chain which con- and I shall ever believe that the orators or the writers ducts to criminal resolutions; and the character would, are in fault, when a discourse pronounced in the midst if possible, retain more integrity after having committed of a great number of men, or a book that has the puba blameable action inspired by passion, than after one lic for its judges, produces no effect. of those discourses in which meanness and cruelty are Doubtless, if you address yourself to a few individudistilled, drop by drop, with a sort of art which they in als who are united by one common interest, or one a manner forced themselves to render ingenious. common fear; it is certain that no talents can influBut how shameful, how degrading to human nature, ence them: in their hearts the natural sources have long to prostitute sense in support of rigor and oppression! been dried up, which the voice of a prophet could draw How shameful to feel a self-loVe, when all pride is even from a stone. But when you are surrounded by a lost! and to think of personal success in sacrificing the multitude that contains all the different elements; if life and happiness of others! to employ in the service you speak to human nature, it will answer you; if you of unjust power that sort of talent devoid of conscience, possess the secret of giving that electrical commotion, which, like the satellites of force, lend to men in power the principles of which are likewise contained in the ideas and expressions, which they employ as forerun- moral being, you need no more be afraid of the coolners of authority to clear the way before injustice! ness of indifference; the mockery of injustice, the calNo one will attempt to maintain, that eloquence has culations of egotism, or the ridicule of the envious; all not entirely changed its nature for some years back: that multitude is your own: should they escape from but many affirm, that it is impossible it should ever re- the beauties of the tragic art, the divine sounds of cevive, and again acquire any perfection: while others lestial music, or the enthusiasm inspired by the songs pretend, that the talent of oratory is destructive to the of warriors, they may still be captivated by reason: repose, and even to the liberty of the nation. These should the mind feel the want of exaltation, seize the two errors I shall attempt to refute. inclination, inflame the desire, and you will carry the It may be asked, What ground of hope have you, opinion. that eloquent men should make themselves heard? Elo- If we call to mind the cold and phlegmatic countequence cannot compose itself of moral ideas or virtuous nancgs that we meet in the world, I own that it seems sentiments: and what hearts would now be opened to next to an impossibility to move their hearts; but the sentiments of generosity 3 After ten years of revolu- attention of the greater part of those men who are tion, who would be moved by virtue, delicacy, or bounty? known, is taken up by their past actions, their present If Cicero and Demosthenes, the greatest orators of an- interest, or in politics. But contemplate a crowd; tiquity, existed in these days, could they agitate the how many features will you discover whose mild and TTPON SOCIETY. 95 friendly expression presages a heart not yet known, a which adds another degree of profundity and eloquence heart that would understand your own, and coincide to their language. with your sentiments! This multitude is the true This character of melancholy, which will be more representative of the nation. You must forget what and more developed by the subsequent ages, may give you know and what you fear, from such and such men, a very great character to eloquence. The man who is and give yourself entirely up to your own ideas and ardent in his wishes; if he is endowed with a superior emotions; and in spite of every obstacle, you will draw genius, constantly feels himself above the aim he is in after you every free affection, and every mind that has pursuit of; and this idea, vague and gloomy, renders not received the impression of some yoke, or the price the expression at once affecting and imposing. But if of servitude. moral truths should ever arrive to demonstration, and But by what means can we flatter ourselves that we the language that is to express them, nearly to a mathshall be enabled to bring eloquence to perfection, if it ematical precision; what will become of eloquence 1 be true that we yet hope for success? Eloquence, be- All that belongs to virtue, would certainly be derived longing more to sentiment than to ideas, appears less from another source, and be founded on another princisusceptible of an indefinite progress than philosophy: ple than that of reasoning; and yet with all this, elonevertheless, as new sentiments are developed by new quence will always reign in the empire which it ought ideas, the progress of philosophy ought to furnish elo- to possess. It is true, it would not be exercised any quence with new means of bringing itself to perfection. more in political sciences where there are abstract ideas Intermediate ideas may be traced in a more rapid of any kind; but it would be still more respected, as manner, when the concatenation of a great number of it could not be represented as dangerous when concentruths is generally understood: the mind may con- trated in its natural focus, in the power of sentiment stantly be sustained in the regions of thought, and in- upon the mind. terested by moral reflections that are universally under- There has been for some time past an absurd system stood without having been rendered common. What established with regard to eloquence; struck with the is sublime in some of the ancient discourses, are words abuse that has been made use of since the revoluwhich can neither be foreseen nor forgotten, and which, tion, they now declare against eloquence; they even like great actions, leave their traces through subsequent wish to take every precaution to guard against danger, ages. But if the method and precision of argument, which is as yet certainly not very imminent: and, as if the style and necessary ideas, are susceptible of per- the French nation were condemned to move forevqr in fection; surely the modern discourses may acquire by the circle of false ideas, and because men have once their example great superiority over the models of an- maintained injustice with violence, and even with vultiquity; and what belongs to imagination, must neces- garity, they now refuse to suffer the power of sentisarily produce more effect, if nothing weakens that ef- ment to be called to the aid of justice. feet, but on the contrary every thing serves to strengthen It appears to me, on the contrary, that it might be it. maintained, that eloquence and truth are synonymous; That which characterizes eloquence, the movement that is to say, that in pleading an unjust cause, it is the which actuates the genius that develops it, requires the reasoningthat is false; but eloquence, properly speakgreatest independence of the mind, at least a momen- ing is always founded on truth, although it is very easy tary one, from every thing that surrounds us; we must to deviate in the application or the consequence; in rise above personal danger, above the opinions which which case the error certainly lies in the argument. we attack, and the men whom we oppose; and, in Eloquence requiring the impulsion of the mind, adshort, above every thing but conscience and posterity. dresses itfelf to the sentiments: and the sentiments of Philosophical ideas will naturally lead to this elevation, the multitude are always on the side of virtue. It has when the expression of truth becomes so easy that the often happened that an individual, when alone, has images and energies which serve to paint it, present yielded to dishonest motives; but man, in the presence themselves to the mind, animated with the purest and of man, will only submit to such sentiments as he may most exalted ardor. own without a blush. This elevation takes nothing from that vivacity of Religion and political fanaticism have occasioned the sentiment so necessary to eloquence, or that ardor which most horrible excesses, by moving the multitude with alone can give the accent that irresistible energy and inflammable expressions; but it was the falsity of their character of domination, that men acknowledge in arguments, and not the interior movements of the heart, themselves; which they often call in question, but which rendered their words so fatal. against which they have no defence. What is eloquent in religious fanaticism, is the senA man whom reflection had rendered totally insen- timent which reconciles the sacrifice of ourselves to sible to the surrounding events, a character resembling what may please the beneficent creator: but what is that of Epictetus; should he write, his style would false, is the reasoning by which we are persuaded it is not be eloquent: but when the spirit of philosophy right to assassinate those of a different opinion; and that reigns in the enlightened classes of society, it unites it- such sacrifices are pleasing, and even required by the self to the most vehement passions; it is no longer the supreme being. result of the ascendency of each man over himself, but What is real in political fanaticism, is the love of our an opinion established from infancy; an opinion that, country, of liberty, and justice: which every man has mixing with every sentiment of nature, aggrandizes the an equal right to, as to the providence of the eternal; ideas, but without rendering the mind insensible. There but that which is false, is the reasoning which justifies were but very few of the ancients who adopted the every crime to arrive at the aim which a man believes maxims of the Stoics, which repress the movements of to be useful. the heart: the philosophy of the moderns, although it Let us examine all the different subjects of discusacts more on the mind than on the character, is only a sion among men, and all the celebrated discourses that peculiar manner of considering every object. This have been employed in those discussions; and we shall manner of seeing, once adopted by enlightened men, perceive that eloquence was always founded upon the though influencing the general tenor of their conduct, truth of the question; and that its nature was only cannot triumph over the affections of the heart; it changed by reasoning: because sentiment cannot err destroys. neither love nor ambition, nor any of the im- in itself, and the only possible errors are the conseportant interests by which the minds of men are con- quences drawn from it by argument: and those errors tinually occupied, even where their reason is no longer will never exist, while the language of logic is not fixed deceived by them: but this meditative philosophy in a positive manner, and adapted to the understanding throws a melancholy into the picture of the passions, of the greater number. 96 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE I am well aware that there are many arguments the love of knowledge to that of morality, and winning which men may try to direct against eloquence; never- over to her side every thing that is grand or elevated thieless, it is with this as with every other advantage among men, in order to deliver up guilt to every species permitted by our destiny, they have all their incon- of shame, ignorance, and ignominy. But whatever veniences, which are brought forward by the wind of may be the received opinion of those conquests of faction. But in the strict examination of things, what time over the indefinite empire of reason, it appears to gifts of nature are there which are wholly exempt from me that there exists an argument which may be equally evil? The imperfection of human nature always leaves applicable to all. one side defenceless; the only use of reason is to de- It is said that the development of knowledge, and cide for the majority of advantages against partial in- every advantage thence derived, as eloquence, political conveniences. liberty, and the independence of religious opinions, are Didactic arguments are not always sufficient for the destructive to the repose and happiness of the human defence of liberty: when there is danger to be braved, species. But let us contemplate for a moment the or a generous resolution to be taken, eloquence alone means that must be employed to avert thie natural dehas power to give the necessary impulse. A very sire of knowledge inherent in mankind: how is a stop small number of characters really distinguished may be to be put to this evil, if it be really one, without having decided, in the calm of retirement, solely by the senti- recourse to means horrible in themselves, and which ment of virtue: but when courage is requisite to the after all would prove ineffectual? accomplishment of a duty, the generality of men do I have attempted to show with what force philosophinot confide in their own strength till their minds are cal reason, in spite of every obstacle, and after every affected, nor forget their own interest till their blood is misfortune, has always known how to open itself a way, agitated. Eloquence affects the mind like martial mu- and has successively developed itself in every country, sic, and hardens it against danger. An assembled as soon as a toleration, however limited, gave to men body of men will have the courage and virtue of the the liberty of thinking. How then is it possible to force most distinguished among them. By eloquence, the'the human reason to retrogade l And even if this virtue of one individual is conveyed to every one by melancholy success could be obtained, how is it possiwhom he is surrounded. If eloquence be interdicted, ble to foresee and prevent all those circumstances that an assembly of men will always be influenced by the mnay give a new impulse to moral faculties 3 It is the moSvulgar sentiments: for in the habitual state those first desire even of kings, that a progress should be sentiments are predominant; and it is to the talent of made in literature and the fine arts: this progress is speech that we are indebted for every noble and intrepid necessarily connected with all those ideas which must resolution which has ever been adopted. carry reflection much farther than the subjects which To interdict eloquence, would be the total destruc- they have given birth to. When the aim of a literary tion of glory: a free scope must be given to the ex- work is to influence the mind, it must necessarily parpressions of enthusiasm, to inspire it in others: there take of philosophical ideas: and philosophical ideas must be freedom in every thing, in order to give to ap- will ever lead to the discovery of truth. plause that character which commands respect from If they could imitate the Inquisition of Spain, and reason and prosperity. the despotism of Rtlssia, they still could not be certain In fine, if the belief be persisted in, that eloquence that no other institutions could be established in other is dangerous; let reflection pause for an instant upon countries of Europe: for even the simple concerns of what would be requisite to stifle it;- and it will plainly commerce, when every other was interdicted, would be perceived, that it is with that as with liberty, and terminate by becoming the means of communicating every other grand development of the human under- the knowledge of one country to another. standing. It may be, that some evils are attached to The aim of physical sciences being of immediate those advantages; but in order to guard against those utility, no country would choose, even if it had the evils, every thing that is useful, great, and generous, in power, to interdict them; this being the case, would the exercise of moral faculties, must be annihilated. not the study of nature destroy the belief of certain This is the last idea which I propose to develop, before dogmas! And would not a religious independence lead I conclude this work. to the free examination of every authority. It may perhaps be said, that without shackling knowledge it might be possible to restrain its excesses: but by whom are those excesses to be repressed3 By government! CHAPTER IX. Surely that can never be considered as an impartial power: and would the bounds prescribed by them to the researches after truth, be precisely those which arGONCLUSION. dent spirits would wish to overleap 3 If the spirit of a nation be entirely directed to The perfectibility of the human species has become amusement and sensuality; and if ever courageous an object of derision to those who look upon intellec- quality be enervated in order to destroy thought; who tual occupations as a kind of imbecility of the mind, is to defend it from the attacks of hostile neighbors? and only hold in estimation those faculties which are And if it escape from being conquered by a hostile immediately connected with the interests of life. This power; yet every vice would find an easy admittance, system of perfectibility is also opposed by some men because there would exist among men nothing but the of reflection; but above all, at this moment it meets interest of pleasure, and, of course, that of money; with the greatest opposition in France, from those sen- and among all the springs of human actions, there is timents, void of reflection, and those affections com- none moie base or contemptible. posed of nothing more than passion, which, by con- If all were to be inspired with the love of war; perfounding the greatest oppositions, becomes entirely haps the contempt of thought might be-revived, but the subservient to men whose designs are criminal, by nation would be subjected to all the evils of feudality; giving them the appearance of honorable motives. and after all, their hopes would be deceived: for when -When philosophy is accused of the crimes of the a strong impulse is given to the mind, it is very diffirevolution, it is wrongfully attaching base and un- cut to put a stop to its progress. Heroic valor, that worthy actions to the most noble and exalted ideas; quality which produces a new enthusiasm, and comthe elucidation of which belongs to the subsequent bines all that can strike the imagination or intoxiages. Would it not be bktter to reuder the abyss cate the mind;-that spirit of wear, which you call to which separates virtue from rice still greater, by uniting the assistance of despotism, will inspire the love of UPON SOCIETY. 97 glory; and the love of glory will soon become the is great and good in one career, to what is equally so most formidable enemy to despotism. in another; it should moderate ambition by glory, and The most remarkable words, and the most brilliant liberty by virtue: it should direct knowledge by readiscourses, have been pronounced on the eve of battle, soning, and submit reasoning to humanity: and assemin the midst of dangers, under those perilous circum- ble in the same focus all that is usefnl in nature, great stances which, by elevating the courageous man, de- and good in sentiments, and the most efficacious faculvelop at once all his powers. This eloquence of the ties, in order to combine all the powers of the mind field would soon be imitated in civil contests: and instead of reducing it to the necessity of combating its when generous sentiments, of whatever nature they own developments; to chain down a passion not by may be, are expressed without control; eloquence, this virtue, but by a contrary passion; to oppose evil to talent which appears so easy to stifle, because it is so evil, when all might be united, all might be reduced to rarely attained, revives, develops itself, and at length perfect harmony by the single sentiment of morality. seizes on every subject of importance: What an inestimable gift of heaven is morality! It Wherever there has existed any wise institution, is through this blessing that we are enabled to underwhether for the amendment of administration, for the stand and appreciate the beauties of nature; it is that security of liberty, the toleration of religion, or to excite alone which adds stability to the gifts of life. What the courage and pride of the nation, the progress of we admire in great men, is always virtue in the form of knowledge has immediately become visible: it is only glory; it is true that many have been guilty of criminal by slavery, and the most absolute debasement, that it actions; and mediocrity, which confounds every thing, can be totally subdued. The earthquakes of Calabria, is persuaded that the destiny of a man of genius is illusthe plagues of Turkey, and the continual snows of trated even by the crimes he commits: but if we were Russia and Kamischatka, and every scourge of nature, to examine into the cause of our admiration, we should are the real allies of that system which militates always perceive that it was the moral from which it against the development of the faculties of man: for was derived. But from the imperfections to which every misfortune, and every vice, must be invoked before human nature is condemned, great and generous qualia final stop could be put to the progress of knowledge. ties are too apt to make us forget any dreadful excesEvery thing that is said for or against knowledge, ses, provided the character or grandeur still remains resembles the advantages and conveniences that may impressed upon the person guilty of those excesses; if be attributed to life; if it were possible for men to en- the virtues are felt through the passions; and if, in joy that sort of repose which nature has bestowed on short, we feel that we may confide in those extraordithe animal creation, it might perhaps be counted a nary men who, often blamed and often feared, are nevblessing, as the faculty of suffering would be greatly ertheless faithful to some noble ideas, and were never diminished. But man must be incessantly tormented, known to betray misfortune or retire from danger. Yes, before it would be possible to bring him to this state, I dare maintain, that all is morality in the sources of from which he is by nature excited to escape: to put enthusiasm; military courage is the sacrifice of self; a final stop to that inclination, he must be precipitated the. love of glory is the exalted thirst after esteem; and by affliction into brutishness and stupidity. But there is the exercise of great faculties in the happiness of the a point on which the enemies as well as the partisans of human species; for it is only in doing good that thoughts knowledge ought equally to agree, if they are the friends find a sufficient space for action. of humanity; which is the impossibility of restraining Let us call to mind all the illustrious names which the natural bent of the human mind, without plunging have been transmitted to us through revolving centuit into calamities a thousand times more fatal than ries: and we shall find that there is not a single charthose which might arise from the progress of knowledge. acter, of which history does not record at least one But on the contrary, if the advancement of knowledge virtue. Morality and knowledge are mutually useful is conducted to wise ends and purposes, it is an end- to each other; the more our thoughts are elevated, the less source of enjoyment; if the greater part of man- more shame we feel for having been made to believe kind have felt the need of a resting-place beyond this that there could exist any wisdom in what was imnioworld; a something to appeal to in the time of trouble; ral, or a grandeur in those resolutions of which wisdom ought there not to be, even in this world, a decisive was not the object. When the circle of relations is principle betwixt those opinions which have no con- enlarged, morality becomes a talent, and then a genius, nection with morality, and upon which it has no and afterwards the sublimity of reason and character. power? Philosophical truths may be said to acquire Doubtless, no one cat promise himself to walk in this the same empire over enlightened minds, who admit noble career without stumbling: but what every man them as virtues: upon that of an honest man those owes to himself, and to the human species, is to direct truths are a source of emulation independent of cir- in the best manner the means in his power, and to incumstances; a consolation in adversity, that does yoke all those of others, in order to repeat to mankind, not submit happiness to circumstances. If the road that the depth of reason and profundity of morality are to the perfection of human faculties were not imperi- two qualities that are inseparable; and that, so far from ously traced out, we should incessantly observe the pre- being obligcd by destiny to make a choice betwixt dominant opinions of each day consumed in calculations genius and virtue, those talents which venture forth to discover the actual advantages of resolution: we without his guide, are successively overturned in a should also observe them consumed with regret, if the thousand different ways. Neither is it true, that moraleffects of that resolution did not tend to immediate ity is more steady and lasting among men of little utility. In this situation, what ascendency could a knowledge: probity, unaccompanied by superior talman acquire over himself but what could be base and ents, may suffice to direct men in the ordinary offices degrading to reason 1 What is man, when he submits of life; but in places of eminence, real knowledge is to follow the passions of man; if he does not search the surest guarantee of morality. We are generally after truth for its own sake; if he does not strive to deceived with regard to the wisdom of great and poliattain the elevation of ideas and sentiments? There tical conceptions: can the art of deceiving be called is a bright inducement in every career, which an ardent wisdom? or the art of tormenting individuals and nar mind springs forward to attain: to warriors, it is glory: tions? Can it be called wisdom to regulate a fortune to mern of thought, liberty; and to men of sensibility, according to the interests of personal avidity? What it is a God. can possibly arise from all those efforts, but often a reThese movements of enthusiasm must not be extin- verse, and always an internal regret? But the wisdom guished; no kind of exaltation should be diminished; which is really remarkable, and the intelligence which the end and aim of legislation should be to unite what is truly enlightened, shine in the man who chooses No. 27 98 INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE virtue, and knows how to put it into practice; to Reflection, it is true, may predominate; but I much whom truth is the power of government, and generosi- fear it will be impossible to preserve that character of ty his main strength. In this light the great men of youth when the heart is ever open to friendship, and antiquity are described: they ennobled, they elevated the amiable candor of a mind that has never known the nation, who were desirous of following their exam- disappointment, which gives a gloss to style, however pie, and their contemporaries trusted in virtue: these imperfect it may be, by the sensibility and confidence are the signs by which a transcendant wisdom is to be of the expressions. known, the formation of which demands the most im- I, however, present this book, such as it is, to the portant of all combinations, namely, that of knowledge public: when one has ceased to be unknown, it is betand morality. ter to give a true idea of oneself, than to trust to the It has been my wish to comprise in this work every perfidious hazard of calumnious inventions. But it motive that can inspire a love for the progress of know- may be that one might wish, even at the expense of the ledge: to give convincing proofs of what is necessary remaining half of life, one had never entered the career to that progress; and, of course, to engage every vir- of letters, and the publicity by which one is followed! tuous mind to direct towards it that irresistible force, How delightful are the first steps that are taken in the the source of which is to be found in moral nature, as hopes of acquiring reputation; what satisfaction to the principles of motion are contained in physical nature. hear our name recited, to obtain a rank in opinion, to,Nevertheless, I must own that in every page of this be distinguished among the multitude! But alas! work, where there appears that love of philosophy and when we are arrived at this envied height; what terror liberty, which neither their friends nor their'enemies takes possession of the mind, what a frightful solitude have been able to stifle in my bosom, I tremble through surrounds us! We then wish, but in vain, to re-enter fear, lest an unjust and perfidious interpretation should our wonted associations: but the time is past. Nothing represent me as indifferent to those crimes which I de- is so easy as to lose the small portion of fame we may test, and those misfortunes which I have alleviated with have acquired; but it is not so easy a matter to obtain all the power that could belong to a mind void of cun- that benevolent reception which is accorded with plea ning, and a heart without disguise. Some can brave sure to an obscure individual. malevolence, while others oppose calumny with indif- Of how much importance is the first impulse given ference or disdain; but for myself, I cannot boast of to our destiny, as on that depends the happiness of our such courage: I cannot say to those who accuse me lives! It is to no purpose that tastes are modified, inunjustly, that they do not disturb the tranquillity of my clinations are changed as well as characters: we are life. _No, I cannot say it; and whether I disarm or then forced to remain the same, because it is believed excite injustice by thus avowing its power over my that we are so. What then remains, but to obtain new happiness, I shall not affect a strength of mind which successes, since we are still hated for those that are every day of my life would tend to contradict. I can- past? we are condemned to drag the chain of recollecnot comprehend what kind of characters those have re- tion of our first years, of the judgment which has been ceived from heaven, who have no desire for the suffrage passed upon us, and, in fine, of our existence,-not of mankind; whose hearts are not dilated by a look of such as it is in reality, but such as it is supposed to be. benevolence; and who, when vexed by hatred Oh! life of misery! of tenfold misery! which perand injustice, are not long before they can ac- haps drives from us beings whom we should have quire sufficient strength of mind to treat it with con- loved, and who might have attached themselves to us, tempt. had not those affections which are nourished by serenity Nevertheless, this weakness of heart ought not to and silence, been frightened away by vain reports. divert the judgment which is carried to general ob- And yet we are compelled to follow this course of life, jects: we must brave the pain to which we expose such as it is formed, since the first lines have been ourselves in expressing them. Man can never usefully traced out by the imprudence of youth, and to try to develop any principle of which they are not entirely find in those affections which still remain, and in the persuaded themselves. The opinions which we would pleasures of thought, a balm to heal the wounds of the wish to sustain against our better judgment, cannot be heart. examined by analysis, nor animated by expression: I am fully sensible how much I subject myself to the more natural the reason, the more incapable it is of blame for thus mixing the affections of the heart with supporting itself when the prop of conviction is want- the general ideas contained in this work: but it is iming. We should-then, if it were possible, divest our- possible to separate the ideas from the sentiments: the selves of those painful fears which destroy the independ- affections incite us to reflection: the affections alone ence of meditation, and confide our lives to morality, can give a rapid and profound penetration to the mind. our happiness to those we love, and our thoughts to Our opinions on every subject are modified by our aftime-to time which is ever the faithful ally to con- fections. Such a work pleases, because it is analogous science and truth. to some misfortunes we have ourselves experienced, or What a melancholy appeal, nevertheless, for those recalls to the mind some recollection that steals imperminds who stand in need of obtaining each day the ceptiblyon our attention. But above all, some writings constant approbation of those who surround them! are admired, because they move every moral power. Ah! how happy were they ten years back, when enter- But cold and phlegmatic characters only wish to be ing into the world relying with full confidence on their presented with the discoveries of reason, without joinown strength, on the friendship that was offered them, ing those movements of regret and those wanderings and on life itself, which had not as yet belied its pro- of reflection, which can never excite the smallest intermises;-they did not then meet with parties of injus- est in them. I resign myself to their criticism: for tice, envenomed hatred, nor rivals, nor jealousy; all how is it possible I can avoid it? By what means can then was delirium and hope! But in ten years after, a distinction be made betwixt the talents and the mind? the route of existence is already traced out; the opinions How can we set aside what we feel, when we trace which have appeared, have jostled against interest, pas- what we think? how impose silence on those senti., sions, and sentiments; and reason and thought, intimi- ments which live in us, without losing any of the ideas dated by the tumult, no longer dare to force themselves which those sentiments have inspired. What kind of into the presence of those irritated judges. Is it pos- writings would result from these continual combats? sible that the imagination can resist the crowd of pain- Had we not better yield to all the faults which may ful recollections which lay siege to it every'moment? arise from the irregularities of nature? THE END REFLECTIONS ON SUICIDE. BY MADAME DE STAEL. TO HIS HIGHNESS THE PRINCE ROYAL OF SWEDEN. STOCKHOLM, DECEMBER, 1812. In your intercourse with the world, you never imMY LaaD, pose restraint, by factitious formality, upon the minds I wrote these Reflections on Suicide, at a time when of those who surround you. You might, if I may be misfortune rendered the solace of meditation necessary allowed the expression, gain the hearts of a whole nato sustain me. Near you, my lord, my troubles have tion, one by one, if each individual of which it is comrnbeen alleviated; my children and I, like the shep- posed, had but the happiness of a few minutes' converherds of Arabia, when they see a storm approaching, sation with you; combined with this affability, so full have sought shelter in the shade of the laurel. You, of grace, your manly energy attaches to you all heroic my lord, have ever considered death only in the light of characters. devotion to your country; your mind has never been The Swedish nation, formerly so celebrated for its touched by the mortification which sometimes afflicts exploits, and which still preserves its early reputation, those who believe themselves useless upon earth. But cherishes in you the presage of its glory. You respect to your superior mind no philosophical subject is the rights of this nation, both from inclination and dustrange; and your views are taken from so great an ty; and we have beheld you under many trying cirelevation that nothing can escape you. I have ever un- cumstances, as firm in supporting the constitutional til now dedicated my works to the memory of my fa- barriers, as others are impatient of their restraint. ther but I have requested of you, my lord, the honor of Duty never seems to you a restraint, doing you homage, because your public life is an exhibi- and it is thus t your habitual deference for the expeand it is thus that your habitual deference for the expetion to the world of sterling virtues which alone de- rienced wisdom of the king gives a new lustre to the rienced Wisdom of the king gives a new lustre to the serve the admiration of reflecting minds. power he confides to you. Intrepidity personally distinguishes you amidst the Pursue, my lord, the career which offers to you so Pursue, my lord, the career which offers to you so brave; but this intrepidity is directed by a feeling not fine a futurity, and you will teach the world anew, what less sublime; the blood of the warrior, the tears of the it seems to have forgotten, that the most enlightened poor, even the cares of the unfortunate are objects of wisdom sheds a glory on morality, and that the greatest your watchful humanity. You dread the sufferings of heroes, far from despising, believe themselves superior your fellow creatures, and the exalted station in which to their fellow-men, only by the sacrifices which they you are placed will never be able to banish sympathy make to them. from your heart. A Frenchman said of you, mylord, I am with respect, my lord, that to' the chivalry of republicanism you united the Your royal highness' chivalry of royalty:' in truth generosity, in whatever manner it can be displayed, appears to be natural to NECKER. Baroness de Stael-Holstein. R E F L EC TION S ON SUICIDE. I would impart consolation to the afflicted; the tween individuals, as can exist relatively with genius children of prosperity are instructed by their own ex- and character. Not only the circumstances, but the perience only, and to them general reflections on most manner of feeling them, differ so essentially, that peo subjects appear useless: but it is not thus with the ple otherwise estimable may misunderstand each othei wretched: reflection is their best asylum, since sepa- in this respect; and vet, of all the limits of the underrated by adversity from the distractions of the world, standing, the most grevious is that which prevents us ~they fly to self-examination, and endeavor, like the from comprehending one another. invalid on the couch of pain, to find every alleviation It appears to me that happiness consists in a destiny of suffering. harmonizing with our faculties. Our desires are the Excess of misery gives birth to the idea of suicide, offspring of the moment, and often are of fatal conseand this subject cannot be too thoroughly investigated: quence to us; but our faculties are permanent, and it involves the whole moral organization of man, I will their necessities are unceasing: hence the conquest of endeavor to throw some new light upon the motives the world may have been as necessary to Alexander, which lead to this action, as well as on those which as thepossession-of a cottage to a shepherd. It does not'prevent its perpetration I will examine the subject with- follow, however, that the human race should have serv-,oat prejudice or pride. We ought not to be offended ed but as nourishment to the gigantic faculties of Alexwith those who are so wretched as to be unable to sup- ander; but it may be admitted that, according to the port the burden of existence, nor should we applaud constitution of his nature, there were no other means those who sink under its weight, since, to sustain it, of happiness for him. would be a greater proof of their moral strength.* A capacity to love, an activity of mind, a value atThe opponents of suicide, feeling themselves on the tached to opinion, are the sources of happiness to some ground of duty and reason, too often employ, in sup- and altogether productive of infelicity to others. The port of their arguments, an intolerate manner, offensive inflexible law of duty is the same for all, but moral to their adversaries; and also frequently mingle un- strength is purely individual; and in forming an opinion just invective against enthusiasm, generally, with their of the happiness or unhappiness of those who are con-well-merited reprobation of an unjustifiable action. It stituted differently from ourselves, a profound knowappears to me, on the contrary, that we can easily de- ledge of the human heart is essential to the philosophi-;monstrate from the principles themselves of true en- cal and just conclusion. thusiasm, or, in other words, from the love of pure mo- It appears to me then that we should never dispute rality, how far resignation to destiny is superior to re- the feelings of others; counsel can only operate on bellion against it. conduct, the laws of religion and virtue providing alike I propose to present, the question of suicide in three for all situations; butthe causes of misery, and its indifferent points of view: I shall first examine,' what tensity, vary equally with circumstances and individuis the influence of suffering on the mind;' secondly, I als. We might as well attempt to count the waves of shall show,' what are the laws which the Christian re- the sea, as to analyze the combinations of destiny and ligion imposes on us in relation to suicide;' and third- character. Conscience alone exists within us as a ly, I shall consider' in what consists the greatest moral pure and unchangeable being, from whom we can all dignity of man in this world.' obtain what we all most need, the repose of the soul. The greater part of men resemble each other, not so much in their actions as in their powers, and no one SECTION I. capable of reflection will deny, that, in committing sins against morality, we always feel we might have avoid~WHAT IS THE INFLUENCE OF SUFFERING ON THE ed them. If then we admit'that it is part of our conMIND. dition here to endure affliction, we cannot excuse ourselves, either by the weight of this affliction, or by the We cannot dissemble that there is in the effect of acuteness of the felling which it produces. We all impressions, produced by grief as much difference be- have within us the means of performing our duty; and * in my work' On the Influence of the Passions' I have ap- what is most wonderful in moral as well as in physical plauded suicide; and I have ever since repented of that inconsid- nature, is, how equally and universally what is neceserate expression. I was then in all the pride and vivacity of sary to us is disturbed, while what is superfOs early youth; but of what use is life, without the hope of i- ilos is Vrovement? diversified in a thousand wavs. REFLECTIONS ON SUICIDE. 101 Physic&a and moral pain are one and the same thing them entirely to themselves, deriving a degree of cornir. their effect upon the mind; for corporeal and mental placency from the means they have employed to direct affliction are both productive of pain; but the one de- them, and considering these means as the only source stroys the body, while the other regenerates the soul. of their felicity. Both these modes of judging are It is not enough to believe with the stoics that'pain erroneous. is not an evil;' to submit to it with resignation, we The will of man acts commonly, it is true, in conmust be convinced that it is a blessing. The least currence with destiny; but when this destiny is the evil would be insupportable, if we considered it as result of necessity, that is to say, when it is unalterable, purely accidental; individual irritability gcverning sen- it becomes the manifestation of the designs of providence sibility, there would be no more justice in blaming him towards us. A man of genius has observed that'neceswho should destroy himself on account of the prick of sity invigorates.' We must rise to a great elevation of a pin, than for an attack of the gout; for some slight thought to adopt this expression in its full extent; but difficulty, than for a real calamity. The smallest sen- it is certain that we should always have a sort of resation of pain may excite rebellious dispositions in the spect for destiny. It is a power which, sooner or mind, if it tend not towards its perfection; for there is later, unforeseen or anticipated, seizes on a certain more injustice in a light evil, if unnecessary, than in epoch of life aid determines the course of it; but far the heaviest affliction, if it have a noble end in view. from destiny being blind, as we are pleased to imagine It is not necessary here to recur to the grand meta- it, we have reason to believe that it comprehends us physical question of the origin of evil, in the discussion thoroughly, for it scarcely ever fails to assail our inof which philosophers have so vainly interested them- most weaknesses. It is the secret tribunal which proselves. We can have no conception of free-will with- nounces judgment onus, and when it may appear unjust, out admitting the possibility of evil; we can have no perhaps we alone can tell what it would intend and conception of virtue without free-will; nor of life eter- what it would exact. nal, without virtue;-rthis chain, the first link of which There is no doubt of our coming forth, sensibly inmis, at the same time, incomprehensible and indispensa- proved, from the trials of adversity, when we submit to ble, ought to be considered as the condition of our them with abecoming fortitude. The greatest faculties being. If reflection and feeling lead us to believe that of the soul are developed only by suffering, and this there is ever, in the ways of providence, a latent or ap- purification of ourselves restores us, after a time, to parent justice, we cannot consider suffering as either: happiness; for the circle closes up again, and carries us accidental or arbitrary. If we believe that, the deity back to those days of innocence which preceded our could endow us with unlimited faculties or powers, and faults. We then abandon virtue when we fly to suicide that the infinite were thus transferable, we should have: as a refuge from misfortune; we reject the enjoyments as much right to complain of some happiness withheld, that virtue would bestow by enabling us to triumph as of some trouble imposed. Why should not man as over our distresses. The disciples of Plato said that well be incensed at not having always existed, as that' the soul had need of a certain period of sojournment he must cease to exist? In short, on what ground do, upon earth to become purified from guilty passions.' his complaints rest. Is it against the system of the We should, in fact, believe that the end of life is prouniverse that he rebels, or against the part allotted to perly to renounce it. Physical nature accomplishes him in a system, subject to immutable laws? Afflic- this work by destruction, and moral nature by sacrifice. tion is one of the essential elements of the means of Human existence, rightly conceived, is but the abdicahappiness; and it is impossible to form a conception tion of personality to gain admission into universal orof the one without the other. The vivacity of our de- der. Children only comprehend themselves, young sires is always in proportion to the difficulties with: people each other and the friends who are a part of which they have to contend; the height of our enjoy-: themselves; but when the presages of. decay appear, ments, to the fear of losing them; the strength of our we must seek consolation in general reflections, or affections, to the.dangers which menace the objects of abandon ourselves to all the terrors which the latter our regard. In a word, the Gordian knot of pleasure part of life presents; for the unfortunate or fortunate and of pain can only be severed by the stroke that ter-, circumstances of each individual are of little conseminates existence. Let us submit, say the unfortunate, quence in comparison with the inflexible laws of nato the balance of good and evil which belongs to the ture. Old age and death, much more than our peculiar ordinary course of events; but when we are treated as distresses, should fill us with despair; but we readily enemies by destiny we have a right to endeavor to submit to an universal condition, and yet rebel against escape its malignity: and yet, the regulator which de- our own portion, without reflecting that the universal termines the result of this balance is entirely.within condition is found in each lot, and that the distinction ourselves: the same sort of life, which reduces one to is more apparent than real. despair, would fill another with joy, who is placed in a In treating of the moral dignity of man, I shall sphere of less-elevated hopes. This reflection is not: strenuously insist upon the difference which exists incompatible with what I have said as -to the respect between suicide and self-devotion, that is to say, be-, we owe to the various-modes of feeling: without doubt, tween the sacrifice of ourselves to others, or which isf the happiness -of one may not accord with the character the same thing, to virtue; and the renunciation of ex-" of another; but resignation belongs equally to all. If istence because it is a burden to us. The motives' there are in physical nature two opposite powers, ir- which lead to this act change entirely the nature of it;! pulse and gravity, which are the causes.of the motion for when we abdicate life in order to do good to others, i of the earth, it may also be asserted that the desire of we immolate, if I may use the expression, our body toi action, and the necessity of submission, volition, and our soul, whilst, when we destroy ourselves from imresignation, are the two poles of moral being, and that patience under misfortune, we sacrifice almost always the equilibrium of reason is only to be found between our conscience to our passions. them. It is nevertheless wrong to contend that suicide is The greater part of men can scarcely comprehend an act of cowardice: this strained assertion never tlore than two powers in life, destiny, and their own convinced any one; but we ought here to distinguish will, which is of itself, they believe, sufficient to influ- between courage and fortitude. The act of suicide imence destiny; and hence the general transition; from plies contempt of death, but to be unable to endure irritation to pride. When they are in a state of irrita- suffering shows a want:of fortitude. A species of tion, they inveigh against destiny, as children, beat the frenzy is necessary to subdue in us the instinct of selftable against which they hurt themselves; and when preservation, when no religious feeling demands the they are satisfied with the events of life, they attribute sacrifice. The generality of those who have unauc 102 REFLECTIONS.i _! cessfully endeavored to destroy themselves have not are necessarily moderated by time; and those of an afrenewed the attempt. because there is in suicide, as in fecting nature, without any mixture of the emotion of erery extravagant act of the will, a certain degree of pride, inspire a religious disposition, which leads the folly, which is appeased when it nearly accomplishes soul to resignation. The most frequent causes of suithe end it had in view. Unhappiness is scarcely ever cide in modern times are ruin and dishonor. A reverse absolute; its associations with our recollections or our of fortune, as society is constituted, produces a most hopes, often constitutes the greater part of it; and when acute unhappiness, which multiplies itself in a thousand we experience a lively check, our affliction frequently different ways. The most cruel of all, however, is the presents itself to our imagination under a very different loss of the rank we occupied in the world. Imaginaaspect. tion has as much to do with the past, as with the fuObserve, aiter a period of ten years, a person who ture, and we form with our possessions an alliance, has sustained some great privation, of whatever nature whose rupture is most grievous; but, after a time, a it may be, and you will find that he suffers and enjoys new situation presents a new perspective to almost all from other causes than those from which ten years ago men. Happiness is so composed of relative sensations, his misery was derived. It does not, therefore, that it is not things in themselves, but their connection follow that he is restored to happiness; but hope with yesterday and to-morrow, which affects the imaand fear have changed their course in him; and of gination. If destiny or the menaces of a tyrant have the activity of these two passions moral life is com- led a man to apprehend a certain degree of unhappiposed. ness, and he learns that he is to be spared the half of There is one cause of suicide which interests the what he dreaded, his impressions will be very different hearts of most women: it is love. The spell of this from,those he would have experienced, if he had not passion is no doubt the principal cause of the errors we suffered so great a terror. Destiny has almost always commit in our judgment on the question of self-destruc- much to do in the composition of our miseries; we tion. We are willing that love should subjugate the high- may say that he also sometimes repents as well as est powers of the soul, and that nothing should be be- other sovereigns of causing too much evil. yond his empire. All sorts of enthusiasm having en- Opinion exercises over most individuals a degree of countered the attacks of mocking incredulity, romances influence whose power it is difficult to diminish: the have still maintained the delusion of sentiment in those words,' I am dishonored,' affect the whole mind of a countries of the world, to which good faith has retired: social being, and it is not possible to avoid pitying him but of all the miseries of love there is but one, it ap- who sinks under the weight of this misfortune; for, pears to me, which should subdue the-energy of the since he feels it so bitterly, it is, in all probability, unsoul; it is the death of the object we love and by whom merited: but yet we must range the causes of dishonor we are beloved. in two principal classes; those which are derived from An inward horror pervades our nature when the faults with which our conscience reproaches us; and heart with which our existence was blended rests cold those which originate in involuntary error and are in in the tomb. This affliction, the only one perhaps no wise criminal. which surpasses the strength god has given us to resist Repentance is necessarily connected with our ideas suffering, has nevertheless been considered by several of divine justice, for if we did not regulate our actions moralists as easier to be supported than those in which by this supreme standard of equity, we should experioffended pride is in any respect mingled. In fact, in ence in life nothing but discontent. We must conthe misery which is produced by the infidelity of the sider existence in two points of view; either as a game, object of our love, though the heart receives the wound, the gain or loss of which consists in the advantages ox self-love instills its poisons. Without doubt also, a this world; or as a noviciate for immortality. If we sentiment nobler than self-love rends our hearts when regard it as a game, we shall be able to trace in our we are obliged to relinquish the esteem we had con- own conduct only the consequences of true or false reaceived for the first object of our affections; when there soning; if we have the life to come in view, it is inremains no more of an enthusiasm so profound, than tention only to which our conscience clings. The man the remembrance of the delusive appearances which whose views are limited to the interests of this world gave birth to it. We must, however, in strictness may suffer discontent, but repentance belongs only to urge, that, in an intimate and sincere union, such as the religious man; and being such, he necessarily feels ought to exist between true and pure beings, from the that expiation is the first duty, and that conscience moment that either is unfaithful, or that either has de- commands us to endure the consequences of our transceived, he becomes unworthy of the sentiment he had gressions, to the end that we may repair them, if possi-.nspired. I do not wish by this reasoning to imitate those ble, by doing good. Merited dishonor is then, to the pedants who reduce the troubles of life to syllogisms. religious man, a just punishment, from which he beWe suffer in a thousand ways, we suffer from various, lieves he has no right to fly; for, although, among huopposite and contending feelings; and no one has a man actions, there may be many more perverse than right to contest the causes of our miseries: but in all suicide, there is not one which seems so formally to the sufferings of the soul, in which self-love has its deprive us of the protection of god. share, it is as unwise as reprehensible to seek our own Our passions lead us to many culpable actions which destruction: for all that partakes of vanity is neces- have happiness for their end; but, in suicide, there is sarily fleeting and we must not accord to that which is a renunciation of all succor from above, that cannot be fleeting the right to precipitate us into eternity. reconciled with any pious disposition. A misfortune entirely free from all emotion of pride He who is truly affected by repentance will exclaim, is then the only one which should lead to suicide; but with the prodigal son:' I will arise, and go to my for the very reason that such a misfortune originates father, and will say unto him, father, I have sinned entirely in sensibility, religion can deprive it of its bit- against heaven, and before thee, and am no more worthy terness. Providence, which desires not that the wounds to be called thy son.' With this affecting resignation of the human soul should be without a cure, brings re- would a religious being express himself, for the more lief to him whom he has afflicted beyond his strength. criminal he believes himself to be, the less would he Often, at such a time, the wings of the angel of peace arrogate to himself the right to quit life, since he has overshadow our dejected heads, and who can say that not used the gift as the bestower of it exacts. As for this angel is not the very object of our regret? who can those guilty beings who do not believe in a future existsay that, touched by our tears, it has not obtained from ence, and who have lost their consequence in this world, heaven the power of watching over us. suicide, according to their manner of thinking, has no Tho pains of sensibility, which self-love embitters, other inconvenience than to deprive them of the happ) ON SUICIDE. 103 chances that might yet remain for them, and each in- the tissue of circumstances of which his individual msdividual can estimate these chances as he chooses, from tory is composed. Existence is in itself a marvelous his calculation of probabilities. thing; the happiness of the savage is derived from it I believe we may affirm that unmerited dishonor is alone; sick people often pray for nothing else; the never of long duration. The influence of truth on the prisoner considers liberty as the supreme good; the public is such, that patience only is requisite to restore blind man would willingly give all he possessed for the us to our station. Time has something sacred in it, blessing of sight; the climates of the south, which give and seems to act independently of the events it em- life to colors, and develop perfumes, produce an undebraces. It is a support for the weak and unfortunate, finable impression; the consolations of philosophy have and, in fact, is one of those mysterious ways by which less empire over us than the enjoyments we derive from the deity manifests himself to us. The world, which the spectacle of heaven and earth. Among our means is in most respects so different a thing from the indi- of happiness then the power of reflection is most valuavidual, the world, which is a sensible being, although ble. We are so contracted in ourselves, so many things composed of so many stupid ones, the world, which is agitate and wound us, that we have constantly need to liberal, although follies without number are committed plunge into this boundless sea of thoughts, where we by those who make a part of it, the world always con- must, as in the Styx, become invulnerable, or altogether eludes by returning to justice, as soon as predominating resigned. and momentary circumstances have disappeared.' In No one will venture to say that we can endure every patience possess ye your souls,' says the gospel, and calamity we are subjected to in this world, nor will any this counsel of piety is also that of reason. When we one dare to place such confidence in his own strength reflect on the holy writings, we find in them an admi- as to make this assertion. There are but few beings rable combination of the best precepts for conducting endowed with such superior faculties that despair has ourselves with success in this world, and often also the not reached them more than once; and life appears best means of obtaining it. Physical suffering, incura- but as a protracted shipwreck, the fragments of which ble infirmity, in short, all such miseries as are insepara- are friendship, love and glory. The borders of the ble from corporeal existence, would seem to constitute stream of time are covered with them; but if we have one of the most plausible causes of suicide; and yet, preserved the internal harmony of the soul, we may scarcely ever, particularly among the moderns, does yet hold communion with the works of the deity. this species of misery occasion it. Miseries which are The mercy of heaven, the stillness of death, the in the ordinary course of events may overcome us, but beauty of the universe, which was not designed to show do not excite us to rebel against our condition. It is man his own insignificance, but as an earnest of better essential that irritation should be mingled with our feel- days; some noble thoughts, always the same; are like ings before we can be enraged against destiny, and the harmony of creation, and iestore us to tranquillity wish to liberate ourselves from its evils, or revenge our- when we are accustomed to comprehend them. From selves against it, as an oppressor. There is a singular these sources the hero and the poet draw their inspirakind of error in the manner in which most men con- tions; why then would not some drops from the cup, sider their destiny. This error has so much influence which elevates them above humanity, be salutary for on the impressions of the mind, that we cannot too of- all' ten contemplate it under its various aspects. Indeed, a We accuse destiny of malignity because its blows community of suffering is sufficient to make us resigned are always aimed at the tenderest part of us. This is to the most distressing events, and we find injustice not attributable to the malignity of destiny but to the only in those afflictions which are peculiarly our own. impetuosity of our desires, which precipitates us And yet, are not these varieties, as well as these re- against the obstacles we encounter, as we run deeper semblances, for the most part counterbalanced 1 and upon the sword of our adversary in the ardor of comare they not all, I repeat it, equally comprised in the bat: and besides, the instruction we should receive laws of nature I shall not dwell upon the common from misfortune necessarily applies to that part of our consolations that may be derived from the hope of a character which stands most in need of reproof. We change in our circumstances; there are some afflictions cannot admit the belief of a god without supposing which'are not susceptible of this sort of comfort: but that he directs destiny in its influence upon men: we I believe we may boldly affirm, that all who have re- cannot then consider this destiny as a blind power; it sorted to an active and steady employment have found remains to be considered whether he who governs it an alleviation of their distress. There is an object in has given to man the liberty of submitting to or flying all occupations, and it is an object that man constantly from it. I shall examine this in the second part of requires. Our faculties devour us, like the vulture of these reflections. Prometheus, when they have no external cause of action, and employment exercises and directs these faculties: in short, when we possess imagination, and most people in sorrow have a great deal, we can always find' SECTION II. renovated pleasure in the master-pieces of the human mind, either as amateurs or artists. A celebrated wo- WHAT ARE THE LAWS WHICH THE CHRISTIAN RET, nan has remarked that'ennui is mingled in all our dis- GION IMPOSES ON US, IN RELATION TO SUICIDE! tresses,' and this reflection is full of profundity. True ennui, that of active minds, is the absence of all inter- When the ancient man of sorrows, Job, was stricken est in what surrounds us, combined with faculties, with every evil, when he had lost his fortune and his which render this interest essential to us; it is thirst children, and when frightful physical afflictions made without the possibility of quenching it. Tantalus is a him suffer a thousand deaths, his wife advised him to just image of the soul in this state. Occupation gives renounce life.'Curse god,' said she,'and die.'a zest to existence, and the fine arts contain, at the same' What,' replied he,' I have received good at the hand time, the originality of particular objects, and the grand- of god, and shall I not receive evil' And in whatsoeur of universal ideas. They preserve our relation with ever depth of depair he was plunged, he was resigned nature; we might love her without the aid of these to his fate, and his patience was rewarded. It is supcharming mediators, but they teach us the better to ap- posed that Job preceded Moses; he existed, at least, preciate her. long before the coming of Jesus Christ, aPd at a time WMe must not disdain, in whatever misery we may be when the hope of the soul's immortality was not yet plunged, the primitive gifts of our creator, life and na- assured to mankind. What would he then have thought ture. A social being places too much importance upon at the present time 1 We see in the bible, men, such 104 REFLECTIONS as Samson and the Maccabees, who devoted them- er judgment of the circumstances of this life, at the selves to death, to accomplish a design they believed to same time affords the means of escaping from them. be noble and salutary; but in no part do we find. ex- We believe we can obtain our emancipation from the amples of suicide, of which disgust to life or its troubles tyranny of human events by determining to destroy is the only cause; in no part has that species of suicide, ourselves if we do not attain the end of our desires. which is only a desertion from destiny, been considered Under this idea, we consider ourselves as entirely at as possible. It has been frequently asserted, that there our own disposal; and free to relinquish life when we is no passage in the gospel which indicates a formal are no longer content with the condition of it. If the disapprobation of this act. Jesus Christ, in his dis- gospel accorded with this manner of thinking, we courses, rather ascends to the principles of action than should find in it some lessons of prudence; but all enters into a particular application of the law; but is it those which relate to virtue would have a very limited( not enough, that the general spirit of the gospel tends application, for virtue consists only in the preference to hallow resignation? we give to others, that is to say, to our duty over our' Blessed are they that mourn,' said Jesus Christ, personal interests: now, when we renounce life, mere-'for thay shall be comforted. If any man will come ly because we are not happy, we prefer ourselves to all after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross the world, and become, if I may be allowed the exand follow me. Blessed are ye, when men shall revile pression, egotists in suicide. you, and persecute you, for my sake.' Jesus Christ Of all the religious arguments which have been adevery where announces that his mission is, to teach duced against suicide, that which has been most freman that the design of misfortune is the purification of quently reiterated, is that it is formally comprised in the soul, and that celestial happiness is obtained by the prohibition expressed by the commandment of god: pious endurance of our miseries on earth. The inter-' Thou shalt not kill.' Without doubt, this argau.ment pretation of the doubtful meaning of affliction, is the might also be admitted; but as it is impossible to conspec'ial intention of the doctrine of Jesus Christ. sider the suicide in the same light with the assassin, We find many good things respecting social morality the true point of view of this question is,.that happiin the Hebrew prophets and in the Pagan philosophers; ness not being the end of human life, man ought to aim but it was to teach charity, patience, and faith, that at perfection, and consider his duties as necessarily Jesus Christ descended upon earth; and these three' connected with his sufferings. Marcus Aurelius said virtues all alike tend to the relief of the unhappy. that'there was no more crime in leaving him than a The first, charity, teaches us our duty towards them; room that smokes:' certainly, if it were sc, instances the second, patience, teaches them to what consola- of suicide would be still more frequent than they are; tions they ought to have recourse, and the third faith, for it is difficult, when the illusion of youth is past, to announces to them their recompense. Most of the reflect on the course of things, and still to preserve precepts of the gospel would want foundation if suicide our attachment to existence. WVe might adhere to were permitted; for, from misfortune we learn the ne- this existence, through fear of leaving it; but if this cessity of appealing to heaven, and the insufficiency of motive alone retained us upon earth, all those who the goods of this world is what, above all, renders have conquered fear, by the force of military habits, all another life necessary. those whose imaginations are more terrified by the It is seldom that individuals, in the intoxication of phantom of life than by that of death, would spare prosperity, preserve a holy respect for sacred things. themselves their latter days, which repeat in so melanThe allurements of this world are so brilliant as to choly a tone the brilliant airs of our youth. darken all other joys, even the glory of a future exist- J. J. Rousseau, in his letter in favor of suicide, says, ence. A German philosopher, disputing with his'Wihy, if we are allowed to cut off a leg, are we not friends, once said,' To obtain such a thing, I would also permitted to take away our lives.' Has not the will give millions of years of my eternal felicity,' and he of god given us the one as well as the other?' A passage was singularly moderate in the sacrifice he offerred; of the gospel seems to reply texturally to this sophism: ibr temporal enjoyments have generally much more ac-' If thy right hand offend thee,' says Jesus Christ'cut t;vity than religious hopes; and spiritual life, or Chris- it off. If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast tianity, which is the same thing, would not exist, if it from thee.' What the gospel here says, applies to sorrow dwelt not in the heart of man. Premeditated temptation, and not suicide; but nevertheless it is suicide is incompatible with Christian faith, because sufficient to refute the argument of J. J. Rousseau. this faith rests chiefly on the different duties of resig- Man is permitted to seek a cure for all his evils; but nation. With respect to suicide resulting from a mo- it is forbidden him to destroy his being, or in other ment of delirium, from an excess of despair, it is not wqrds, the power he has received of choosing between probable the divine legislator of men had occasion to good and evil. He exists by this power, he ought to notice it among the Jews, who rarely offered examples be regenerated by it, and to this principle of action, to of this sort of offence. He unceasingly combated, in which the exercise of free will entirely belongs, every the Pharisees, the vices of hypocrisy, of unbelief, and thing is subordinate. of hardness of heart. Indeed, he appears to have con- Jesus Christ, in encouraging man to endure the pains sidered the faults of the passions as the disease of the of life, repeats unceasingly the efficacy of prayer. soul, and not as its habitual state, and always to have' Knock,' says he, and it shall be opened unto you; appealed rather to the general spirit of morality than to ask and it s'all be given unto you.' But the hopes he the precepts which grow out of circumstances. presents refate not to the events of this life; it is the Jesus Christ constantly directed man to occupy him- disposition of the soul upon which psayer exerts the ~self with life as it has relation to immortality only. greatest influence. Peace of mind and the prosperities' Then, why take ye thought for raimernt,' said he, ~ con- of the world are both alike denominated by the word sider the lillies of the field, they toil not, neither do happiness; and yet, no two things are so different as they spin; yet Solomon, in all his glory, was not ar- these sources of enjoyment. The philosophers of the rayed like one of these.' It is not slothfulness nor in- eighteenrth century have founded morality on the posidifference that Jesus Christ inculcates by this passage, itive advantages- it procures in this world, and have but a sort of calm which would be useful even as it considered it as personal interest, well understood. regards the interests of this world. Warriors call this Christians have fixed the centre of our greatest enjoysentiment confidence in their good fortune; religious ments in the bottom of the soul. Philosophers promise men, the hope of divine assistance; but both the one temporal benefits to those who are virtuous; they are and the other find in this internal disposition of the' soul right, in some respects; for, in the ordinary course of a support, which, while it enables them to form a clear- things, it is very probable that the blessings of this life ON SUICIDE. 105 will accompany a course of moral conduct; but if our pleasures of an active beneficence, for which he reconfidence in this should be deceived, despair would turned thanks to his father every day. But not being then be lawful; for, considering virtue only as a spe- able to avertthe cup to which he was destined, he cried, culation, when it is unsuccessful we may abandon exist-' Nevertheless, not my will, but thine be done, 0, my ence. Christianity, on the contrary, places happiness father,' and replaced himself in the hands of his eneabove all, in the impressions we receive from consci- mies. What more would we seek in the gospel on reence. Have we not experienced, independently of re- signation in affliction, and the duty of supporting it ligious feelings, and our internal disposition has not with courage and patience The resignation we obalways agreed with our circumstances, and that we tain from religious faith is a species of moral suicide, have often felt more or less happy, than we ought to and it is in that it so much differs from suicide, properly be, after an examination of our situation If the mere so called, for the renunciation of self has for its end force of the mobility of our nature is sufficient to pro- the sacrifice of ourselves to our fellow creatures; duce such an effect, how much more power ought the while suicide, caused by a disgust of life, is only the holy and secret operation of piety to have upon the bloody mourning of personal happiness. Saint Paul soul! How often have those virtuous beings whom says,' She that liveth in pleasure, is dead while she affliction has visited, found an unexpected calm in the liveth.' In every line of the holy writings we see this bottom of their hearts! An unknown celestial music great misunderstanding between the beings of time' and is heard in the desert, and seems to announce that the those of eternity; the first make life consist in what the fountain will soon spring, even from the bosom of the last regard as death. It is then plain that the opinion of rock. beings of time consecrates the suicide, while that of When we have beheld Louis XVI, the purest and the beings of eternity exalts the martyr: for he who most respectable victim that faction could immolate, grounds morality on the happiness it may produce upon led to the scaffold, we cannot but demand what relief earth, hates life when it does not realize its promises; the hand of god stretched forth to him in the abyss of whilst he who makes true felicity consist in the internal misery 1 Of a sudden. the voice of an angel is heard, emotion, which sentiments and thoughts in communiwho under the form of a minister of the church, says to cation with the deity excite, can be happy in spite of him,' Son of Saint Louis, rise to heaven! His worldly men, and, if I may use the expression, in defiance of grandeur, his heavenly hopes were all united in these destiny. When the experience of existence has taught simple words. They uplifted him, by recalling to him us the vanity of our own strength, and the almighty his illustrious race from the debasement into which power of god, it often works in the soul a sort of reman had wished to plunge him; they invoked the generation, the delights of which are inexpressible. — shades of his ancestors, who, without doubt, already Then it is that we become accustomed to judge ourstretched forth their crowns to welcome the coming of selves, as we judge of others; to place our conscience the august saint to heaven. Perhaps, at this moment, as a third person between our personal interests and those the eye of faith made him fancy he described them. of our adversaries; we are passive as to our destiny. He approached the limits of time, and our calculation certain that we cannot direct it; we are passive also as of its hours concerned him no longer. Who knows regards our self-love, certain that it is not ourselves but with what blissful emotion a single moment of tender the world that casts our character: we are passive, in reflection at that time filled his soul! fine, as to that hardest of all human trials, the wrongs While the blood-stained executioner bound those and injuries of friendship; whether it be by recollechands, which has wielded the s p tre of France, the tion of our own imperfections, or by confiding to the same missionary of god said to h ing,' Sire, it was tomb of the being who has best loved us our most sethus that our lord was led to death. What aid did he cret thoughts; or, finally, by raising towards heaven not impart to the martyr, by presenting to his view his the sensibility it has bestowed upon us. How great is divine model! In fact, is not the most glorious exam- the difference between this religious denial of terrestrial Ie of the sacrifice of life the basis of the Christian's strife, and the frenzy which leads to suicide as a refuge belief And doesnot this example mark the differenea from suffering. The renunciation of ourselves is in which exists between the martyr and the suicide' The every respect opposed to suicide. martyr serves the cause of virtue, by yielding up his Besides, how can we be assured that suicide will deblood for the instruction of the world: the suicide per- liver us from the evils which pursue us? What cerverts all idea of courage, and scandalizes even death tainty can atheists have of annihilation, or philosophers itself. The martyr teaches man the power of con- of the mode of existence nature has reserved for them science, it subdues the most powerful physcal instinct- While Socrates taught to the Greeks the immortality of science, it subdues the most powerful physical instinctthe suicide also proves the power of will, over instinct, the soul, many of his disciples committed suicide, but it is that of an unsteady charioteer, who can no greedy to taste of this intellectual life, of which the conlonger hold the reins, but precipitates himself into the fused images of paganism had not given them the idea. abyss, instead of conducting in safety to the The emotion excited by so novel a doctrine led their abyss, instead of commitnducting terrible act, the goal. ardent imaginations astray; but, can Christians, to t soul is whom the promises of a future life have been extended wrought to a pitch of frenzy, which concentrates, in an whom the promises of a future life have been extended instant, an eternity of pain. only in connection with menaces of punishment to the guilty, can they hope that suicide will be the means of exThe last scene of the life of Jesus Christ appears tricating them from the troubles which overwhelm destined, above all, to confound those who believe they them 1 If the soul survive death, will not the sentiment have the right to destroy themselves in order to escape which filled it entirely, whatever may be its nature, still misfortune. The dread of suffering seized upon him, make a part of it 1 Who among us knows what conwho had voluntarily devoted himself to the death, as nection is established between the recollections of earth well as to the life of man. He prayed a long time to and celestial enjoyments. Is it for us to draw near, his father, on the mount of Olives, and his soul was by our own resolution, to this unknown region, from exceedingly sorrowful, even unto death.'My father,' which, at the same time a secret dread repulses us 1 cried he,' if it be possible let this cup pass from me!' How can we annihilate, by the caprice of our will, (and Three times he repeated this prayer, his countenance I denominate thus every act not founded upon duty) bathed inters, All our pains had passed into his di- the work of god in us? How shall we determine our vine beinh:K He feared, like us, the outrageous of man; death, when we had no power over our birth 1 Ifow like us, per lps, he regretted those he had loved, his answer for our eternal destiny, when the most trifling mother and his disciples; like us, and more than us, actions of this brief existence have often filled us with perhaps, he loved this fruitful earth, and the celestial the most bitter regret t Wgo wilF dare believe himself 106 REFLECTIONS wiser and stronger than destiny, and venture to say to action of internal strength against external circum. it-this is too much? stances, and of external circumstances against internal Suicide draws us from nature as well as from its au- strength. Conscience is the true standard of the greatthor. Natural death is almost always softened by the ness of man, but it has only a claim to our admiration enfeebling of our strength, and-the exaltation of virtue in the generous being, who opposes duty himself, and sustains us in the sacrifice of life to our duty: but the can sacrifice himself when duty commands him to do so. suicide seems to spring with hostile arms beyond the Genius and talent can produce great effects upon borders of the tomb, and defies alone the images of hor- this earth; but when the object of their exercise is the ror and of darkness. personal ambition of him who possesses them, they no Oh! what despair is required for such an act! May longer constitute the divine nature in man. They only pity, the most profound pity, be granted to him who is serve for address, for prudence, for all those worldly guilty of it! but, at least, let him not mingle human qualities, the type of which is found in animals, although pride with it. Let not the wretch believe himself the the perfection of them belongs to man. The paw of mole a man, for being the less a Christian, and let a re- the fox, and the pen of him who barters his opinion for flecting being know ever where to place the true moral his interest, are one and the same thing in respect to dignity of man. moral dignity. The man of genius who serves himself at the expense of the happiness of his fellow-creatures, SECTION III. whatever eminent faculties he may be endowed with, acts always with regard to self; and in this respect the OF THE MORAL DIGNITY OF MAN. principle of his conduct is the same with that of animals. What distinguishes conscience from instinct is Almost every individual aims here below either at sentiment and the knowledge of duty, and duty always his physical well-being or at his consideration in the consists in the sacrifice of self to others, The whole world, and the greater part of mankind at both united: problem of moral life is'included in this.principle; the but consideration, in the estimation of some, consists in whole dignity of the human beinig is in proportion to its the ascendency which power and fortune bestow, and strength, not only against death, but against the interin that of others, in the respect which talents and vir- ests of existence. The other impulse, that is to say, tue inspire. Those who seek riches and power are that which overthrows the obstacles opposed to our dealso desirous to be thought possessed of moral qualities, sires, has success for its recompense, as well as its end; and above all, of superior faculties; but this last is a but it is not more wonderful to make use of our intellisecondary end, which must give place to the first; for gence to subject others to our passions, than to employ a certain depraved knowledge of the human race, teaches our feet in walking, or our hands in taking, and, in the us, that the solid advantages of life command the inter- estimate of moral qualities, it is the motive of actions ests of men still more than their esteem. which alone determines their worth. We will set aside, as foreign from our subject, those Hegesippus of Cyrene, a disciple of Aristippus, diswhose ambition has only power and riches for its end; coursed in favor of suicide as well as sensuality. He but we will examine with attention in what the moral contended that man should have no object but pleasure dignity of man consists; and this examination will lead in this world; but as it is very difficult to insure our us necessarily to judge the action of self-destruction own enjoyments, he advised death to those who could under two opposite points of view; the sacrifice in- not obtain them. This doctrine is one of those by spired by virtue, and the disgust which results from which we can best determine the motives of suicide, mistaken passions. We have opposed, in respect to and it evinces the species of egotism which mingles, as religion, the martyr to the suicide; we may also, in I have before observed, in the very act by which we respect to moral dignity, present the contrast of devo- would annihilate ourselves. tion to duty, with rebellion against our condition. A Swedish professor, named Robeck, wrote a long Devotion generally leads us rather to submit to death, work upon suicide, and killed himself after having comthan to be instrumental in bringing it upon ourselves; posed it: he says in his book, that we should encourage yet, there were among the ancients suicides from devo- a contempt of life, even to suicide. Do not the most tion. Curtis, precipitating himself to the depth of the profligate also despise life? Every thing consists in abyss, that he might cause it to close; Cato, stabbing the sentiment to which we make the sacrifice. Suihimself to teach the world that there still existed a soul cide, regarding only self, which we have carefully disfree under Cwesar's dominion, did not destroy them- tinguished from the sacrifice of existence to virtue, selves to escape from misery; the one wished to save proves but one thing in point of courage, which is, that his country, and the other gave the universe an exam- the will of the soul overcomes physical instinct: thouple whose ascendency still continues. Cato passed the sands of soldiers afford constant evidence of this truth. night preceding his death in reading the Phaedon of Animals, it is said, never kill themselves. Actions, Socrates, and the Phaedon explicitly condemns suicide, which are the result of reflection, are incompatible with but this great citizen knew that he did not die for him- their nature;'they appear to be enchained by the preself but for the cause of liberty; and, according to sent, ignorant of the future, and gathering only habits circumstances, this cause may teach us to await death, from the past: but as soon as their passions become like Socrates, or to be ourselves the instrument of it, roused, they brave pain, and this greatest pain which like Cato. we term death; of which, without doubt, they have not The characteristic of the true moral dignity of man, the least idea. The courage of a great many men also is devotion to duty. What we do for ourselves may partakes of this want of thought. Robeck was wrong have a sort of grandeur which excites surprise; but ad- in extolling the contempt of life so highly. There are nmiration is only due to the sacrifice of selfish feeling, two ways of sacrificing life, either because we give under whatever form it may appear. Elevation of soul duty the preference, or because we give our passions constantly tends to free us from what is purely indi- this preference, in not wishing to live when we have vidual, for the purpose of uniting us to the great views lost the hope of happiness. This last sentiment cannot of the creator of the universe. Love and reflection merit esteem: but to fortify ourselves by our own comfort and exalt us only by withdrawing us from all thoughts, in the midst of the reverses of life; to make egotistical impressions. Devotion and enthusiasm in- ourselves a defence against ourselves, in opposing the fuse a purer air into our breasts. Self-love, irritation, calm of conscience to the irritation of temperament: impatience, are the enemies against which conscience this is true courage, in comparison with which, that obliges us to combat, and the tissue of our lives is al- which springs from instinct, is very little, and that which most entirely composed of the continual action and re- is the fruit of self-love, still less. Some people pretend, ON SUICIDE. 107 that there are circumstances in which, feeling ourselves } foundation is resignation: but certainly we must not a burden upon others, we may make a duty of ridding confound resignation to the will of god with condescenthem of the incumbrance. One of the great means of sion to the power of man. Those heroic citizens of Introducing errors in morality is, to fancy situations, to antiquity, who would have endured death rather than which there would be nothing to reply, if it were not slavery, were capable of a pious submission to the power that they do not exist. Who is so unfortunate as to of heaven; while modern writers, who pretend that find no fellow-creature to whom he may impart conso- Christianity weakens the soul, could very well bend, lation? Who is so unhappy, that by his patience and notwithstanding their apparent strength, to tyranny, with his resignation, he may not give an example to move more suppleness than a feeble but Christian-like old the soul, and give birth to sentiments, that the best pre- man. cepts have never been able to inspire. The half of life Socrates, that saint of sages, refused to make his is its decline: what has then been the intention of the escape from prison after he was condemned to death. creator in presenting this melancholy perspective to He believed he ought to set an example of obedience man, to man whose imagination has need of hope, and to the magistrates of his country, although they were who counts as nothing what he has, except as the means unjust to him. Does not this sentiment belong to the of obtaining yet more! It is clear that the creator has true firmness of character. What greatness likewise willed that mortal man should obtain a mastery over was there not in that philosophical discourse on the imself, and that he should commence this great act of dis- mortality of the soul, continued so calmly, even to the interestedness long before the degradation of his strength very moment when the poison was brought to him! should render it more easy to him. For two thousand years, men of profound thought,'When you reach the age of maturity, you are already heroes, poets, and artists, have consecrated the death in every thing reminded of your death. Do you marry of Socrates by their praise; but the thousands of inyour children? You make an estimate yourself of the stances of suicide, caused by disgust and ennui, with fortune they may have when you shall be no more. which the annals of every corner of the world are filled, Paternal duty consists in a continual devotion; and as what traces have they left in the remembrance of possoon as children attain the age of reason, almost all the terity? enjoyments they afford are grounded on the sacrifices If the ancients-were proud of Socrates, Christians. we make to them. If then happiness were the only even without including the martyrs, can present a grea end of life, we should destroy ourselves as soon as we number of examples of this noble strength of mind, in cease to be young, as soon as we descend the moun- comparison with which the irritation or the depression, tain, whose summit appeared environed with so many which leads us to destroy ourselves, is deserving only brilliant illusions. of pity. Sir Thomas More, Chancellor of Henry VIII., A man of wit, who was complimented on the forti- during a whole year of close confinement in the tower tude with which he had supported great reverses, re- of London, refused day after day, the offers that an allplied,' I have sufficient consolation in being only twenty- powerful king made him, to return to his service, if he five years old.' In fact, there are very few griefs more would suppress the scruples of conscience which withbitter than the loss of youth. Man accustoms himself held him. Thomas More knew how to confront death to ilt by degrees, it will be said. Without doubt, time during a year: and to abandon life, still loving it, reis an ally of reason, and weakens the resistance it meets doubles the greatness of the sacrifice. A celebrated with in us; but where is the impetuous soul, which is writer, he loved those intellectual occupations which not irritated at the approaches of old age? Do the fill every hour with a still increasing interest. A bepassions always decay with the faculties? Do we hot loved daughter capable of appreciating the genius of often see the spectacle of the punishment of Mezentius her father, diffused an habitual charm throughout his renewed by the union of a soul still alive and a ruined household; he was in a dungeon, through the grates of body, inseparable enemies. Of what use would this which only a glimmering lirht, broken by the dark bars, sad herald be, which nature causes to precede dissolu- could penetrate. While near this horrible abode, a detion, if it were not ordained that we should exist with- licious estate on the verdant borders of the Thames ofout happiness, and abdicate each day, flower after flower, fered to him the union of every pleasure that the affecthe crown of life. tion of his family and philosophical studies could imSavages, having no idea of the religious or philo- part. Nevertheless, he was immoveable; the scafsophical destiny of man, believe they performn a duty to fold could not intimidate him: his health, cruelly imtheir parents by depriving them of life when they be- paired, weakened not his resolution; he found strength come old; this act is founded on the same principle as in that fire of the soul, which is inexhaustible because suicide. It is certain that happiness, in the accepta- it is eternal. He met death because it was his choice, tion given it by the passions, that the enjoyments of sacrificing happiness, with life, to conscience; immoself-love at least, exist but in a small degree for old lating every enjoyment to this sentiment of duty, the age; but it is this, which, by the development of moral greatest wonder of moral nature; that which fertilizes dignity, seems to announce the approach of another the heart, as, in physical order, the sun enlightens the life, as in the long days of the north, the twilight of the world. England, the birth-place of this virtuous man, evening is confounded with the dawn of the ensuing where so many other citizens have so unostentatiously day. I have seen these venerable countenances ab- sacrified their lives to virtue, England, I say, is neversorbed entirely with the future; they seem to announce, theless the country in which suicide is most frequently as a prophet, the old man who no longer interests him- committed: and we are, with reason, astonished that a self' with the remainder of his life, but is regenerated, nation, in *which religion exercises so noble an empire, by the elevation of his soul, as if he had already passed should offer the example of such an aberration: but the barriers of the tornb. It is thus we must arm our- they, who represent the English as cold in character, selves against misfortune; it is thus that in the strength suffer themselves to be entirely deceived by the reserve of life itself; destiny often gives the signal of this detach- of their manner. The English character, in general, is ment from existence, that time sooner or later exacts very active, and even impetuous; their admirable confrom us.' You have very humble thoughts,' some men stitution, which develops the moral faculties in the highwill say, convinced that pride consists in what we exact est degree, is of itself able to sustain their need of from destiny, and from others; while, on the contrary, action and reflection; monotony of existence does not it consists in what we exact from ourselves. These sit them, although they often inflict it upon themvery men contrast Christianity with the philosophy of selves; they then diversify, by the exercises of the body, the ancients, and pretend that their doctrine was much she sort of life which to us appears uniform. mole favorable to energy of character, than that whose No nation loves enterprise so much to the English, Aa 108 REF L E CTIONS and from one end of the world to the other, from the she feels assured of celestial happiness! Two beings, falls of the Rhine, to the cataracts of the Nile, if any said to be estimable, introduce religion as a third, into thing singular and daring is attempted, it is by an the most bloody of actions! two Christians bring murEnglishman. Extraordinary wagers, sometimes even der into comparison with the communion, by leaving blameable excesses, are a proof of the vehemence of open beside them the canticle, chanted by the faithful, their character. Their respect for all laws, that is to when they meet together to offer up their vows of say, for moral law, for political law, and the laws of obedience to the divine model of patience and resignadecorum, represses the outward indications of their tion! What delirium in the woman, and what an abuse natural ardor; but it does not the less exist; and when of faculties in the man! for must he not have rerarderd circumstances do not give it nourishment, when ennui himself as an assassin, although he had obtained the takes possession of their lively imaginations, it produces consent of the wretched being he destroyed? Did the incalculable ravages. ever-fluctuating will of a human being give to a fellowIt is also maintained, that the climate of England creature the right of infringing the eternal principles of tends particularly to melancholy: I cannot judge of it, justice and humanity! He killed himself, it will be for the sky of liberty has always appeared to me purer said, almost at the same moment with his friend; but than any other; but I cannot think that we ought to can any one believe he has so ferocious a right over the attribute the frequent examples of suicide altogether life of another, at the same time also that he takes away to this physical cause. The climate of the north is his own! much less agreeable than that of England, and yet they And had this man, who wished to die, no country. are less subject to disgust of life, because the mind has Could he not have fought for it 1 WVas there no noble there less need of impulse and variety. Another cause or perilous enterprise in which he might have set a also which renders suicide more frequent in England is glorious example! What is that he has given. He the extreme importance which is attached to public did not expect, I imagine, that mankind would one day opinion: as soon as a man's reputation is impaired, life agree to renounce, in the sight of heaven, the gift of becomes insupportable tohim. This great dread of cn- life; and yet, what other consequence could be drawn sure is certainly a very salutary restraint for most men; from the suicide of these two persons, who, as is supbut there is something still more sublime in having an posed, knew no other misfortune than that of existence? asylum in ourselves, and there to find, as in a sanctuary, What then: there remained to these faithful fiiends the voice of god inviting us to repent of our faults, or a year perhaps, at least a day, to see and hear each recompensing us for our secret good intentions. other, and they voluntarily destroyed this happiness. Suicide is very rare among the people of the south. One of them was capable of deforming those features The air they breathe attaches them to life; the empire in which he had read noble thoughts; the other no of public opinion is less absolute in a country where longer wished to hear the voice which had excited them there is less need of society; the enjoyments of nature in her soul; and every thing descriptive of hatred they suffice for the rich as well as the poor; there is some- called love! The most perfect innocence, we are asthing in the spring of Italy which communicates hap- sured, was mingled with it; is this enough to justify piness to every being. so barbarous a weakness. And what advantage do Germany furnishes many examples of suicide, but not such delusions give to those who consider enthuthe causes are various, and often whimsical, as is na- siasm as an evil. True enthusiasm should be the tural amongst a people, where a metaphysical enthusi- companion of reason, because it is the heat that deasm prevails, which has yet no fixed object nor useful velops it. Can there exist opposition between two end. The defects of the Germans are much more the qualities natural to the soul, and which are both rays ot result of their situation, than of their character, and the same fire. When we say that reason is irreconthey will no doubt correct them, when there shall exist cileable with enthusiasm, it is because we put calculaamong them a political state of things, that will call into tion in the place of reason, and folly in the place of enaction men worthy of being citizens. thusiasm. There is reason in enthusiasm, and enthuAn event that happened recently at Berlin, may give siasm in reason, whenever they spring from nature and an idea of the singular exaltation of which the Germans are without any mixture of affectation. are susceptible.* The particular motives, which could We are astonished at discovering affectation and lead any two individuals astray, are of little importance; vanity in a suicide; those sentiments, so contemptible but the enthusiasm with which art act has been spoken even in this life, what do they not become in the preof, which ought rather to sue for indulgence, merits sence of death It appears that nothing is so profound, the most serious attention. If two persons, profoundly nor so powerful, as to prove a barrier against the most unhappy, had destroyed themselves after imploring the terrible of acts: hut mai has so much difficulty in piccommiseration of sensible beings, and recommending turing to himself the end of his existence, that he assothemselves to the prayers of the pious, no one could ciates even with the tomb the most miserable interests have refused a tear to grief, that had driven theim to of this world. In fact, we cannot avoid discerning sendistraction, whatever had been the species of folly to timental affectation on the one side, and philosophical h it prompted. But can any one represent a mu- timental affectation on the one side, and philosophical which at prompted. Buth can any one represent a mu- vanity on the other, in the manner in which the double tual assassination as the sublime of reason, of religion, suicide at Berlin was accomplished. The mother sends and of love! Can we give the name of virtue to the her daughter to an entertainment the night before she conduct of a woman, who voluntarily absolves herself intended to kill herself, as if the death of a mother from the duties of daughter, wife, and mother,-to that ought to be considered as a festival by her child, and ef a man who lends her his courage, thus to get rid of as if it were already necessary to fill her young heart life! with the most false impressions of a bewildered imaginaWhat! this woman has sufficient confidence in the tion! This mother clothes herself in new attire as a action she is committing, to write before she dies,'that holy victim; in her letter to her farmilly she enters into she will watch over her daughter from heaven:' and a minute detail of household affairs, in order to show vhile the righteous often tremble on the bed of death, her indifference as to the act she is about to commit;` M. de K -- and Madame de V —--—, two persons of indifference, great god, in disposing of herself without very estimable character, left Berlin, the place of their abode, hy order! in passing from life to death without the aid towards the end ofithe year 1811, to repair to an inn at Potsdam, of dty or nature to overle the abyss where they passed same time in taking refreshment, and in of duty or nature overleap the ass csining together tfe canticles of the holy sacrament. Then, by The Tman, who, about to kill his friend, solemnizes a mnuslal co sent, the man blew the woman s brains out, andl kil.,-tival with her, and excites himself by songs and led himself the minute after. Madame de V —--- had a fteher' liquors, as if lie feared the return of jkist and reasonaa husband, and a daughiter. M. de Kt — was a poet, and an officer uf merit, ble elnotions: this man, I say, does he. not resemble as ON SUICIDE. 109 author destitute of genius, who has recourse to a real Let's do it after the high Roman fashion, catastrophe to produce effect she could not attain in fic- And make death proud to take us.' tion? True superiority of every kind has nothing of caprice in it,: it is a more energetic and profound in- In short, if we are incapable of that Christian resigtensity in the impressions which the mass of mankind nation, which makes us submit to the ordeal of life, at experiences. Genius is, in many respects, popular; least we should return to the classical beauty of charthat is to say, it has points of contact with the man- acter of the ancients, and make glory our divinity, ner in which most people feel. It is not thus, with a when we do not feel ourselves able to sacrifice this bombastic mind, or a disordered imagination: those glory itself to the highest of all virtues. who torment themselves to attract public attention, by We believe we have shown that suicide, whose end withdrawing it from others, fancy they have made dis- is, to rid ourselves of life, carries with it no character coveries in the unexplored regions of the human heart. of devotion to duty, and cannot, of course, merit the They go so far as to imagine that what is revolting to name of enthusiasm. the feelings of the greater part of the world is of a Genius, and even courage, are only worthy P)f commore elevated character than that which touches and mendation when they tend to this devotion, which is captivates them. What a gigantic vanity is that which able to produce greater miracles than genius. We places us, if I may so speak, out of our kind. The have seen the greatest ability overcome, but the comeloquence and the inspiration of genius revives what bination of religious and patriotic sentiment never is had often existed in the hearts of the most obscure in- subdued. There is nothing truly great without the dividuals, and subdues their apathy or vulgar interests. mixture of some virtue; every other rule of judgment Great minds, by their writings or their actions, some- necessarily leads to error. The events of this world, times scatter the ashes which covered the sacred fire: however important they may appear to us, are some. but to create, so to speak, a new world, in which it times moved by the smallest springs, and chance has will be virtuous to abandon our duties; religious, to nmuch to do with them. But there is neither littleness rebel against divine authority; affectionate, to immo- nor chance in a generous sentiment; whether it imlate what is dear to lts; is the melancholy result of pel us to offer up life, or only exact the sacrifice of a sentiments without harmony, of faculties without force, day; whether it win a diadem, or be lost in oblivion; and of a desire of that celebrity, to the attainment of whether it inspire master-pieces of art, or prompt to which, the gifts of nature are not subsidiary. obscure benefits, is of no consequence; it is still a I should not have taken the pains to dwell upon an generous sentiment, and it is by this standard alone act of madness, which may be excused by peculiar cir- that man ought to admire the words and actions of man. curnstances, of the detais of which we are to a certain There are examples of suicide in the French nation, extent ignorant, if the event had not found apologists but wte cannot generally attribute them to the melanin Germany. Thte taste of German writers for the choly of their character, nor to the elevation of their spirit of hypothesis is found in almost all the relations ideas. Positive evils have led some Frenchmen to this of life; they cannot be prevailed upon to devote all act, and they have committed it with intrepidity, but the powers of the soul to sitnple and aclknowvledged also with the thoughtlessness which often characterize truths; it may be said they are as ambitious to make them. Nevertheless, the multitude of emigrants, which innovations in sentiment and conduct as in literature. the revolution produced, have supported the most cruel Yet physical nature invents nothing better than the privations with a sort of equanimity of which no other sun, the sea, forests, and rivers. Why then should not nation would have been capable. Their genius disthe affections of the heart also be always the same in poses them more to action than to reflection, and this their principle although varied in their effects Is manner of life diverts them from the troubles of existthere not much more soul in what is understood by all, ence. WVhat cost most to Frenchmen is separation from than in these human creations, invented, so to speak, their country; and, indeed, what a country was theirs like a fictionl made at pleasure 3 before faction had renrt, before despotism had degraded The Germans are endowed with most excellent it! What a country should we not see regenerated, if qualities, and most extensive understandings; but it is it were the voice of the nation that disposed of itu from books the greater part of them are formed, and Inagination paints to us this beautiful France, which the result is a habit of analysis and sophistry, a certain would welcome us under its azure heavens;-those research after ingenuity, which effects the manly de- friends who would melt with tenderness in beholding cisionl of their conduct. The energy that knows not us again;-those recollections of youth, those traces where to employ itself, inspires the most extravagant of our relatives we should find at every step: and this resolutions:'btut when they shall be able to consecrate return appears to us like a terrestrial resurrection; like their powers to the independence of their country, another life granted to us here below:-but, if celestial when they shall be regenerated as a nation, and thus goodness has not reserved for us this happiness, wherereanimate the heart of Europe, paralyzed by slavery, ever we may be, we will oiler up our prayers for this we shall hear no more of sickly sentimentality * of country, which will be so glorious, if it ever learns to literary suicides; of abstracted commentaries on sub- appreciate liberty, or, in other words, the political jects which shock the soul; they must then imitate guarantee of justice. those stron( and hardy people of antiquity, whose character, constant, upright, and resolute, never suffered - them to undertake any thing arduous without accomplishing it; who considered it as pusillanimous for a NOTICE OF LADY JANE GRAY. citizen to shrink from a patriotic resolution, as for a soldier to fly on the d(lay of battle Lady Jane Gray was grand-niece of Henry VITT, by Thle gift of existence is a constant miracle; the her grandnother Mary, sister of that king, and widow thoughts and feelings, which compose it, have some- of Louis XII; she married Lord Guildf-rd, son of thing so sublime in them, that we cannot, without the duke of Northumberland. who caused Edward, astonishment, contemplate our being by the aidl of the sotl of Henry VIII, to call him to the throne by his faculties of this being. Shall we then squander, in a will, in 1533, to the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth, moment of impatience and ennui, the breath by which Catherine of Arragon. was the mother of the former we have felt love, recognized genius, and adored the her intolerant catholicismn mnadJ her dreaded by tMr deity'l Shakspeare says, in speaking of suicide, English Protestants. — nd the birth of the daughter o Anina Boleyn was liable to be countested. —' And then, what's brave, what's noble, The duke of Northumtberland urged these motiveu 110 REFLECTIONS Edward VI. Lady Jane Gray, not being herself sa- ficent to bear us over it; the goal is yet nearer to me tisfied of the validity of her right to the crown, refused than to an old man, but the sufferings accumulated upon at first to accede to the will of Edward, but at length my last days will be bitter. the entreaties of her husband, whom she tenderly lov- Ascham announced to me that the queen permitted ed, and over whom Northumberland exercised great me to breathe the air in the garden of my prison, and I authority, drew from her the fatal consent they desir- cannot express the joy I felt at it; it was such that our ed. She reigned nine days, or rather her father-in-law, poor friend had not at first the courage to disturb it. the Duke of Northumberland, availed himself of her We descended together, and he permitted me to enname to govern during that time. joy for some time that nature of which I had been for Mary, eldest daughter of Henry VIII, however several months deprived; it was one of those days at overcame her in spite of the resistance of the partisans the close of winter which announces spring. I know of the reformation: and her cruel and vindictive char- not if that beautiful season itself would so much have acter signalized itself by the death of the Duke of Nor- affected my imagination as this presentments of its thumbealnd, his son Guildford, and the innocent lady return; the trees turned their still leafless branches Jane Gray. She was but eighteen years of age when towards the sun; the grass was already green; a few she perished: yet her name was celebrated for her premature flowers seemed, by their perfume, to form a profound knowledge of ancient and modern languages, prelude to the melody of nature, when she shonld reand her letters in Latin and Greek, still extant, evince appear in all her magnificence! The air was of an very uncommon faculties for her years. She possessed undefinable softness it seemed as if I heard the voice the most perfect piety, and her whole existence was of god, in the invisible and all-powerful breath, which, marked by sweetness and dignity. Her father and at every moment restored me again to life-to life! mother strongly urged her, notwithstanding her re- What have I said! I have thought until this day that pugnance, to ascend the throne of England; heriniother it was my right, and now I receive its last benefits as herself bore the train of her daughter on the day of her the adieus of a friend. coronation; and her father, the duke of Suffolk, made I advanced with Ascham towards the borders of the an attempt to revive her party, while she was still a Thames, and we seated ourselves in the yet leafless prisoner, and had been for some months condemned to wood, which was soon to be clothed with verdure; the death. It was this attempt which served as a pretext waves seemed to sparkle with the reflection of the light for executing her sentence, and the Duke of Suffolk of heaven; but although this spectacle was brilliant as perished a short time after his daughter. a festival, there is always something melancholy in the The following letter might have been written in the course of the waves and no one can long contemplate month of February, 1554. It is certain that at this them, without yielding to those reveries whose charm period, which is that of the death of lady Jane Gray, consists, above every thing, in a sort of detachment she cultivated in her prison, a constant correspondence from ourselves. Ascham perceived the direction of with her family and friends, and that even to her latest my thoughts, and suddenly seizing my hands, and bathmoments her philosophical disposition and religious ing it with tears,' Oh thou,' said he,'who art ever my firmness never forsook her. sovereign, is it for me to acquaintyou with the fate which menaces you! Your father has assembled your parLady Jane Gray to Doctor Alymer. tisans to oppose Mary, and this queen, justly detested, charges you with all the love your name has excited.'' It is to you, my worthy friend, I owe that religious His sobs interrupted him.' Continue,' said I to him; instruction, that life of faith, which can alone endure' Oh, my friend, remember those contemplative beings, for ever: mv last thoughts are addressed to you in the who with a firm countenance, have looked upon the solemn trial to which I am condemned. Three months death even of those who were dear to them; they knew have elapsed since the sentence of death, which the whence we came, and whether we go, that is enough. queen caused to be pronounced against my husband' Vell,' said he'your sentence is to be executed, but, and myself, as a punishment for that unhappy reign of I bring that succor which has delivered so many illusnine days, for that crown of thorns, which rested on trious men from the proscription of tyrants.' This old my head only to mark it for destruction. I believed, man, the friend of my youth, then tremblingly offered I avow to you, that the intention of Mary was, to inti- me the poison, with which he wonld have saved me, at midate me by this sentence, but I did not imagine that the peril of his life. I remembered how often we had she wished to shed my blood, which is also hers. It together admired certain voluntary deaths among the appeared to me my youth would have been sufficient to ancients, and I fell into profound reflection, as if the excuse me, when it should be proved that for a long lights of Christianity were suddenly extinguished in me, time I resisted the melancholy honors with which I and I was abandoned to that indescision, from which was menaced, and that my deference to the wishes of even man, in the most simple occurrence, finds so the Duke of Northumberland my father-in-law, was much diffiuclty in extricating himself. Ascham fell on alone able to mislead me to the fault I have committed; his knees before me; his gray head was bowed down but it is not to accuse my enemies, I write to you; in my presence, and covering his eyes with one hanid, they are the instruments of the will of god, like every with the other he presented me the fatal resource he other event of this world, and I ought to reflect but had prepared. I gently repulsed his hand; and renoupon my own emotions. Enclosed in this tower, vating myself through prayer, found power to answer I live upon my thoughts, and my moral and religi- him as followsous conduct consists only in conflicts within myself.' Ascham,' said I,' you now with what delight I Yesterday our friend Ascham came to see me, and read with you the philosophers and poets of Greece and the sight of himn at first gave me a lively pleasure; it Rome; the masculine beauties of their language, the recalled to my mind the recollection of the delightful simple energy of their minds, will for ever remain inand profitable hours I have passed with him in the comparable. Society, such as is constituted in our study of the ancients. I wished to converse with him days, has filled most minds with frivolity and vanity, only on those illustrious deaths, the descriptions of and we are not ashamed to live without reflection, withwhich have opened to me a train of reflections without out endeavoring to understand the wonders of the end. Ascham, you know, is serious and calm; he world, which are created to instruct man by brilliant leans upon old ange a a support against the evls oi and durable symbols. The ancients have gone much existence; in fact, the old age of a reflectiung beyinv beorld us in this respect, because they made themnis not feeble; experienrce and faithfortify it, and when selvces but what revelation has planted in the soul the space whlich remains is so short, a last effort is auf- I Of a Christian is greater than man. FYrom the ideal of ON SUICIDE. 111 the arts, even to the rules of conduct, every thing less inspire me with dread; does death bear a diadem should have relation to religious faith, since life has no on his pale front! Is he not always armed with the other end than to teach mortality. If I fly from the same terrors 1 If it were to nothing he conducted us, signal misfortune to which I am destined, I should not would it be worth while to dispute with this shadow. fortify, by my example, the hope of those on whom If it is the call of god through this veil of darkness, my fate ought to have an influence. The ancients ele- then day is behind this night, and heaven is concealed vated their souls by the contemplation of their own from us only by vain phantoms.' powers-Christians have a witness before whom they' What!' said our friend, with a still agitated voice, must live and die; the ancients sought to glorify hu- and whom, at all other times, -I had seen so calm,' are man nature; Christians consider themselves b.hut as you aware that this punishment may be grievous, that the manifestation of god upon earth; the ancients plac- it may be protracted, that an unskilful hand-'' Stop,' ed in the first rank of virtues, that death which freed said I,'I know it, but this will not be.''Whence them from the power of their oppressors, Christians pre- comes this confidrence' I'From my own weakness,' fer that devotion, which subjects us to the will of Provi- replied I.'I have always dreaded physical suffering, dence. Activity and patience have their times by turns; and my efforts to acquire courage to brave it, have been we must make use of our will as long as we may thus vain. I believe, therefore, I shall be always spared it; serve others and perfect ourselves; but when destiny for there is much secret protection extended towards is, in a manner, face to face with us, our courage con- Christians, even when they seem most miserable, and sists in awaiting it; and to look steadily on our fate what we feel to be above our strength, scarcely ever is more noble than to turn from it. The soul thus con- happens to us. We generally know only the exterior centrating itself in its own mysteries, every external of man's character; what passes within himself, may action becomes more terrestrial than resignation.'' I still afford new hints during thousands of ages. Irrewill not seek,' said Ascham,'to dispute with you ligion has rendered the mind superficial; we are capopinions whose unshaken firmness may be necessary to tivated by the external appearance of things, by circumyou; I am troubled only on account of the sufferings to stance, by fortune; the true treasures of thought, as which your fate condemns you; will you be able to well as of imagination, are the relations of the human support them? And this expectation of a mortal heart with its creator; there are to be found presentistroke, of a fixed hour, will it not be beyond your ments, there prodigies, there oracles, and all that the strength? If you should terminate your fate yourself, ancients believed they saw in nature, was but the rewould it not be less cruel'.'We must,' replied I, flection of what they experienced within themselves,' let the divine spirit take back what he has given. Im- without their knowledge.' mortality commences on this side the tomb, when by Ascham and I were silent. for some time; an unour own will we break off with life; in this situation, easiness pervaded me, and I dared not express it, so the internal impressions of the soul are more delightful much did it trouble me.' Have you seen my husband.' than you can imagine. The source of enthusiasm be- said I.'Yes,' replied Ascham.'Did you consult comes altogether independent of the objects which sur- him on the offer you were about to make me.'Yes,' rounds us, and god alone then constitutes all our des- answered he again.'Finish, I pray you,' said I.'If tiny, in the most inward sanctuary of our souls.'' But,' Guildford and my conscience do not agree, which of replied Ascham,' why give to your enemies, to the these two powers should beimperative on me t''Lord cruel queen, to a worthless crowd, the unworthy spec- Guildford,' said he,' did not express an opinion oil the tacle' part you ought to take, but, as to him, his resolution to He could not proceed. perish on the scaffold, is immovable.'' Oh, my friend,' cried I,' how I thank you for having left me the merit'If I should free myself,' said I,' even by death, from of a choice; if I had sooner known of the resolution of the fury of the queen, I should irritate her pride, and Guildford, I should not even have deliberated, and love should not serve as the instrument of her repentance. would have been sufficient to animate me to what reliWho knows how far the example I shall give may do gion commands. Should I not share the fate of such good to my fellow-creatures. How can I judge of the a husband 1 Should I spare myself a single one of his place my remembrance shall occupy in the chain of the sufferings. And does not every step of his towards events of history? By destroying myself, what shall death mark my path also 3' Ascham. then perceiving I teach man but the just horror inspired by a violent my resolution not to be shaken, departed from me, sad outrage, and the sentiment of pride which leads us to and pensive, promising to see me again. avoid it 3 But, in supporting this terrible fate by the Doctor Feckenhain, chaplain to'the queen, came a firmness which religion imparts to me, I inspire vessels, few hours after, to announce to me, that the day of my beaten, like myself, by the storm, with a greater confi- death was fixed for the next Friday, from which five dence in the anchor of faith, which has sustained-me.' days still separated me. I acknowledge to you, it' The people,' said Ascham,' believe ail those guilty seemed as if I were prepared for nothing, so much did who perish as criminals.'' Falsehood,'.replied I,'may the designation of a day appal me. I tried to conceal deceive individuals for a while, but nations and time my emotion, but Feckenham undoubtedly perceived it, always make truth triumphant: there is an eternity for for he hastened to avail himself of my trouble, to offer all that belongs to virtue, and what we have done for me life, if I would change my religion. You see, my her will advance even to the sea, however small the worthy friend, that God came to my assistance at that rivulet we may have been during our life. moment, for the necessity of repulsing an offer, so un-'No, I shall not blush to submit to the punishment worthy of me, restored to me the strength I had lost. of the guilty, for it is my innocence itself calls me to Doctor Feckenham wished to enter into controversy it, and I should impair this sentiment of innocence by with me, which I prevented, by observing to him,' that perpetrating an act of violence; we cannot accomplish my understanding being necessarily obscured by the it ourselves, without disturbing the serenity the soul situation in which I was placed, I should not, dying as should feel on its approach towards heaven-'' Oh! I was, discuss truths of which I had been convinced what is there more violent,' cried our friend,' than this when my mind was in all its strength.' He endeavored bloody death'' Is not the blood of martyrs,' replied to intimidate me, by saying that he should see me no I,' a balm for the wounds of the unfortunate?'' This more, neither in this world nor in heaven, from which death,' answered he,' inflicted by man, by the murder- my religious belief had excluded me.' You would ocous ax, that a ruffian shall dare to raise over your roy- casion me more alarm than my executioners,' replied I, al head!'' My friend,' said I,' if my last moments' if I could believe you; but the religion to which we were encompassed with respect, thev would not the sacrifice life, is always the true one for the heart. The 112 REFLECTIONS ON SUICIDE. light of reason is very vacillating in questions of such self may conceive of something better than this earth; moment, and I cling to the principle of sacrifice; of but, if it be unequal to this, is it for us to consider the that I can have no doubt.' deity merely as a poet, who is unable to produce a This conversation with doctor Feckenham revived second work superior to the first?' This simple remy dejected soul; providence had just granted what flection restored me to myself, and I blushed at the Ascham desired fcu me, a voluntary death; I did not obliquity into which the dread of death had betrayed destroy myself, but I refused to live;-and the scaffold, me! Oh! my friend! what it costs me to fathom this accepted by my will, seemed no longer but as the altar thought! Abysses, still fdeeper and deeper, open unchosen by the victim. To renounce life when we can der each other! purchase it but at the price of conscience, is the only In four days I shall no longer exist; that bird which kind of suicide which should be permitted to a virtuous flies through the air will survive me; I have less time being. to live than he; the inanimate objects which surround Convinced I had done my dutyr I dared to count me will preserve their form, and nothing of me will reupon my courage; but soon again my attachment to main upon earth, but the remembrance of my friends existence, with which I had sometimes reproached my- Inconceivable mystery of the soul, which foresees its self, in the days of my felicity, revived in my feeble end here below, and yet cannot prevent it. The hand heart. Ascham came again the next day, and we visit- directs the coursers who conduct us: thought cannot ed, once more the borders of the Thames, the pride of obtain a moment's victory over death! Pardon my our delightful country. I endeavored to resume my weakness, oh my father in religion, you, who have so habitual subjects of conversation. I recited some tenderly cherished me: we shall be reunited in heaven; passages from the beautiful poetry of the Iliad and from but shall I still hear that affecting voice which revealed Virgil, that we had studied together; but poetry serves to me a god of mercy? Shall these eyes contemplate above all, to penetrate us with a tender enthusiasm for your venerable features? Oh, Gulildford! oh, my husexistence; the seductive mixture of thoughts and im- band! you whose noble figure is unceasingly present ages, of nature and the soul, of harmony, of language, to my heart, shall I behold you again, such as you are, and of the emotions it retraces, intoxicates us with the among the angels whose image you are upon earthq power of feeling and admiring; and these pleasures no But what do I say l My feeble soul desires nothing longer exist for me! I then turned the conversation beyond the tomb but the actual return of life!to the more severe writings of the philosophers. As- THURSDAY. chamin considers Plato as a soul predestined to Christi- My husband has requested to see me to-day for the anity; but even he, and the greater part of the ancients, last time. I have avoided that moment in which joy are too proud of the intellectual strength of the human and despair would be too closely blended. I dreaded mind; they enjoy so much, of the faculty of thought, the loss of the ecsignatiol I now feel. You have seen that their desires do not lead them towards another life; that my heart has had but too much attachment to they believe they can produce an evocation of it in happiness; let me not relapse into it again. My father, themselves, by the energy of contemplation: I also do you approve of me Has not this sacrifice expiated once derived the purest delight from meditating upon all I no longer fear that existence will still be dear heaven, genius, and nature. At the remembrance of to me. this, a senseless regret of life took possession of me. I represented it to myself in colors oompared with TH a MORNING OF THE EXEcTION. which, the world to come appeared no more than an Oh! mrly father! I have seen him! he marched to abstraction destitute of charms.'Ilow,' said I to his execution with as firm a step as if he had commyself,' will the eternal duration of sentiment be equal manded those by whom he was conducted. Guildford to this succession of hope and fear, which renews, ill raised his eyes towards my prison, then directed them so lively a manner, the tenderest affections? Will the still higher; I understood him: he continued on his knowledge of the mysteries of the universe ever equal way. At the turn of the road which leads to the place the inexpressible attraction of the veil which covers where death is prepared for both of us, he stopped to them Will certainty have the flattering illusion of behold me once more; his last looks blessed her, who doubt? Will the brilliancy of truth evering afford as was his companion upon the throne and upon the scafdoubt!. Will the brilliancy of truth ever afford as fold much enjoyment, as the research and the discovery of HOUR FTR. it? What will youth, hope, memory, affection be, if the course of time is arrested? In fine, can the su- They have carried the remains of Guildford under preme being, in all his glory, give to the creature a the windows of the tower; a sheet covered his mutimore enchanting present than love' lated corpse;-through his sheet a horrible image preIhumbly confess to you, my worthy friend, that these sented itself. If the same stroke was not reserved for fears were impious. Ascham, who, in our conversation me, could earth support the weight of my affliction? the evening before, had appeared less religious than my- My father, how could I regret life so deeply? Oh holy self, at once availed himself of my rebellious grief. death! gift of heaven as well as life! thou art now my'You ought not,' said he,' to make use of benefits to tutelary angel! thou restorest me to serenity! my cast a doubt upon the power of the benefactor, whose sovereign master has disposed of me, but since he will gift is this life that you regret? And if its imperfect en- reunite me to my husband, he has demanded nothinle joyments seem to you so valuable, why should you be- of me surpassing my strength, and I replace ul ik;" lieve them irreparable? Certainly our imagination it- without fear in his hands? TREATISE ON S E L F-K N O W L E D G E; SHOWING THE NATURE AND BENEFIT OF THAT IMPORTANT SCIENCE, AND THE WAY TO ATTAIN IT: INTERMIXED WVITH VARIOUS REFLECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS ON HUMAN NATURE. BY JOHN MASON, A. M. /~ TO WHICH IS ADDED A SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF THE AUTHOR. Man know thyself, an knowledge centers there.' DR. YourG. HARTFORD: PUBLISHED BY SILAS ANDRUS & SON. 1850. CONTENTS OF THE TREATISE ON SELF-KNOWILEDGE. PAGE PAGE CHAP. I.-The Nature and Importance of the CHAP. II.-Self-Knowledge leads to a wise and Subject, 5 steady Conduct, 26 CHAP. II.-The several Branches of Self-k(nowl- CHAP. III.-Humility the Effect of Self-Knowledge. We must know what Sort of Creatures edge,.26 we are, and what we shall be,. 6 CHAP. IV.-Charity, another Effect of SelfCHAP. III.-The several Relations in which we Knowledge, 27 stand to God, to Christ, and our Fellow Crea- CHAP. V.-Moderation the Effect.of Self-Knowltures,.8 edge,. 27 CHAP. IV.-We must duly consider the Rank CHAP. VI.-Self-Knowledge improves the Judgand Station of Life in which providence hath ment,.28 placed us, and what it is that becomes and CHAP. VII.-Self-Knowledge directs to the proper adorn us,.10 Exercise of Self-Denial, 28 CHAP. V.-Every Man should be well acquainted CHAP. VIII.-Self-Knowledge promotes our Usewith his own Talents and Capacities; and in fulness in the World, 29 what Manner they are to be exercised and im- CHAP. IX.-Self-Knowledge leads to a Decorum;proved to the greatest Advantage,. 11 and Consistency of Character,... 29 CHAP. VI.-We must be well acquainted with CHAP. X.-Piety the Effect of Self-Knowledge, 30 our Inabilities, and those Things in which we CHAP. XI.-Self-Knowledge teaches us rightly are naturally deficient, as well as those in which to perform the Duties of Religion,.. 30 we excel, 12 CHAP. XII.-Self-Knowledge the best PreparaCHAP. VII. —Concerning the Knowledge of our tion for Death. 31 Constitutional Sins,.12 CHAP. VIII.-The Knowledge of our most dan- PART III. gerous Temptations necessary to Self-Knowledge,.13 Shewing how Self-Knowledge is to be attained. CHAP. IX.-Self-Knowledge discovers the secret CHAP. I.-Self-Examination necessary to SelfPrejudices of the Heart,.14 Knowledge,.32 CHAP. X.-The Necessity and Means of know- CHAP. II.-Constant Watchfulness necessary to ing our natural Temper,... 17 Self-Knowledge, 34 CHAP. XI.-Concerning the secret Springs of CHAP. III.-We should have some Regard to the our Actions,.. 18 Opinions of others concerning us particularly of CHAP. XII. —Every one that knows himself is, our Enemies, *. 35 in a particular Manner, sensible how far he is CHAP. IV.-Frequent Converse with Superiors a governed by a Thirst for Applause,.. 18 Help to Self-Knowledge,.36 CHAP. XIII.-What kind of Knowledge we are CHAP. V.-Of cultivating such a Temper as will already furnished with, and what Degree of be the best Disposition to Self-Knowledge,. 36 Esteem we set upon it,.. 19 CHAP. VI. -To be sensible of our False-KnowlCHAP. XIV.-Concerning the Knowledge, Guard, edge a good Step to Self-Knowledge,. 36 and Government of our Thoughts,.. 20 CHAP. VII.-Self-Inspection peculiarly necessary CHAP. XV.-Concerning the Memory,.. 23 upon scme particular Occasions,. 37 CHAP. XVI.-Concerning the Mental Taste, 23 CHAP. VIII.-To know ourselves we must wholCHAP. XVII.-Of our great and governing Views ly abstract from external Appearances,. 38 in Life,.24 CHAP. IX.-The Practice of Self-Knowledge a CHAP. XVIII.-How to know the true State of great Means to promote it,.. 38 our Souls; and whether we are fit to die, 25 CHAP. X.-Fervent and frequent Prayer the PART II. most effectual Means of attaining true SelfShowing the great Excellencies and Advantage of this Knowledge, 40 Kind of Science. CHAP I.-Self-Knowledge the Spring of Self- APPENDIX. 40 Possession,...... 25 SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF THE REV. JOHN MASON. A. M. We find John Mason, author of the' Treatise on' And the principal view that I had m putting these Self-Knowledge,' was born at Dunmow, in Essex, thoughts together, was the benefit of youth, and espeabout the year 1705: his father is said to have been a cially such of them as are students and candidates for dissenting minister, and to have presided over a con- the sacred ministry; for which they will find no science gregation, first at Daventry, in Northamptonshire, and more immediately necessary, next to a good acquainafter at Dunmow, in Essex; then at Spaldwick, in tance with the word of god, than that which is recomLincolnshire, at which place he died, in the year 1723; mended to them in the following treatise; to wnich and had a brother, William Mason, a clergyman, who every branch of human literature is subordinate, and held two livings in the established church. These two ought to be subservient. For it is certain, that the great brothers were the children of the Rev. John Mason M. end of all philosophy, both natural and moral, is to know A., Rector of Water Stratford, Bucks, author of' Se- ourselves, and to know god. The highest learning is lect Remains,' published after his death, and strongly to be wise, and the greatest wisdom is to be good. recommended by Dr Watts: he died, A. D. 1694, after' It was a very just and sensible answer which Agesitwenty years residence, universally beloved as a faithful laus, the Spartan king, returned to one who asked him, servant of his master, whose doctrine he cultivated What that was in which youth ought principally to be with fervor of spirit seldom equalled, if ever surpassed. instructed'l He replied, That which they will have It appears the author of'Self-Knowledge' received most need to practice when they are men. Were this his education under the Rev. John Jennings, master-of single rule but carefully attended to in the method of the seminary at Kilworth, in Leicestershire, and in the education, it might probably be conducted in a manner 1720, removed to Hinkley. in the same county. Having much more to the advantage of our youth than it ordifinished his studies, he accepted the offer of private tu- narily is. And what is there in life which youth will tor and chaplain to - Freak, and resided at his seat, have more frequent occasion to practice than this. near Hatfield. He remained but a short time in this What is there, of which they afterwards more regret situation; and in the year 1730, became pastor of a the want 1 What is there, in which they want greater congregation at Dorking, in Surry. He had resided help and assistance, than the right government of their ten years at Dorking before he published any of his passions and prejudices And what more proper seaworks; and the first was a sermon, published at the de- son to receive those assistances, and to lay a foundasire of his friends; the subject was,' Subjection to the tion for this difficult, but very important science, than Higher Powers:' and in 1743, was published, but with- the early part of youth? out his name,'A Plain and Modest Plea for Chris-' It may be said, that it is properly the office and care tianity; or, a Sober and Rational Appeal to Infidels.' of parents to watch over and correct the tempers of This established the author's fame, and brought him their children, in the first years of their infancy, when many friends; among the number, Dr Walker, master it may easiest be done. But if it-be not done effectuof the academy at Mile End; who, unasked for, pro- ally then, as it very seldom is, there is the more necescured for the author the degre of M. A. from the col- sity for it afterwards. But the truth is, it is the proper lege of Edinburgh. In the year 1745, his' Treatise office and care of all who have the charge of youth, on Self-Knowledge' was published, which, his fame and ought to be looked upon as the most important and being already established, contributed to bring forth necessary part of education. numerous friends. It is supposed to be one of the'It was the observation of a great divine and remost valuable treatises on piety that was ever publish- former, that he who acquires his learning at the exed in the English language, or in any foreign one; pense of his morals, is the worse for his education. which has induced it to be translated, and published in And we may add, that he who does not improve his several languages on the continent. temper, together with his understanding, is not much In the preface, our author thus describes his motive the better for it. For he ought to measure his progress for publishing this work- in science by the improvement of his morals; and to'The subject of the ensuing treatise is of great im- remember, that he is no farther a learned man, than he portance; and yet I do not remember to have seen it is a wise and good man; and that he cannot be a finishcultivated with exactness; perspicuity, and force, with ed philosopher till he is a Christian.' which many other moral and theological themes have From Dorking, Mr Mason removed to Cheshunt, in been managed. And indeed, it is but rarely that we Hertfordshire. In his farewell address to his congrefind it particularly and fully recommended to us in a set gation at Dorking, which was published at their particuand regular discourse either from the pulpit or the press. lar request, is this striking passage:This consideration, together with a full persuasion of'During the whole course of my preaching among its great and extensive usefulness, hath led me to en- you, I have avoided controversial subjects as much is deavor to make it more familiar to the minds of Chris- possible: that is, as far as is consistent with ministeri. tians. fidelity. And those that I have handled were m~s' 4 LIFE OF THE AU r HOR. such as were of the greatest importance to common from taking cold in visiting one of his ctnlajregation, Christianity; which I have always endeavored to treat some distance from Cheshunt, on a very fog,jy avening; in the plainest manner I could. But my chief aim when he returned, he complained of illnesa, and from kath been to affect your minds and my own with a that evening never went out of his house. lIe left a deeper sense of those great, uncontroverted principles widow, the daughter of the Rev. James -Waters, ot of Christianity, which enter into the very essence of Uxbridge, but no children; and was buried in the religion, and without an habitual regard to which, our church-yard of Cheshunt, with the following inspli ition profession for it, and that of every party, is vain. For to his memory:I have often thought, it is much more necessary to endeavor to mend the heart than stuff the head. And Here rests all that was mortal that Christians in general have more need to have their of the late reverend, learned, and pious, spirits improved, than their understandings informed; JOHN MASON, M. A. and want more zeal, rather than more light; better who was minister to the tempers, rather than better notions; and that a bad congregation of heart with right notions is much worse than a good Protestant Dissenters in this parish 17 yeawheart with wrong notions; for if the heart be wrong, He ceased from his labors, it matters little that the head is right.' and was called to receive his reward, At Cheshunt, he was indefatigable, both as a preach- Feb. 10, 1763, aged 58 years. er and an author. His work,' The Lord's Day Even-'Be followers of them, who, through faith and ing Entertainment,' in four volumes, of fifty-two ser- patience, inherit the promises.' mons, was published during his residence here; and a second edition of this work was published in the year With a few observations taken from a sermon, 1754. preached by the Rev. John Hodge, on occasion of his In the year 1758, he published, in one volume, death, we shall conclude this brief sketch: —'Fifteen Discourses on the Behavior of God's People' His religion appears to me to have been thoroughly towards him, in the several periods of the Jewish and Catholic, and therein truly Christian. He himself Christian churches.' called and he taught you accordingly, to call no man In the year 1761 was published, his' Christian father, or master, on earth. While he honestly taught Morals,' in two volumes. I must give a short extract you the truth, as it is in Jesus, according as it appeared from this work.'O,' says he,'did deep humility, to him, from his diligent converse with the lively ordivine love, fervent faith, and heart-felt charity, but acles: it was without any mixture of unkind rash cenonce shed their heavenly influence in our souls; how sures, or exciting your angry passions against those soon should we learn to despise that light chaff of who might be otherwise minded from him in some parmystic, or minute subtleties in divinity which some are ticular points of speculation. While he himself, from so fond of, and to bend all our cares and efforts, in de- principle, adhered to the cause of Protestant non-conpendence on divine grace, to cultivate in ourselves formity, amidst all its present discouragements, as apthose holy dispositions, which constitute all our happi- prehending it to have the nearest connection with the ness, both in this world and forever. cause of truth and liberty, and serious godliness; still' To contribute somewhat to this gteat end, I have'he kept himself at the greatest distance from every once more cast in my mite, as what I judged to be of thing of a narrow party spirit, by confining Christianity the greatest service I am capable of doibg the cause to his own particular communion; on the contrary, he and gospel of Christ, whilst I live.' was free to converse with others as with Christian And in the second volume is a sermon on the death brethren, ready to discern and acknowledge real merit, of George II. and esteem true learning and piety wherever he met In the same year he published his popular work, with it. The Student and Pastor, or Directions how to attain' His removing from us (so it pleased unerring wisdom to Eminence and Usefulness in those respective Char- to appoint) was after no long previous confinement, acters;' and is supposed to be next in merit to his but of few days at most; during which, and under all' Treatise on Self Knowledge,' the most eminent of the pains with which he had then to struggle, his mind his works. appeared remarkably serene and composed: not a single Mr Mason published, in the year 1750,' An Essay murmuring, hardly a complaining word, was ever heard on Elocution,' &c., to which he did not think proper from him. As through the goodness of an indulging to add his name; and it was not till it had run through providence, he retained the use of his reasoning powers two or three editions that his name was affixed. His to the last, so he was found, to the last, calm and renext work was,' Essays on Poetical and Prosaic Num- signed: his end truly was peace. bers,' &c. In the year 1761, Mr Mason collected the' Providence hath taken him away in the midst of his several essays, and published them in one volume. days and usefulness; when considering only his age, There are several small tracts, as,'A Letter to a and the apparent vigor of his constitution, his conFriend, upon his Entrance on the Ministerial Office;' tinued life, and further usefulness in the church of god, and a number of others, such as a course of lectures might have been with reason hoped for through many read to his pupils, which were printed in the Protestant future years. But the supreme lord of life and death Magazine for 1794, 1795, and 1796. hath done his pleasure; and it is your duty, Christians, Mr Mason's illness, which occasioned his death, was to submit, and adore.' T R E A T I S E ON SELF KNOWLEDGE. PART THE FIRST CHAPTER I. Milesian, the prince of the philosophers, who flourished about A. M. 3330; and was contemporary with JoTHE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT. siah, King of Judah, is said to be the first author of it; who used to say, that' for a man to know himself is A desire of knowledge is natural to the mind of man; the hardest thing in the world.' (See Stanley's Life {d and nothing discovers the true quality and disposition Thales.) It was afterwards adopted by Chylon, the of the mind more than the particular kind of knowledge Lacedemonian; and is one of those tnree precepts it is most fond of. which Pliny affirms to have been consecrated at DelThus we see that low and little minds are most de- phos in golden letters. It was afterwards greatly adlighted with the knowledge of trifles, as in children; mired, and frequently adopted by others; till at length an indolent mind, with that which serves only for it acquired the authority of a divine oracle, and was amusement, or the entertainment of the fancy; a curi- supposed to have been given originally by Apollo himous mind is best pleased with facts; a judicious pene- self. Of which general opinion Cicero gives us this trating mind, with demonstrations and mathematical reason:-' Because it hath such a weight of sense and science; a worldly mind esteems no knowledge like wisdom in it, as appears too great to be attributed to that of the world; but a wise and pious man, before all any man.' And this opinion, of its coming originally other kinds of knowledge, prefers that of god and his from Apollo himself, perhaps was the reason that it was awn soul. written in golden capitals over the door of his temple at But some kind of knowledge or other the mind is Delphos. continually craving after: and by considering what And why this excellent precept should not be held that is, its prevailing turn and temper may easily be in as high esteem in the Christian world as it was in known. the heathen, is hard to conceive. Human nature is the This desire of knowledge, like other affections planted same now as it was then; the heart as deceitful; and in our nature, will be very apt to lead us wrong, if it be the necessity of watching, knowing, and keeping it, the not well regulated. When it is directed to improper sanie. Nor are we less assured that this precept is diobjects, or pursued in a wrong manner, it degenerates vine. Nay, we have a much greater assurance of this into a vain and criminal curiosity. A fatal instance of than the heathens had; they supposed -it came down this in our first parents we have upon sacred record; from heaven-we know it did; what they conjectured, the unhappy effects of which are but too visible in all. we are sure of. For this sacred oracle is dictated to Self-knowledge is the subject of the ensuing treatise: us in a manifold light, and explained to us in various a subject, which the more I think of, the more. impor- views by the holy spirit, in that revelation which god tant and extensive it appears. So important, that every hath been pleased to give us as our guide to duty and branch of it seems absolutely necessary to the right happiness; by which,'as in a glass,' we may survey government of the life and temper; and so extensive, ourselves, and know' what manner of persons we are.' that the nearer view we take of its several branches, James i. 23. more are still opening to the view, as nearly connected This discovers ourselves to us, pierces into the inwith it as the other. Like what we find in microsco- most recesses of the mind; strips off every disguise; pical observations on natural objects, the better the lays open the inward part; makes a strict scrutiny into glasses, and the nearer the scrutiny, the more wonders the very soul and spirit; and critically judges of the we explore; and the more surprising discoveries we thoughts and intents of the heart. It shows us with make of certain properties, parts, or affections, belong- what exactness and care we are to search and try our ing to them, which were never before thought of. For, spirits, examine ourselves, and watch our ways, and in order to a true self-knowledge, the human mind, with keep our hearts, in order to acquire this important selfits various powers and operations, must be narrowly in- science, which it often calls us to do.' Examine yourspected; all its secret springs and motives ascertained; selves; prove your ownselves; know you not yourotherwise our self-acquaintance will be but partial and selves.' 2 Cor. xiii. 5.'Every Christian ought to try defective; and the heart after all will deceive us. So himself, and may know himself, if he be faithful in ex that, in treating this subject, there is no small danger, amining. The frequent exhortations of scripture here either of doing injury to it, by a slight and superficial unto imply both these; viz. that the knowledge of our examination on the one hand, or of running into a re- selves is attainable; and that we should endeavor after search too minute and philosophical for common use on it. Why should the apostle put them upon examining the other. The two extremes I shall keep in my eye, and proving themselves, unless it was possible to know and endeavor to steer a middle-course between them. themselves upon such trying and proving.' Bennet's Know thyself, is one of the most useful and compre- Christ. Oratory, p. 568.' Let a man examine himself.' hensive precepts in the whole moral system: and it is 1 Cor. xi. 28. Our Saviour upbraids his disciples with well known in how great a veneration this maxim was their self-ignorance, in not knowing what manner of held by the ancients, and in how high esteem the duty spirit they were of.' Luke ix. 55. And, saith the of self-examination, as necessary to it. Thales, the apostle,' If a man,' through self-ignorance,'thinketh 6 A TREATISE ON himself to be something, when he is nothing, he de- or a plane is a piece of a carpenter. It is true, nature ceiveth himself. But let every man prove his work, hath glued them together, and they grow as it were to and then shall he have rejoicing in himself, and not in the soul;: and there is all the difference.'-Collier. another.' Gal. vi. 3. 4. Here we are commanded, in- This science, which is to be the subject of the enstead of judging others, to judge ourselves; and to suing treatise, hath these three peculiar properties in avoid the inexcusable rashness of condemning others it, which distinguish it from, and render it preferable for the very crimes we ourselves are guilty of, (Rom. to all other:- 1. It is equally attainable by all. It ii. 1, 21, 22,) which a self-ignorant man is very apt to requires no strength of memory, or force of genius, no do; nay, to be more offended at a small blemish in an- depth of penetration, as many other sciences do, to other's character, than at a greater in his own; -which come at a tolerable degree of acquaintance with them: folly, self-ignorance, and hypocrisy, our Saviour, with which therefore renders them inaccessible by the just severity, animadverts upon, Matt. vii. 3-5. greatest part of mankind. Nor is it placed out of their And what stress was laid upon this, under the old reach through a want of opportunity, and proper Testament dispensation, appears sufficiently from assistance and direction how to acquire it, as many those expressions: ~ Keep thy heart with all dili- other parts of learning are. Every one of a common gence. Prov. iv. 23.'Commune with your own capacity hath the opportunity and ability to attain it, heart.' Psalm iv. 4.' Search me, 0 god, and know if he will but recollect his rambling thoughts, turn my heart; try me, and know my thoughts.' Psalm them in upon himself, watch the emotions of his heart, cxxxix. 23.' Examine me, 0 lord, and prove me: and compare them.with this rule. 2. It is of equal try my reins and my heart.' Psalm xxvi. 2.' Let us importance to all; and of the highest importance to search and try our ways.' Lam. iii. 4.' Recollect, every one recollect yourselves, 0 nation! not desired.' Zeph. ii. 1. The verb properly signifies, to clean, or gather "'Tis virtue only makes our bliss below: together,; scattered sticks or straws; as appears from And all our knowledge is,' ourselves to know " all the places where the word is used in the Old Testa- Pope. ment. Exod. v. 7. 12. Numb. xv. 32. 1. Kings xvii 13. Hence, by an easy metaphor, it signifies, to recollect, Other sences are suited to the various conditions or gather the scattered thoughts together; and ought of lfe; some more necessar to some; others to others. But this equally concerns every one that hath to be so rendered, when used in the reflective form, others. But this equally concerns as here it is. So saith R. Kimchi, Est proprie stipulas an immortal soul, whose final happiness he desires colligere. Id sit accurata scrutatione hanc dicitur de 3. Other knowledge is very apt to make a qualibet Inquisitione. Whence I think it is evident that man vain; this always keeps him humble. Nay, it is the word shouldberendered as above. And all thisis for want of this knowledge, that men are vain of what they have.' Knowledge puffeth up.'-I. Cor necessary to that self-acquaintance which is the only viii. 1. A small degree of knowledge often hath thCor proper basis of solid peace. vi. 1. A small degree of knowledge often hath this Were mankind but more generally convinced of the effect on weak minds; and the reason why greater attainments'in it have not so generally the same importance and necessity of this self-knowledge, and possessed with a due esteem for it; did they but know effect is, because they open and enlarge the views of the true way to attain it; and under a proper sense the mind so far, as to let into at the same time a good of its excellence, and the fatal effects of self-igno- degree of self-knowledge. For the more true knowrance, did they but make it their business and study ledge a man hath, the more sensible he is of the want every day to cultivate it; how soon should we find a which keeps him humble. happy alteration in the manners and tempers of men! And now, reader, whoever thou art,whatever be But the misery of it is, men will not think * will'not thy character, station, or distinction in life, if thou art employ their thoughts in good earnest about the afraid to look into thine heart, and hast no inclination things which most of all deserve and demand them. to self-acquaintance, read no farther: lay aside this By which unaccountable indolence, and aversion to book; for thou wilt find nothing here that will flatter self-reflection, they are led blindfold and insensibly thy self-esteem; but perhaps something that may into the most dangerons paths of infidelity and wick- abate it. But if thou art desirous to cultivate this *edness, as the Jews were heretofore; of whose amaz- important kind of knowledge, and to live no longer a ing ingratitude and apostacy god himself assigns this stranger to thyself, proceed; and keep thine eye open signal cause:' My people do not consider.' (Is. i. 3.) to te own image, with whateverunexpecteddeform-'There is nothing men are more deficient in than ityit may present itself to thee; and patiently attend, knowing their own characters. I know not how this whilst by divine assistance. I endeavor to lay' open science comes to be so much neglected. We spend a thine own heart to thee, and lead thee to the true knowgreat deal of time in learning useful things, but ledge of thyself in the following chapters. take no pains in the study of ourselves, and in opening the folds and doubles of the heart.' Reflections on Ridicule Self-knowledge is that acquaintance with ourselves CHAPTER I1. which shows us what we are, and do, and ought to be, in order to our living comfortably and usefully here, THE SEVERAL BRANCHES OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE. WE and happily herafter. The means of it is self-exami- MUST KNOW WHAT SORT OF CREATURES WE ARE, nation; the end of it is self-government and self-en- AND WHAT WE SHALL BE. joyment. It principally consists in the knowledge of our souls; which is attained by a particular attention That we may have a more distinct and orderly view to their various powers, capacities, passions, inc]ina- of this subject, I shall here consider the several branchtions, superstitions, state, happiness, and temper. For es of self-knowledge; or some of the chief particulars a man's soul is properly himself. Matt. xvi. 26, cor- wherein it consists; whereby perhaps it will appear to pared with Luke ix. 25. The body is but the house; be a more copious and comprehensive science than we the soul is the tenant that inhabits it: the body is the imagine-And, instrument: the soul the artist that directs it.'When 1. To know ourselves, is to know and seriously you talk of a man, I would not have you tack flesh and consider what sort of creatures we are, and' what we blood to the notion, nor those limbs neither which are shall be. made out of it; these are but tools for the soul to 1. What we are. work with; atd no more Dart of a man, than an axe Man is a eomDlex being, a tripartite Derson, or a SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 7 compound creature made up of three distinct parts, searching out the end and happiness of thy nature. It viz. the body, which is the earthly or mortal part of was he, O my soul, that made thee intelligent and imhim; the soul, which is the animal or sensitive part; mortal. It was he that placed thee in this body, as in and the spirit of mind, which is the rational and im- a prison; where thy capacities are cramped, thy desires mortal part.* Each of these three parts have their debased, and thy liberty lost. It was he that sent thee respective offices assigned them; and a man then acts into this world, which by all circumstances appears to becoming himself, when he keeps them duly employed be a state of short discipline and trial. And wherefore in their proper functions, and preserves their natural did he place thee here, when he might have made thee subordination. But it is not enough to know this mere- a more free, unconfined, and happy spirit? But check ly as a point of speculation; we must pursue and re- that thought;-it looks like a too presumptuous curivolve the thought, and urge the consideration to all the osity. A more needful and important inquiry is, what purposes of a practical self-acquaintance. did he place thee here for and what doth he expect We are n6t all body, but mere animal creatures. from thee whilst thou art here; what part hath he alWe find we have a more noble nature than the inani- lotted thee to act on the stage of human life; where he, mate, or brutal part of the creation. We can not angels, and men, are spectators of thybehavior? The only move and act freely, but we observe in our- part he hath given thee to act here is, doubtless, a very selves a capacity of reflection, study, and forecast; important one; because it is for eternity.* And what and various mental operations, which irrational ani- is it but to live up to the dignity of oy rational and inmals discover no symiptoms of. Our souls, therefore, tellectual nature, and as becomes a creature born for must be of a more excellent nature than theirs: and immortality? from the power of thought with which they are en-'And tell me, 0 my soul, for as I am now about to dowed, they are proved to be immaterial substances; cultivate a better acquaintance with thee, to whom I and consequently in their own nature capable of im- have been too long a stranger, I must try thee, and put mortality; and that they are actually immortal, or many a close question to thee; tell me, I say, whilst will never die, the sacred scriptures do abundantly thou confinest thy desires to sensual gratifications, testify. As nature delights in the most easy transi- wherein dost thou differ from the beasts that perish tions from one class of beings to another, and as the Captivated by bodily appetites, dost thou not act benexus utriusque generis is observable in several neath thyself'! Dost thou not put thyself upon a level creatures of ambiguous nature, which seem to con- with the lower class of beings, which were niade to nect the lifeless and vegetable, the vegetable and ani- serve thee, offer an indignity to thyself, and despise the mal, the aninal and rational worlds together, (see work of thymaker's hands 3 0 remember thy heavenNemesius de Nat. IHom. cap. 1. p. 6.) why may not ly extract; remember thou art a spirit. Check then the soul of brutes be considered as the nexus be- the solicitations of the flesh; and dare to do nothing tween material and immaterial substances, or matter that may diminish thy native excellence, dishonor thy and spirit, or something between both 3 The great high original, or degrade thy noble nature. dissimilitude of nature in these two substances, I ap- I am too noble, and of too high a birth,' saith that prehend, can be rio solid objection to this hypothesis, excellent moralist,'to be a slave to my body; which I if we consider besides our own ignorance of the harm look upon only as a chain thrown upon the liberty of of spirits, but how nearly they approach in other in- my soul.' stances, and how closely they are united in man. Let But let me still urge it.' Consider, I say, 0 my us then hereupon seriously recollect ourselves in the soul! that thou art an immortal spirit. Thy body dies; following soliloquy, but thou, thou must live for ever; and thine eternity'0O my soul, look back a few years, and thou wast will take its tincture from the manner of thy behavior, nothing! And how didst thou spring out of that and the habits thou contractest, during this, thy short nothing3 Thou couldst not make thyself. That is co-partnership with flesh and blood. 0! do nothing quite impossible. Most certain it is, that that almighty, now, but what thou mayest with pleasure look back _self-existent, and eternal power, which made the world, upon a million of ages hence. For know, O my soul! made thee also out of nothing; called thee into being that thy self-consciousness and reflecting faculties will when thou wast not; gave thee these reasoning and re- not leave thee with thy body; but will follow thee after flecting faculties, which thou art now employing in death, and be the instrument of unspeakable pleasure * This doctrine, I think, is established beyond all dispute, not or torment to thee in that separate state of existence.'t only by experience, but by authority. It was received by almost 2. In ordei to a full acquaintance with ourselves, all the ancient philosophers. The Pythagoreans, as we learn we must endeavor to know not only what we are, but from Jamblicus, vid. Protept. p. 34, 55. The Platonists, as ap. pears from Nemesius, Sallust, and Lartius, vid. Di. Lertius, what we shall be. lib. iii. p. 219. The Stoics, as appears from Antoninus, who And 0! what different creatures shall we soon be, saith expressly,' There are three things which belong to a from what we are now! Let us look forwards then, man; the body, the soul, and the mind. And as to the properties of the division, sensation belongs tothe body, appetite and frequently glance our thoughts towards death, to the soul, and reason to the mind. It appears also to have been though they cannot penetrate the darkness of passage, the opinion of most of the fathers, vid. Irenm us, lib. 5. cap. 9 lib. or reach the state behind it. That lies veiled from the 2. cap. 33. Ed. Par. Clem. Alex. Strom. 3. p. 542. Ed. Oxon. Origin. Philocal. p. S. Ignat. Ep. ad Philadeiph. ad calcem. eyes of our mind; and the great god has not thought fit See also Joseph. Antiq. lib. 1. cap. 2. p. 5. Constitut. Apostol. lib. to throw so much light upon it, as to satisfy the anxious 7. cap. 34. But above all these, is the authority of scripture, and inquisitive desires the soul ath to know it. HowIand inquisitive desires the soul hath to know i.Howwhich, speaking of the original formation of man, mentions the three distinct parts of i his nature; Gert i 7' e dust of the ever, let us make the best use we can of that little light three distinetp~arts of his nature; Gen ii.'7. viz. I tile dust of the earth,' or the body;'the living soul,' or the animal and sensitive part; and' the breath of iife,' i. e. the spirit or rational * It is said when the prince of the Latin poets was asked by mind. In like manner, the apostle Paul divides the whole man his friend, why he studied so much accuracy in the plan of his into the spirit, the soul, and the body. 1 Thess. v. 23. They poem, the propriety of his characters, and the purity of his dicwho would see more of this, may consult Nemesius de Natura tion; he replied, In wternnm pingo.' I am writing fbr eternity. Hominis, cap. 1. and Whiston's Prim. Christ. vol. 4. p. 262. WVhat more weighty consideration to justify arid enforce the utAll the observations I shall make hereupon is, that this consid- most vigilance and circumspection of life. than this —in aternum eration may serve to soften the prejudices of somne against the vivo,' I am ivinvg for eternity.' account which scripture gives us of the mysterious manner of the t As it is not the design of this treatise to enter into a nice and existence ofthe divine nature; of which every man (as' creat- philosophical disquisition concerning the nature of the huiman ed in the image of God') carries about him a kind of emblem, soul, but to awaken men's attention to the inward operations and in the threefold distinction of his own; which if he did nriot every affections of it (which is by far the most necessary port of selfminute find it by experience to be a faict, vwouldl doubtless appear knowledge;) so they who would be more particularly informed to him altogether as myste.ious and incomprehensible as the concerning its nature and original, anid the various opinions of scripture doctrine of the trinky. the ancienits about it, may consult Nemes. de Natt. IHre. cap. 1 Homo habet tres patres, spirittrn, animam, et corpus; itaque a treatise called, The Government of the Thhoghtss: chap, A bozo bst imago S. S. Trinitatis'-August' Tractat. de Symbolo. and Chambers's Cyclopmdia, under the wcrd' Soul.' 8 A TREATISE ON which scripture and reason have let in upon this dark to him; the frequent consideration of which is absoand important subject. lutely necessary to a right self-knowledge. For as our' Compose thy thoughts, 0 my soul! and imagine creator, he is our king and father; and as his creatures, how it will fare with thee, when thou goest a naked, we are the subjects of his kingdom, and the children of unembodied spirit, into a world, an unknown world of his family. spirits, with all thy self-consciousness about thee, where We are the subjects of his kingdom. And as such no material object shall strike thine eye; and where thy we are bound. dear partner and companion, the body, cannot come 1. To vield to a faithful obedience is of the laws of nigh thee; but where without it thou will be sensible his kingdom. And the advantages by which these of the most noble satisfactions, or the most exquisite come recommended to us above all human laws, are pains. Embarked in death, thy passage will be dark; many-they are calculated for the private interests of and the shore, on which it will land thee, altogether every one, as well as that of the public; and are destrange and unknown. It doth not yet appear what we signed to promote our present, as well as our future shall be.'* happiness-they are plainly and explicitly published"'] The revelation which god hath been pleased to make easily understood and in fair and legible character writ of his will to mankind, was designed rather to fit us for in every man's heart; and the wisdom, reason, and nethe future happiness, and direct our way to it, than open cessity of them are readily discerned-they are urged to us the particular glories of it, or distinctly show us with the most weighty motives that can possibly affect what it is. This it hath left still very much a mystery; the human heart: and if any of them are difficult, the to check our too curious inquiries into the nature of it, most effectual grace if freely offered, to encourage and and to bend our thoughts more intently to that which assist our obedience: advantages which no human laws more concerns us; viz. an habitual preparation for it. haveto enforce the observance of them. 2. As his subAnd what that is, we cannot be ignorant, if we believe jects, we most readily pay him the homage due to his either our bible or our reason; for both these assure us, sovereignty. And this is no less than the homage of that that which makes us like to god. is the only thing the heart; humbly acknowledging that we hold every that can fit us for the enjoyment of him. Here then thing of him and have every thing from him. Earthly let us make a stand. Let our great concern be, to be princes are forced to be contented with verbal ac-'holy as he is holy!' and then, and then only, are we knowledgements, or mere formal homage; for they sure to enjoy him,'in whose light we shall see light.' can command nothing but what is external: but god, And be the future state of existence what it will, we who knows and looks at the hearts of all his creatures, shall some way be happy there; and much more happy will accept of nothing but what comes from thence than we can now conceive; though in what particular He demands the adoration of our souls, which is most manner we know not, because god hath not revealed it. justly due to him who formed them, and gave them the very capacities to know and adore him. 3. As faithful subjects, we must cheerfully pay him the tribute he requires of us. This is not like the tribute which CHAPTER III earthly kings exact, who as much depend upon their subjects for the support of their power as their subjects THE SEVERAL RELATIONS IN WHICH WE STAND TO do upon them for the protection of their property. But GOD, TO CHRIST, AND TO OUR FELLOW CREATURES. the tribute god requires of us, is a tribute of praise and honor, which he stands in no need of from us; for his II. Self-knowledge requires us to be well acquainted power is independent, and his glory immutable; and he with the various relations in which we stand to other is infinitely. able of himself to support the dignity of his beings, and the several duties that result from these re- universal government. But it is the most natural duty lations. And, we owe himn as creatures: for to praise him, is only 1. Our first and principal concern is to consider the to show forth his praise; to glorify him, to celebrate relation wherein we stand to him who gave us being. his glory; and to honor him, is to render him and his We are the creatures of his hand, and the objects of ways honorable in the eyes and esteem of others. his care. His power upholds the being his goodness And as this is the most natural duty that creatures owe gave us; his bounty accommodates us with the blessings to their creator, so it is a tribute he requires of every of this life; and his grace provides for us the happiness one of them in proportion to their respective talents of a better. Nor are we merely his creatures, but his and abilities to pay it. 4. As dutiful subjects, we rational and intelligent creatures. It is the dignity of must contentedly and quietly submnit to the methods our natures, that we are capable of knowing and enjoy- and administrations of his government, however dark, mg him who made us. And as the rational creatures involved, or intricate. All governments have their of god, there are two relations especially that we bear arcana imperil, or secret of state; which common sub*' Thou must expire, my soul, ortlain'd to rance jects cannot penetrate. And therefore they cannot Thro' uLnexperienlc'd scenes, and myst'ries strange; competently judge of the wisdom or rectitude of cer Dark the event, an(d dismal the exchange But when compelld to leave this house of clay, tain public measures, because they are ignorant either Anid to an unknown somewhere wins thy way; of the springs of them, or the ends of them, or the exWhen time shall be eternity, and thou pediency of the means arising from the particular situaShalt Se thou kanow's not what, ner where, nor how, tion of thinos in the present juncture. Arid how much Trembling arid pale, what wilt thou see or do? Amazing state! No woneder that we dread truer is this with regard to god's government of the The thoughtts of death, or faces of the dead. world; whose wisdom is far above our reach, and His black retinue striongly strikes our mind; whose ways are not as ours! Whatever, ther, may Sickness and pain before, aniild darkness all behind. I Sonme comrteotus ghost, the secret then reveals be the present aspect and appearance of things, as duti. Tells tus what you have f[belt, anti we must feel. fill subjects, we are bound to acquiesce; to ascribe wisYenl warn us of approuchitldeath, amid wily dom al&d' righteousness to our maker,' in confidence Will you not teach us what it is to die? Bitt havirir shnot the uslf. yhtit love to vie that the king and I judge of all the earth will do right.' Succeedilog spirit plurg'd along like you; Again. 5. As good subjects of god's kingdom we are Nor lenld a friendlly handl to guide them through. bound to pay a due regard and reverence to his min-. When (lire disiesAe shall cmii, Or age untie The knot of lirfe. ail suffer us Lto die * isters; especially if they discover an utiicorrupted Wheit after some delay, same trembling strife, fidelity to his cause, antl a pure unaffected zeal The soul statnds quiv'rintg on the riidge of life; for his honor; if they do riot seek their owni interest With fear anti hope she throbs, then curi:,us tries more than that of their divine S;ome stran-le hereifier andl soma hidden skies-' more than that of their divine master. The ministers Iiaome sNran ofe herefinceser antoo ofteddn ski s.' Norris. of earthly princes too often do this; and it would be SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 9 happy if all the ministers and ambassadors of the heav — always corrects his for their profit, and only if need be, enly king were entirely clear of the imputation. It is (1 Pet. i. 6.) and never so much' as their iniquities no uncommon thing for the honor of an earthly mon- deserve.' Ezra ix. 13. Under his fatherly rebukes, let arch to be wounded through the sides of his ministers. us be ever humble and submissive. Such now is the The defamation and slander that is directly thrown at true filial disposition. Such a temper, and such a bethem, is obliquely intended against him; and such it is havior, should we show towards god, if we would act taken. So, to attempt to make the ministers of the in character as his children. gospel, in general, the objects of decision, as some do, These, then, are the two special relations which, a; plainly shows a mind very dissolute and disaffected to creatures, we stand in to god. And not to act towards god and religion itself; and is to act a part very unbe- him in the manner before mentioned, is to show that coming the dutiful subjects of his kingdom. Lastly. we are ignorant of, or have not yet duly considered, As good subjects, we are to do all we can to promote our obligations to him, as his subjects, and his children; the interest of his kingdom; by defending the wisdom or that we are as yet ignorant both of god and ourselves. of his administrations, and endeavoring to reconcile Thus, we see how directly the knowledge of ourselves others thereunto, under all the darkness and difficulties leads us to the knowledge of god. So true is the o1)that may appear therein, in opposition to the profane servation of a late pious and very worthy divine, that, censure of the prosperous wicked, and the doubts and' he that is a stranger to himself, is a stranger to god, dismays of the afflicted righteous. This is to act in and to every thing that may denominate him wise and character as loyal subjects of the king of heaven: and happy.' whoever forgets this part of his character, or acts con- But, 2. In order to know ourselves, there is antrary to it, shows a great degree of self-ignorance. other important relation we should often think of, and But, 2. As the creatures of god, we are not only the that is, that in which we stand to Jesus Christ, our resubjects of his kingdom, but the children of his family. deemer. And to this relation, and the obligations of it, must we The former was common to us men; this is peculiar carefully attend, if we would attain the true knowledge to us as Christians, and opens to us a new scene of duof ourselves. We are his children by creation; in ties and obligations, which a man can never forget, that which respect he is truly our father. Is. lxiv. 8.' But does not grossly forget himself. For, as Christians, now, 0 Lord, thou art our father: we are the clay, we are the disciples, the followers, and the servants of and thou our potter: and we all are the work of thine Christ, redeemed by him. hands.' And, in a more special sense, we are his children, And, 1. As the disciples of Christ, we are to learn by adoption. Gal. iii. 26.' For ye are all the children of him; to take our religious sentiments only from his of god, by faith in Christ Jesus.' And therefore, 1. We gospel, in opposition to all the authoritative dictates of are under the highest obligations to love him as our men, who are weak and fallible as ourselves.' Call no father. The love of children to parents is founded on man master on earth.' Whilst some affect to distingratitude for benefit received, which can never be re- guish themselves by party-names, as the Corinthians quited; and ought in reason to be proportioned to those formerly did; for which the apostle blames them. one benefits, especially if they flow from a conscience of saving,'I am of Paul;' another,' I am of Apollos;' duty in the parent. And what duty more natural than another,'I am of Cephas;' 1 Cor. i. 12. let us rememto love our benefactors. What love and gratitude, her, that we are the disciples of Christ; and in this then, is due to him, from whom we have received the sense, make mention of his name only. It is really greatest benefit, even that of our being, and every thing injurious to it, to seek to distinguish ourselves by any that contributes to the comfort of itl 2. As his chil- other. There is more mischief in such party-distincdren, we must honor him; that is, must speak honora- tions, denominations, and attachments, than many good bly of him, and for him: and carefully avoid every thing persons are aware of; though not more than the aposthat may tend to dishonor his holy name and ways. tle Paul who was unwillingly placed at the head of one Mal. 1. 6.' A son honoreth his father: if then I be a himself, hath apprized them of, Cor. iii. 4. WVe are of father, where is mine honor.' 3. As our father, we Christ; our concern is to honor that superior denomare to apply to him for what we want. Whither should ination, by living up to it; and to adhere inflexibly children go, but to their father, for protection, help, and to his gospel, as the only rule of our faith, the guide of relief, in every danger, difficulty, and distress'! And, our life, and the foundation of our hope, whatever con4. We must trust his power and wisdom, and paternal tempt or abuse we may suffer, either from the profane goodness, to provide for us, take care of us, and do for or bigotted part of mankind, for so doing. us that which is best; and what that is he knows best. 2. As Christians, we are followers of Christ; and To be anxiously fearful what will become of us, and therefore bound to imitate him, and copy after that discontented and perplexed under the apprehension of most excellent pattern he hath set us: who hath left future evils, whilst we are in the hands, and under the us an example, that we should follow his steps. 1 Pet. care, of our father who is in heaven, is not to act like ii. 21. To see that the same holy temper be in us children. Earthly parents cannot avert from their chil- which was in him; and to exhibit in the same manner dren all the calamities they fear, because their wisdom he did and upon like occasions. To this he calls us, and power are limited; but our all-wise and almighty Mat, xi. 29; and no man is any fArther a Christian, father in heaven can.' They may possibly want love than as he is a follower of Christ; aiming at a more and tenderness for their offspring, but our heavenly perfect conformity to that most perfect example, which father cannot for his.' Is. xlix. 15, 5. As children, we he hath set us, of universal goodness. must quietly acquiesce in his disposals, arid not expect 3. As Christians, we are the servants of Christ; and to see into the wisdom of all his will. It would be in- the various duties which servants owe to their masters, decent and undutiful in a child, to dispute the authority, in any degree, those we owe to him, in the hichest deor question the wisdom, or neglect the orders of his gree; who expects we should behave ourselves in his parents, every time he could not discern the reason and service with that fidelity and zeal, and steady regard design thereof. Much more unreasonable arid unbe- to his honor and interest, at all times, which we are coming is such a behavior towards god,' who giveth bolnd to, bv virtue of this relation; aiid which his unnot account of any of his matters; whose judgmnents merited and uni.hnited goodness and love lay us under are unsearchable, and whose ways are past finding out.' infinite obliuations to. Job xxiii. 13.-Rom. xi. 33. Lastly, As children, we Lastly, WLe are moreover his redeemed servants; must patiently submit to his discipline and correction. and, as such, are under the strongest motives to Icve Earthly parents may sometimes punish their children ai d trust him.. through passion, or caprice; but our heavenly father This deserves to be more particularly considered 10 A TREATISE ON oecause it opens to us another view of the human na- consideration of his merits and atonement, from his ture, in which we should often survey ourselves, if we hope of happiness,-he forgets that he is a Christian;desire to know ourselves; and that is, as depraved or he does not consider in what relation he stands to degenerate beings. The inward contest we so sensibly Christ, which is one great part of his character, and feel, at some seasons especially, between a good and a consequently discovers a great degree of self-ignorance. bad principle, called in scripture language, the flesh and 3. Self-knowledge, moreover, implies a due attenthe spirit, of which some of the wisest heathens seem- tion to the several relations in which we stand to our ed not to be ignorant:- fellow creatures; and the obligations that result from thence.'A. fatal inbred strife does lurk within, If we know ourselves, we shall remember the conThe cause of all this misery and sin.' descension, benignity, and love, that is due to inferiors; This, I say, is demonstration, that some way or other, affability, friendship, and kindness, we ought to show the human nature hath contracted an ill bias, and how to equals; the regard, deference, and honor, which became that about, the sacred scriptures have sufficiently longs to superiors; and the candor, integrity, and beinformed us; and that it is not what it was when it nevolence,we owe to all. came originally out of the hands of its maker; so that The particular duties requisite in these relations are the words which St Paul spake, with reference to the too numerous to be here mentioned. Let it suffice to Jews in particular, are justly applicable to the present say, that if a man doth not well consider the several state of mankind in general; There is none righte- relations of life in which he stands to others, and does ous; no, not one: they are all gone out of the way; not take care to preserve the decorum and propriety of they are together become unprofitable: there is none those relations, he may justly be charged with selfthat doeth good; no, not one.' Rom. iii. 10, 12. ignorance. This is a very mortifying thought; hut an undenia- And this is so evident in itself, and so generally alble truth, and one of the first principles of that science lowed, that nothing is more common than to say, when we are treating of and very necessary to be attended to, a person does not behave with due decency towards if we would be sensible of the duty and obligations we his superiors, such a one does not understand himself. owe to Christ, as the great redeemer; in which character But why may not this, with equal justice, be said of he appears, for the relief and recovery of mankind, under tfose who act in an ill manner towards their inferiors l this, their universal depravity. The expression, I know, is not so often thus applied; Two miserable affects of the human apostacy are, but I see no reason why it should not, since one is as 1. That perverse dispositions grow up in our mind common, and as plain an instance of self-ignorance as from early infancy, that soon settle into vicious hab-the other. Nay, of the two, perhaps men are in geneits and render us weak and unwilling to obey the dic- ral more apt to be defective in their duty and behavior tates of conscience and reason: this is commonly cal- towards those beneath them, than they are towards led the dominion of sin. And, those that are above them. And the reason seems to 2. At the same time, we are subject to the displea- be, because an apprehension of the displeasure of their sure of god, and the penalty of his law; which is com- superiors, and the detrinental consequences which may monly called, the condemnation of sin. Now, in both accrue from thence, may be a check upon them, and these respects, did Christ,' the lamb of god, come to take engage them to pay the just regards which they expect. away the sin of the world;' i. e. to take away the reign- But there being no check to restrain them from violating ing power of it by the atonement of his blood; to sanc- theduties they owe to inferiors, from whose displeatify us by his spirit, and justify us by his death: by sure they have little to fear, they are more ready, unthe former, he reconciles us to god, and by the latter, der certain temptations, to treat them in an unbecomhe reconciles god to us,'* and is at once our righteous- ing manner. And as wisdom and self-knowledge will ness and strength. He died to purchase for us the hap- direct a man to be particularly careful, lest he neglect piness we had forfeited, and sends his grace and spirit the duties he is most apt to forget; so, as to the duties to fit us for that happiness he hlath thus purchased. So he owes to inferiors, in which he is most in danger of complete is his redemption! so precisely adapted is transgressing, he ought more strongly to urge upon the remedy he hath provided, to the malady we had himself the indispensable obligations of religion and contracted. conscience. And if he does not, but suffers himself,' 0 blessed redeemer of wretched ruined creatures, through the violence of ungoverned passion, to be how unspeakable are the obligations I owe thee! But, transported into the excesses of rigor, tyranny, and ah! how insensible am I to those obligations! The oppression, towards those whom god and nature have saddest symptoms of degeneracy I find in my nature,is put into his power, it is certain he does not know himthat base ingratitude of heart, which renders me so un-self; is not acquainted with his own particular weakaffected with thine astonishing compassions. Till I ness; is ignorant of the duty of his relations; and, know thee, I cannot know myself! and when I survey whatever he may think of himself, hath not the true myself, may I ever think of thee! May the daily con- spirit of government; because he wants the art of selfsciousness of my weakness and guilt lead my thoughts government. For he that is unable to govern himself, to thee! and may every thought of thee kindle in my can never be fit to govern others. heart the most ardent glow of gratitude to thee, 0 thou Would we know ourselves then, we must consider divine, compassionate friend, lover, and redeemer of ourselves as creatures, as Christians, and as men; and mankind!' remember the obligations which, as such, we are undet WNhoever then he be that calls himself a Christian; to god, to Christ, and our fellow men, in the seeeral that is, who professes to take the gospel of Christ for a relations we bear to them, in order to maintain tde pro divine revelation, and the only rule of his faith and priety, and fulfil the duties, of those relations practice; but at the same time, pays a greater regard to.the dictates of men, than to the doctrines of Christ; who loses sight of that great example of Christ, which should animate his Christian walk, is unconcerned CHAPTER IV. about his service, honor, and interest, and excludes the ~ By this phrase, I dlo not mean, that god was implacable, or WE MUST DULY CONSIDER THE RANK AND STATION OF absolutely irreconcileable to us, till he was pacified by the vicari- LIFE, IN WHICH PROVIDENCE HATH PLACED US; ous sufferings of his son; for how then could he have appointed AND WHAT IT IS THAT BECOMES AND ADORNS UB. him to die, as our propitiatory sacrifice? But that the death of Christ is the clearest demonstration of god's willingness to be act.:ally reconciled to us. III. A man that knows himself will deliberately con SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 11 sider and attend to the particular rank and station of affectation and weakness, and ourselves to contempt, life in which providence hath placed him; and what is for acting out of character; for what is decent in one the duty and decorum of that station; what part is may be ridiculous in another. Nor must we blindly given him to act; what character to maintain; and follow those who move in the same sphere, and suswith what decency and propriety.lu acts that part, or tain the same character with ourselves; but only in maintains that character. those things that are befitting that character. For it For a man to assume a character, or aim at a part, is not the person, but the character we are to rethat does not belong to him, is affectation. And gard; and to imitate him no farther than he keeps whence is it that affectation of any kind appears so to that. ridiculous, and exposes men to universal and'ust This caution particularly concerns youth, who are contempt, but because it is a certain indication of apt to imitate their superiors very implicitly, and self-ignorance! Whence is it that many seem so especially such as shine in the profession they themwilling to be thought something, when they are no- selves are intendedfor; but, for want of judgment to thing; and seek to excel in those things in which they distinguish what is fit and decent, are apt to imitate cannot, whilst they neglect those things in which they their very foibles; which a partiality for their persons may excel? Whence is it that they counteract the make them deem as excellencies: and thereby they intention of nature and providence; that when these become doubly ridiculous, both by acting out of charintended them one thing, they fain would be another? acter themselves, and by a weak and servile imitation Whence, I say, but from an ignorance of themselves, of others, in the very things in which they do so too. the rank of life they are in, and of the part and charac- To maintain a character, then, with decency, we must ter which properly belongs to them? keep our eye only upon that which is proper to it. It is a just observation, and an excellent document In fine, as no man can excel in every thing, we must of a moral heathen.' That human life is a drama, consider what part is allotted us to act in the station and mankind the actors; who have their several parts in which providence hath placed us, and to keep to that, assigned them by the master of the theatre, who be it what it will, and seek to excel in that only. stands behind the scenes, and observes in what manner every one acts. Some have a short part allotted them, and some a long one; some a low, and some a high one. It is not he that acts the highest, or most CHAPTER V. shining part on the stage, that comes off with the greatest applause; but he that acts his part best, EVERY MAN SHOULD BE WELL ACQUAINTED WITH whatever it be. To take care, then, to act our respec- HIS OWN TALENTS AMD CAPACITIES; AND IN WHAT tive parts in life'well, is ours; but to choose what part MANNER THEY ARE TO BE EXERCISED AND IMin life we shall act, is not ours, but God's.'* But a man PROVED TO THE GREATEST ADVANTAGE. can never act his part well, if he does not attend to it-does not know what becomes it; much less is he IV. A man cannot be said to know himself, till affected to act, another, which nature never assigned he is well acqnainted with his proper talents and cahim. It is always self-ignorance that leads a man to pacities; knows for what ends he received them; and act out of character. how they may be most fitly applied and improved for Is it a mean and low station of life thou art in? those ends. Know then, that providence calls thee to the exercise A wise and self-understanding man, instead of aimof industry, contentment, submission, patience, hope, ing at talents he hath not, will set about cultivating and a humble dependence on him; and a respectful those he hath; as the way in which providence points deference to thy superiors. In this way, thou mayest out his proper usefulness. shine through thine obscurity, and render thyself As, in order to the edification of the church, the admirable in the sight of god and man; and not only spirit of god at first conferred upon the ministers of so, but find more satisfaction, safety, and self-enjoy- it a great variety of spiritual gifts, (1 Cor. xii. 8-10) ment, than they who move in a higher sphere, from so, for the good of the community, God is pleased now whence they are in danger of falling. to confer upon men a great variety of natural talents; But hath providence called thee to act in a more and'every one hath his proper gift of god; one public character, and for a more extensive benefit to after this manner, another after that.' 1 Cor. vii. 7. the world 1 Thy first care then ought to be, that thy And every one is to take care,' not to neglect, but to example, as far as its influence reaches, may be an stir up the gift of god, which is in him,' (1 Tim. iv. 4. encouragement to the practice of universal virtue. 2 Tim. i. 6) because it was given him to be improved: And next, to shine in those virtues especially, which and not only the abuse, but the neglect of it, must best adorn thy station; as benevolence, charity, wis- hereafter be accounted for. Witness the doom of that dom, moderation, firmness, and inviolable integrity; unprofitable servant, who' laid up his single pound with an undismayed fortitude to press through all in a napkin,' (Luke xix. 20, 24.) and of him who went opposition in accomplishing those ends, which thou'and hid his talent in the earth.' Mat. xxv. 25, 30. hast a prospect and probability of attaining, for the ap- It is certainly a sign of great self-ignorance, for a parent good of mankind. man to venture out of his depth, or attempt any thing And as self-acquaintance will teach us what part in he wants opportunity or capacity to accomplish. life we ought to act, so the knowledge of that will And therefore a wise man will consider with himself, ow us whom we ought to imitate, and wherein. We before he undertakes any thing of consequence, not to take example of conduct from those who whether he hath abilities to carry him through it, and e a very different part assigned them from ours, whether the issue of it is likely to be for his credit; ss in those things that are universally ornamental lest he sink under the weight he lays upon himself, exemplary. If we do, we shall but expose our and incur the just censure of rashness, presumption, and folly. See Luke xiv. 28 —32. fe is a stage-play: it matters not how long we act, so we act and folly. See Luke xiv. 28-32. It is not life, but living well, that is the blessing. Some- He that takes up a burden that is too heavy for him, similar to this, is the epigram by Dr Doddridge, on' dum is in a fair way to break his back. us vivamus;' which he assumed as his motto: In every business, consider, first what it is you are Live, while you live, the epicure would say, about; and then your own ability, whether it be suf And seize the pleasures of the present day: And seize the pleasures of the present dlay: *about; and then your own ability, whether it be sufLive, while you live, the sacred preacher cries, ficient to carry you through it. And give to god each moment as it flies. Lord! in my views let both united be! Examine well, ye writers weigh with care I live in pleasure, when I live in thee What suits your genius, what your strength can bear; Bb 12 A TREATISE ON For when a well proportion'd theme you choose, fault of his natural temper, if he be well acquainted with Nor words, nor method, shall their aid refuse. it, and duly watchful over it. And therefore, to betray In this, or I mistake, consists the grace, a prevailing weakness of temper, or an ungoverned pasAnd force of method; to assign a place sion, diminishes a man's reputation much more than to Anor some what with present udgment we woulay.' say, discover a weakness of judgment or understanding. Francis's Horace. But what is most dishonorable of all, is, for a man at once to discover a great genius and an ungoverned It is no uncommon thing for some who excel in one mind. Because that strength of reason and understandthing, to imagine they may excel in every thing; ing he is master of, gives him a great advantage of the and not content with that share of merit which every government of his passions. And therefore his sufferone allows them, are still catching at that which doth ing himself, notwithstanding, to be governed by them, not belong to them. Why should a good orator wish shows that he hath too much neglected or mis-applied to be thought a poet. Why must a celebrated divine his natural talent, and willingly submitted to the tyranny set up for a politician? or a statesman affect the phi- of those lusts and passions, over which nature had furlosopher I or a mechanic the scholar. or a wise man nished him with abilities to have secured an easy con labour to be thought a wit? This is a weakness that quest. flows from self-ignorance, and is incident to the great- A wise man hath his foibles, as well as a fool. Biu est men. Nature seldom forms an universal genius; the difference between them is, that the foibles of thi but deals out her favors in the present state with a one are known to himself, and concealed from thi parsimonious hand. Many a man, by this foible, hath world; the foibles of the other are known to the world, weakened a well established reputation.* and concealed from himself. The wise man sees those frailties in himself, which others cannot; but the foci' is blind to those blemishes in his character, which are conspicuous to every body else. Whence it appears, CHAPTER VI. that self-knowledge is that which makes the main difference between a wise man and a fool, in the moral WE MUST BE WELL ACQUAINTED WITH OUR INABILI- sense of that word. TIES, AND THOSE THINGS IN WHICH WE ARE NATURALLY DEFICIENT AS WELL AS THOSE IN WIIICH WE EXCEL. CHAPTER VII. V. We must, in order to a thorough self-acquaintance, not only consider our talents, and proper abili- CONCERNING THE RNOWLEGE OF OUR CONST.TU ties, but have an eye to our frailties, and deficiencies, TIONAL SINS. that we may know where our weakness, as well as our strength lies. Otherwise, like Samson, we may run VT. Self-acquaintance shows a man the particular ourselves into infinite teniptatiou and trouble. sins he is most exposed and addicted to; and discovers, Every man hath a weak side. Every wise man not only what is ridiculous, but what is criminal, in his knows where it is, and will be sure to keep a double conduct and temper. guard there. A man's untoward actions are generally the plainest There is some wisdom in concealing a wdex of his inward dispositions: and by the allowed This cannot be donie till it be first known; nor can it sins of his life, you may know the reigning vices of his be known without a degree of self-acquaintance. mind. Is he addicted to luxury and debauch? SenIt is strange to observe what pains some men are at suality then appears to be his prevailing taste. Is he to expose themselves; to signalize their own folly; given to revenge and cruelty. Choler and malice then and to set out to the most public view, those things reigns in his heart. Is he confident, bold, and enlterwhich they ought to be ashamed to think should ever prising? Ambition appears to be the secret spring. enter into their character. But so it is; some men Is he sly and designing, given to intrigue and artifice l seem to be ashamed of those things which would be You may conclude there is a natural subtlety of temper their glory, whilst others'glory in their shame.' Phil. that prompts him to this; and this secret disposition is iii. 19. criminal, in proportion to the degree in which these outThe greatest weakness in a man, is to publish his ward actions, which spring from it, transgress the bounds weaknesses, and to appear fond to have them known. of reason and virtue. But vanity will often prompt a man to this; who, unac- Every man hath something peculiar in the turn or quainted with the measure of his capacity, attempts cast of his mind, which distinguishes him as much as things out of his power, and beyond his reach; whereby the particular constitution of his body. And both these, he makes the world acquainted with two things to his viz. his particular turn of miind and constitution of body, disadvantage, which they were ignorant of before; viz. not only incline and dispose him to some kind of sins, his deficiency, and his self-ignorance, in appearing so more than to others; but render the practice of certain blind to it. virtues much more easy.* It is ill judged (thoug~h very common,) to be less * Msn with regard to their bodies, and bodily appetites, are ashamed of a want of temper than understanding F rpretty much alike; but withll regardl to their souls, and their ashamed of awant of temper than understanding. For mental tastes and dispositions, they are often as different as if it is no real dishonor, or fault, in a man, to have but a they were quite of another species; governed by different views, small ability of mind, provided he hath not the vanity entertained with different pleasures, animated with different to set up for a genius; which would be as ddiculous, hopes, and affected by different motives, and distinguished by as ~to set up fo gnus hihwul sriulu, different tempers and inclinations, as if they were not of ths as for a man of small strength and stature of body, to same kind. So that I amin very ready to believe, that there is set up for a champion; because this is what he cannot not a Treater difference between an angel and some of the best help. But a man may in a good measure correct the and wisest of men, or between a devil and some of tile wolst awld wickedlest of men with reffard to their tempers and disposi* Ceceliis, a famous Rhetorician of Sicily, who lived in the tions, than there is between some sort of men and some others. time of Augustus, and wrote a treatise on the sublime, which is And what inclines me to this sentiment is, colisiderilg the easy censured by Longinus, in the beginning of his, was a man of a transition which nature always observes in passing from ona hasty and enterprising spirit, and very apt to overshoot himself order or kind of beings to another, which I have before taken on all occasions; and particularly velntured out of his depth in notice of; together with the prodigious difference there appears his comparison of Demosthenes and Cicero. Whereupon Plu- to be between some and others of the humiin species, almost in tarch makes this sage and candlil remark:' If;' saith he,' it every thinrg belonring to their souls. For some there are' in was a thing obvious and easy for every man to know himself, whom,' as one expresses it.'one would think nature had possible that saying had not passed for a divine oracle.' Plut. placed every thing the wrong way;' depraved in their onirions Li~. vol. vii. p 347. unintelligible in their reasoning, irregular in their ac:tions, and SELF-KNOWLE DGE. 13 Now these sins to which men are commonly most And to find out our most beloved sin, let us consider, inclined, and the temptations which they have least what are those worldly objects or amusements which power to resist, are, and not improperly, called their give us the highest delight; this, it is probable, will constitutional sins, their peculiar frailties; and in scrip- lead us directly to some one of our darling iniquities, ture, (Psalm xviii. 23.) their' own iniquities,' and the if it be a sin of commission: and what are those duties sins which (Heb. xii. 1.)' do most easily beset them.' which we read or hear of from the word of god, to'As in the humors of the body, so in the vice of the which we find ourselves most disinclined. And this, mind, there is one predominant, which has an ascend- in all likelihood, will help us to detect some of our peant over us, and leads and governs us. It is in the culiar sins of omission; which, without such previous body of sin, what the heart is in the body of our nature; examination, we may not be sensible of. And thus we it begins to live first, and di-es last: and whilst it lives, may make a proficiency in one considerable branch of it communicates life and spirit to the whole body of sin; self-knowledge. and when it dies, the body of sin expires with it. It is It is a good argument for a reformed mind, that it the sin to which our constitution leads, our circum- sees those vices in itself, which it was before ignorant of. stances betray, and custom enslaves us; the sin to A nan's predominant sin usually arises out of his which not our virtues only, but vices too, lower their predominant passion; which, therefore, he shoulld dilitopsails, and submit; the sin which, when we could gently observe. The nature and force of which is impose upon god and our consciences, we excuse and beautifully described by Pope: disguise with all imaginable artifice and sophistry; but, when we are sincere with both, we oppose first, and' On different senses, different objects strike; conquer last. It is, ini a word, the sin which reigns Hence different passions more or less inflame, and rules in the unregenerate, and too often alarms ard As strong or weak the organs of the frame: disturbs (ah! that I could say ndate) the regenerate.' And hence one master-passion in the breast, disturbs (ah- that I could say if-ore) the regenerate.' Like Aaron's serpent, swallows up the rest. Some are mIore inclined to the sins of the flesh; Nature Aaron's er, swallows up therest. Nature its mother, habit is its nurse; sensuality, intemperance, uncleanliness, sloth, self-in- Wit, spirit, faculties, but make it worse; dulgence, and excess in animal gratifications. Others, Reason itself but gives it edge and power, to the sins of the spirit, pride, malice, covetousness, As heaven's blest beam turns vinegar more sour. ambition, wrath, revenge, envy, &c. And I am per- Ah! if she lend not arms as well as rules, suaded there are few, but, upon a thorough search into What can she more than tell us, we are fools? themselves, may find, that some one of these sins hath Teach us to mourn our nature, not to mend: ordinarily a greater power over them than the rest.- A sharp aecuser, but a helpless friend! Others often observe it in them, if they themselves do not. And for a man not to know his predominant iniquity, is great self-ignorance indeed; and a sign that CHAPTER VIII. he has all his life lived far from home; because he. is not acquainted with that, relating to himself, which THE KNOWLEDGE OF OUR MOST DANGEROUS TEMPTAevery one, who is but half an hour in his company per- TIONS NECESSARY TO SELF-KNOWLEDGE. haps may be able to inform him of. Hence proceeds that extreme weakness which some discover, in censurVII. A man that rightly knows himself, is acquainted ing others for the very same faults they are guilty of with his peculiar temptations; and knows when, and themselves, and perhaps in a much higher degree; on in what circumstances, he is in the greatest danger of which the apostle Paul animadverts, Rom. ii. 1. transgressing. It must be owned, it is an irksome and a disagreea-r, if ever you would know yourself, you must ble business for a man to turn his own accuser; to ou you e n ves examine this point thoroughly. And if you have never search after his own faults, and keep his eyes upon that you have er s *m e *d p *o sE Xt *s l 2 *done it, make a pause when you have read this chapter, which gives him shame and pain to see. It is like and do it now. Consider in what company you are tearing open an old wound. But it is better to dothis, most apt to lose the possession and government of than to let it mortify. The wounds of the conscience, yourself; on what occasion you are apt to be most vain yourself; on what occasion you are apt to be most vain like those of the body, cannot be well cured, till they and un w and precipitant. Flee that and unguarded, Mnost warm and precipitant. Flee that are searched to the bottom: and they cannot be searched without pain. A man who is en. aged in the company, avoid those occasions, if you would keep your conscience clear. What is it that robs you most of study of himself, must be content to know the worst your time and temperl If you have a due regard to of himself. the improvement of the one, and the preservation of Do not therefore shut your eyes against your darling the other, you will regret such a loss: and shun the sin, or be averse to find it out. Why should you study occasions of it, as carefully as you would a road beset to conceal or excuse it, and fondly cherish that viper in robbers. your bosom?' Some men deal by their sins, as some But especially must you attend to the ccasi,adies do by their persons. When their beauty is de- which most usually betray you into your favorite cayed, they seek to hide it from themselves by false cayed, they seek to hide it froi themselveo s by false vices; and consider the spring from whence they arise, glasses, and from others by paint. So, many seek to and the crcustances which most favor them. They and the circumstances which most favor them. They hide their sins from themselves by false glasses, and from others by excuses, or false colors;' but the arise doubtless from your natural temper, which strongly gre t c p'T y tt disposes and inclines you to them. That temper, then,.atest cheat they put upon themselves: IThey that or particular turn of desire, must be carefully watched cover their sins shall not prosper.'-Prov. xxviii. 13. and soi' over, as a most dangerous quarter; and the opportuniIt is dangerous self-flattery, to give soft an scircumsooances which.favor those ininations, 0..9 ~ties and circumstances which.favor those inclinations, names to sin, in order to disguise their nature. Rather names to sin, in order to disguise their nature. Rather must be resolutely avoided, as the strongest temptalay your hand upon your heart, and' thrust it into your tions. For the way to subdue a c al inclination tions. For the way to subdue a criminal inclination, bosom, thouh it come out, as Moses' did, leprous as first, to avoid the known occasions that excite it snow.'" Exod. iv. 6. and then to curb the first motions of it. And thus, vicious in every disposition. VWhilst in some others, we see a". havinl. no o most every thing amiable and excellent that can adorn and ex-ppo rtunity of be ndulged, t wil of alt the humnarn mind, uader the disadvantages of mortality. self, in time, lose its force, and fail of its wonted vic* The knowledg!e of sin is the first sten towards amend- tory. iment: for he that does not know that he hath offended is not wil. The surest way to conquer, is sometimes to decline ling to bereproved. You must therefore find out yourself, be-st way to conquer, is sometimes to decline fore you can amend yourself. Some glory in their vices. And reprove thyself: search thyself very narrowly. First turn a, *do y-o imagine they have any thought about reforming, who cuser to thyself, then a judge, anil then a suppliant; and dare place their very vices in the rouom of their virtues? Therefbro, for once to displease thyself, 14 A TREATISE ON a battle; to weary out the enemy, by keeping him at There is no one particular, that I know of, wherein bay. Fabius Maximus did not use this stratagem more self-knowledge, more eminently consists, than it does successfully against Hannibal, than a Christian may in this. It being, therefore so essential a branch of my against his peculiar vice, if he be but watchful of his subject, and a point to which men seldom pay attention advantages. It is dangerous to provoke'- an unequal equal to its importance, I beg leave to treat it with a enemy to the fight, or to run into such a situation, little more precision. where we cannot expect to escape, without a disadvan- These prejudices of the human mind may be contageous encounter. sidered with regard to opinions, persons, and things. It is of unspeakable importance, in order to self- 1. With regard to opinions. knowledge and self-government, to be acquainted with It is a common observation,'but well expressed by all the accesses and avenues to sin, and to observe a late celebrated writer,' That we set out in life which way it is that we ourselves too often approach with such poor beginnings of knowledge, and grow it; and to set reason and conscience to guard those up under such remains of superstition and ignorance, passes, those usual inlets to vice, which if a man once such influences of company and fashion, such insinuenters, he will find a retreat extremely difficult. ations of pleasure, &c., that it is no wonder if men'Watchfulness, which is always necessary, is chiefly get habits of thinking only in one way; that these so when the first assaults are made: forthenthe enemy habits in time grow rigid and confirmed: and so is most easily repulsed; if we never suffer him to get their minds come to be overcast with thick prewithin us; but upon the very first approach, draw up judices, scarce penetrable by any ray of truth, or our forces, and fight him without the gate. And this light of reason.' See' Religion of Nature Delineated, will be more manifest, if we observe by what methods p. 129. and degrees temptations grow upon us. The first thing There is no man but is more attached to one parthat presents itself to the mind, is a plain single thought; ticular set or scheme of opinions in philosophy, polithis straight is improved into a strong imagination; tics, and religion, than he is to another; mean, if that again enforced by a sensible delight; then follow he hath employed his thoughts at all about them. evil notions; and when these are once stirred, there The question we should examine then is, how came wants nothing but the-assent of the will, and then the we by those attachments? Whence are we so fond work is finished. Now the first steps to this are seldom of these particular notions? Did we come fairly by thought worth our care; sometimes not taken notice them? or were they imposed upon us, and dictated of! so that the enemy is frequently got close up to us, to our easy belief, before we were able to judge of and even within our trenches, before we observe him.' them. This is most likely. For the impressions we As men have their particular sins, which do most early receive generally grow up with us, and are easily beset them; so they have their particular temp- those we least care to part with. However, which tations, which do most easily overcome them. That way soever we came by them, they must be re-exmay be a very great temptation to one, which is none amined, and brought to the touchstone of sound at all to another. And if a man does not know what sense, solid reason and plain scripture. If they are his greatest temptations, he must have been a great will not hear this, after hard drubbing, they must stranger indeed to the business of self-employment. be dismissed, as no genuine principles of truth, but As the subtle enemy of mankind takes care to draw as counterfeits, imposed upon us, under guise und men gradually into sin, so he usually draws them by semblance of it. degrees into temptation. As he disguises the sin, so And as reason and scripture must discover our prehe conceals the temptation to it; well knowing, that judices to us, so they only can help us to get rid of were they but once sensible of the danger of their sin, them. By these we are to rectify, and to these are we to they would be ready to be on their guard against it. conform, all our opinions and sentiments in religion, as Would we know ourselves thoroughly then, we must get our only standard, exclusive of all other rules, light, or acquainted, not only with our most usual temptations, authority, whatsoever. that we be not unawares drawn into sin; but with the And care must farther be taken, that we do not previous steps, and preparatory circumstances, which make scripture and reason bend and buckle to our make way for those temptations, that we be not drawn notions; which will rather confirm our prejudices unawares into the occasions of sin; for those things than cure them. For whatever cannot evidently be which lead us into tempations are to be considered as proved, without the help of overstrained metaphors temptations, as well as those which immediately lead us and the arts of sophistry, is much to be suspected; into sin. And a man that knows himself will be aware which used to make Archbishop Tillotson say,' Non of his remote temptations, as well as the more imrne- amo argutias in theologia;'I do not love subleties in diate ones; e. g. if he find the company of a passionate divinity.' But, man is a temptation, (as Solomon tells us it is, Prov. 2. The human mind is very apt to be prejudiced xxii. 24, 25.,) he will not only avoid it, but those occa- either for or against certain persons, as well as cersions that may lead him into it. And the petition in the tain sentiments. And as prejudice will lead a man lord's prayer makes it as much a man's duty to be upon to talk very unreasonably with regard to the latter, his guard against temptation, as under it. Nor can a so will it lead him to act as unreasonably with regard man pray from his heart that god would not lead him to the former. into temptation, if he take no care himself to avoid it. What is the reason, for instance, that we cannot help having a more hearty affection for some persons than others 1 Is it from a similarity of taste and temper. or something in their address, that flatters CHAPTER IX. our vanity? or something in their humour, that hits our fancy? or something in their conversation, that SELF-KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERS THE SECRET PREJU- improves our understanding? or a certain sweetness, DICES OF THE HEART. of disposition, and agreeableness of manner, that is naturally engaging. or by benefits received or er-:VIII. Another important branch of self-knowledge pected from them? or from some eminent and disis, for a man to be acquainted with his own prejudices, tinguished excellency in them? or from none of these or -those secret prepossessions, of his heart, which, but something else, we cannot tell what? Such sort though so deep and latent that he may not be sensible of inquiries will show us whether our esteem and afof-them, are often so strong and prevalent, as to give a fections be lightly placed; or flow from mere instinct, mighty, but imperc.entible, bias to the mind. blind prejudice, or something worse, SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 15 And so, on the other hand, with regard to our dis- the present ferment is over? And, lastly, after all affection towards any one, or the disgust we have must I never forgive? How shall I be able to repeat taken against him; if we would know ourselves, we. the lord's prayer, or read our saviour's comment must- examine into the bottom of this; and see not upon it, (Matt. vi. 14, 15,). with an unforgiving temonly what is the pretended, but true cause of it.: per? Do I not hope to be forgiven'ten thousand whether it be justifiable, and our resentments duly talents?' and cannot I forgive my' fellow servant proportioned to it. Is his manner of thinking, talk- thirty pence?' when I know not but he hath repenting, and acting, quite different from mine, and there- ed, and god hath forgiven him whose forgiveness fore, what I cannot approve? Or have I received I want infinitely more than my greatest enemy does some real affront, or injury, from him 1 Be it so, my mine.* continual resentment against him, on either of these Such considerations are of great use to soften our accounts,.may be owing, notwithstanding, more to prejudices against persons; and at once to discover some unreasonable prejudice in me, than to any real the true spring, and prevent the bad effects of them. fault in him. And happy would it be for a Christian, could he but For, as to the former, his way of thinking, or talk- call to mind and apply to his relief half the good ing, or acting, may possibly be juster than my own; things which that excellent heathen emperor and which the mere force of custom and habit only makes philosopher, Marcus Antoninus, could say upon this me prefer to his. However, be it ever so wrong, he subject. Some of which I have, for the benefit of the may not have had the same advantage of improving English reader, extracted. his understanding, address, and conduct, as I have In the morning, remember to say to thyself,-This had; and therefore his defects herein are more ex- day, perhaps, I may meet with some impertinent, uncusable. And he may have many other kind of excel- grateful, peevish, tricking, envious, churlish fellow. lencies which I have not.' But he is not only ign'orant Now all these ill qualities in him proceeds from his igand unmannered, but insufferably vain, conceited, and norance of good and evil. And since I am so happy overbearing, at the same time.'. Why that, perhaps,. as to understand the natural beauty of a good action, he cannot help. It is the fault of his nature. He is and the deformity of an ill one; and since the person the object of pity, rather than resentment. And had that disobliges me is of near kin to me; and though not I such a disposition by nature, I should, perhaps, just of the same blood afim family, yet of the same. diwith all/my self-improvement, find it a difficult thing vine extract, as to the mind; and, finally, since I am to manage. And therefore, though I can never convinced that no one can do me real injury,: because choose such an one for an agreeable companion, yet he cannot force me to do a dishonest thing;-for these I ought not to harbor a dislike to him; but love, and reasons, I cannot find in my heart to hate him, or so pity, and pray for him, as a person under a great misfor- much as to be angry with him. Marc. Anton. Medit. tune; and-be thankful that I am not under the.same. book 2. sect. 1.'But he is quite blind to this fault of his temper, and You are just taking leave of the world: and have does not appear to be in the least sensible of it.' Why, you not yet learned to be friends with every body?. and that is a greater misfortune still; and he ought to be that to be an honest man is. the only way to be a wise the more pitied.' one? B. 4. sect. 37. And ag to the other pretended ground of disgust.- To expect an impossibility is madness. Now it is; He hath often offended and injured me; let me impo~sible for. ill men not to do ill things. Id. b..5 consider, 1. Whether any offence was, really in-. sect. 17. tended; whether I do not impute that to ill-ra- It is the privilege of human nature, above brutes, to ture which was only owing to ill-manners; or that love those that offend us. In order to this, consider, to design, which proceeded only from ignorance. 1. that the offending party is of kin to you; 2. and Do I not take offence before it is given? If so,. acts thus because he knows no better. 3. He mayhave the fault is mine, and not his; and the resent- no design to offend you. 4. You will both of you ment I have conceived against him, I ought to turn quickly be in your graves. But, above all, 5. you upon myself.' have received no harm from him; for your mind, or reason, is the same as it was before. B. 7. sect. 22.'For every trifle, scorn to take offence; Think upon your last hour, and do not trouble That always shows great pride, or little sense; yourself about other people's faults, but. leave them Good nature and good sense must always oin; there, where they must be answered for. Id.. b. 7. To err is human, to forgive divine.' sect. 29. Do not return the temper of ill-natured people upon Again, 2. Did I not provoke him to it, when I themselves, nor treat them as they do the rest of manknew his temper? The fault is still my own. I did, kind. Id. b 7. sect. 55. or might know, the pride, passion, and perverseness, Though the gods are immortal, yet they not only of his nature; why did I then exasperate him? A patiently bore with a wicked world through so many man that would needlessly rouse a lion, must not * A man despises me; what then? Did he know me more, expect always to come off so favorably as the hero he would perhaps despise me more. But I know myself better of La Mancha. But 3. Suppose I were not the than he can know me, and therefore despise myself more. And aggressor; yet, how came I.into his company l who though his contempt in this instance may be groundless, yet in - o'; yeowcaeInthsopay woothers it would be but too well founded. I will therefore not led me into the temptation! He hath acted accord- only bear with, but forgive it. Contemendus est ipse contemp ing to his nature, in what he hath done; but I have tus, saith Seneca. But such retorted scorn is more becoming not acted according to my reason, in laying myself so the character ofa stoic than a Christian. him.Icted kne hy did lyin myshn h, It has been reckoned a wise and witty answer, which one of open to him., I knew him; why did I not shun him, the philosophers returned to'his friend, who advised him to reas I would any other dangerous animal, that does veroge an injury that had been done to him;' What,' says he, mischief by instinct If I must needs put my finger' if an ass kick me, must I needs kick him again?' And perinto a wasp's nest, why should I blame them for haps there is more wit than wisdom in that reply. It seems, i.rinto a wasp's nest, why should I blame them for deed, to carry in it something of a true greatness of mind; but stinging me. Or, 4. If I could not avoid his com- does it not, at the same time, discover a kind of haughty and pany, why did I not arm myself? why did I venture contemptuous spirit? The truth is, as a judicious writer obh defenceless into such danger? Or, 5. Suppose. he serves upon it,' it is at best but a lame and mishappen charity; it has more of pride than of goodness. We should learn of the hath done me a real and undeserved injury, without holy Jesus, who was not only meek, but lowly. We should any fault or provocation; yet does not my discontent contemn the injury, and pity the weakness; but should not disaggravate it? Does it not appear greater to me than dain or despise the persons of our enemies.-' Charity vauntetb it d tay d o wnot herself, is not puffed up, doth not behave itself unseemly., it does to any body else 1 or than it will to me, after See Scougal's' Duty of Loving our Enemies.' 16 A TREATISE ON ages; but, what is still more, liberally provided for it: and then it will be attended with danger to my person, and are you, who are just going off the stage, weary reputation, or peace; and the opposition I am like to with bearing, though you are one of those unhappy meet with is great,' &c. But, after all, is the call of mortals yourself! Id. b. 7. sect. 70. providence clear' Is the thing a plain duty; such as Never disturb yourself; for men will do the same reason, conscience, and scripture, your office, characuntoward actions over again, though you burst with ter., or personal engagements, call upon you to disspleen. Id. b. 8. sect. 4. charge l If so, all the aforesaid objections are vain Reform an injurious person, if you can; if not, re- and delusive; and you have nothing to do but to summember your patience was given you to bear with him; mon your courage, and, in dependence on divine help, that the gods patiently bear with such men, and some- to set about the business immediately, and in good times bestow upon them health, and fame, and fortune. earnest, and in the best and wisest manner you can; Id. b. 9. sect. 11. and you may depend upon it you will find the greatest When people treat you ill, and show their spite, and difficulty to lie only in the first attempt; these frightslander you, enter into their little souls; go to the bot- ful appearances to be all visionary-the mere figments tom of them; search their understandings; and you of fancy, turning lambs into lions, and mole-hills into will soon see, that nothing they may think or say of mountains; and that nothing but sloth, and folly, and you need give you one troublesome thought. Id. b. 9. self-indulgence, thus set your imagination on work, to sect. 27. deter you from a plain duty. Yoqr heart would deThat is the best thing for a man which god sends ceive you; but you have found out the cheat, and do him; and that is the best time when he sends it. B. not be imposed upon.* 10. sect. 2. Again, suppose the thing done; consider how it will It is sometimes a hard matter to be certain whether'look then. Take a view of it as past; and whatever you have received ill usage or not; for men's actions pains it may cost you, think whether it will not be oftentimes look worse than they are; and one must be abundantly recompensed by the inward peace and pleathoroughly informed of a great many things before he sure which arise from a consciousness of having acted can rightly judge. Id. b. 11. sect. 18. right. It certainly will. And the difficulties you now Consider how much more you often suffer from your dread will enhance your future satisfaction. But think anger and grief, than from those very things for which again, how you will bear the reflections of your own you are angry and grieved. Id. b. 11. sect. 18. mind, if you wilfully neglect a plain and necessary -duWhen you fancy that any one hath transgressed, say ty; whether this will not occasion you much more thus to yourself-' How do I know it is a fault 1 But trouble than all the pains you might be at in performadmit it is, it may be his conscience hath corrected ing it. And a wise man will always determine himhim; and then he hath received his punishment from self by the end, or by such a. retrospective view of himself.' B. 12. things, considered as past. To these I shall add two more quotations, out of the Again, on the other hand, if you find a strong prosacred writings, of incomparably greater weight and pension to any particular action, examine that with the dignity than any of the aforementioned.' The discre- like impartiality. Perhaps it is what neither your reation of a man deferreth his anger: and it is his glory to son nor conscience can fully approve. And yet every pass over a transgression.' Prov. xix. 11.' If thine motive to it is strongly urged, and every objection enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink; against it slighted. Sense and appetite grow imporfor in so doing thou shalt heap coals of-fire on his head. tunate and clamorous, and want to lead, while reason Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good.' -remonstrates in vain. But turn not aside from that Rom. xii. 20, 21. faithful and friendly monitor, whilst, with a low still 3. The mind is apt to be prejudiced against, or in voice, she addresses you in this soft, but earnest lanfavor of, certain things and actions, as well as certain guage:-' Hear me, I beseech you, but this one word sentiments and persons. more. The action is indeed out of character; what I Do you not sometimes find dull disagreeable ideas shall never approve. The pleasure of it is a great deal annexed to certain places, seasons, or employments, over-rated; you will certainly be disappointed. It is a which give you a secret aversion to theme These false appearance that now deceives you. And what arise from the remembrance of some unpleasing inci- will you think of yourself when it is past, and you come dents you have heretofore met with, and which you to reflect seriously on the matter 1 Believe it, you will apprehend may again befall you on such occasions. then wish you had taken me for your counsellor, inBut they are often nothing more than the mere misre- stead of those enemies of mine, your lusts and passions, presentations of fancy; and ought to be repelled, be- which have so often misled you, though you know I cause they will be apt to lead you to neglect the duties never did.' of your character. Such short reflections as these, and a little leisure to If, therefore, you find in yourself a secret disinclina- take a view of the nature and consequences of things, tion to any particular action or duty, and the mind be- or actions, before we reject or approve them, will pregins to cast about for excuses and reasons to justify the vent much false judgment and bad conduct; and by neglect of it-consider the matter well; go to the bot- degrees wear off the prejudices which fancy has affixed tom of that reluctance; and search out what it is that in the mind, either for or against any particular action; gives the mind this aversion to it. Whether it be the teach us to distinguish between things and their apthing or action itself, or some discouraging circum-. pearances; strip them of those false colors that so often stances that may attend it; or some disagreeable con- deceive us; correct the sallies of the imagination, and sequences that may possibly flow from it; or your sup- leave the reigns in the hand of reason. posed unfitness for it at present. Why, all these Before I dismiss this head, I must observe, that some things may be only imaginary; and to neglect a plain of our strongest prejudices arise from an excessive selfand positive duty, upon such considerations, shows that esteem, or too great a complacency in our own good you are governed by appearances more than realities, sense and understanding. Philautus, in every thing, by fancy more than reason, and by inclination more shows himself well satisfied with his own wisdom: than conscience. which makes him very impatient of contradiction, and But let fancy muster up all the discouraging circum- gives him a distaste to all who shall presume to oppose stances, and set them in the most formidable light, to their judgment to his, in any thing. He had rather bar your way to a supposed duty. For instance,' it is *' The wise and prudent conquer difficulties by daring to at. very difficult; I want capacity; at least, I am so indis- tempt them. Sloth and folly shiver and shrink at sight of toil and danger, and make the impossibility they fear.' posed to it at present, that I shall make nothing of it;. ROM. SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 17 persevere in a mistake than retract it, least his judg- that very action, wherein they meant to express nothing ment should suffer; not considering that his ingenuity but a hearty zeal for their master's honor; which made and good sense suffer much more by such obstinacy. him tell them,' That they knew not what manner of The fulness of his self-sufficiency makes him blind to spirit they were of,' (Luke ix. 5.) that is, instead of a those imperfections which every one can see in him principle of love and genuine zeal for him, they were but himself. So that, however wise, sincere, and at that time governed by a spirit of pride, revenge, and friendly, however gentle and seasonable your remon- cruelty, and yet knew it not. And that the apostle strance may be, he takes it immediately to proceed John should be liable to this censure, whose temper from ill-nature or ignorance in you, but from no fault seemed to be all love and sweetness, is a memorable in him. instance how difficult a thing it is for a man at all times Seneca, I remember, tells us a remarkable story, to know his own spirit; and that that passion which which very well illustrates this matter. Writing to seems to have the least power over his mind, may, on his friend Lucilius,'My wife,' says he,' keeps Har- some occasions, insensibly gain a criminal ascendant pastes in her house still; who, you know, is a sort of there. family fool, and no small incumbrance upon us. For The necessity of a perfect knowledge of our reignmy part, I am far from taking any pleasure in such pro- ing passions appears farther, from hence: that they not digies. If I have a mind to divert myself with a fool, only give a tincture to the temper, but to the underI have not far to go for one; I can laugh at myself. standing also; and throw a strong bias on the judgment. This silly girl, all on a sudden, lost her eye-sight; and They have much the same effect upon the eye of the (which perhaps may seem incredible, but is very true) mind, as some distempers have upon that of the body. she does not know she is blind, but is every now and If they do not put it out, they weaken it; or throw then desiring her governess to lead her abroad, saying false colors before it, and make it form a wrong judgthe house is dark. Now what we laugh at in this poor ment of things; and, in short, are the source of those creature, we may observe happens to us all. No man forementioned prejudices, which so often abuse the knows that he is covetous, or insatiable. Yet with this human understanding. difference: the blind seek somebody to lead them, but Whatever the different passions themselves, that we are content to wander without a guide. But why reign in the mind, may be owing to; whether to the do we thus deceive ourselves? The disease is not different texture of the bodily organs, or the different without us, but fixed deep within; and therefore is the quantity or motion of the animal spirits, or to the native cure so difficult, because we do not know that we are turn and cast of the soul itself; yet, certain it is, that sick.' men's different ways of thinking are much according to the predominance of their different passions; and especially with regard to religion. Thus, e. g. we see melancholy people are apt to throw too much gloom CHAPTER X. upon their religion, and represent it in a very uninviting and unlovely view, as all austerity and mortification; TIlE NECESSITY AND MEANS OF KNOWING OUR NATU- whilst they who are governed by the more gay and RAL TEMPERS. cheerful passions, are apt to run into the other extreme, and too much to mingle the pleasures of sense with IX. Another very important branch of self-knowledge those of religion;,and are as much too lax as the others is, the knowledge of those governing passions or dis- are too severe; and thus, by the prejudice or bias of positions of the mind, which generally form what we their respective passions, or the force of their natural call a man's natural temper. temper, they are led into different mistakes. The difference of natural tempers seems to be chiefly' So that, would a man know himself, he must study owing to the different degrees of influence the several his natural temper, his constitutional inclinations, and passions have upon the mind; e. g. if the passions are favorite passions; for, by these, a man's judgment is eager, and soon raised, we say the man is of a warm easily perverted, and a wrong bias hung upon his mind. temper; if more sluggish, and slowly raised, he is of a These are the inlets of prejudice, the unguarded aveuool temper; according as anger, malice, or ambition nues of the mind; by which a thousand errors and seprevail, he is of a fierce, churlish, or haughty temper; cret faults find admission, without being observed or the influence of the softer oassions of love, pity, and taken notice of.' benevolence, forms a sweet, sympathizing, and cour- And that we may more easily come at the knowledge teous temper; and where all the passions are duly of our predominant affections, let us consider what outpoised, and the milder and pleasing ones prevail, they ward events do most impress and move us, and in make what is commonly called, a quiet, good-natured what mannerl What is it that usually creates the man. greatest pain or pleasure in the mind? As for pain, a So that it is the prevalence or predominance of any stoic indeed may tell us,'that we must keep things at particular passion, which gives the turn or tincture to a distance: let nothing that is outward come within a man's temper, by which he is distinguished, and for us; let externals be externals still.' _ But the human which he is loved and esteemed, or shunned and de- make will scarce bear the rigor of that philosophy. Outspised, by others. ward things, after all, will impress and affect us; and Now what this is, those we converse with are soon there is no harm in this, provided they do not get the sensible of. They presently see the fault of our tem- possession of us, overset our reason, or lead us to act per, and order their behavior accordingly. If they are unbecoming a man or a Christian. And one advantage wise, and well mannered, they will avoid striking the we may reap from hence is, the manner or degree in string which they know will jar and raise a discord which outward things impress us, may lead us into a within us. If they are our enemies, they will do it on better acquaintance with ourselves, discover to us our purpose to set us on tormenting ourselves. And our weak side, and the passions which most predominate friends, we must suffer sometimes, with a gentle hand, in us. to touch it, either by way of pleasant raillery, or faith- Our pleasures will likewise discover our reigning fll advice. passions, and the true temper and disposition of the But a man must be greatly unacquainted with him- soul. If it be captivated by the pleasures of sin, it is a self, if he is ignorant of his predominant passion, or sign its prevailing taste is very vicious and corrupt; if distinguished temper, when every one else observes it. with the pleasures of sense, very low and sordid; if SAnd yet, how common is this piece of self-ignorance! imaginary pleasures, and the painted scenes of fancy The two apostles, Peter and John, discovered it in and romance, do most entertain it, the soul hath then 18, A TREATISE ON a trifling turn; if the pleasures of science, or intellect By thus disguising our motives, we may impose upon tual improvements, are those it is most fond of, it has men: but, at the same time, we impose upon ourselves; then a noble and refined taste; but if its chief satisfac- and whilst'we are deceiving others, our own hearts detions derive from religion and divine contemplation, it ceive us; and, of all impostures,.self-deception is the has then its true and proper taste; its temper is as it most dangerous, because least. suspected. should be, pure, divine, and heavenly; provided these Now, unless we examine this point narrowly, we satisfactions spring from a true religious principle, free shall never come to the bottom of it; and unless we from that superstition, bigotry, and enthusiasm, under, come at the true spring and real motive of our actions, which it is often disguised. we shall never be able to form a right judgment of And thus, by carefully observing what it is that gives them; and they may appear very different in our own the mind the greatest pain and torment, or the greatest eye, and in the eye of the world, from what they. do in pleasure and entertainment, we come at the knowledge the eye of god.' For the lord seeth not as man seeth: of its reigning passions, and prevailing temper and dis- for man looketh on the outward appearance, but the position. lord looketh on the heart,' (1 Sam. xvi. 7.) And hence' Include thyself, then, 0 my soul, within the com- it is, that that which is highly esteemed among men, pass of thine own heart; if it be not large, it is deep; is oftentimes' abomination in the sight of god,' (Luke and thou wilt there find exercise enough. Thou wilt xiv. 15.)' Every way of man is right in his own eyes: never be able to sound it; it cannot be known, but by but the lord pondereth the heart.' Prov. xxi. 2. him who tries the thoughts and reins. But dive into this subject as deep as thou canst. Examine thyself; and this knowledge of that which passes within thee CHAPTER XII. will be of more use to thee than the knowledge of all that passes in the world. Concern not thyself with the EVERY ONE THAT KNOW HOW FAR HE ISN A PARTIwars and quarrels of public or private persons; take ULAR HANNER, SENSIBLE BY A THIRST FOR APPLAUSE. cognizance of those contests which are between thy flesh and thy spirit; betwixt the law of thy members, XI. Another thing necessary to unfold a man's heart and that of thy understanding. Appease those differ- to himself, is to consider what is his appetite for fame, ences. Teach thy flesh to be in subjection; replace and by what means he seeks to gratify it. reason on its throne, and give it piety for its counsel- This passion in particular, having always so main a lor. Tame thy passions, and bring them under bond- stroke, and oftentimes so unsuspected an influence on age. Put thy little state in good order; govern wisely the most important parts of our conduct, a perfect acand holily those numerous people which are contained quaintance with it is a very material branch of selfin so little a kingdom; that is to say, that multitude of knowledge, and therefore requires a distinct consideraaffections, thoughts, opinions, and passions, which are tion. in thine heart.' Emulation, like the other passions of the human mind, shows itself much more plainly, and works much more strongly, in some, than it does in others. It is CHAPTER XI. in itself innocent, and was planted in our natures for very wise ends; and, if kept under proper regulations CONCERNING THE SECRET SPRINGS OF OUR ACTIONS. is capable of serving very excellent purposes; otherwise it degenerates into a mean and criminal ambition. X. Another considerable branch of self-acquaintance When a man finds something within him that pushes is, to know the true motives and secret springs of our him on to excel in worthy deeds, or in actions truly actions. good and virtuous, and pursues that design with a steady This will sometimes cost us much pains to acquire. and unaffected ardor, without reserve or falsehood, it But for want of it, we shall be in danger of passing a is a true sign of a noble spirit; for that love of praise false judgment upon our actions, and of entertaining a can never be criminal, that excites and enables a man wrong opinion of our conduct. to do a great deal more good than he could do without It is not only very possible, but very common, for it. And perhaps there never was a fine genius, or a men to be ignorant of the chief inducements of their noble spirit, that rose above the common level, and disbehavior; and to imagine they act from one motive, tinguished itself by. high attainments in what is truly whilst they are apparently governed by another. If excellent, but was secretly, and perhaps insensibly, we examine our views, and:.look into our hearts nar- prompted by the impulse of this passion. rowly, we shall.find that they more frequently deceive But, on the contrary, if a man's views center only us in this respect than we are aware of;- by persuading in the applause of others, whether it be deserved or us that we are governed by much better motives than not; if he pants after popularity and fame, not regardwe really are. The honor of god, and the interest of ing how he comes by it; if his passion for praise urge religion, may be the open and avowed motive; whilst him to stretch himself beyond the line of his capacity, secular interest, and secret vanity, may be the hidden and to attempt things to which he is unequal; to conand true one. While we think we are serving god, descend to mean arts and low dissimulation, for the we may be only sacrificing- to mammlon. We may, sake of a name; and, in a sinister, indirect way, sue like Jehu, boast our' zeal for.the lord,' (2 Kings x. 16.) hard for a little incense, not caring from whom he rewhen we are only animated by the heat of -our natural ceives it; his ambition then becomes vanity. And if passions; may cover a censorious spirit under a cloak it excites a man to wicked attempts, and makes him of piety; and giving admonition to others, may be only willing to sacrifice the,esteem of all wise and good giving vent to our spleen. men, to the acclamations of a mob; to overleap the Many come to the place of public worship out of cus- bounds of decency and truth, and break through the tom, or curiosity, who would be thought to come thither obligations of honor and virtue, it is then not only only out of conscience. And whilst their external and vanity, but vice; a vice the most destructive to the professed view is to serve god, and gain good to their peace and happiness of human society, and which, of souls, their secret and inward motive is only to show all others, hath made the greatest havoc and devastation themselves to advantage, or to avoid singularity, and among men. prevent others making observations on their absence. What an instance have we here of the wide differMunificence and almsgi-ing may often proceed from a ence between common opinion and truth! That a vice principle of pride and party-spirit; and seeming acts of so big with mischief and misery, should be mistaken fhendship from a mercenary motive. for a virtue! And that they who have been most in. SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 19.amous for it, should be crowned with laurels, even by We must consider, then, the knowledge we have, and those who have been ruined by it; and have those laurels whether we do not set too high a price upon it, and too perpetuated by the common consent of men through great a value upon ourselves, on its account; of what after ages! Seneca's judgment of Alexander is cer- real use it is of, and what effect it has upon us; whether'ainly more agreeable to truth than the common opinion, it does not make us too stiff, unsociable, and assuming; who called him' a public cut throat, rather than a hero; testy and supercilious; and ready to despise others for and who, in seeking only to be a terror to mankind, arose their supposed ignorance. If so, our knowledge, be it to no greater an excellence, than what belonged to the what it will, does us more harm than good. We were most hurtful and hateful animals on earth.' better without it; ignorance itself would not render How different from this, is the judgment of Plutarch, us so ridiculous. Such a temper, with all our know in this matter; who, in his' Oration concerning the ledge, shows that we know not ourselves. fortune and virtue of Alexander,' exalts him into a true' A man is certainly proud of that knowledge he de hero; and justifies all the waste he made of mankind, spises others for the want of.' under (the same color with which the Spaniards ex- How common is it for some men to be fond of apcused their inhuman barbarities towards the poor In- pearing to know more than they do, and of seeming to dians, viz:) a pretence of civilizing them. And in at- be thought men of knowledge! To which end they tributing all his success to his virtue, he talks more like exhaust their fund almost in all companies, to outshine a soldier, serving under him in his wars, than an his- the rest; so that, in two or three conversations, they torian, who lived many years afterwards, whose busi- are drawn dry, and you see to the bottom of them ness it was to transmit his character impartially to fu- much sooner than you could at first imagine. And ture ages. And in whatever other respects Mr Dryden even that torrent of learning, which they pour out upon may give the preference to Plutarch before Seneca, you at first so unmercifully, rather confounds than satiswhich he does, with much zeal, in his preface to Plu- fies you; their visible aim is not to inform your judgtarch's Lives, yet it must be allowed, that, in this in- ment, but display their own. You have many things stance at least, the latter shows more in the philosopher. to query and except against; but their loquacity gives See Plu. Mor. vol. i. ad. fin. you no room; and their good sense, set off to so much Certain it is, that these false heroes, who seek their advantage, strikes a modest man dumb. If you insist glory from the destruction of their own species, are, of upon your right to examine, they retreat, either in conall men, the most ignorant themselves: and by this fusion or equivocation; and like the scuttle-fish, throw wicked ambition, entail infamy and curses upon their a large quantity of ink behind them, that you may not name, instead of that immortal glory they pursued. see where to pursue. Whence this foible flows is obAccording to the prophet's words,' Woe to him that vious enough. Self-knowledge would soon correct it. coveteth an evil covetousness to his house, that he may But as some ignorantly affect to be more knowing, set up his nest on high; that he may be delivered from so others vainly affect to be more ignorant, than they the power of evil. Thou hast consulted shame to thy are; who, to show they have greater insight and penehouse, by'cutting off many people; and hast sinned tration than other men, insist upon the absolute unceragainst thy soul,' (Ilab. ii. 9, 10,)-' that gaineth a tainty of science; will dispute even first principles; wicked gain.' grant nothing as certain, and so run it into downright Now no man can truly know himself, till he be ac- Pyrrhonism; the too common effect of abstracted dequainted with this, which is so often the secret and bates excessively refined. unperceived spring of his actions, and observes how Every one is apt to set the greatest value upon that far it governs him in his conversation and conduct; for kind of knowledge in which he imagines. he himself virtue and real exellence will rise to view, though they most excels; and to undervalue all other in comparison be not mounted on the wings of ambition; which, by'of it. There wants some certain rule, then, by which soaring too high, procures but a more fatal fall. every man's knowledge is to be: tried, and the value of 0 sons of earth! Attempt ye still to rise, it estimated. And let it be this: —'That is the best By mountains pil'd on mountains, to the skies? and most valuable kind of knowledge, that is most subHeav'n still with laughter the vain toil surveys, servient to the best ends; i. e. which tends to make a And buries madmen in the heaps they raise, man wiser and better, or more agreeable and useful, Who wickedly is wise, or moadly brave, bothi to himself and others. For knowledge is but a Is but the more a fool, or more a knave. -Por'. t the reextravaganceof mean that relates to some end. And as all means are And to correct the irregularity and to be judged of by the excellency of the end, and their passion, let us but reflect how airy and unsubstantial a expediency to produce it; so that must be the best pleasure the highest gratifications of it afford; how knowledge that bath the directest tendency to promote many cruel mortifications it exposes us to, by awaken- the be v a man's own true happiness, and the best ends; viz. a man's own true happiness, and ing the envy of others~ to what meanness it often ing the envy of others; to what meanness it often that of others; in which the glory of god, the ultimate makes us submit; how frequently it loseth its end, by end, is ever necessarily comprised. pursuing it with too much ardor; and how much more Now if we are to judge of the several kinds of solid pleasure the approbation of conscience will yield, science we are to judge of tne several kmds of than the acclamations of ignorant and mistaken men; to bscience by this rule, we should find, 1. Some of them who, judging by externals only, cannot know our true to be very hurtful and pernicious; as tending to percharacter; and whose commendations a wise n the true end of knowlman own wouldrather despise than court. Examine but anthe happiness, and make him more injurious to society. size of people's sense, and the condition of their un-Such is the knowledge of vice, the various temptations derstanding, and you will never be fond of populariun- to it, and the secret ways of practising it, especially derstanding, and you will never be fond of popularity, the arts of disaimulation, fraud, and dishonesty. 2. nor afraid of censure; nor solicitous what judgment theynor afraid of yce nsure; nor s olicitous what judgment Others will be found unprofitable and useless; as those rightlhey may form of you, who know not hoselves to judge parts of knowledge, which, though they may take up much time and pains to acquire, yet answer no valuable purpose; and serve only for amusement, and the enCHAPTER XIII. tertainment of the imagination. For instance, an acWHAT KIND OF KNOWLEDGE WE ARE ALREADY FUR- quaintance with plays, novels, games, and modes in NIHED TH, AND AT DEGREE OF ETEE which a man may be very critical and expert, and yet NISHET UPON D WITH, AND WHAT DEGREE OF ESTEEM WE not a whit the wiser or more useful man. 3. Other kinds of knowledge are good only relatively, or conXII. A man can never rightly know himself; unless ditionally, and may be more useful to one than to he examines into his knowledge of other things. another; viz. a skill in a man's particular occ& 20 A TREATISE ON pation or calling, on which his credit, livelihood, or use- I due acquaintance with our own thoughts, and inward fulness in the world depends. And as this kind of workings of the imagination. knowledge is valuable in proportion to its ends, so it The right government of the thoughts requires no ought to be cultivated with a diligence and esteem small art, vigilance, and resolution. But it is a matter answerable to that. Lastly. Other kinds of knowledge of such vast importance to the peace and improvement are good absolutely and universally; viz. the know- of the mind, that it is worth while to be at some pains ledge of god and ourselves; the nature of our final about it. A man that hath so numerous and turbulent happiness, and the way to it. This is equally neces- a family to govern as his own thoughts, which are too sary to all. And how thankful should we be, that we apt to be at the command of his passions and appetites who live under the light of the gospel, and enjoy that ought not to be long from home. If he be, they will soon light in its perfection and purity, have so many happy grow mutinous and disorderly, under the conduct of those means and opportunities of attaining this most useful two headstrong guides, and raise great clamors and disand necessary kind of knowledge. turbances. And sometimes on the slightest occasions A man can never understand himself, then, till he And a more dreadful scene of misery can hardly be makes a right estimate of his knowledge; till he ex- imagined, than that which is occasioned by such a tuamines what kind of knowledge he values himself most mult and uproar within, when a raging conscience, or upon, and most' diligently cultivates; how high a value inflamed passions, are let loose, without check or conhe sets upon it; what good it does him; what effect it trol. A city in' flames, or the mutiny of a drunken'hath upon him; what he is the better for it; what end crew aboard, who have murdered the captain, and are it answers now; or what it is like to answer hereafter. butchering one another, are but faint emblems of it. There is nothing in which a man's self-ignorance The torment of the mind, under such an insurrection discovers itself more, than in the esteem he hath for and ravage of the passions, is not easy to be conhis understanding, or for himself, on account of it. It ceived. The most revengeful man cannot wish his is a trite and true observation,' that empty things make enemy a greater. the most sound.' Men of the least knowledge are Of what vast importance, then, is it for a man to most apt to make a show of it, and to value themselves watch over his thoughts, in order to a right of governupon it; which is very visible in forward confident ment of them! To consider what kind of thoughts find youth; raw, conceited academics; and those who, the easiest admission; in what manner they insinuate uneducated in their childhood, betake themselves in themselves, and upon what occasions. latter life to reading, without taste or judgment, only It was an excellent rule which a wise heathen preas an accomplishment, and to make a show of scholar- scribed to himself, iii his private meditations:' Manship, who have just learning enough to spoil company, age,' saith he,' all your actions and thoughts in such a and render themselves ridiculous; but not enough to manner, as if you xsere just going out of the world.' make themselves, or others at all the wiser. Again, saith he,' A man is seldom, if e-er, unhappy But beside the fore-mentioned kinds of knowledge, for not knowing the thoughts of others: but he that there is another, which is commonly called false know- does not attend to the motions of his own, is certainly ledge; which though it often imposes upon men under miserable.' the show and semblance of true knowledge is really Nothing can be more unhappy than thait manl who worse than ignorance. Some men have learned agreeat ranges every where, ransacks every thing, digs into many things, and have taken a great deal of pains to the bowels of the earth, dives into other Inet's bosoms, learn them, and stand very high in their own opinion on but does not consider all the while that his own mind account of them, which yet they must unlearn, before will afford him sufficient scope for inquiry and enterthey are truely wise. They have been at avast expense tainment; and that the care and improvement of himof time, and pains, and patience, to heap together, and to self, will give him business enough. confirm themselves in a set of wrong notions; which Your disposition will be suitable to that whi-/h you they lay up in their minds as a fund of valuable know- most frequently think on; for the soul is, as it were, ledge; which, if they try by the fore-mentioned rules; tinged with the color and complexion of its own viz.' The tendency they have to make them wiser and thoughts, better, or more useful and beneficial to others,' will be It may be worth our while then to discuss this matfound to be worth just nothing at all. ter a little more precisely, and consider, first. What Beware of this false-knowledge: for as there is no- kind of thoughts are to be excluded or rejected; and, thing of which men are more obstinately tenacious, so second, what ought to be indulged and entertained. there is nothing that renders them more vain, or more First. Some thoughts ought to be immediately banaverse to self-knowledge. Of all things, men are most - ished, as soon as they have found entrance. And if fond of their wrong notions. we are often troubled with them, the safest way will The apostle Paul often speaks of these men, and be to keep a good guard on the avenues of the mind by their self-sufficiency, in very poignant terms;' who, which they enter, and avoid those occasions which though they seem wise, yet,' says he,'must become commonly excite them. For sometimes it is much fools, before they are wise.' (1 Cor. iii. 18.) Though easier to prevent a bad thought entering the mind, they think they know a great deal,' know nothing yet than to get rid of it when it is entered. More particuas they ought to know,' (1. Cor. viii. 2.)' but deceive larly. themselves, by thinking themselves something, when 1. Watch against all fretful and distcontenlted thoughts, they are nothing,' (1 Gal. vi. 3.) And whilst they desire which do but chafe and wound the mind to no purpose. to be teachers of others,' understand not what they To harbor these, is to do yourself more injury than it say, nor whereof they affirm, (1 Tim. i. 7.)' and want is in the power of your greatest enemy to do you. It themeAlves to be taught what are the first rudiments is equally a Christian's interest and duty to' learn, in and principles of wisdom.' I Heb. v. 12. whatsoever state he is, therewith to be content.' Phil iv. 2. 2. Harbor not too anxious and apprehensive thoughts. By giving way to tormenting fears, suspiCHAPTER XIV. cions of some approaching danger or troublesome event, we not only anticipate, but double the evil we CONCERNING THE KNOWLEDGE, GUARD AND GOVERN- fear; an'd undergo much more from the apprehension RENT OF OUR THOUGHTS. of it before it comes, than from the whole weight of it when present. This is a great, but common weakness, XIII. Another part of self-knowledge consists in a which a man should endeavor to arm himself against SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 21 by such kind of reflections as these.' Are not all to hope, or a needless pain, in the apprehension of what these events under the certain direction of a wise you have not the least reason to fear. The truth is, providence. If they befall me, they are then that share next to a clear conscience and a sound judgment there of suffering which god hath appointed me; and is not a.greater blessing than a regular and well governwhich he expects I should bear as a Christian. How ed imagination; to be able to view things as they are, often hath my too timorous heart magnified former in their true light and proper colors, and to distinguish trials, which I found to be less in reality, than they the false images that are painted on the fancy, from the appeared upon their approach! And perhaps the for- representations of truth and reason; for how common midable aspect they put on, is only a stratagem of a thing is it for men, before they are aware, to confound the great enemy of my best interest, designed on pur- reason and fancy, truth and imagination, together! To pose to divert me from some point of duty, or to draw take the flashes of the animal spirits for the light of evme into some sin, to avoid them. However, why idence, and think they believe things to be true, or false, should I torment myself to no purpose. The pain when they only fancy them to be so; and fancy them and affliction the dreaded evil will give me, when it to be so, because they would have them so; not concomes, is of god's sending: the pain I feel in the ap- sidering, that mere fancy is only the ignis fatuus of the prehension of it, before it comes, is of my own pro-'mind, which often appears brightest when the mind is curing. Whereby, I often make my sufferings more most covered with darkness, and will be sure to lead than double; for this overplus of them, which I bring them astray who follow it as their guide. Near akin to upon myself, is often greater than that measure of them these are, which the hand of providence immediately brings upon 7. Romantic and chimerical thoughts. By which I me.' mean that kind of wild-fire, which the briskness of the 3. Dismiss, as soon as may be, all angry and wrath- animal spirits sometimes suddenly flashes on the mind, ful thoughts. These will but canker and corrode the and excites images that are so extremely ridiculous and mind, and dispose it to the worst temper in the absurd, that one can scarce forbear wondering how they world; viz that of fixed malice and revenge. Anger could get admittance. These random flights of the may steal into the heart of the wise man; but it'rests fancy are soon gone; and herein differ from that only in the bosom of fools.' Make all the most can- castle-building of the imagination before mentioned, did allowances for the offender. Consider his natu- which is a more settled amusement. But these are ral temper Turn your anger into pity. Repeat too incoherent and senseless to be of long continu1 Cor. xxi. Think of the patience and meekness of ance; and are the maddest sallies, and the most Christ, and the petition in the lord's prayer; and ramping reveries of the fancy that can be. I know how much you stand in need of forgiveness yourself, not whether my reader understands now what I both from god and man; how fruitless, how foolish mean; but if he attentively regards all that passes is indulged resentment; how tormenting to your- through his mind, perhaps he may hereafter by exself You have too much good nature willingly to perience. give others so much torment; and why should you 8. Repel all impure and lascivious thoughts, which give it yourself. Your are commanded to love taint and pollute the mind; and, though hid from men, your neigbor as yourself; but not forbidden to love are known to god, in whose eye they are abominable. yourself as much And why should you do your- Our saviour warns us against these, as a kind of spiritself that injury, which your enemy would be glad to ual fornication, (Mat. v. 28.) and inconsistent with that do you! purity of heart which his gospel requires. But, above all, be sure to set a guard on th6 tongue, 9. Take care how you too much indulge gloomy and whilst the fretful mood is upon you. The least spark melancholy thoughts. Some are disposed to see every may break out into a conflagration, when cherished by thing in the worst light. A black cloud hangs hovera resentful heart, and fanned by the wind of an angry ing over their minds, which, when it falls in showers breath. Aggravating expressions, at such a time, are through their eyes, is dispersed, and all within is serene like oil thrown upon flames, which always makes them again. This is often purely mechanical; and owing rage the more. —Especially, either to some fault in the bodily constitution, or some 4. Banish all malignant and revengeful thoughts. accidental disorder in the animal frame. However, one A spirit of revenge is the very spirit of the devil; that consults the peace of his own mind, will be upon than which nothing makes a man more like him; his guard against this, which so often robs him of it. and nothing can be more opposite to the temper 10. On the other hand, let not the imagination be which Christianity was designed to promote. If your too sprightly and triumphant. Some are as unreason, revenge be not satisfied, it will give you torment now; ably exalted as others are depressed; and the same if it be, it will give you greater hereafter. None is a person, at different times, often runs into both exgreater self tormentor, than a malicious and revengeful tremes, according to the different temper and flow of man, who turns the poison of his own temper in upon the animal spirits; and, therefore, the thoughts which himself. so eagerly crowd into the mind at such times, ought to 5. Drive from the mind all silly, trifling, and un- be suspected and well guarded, otherwise they will imreasonable thoughts; which sometimes get into it, pose upon our judgment, and lead us to form such a we know not how, and seize and possess it before we notion of ourselves and of things, as we shall soon see are aware, and hold it in empty idle amusements, that, fit to alter, when the mind is in a more settled and seyield it neither pleasure nor profit, and turn to no man- date frame. ner of account in the world, only consume time, and Before we let our thoughts judge of things, we must prevent a better employment of the mind. And indeed set reason to judge our thoughts; for they are not althere is little difference whether we spend the time in ways in a proper condition to execute that office. We sleep, or in these walking dreams. Nay if the thoughts do not believe the character which a man gives us of which thus insensibly steal upon you be not altogether another, unless we have a good opinion of his own; so, absurd and whimsical, yet if they be impertinent and neither should we believe the verdict which the mind unseasonable, they ought to be dismissed, because they pronounces, till we first examine whether it be imparkeep out better company.' tial and unbiassed; whether it be in a proper temper 6. Cast out all wild and extravagant thoughts, all to judge, and have proper lights to judge by. The vain and, fantastical imaginations.'Suffer not your want of this previous act of self-judgment, is the cause thoughts to roam upon things that never were, and per- of much self-deception and false judgment. haps never will be; to give you a visionary pleasure, Lastly. With abhorrence reject immediately all pron the prospect of what you have not the least reason fane and blasphemous thoughts; which are sometimes 22 A TREATISE ON iuddenly injected into the mind, we know not how, making you more sensible of the weakness and ignothough we may give a pretty good guess from whence. rance of others, who are often talking in a random,- inAnd all those thoughts which are apparently tempta- consequential manner; and whom it may oftentimes tions and inducements to sin, our lord hath, byr his ex- be more prudent to bear with, than contradict. But the ample, taught us to treat in this manner, Matt. iv. 10. vast benefit this method will be of, in tracing out truth, These then are the thoughts we should carefully and detecting error; and, the satisfaction it will give guard against. And as they will (especially some of you, in the cool and regular exercise of self-employthem) be frequently insinuating themselves into the ment, and in the retaining, pursuing, and improving heart, remember to set reason at the door of it, to guard good and useful thoughts, will more than compensate the passage, and bar their entrance, or drive them out that petty disadvantage. forthwith when entered, not only as impertinent, but (2.) If we would have the mind furnished and entermischievous intruders. tained with good thoughts, we must inure it to moral But, second, there are other kinds of thoughts which and religious subjects. we ought to indulge, and, with great care and diligence, It is certain the mind cannot be more nobly and use retain and improve. fully employed, than in such kind of contemplations, Whatever thoughts give the mind a rational or reli- because the knowledge it thereby acquires is, of all gious pleasure, and tend to improve the heart and un- others, the most excellent knowledge; and that both derstanding, are to be favored. often recalled, and care- in regard of its object and its end; the object of it be. fully cultivated. Nor should we dismiss them, till they ing god, and the end of it eternal happiness. have made some impressions on the mind, which are The great end of religion is, to' make us like god, like to abide there. and conduct us to the enjoyment of him.' And whatAnd to bring the mind into a habit of recovering, re- ever hath not this plain tendency, (and especially if it taining, and improving such thoughts, two things are have the contrary) men may call religion, if they please; necessary. but they cannot call it more out of its name. And 1. To habituate ourselves to a close and rational whatever is called religious knowledge, if it does not way of thinking; and, 2. To moral reflections and re- direct us in the way to this end, is not religious knowligious contemplations. ledge, but something else, falsely so called. And some (1.) To prepare and dispose the mind for the enter- are unhappily accustomed to such an abuse of words tainment of good and useful thoughts, we must take and understanding, as not only to call, but to think, care to accustom it to a close and rational way of think- those things religion, which are quite reverse of it; and ing. those notions religious knowledge, which lead them the When you have started a good thought, pursue it; farthest from it. do not presently lose sight of it, or suffer any trifling The sincerity of a true religious principle cannot be suggestion that may intervene to divert you from it. better known, than by the readiness with which the Dismiss it not till you have sifted and exhausted it, and thoughts advert to god, and the pleasure with which well considered the several consequences and infei- they are employed in devout exercises. And though ences that result from it. However, retain not the sub- a person may not always be so well pleased with hearject any longer than you find your thoughts run freely ing religious things talked of by others, whose differupon it; for, to confine them to it when it is quite worn ent taste, sentiments, or manner of expression, may out, is to give them an unnatural bent, without suffi- have something disagreeable; yet, if he have no inclicient employment; which will make them flag, or be nation to think of them himself, or to converse with more apt to run off to something else. himself about them, he hath great reason to suspect And to keep the mind intent on the subject you think that his heart is not right with god. But if he freof, you must be at some pains to recall and refix your quently and delightfully exercise his mind in divine condesultory and rambling thoughts. Lay open the sub- templations, it will not only be a good mark of his sinject in as many lights and views as it is capable of be- cerity, but will habitually dispose it for the reception ing represented in. Clothe your best ideas in pertinent of the best and most useful thoughts, and fit it for the and well chosen words, deliberately pronounced; or noblest entertainments. commit them to writing. Upon the whole, then, it is of as great importance Whatever be the subject, admit of no inferences for a man to take heed what thoughts he entertains, as from it, but what you see plain and natural. This is what company he keeps; for they have the same effect the way to furnish the mind with true and solid know- upon the mind. Bad thoughts are as infectious as bad ledge; as, on the contrary, false knowledge proceeds company; and good thoughts solace, instruct, and enfrom not understanding the subject, or drawing infer- tertain the mind, like good company. And this is one ences from it which are forced and unnatural, and al- great advantage of retirement, that a man may choose lowing to those precarious inferences, or consequences what company he pleases, from within himself. drawn from them, the same degree of credibility as to As, in the world, we oftener light into bad company the most rational and best established principles. than good; so, in solitude, we are oftener troubled Beware of a superficial, slight, or confused view of with impertinent and unprofitable thoughts, than enterthings. Go to the bottom of. them, and examine the tained with agreeable and useful ones: and a man that foundation; and be satisfied with none but clear and hath so far lost the command of himself, as to lie at the distinct ideas (when they can be had) in every thing mercy of every foolish or vexing thought, is in much you read, hear, or think of: for resting in imperfect the same situation as an host whose house is open to and obscure ideas is the source of much confusion and all comers; whom, though ever so noisy, rude, and mistake. troublesome, he cannot get rid of: but with this differAccustom yourself to speak naturally, pertinently, ence, that the latter hath some recompense for his and rationally, on all subjects, and you will soon learn trouble, the former none at all; but is robbed of his to think so on the best; especially if you often con- peace and quiet for nothing. verse with those persons that speak, and those authors Of such vast importance to the peace, as well as the that write, in that manner improvement of the mind, is the right regulation of the Such a regulation and right management of your thoughts: which will be my apology for dwelling so thoughts and rational powers, will be of great and gen- long on this branch of the subject; which I shall coneral advantage to you in the pursuit of youthful know- clude with this one observation more: that it is a very ledge, and a good guard against the levities and frantic dangerous thing to think, as many are apt to do, sallies of the imagination. Nor will you be sensible of that it is a matter of indifference what thoughts they en..any disadvautage attending it, excepting one; viz. its tertain in their hearts; since the reason of things con SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 23 curs with the testimony of the holy scriptures to assure word by which it is expressed; or that hath some relaus,' that the allowed thought of foolishness is sin.'* tion to it, either in time or place. And then, by re(Prov. xxxiv. 9.) calling this, which is easily remembered, you will, by that concatenation, or connection of ideas, which Mr Locke takes notice of, draw in that which is thus linked or joined with it; which otherwise you might hunt after CHAPTER XV. in vain. This rule is of excellent use to help you to remember names. 6. What you are determined to remember, think of before you go to sleep at night, and the first thing in the morning, when the faculties are fresh; and recolo manag o f his tho e lect at evening every thing worth remembering the day not only to the management of his thoughts, but the. improvement of his memory. 7. Think it not enough to furnish this store-house The memory is that faculty of the soul which was of the mind with good thoughts, but lay them up there designed for the store-house, or repository, of its most in order, digested or ranged under proper subjects or In. X. in order, digested or ranged under proper subjects or useful notions, where they may be laid up in safety, to classes; that whatever subject you have occasion to be produced upon proper occasions. Now, a thorough self acquaintance cannot be had. think or talk upon, you may have recourse immediately *ow, a thorough ~ elf-acquamtance,annot be had to a good thought, which you heretofore laid up there, without a proper regard to this, in two respects. (1.) under tha t subject. So that the very mention of the Its furniture. (2.) Its improvement. (1) under that subject. So that the very mention of the Itsfu *iture. *2.).-. provement. subject may bring the thought to hand; by which (1.) A man that knows himself will have a regard to subject may bring the thought to hand; by which the furniture of his memory; not to load it with trash means you will carry a regular common-place-book in and lumber, a set of useless notions, or low conceits, your memory. take an inventory of this mental furniture, and recolwhich he will be ashamed to produce before persons of et how man y good this m ental furniture, and red up taste and judgment. lect how many good thoughts you have treasured up tJf an j * *... under such particular subjects, and whence you had If the retention be bad, do not crowd it; it is of as them. ill consequence to overload a weak memory as a weak Nothing helps the memory more than often stomach: and that it may not be cumbered with trash, Lastly. ing take. heed wt c n yo k, thinking, writing, or talking, on those subjects you take heed what company you keep, what books you would remember. But enough of this. read, and what thoughts you favor; otherwise a great deal of useless rubbish may fix there before you are aware, and take up the room which ought to be possessed by better notions. But let not a valuable thought APTER slip from you, though you pursue it with much time and pains before you overtake it; the regaining, and refixing it may be of more avail to you than many hour's' CONCERNING THE MENTAL TASTE. reading. XV. A man that knows himself is sensible of, and What pity it is that men should take such immense XV. A man that knows himself is sensible of, and pains, as some do, to learn those things which, as soon attentve to, the particulr tastes of his mind, especially as they become wise, they must take as much pains to As the late Mr Howe judiciously observes, in his unlearn. A thought that should make us very curious As the late r Howe udiciously observes, in his and cautious about the proper furniture of our minds. Humble Request both to Conformists and Dissenters,' (2.) Self-knowledge will acquaint a man with the There is, beside bare understanding and judgment, extent and capacity of his memory, and the right way and diverse from that heavenly gift, which in the scripto improve it. ture is called grace, such a thing as gust and relish There is no small art in improving a weak memory, so belonging to the mind of man, and, I doubt not, with There is no small art in improving a weak memory, so all men, if they observe themselves, and which are as as to turn it to as great an advantage as many do theirs unacc ountable and as variousve thems elves, lishes and dire as which are much stronger. A few short rules to this unaccountable and as various' as the relishes and diswhich are much stronger. A few short rules to this purpose may be no unprofitable digression. gusts of sense. This they only wonder at who under1. Beware of every sort of intemperance, in the in- stand not themselves, or will consider nobody but themselves. So that it cannot be said universally. that it dulgence of the appetites and passions. Excesses of all kinds do a great injury to the memory. is a better judgment, or more grace, that determines 2. If it be weak, do not overload it. Charge it only men the one way or the other; but somewhat in the with the most useful and solid notions. A small ves- temper of their minds, distinct from both, which I know sel should not be stuffed with lumber: but if its freight not how better to express, than by mental taste. And be precious, and judiciously stowed, it may be more this, hath no more of mystery in it, than that there is* valuable than a ship of twice its burden. such a thing belonging to our natures as complacency 3. Recur to the help of a common-place-book, ac- and displacency, in reference to the objects of the cording to Mr. Locke's method;t and review it once mind. Ard this, in the kind of it, is as common to I mind. And this, in the kind of it, is as common to cording It-lo Mr. Locke's method;t and. review it once men as human nature; but as much diversified in india year. But take care that, by confiding to your minutes,men as human nature; but as much diversified in indior memorial aids, you do not excuse the labor of the viduals, as men's other inclinations are.' rmemoryl which is one disadvantage attending th Now this different taste in matters relating to religmethodry; this ion, though it may be sometimes natural, or what is 4. Take every opportunity of uttering your best born with a man, generally arises from the difference of education and custom. And the true reason why some thoughts in conversation, when the subject will admit education and custom. And the true reason why some it; that will deeply imprint them. Hence the tales persons have an inveterate disrelish to certain circurmwhich common story-tellers relate, they never forget stantials of religion, though ever so justifiable; and at though ever so silly. the same time a fixed esteem for others, that are Inore 5. Join to the idea you would remember, some other exceptionable, may be no better than what I have heard that is more familiar to you, which bears some simili- some very honestly profess; viz, that the one they have been used to, and the other not. As a person, by tude to it, either in its nature, or in the sound of the have been used to, and the other not. As a person, by long use and habit, acquires a greater relish for coarse *'Guard well thy thoughts: our thoughts are heard in and unwholesome food, than the most delicate diet; Savene' [Young. so, a person long habituated to a set of phrases, notions, f See Appendix at the the end of the volume, in which Mr, Locke's method of keeping a common.place-book is fully ex. and modes, may, by degrees, come to have such a venWlained. eration and esteem for them, as to despise and condemn 24 A'iREATISE ON others which they have'not been accustomed to, though Now we should all of us be careful to find out and perhaps more edifying, and more agreeable to scripture examine our proper taste of religious things; that, if and reason. it be a false one, we may rectify it; if a bad one, mend This particular taste in matters of religion differs it; if a right and good one, strengthen and improve it: very much, as Mr Howe well observes, both from judg- for the mind is capable of a false gust, as well as the ment and grace. palate, and comes by it in the same way; viz. by being However, it is often mistaken for both: when it is long used to unnatural relishes, which, by custom, bemistaken for the former, it leads to error; when mis- come grateful. And having found out what it is, and extaken for the latter, to censoriousness. amined. it bv the test of scripture, reason and conThis different taste of mental objects is much the science, if it be not very wrong, let us indulge it, and same with that, which, with regard to the objects of read those books that are most suited to it; which, for sense, we call fancy; for, as one man cannot be said that reason, will be most edifying. But, at the same to have a better judgment in food than another, purely time, let us take care of two things: 1. That it do not because he likes some kind of meats better than he; bias our judgments, and draw us into error. 2. That so, neither can he be said to have a better judgment in it do not cramp our charity, and lead us to censoriousmatters of religion, purely because he hath a, greater ness. fondness for some particular doctrines and forms. But though this mental taste be not the same as the judgment, yet it often draws the judgment to it; and sometimes very much perverts it. CHAPTER XVII This appears in nothing more evidently than in the ludgment people pass upon the sermons they hear. OF OUR GREAT AND GOVERNING VIEWS IN LIFE. Some are best pleased with those discourses that are pathetic and warming; others with what is more solid XVI. Another part of self-knowledge is, to know and rational; and others with the sublime and mystical; what are the great ends for which we live i nothing can be too plain for the taste of some, or too We must consider what is the ultimate scope we refined for that of others. Some are for having the drive at; the general maxims and principles we live address only to their reason and understanding; others by; or whether we have not yet determined our end, only to their affections and passions; and others to and are governed by no fixed principles; or by such as their experience and consciences. And every hearer we are ashamed to own. or reader is apt to judge according to his particular'The first and leading dictate of prudence is that a taste, and to esteem him the best preacher or writer man propose to himself his true and best interest for who pleases him most; without examining his own his end; and the next is, that he make use of all those particular taste, by which he judgeth. means and opportunities whereby that end is to be obIt is natural, indeed, for every one to desire to have tained. This is the most effectual way that I know of his own taste pleased; but it is unreasonable in him to to secure to one's self the character of a wise man set it up as the best, and make it a test and standard to here, and the reward of one hereafter. And between others; but much more unreasonable to expect, that these two there is such a close connection, that he he who speaks in public, should always speak to his does not do the latter, cannot be supposed to intend taste; which might as reasonably be expected by the former. He that is not careful of his action, shall another, of a different one. It is equally impo3sible, never persuade me that he seriously proposes to himthat what is delivered to a multitude of hearers, should self his best interest as his end; for if he did, he alike suit all their tastes, as that a single dish, though would as seriously apply himself to the regulation of prepared with ever so much art and exactness, should the other, as the means.' equally please a great variety of appetites; among There are few that live so much at random, as not which there may be some, perhaps, very nice and sickly. to have some main end in eye; something that inIt is the preacher's duty to adapt his subjects to the fluences their conduct, and is the great object of their taste of his hearers, as far as fidelity and conscience pursuit and hope. A man cannot live without some will admit; because it is well known, from reason and leading views: a wise man will always know what they experience, as well as from the advice and practice of are; whether it is fit he should be led by them or no; the apostle Paul, (Romrn. xv. 2-1 Cor. ix. 22.) that whether they be such as his understanding and reason this is the best way to promote their edification. But approve, or only such as fancy and inclination suggest. if their taste be totally vitiated, and incline them to He will be as much concerned to act with reason, as take in that which. will do them more harm than good, to talk with reason; as much ashamed of a solecism and to relish poison more than food, the most charitable and contradiction. in his character, as in his conversathing the preacher can do in that case is, to endeavor tion. to correct so vicious an appetite, which loathes that Where do our views center? In this world we are which is most wholesome, and craves pernicious food; in; or in that we are going to? If our hopes and joys this, I say, it is his duty to attempt, in the most gentle center here, it is a mortifying thought, that we are every and prudent manner he can, though he run the risk of day departing from. out happiness: but if they are fixed having his judgment or orthodoxy called into question above, it is a joy to think that we are every day drawby them, as it very possibly may; for commonly they ing nearer to the object of our higLest wishes. are the most arbitrary and unmerciful judges in this Is our main care to appear great in the eye of man, case, who are least of all qualified for that office. or good in the eye of god 1 If the fo-rmer, we expose There is not, perhaps, a more unaccountable weak- ourselves to the pain of a perpetual disappointment. ness in human nature than this,-that, with regard to For it is much if the envy of men do not rob us of a religious matters, our animosities are generally greatest good deal of our just praise, or if our vanity will be conwhere our differences are least; they who come pretty tent with that portion of it they allow us. But if the near to our standard, but stop short there, are more the latter be our main care, if our chief view is to be apcbjects of our disgust and censure, than they who con- proved of god, we are laying up a fund of the most lasttinue at the greatest distance frLm it. And in some ing and solid satisfactions. Not to say, that this is the cases it requires much candor and self-command to get truest way to appear great in the eye of men, and to over this weakness. To whatever secret spring in the conciliate the esteem of all those whose praise is worth human mind it may be owing, I shall not stay to in- our wish. quire; but the thing itself is too obvious not to be' Be this, then, 0 my soul, thy wise and steady pur taken notice of. suit; let this circumscribe and direct thy' views, De SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 25 this a law to thee, from which account it a sin to de- to him; and for the sake of which only, they are the part, whatever disrespect or contempt it may expose objects of his delight: for god can love none but those thee to from others; be this the character thou resolvest that bear this impress of his own image on their souls. to live up to, and at all times to maintain, both in pub- Do we find, then, these visible traces of the divine lic and private; viz. a friend and lover of god, in whose image there? Can we make out our likeness to him favor thou centerest all thy present and future hopes. in his holiness, goodness, mercy, righteousness, truth, Carry this view with thee through life, and dare not, in and wisdom? If so, it is certain we are capable of enany instance, to act inconsistently with it.' joying him, and are the proper objects of his love. By this we know we'are fit to die; because by this we know we are fit for happiness after death. Thus, then, if we are faithful to our consciences, and CHAPTER XVIII. impartial in the examination of our lives and tempers, we may soon come to a right determination of this imHOW TO KNOW THE TRUE STATE OF OUR SOULS; AND portant question, WVhat is the true state of our soul toWHETHER WE ARE FIT TO DIE. wards god; and in what condition we are to die ] which, as it is the most important, so, is the last instance of Lastly, the most important point of self-knowledge, self-knowledge I shall mention; and with it close the after all, is, to know the true state of our souls towards first part of this subject. god, and in what condition we are to die. Nor do I apprehend the knowledge of our state (call These two things are inseparably connected in their it assurance, if you please) so uncommon and extranature, and therefore I put them together. The know- ordinary a thing, as some are apt to imagine. Underledge of the former will determine the latter; and is stand, by assurance, a satisfactory evidence of the thing, the bnly thing that can determine it: for no man can such as excludes all reasonable doubts and disquieting tell whether he is fit for death, till he is acquainted with fears of the contrary, though, it may be, not all tranthe true state of his own soul. sient suspicions and jealousies. And such an assurance This, now, is a matter of such vast moment, that it and certainty multitudes have attained, and enjoy the is amazing any considerate man, or any who thinks comfort of; and indeed it is of so high importance, that what it is to die, can be satisfied, so long as it remains it is a wonder any thoughtful Christian, that believes an all uncertainty. Let us trace out this important point, eternity, can be easy one week or day without it.' Benthen, with all possible plainnesss; and see if we can net's Christ. Orat. come to some satisfaction in it, upon the most solid principles. In order to know, then, whether we are fit to die, we A TREATISE must first know what it is that fits us for death. And the answer to this is very natural and easy; viz. that ON only fits us for death, which fits us for happiness after death. SELF-KNOWLEDGE. This is certain. But the question returns. What is it that fits us for happiness after death? Now, in answer to this, there is a previous question PART THE SECOND. necessary to be determined; viz. What that happiness SHOWING THE GREAT EXCELLENCY AND ADVANTAGES is 3 OF THIS KIND OF SCIENCE. It is not a fool's paradise, or a Turkish dream of sensitive gratifications. It must be a happiness suited to the nature of the soul, and what it is capable of enjoying in a state of separation from the body. And what Having, in the former part of the subject, laid open can that be, but the enjoyment of god, the best of be- some of the main branches of self-knowledge, or pointed ings, and the author of ours out the principal things which a man ought to be acThe question then comes to this, whatis that which quainted with, relating to himself; I am now, reader, fits us for the enjoyment of god, in the future state of to lay before you the excellency and usefulness of this separate spirits l kind of knowledge, as an inducement to labor after it, And methinks we may bring this matter to a very by a detail of the several great advantages attending it; sure and short issue, by saying, it is that which makes which shall be recounted in the following chapters. us like to him now. This only is our proper qualification for the enjoyment of him after death, and therefore - our only proper preparation for death. For how can they, who are unlike to god here, expect to enjoy him CHAPTER I. hereafter l And if they have no just ground to hope that they shall enjoy god in the other world, how are 8ELF-KNOWLEDGE THE SPRING OF SELF-POSSESSION. they fit to die. So, that the great question, Am I fit to die? resolves I. One great advantage of self-knowledge is, that it itself into this, Am I like to god! for it is this only gives a man the truest and most constant self-possession. that fits me for heaven; and that which fits me for A man that is endowed with this excellent know-.heaven, is the only thing that fits me for death. ledge, is calm and easy,Let this point, then, be well searched into, and ex- 1. Under affronts and defamation; for he thinks amined very deliberately and impartially. thus:'I am sure I know myself better than any man Most certain it is, that god can take no real compla- can pretend to know me. This calumniator hath, incency in ally but those that are like him; and it is as deed, at this time, missed his mark, and shot his arrows certain, that none but those that are like him, can take at random; and it is my comfort, that my conscience pleasure in him. But god is a most pure and holy be- acquits me of his angry imputation. However, there nag; a being of infinite love, mercy and patience; are worse crimes, which he might more justly accuse whose righteousness is invariable, whose veracity invi- me of; which, though hid fromn him, are known to myolable, and whose wisdom unerring. These are the self. Let me set about reforming them; lest, if they moral attributes of the divine being, in which he re- come to his notice, he should attack me in a more dequires us to imitate him; the express lineaments of the fenceless part, find something to fasten his obloquy, and divine nature, in which all good men bear a resemblance fix a lasting reproach upon my character 26 A TREATISE ON If you are told that another reviles you, do not go session, to lead him to act unbecoming the man, or the about to vindicate yourself, but reply thus:'My other Christian. faults, I find are hid from him, else I should have heard We commonly say, no one knows what he can bear, of them too.' till he is tried. And many persons verify the observaThere is a great deal of true and good sense in that tion, by bearing evils much better than they feared. common saying and doctrine of the stoics, though they Nay, the apprehension of an approachirg evil often gives might carry it too far,' That it is not things, but a man a greater pain than the evil itself. This is owthoughts,that disturb and hurt us.'' It is not th ing to inexperience and self-ignorance. but men's opinion of things, that disturb them.'' Re- A man that, knows himself, his own strength and member, it is not he that reviles or assaults you, that weakness, is not so subject as others to the melancholy injures you; but your thinking that they have injured presages of the imagination; and whenever they intrude, you.'' No man can hurt you, unless you please to let he makes no other use of them, than to take the warnhim; then only are you hurt, when you think yourself ing, collect himself, and prepare for the coming evil; so.' Epict. Ench. leaving the degree, duration, and the issue of it with'Things do not touch the mind, but stand quietly him, who is the sovereign disposer of all events, in a without; the vexation comes from within, from our quiet dependence on his power, wisdom and goodness. suspicions only.' Again,'Things themselves cannot Such self-possession is one great effect and advanaffect the mind; for they have no entrance into it, to tage of self knowledge. turn and move it; it is the mind alone that turns and moves itself.' Marc. Anton. Med. Now, as self-acquaintance teaches a man the right government of the thoughts, (as is shown above, part 1. chap. xiv.) it will help him to expel all anxious, tor- CHAPTER II. menting, and fruitless thoughts, and retain the most quieting and useful ones; and so keep all easy within. SELF-KNOWLEDGE LEADS TO A WISE AND STEADY CONLet a man but try the experiment, and he will find, that DUCT. a little resolution will make the greatest part of the difficulty vanish. II. As self-knowledge will keep a man calm and 2. Self-knowledge wll be a good ballast to the mind, equal in his temper, so it will make him wise and cauunder any accidental hurry or disorder of the passions. tious in his couduct. It curbs their impetuosity; puts the reins into the A precipitant and rash conduct is ever the effect of a hands of reason; quells the rising storm, ere it makes confused and irregular hurry of thought; so, that when, shipwreck of the conscience; and teaches a man, to by the influence of self-knoledge, the thoughts become' leave off contention, before itbe meddled with,' (Prov. cool, sedate, and rational, the conduct will be so too. xvii. 14.); it being much safer to keep the lion chain- It will give a man that even, steady, uniform behavior, ed, than to encounter it in its full strength and fury. in the management of his affairs, that is so necessary And thus will a wise man, for his own peace, deal with for the despatch of business; and prevent many disapthe passions of others as' well as his own. pointments and troubles, which arise from the unsucSelf-knowledge, as it acquaints a man with his weak- cessful execution of immature, or ill-judged projects. nesses and worst qualities, will be his guard against In short most of the troubles which men meet with them, and a happy counterbalance to the faults and ex- in the world, may be traced up to this source, and recesses of his natural temper. solved into self-ignorance. We may complain of pro3. It will keep the mind sedate and calm, under the vicence, and complain of men; but the fault, if we exsurprise of bad news, or afflicting providences. amine it, will commonly be found to be our own. Our' For am I not a creature of god? And my life and imprudence, which arises from self-ignorance, either comforts are they not wholly at his dispose, from whom brings our troubles upon us, or increases them. Want'I have received them; and by whose favor I have so of temper and conduct will make any affliction double. long enjoyed them; and by whose mercy and good- What a long train of difficulties do sometimes proness I have still so many left l ceed from one wrong step in our conduct, into which'A heathen can teach me, under such losses of self-ignorance or inconsideration betrays us! And friends or estate, or any comfort, to direct my eyes to every evil that befalls us, in consequence of that, we are the hand of god, by whom it was lent me, and is now to charge upon ourselves. recalled; that I ought not to say it is lost, but restored. And though I be injuriously deprived of it, still the hand of god is to be acknowledged; for what is it to me, by what means he, who gave me that blessing, CHAPTER III. takes it from me again 1' He that rightly knows himself, will live every day HUMILITY THE EFFECT OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE. dependent on the divine author of his mercies, for the continuance and enjoyment of them; and will learn, III. True self knowledge always produces humility. from a higher authority than that of a heathen moralist, Pride is ever the offspring of self-ignorance. The reathat he hath nothing he can call his own, or ought to son men are vain and self-sufficient is, because they do depend upon as such; that he is but a steward em- not know their own failings; and the reason they are ployed to dispense the good things he possesses accord- not better acquainted with them is, because they hate ing to the direction of his lord, at whose pleasure he self-inspection. Let a man but turn his eyes within holds them; and to whom he should be ready, at any scrutinize himself, and study his own heart, and he time, cheerfully to resign them. Luke xvi. 1. will soon see enough to make him humble.' Behold, 4. Self-knowledge will help a man to preserve an I am vile,' (Job xi. 4.) is the language only of selfequanimity and self-possession, under all the various knowledge. scenes of adversity and prosperity. Whence is it that young people are generally so vain, Both have their temptations; to some the tempta- self-sufficient, and assured, but because they have taken tions of prosperity are the greatest; to others, those of no time or pains to cultivate a self-acquaintance l And adversity. Self-knowledge shows a man which of why does pride and stiffness appear so often in adthese are greatest to him; and, at the apprehension, vanced age but because men grow old in self-ignoof them, teaches him to arm himself accordingly; that rance? A moderate degree of self-knowledge would lothing may deprive him of his co"stancy and self-pos- cure an inordinate degree of self-complacency. SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 27 Humility is not more necessary to salvation, than of that very thing; so that pride is attached to this very self-knowledge to humanity. contempt of thyself.'-Jurieu's Method of Devotion, It world effectually prevent that bad disposition page 8. chap x. which is too apt to steal upon and infect some of the best human minds, especially those who aim at singular and exalted degrees of piety; viz. a religious vanity, or spiritual pride; which, without a good deal of self- CHAPTER IV. knowledge and self-attention, will gradually insinuate into the heart, taint the mind, and sophisticate our CHARITY ANOTHER EFFECT OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE. virtues, before we are aware: and, in proportion to its prevalence, make the Christian temper degenerate into.IV. Self-knowledge greatly promotes a spirit of meekthe pharisaical. ness and charity.' Might I be allowed to choose my own lot, I should The more a man is acquainted with his own failings, think it much more eligible to want my spiritual com- the more he is disposed to make allowances for those forts, than to abound in these, at the expense of my of others. The knowledge he hath of himself will inhumility. No, let a penitent and a contrite spirit be cline him to be as severe in his animadversions on his con.. always my portion; and may I ever so be the favorite duct, as he is on that of others; and as candid to their of heaven, as never to forget, that I am chief of sinners. faults, as to his own. Knowledge in the sublime and glorious mysteries of the There is an uncommon beauty, force, and propriety, Christian faith, and ravishing contemplations of god in that caution which our saviour gives us' And why and a future state, are most desirable advantages; but beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, but still I prefer charity, which edifieth, before the highest considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye 1 Or intellectual perfections of that knowledge which puffeth how wilt thou say to thy brother, let me pull out the up. 1 Cor. viii. 1. Those spiritual advantages are cer- mote out of thine eye, and behold a beam is in thine tainly best for us, which increase our modesty and awak- own eye l Thou hypocrite, first cast the beam out of en our caution and dispose us to suspect and deny thine own eye, and then shalt thou see clearly to cast ourselves. The highest in god's esteem are meanest in out the mote out of thy brother's eye,''Mat. vii. 3-5. their own: and their excellency consists in the meek- In which words these four things are plainly intimated. ness, and truth, not in the pomp and ostentation of 1. That some are much more quick sighted to discern piety, which affects to be seen and admired of men. the faults and blemishes of others than their own: can Stanhope's Thom. a Kemp. b. 2. chap. xi. spy a mote in another's eye sooner than a beam in their Christ.' My son, when thou feelest thy soul warmed own. 2. That they are often the most forward to corwith devotion and holy zeal for my service, it will be rect and cure the foibles of others, who are most unadviseable to decline all those methods of publishing it qualified for that office. The beam in their own eye to the world, which vain men are so industrious to makes them altogether unfit to pull out the mote from take; and content thyself with its being known to god their brother's. A man half blind himself should and thy own conscience. Rather endeavor to mod- never set up for an oculist. 3. They who are inclined erate and suppress those pompous expressions of it, to deal in censure, should always begin at home. 4. in which some place the very perfection of zeal. Think Great censoriousness is great hypocrisy.' Thou hypomeanly of thy own virtues. Some, of a bold ungovern- crite,' &c. all this is nothing but the effect of woful ed zeal, aspire at things beyond their strength, and ex- self-ignorance. press more vehemence than conduct in their actions. This common failing of the human nature, theheathThey are perfectly carried out of themselves with- ens were very sensible of, and imagined it in the followeagerness; forget that they are still poor insects upori ing manner: Every man, say they, carries a wallet, or earth, and think of nothinig less than building their two bags, with him; the one hanging before him, and nests in heaven. Now these are often left to them- the other behind him; into that before, he puts the faults selves, and taught, by sad experience, that the faint of others; into that behind, his own. By which means, flutterings of men are weak and ineffectual; and that he never sees his own failings, whilst he has those of none soars to heaven, except I assist his flight, and others always before his eyes. mount him on my own wings. Virtue does not consist But self-knowledge now helps us to turn this wallet, in abundance of illumination and knowledge; but in and place that which hath our own faults, before our lowliness of mind, in meekness, and chastity; in a eyes, and that which hath in it those of others, behind mind entirely resigned to god, and sincerely disposed to our back. Avery necessary regulation this, if we would serve and please him; in a just sense of every man's behold our own faults in the same light in which they do. vileness; and not only thinking very meanly of one's- For we must not expect that others will be as blind to self, but being well content to be so thought of by oth- our foibles, as we ourselves are: they will carry them beers.'-Id. book 3. chap. viii. fore their eyes, whether we do or no. And to imagine' It is a dangerous drunkenness, I confess, that of wine; that the world takes no notice of them, because we do but there is another more dangerous. How many not, is just as wise as to fancy, that others do not see souls do I see in the world drunk with vanity, and a us, because we shut our eyes. high opinion of themselves? This drunkenness causes them to make a thousand false steps, and a thousand stumbles. Their ways are all oblique and crooked. Like men in drink, they have always a great opinion CHAPTER V. of their own wisdom, their power, and their prudence; all which often fail them. Examine well thyself, MODERATION, THE EFFECT OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE. my soul; see if thou art not tainted with this evil. Alas! if thou deniest it, thou provest it. It is great V. Another genuine offspring of self-knowledge, is pride to think one has no pride; for it is to think you moderation. are as good, indeed, as you esteem yourself. But there This, indeed, can hardly be conceived to be separate is no man in the world but esteems himself better than from that meekness and charity before mentioned; he truly is. but I choose to give it a distinct mention, because I' Thou wilt say, it may be, thou hast a very ill opinion consider it under a different view and operation; viz, of thyself. But be assured, my soul, thou dost not as that which guards and influences our spirits, in all despise thyself so much as thou art truly despicable. If matters of debate and controversy. thou dost despise thyself, indeed, thou makest a merit Moderation is a great and important Christian vir. Ce 28 A TREATISE ON tue, very different from that bad quality of the mind He that hath taken a just measure of himself, is under which it is often misrepresented and disguised; thereby better able to judge of other things. viz. lukewarmness and indifference about the truth. 1. He knows how to judge of men and human naThe former is very consistent with a regular and well ture better; —for human nature, setting aside the difcorrected zeal; the latter consists in the total want of ference of natural genius, and the improvements of it: the former is sensible of, and endeavors, with peace education and religion, is pretty much the same in all. and prudence, to maintain the dignity and importance There are the same passions and appetites, the same of divine doctrines; the latter hath no manner of con- natural infirmities and inclinations, in all mankind; cern about them: the one feels the secret influences of though some are more predominant and distintincuishthem; the other is quite a stranger to their power and able in some, than they are in others. So that, if a efficacy: the one laments insecret thesad decay of man be but well acquainted with his own, this, together vital religion; the other is an instance of it. In short with a very little observation on human life, will soon the one proceeds from true knowledge-; the other from discover to him those of other men; and show him, great ignorance: the one is a good mark of sincerity, very impartially, their particular failings and excellenand the other a certain sign of hypocrisy. And to con- cies; afid help him to form a much truer sentiment of found two things together, which are so essentially dif- them, than if he were to judge only by their. exteriorferent, can be the effect of nothing but great ignorance, the appearance they make in the eye of the world, or or inconsideration, or an over-heated injudicious zeal. the character given of them by others; both which are A self-knowing man can eas.ly distinguish between often very fallacious. these two. And the knowledge which he has of human 2. Self-knowledge will teach us to judge rightly of nature in general, froma thorough contemplationof his facts, as well as men. It will exhibit things to the own in particular, shows him the necessity of preserving mind in a proper light, and true colors, without those a medium (as in every thing else, so especially) between false glosses and appearances which fancy throws upon the two extremes, of a bigoted zeal, on the one hand, them, or in which the imagination often paints them. and indolent lukewarmness, on the other. As he will It will teach us to judge, not with the imagination, but not look upon every thing to be worth contending for, so, with the understanding; and will set a guard upon the he will look upon nothing worth losing his temper former, which so often represents things in wrong for in the contention. Because, though the truth be of views, and gives the mind false impressions.-See Part ever so great importance, nothing can do a greater dis- 1. chap. iv. service to it, or make a man more incapable of defend- 3. It helps us to estimate the true value of all worldly ing it, than intemperate heat and passion; where- good things. It rectifies our notions of them, and lesby he injures and betrays the cause he is ever anxious sens that enormous esteem we are apt to have for them. to maintain.' The wrath of man worketh not the right- For when a man knows himself, and his true interests, eousness of god.' James i. 20. he will see how far, and in what degree, these things Self-knowledge heals our animosities, and greatly are suitable to him, and subservient to his good; and cools our debates about matters of dark and doubtful how far they are unsuitable, ensnaring, and pernicious. speculation. One who knows himself, sets too great This, and not the common opinion of the world, will a value upon his time and temper, to plunge rashly into be his rule of judgment concerning them. By this he those vain and fruitless controversies, in which one of will see quite through them; see what they really are'at them is sure to be lost, and the other is in great danger bottom; and how far a wise man ought to desire them. of being so; especially when a man of bad temper and The reason why men value them so extravagantly, is bad principles is the opponent: who aims rather to si- because they take but a superficial view of them, and lence his adversary with overbearing confidence, dark only look upon their outside, where they are most unmeaning language, authoritative airs, and hard words, showy and inviting. Were they to look within them, than convince him with solid argument; and who plainly consider their intrinsic worth, their ordinary effects, contends, not for truth, but victory. Little good can be their tendency, and their end, they would not be so apt done to the best cause; in such a circumstance; and a to over-value them. And a man that has learned to wise and moderate man who knows human nature, and see through himself, can easily see through these. knows himself, will rather give his antagonist the Riches, honors, power, and the like, which owe all their pleasure of imaginary triumph, than engage in so une- worth to our false opinion of them, are too apt to draw qual a combat. the heart from from virtue. We know not how to An eagerness and zeal for dispute, on every subject, prize them; they are not to be judged of by the comand with every one, shows great self-sufficiency; that mon vogue, but by their nature. They have nothing never failing sign of great self-ignorance: and true to attract our esteem, but that we are used to admire moderation, which creates an indifference to little them; they are not cried up, because they are things things, and a wise and well proportioned zeal for things that ought to be desired; but they are desired, because of' importance, can proceed from nothing but true they are generally cried up. knowledge, which has its foundation in self-acquaintance. CHAPTER VII. CHAPTER VI. SELF-ENOWLEDGE DIRECTS TO THE PROPER EXERCISE OF SELF-DENIAL SELF-KNOWLEDGE IMPROVES THE JUDGMENT. VII. A man that knows himself best, knows how, VI. Another great advantage of being well acquaint- and wherein, he ought to deny himself. ed with ourselves is, that it helps us to form a better The great duty of self-denial, which our saviour so judgment of other things. expressly requires of all his followers, plain and neSelf-knowledge, indeed, does not enlarge or increase cessary as it is, has been much mistaken and abused; our natural capacities, but it guides and regulates and that not only by the church of Rome, in its doc. them; leads us to the right use and application of them: trines of penance, fasts, and pilgrimages; but by some and removes a great many things which obstruct their Protestant Christians, in the instances of voluntary. due exercise; as pride, prejudice, and passion, &c. which abstinence, and unnecessary austerities; whence they otzaumes so miserably pervert the rational powers. are sometimes apt to be too censorious against those SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 29 who indulge themselves in the use of those indifferent CHAPTER VIII. things, which they make it a point of conscience to abstain from.' Whereas, would they confine their exer- SELF-KNOWLEDGE PROMOTES OUR USEFULNESS IN THR cise of self-denial to the plain and important points of WORLD. practice, devoutly performing the necessary duties they are most averse to, and resolutely avoiding the VIII. The more we know of ourselves, the more known sins they are most inclined to, under the direc- useful we are like to be in those stations of life, in tion of scripture; they would soon become more solid, which providence has fixed us. judicious, and exemplary Christians; and did they When we know our proper talents and capacities, know themselves, they would easily see, that herein we know in what manner we are capable of being usethere is occasion and scope enough for self-denial; and ful; and the consideration of our characters and relathat to a degree of greater severity and difficulty, than tions in life will direct us to the proper application of there is in those little corporeal abstinences and morti- these talents; show us to what ends they were given fications they enjoin themselves. us, and to what purposes they ought to be improved. 1. Self-knowledge will direct us to the necessary'Many of those who set up for wits, and pretend to exercises of self-denial, with regard to the duties our a more than ordinary sagacity and delicacy of sense, tempers are most averse to. do, notwithstanding, spend their time unaccountably; There is no one but, at some times, finds a great and live away whole days, weeks, and sometimes backwardness and indisposition to some duties, which months together, to as little purpose, though it may he knows to be seasonable and necessary. This, then, be not so innocently, as if they had been asleep all the is a proper occasion for self-discipline. For, to indulge while. But if their parts be so good as they would this indisposition, is very dangerous, and leads to an have others believe, sure they are worth improving; if habitual neglect of known duty; and to resist and op- not, they have the more need of it. Greatness of parts pose it, and to prepare for a diligent and faithful dis- is so far from being a discharge from industry, that I charge of the duty, notwithstanding the many pleas find men of the most exquisite sense, in all ages, were and excuses that carnal disposition may urge for the always most curious of their time. And, therefore, I neglect of it, this requires no small pains and self-de- very much suspect the excellency of those men's parts, nial; and yet it is very necessary to the peace of con- who are dissolute and careless mis-spenders of it. science. It is a sad thing to observe how miserably some men And for our encouragement to this piece of self- debase and prostitute their capacities. Those gifts and denial, we need only remember, that the difficulty of indulgences of nature, by which they outshine many the duty, and our unfitness for it, will, upon the trial, others, and by which they are capable of doing real serbe found to be much less than we apprehended. And vice to the cause of virtue and religion, and of being the pleasure of reflecting, that we have discharged our eminently useful to mamlkind, they either entirely negconsciences, and given a fresh testimony of our up- lect, or shamefully abuse, to the dishonor of god, and rightness, will more than compensate the pains and the prejudice of their fellow creatures, by encouraging difficulty we found therein. And the oftener these and emboldening them in the ways of vice and vanity: criminal propensions, to the willful neglect of duty, are for the false glare of a profane wit will sometimes make opposed and conquered, the seldomer they will return, such strong impressions on a weak unsettled mind, as to or the weaker they will grow; till at last, by divine overbear the principles of reason and wisdom, and give grace, they will be wholly overcome; and in the room it too favorable sentiments of what it before abhorred: of them will succeed an habitual' readiness to every whereas, the same force and sprightliness of genius good work,' ('Tit. iii. 1.) and a very sensible delight would have been very happily and usefully employed in therein: a much happier effect than can be expected putting sin out of countenance, and in rallying the folfrom the severest exercises of self-denial, in the in- lies, and exposing the inconsistencies, of a vicious and stances before mentioned. profligate character. 2. A man that knows himself will see an equal ne-' The more talents and abilities men are blessed cessity for self-denial, in order to check and control his with, the more pains they ought to take.' This is inclinations to sinful actions; to subdue the rebel with- Chrysostom's observation. And the reason is obvious; in; to resist the solicitations of sense and appetite; to because they have more to answer for than other men: summon all his wisdom to avoid the occasions and which I take to be a better reason than what is astemptations to sin, and all his strength to oppose it. signed by his father; viz. because they have more to All this, especially if it be a favorite constitutional lose. iniquity, will cost a man pains and mortification enough. When a man once knows where his strength lies, For instaie, the subduing a violent passion, or taming wherein he excels, or is capable of excelling, how far a sensual inclination, or forgiving an apparent injury his influence extends, and in what station of life proviand affront. It is evident, such a self-conquest can dence hath fixed him, and the duties of that station, he never be attained without much self-knowledge and then knows what talents he ought to cultivate, in what self-denial.' manner, and to what objects they are to be particularly And that self-denial that is exercised this way, as it directed and applied, in order to shine in that station, will be a better evidence of our sincerity, so it will be and be useful in it. This will keep him even and steady more helpful and ornamental to the interests of religion, in his pursuits and views, consistent with himself, unithan the greatest zeal in those particular duties which form in his conduct, and useful to mankind; and will are most suitable to our natural tempers, or than the prevent his shooting at a wrong mark, or missing the greatest austerities in some particular instances of mor- right one he aims at; as thousands do, for want of this tification, which are not so necessary, and perhaps not necessary branch of self-knowledge. See part 1. so difficult or disagreeable to us as this. chap. v. To what amazing heights of piety may some be thought to mount, raised on the wings of a flaming zeal, and distinguished by uncommon preciseness and severity about little things, who all the while, perhaps, CHAPTER IX cannot govern one passion, and appear yet ignorant of, and slaves to, their daring iniquity! Through an SELF-KNOWLEDGE LEADS TO A DECORUM AND CONSIs ignorance of themselves, they misapply their zeal, and TENOY OF CHARACTER. misplace their self-denial; and by that means blemish their characters with a visible inconsistency. IX. A mhan that knows himself kna rvs how to at4 30 A TREATISE ON with discretion and dignity in every station and char- Ignorance is so far from being the mother of devoacter. tion, that nothing is more destructive of it; and, of all Almost all the ridicule we see in the world takes its ignorance, none is a greater bane to it than self-ignorise from self-ignorance: and to this, mankind, by com- rance. This, indeed, is very consistent with superstimon assent, ascribe it, when they say of a person that tion, bigotry, and enthusiasm; those common counteracts out of character, he does not know himself. Af- feits of piety, which, by weak and credulous minds, are fectation is the spring of all ridicule, and self-ignorance often mistaken for it. But true piety and real devotion the true source of affectation. A man that does not can only spring from a just knowledge of god and ourknow his proper character, nor what becomes it, can- selves; and the relation we stand in to him, and the not act suitably to it. He will often affect a character dependence we have upon him. For when we consithat does not belong to him; and will either act above der ourselves as the creatures of god, whom he made or beneath himself; which will make him equally con- for his honor, and as creaqtures incapable of any haptemptible in the eyes of them that know him. piness, but what results from his favor; and as entirely A man of superior rank and character, that knows and continually dependent upon him for every thing we himself, knows that he is but a man; subject to the have and hope for; and whilst we bear this thought in same sickness, frailties, disappointments, pains, pas- our minds, what can induce or prompt us more to love, sions, and sorrows, as other men; that true honor lies and fear, and trust him, as our god, our father, and allin those things in which it is possible for the meanest sufficient friend and helper. peasant to excel,him; and therefore he will not be vainly arrogant. He knows that they are only transitory and accidental things that set him above the rest of mankind; that he will soon be upon a level with CHAPTER XI. them; and therefore learns to condescend: and there is a dignity in this condescension; it does not sink, but SELF-KNOWLEDGE TEACHES, US RIGHTLY TO PERFORM exalts his reputation and character. THE DUTIES OF RELIGION. A man of inferior rank, that knows himself, knows how to be content, quiet, and thankful, in his lower XI. Self-knowledge will be a good help and direcsphere. As he has not an extravagant veneration and' tion to us in many of our devout and Christian exeresteem for those external things which raise one man's clses; particularly,circumstances so much above another's, so he does not 1. In the duty of prayer; both as to the matter and look upon himself as the worse or less valuable man, mode. He that rightly knows himself, will be very purely because he has them not; much less does he sensible of his spiritual wants: and he that is well acernvy them that have them. As he has not their advan- quainted with his spiritual wants, will not be at a loss tages, so neither has he their temptations; he is in that what to pray for. state of life which the great arbiter and disposer of all' Our hearts would be the best prayer-books, if we things hath allotted him; and he is satisfied: but as were skillful in reading them. Why do men pray, and deference is owing to external superiority, he knows call for prayers when they come to die, but that they how to pay a proper respect to those that are above begin a little better to know themselves? And were him, without that abject and servile cringing, which they now but to hear the voice of god and conscience, discovers an inordinate esteem for their condition. As they would not remain speechless. But they that are he does not over-esteem them for those little acciden- born deaf are always dumb.' Baxter. tal advantages in which they excel him, so neither does Again, self-knowledge will teach us to pray, not only he over-valke himself for those things in which he ex- with fluency, but fervency; will help us also to keep cels others. the heart, as well as order our speech, before god; and Were hearers to know themselves, they would not so promote the grace as well as gift of prayer. Did take upon them to dictate to their preachers, or teach we but seriously consider what we are, and what we their ministers how to teach them, (which, as St Austin are about; whom we pray to, and what we pray for; it observes, is the same thing, as if a patient, when he is impossible we should be so dead, spiritless, and forsends for a physician, should prescribe to him what he mal, in this duty, as we too often are: the very thought would have him prescribe,) but if they happen to hear would inspire us with life, and faith, and fervor. something not quite agreeable to their former senti- 2. Self-knowledge will be very helpful to us in the ments, would betake themselves more diligently to the duty of thanksgiving, as it shows us both how suitable study of their bibles, to know' whether those things and how seasonable the mercies are which we receive. were so.' Acts xvii. 11. A Christian, that keeps up an intelligence with himself, And were ministers to know themselves, they would considers what he hath, as well as what he wants; and know the nature and duty of their office, and the wants is no less sensible of the value of his mercies, than his and infirmities of their hearers, better than to domineer unworthiness of them; and this is what makes him over their faith, or shoot over their heads, and seek thankful. For this reason it is, that one Christian's heart their own popularity, rather than their benefit. They even melts with gratitude for those very mercies, which would be more solicitous for their edification, than their others disesteem and depreciate, and perhaps despise, approbation (the most palatable food is not always the because they have not what they think greater. But most wholesome;) and, like a faithful physician, would a man that knows himself, knows that he deserves earnestly intend and endeavor their good, though it nothing, and therefore is thankful for every thing; for be in a way they may not like; and rather risk their thankfulness as necessarily flows from humility, as huown characters with weak and captious men, than with- mility does from self-acquaintance. hold any thing that is needful for them, or be unfaith- 3. In the duties of reading and hearing the word of ful to god and their own consciences. Patients must god, self-knowledge is of excellent use, to enable us to not expect to be always pleased, nor physicians to be understand and apply that which we read or hear. Did always applauded. we understand our hearts better, we should understand the word of god better; for that speaks to the heart. A man that is acquainted with his own heart, presently CHA~PTER X. sees how deeply the divine word penetrates and exPIETY THE EFFECT OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE. plores, searches and lays over, its most inward parts: he feels what he reads; and finds that a quickening.A. Self-knowledge tends greatly to cultivate a spirit spirit, which, to a self-ignorant man, is but a dead of true piety. letter. SE LF-KNOW L E D GE. Moreover, this self-acquaintance teaches a man to 0, what would we not give for solid hope in deatht apply what he reads and hears of the word of god. He Reader! wouldst thou have it, know god and know sees the pertinence congruity, and suitableness of it to thyself! his own case; and lays it up faithfully in the store-room of his mind; to be digested and approved by his afterthoughts. And it is by this art of applying scripture, and urging the most suitable instructions and admoni- A TREATISE tions of it home upon our consciences, that we receive the greatest benefit by it. 4. Nothing is of more eminent service in the great SELF-KNOWLEDGE. duty of meditation; especially in that part of it which consists in heart converse. A man who is unacquainted with himself, is as unfit to converse with his heart, as he is with a stranger he never saw, and whose taste PART THE THIRD. and temper he is altogether unacquainted with. He knows not how to get his thoughts about him; and when he has, he knows not how to range and fix them; and hath no more the command of them, than a gen- SHOWING HOW SELF-KNOWLEDGE IS TO BE ATTAINED. eral has of a wild undisciplined army, that has never been exercised or accustomed to obedience and order. But one, who hath made it the study of his life to be acquainted with himself, is soon disposed to en- From what hath been said under the two former ter into a free and familiar converse with his own parts of the subject, self-knowledge appears to be in heart; and in such a self-conference improves more in itself so excellent, and in its effect so extensively usetrue wisdom, and acquires more useful and substantial ful and conducive to the happiness of human kind, that knowledge, than he could do from the most polite and nothing need farther be added, by way of motive or inrefined conversation in the world. Of such excellent ducement, to excite us to make it the great object of use is self-knowledge in all the duties of devotion and our study and pursuit. If we regard our present peace, piety. satisfaction, and usefulness, or our future and everlasting interests, we shall certainly value and prosecute this knowledge above all others; as what will be most ornamental to our characters, and beneficial to CHAPTER XII. our interest, in every state of life, and abundantly recompense all our labor. SELF-KNOWLEDGE THE BEST. PREPARATION FOR Were there need of any farther motives to excite us DEATH. to this, I might lay open the many dreadful effects of self-ignorance, and show how plainly it appears to be XII. Self-knowledge will be an habitual preparation the original spring of all the follies and incongruities for death, and a constant guard against the surprise of we see in the characters of men, and of most of the it; because it fixes and settles our hopes of future hap- mortifications and miseries they meet with here. This piness. That which makes the thoughts of death so would soon appear, by only mentioning the reverse of terrifying to the soul, is its utter uncertainty what will those advantages before specified, which result from become of it after death. Were this uncertainty to be self-knowledge; for what is it, but a want of selfremoved, a thousand things would reconcile us to the knowledge and self-government, that makes us so unthoughts of dying. It is this makes us averse to death, settled and volatile in our dispositions? so subject to -that it translates us to objects we are unacquainted transport and excess of passions, in the varying scenes with; and we tremble at the thoughts of those things of life! so rash and unguarded in our conduct? so that are unknown to us. We are naturally afraid of vain and self-sufficient! so sensorious and malignant. being in the dark; and death is a leap in the dark. so eager and confident! so little useful in the world, in comparison of what we might be. so inconsistent' Distrust and darkness of a future state, with ourselves'! so mistaken in our notions of true reIs that which makes mankind to dread their fate: ligion 3 so generally indisposed to, or unengaged in the Dying is nothing; but'tis this we fear, holy duties of it,. and, finally, so unfit for death, and To be, we know not what,-we know not where.' so afraid of dying — I say, to what is all this owing, but self-ignorance 3 the first and fruitful source of all, self-knowledge, in a goo d degree, dissipates this long train of evils: andf indeed, there is scarce this gloom, and removes this dreadful doubt; for as the any, but what may be traced up to it. In short, it word of god hath revealed the certainty of a future brutiies man, to be rant of himself.' state of happiness, which the good man shall enter upon is in honor, and understandeth not,' himself especialafter death, and plainly described the requisite qualifi- ly'is as the beasts that perish.' Ps. xlix 0. cations for it; when, by a long and laborious self-ac- Come home, then, O0my wandering, self-neglecting quaintance, he comes distinctly to discern those quali- sou~; lose not thyself in a wilderness or tumult of imfications in himself, his hopes of heaven soon raise him pertinent, ai, distracting things. Thy work is nearer above the fens of death: and though he may not be pertinent, vain, distractingthings. above the fens of death: and though he may not be thee; the country thou shouldst first survey and travel, able to form any clear or distinct conception of the na-is within thee; from which thou must pass that above ture of that happiness, yet, in general, he is assured thee; when, by losing thyself in this without thee, that it will be a most exquisite and e dtho wen, sive wo e, that it will be a most exquisite and extensive one, and thou wilt find thyself, before thou art aware, in that bewill contain in t every thin necessaryto make it com- low thee. Let the eyes of fools be in the corners of plete; because it will come immediately from god him- the earth; leave it to men beside themselves, to live as self. Whereas, they who know what they are, must without themselves; do thou, then, keep at home, and necessarily be ignorant what they shall be. A man mind thine own business. Survey thyself, thine own that is all darkness within, can have but a dark pros- lmake and nature, and thou wilt find full employ for all pect forward. thy most active thoughts. But dost thou delight in the mysteries of nature 3 Consider well the mystery Into his own heart never pries, of thy own. The compendium of all thou studiest is Death's to him a strange surprise. near thee, even within thyself, being the epitome of the 32 A TREATISE ON world. [Who cau sufficiently admire the noble nature remember, or forget those ends? Have I answered or of that creature man, who hath in him the mortal and perverted them? What have I been doing since I immortal, the rational and irrational, natures united, came into the world? What is the world or myself and so carries about with him the image of the whole the better for my living so many years in it? What is creation; whence he is called microcosm, or the little my allowed course of action? Am I sure it will bear world: for whose sake, so highly is he honored by god, the future test? Am I now in that state I shall wish all things are made, both present and future; nay, for to die in? And, O, my soul! think, and think again, whose sake god himself became man! So that it was what it is to die! Do not put that most awful event not unjustly said by Gregory Nessene, that man was far from thee; nor pass it by with a superficial thought. the microcosm, and the world without the microcosm.] Canst thou be too well fortified against the terrors of If either necessity or duty, nature or grace, reason or that day? And art thou sure that the props which supfaith, internal inducements, external impulses, or eter- port thee now will not fail thee then? What hopes nal motives, might determine the subject of thy study hast thou for eternity? Hast thou, indeed, that godly and contemplation, thou wouldst call home thy dis- temper, which alone can fit thee for the enjoyment of tracted thoughts, and employ them more on thyself and god? Which world art thou most concerned for? thy god.'-Baxter. What things do most deeply affect thee? O, my soul' Now, then, let us resolve, that henceforth the study remember thy dignity: think how soon the scene will of ourselves shall be the business of our lives; that, shift. Why should thou forget that thou art immortal?' by the blessing of god, we may arrive at such a de- 2. This self-excitation and scrutiny must be fregree of self-knowledge, as may secure to us the ex- quently made. They who have a great deal of imporcellent benefits before-mentioned. To which end, we tant business on their hands should often look over.should do well to attend diligently to the rules laid their accounts, and frequently adjust them, lest they down in the following chapters. should be going backwards, and not know it; and cus tom will soon take off the difficulty of this duty, and make it delightful. In our morning retreat, it will be proper to rememCHAPTER I. ber, that we cannot preserve throughout the day that calm and even temper we may then be in; that we SELF-EXAMINATION NECESSARY TO SELF-KNOWLEDGE. shall very probably meet with some things to ruffle us; some attack on our weak side. Place a guard there I. The first thing necessary to self-knowledge, is now. Or, however, if no incidents happen to discomself-inspection. pose us, our tempers will vary; our thoughts will flow We must often look into our hearts, if we would pretty much with our blood; and the dispositions of the know them. They are very deceitful; more than we mind be a good deal governed by the motions of the can imagine, till we have searched, and tried, and animal spirits: our souls will be serene or cloudy, our watched them well. We may meet with frauds and tempers volatile or phlegmatic, and our inclinations sofaithless dealings from men; but, after all, our own ber or irregular, according to the briskness or sluggishhearts are the greatest cheats: and there are none who ness of the circulation of the animal fluids, whatever are in greater danger than ourselves. We must first may be the natural and immediate cause of that: and suspect ourselves, then examine ourselves, then watch therefore we must resolve to avoid all occasions that ourselves, if we expect ever to know ourselves. How may raise any dangerous ferments there; which, when is it possible there should be any self-acquaintance, once raised, will excite in us very different thoughts without self-converse? and dispositions from those we now have; which, toWere. a man, to accustom himself to such self-em- gether with the force of a fair opportunity and urgent ployment, he need not live' till thirty, before he sus- temptation, may overset our reason and resolution, and pects himself a fool; or till forty, before he knows it.' betray us into those sinful indulgences, which will Men could never be so bad as they are, if they did wound the conscience, stain the soul, and create bitter but take a proper care and scope in this business of remorse in our cooler reflections. Pious thoughts and self-examination: if they did but look backwards to purposes in the morning will set a guard upon the soul, what they we're, inwards to what they are, and forwards and fortfy it, under all the temptations of the day. to what they shall be. But such self-inspection, however, should not fail to And, as this is the first and most necessary step to make part of our evening devotions, when we should self-acquaintance, it may not be amiss to be a little review and examine the several actions of the day, the more particular in it. Therefore, various tempers and dispositions we have been in, and 1. This business of self-scrutiny must be performed the occasions that excited them. It is an advice worthy with great care and diligence, otherwise our hearts will of a Christian, though it first dropped from a heathen deceive us, even whilst we are examining them.' When pen: That before we betake ourselves to rest, we rewe set ourselves to think, some trifle or other presently view and examine all the passages of the day, that we interrupts, and draws us off from any profitable recol- may have the comfort of what we have done aright, and lection. Nay, we ourselves fly out, and are glad to be may redress what we find to have been amiss, and make diverted from a severe examination into our own state; the shipwrecks of one day be as marks to direct our which is sure, if diligently pursued, to present us course on another. A practice that has been recomwith objects of shame and sorrow, which will wound mended by many of the heathen moralists of the greatour sight, and soon make us weary of this necessary est name; as Plutarch, Epictetus, Marcus Antoninus, work.' and particularly Pythagorus, in the verses that go under Do not let us flatter ourselves, then, that this is a his name, and are called his Golden Verses; wherein mighty easy business. Much pains and care are ne- he advises his scholars every night to recollect the pascessary sometimes to keep the mind intent; and more sages of the day, and ask themselves these questions:to keep it impartial; and the difficulty of it is the rea-' Wherein have I transgressed this day? What have I son that so many are averse to it, and care not to de- done? What duty have I omittedl' &c. nend into themselves. Seneca recommends the same practice.' Sectlus,' Reader, try the experiment; retire now into thyself, saith he,' did this. At the close of the day, before he and see if thou canst not strike out some light within, betook himself to rest, he addressed his soul in the folby closely urging such questions as these:' What am lowing manner:-What evil of thine hast thou cured I? for what was I made? and to what end have I been this day? What vice withstood? In what respect art preserved so lonrg, by the favor of my maker? Do I hou better?' Passion will cease, or become more SELF-KNO.WLEDGE. 33 cool, when it knows every day it is to be thus called to You need not be much afraid of being too severe account. What can be more advantageous than this upon yourself: your great danger will generally be, of constant custom of searching through the day? —And passing,a too favorable judgement. A judge ought the same course,' saith Seneca,'I take myself, and not, indeed, to be a party concerned; and should have every day sit in judgment on myself: and at even, when no interest in the person he sits in judgment upon. But all is hush and still, I make a scrutiny into the day; this cannot be the case here, as you yourself are both look over my words and actions, and hide nothing from judge and criminal; which shows the danger of pro. myself; conceal none of my mistakes, through fear; nouncing a too favorable sentence. But remember, for why should I, when I have it in' my power to say your business is only with the evidence and the rule or thus,-This once I forgive thee; but see thou do so judgment; and that, however you come off now, there no more 1 In such a dispute, I was too keen. Do not, for will be a re-hearing in another court, where judgment the future, contend with ignorant men; they will not will be according to truth. be convinced,- because they are unwilling to show their'However, look not uneqally, either at the good or ignorance. Such a one I reproved with too much free- evil that is in you; but view them as they are. If you dom; whereby I have not reformed, but exasperated observe only the good that is in you, and overlook the him. Remember hereafter to be more mild in your bad; or search only after your faults, and overlook your censures; and consider not only whether what you say graces, neither of these will bring you to a true acbe true, but whether the person you say it to can bear quaintance with yourself.' Baxter. to hear the truth.' Thus far that excellent moralist. And to induce you to this impartiality, remember, Let us take a few other specimens of a more pious that this business (though it may be hid from the world) and Christian turn, from a judicious and devout writer. is not done insecret: god sees how you manage it; be-'This morning, when I arose, instead of applying fore whose tribunal you must expect a righteous judgmyself to god in prayer, (which I generally find it best ment.' We should order our thoughts so,' saith Sento do, immediately after a few serious reflections) I eca,'as if we had a window in our breasts, through gave way to idle musing, to the great disorder of my which any one might see what passes there: and inheart and frame. How often have I suffered, for want deed there is one that does. For what does it signify of more watchfulness on this occasion! When shall I that our thoughts are hid from men? From god, nobe wise 2 I have this day shamefully trifled, almost thing is hid.' through the' whole of it; was in my bed, when I should 5. Beware of false rules of judgment. This is a have been upon my knees; prayed but coolly in the sure and commonway to self-deception: e. g. some judge morning; Was strangely off my guard in the business of themselves by what they have been. But it does and conversation I was concerned with in the day. par- not follow, if men are not so bad as they have been, ticularlarly at;-I indulged in very foolish, sinful, vile that therefore they are as good as they should be. It thoughts, &c.; I fell in with a strain of conversation is wrong to make our past conduct implicitly the meatoo common amongst all sorts; viz. speaking evil of sure of our present; or our present the rule of our fuothers; taking up a reproach against my neighbor. I ture; when our past, present, and future conduct, have'often resolved against this sin, and yet run into it must be all brought to another rule. And they who again. How treacherous this wicked heart of mine! thus' measure themselves by themselves, and compare I have lost several hours this day, in mere sauntering themselves with themselves,'are nlot wise.' (2 Cor. x. and idleness. This day I had an instance of my own 12.) Again, others are apt to judge of themselves by infirmity, that I was a little surprised at, and I am sure the opinions of men; which is the most uncertain rule I ought to be humbled for: the behavior of-, from that can be: for in that very opinion of theirs, you may whom I can expect nothing but humor, indiscretion, be deceived. How do you know they have really and folly, strangely ruffled me; and that after I have formed so good an idea of you as they profess 1 But, had warning over and over again. What a poor, im- if they have, may not others have formed as bad 1 And potent, contemptible creature am I! This day I have why should not the judgment of these be your rule, as been kept, in a great measure, from my too frequent well as the opinion of those? Appeal to self-flattery failings. I had this day very comfortable assistances for an answer. However, neither one nor the other of from god, upon. an occasion not a little trying-what them, perhaps, appear even to know themselves; and shall I render'- how should they know you? How is it possible they 3. See that the mind be in the most composed and should have opportunities of knowing you better than disengaged frame it can, when you enter upon this bu- you know yourself? A man can never gain a right siness of self-judgment. Choose a time when it is most knowledge of himself from the opinion of others, which free from passion, and most at leisure from the cares is so various, and generally so ill-founded; for men and affections of life. A judge is not like to bring a commonly judge by outward appearances, or inward cause to a good issue, that is either intoxicated with prejudice; and therefore, for the most part, think and liquor on the bench, or has his mind distracted with speak of us very much at random. other cares, when he should be intent on the trial. Re- Again, others are for judging themselves by the conmember, you sit in judgment upon yourself, and have duct of their superiors, who have opportunities and adnothing to do at present, but to sift the evidence which vantages of knowing, acting, and being better: and yet, conscience may bring in, either for or against you, in without vanity be it spoken,' say they,' we are not behind order to pronounce a just sentence; which is of much hand with them.' But what then 1 Neither they, nor greater concernment to you at present, than any thing you, perhaps, are what the obligations of your character else can be: and therefore it should be transacted with indispensably require you to be, and what you must be, the utmost care, composure, and attention. ere you can be happy. But consider how easily this 4. Beware of partiality, and the influence of self- argument may be retorted. You are better than some, love, in this weighty business; which, if you do not you say, who have greater opportunities and advantages guard against it, will soon lead you into self-delusion; of being good than you have; and therefore your state the consequences of which may be fatal to you. La- is safe. But you yourself have greater opportunities hor to see yourself as you are; and view things in a and advantages of being good than some others have, just light, and not in that in which you would have them who are, nevertheless, better than you; and therefore, appear. Remember, that the mind is always apt to be- by the same rule, your state cannot be safe. Again, lieve those things which it would have to be true, and others judge of themselves by the common maxims of backward to credit what it wishes to be false; and this the vulgar world, concerning honor and honesty, virtue is an influence you will certainly lie under, in this affair and interest; which maxims, though generally very of self-judgment. i cIrrupt, and very contrary to those of reason, con-. 34 A TREATISE ON science, and scripture, men will follow as a rule, for the common consent of all the sober and thinking part of sake of the latitude it allows them: and fondly think, mankind; and may be easily learned by the light of that if they stand right in the opinion of the lowct kind nature. Therefore, if any doctrine or practice, though of men, they have no reason to be severe upon them- supposed to be founded in, or countenanced by, revelaselves. Others, whose sentiments are more delicate tion, be nevertheless apparently repugnant to these dicand refined, they imagine, may be mistaken, or may tates of right reason, or evidently contradict our natural overstrain the matter. In which persuasion they are notions of the divine attributes, or weaken our obliga confirmed, by observing how seldom the consciences of tions to universal virtue, that, we may be sure, is no the generality of men smite them for those things which part of revelation; because then one part of our rule these nice judges condemn as heinous crimes. 1 need would clash with, and be opposite, to the other. And not say how false and pernicious a rule this is. Again, thus reason was designed to be our guard against a wild others may judge of themselves and their state, by sud- and extravagant construction of scripture. den impressions they have had, or strong impulses upon 2. The other part of our rule is the sacred scriptures, their spirits, which they attribute to the finger of god; which we are to use as our guard against the licentious and by which they have been so exceedingly affected, excursions of fancy, which is often imposing itself upon as to make no doubt but that it was the instant of their us for right reason. Let any religious scheme or noconversation. But whether it was or not, can never tion, then, appear ever so pleasing or plausible, if it be be known but by the conduct of their after lives. In not established on the plain principle of scripture it is like manner, others judge of their good state by their forthwith to be discarded; and the sense of scripture, good frames; though very rare it may be, and very that is violently forced to bend towards it, is very much transient; soon passing off, like a morning cloud, or as to be suspected. the early dew.' But we should not judge of ourselves It must be very surprising, to one who reads and by that which is unusual or extraordinary with us; but studies the sacred scriptures with' a free unbiased by the ordinary tenor and drift of our lives. A bad mind, to see what elaborate, fine-spun flimsy glosses man may seem good, in some good mood; and a good men will invent and put upon some texts as the true man may seem bad, in some extraordinary falls. To and genuine sense of them, for no other reason, but judge of a bad man by his best hours, and a good man because it is most agreeable to the opinion of their by his worst, is the way to be deceived in them both.' party; from which, as the standard of their orthodoxy, And the same way may you be deceived in yourself. they durst never depart; who, if they were to write a Pharaoh, Ahab, Herod, and Felix, had all of them their critique in the same manner, on any Greek or Latin softenings, their transitory fits of goodness; but yet author, would make themselves extremely ridiculous they remain upon record under the blackest characteas. in the eyes of the learned world. But, if we would These, then, are all wrong rules of judgment; and not pervert our rule, we must learn to think as to trust to them, or try ourselves by them, leads to fatal scripture speaks, and not compel that to speak as we self-deception. Again, think. 6. In the business of self-examination, you must not Would we know ourselves, then, we must often view only take care you do not judge by wrong rules, but ourselves in the glass of god's word. And when we that you do not judge wrong by right rules. You must have taken a full survey of ourselves from thence, let us endeavor, then, to be well acquainted with them. The not soon forget' what manner of persons we are. Jam. office of judge is not only to collect the evidence and the i. 23, 24. If our own image do not please us, let us circumstances of facts, but to be well skilled in the laws not quarrel with our mirror, but set about mending ourby which those facts are to be examined. selves. Now, the only right rules by which we are to ex- The eye of the mind, indeed, is not like that of the amine, in order to know ourselves, are reason and body, which can see every thing else butkitself, for the scripture. Some are for setting aside these rules, as eye of the mind can turn itself inward, and survey ittoo severe for them; too stiff to bend to their perverse- self. However, it must be owned, it can see itself, ness; too straight to measure' their crooked ways: much better when its own image is reflected upon it are against reason, when reason is against them; from this mirror: and it is by this only that we can come decrying it as carnal reason: and against scripture, at the bottom of our hearts, and discover those secret when scripture is against them; depreciating it as a prejudices, and carnal prepossessions, which self-love dead letter. And thus, rather than be convinced they would hide from us. are wrong, they reject the only means that can set them This, then, is the first thing we must do, in order to right. self-knowledge. We must examine, scrutinize, and And, as some are for setting aside these rules, so, judge ourselves, diligently, leisurely, frequently, and imothers are for setting them one against the other, — partially: and that not by the false maxims of the world, reason against scripture, and scripture against reason - but by the rules which god hath given us,-reason and when they are both given us by the god of our natures, scripture; and take care to understand those rules, and not only as perfectly consistent, but as proper to not set them at variance. explain and illustrate each other, and prevent our mistaking either; and to be, when taken together as they always should be, the most complete and only rule by which to judge both of ourselves, and every CHAPTER II. thing belonging to our salvation, as reasonable and fallen creatures. CONSTANT WATCHFULNESS NECESSARY TO SELF1. Then one part of that rule which god hath given KNOWLEDGE. us to judge of ourselves by, is right reason; by which I do not mean the reasoning of any particular man, II. Would we know ourselves we must be very which may be very different from the reasoning of ano- watchful over our hearts and lives. ther particular man; and both, it may be, very differ- 1. We must keep a vigilant eye upon our hearts; i. ent from right reason; because both may be influenc- e. our tempers, inclinations, and passions. A more need, not so much by the reason and nature of things, as cessary piece of advice, in order to self-acquaintance, by partial prepossessions, and the power of passions; there cannot be, than that which Solomon gives us. but, by right reason, I mean those common principles, (Prov. iv. 23):' Keep your heart with all diligence,' which are readily allowed by all who are capable of un- or as it is in the original' above all keeping.' Q D. derstanding them, and not notoriously perverted by the Whatever you neglect or overlook, be sure you mind force of orciudice; and which are confirmed by th- your heart.'' Look within; for within is the fountain SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 39 of good' Narrowly observe all its inclinations and enemy inflames his crimes. A wise man should give aversions, all its motions and affections, together with a just attention to both of them, so far as it may tend the several objects and occasions which excite them. to the improvement of the one, and the diminution of And this precept we find in scripture enforced with two the other. Plutarch has written an essay on the bene very urgent reasons. The first is, because' out of it fits which a man may receive from his enemies; and, are the issues of life;' i. e. as our heart is, so will the among the good fruits of enmity, mentions this, in partenor of our life and conduct be. As is the fountain, so ticular,-That by the reproaches it casts upon us, we are the streams; as is the root, so is the fruit. (Matt. see the worst side of ourselves, and open onr eyes to vii. 18.) And the other is,' because it is deceitful above several blemishes and defects in our lives and converall things.' (Jer. xvii. 9.) And therefore without acon- sations, which we should not have observed, without stant Guard upon it, we shall insensibly run into many the help of such ill-natured monitors. hurtful self-deceptions. To which I may add, that, with-' In order, likewise, to come at a true knowledge of out this careful keeping of the heart, we shall never be ourselves, we should consider, on the other hand, how able to acquire any considerable degree of self-acquaint- far we may deserve the praises and approbations which ance, or self-government. the world bestow upon us; whether the actions they 2. To know ourselves, we must watch our life celebrate proceed from laudable and worthy motives, and conduct, as well as our hearts; and by this the and how far we are really possessed of the virtues heart will be better known, as the root is best known which gain us applause amongst those with whom we by the fruit. We must attend to the nature and con- converse. Such a reflection is absolutely necessary, if sequences of every action we are disposed or solicited we consider how apt we are either to value or condemn to, before we comply; and consider how it will appear ourselves by the opinions of others, and to sacrifice in a future review. We are apt enough to observe the report of our own hearts to the judgment of the and watch the conduct of others; a wise man will be world.' as critical and as severe upon his own; for, indeed, we In that treatise of Plutarch here referred to, there have a great deal more to do with our own conduct than are a great many excellent things pertinent to this that of other men: as we are to answer for our own, subject; and therefore I thought it not improper to but not for theirs. By observing the conduct of other throw a few extracts out of it into the margin.* men, we know them; by carefully observing our own, It is the character of a dissolute mind, to be enwe must know ourselves. tirely insensible to all that the world says of us; and shows such a confidence of self-knowledge, as is usually a sure sign of self-ignorance. The most knowing minds are ever least presumptuous: and true selfCHAPTER III. knowledge is a science of so much depth and difficulty, that a wise man would not choose to be ever confident WE SHOULD HAVE SOME REGARD TO THE OPINIONS that all his notions of himself are right, in opposition OF OTHERS CONCERNING US, PARTICULARLY OF OUR to the judgment of all mankind; some of whom, perENEMIES. haps, have better opportunities and advantages of knowing him, at some seasons, especially, than he has III. Would we know ourselves, we should not alto- of knowing himself; because herein they never look gether neglect the opinions which others may entertain through the same false medium of self-flattery. concerning us. * The foolish and inconsiderate spoil the very friendship Not that we need be very solicitous about the cen- they are engaged in; but the wise and prudent make good use of the hatred and enmity of men against them. sure or applause of the world, which generally are very Why should we not take an enemy for our tutor, who will ii. rash and wrong; and proceed from the particular hu- struct us gratis in those things we knew not before? For an mors and prepossessions of men: and he that knows enemy sees and understands more, in matters relating to us, himself, will soon know how to despise them both. than our friends do, because love is blind; but spite, malice, ill-will, wrath, and contempt, talk much, are very inquisitive,'The judgment which the world makes of us, is gen- and quick-sighted. orally of no manner of use to us; it adds nothing to Our enemy, to gratify his ill-will towards us, acquaints him. our souls or bodies, nor lessens any of our miseries. Let self with the infirmities both of our bodies and minds; sticks to our faults, and makes his invidious remark upon them, and us constantly follow reason,' says Montaigne,'and let spreads them abroad by his uncharitable and ill-natured re. the public approbation follow us the same way, if it ports. Hence we are taught this useful lesson for the direction 7 pleases.and management of our conversation in the world:' viz. that we pleaut ~~ses.'ill,.I~~ s tnfbe circumspect and wary in every thing we speak or do, as if But still, I say, a total indifference in this matter is our enemy stood at our elbow, and overlooked our actions. unwise. We ought not to be entirely insensible of Those persons whom that wisdom hath brought to live sober. the reports of others; no, not to the railings of an ly, which the fear and awe of enemies hath infused, are by de. fhports an e s ma s, sno thig of in grees drawn into a habit of living so. and are composed and enemy: for an enemy may say some things out of ill- fixed in their obedience to virtue, by custom and use. will to us, which it may concern us to think of coolly, When one asked Diogenes, How he might be avenged of his when we are by ourselves; to examine whether the ac- enemies? he replied,' To be yourself a good and honest man., cusation be just; and what there is in our conduct and Antisthenes spake incomparably well,'That if a man c usation be just; and what there is in our conduct and would live a safe and unblamable life, it was necessary that he temper which may make it appear so: and by this should have very ingenuous and faithful friends, or very bad means, our enemy may do us more good than he in- enemies; because the first, by their kind admonitions, would tended; and discover to us something in our hearts keep him from sinning; the latter, by their invectives.' If any man, with opprobrious language, objects to you crimes which we did not before advert to. A man that hath you know nothing of, you ought to inquire into the causes or rea. no enemies, ought to have very faithful friends; and sons of such false accusations; whereby you may learn to take one who hath *no such friends, ought to think it no heed for the future, lest you should unwarily commit those of. fences which are unjustly imputed to you. calamity that he hath enemies to be his effectual moni- Whenever thing is spoken against you that is not true, do tors.' Our friends, says Mr Addison, very often flatter not pass by, or despise it, because it is false; but forthwith exus as, much as our own hearts. They either do not see amine yourself, and consider what you have said or done that may administer a just occasion of reproof. our faults, or conceal them from us; or soften them Nothing can be a greater instance of wisdom and humanity, by their representations, after such a manner, that we than for a man to bear silently and quietly the follies and revil. think them too trivial to be taken notice of. An ad- ings of an enemy; taking as much care not to provoke him, as versary, on the contrary, makes a stricter search into he would to sail safely by a dangerous rock. versary, on the contrary, makes a stricter search into It is an eminent piece of humanity, and a manifest token of a us, discovers every flaw and imperfection in our tem- nature truly generous, to put up with the affronts of an enemy, pers; and though his malice may set them in too at a time when you have a fair opportunity to revenge them. strong a light, it bha generally some ground for what it Let us carefully observe those good qualities, wherein oar en. s remies excel us: and endeavor to excel them, by avoiding what advances A. friend exaggerates a man's virtues; an is faulty, and imitating what is excellent, in them. 38 A TREATISE ON CHAPTER IV As nothing is a greater bar to true knowledge than an obstinate stiffness in opinion, and a fear to depart TREQUENT CONVERSE WITH SUPERIORS A HELP TO from old notions, which, before we are capable of judgSELF-KNOWLEDGE. ing, perhaps, we had long taken up for the truth; so, nothing is a greater bar to self-knowledge, than a strong IV. Another proper means of self-knowledge is, to aversion to part with those sentiments of ourselves converse as much as you can with those who are your which we have been blindly accustomed to, and to think superiors in real excellence. worse of ourselves than we are wont to do.'He that walketh with wise men shall be wise.' And such an unwillingness to retract our sentiments (Prov. xiii. 20.) Their example will not only be your in both cases proceed from the same cause; viz. a remotive to laudable pursuits, but a mirror to your mind; luctance to self-condemnation. For he that takes up by which you may probably discern some failings, de- a new way of thinking, contrary to that which he hath ficiences, or neglects in yourself, which before escaped long received, therein condemns himself of having lived you. You will see the unreasonableness of your vanity in an error; and he that begins to see faults in himself and self-sufficiency, when you observe how much you he never saw before, condems himself of having lived are surpassed by others in knowledge and goodness. in ignorance and sin, and what self-flattery can by no Their proficiency will make your defects the more ob- means endure. vious to you: and by the lustre of their virtues, you By such an inflexibility of judgment, and hatred of will better see the deformity of your vices: your neg- conviction, is a very unhappy and hurtful turn of mind ligence, by their diligence; your pride, by their hu- and a man that is resolved never to be in the wrong, is mility; your passion, by their meekness; and your in a fair way never to be in the right. folly, by their wisdom. As infallibility is no privilege of the human nature, Examples not only move, but teach and direct, much it is no diminution to a man's good sense or judgment more effectually than precepts; and show us not only to be found in an error, provided he is willing to rethat such virtues may be practised, but how; and how tract it. He acts with the same freedom and liberty lovely they appear when they are. And therefore, if as before; whoever be his monitor, it is his own good we cannot have them always before our eyes, we should sense and judgment that still guides him; which shines endeavor to have them always in our mind; and espe- to great advantage, in thus directing him against the cially that of our great head and pattern, who hath set bias of vanity and self-opinion; and in thus changing us a perfect example of the most innocent conduct, his sentiments, he only acknowledges that he is not, under the worst and most disadvantageous circum- what no man ever was, incapable of being mistaken. stances of human life. In short, it is more merit, and an argument of a more excellent mind, for a man freely to retract when he is in the wrong, than to be overbearing and positive when he is in the right. CHAPTER V. A man, then, must be willing to know himself, before he can know himself. He must open his eyes, if OF CULTIVATING SUCH A TEMPER AS WILL BE THE he desires to see; yield to evidence and conviction, BEST DISPOSITION TO SETLF-KNOWLEDGE. though it be at the expense of his judgment, and to the mortification of his vanity. V. If a man would know himself, he must, with great care, cultivate that temper which will best dispose him to receive this knowledge. Now, as there are no greater hindrances to self-know- CHAPTER VI. ledge, than pride and obstinacy; so, there is nothing more helpful to it, than humility and an openness to To BE SENSIBLE OF OUR OWN FALSE-KNOWLEDGE IS conviction. A GOOD STEP TO SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 1. One who is in quest of self-knowledge, must, above all things, seek humility. And how near an af- VI. Would you know yourself, take heed and guard finity there is between these two, appears from hence; against self-knowledge. that they are both acquired the same way. The very See that the' light that is within you be not dark-;means of attaining humility are the properest means ness;' that your favorite and leading principles be for attaining self-acquaintance. By keeping an eye right. Search your furniture, and consider what you every day upon our faults and wants, we become more have to unlearn: for oftentimes there is as much wishumble; and by the same means, we become more dom in casting off some knowledge which we have, as self-intelligent. By considering how far we fall short in acquiring that which we have not; which, perhaps, of our rule and our duty, and how vastly others exceed was what made Themistocles reply, when one offered us, and especially by a daily and diligent study of the to teach him the art of memory,'That he had much word of god, we come to have meaner thoughts of rather he would teach him the art of forgetfulness.' ourselves; and, by the very same means, we come to A scholar, that hath been all his life collecting books, have a better acquaintance with ourselves. will find in his library at last a great deal of rubbish A proud man cannot know himself. Pride is that and, as his taste alters, and his judgment improves, he beam in the eye of the mind, which renders him quite will throw out a great many as trash and lumber, which, blind to any blemishes there. Hence, nothing is a it may be, he once valued and paid dear for; and resurer sign of self-ignorance, than vanity and ostentation. place them with such as are more solid and useful. Indeed, true self-knowledge and humility are so ne- Just so should we deal with our understandings; look cessarily connected, that they depend upon, and mutually over the furniture of the mind; separate the chaff from beget each other. A man that knows himself, knows the wheat, which are generally received into it together; the worst of himself, and therefore cannot but be hum- and take as much pains to forget what we ought not tc ble; and an humble mind is frequently contemplating have learned, as to retain what we ought not to forget. its own faults and weakness, which greatly improves it To read froth and trifles all our life, is the way always An self-knowledge: so that self-acquaintance makes a to retain a flashy and juvenile turn; and only to conman humble; and humility gives him still a better ac- template our first (which is generally our worst) knowquaintance with himself. ledge, cramps the progress of the understanding, and 2. An openness to conviction is no less necessary makes our self-survey extremely deficient. In short, to self-knowledge than humility. would we improve the understanding to the valuable SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 37 purposes of self-knowledge, we must take as much care will happily dispose us: and therefore, in order to judge what books we retd, as what company we keep. of our improvements therein, we must always take care' The pains we take in books or arts, which treat of to examine and observe in what manner we are affected things remote from the use of life, is a busy idleness. in such circumstances. If I study, says Montaigne, it is for no other science, 2. How do you behave under a severe and unexpecttlan what treats *of the knowledge of myself, and in- ed affliction from the hand of providence? which is anstructs me how to live and die well.' other circumstauce, wherein we have a fair opportunity It is a comfortless speculation, and a plain proof of of coming to a right knowledge of ourselves. the imperfection of the human understanding, that, If there be an habitual discontent or impatience lurkupcn a narrow scrutiny into our furniture, we observe ing within us, this will draw it forth; especially if the a great many things which we think we know, but do affliction be attended with any of those aggravating not; and many which we do know, but ought not: that circumstances which accumulated that of Job. a good deal of the knowledge we have been all our Afflictions are often sent with this intent, to teach us lives collecting, is no better than mere ignorance, and to know ourselves;and therefore ought to be carefully some of it worse; to be sensible of which is a very ne- improved to this purpose. cessary step to self-acquaintance. And much of the wisdom and goddness of our heavenly father is seen by a serious and attentive mind, not only in proportioning the degrees of his corrections to his children's strength, but in adapting the kinds of them to their tempers; afflicting one in one way, another in another, according as he knows they are most easily wrought upon, and as will be most for their adSELF-INSPECTION PECULIARLY NECESSARY UPON SOME vantage; by which means, a small affliction of one kind may as deeply affect us, and be of more advantage to us, than a much greater of another kind. VII. Would you know yourself, you must very care- It is a trite but true observation, that a wise man fully aNnd to the frame and emotions of your mind, receives more benefit from his enemies than from his under some extraordinary incidents. friends; from his afflictions, than from his mercies: by Some sudden accidents which befall you when the which means his enemies become in effect his best mind is most off its guard, will better discover its se- friends, and his afflictions his greatest mercies. Cercret turn and prevailing disposition, than much.greater tail it is, that a man never-has an opportunity of taking events you are prepared to meet; e. g. a more fair and undisguised view of himself, than m 1. Consider how you behave under any sudden af- these circumstances; and therefore, by diligently obfronts or provocations from men.' A fool's wrath is serving in what manner he is affected at such times, he presently known.' (Prov. xii. 16.) i. e. a fool is pres- may make an improvement in the true knowledge of ently known by his wrath. himself, very much to his future advantage, though, If your anger be soon kindled, it is a sign that secret perhaps, not a little to his present mortification: for a pride lies lurking in the heart; which, like gunpowder, sudden provocation from man, or a severe affliction takes fire at every spark of provocation that lights upon from god, may detect something which lay latent and unit. For, whatever may be owing to a natural temper, discovered so long at the bottom of his heart, that he it is certain, that pride is the chief cause of frequent never once suspected it to have had any place there. and wrathful resentments. For pride and anger are as Thus, the one excited wrath in the meekest man, (Psal. nearly allied, as humility and meekness.'Only by cvi. 33.) and. the. other passion in the most penitent, pride cometh contention.' Prov. xiii. 10. And a man (Job iii. 3.) would not know what mud lay at the bottom of his By considering, then, in what manner we bear the heart, if provocation did not stir it up. particular afflictions god is pleased to allot us, and what,Athenodorus, the philosopher, by reason of his old benefit we receive from them, we may come to a very age, begged leave to retire from the court of Augustus; considerable acquaintance with ourselves. which the emperor granted him: and in his compli- 3. What is our usual temper and disposition in a ments of leave,' Remember,' said he,' Caesar, when- time of peace, prosperity, and pleasure, when the soul ever you are angry, you say or do nothing, before you is generally most unguarded. have distinctly repeated to yourself the four-and-twenty This is the warm season that nourishes and impregletters of the alphabet.' Whereupon Caesar, catching nates the seeds of vanity, self-confidence, and a superhim by the hand,' I have need,' says he,' of your pres- cilious contempt of others. If there be such a root of ence still, and kept him a year longer. This is cele- bitterness in- the heart, it will be very apt to shoot forth brated by the ancients as a rule of excellent wisdom. in the sunshine of an uninterrupted prosperity; even -But a Christian may prescribe to himself, a much wiser: after the frost of adversity had nipped it, and, as we viz. -When you are angry, answer not till you have re- thought, killed it. peated the fifth petition of the lord's prayer.'Forgive Prosperity is a trial, as well as adversity; and is us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass commonly attended with more dangerous temptations: against us;' and our saviour's comment upon it,' For and were the mind but as seriously disposed to self-reif ye forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly father flection, it would have a greater advantage of attaining will also forgive you; but if you forgive not men their a true knowledge of itself under the former than under trespasses, neither will your father forgive: your tres- the latter; but the unhappiness of it is, the mind is selpasses.' Mat. vi. 14. 15. dom rightly turned for such an employment, under those It is a just and seasonable thought, that of Marcus circumstances. It has something else to do; has the Antoninus, upon such occasions:'A man misbehaves concerns of the world to mind; and is too much enhimself towards me, —what is that to me? The action gaged by the things without it,: to advert to those withis his; and the will that sets him upon it is his; and in; and is more disposed to enjoy than examine itself. therefore let him look. to it. The fault and injury be- However, it is a very necessary season for self-examinlong to him, not to me. As for me, I am in the condi- ation, and a very proper time to acquire a good degree tion providence would have me, and am doing what be- of self-acquaintance, if rightly improved. comes me.' Lastly. How do we behave in bad company' And But after all, this amounts: only tea philosophical that is to be reckoned bad company in which there is no contempt of injuries; and falls much leneath the dig- probability of our doing or getting any good, but apparent n'ty of a Christian forgiveness, to which self-knowledge danger of our doing or getting much harm; I mean, 38 A TREATISE ON our giving offence to others by an indiscreet zeal, or Were we to follow the judgment of the world, we incurring guilt to ourselves by a criminal compliance. should indeed think otherwise of these things; and Are we carried down by the torrent of vanity and by that mistake be led into a wrong notion of ourvice. Will a flash of wit or brilliant fancy make us selves. Bit we have a better rule to follow; to excuse a profane expression. If so, we shall soon which, if we adhere, the consideration of our extercome to relish it, when thus seasoned, and use it our- nal condition in life, whatever it be, will have no unselves. due influence on the mind, in its search after,self, This is a time when our zeal and wisdom, our forti- knowledge. tude and firmness, are generally put to the most delicate proof; and when we may too often take notice of the unsuspected escapes of folly, fickleness, and indiscretion. CHAPTER IX. At such seasons as these, then, we may often discern what lies at the bottom of our hearts, better than we THE PRACTICE OF SELF-ENOWLEDGE A GREAT MEANS can in the more even and customary scenes of life, TO PROMOTE IT. when the passions are all calm and still. And therefore, would we know ourselves, we should be very at- IX. Let all your self-knowledge be reduced into tentive to our frame, temper, disposition, and conduct, practice. uDon such occasions. The right improvement of that knowledge we have,. is the best way to attain more. The great end of self-knowledge is self-government: without which, it is but a useless speculation. And, as CHAPTER VIII. all knowledge is valuable in proportion to its end, so this is the most excellent, only because the practice of it is TO KNOW OURSELVES, WE MUST WHOLLY ABSTRACT of the most extensive use. FROM EXTERNAL APPEARANCES. I Above all other subjects,' says an ancient pious writer,' study thine own self. For no' knowledge that terVIII. Would you know yourself, you must, as far minates in curiosity or speculation is comparable to as possible, get above the influence of exteriors, or that which is of use; and of all useful knowledge, that mere outward show, is most so which consists in the due care and just noA man is what his heart is. The knowledge of him- tions of ourselves. This study is a debt which every self is the knowledge of his heart, which is entirely an one owes himself. Let us not, then, be so lavish, so inward thing; to the knowledge of which, then, dutward unjust, as not to pay this debt, by spending some part, things such as a man's condition and state in the world at least, if we cannot all, or most, of our time and care can contribute nothing: but, on the other hand, is too upon that which has the most indefeasible claim to it. often a great bar and hindrance to him in his pursuit of Govern your passions; manage your actions with pruself-knowledge. dence; and where false steps have been made, correct 1. Are your circumstances in the world easy and pros- them for the future. Let nothing be allowed to grow perous. Take care you do not judge of yourself too headstrong and disorderly; but bring all under discifavorably on that account. pline. Set all your faults before your eyes; and pass These things are without you, and therefore can sentence upon yourself with the same severity as you never be the measure of what is within: and how- would do upon another, for whom no partiality hath ever the world may respect you for them, they do not biased your judgment.' in the least make you either a wiser or more valuable What will our most exact and diligent self-researches man. avail us, if, after all, we sink into indolence and sloth l In forming a true judgment of yourself, then, you must Or what will it signify to be convinced that there is a entirely set aside the consideration of your estate and treat deal amiss in our deportmente and dispositions, if family, your wit, beauty, genius, health, &c., which we sit still contentedly under that conviction, without are all but the appendages or trappings of a man; a taking one step towards a reformation. It will, insmooth and shining varnish, which may lacker over the deed, render us but the more guilty in the sight of god. basest metal. And how sad a thing will it be to have our self-knowA man may be a good and happy man without these ledge hereafter rise up in judgment against us! things, and a bad and wretched one with them; nay he' Examination is in order to correction and amendmay have all these, and be the worse for them. They ment: we abuse it and ourselves, if we rest in the duty are so far from being good and excellent in themselves, without looking farther. We are to review our daily that we often see providence bestows them upon the walk, that we may reform it; and consequently a daily vilest of men, and in kindness, denies them to some of review will point out to us the subject and matter of the best. They are oftentimes the greatest temptations, our future daily care.' This day,' saith the Christian, and put a man's faith and wisdom to the most danger- upon his review of things at night,' I lost so much ous trial. time; particularly at -—. I took too great a liberty; 2. Is your condition in life mean and afflicted. Do not particularly in -. I omitted such an opportunity, judge the worse of yourself for not having those external that might have been improved to better purpose. I advantages which others have. mismanaged such a duty. I find such a corruption None will think the worse of you for the want of often working; my old infirmity still cleaves to me; them, but those who think the better of themselves how easily doth this sin beset me! Oh! may I be for having them: in both which they show a very more attentive for the time to come; more watchful depraved and perverted judgment. These are things over my heart; take more heed to my ways! May I entirely without us, and out of our power; for which a do so the next day!' The knowledge of a distemper man is neither the better nor the worse, but according is a good step to a cure; at least, it directs to proper as he uses them; and therefore you ought to be as in- methods and applications in order to it. Self-acquaintdifferent to them as they are to you. A good man shines ance leads to self-reformation. He that at the close amiably through all the obscurity of his low fortune; and of each day calls over what is past, inspects himself, a wicked man is a poor little wretch in the midst of all his behavior and manners, will not fall into that secuhis grandeur. rity, and those uncensured follies, that are so common Pygmies are pygmies still, the' plac'd on alps; and so dangerts.' And pyramids are pyramids in vales. Young. And it may not be improper, in order to make us SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 39 sensible of, and attentive to, some of the more secret ly others have. 0 how inscrutable are the depths and faults and foibles of our tempers, to pen them down at deceits of the human heart! Had my enemy brought night, according as they appeared during the transac- against me a charge of indolence, self-indulgence, or tions of the day. By which means, we shall not only pride, and impatient, or a too quick resentment of affronts have a more distinct view of that part of our character and injuries, my own heart must have confirmed the to which we are generally most blind, but shall be able accusation, and forced me to plead guilty. Had he to discover some defects and blemishes in it, which charged me with bigotry, self-opinion, and censoriousperhaps we never apprehended before: for the wiles ness, I should have thought it proceeded from the same and doublings of the heart are sometimes so hidden and temper in himself, having rarely any thing like it in my intricate, that it requires the nicest care, and most own. But had he charged me with covetousness, I steady attention, to detect and unfold them. should have taken it for calumny, and despised the For instance; This day I read an author, whose censure with indignation and triumph; and yet after sentiments were very different from mine, and who ex- all, I find it had been but too true a charge. 0 how pressed himself with much warmth and confidence. It hard a thing is it to know myself! This like all other excited my spleen, I own, and I immediately passed a knowledge, the more I have of it, the more sensible I severe censure upon him; so that, had he bben pres- am of my want of it.* ent, and talked in the same strain, my ruffled temper The difficulty of self-government and self-possession would have promoted me to use harsh and ungrateful arises from the difficulty of a thorough self-acquaintance, language, which might have occasioned a very unchris- which is necessary to it: I say, a' thorough self-actian contention. But I now recollect, that though the quaintance, such as has been already set forth, in its author might be mistaken in those sentiments, as I several branches, Part 1. For as self-government is still believe he was, yet, by his particular circumstan- simply impossible, I mean, considered as a virtue, where ces in life, arid the method of his education, he has self-ignorance prevails, so the difficulty of it will debeen strongly laid into that way of thinking; so that crease in proportion to the degree in which self-achis prejudice is pardonable; but my uncharitableness quaintance improves. is not; especially considering that in many respects Many, perhaps, may be ready to think this a parahe has the ascendant of me. This proceeded, then, dox, and imagine that they know their predominant from uncharitableness, which is one fault of my tem- passions and foibles very well, and still find it extremeper I have to watch against; and which I never was ly difficult to correct them. But let them examine this before so sensible of as I am now, upon this re- point again, and perhaps they may find, that that difficollection. Learn more moderation, and make more culty arises either from their defect of self-dnowledge allowances for the mistaken opinions of others, for the for it is in this as in other kinds of knowledge, wherein future. Be as charitable to others who differ from some are very ready to think themselves much greater you, as you desire they should be to you, who differ as proficients than they are, or else, from their neglect to as much from them; for it may be, you cannot be more put in practice that degree of self-knowledge they have. assured of being in the right than they are. They know their particular failings, yet will not guard Again: This day I found myself strongly inclined against the immediate temptations to them; and they to put in something, by wav of abatement, to an ex- are often betrayed into the immediate temptations which cellent character given of an absent person, by one of overcome them, because they are ignorant of, or do not his great admirers. It is true, I had the command of guard against, the more remote temptations, which lead myself to hold my tongue; and it is well I had: for them into those that are more immediate and dangerthe ardor of his zeal would not have admitted the ex- ous, which may not improperly be called the temptaception, though I still think that, in some degree, it tions to temptations; in observing and guarding was just; which might have raised a wrangling debate against which consists a very necessary part of selfabout his character, perhaps at the expense of my own; knowledge, and the great art of keeping clear of dan-.or, however, occasioned much animosity and conten- ger, which, in our present state of frailty, is the best tion. But I have since examined the secret spring of means of keeping clear of sin. that impulse, and find it to be envy; which I was not To correct what is amiss, and to improve what is then sensible of; but my antagonist had certainly im- good in us, is supposed to be our hearty desire, and the puted it to this; and had he taken the liberty to have great end of all our self-research. But if we do not told me so, I much question whether I should have had endeavor after this, all our labor after self-knowledge the temper of the philosopher, who, when he was really will be in vain; nay, if we do not endeavor it, we caninjured, being asked, whether he was angry or no? not be said heartily to desire it;'For there is most of replied,' No; but I am considering with myself whe- the heart where there is most of the will; and there ther I ought not to be so.' I doubt I should not have is most of the will where there is most endeavhad so much composure; but should have immediately or; and where there is most endeavor there is generresented it as a false and malicious aspersion. But it ally most success: so that endeavor must prove the was certainly envy, and nothing else; for the person who truth of our desire, alid success will generally prove was the object of the encomium, was much my supe- the sincerity of our endeavor.' This, I think, we may rior, in many respects; and the exception that arose safely say, without attributing too much to the power to my mind was the only flaw in his character, which of the human will, considering that we are rational nothing but a quick-sighted envy could descry. Take and free agents, and considering what effectual assistheed, then, of that vice, for the future. ance is offered to them who seek it, to render their enAgain: This day I was much surprised to observe in myself the symptoms of a vice, which, of all others, Cicero was, without doubt, the vainest man in life, or he never I ever thought myself most clear of, and have always could have had the face to beseech Cocceius, in writing the Roexpressed the greatest detestation of in others; and man History, to set the administration of his consulship in the that is covetousness; for what else could it be that most distinguished point of glory, even at the expense of his. torical truth; and yet, when he is begging a favor of the like prompted me to withhold my charity from my fellow- kind, even of Cato himself, he has these astonishing words: creature in distress, on pretence that he was not in si quisquam fuit unquam remotus et natura et magis etiam, ut every respect a proper object; or to dispense it so mihi quidem sentire videor, ratione atque doctrina ab inani laude sparingly who I knew wasXso, on et ser monibus vulgi, ego profecto is sum. Lib. 15. Ep. 4. If sparingly to another, who I knew was so, on pretence ever any man was a stranger to vain glory, and the desire of of having lately been at a considerable expense upon popular applause, it is myself; and this disposition which I have another occasion! This could proceed from nothing by nature, is, methinks, grown yet stronger by reason and phi. else but a latent principle of covetousness; which, losophye Ah! how secretly doth self-ignorance not only insin. uate itself into bnevert conceal itself withit i, the most improved and though I never before observed in myself, yet it is like- best cultivated minds!-Reader, beware 40 A TRETTISE ON deavors successful, if they are sincere; which intro- gagements of the soul, and how happy a means they duces the subject of the following chapter. are to attain a just self-acquaintance. And now, reader, whoever thou art, that hast taken the pains to peruse these sheets, whatever be thy circumstances or condition in the world, whatever thy CHAPTER X. capacity or understanding, whatever thy occupations and engagements, whatever thy favorite sentiments and FERVEN'T AND FREQUENT PRAYER THE MOST EFFEC- principles, or whatever religious sect or party thou esTUAL MEANS FOR ATTAINING TRUE SELF-KNOWLEDGE. pousest, know for certain, that thou hast been deeply interested in what thou hast been reading, whether thou Lastly. The last means to self-knowledge which I hast attended to it or no: for it is of no less concern to shall mention, is frequent and devout application to the thee than the security of thy peace and usefulness in fountain of light, and the father of our spirits, to assist this world, and thy happiness in another; and relates to us in this important study, and give us the true know- all thy interests, both as a man and a Christian. Perhanus ledge of ourselves. thou hast seen something of thine own image in the This I mention last, not as the least, but, on the glass that has now been held up to thee: and wilt thou contrary, as the greast and best means of all, to attain go away, and soon' forget what manner of person a right and thorough knowledge of ourselves, and the thou art.' Perhaps thou hast met with some things way to render all the rest effectual; and, therefore, thou dost not well understand or approve. But shall though it be the last means mentioned, it is the first that take off thine attention from those things thou that should be used. dost understand and approve, and art convinced of the Would we know ourselves, we must often converse, necessity of. If thou hast received no improvement, not only with ourselves in meditation, but with god in no benefit, from this plain practical treatise thou hast prayer; in, the lowest prostration of soul, beseeching perused, read it over again. The same thought, you the father of our spirits to discover them to us;'in know, often impresses one more at one time than whose light we may see light,' where before there was another: and we sometimes receive more knowledge nothing but darkness; to make known to us the and profit by the second perusal of a book than by the depths and devices of our hearts; for, without the first. And I would fain hope that thou wilt find somegrace and influence of his divine illuminations and in- thing in this that may set thy thoughts on work, and structions, our hearts will, after all our care and pains which, by the blessing of god, may make thee more to know them, most certainly deceive us; and self-love observant of thy heart and conduct; and, in consewill so prejudice the understanding, as to keep us still quence of that, a more solid, serious, wise, and estabin self-ignorance. lished Christian. The first thing we are to do, in order to self-know- But will you, after all, deal by this book ye have now ledge, is, to assure ourselves that our hearts'are de- read, as you have dealt by many sermons you have ceitful above all things;' and the next is, to remember, heard, —pass your judgment upon it according to your that,'the lord searcheth the hearts, and trieth the received and establised set of notions; and condemn reins;' Jer. xvii. 10. i. e. that he, the' Searcher of all or applaud it, only as it is agreeable or disagreeable to hearts,' Chron. xxviii. 9., hath a perfect knowledge of them; and commend or censure it, only as it suits or them, deceitful as they are: which consideration, as it does not suit your particular taste; without attending suggesteth to us the strongest motive to induce us to to the real weight, importance, and necessity of the labor after a true knowledge of them ourselves, so it subject, abstracted from those views. Or, will you directs us, at the same time, how we may attain this barely content with the entertainment and satisfaction knowledge; viz. by an humble and importunate appli- which some parts of it may possibly have given you, cation to him, to whom alone they are known, to make to assent to the importance of the subject, the justness them known to us. And this, by the free and near ac- of the sentiment, or the propriety of some of the obcess which his holy spirit hath to our spirits, he can ef- servations you have been reading, and so dismiss all, fectually do various ways; viz. by fixing our attentions; without any farther concern about the matter. Believe by quickening our apprehensions; removing our pre- it, O Christian reader! if this be all the advantage judices, which, like a false medium before the eye of you gain by, it were sc',rce worth while to have conthe mind, prevents its seeing things in a just and pro- fined yourself so long to the perusal of it. It has per light; by mortifying our pride; strengthening the aimed, it has sincerely aimtned, to do you a much greater intellective and reflecting faculties; and enforcing upon benefit; to bring you to a better acquaintance with one the mind a lively sense and knowledge of its greatest you express a particular regard for, and who is capable happiness and duty: and so awakening the soul from of being the best friend, or the worst enemy, you have that carnal security and indifference about its best in- in the world; and that is-yourself. It was designed terests, into which a too serious attention to the world to convince you, that, would you live and act consistis apt to betray it. ently, either as a man or a Christian, you must know Besides, prayer is a very proper expedient for attain- yourself; and to persuade you, under the influencee of ing self-knowledge, as the actual engagement of the the foregoing motives, and by the help of the foremenmind, in this devotional exercise, is, in itself, a great tioned directions, to make self-knowledge the great help to it; for the mind is in a better frame than when study, and self-government the great business of your it is intently and devoutly engaged in this duty. It life. In which resolution may almighty god confirm has then the best apprehensions of god, the truest no- you; and in which great business may his grace assist tions of itself, and the justest sentiments of earthly you against all future discouragements and distractions! things; the clearest conceptions of its own weakness; With him I leave the success of the whole, to whom and the deepest sense of its own vileness; and, con- be glory and praise for ever! sequently, is in the best disposition than can be, to receive a true and right knowledge of itself. And, oh! could we but always think of ourselves in such a manner, or could we but always be itl a dispo- APPENDIX, sition to think of ourselves in such a manner, as we sometimes do in the fervor of our humiliations before REFERRED TO FROM PAGE 23. the throne of grace, how great a progress should we soon make in this important science! Which evidently The advantage of a common-place book, or register shows the necessity of such devout and humble en- of things deemed worthy of retention in the course of SELF-KNOWL EDGE. 41 a person's reading, must be so obvious to the mind In inserting any article in your Comnmon-Place Book of every reader, that any comment on it is deemed un- you must select some general term by which the sub. necessary. ject may be understood, and, taking a left hand page, The following plan, embracing an improvement on enter it in conspicuous characters at the top, on the outthat recommended by Mr. Locke, is conceived suffi- side corner; placing the Ibject you wish to insert ciently clear to be understood by the meanest capacity. within the ruled lines; observing that you do not occupy By the method here recommended, an alphabetical the following page by a new head; but leaving it for index is formed, each letter occupying a page; which any subsequent matter that may occur on the same subis divided into six parts, affixing a vowel to each cornm- ject. However, should all the pages on the left hand partment. In this index is to be written at length in be occupied, those on the right, that remain blnk, the page at the top of which its initial letter is found, might be taken, when it is not probable that the hkads and in the division occupied by its first vowel; or its on the left will be continued. second, if the initial letter be a vowel the word which It will be found convenient to reserve a blank in the forms the head of the subject referred to in the body of margin of the Common-Place Book, for brief notes on the book; with the number of the page allotted to that the matter entered; as also at the foot of the page, for subject; which must be repeated when any fresh mat- references from one head to another; as it often hapter is inserted under the same head in a different pait pens that an article placed under one head, may be ilof the book. lustrative of another;-for example, AIR and ATMOSWhen the initial letter is a vowel, and there is no PHERE. other in the word, that vowel is to be considered as Annexed is a page of the Index, with two pages of both the first and second. The word ART, therefore, the Common-Place Book (printed as one,) which will should be inserted in the division A a; —EGG in the serve as an elucidation of the preceding instructions. division E e. A. ANACARDIUM. a ANACARDIUM, o ASTRONOMY. 24.. Cashew Nut, or Marking Nut. Marking (Cashew Nut, or The liquor found between the rind Ink. Marking Nut,( 9. and the thin outer shell of this nut ART.16. forms a useful marking ink; as ally thing written on linen or cotton with it is of a brown color, which gradually grows blacker, and is very durable. Nicholson's Chem. Dict. _e ANGEL, 22. u AUTUMN, 28 32. 8vo. 1808.'. il | AU_ I.UMN,. I See Ink, p. 28. ADDISON. 10 One may justly apply to him what Plato, in his allegorical language, says of Aristophanes, that i ADDISON, 10. ARMY 26. the Graces having searched all the i IADDISON, 10. y ARMY, 26. world for a temple, wherein they might for ever dwell, settled at last in the breast of Mr Addison. Fitzosborne's Letters,| xxiv. XXix. THE END.